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You may copy it, give it away or re-use + it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License <a href= + "#pglicense" class="tei tei-ref">included with this eBook</a> or + online at <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/license" class= + "tei tei-xref">http://www.gutenberg.org/license</a></p> + </div> + <pre class="pre tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> +Title: The Golden Bough (Third Edition, Vol. 7 of 12) + +Author: James George Frazer + +Release Date: February 10, 2013 [Ebook #42067] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: UTF-8 + + +***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE GOLDEN BOUGH (THIRD EDITION, VOL. 7 OF 12)*** +</pre> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"></div> + <hr class="page" /> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style= + "text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.73em"><span style= + "font-size: 173%">The Golden Bough</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style= + "text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.44em"><span style= + "font-size: 144%">A Study in Magic and Religion</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style= + "text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em">By</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style= + "text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.44em"><span style= + "font-size: 144%">James George Frazer, D.C.L., LL.D., + Litt.D.</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style= + "text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em">Fellow of Trinity + College, Cambridge</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style= + "text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em">Professor of Social + Anthropology in the University of Liverpool</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style= + "text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.20em"><span style= + "font-size: 120%">Vol. VII. of XII.</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style= + "text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.20em"><span style= + "font-size: 120%">Part V: Spirits of the Corn and of the + Wild.</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style= + "text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.20em"><span style= + "font-size: 120%">Vol. 1 of 2.</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style= + "text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em">New York and London</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style= + "text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em">MacMillan and Co.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style= + "text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em">1912</p> + </div> + <hr class="page" /> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> + <h1 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"> + <span style="font-size: 173%">Contents</span></h1> + + <ul class="tei tei-index tei-index-toc"> + <li><a href="#toc1">Preface.</a></li> + + <li><a href="#toc3">Chapter I. Dionysus.</a></li> + + <li><a href="#toc5">Chapter II. Demeter And Persephone.</a></li> + + <li><a href="#toc7">Chapter III. Magical Significance of Games in + Primitive Agriculture.</a></li> + + <li><a href="#toc9">Chapter IV. Woman's Part in Primitive + Agriculture.</a></li> + + <li><a href="#toc11">Chapter V. The Corn-Mother and the Corn-Maiden + in Northern Europe.</a></li> + + <li><a href="#toc13">Chapter VI. The Corn-Mother in Many + Lands.</a></li> + + <li style="margin-left: 2em"><a href="#toc15">§ 1. The Corn-mother + in America.</a></li> + + <li style="margin-left: 2em"><a href="#toc17">§ 2. The + Mother-cotton in the Punjaub.</a></li> + + <li style="margin-left: 2em"><a href="#toc19">§ 3. The Barley Bride + among the Berbers.</a></li> + + <li style="margin-left: 2em"><a href="#toc21">§ 4. The Rice-mother + in the East Indies.</a></li> + + <li style="margin-left: 2em"><a href="#toc23">§ 5. The Spirit of + the Corn embodied in Human Beings.</a></li> + + <li style="margin-left: 2em"><a href="#toc25">§ 6. The Double + Personification of the Corn as Mother and Daughter.</a></li> + + <li><a href="#toc27">Chapter VII. Lityerses.</a></li> + + <li style="margin-left: 2em"><a href="#toc29">§ 1. Songs of the + Corn Reapers.</a></li> + + <li style="margin-left: 2em"><a href="#toc31">§ 2. Killing the + Corn-spirit.</a></li> + + <li style="margin-left: 2em"><a href="#toc33">§ 3. Human Sacrifices + for the Crops.</a></li> + + <li style="margin-left: 2em"><a href="#toc35">§ 4. The Corn-spirit + slain in his Human Representatives.</a></li> + + <li><a href="#toc37">Chapter VIII. The Corn-Spirit as an + Animal.</a></li> + + <li style="margin-left: 2em"><a href="#toc39">§ 1. Animal + Embodiments of the Corn-spirit.</a></li> + + <li style="margin-left: 2em"><a href="#toc41">§ 2. The Corn-spirit + as a Wolf or a Dog.</a></li> + + <li style="margin-left: 2em"><a href="#toc43">§ 3. The Corn-spirit + as a Cock.</a></li> + + <li style="margin-left: 2em"><a href="#toc45">§ 4. The Corn-spirit + as a Hare.</a></li> + + <li style="margin-left: 2em"><a href="#toc47">§ 5. The Corn-spirit + as a Cat.</a></li> + + <li style="margin-left: 2em"><a href="#toc49">§ 6. The Corn-spirit + as a Goat.</a></li> + + <li style="margin-left: 2em"><a href="#toc51">§ 7. The Corn-spirit + as a Bull, Cow, or Ox.</a></li> + + <li style="margin-left: 2em"><a href="#toc53">§ 8. The Corn-spirit + as a Horse or Mare.</a></li> + + <li style="margin-left: 2em"><a href="#toc55">§ 9. The Corn-spirit + as a Bird.</a></li> + + <li style="margin-left: 2em"><a href="#toc57">§ 10. The Corn-spirit + as a Fox.</a></li> + + <li style="margin-left: 2em"><a href="#toc59">§ 11. The Corn-spirit + as a Pig (Boar or Sow).</a></li> + + <li style="margin-left: 2em"><a href="#toc61">§ 12. On the Animal + Embodiments of the Corn-spirit.</a></li> + + <li><a href="#toc63">Note. The Pleiades in Primitive + Calendars.</a></li> + + <li><a href="#toc65">Footnotes</a></li> + </ul> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-body" style= + "margin-bottom: 6.00em; margin-top: 6.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style= + "text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-figure" style="width: 40%; text-align: center"> + <img src="images/cover.jpg" alt="Cover Art" /></div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">[Transcriber's + Note: The above cover image was produced by the submitter at + Distributed Proofreaders, and is being placed into the public + domain.]</p> + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="pagev">[pg v]</span><a name="Pgv" + id="Pgv" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + <hr class="page" /> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> + <a name="toc1" id="toc1"></a> <a name="pdf2" id="pdf2"></a> + + <h1 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"> + <span style="font-size: 173%">Preface.</span></h1> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In the last part + of this work we examined the figure of the Dying and Reviving God as + it appears in the Oriental religions of classical antiquity. With the + present instalment of <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">The Golden Bough</span></span> we pursue the + same theme in other religions and among other races. Passing from the + East to Europe we begin with the religion of ancient Greece, which + embodies the now familiar conception in two typical examples, the + vine-god Dionysus and the corn-goddess Persephone, with her mother + and duplicate Demeter. Both of these Greek divinities are + personifications of cultivated plants, and a consideration of them + naturally leads us on to investigate similar personifications + elsewhere. Now of all the plants which men have artificially reared + for the sake of food the cereals are on the whole the most important; + therefore it is natural that the religion of primitive agricultural + communities should be deeply coloured by the principal occupation of + their lives, the care of the corn. Hence the frequency with which the + figures of the Corn-mother and Corn-maiden, answering to the Demeter + and Persephone of ancient Greece, meet us in other parts of the + world, and not least of all on the harvest-fields of modern Europe. + But edible roots as well as cereals have been cultivated by many + races, especially in the tropical regions, as a subsidiary or even as + a principal means of subsistence; and accordingly they too enter + largely into the religious ideas of the peoples who live by them. Yet + in the case of the roots, such as yams, taro, and potatoes, + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="pagevi">[pg vi]</span><a name="Pgvi" id= + "Pgvi" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> the conception of the Dying and + Reviving God appears to figure less prominently than in the case of + the cereals, perhaps for the simple reason that while the growth and + decay of the one sort of fruit go on above ground for all to see, the + similar processes of the other are hidden under ground and therefore + strike the popular imagination less forcibly.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Having surveyed + the variations of our main theme among the agricultural races of + mankind, we prosecute the enquiry among savages who remain more or + less completely in the hunting, fishing, and pastoral stages of + society. The same motive which leads the primitive husbandman to + adore the corn or the roots, induces the primitive hunter, fowler, + fisher, or herdsman to adore the beasts, birds, or fishes which + furnish him with the means of subsistence. To him the conception of + the death of these worshipful beings is naturally presented with + singular force and distinctness; since it is no figurative or + allegorical death, no poetical embroidery thrown over the skeleton, + but the real death, the naked skeleton, that constantly thrusts + itself importunately on his attention. And strange as it may seem to + us civilised men, the notion of the immortality and even of the + resurrection of the lower animals appears to be almost as familiar to + the savage and to be accepted by him with nearly as unwavering a + faith as the obvious fact of their death and destruction. For the + most part he assumes as a matter of course that the souls of dead + animals survive their decease; hence much of the thought of the + savage hunter is devoted to the problem of how he can best appease + the naturally incensed ghosts of his victims so as to prevent them + from doing him a mischief. This refusal of the savage to recognise in + death a final cessation of the vital process, this unquestioning + faith in the unbroken continuity of all life, is a fact that has not + yet received the attention which it seems to merit from enquirers + into the constitution of the human mind as well as into the history + of religion. In the following pages I have collected <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="pagevii">[pg vii]</span><a name="Pgvii" id="Pgvii" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> examples of this curious faith; I must + leave it to others to appraise them.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Thus on the whole + we are concerned in these volumes with the reverence or worship paid + by men to the natural resources from which they draw their nutriment, + both vegetable and animal. That they should invest these resources + with an atmosphere of wonder and awe, often indeed with a halo of + divinity, is no matter for surprise. The circle of human knowledge, + illuminated by the pale cold light of reason, is so infinitesimally + small, the dark regions of human ignorance which lie beyond that + luminous ring are so immeasurably vast, that imagination is fain to + step up to the border line and send the warm, richly coloured beams + of her fairy lantern streaming out into the darkness; and so, peering + into the gloom, she is apt to mistake the shadowy reflections of her + own figure for real beings moving in the abyss. In short, few men are + sensible of the sharp line that divides the known from the unknown; + to most men it is a hazy borderland where perception and conception + melt indissolubly into one. Hence to the savage the ghosts of dead + animals and men, with which his imagination peoples the void, are + hardly less real than the solid shapes which the living animals and + men present to his senses; and his thoughts and activities are nearly + as much absorbed by the one as by the other. Of him it may be said + with perhaps even greater truth than of his civilised brother, + <span class="tei tei-q">“What shadows we are, and what shadows we + pursue!”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But having said so + much in this book of the misty glory which the human imagination + sheds round the hard material realities of the food supply, I am + unwilling to leave my readers under the impression, natural but + erroneous, that man has created most of his gods out of his belly. + That is not so, at least that is not my reading of the history of + religion. Among the visible, tangible, perceptible elements by which + he is surrounded—and it is only of these that I <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="pageviii">[pg viii]</span><a name="Pgviii" id= + "Pgviii" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> presume to speak—there are + others than the merely nutritious which have exerted a powerful + influence in touching his imagination and stimulating his energies, + and so have contributed to build up the complex fabric of religion. + To the preservation of the species the reproductive faculties are no + less essential than the nutritive; and with them we enter on a very + different sphere of thought and feeling, to wit, the relation of the + sexes to each other, with all the depths of tenderness and all the + intricate problems which that mysterious relation involves. The study + of the various forms, some gross and palpable, some subtle and + elusive, in which the sexual instinct has moulded the religious + consciousness of our race, is one of the most interesting, as it is + one of the most difficult and delicate tasks, which await the future + historian of religion.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But the influence + which the sexes exert on each other, intimate and profound as it has + been and must always be, is far indeed from exhausting the forces of + attraction by which mankind are bound together in society. The need + of mutual protection, the economic advantages of co-operation, the + contagion of example, the communication of knowledge, the great ideas + that radiate from great minds, like shafts of light from high + towers,—these and many other things combine to draw men into + communities, to drill them into regiments, and to set them marching + on the road of progress with a concentrated force to which the loose + skirmishers of mere anarchy and individualism can never hope to + oppose a permanent resistance. Hence when we consider how intimately + humanity depends on society for many of the boons which it prizes + most highly, we shall probably admit that of all the forces open to + our observation which have shaped human destiny the influence of man + on man is by far the greatest. If that is so, it seems to follow that + among the beings, real or imaginary, which the religious imagination + has clothed with the attributes of divinity, human spirits are + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="pageix">[pg ix]</span><a name="Pgix" id= + "Pgix" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> likely to play a more important + part than the spirits of plants, animals, or inanimate objects. I + believe that a careful examination of the evidence, which has still + to be undertaken, will confirm this conclusion; and that if we could + strictly interrogate the phantoms which the human mind has conjured + up out of the depths of its bottomless ignorance and enshrined as + deities in the dim light of temples, we should find that the majority + of them have been nothing but the ghosts of dead men. However, to say + this is necessarily to anticipate the result of future research; and + if in saying it I have ventured to make a prediction, which like all + predictions is liable to be falsified by the event, I have done so + only from a fear lest, without some such warning, the numerous facts + recorded in these volumes might lend themselves to an exaggerated + estimate of their own importance and hence to a misinterpretation and + distortion of history.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">J. G. Frazer.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">Cambridge</span></span>, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">4th May + 1912</span></span>.</p> + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page001">[pg 001]</span><a name= + "Pg001" id="Pg001" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + <hr class="page" /> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> + <a name="toc3" id="toc3"></a> <a name="pdf4" id="pdf4"></a> + + <h1 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"> + <span style="font-size: 173%">Chapter I. Dionysus.</span></h1> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Death and resurrection of Oriental + gods of vegetation. The Dying and Reviving god of vegetation in + ancient Greece.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In the preceding + part of this work we saw that in antiquity the civilised nations of + western Asia and Egypt pictured to themselves the changes of the + seasons, and particularly the annual growth and decay of vegetation, + as episodes in the life of gods, whose mournful death and happy + resurrection they celebrated with dramatic rites of alternate + lamentation and rejoicing. But if the celebration was in form + dramatic, it was in substance magical; that is to say, it was + intended, on the principles of sympathetic magic, to ensure the + vernal regeneration of plants and the multiplication of animals, + which had seemed to be menaced by the inroads of winter. In the + ancient world, however, such ideas and such rites were by no means + confined to the Oriental peoples of Babylon and Syria, of Phrygia and + Egypt; they were not a product peculiar to the religious mysticism of + the dreamy East, but were shared by the races of livelier fancy and + more mercurial temperament who inhabited the shores and islands of + the Aegean. We need not, with some enquirers in ancient and modern + times, suppose that these Western peoples borrowed from the older + civilisation of the Orient the conception of the Dying and Reviving + God, together with the solemn ritual, in which that conception was + dramatically set forth before the eyes of the worshippers. More + probably the resemblance which may be traced in this respect between + the religions of the East and the West is no more than what we + commonly, though incorrectly, call a fortuitous coincidence, the + effect of <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page002">[pg + 002]</span><a name="Pg002" id="Pg002" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + similar causes acting alike on the similar constitution of the human + mind in different countries and under different skies. The Greek had + no need to journey into far countries to learn the vicissitudes of + the seasons, to mark the fleeting beauty of the damask rose, the + transient glory of the golden corn, the passing splendour of the + purple grapes. Year by year in his own beautiful land he beheld, with + natural regret, the bright pomp of summer fading into the gloom and + stagnation of winter, and year by year he hailed with natural delight + the outburst of fresh life in spring. Accustomed to personify the + forces of nature, to tinge her cold abstractions with the warm hues + of imagination, to clothe her naked realities with the gorgeous + drapery of a mythic fancy, he fashioned for himself a train of gods + and goddesses, of spirits and elves, out of the shifting panorama of + the seasons, and followed the annual fluctuations of their fortunes + with alternate emotions of cheerfulness and dejection, of gladness + and sorrow, which found their natural expression in alternate rites + of rejoicing and lamentation, of revelry and mourning. A + consideration of some of the Greek divinities who thus died and rose + again from the dead may furnish us with a series of companion + pictures to set side by side with the sad figures of Adonis, Attis, + and Osiris. We begin with Dionysus.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Dionysus, the god of the vine, + originally a Thracian deity.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The god Dionysus + or Bacchus is best known to us as a personification of the vine and + of the exhilaration produced by the juice of the grape.<a id= + "noteref_1" name="noteref_1" href="#note_1"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">1</span></span></a> His + ecstatic worship, characterised by wild dances, thrilling music, and + tipsy excess, appears to <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page003">[pg + 003]</span><a name="Pg003" id="Pg003" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + have originated among the rude tribes of Thrace, who were notoriously + addicted to drunkenness.<a id="noteref_2" name="noteref_2" href= + "#note_2"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">2</span></span></a> Its + mystic doctrines and extravagant rites were essentially foreign to + the clear intelligence and sober temperament of the Greek race. Yet + appealing as it did to that love of mystery and that proneness to + revert to savagery which seem to be innate in most men, the religion + spread like wildfire through Greece until the god whom Homer hardly + deigned to notice had become the most popular figure of the pantheon. + The resemblance which his story and his ceremonies present to those + of Osiris have led some enquirers both in ancient and modern times to + hold that Dionysus was merely a disguised Osiris, imported directly + from Egypt into Greece.<a id="noteref_3" name="noteref_3" href= + "#note_3"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">3</span></span></a> But the + great preponderance of evidence points to his Thracian origin, and + the similarity of the two worships is sufficiently explained by the + similarity of the ideas and customs on which they were founded.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Dionysus a god of trees, especially + of fruit-trees.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">While the vine + with its clusters was the most characteristic manifestation of + Dionysus, he was also a god of trees in general. Thus we are told + that almost all the Greeks sacrificed to <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Dionysus of the tree.”</span><a id="noteref_4" name= + "noteref_4" href="#note_4"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">4</span></span></a> In + Boeotia one of his titles was <span class="tei tei-q">“Dionysus in + the tree.”</span><a id="noteref_5" name="noteref_5" href= + "#note_5"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">5</span></span></a> His image + was often merely an upright post, without arms, but draped in a + mantle, with a bearded mask to represent the head, and with leafy + boughs projecting from the head or body to shew the nature of the + deity.<a id="noteref_6" name="noteref_6" href="#note_6"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">6</span></span></a> On a vase + his rude effigy is depicted appearing out of a low tree or + bush.<a id="noteref_7" name="noteref_7" href="#note_7"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">7</span></span></a> At + Magnesia on the Maeander an image of Dionysus is said to have been + found in a plane-tree, which had been broken by the <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page004">[pg 004]</span><a name="Pg004" id="Pg004" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> wind.<a id="noteref_8" name="noteref_8" + href="#note_8"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">8</span></span></a> He was + the patron of cultivated trees;<a id="noteref_9" name="noteref_9" + href="#note_9"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">9</span></span></a> prayers + were offered to him that he would make the trees grow;<a id= + "noteref_10" name="noteref_10" href="#note_10"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">10</span></span></a> and he + was especially honoured by husbandmen, chiefly fruit-growers, who set + up an image of him, in the shape of a natural tree-stump, in their + orchards.<a id="noteref_11" name="noteref_11" href= + "#note_11"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">11</span></span></a> He was + said to have discovered all tree-fruits, amongst which apples and + figs are particularly mentioned;<a id="noteref_12" name="noteref_12" + href="#note_12"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">12</span></span></a> and he + was referred to as <span class="tei tei-q">“well-fruited,”</span> + <span class="tei tei-q">“he of the green fruit,”</span> and + <span class="tei tei-q">“making the fruit to grow.”</span><a id= + "noteref_13" name="noteref_13" href="#note_13"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">13</span></span></a> One of + his titles was <span class="tei tei-q">“teeming”</span> or + <span class="tei tei-q">“bursting”</span> (as of sap or + blossoms);<a id="noteref_14" name="noteref_14" href= + "#note_14"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">14</span></span></a> and + there was a Flowery Dionysus in Attica and at Patrae in Achaia.<a id= + "noteref_15" name="noteref_15" href="#note_15"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">15</span></span></a> The + Athenians sacrificed to him for the prosperity of the fruits of the + land.<a id="noteref_16" name="noteref_16" href= + "#note_16"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">16</span></span></a> Amongst + the trees particularly sacred to him, in addition to the vine, was + the pine-tree.<a id="noteref_17" name="noteref_17" href= + "#note_17"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">17</span></span></a> The + Delphic oracle commanded the Corinthians to worship a particular + pine-tree <span class="tei tei-q">“equally with the god,”</span> so + they made two images of Dionysus out of it, with red faces and gilt + bodies.<a id="noteref_18" name="noteref_18" href= + "#note_18"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">18</span></span></a> In art a + wand, tipped with a pine-cone, is commonly carried by the god or his + worshippers.<a id="noteref_19" name="noteref_19" href= + "#note_19"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">19</span></span></a> Again, + the ivy and the fig-tree were especially associated with him. In the + Attic township of Acharnae there was a Dionysus Ivy;<a id= + "noteref_20" name="noteref_20" href="#note_20"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">20</span></span></a> at + Lacedaemon there was a Fig Dionysus; and in Naxos, where figs were + called <span lang="el" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang= + "el"><span style="font-style: italic">meilicha</span></span>, there + was a Dionysus Meilichios, the face of whose image was made of + fig-wood.<a id="noteref_21" name="noteref_21" href= + "#note_21"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">21</span></span></a></p><span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page005">[pg 005]</span><a name="Pg005" id="Pg005" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Dionysus as a god of agriculture and + the corn. The winnowing-fan as an emblem of Dionysus.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Further, there are + indications, few but significant, that Dionysus was conceived as a + deity of agriculture and the corn. He is spoken of as himself doing + the work of a husbandman:<a id="noteref_22" name="noteref_22" href= + "#note_22"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">22</span></span></a> he is + reported to have been the first to yoke oxen to the plough, which + before had been dragged by hand alone; and some people found in this + tradition the clue to the bovine shape in which, as we shall see, the + god was often supposed to present himself to his worshippers. Thus + guiding the ploughshare and scattering the seed as he went, Dionysus + is said to have eased the labour of the husbandman.<a id="noteref_23" + name="noteref_23" href="#note_23"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">23</span></span></a> Further, + we are told that in the land of the Bisaltae, a Thracian tribe, there + was a great and fair sanctuary of Dionysus, where at his festival a + bright light shone forth at night as a token of an abundant harvest + vouchsafed by the deity; but if the crops were to fail that year, the + mystic light was not seen, darkness brooded over the sanctuary as at + other times.<a id="noteref_24" name="noteref_24" href= + "#note_24"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">24</span></span></a> + Moreover, among the emblems of Dionysus was the winnowing-fan, that + is the large open shovel-shaped basket, which down to modern times + has been used by farmers to separate the grain from the chaff by + tossing the corn in the air. This simple agricultural instrument + figured in the mystic rites of Dionysus; indeed the god is + traditionally said to have been placed at birth in a winnowing-fan as + in a cradle: in art he is represented as an infant so cradled; and + from these traditions and representations he derived the epithet of + <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Liknites</span></span>, that is, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“He of the Winnowing-fan.”</span><a id="noteref_25" name= + "noteref_25" href="#note_25"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">25</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Use of the winnowing-fan to cradle + infants. The winnowing-fan sometimes intended to avert evil + spirits from children.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">At first sight + this symbolism might be explained very simply and naturally by + supposing that the divine <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page006">[pg + 006]</span><a name="Pg006" id="Pg006" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + infant cradled in the winnowing-fan was identified with the corn + which it is the function of the instrument to winnow and sift. Yet + against this identification it may be urged with reason that the use + of a winnowing-fan as a cradle was not peculiar to Dionysus; it was a + regular practice with the ancient Greeks to place their infants in + winnowing-fans as an omen of wealth and fertility for the future life + of the children.<a id="noteref_26" name="noteref_26" href= + "#note_26"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">26</span></span></a> Customs + of the same sort have been observed, apparently for similar reasons, + by other peoples in other lands. For example, in Java it is or used + to be customary to place every child at birth in a bamboo basket like + the sieve or winnowing-basket which Javanese farmers use for + separating the rice from the chaff.<a id="noteref_27" name= + "noteref_27" href="#note_27"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">27</span></span></a> It is + the midwife who places the child in the basket, and as she does so + she suddenly knocks with the palms of both hands on the basket in + order that the child may not be timid and fearful. Then she addresses + the child thus: <span class="tei tei-q">“Cry not, for Njaï-among and + Kaki-among”</span> (two spirits) <span class="tei tei-q">“are + watching over you.”</span> Next she addresses these two spirits, + saying, <span class="tei tei-q">“Bring not your grandchild to the + road, lest he be trampled by a horse; bring him not to the bank of + the river, lest he fall into the river.”</span> The object of the + ceremony is said to be that these two spirits should always and + everywhere guard the child.<a id="noteref_28" name="noteref_28" href= + "#note_28"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">28</span></span></a> On the + first anniversary of a child's birthday the Chinese of Foo-Chow set + the little one in a large bamboo sieve, such as farmers employ in + winnowing grain, and in the sieve they place along with the child a + variety of articles, such as fruits, gold or silver ornaments, a set + of money-scales, books, a pencil, pen, ink, paper, and so on, and + they draw omens of the child's future career from the object which it + first handles and plays with. Thus, if the infant first grasps the + money-scale, he will be wealthy; if he seizes on a book, he will be + learned, and so forth.<a id="noteref_29" name="noteref_29" href= + "#note_29"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">29</span></span></a> In the + Bilaspore district <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page007">[pg + 007]</span><a name="Pg007" id="Pg007" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> of + India it is customary for well-to-do people to place a newborn infant + in a winnowing-fan filled with rice and afterwards to give the grain + to the nurse in attendance.<a id="noteref_30" name="noteref_30" href= + "#note_30"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">30</span></span></a> In Upper + Egypt a newly-born babe is immediately laid upon a corn-sieve and + corn is scattered around it; moreover, on the seventh day after birth + the infant is carried on a sieve through the whole house, while the + midwife scatters wheat, barley, pease and salt. The intention of + these ceremonies is said to be to avert evil spirits from the + child,<a id="noteref_31" name="noteref_31" href= + "#note_31"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">31</span></span></a> and a + like motive is assigned by other peoples for the practice of placing + newborn infants in a winnowing-basket or corn-sieve. For example, in + the Punjaub, when several children of a family have died in + succession, a new baby will sometimes be put at birth into an old + winnowing-basket (<span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">chhaj</span></span>) along with the sweepings of + the house, and so dragged out into the yard; such a child may, like + Dionysus, in after life be known by the name of Winnowing-basket + (<span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Chhajju</span></span>) or Dragged (<span class= + "tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Ghasitâ</span></span>).<a id="noteref_32" name= + "noteref_32" href="#note_32"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">32</span></span></a> The + object of treating the child in this way seems to be to save its life + by deceiving the spirits, who are supposed to have carried off its + elder brothers and sisters; these malevolent beings are on the + look-out for the new baby, but they will never think of raking for it + in the dust-bin, that being the last place where they would expect to + find the hope of the family. The same may perhaps be the intention of + a ceremony observed by the Gaolis of the Deccan. As soon as a child + is born, it is bathed and then placed on a sieve for a few minutes. + On the fifth day the sieve, with a lime and <span class= + "tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">pan</span></span> + leaves on it, is removed outside the house and then, after the + worship of Chetti has been performed, the sieve is thrown away on the + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page008">[pg 008]</span><a name="Pg008" + id="Pg008" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> road.<a id="noteref_33" name= + "noteref_33" href="#note_33"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">33</span></span></a> Again, + the same notion of rescuing the child from dangerous spirits comes + out very clearly in a similar custom observed by the natives of Laos, + a province of Siam. These people <span class="tei tei-q">“believe + that an infant is the child, not of its parents, but of the spirits, + and in this belief they go through the following formalities. As soon + as an infant is born it is bathed and dressed, laid upon a + rice-sieve, and placed—by the grandmother if present, if not, by the + next near female relative—at the head of the stairs or of the ladder + leading to the house. The person performing this duty calls out in a + loud tone to the spirits to come and take the child away to-day, or + for ever after to let it alone; at the same moment she stamps + violently on the floor to frighten the child, or give it a jerk, and + make it cry. If it does not cry this is regarded as an evil omen. If, + on the other hand, it follows the ordinary laws of nature and begins + to exercise its vocal organs, it is supposed to have a happy and + prosperous life before it. Sometimes the spirits do come and take the + infant away, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">i.e.</span></span> it dies before it is + twenty-four hours old, but, to prevent such a calamity, strings are + tied round its wrists on the first night after its birth, and if it + sickens or is feeble the spirit-doctors are called in to prescribe + certain offerings to be made to keep away the very spirits who, only + a few hours previously, were ceremoniously called upon to come and + carry the child off. On the day after its birth the child is regarded + as being the property no longer of the spirits, who could have taken + it if they had wanted it, but of the parents, who forthwith sell it + to some relation for a nominal sum—an eighth or a quarter of a rupee + perhaps. This again is a further guarantee against molestation by the + spirits, who apparently are regarded as honest folk that would not + stoop to take what has been bought and paid for.”</span><a id= + "noteref_34" name="noteref_34" href="#note_34"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">34</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Use of the winnowing-fan to avert + evil from children in India, Madagascar, and China. Karen + ceremony of fanning away evils from children.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">A like intention + of averting evil in some shape from a child is assigned in other + cases of the same custom. Thus in Travancore, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“if an infant is observed to distort its limbs as if in + pain, it is supposed to be under the pressure of some one who has + stooped over it, to relieve which the mother <span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page009">[pg 009]</span><a name="Pg009" id="Pg009" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> places it with a nut-cracker on a winnowing fan + and shakes it three or four times.”</span><a id="noteref_35" name= + "noteref_35" href="#note_35"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">35</span></span></a> Again, + among the Tanala people of Madagascar almost all children born in the + unlucky month of Faosa are buried alive in the forest. But if the + parents resolve to let the child live, they must call in the aid of a + diviner, who performs a ceremony for averting the threatened + ill-luck. The child is placed in a winnowing-fan along with certain + herbs. Further, the diviner takes herbs of the same sort, a worn-out + spade, and an axe, fastens them to the father's spear, and sets the + spear up in the ground. Then the child is bathed in water which has + been medicated with some of the same herbs. Finally the diviner says: + <span class="tei tei-q">“The worn-out spade to the grandchild; may it + (the child) not despoil its father, may it not despoil its mother, + may it not despoil the children; let it be good.”</span> This + ceremony, we are told, <span class="tei tei-q">“puts an end to the + child's evil days, and the father gets the spear to put away all + evil. The child then joins its father and mother; its evil days are + averted, and the water and the other things are buried, for they + account them evil.”</span><a id="noteref_36" name="noteref_36" href= + "#note_36"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">36</span></span></a> + Similarly the ancient Greeks used to bury, or throw into the sea, or + deposit at cross-roads, the things that had been used in ceremonies + of purification, no doubt because the things were supposed to be + tainted by the evil which had been transferred to them in the + rites.<a id="noteref_37" name="noteref_37" href= + "#note_37"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">37</span></span></a> Another + example of the use of a winnowing-fan in what may be called a + purificatory ceremony is furnished by the practice of the Chinese of + Foo-Chow. A lad who is suffering from small-pox is made to squat in a + large winnowing sieve. On his head is placed a piece of red cloth, + and on the cloth are laid some parched beans, which are then allowed + to roll off. As the name for beans, pronounced in the local dialect, + is identical with the common name for small-pox, and as moreover the + scars left by the pustules are thought to resemble beans, it appears + to be imagined that just as the beans roll off the boy's head, so + will the pustules vanish from his body without leaving a <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page010">[pg 010]</span><a name="Pg010" id="Pg010" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> trace behind.<a id="noteref_38" name= + "noteref_38" href="#note_38"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">38</span></span></a> Thus the + cure depends on the principle of homoeopathic magic. Perhaps on the + same principle a winnowing-fan is employed in the ceremony from a + notion that it will help to waft or fan away the disease like chaff + from the grain. We may compare a purificatory ceremony observed by + the Karens of Burma at the naming of a new-born child. Amongst these + people <span class="tei tei-q">“children are supposed to come into + the world defiled, and unless that defilement is removed, they will + be unfortunate, and unsuccessful in their undertakings. An Elder + takes a thin splint of bamboo, and, tying a noose at one end, he fans + it down the child's arm, saying:</span></p> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 0.90em; margin-top: 0.90em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left"><span class= + "tei tei-q" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">‘</span><span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Fan away ill luck, fan + away ill success:</span></span></span></span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Fan away inability, fan + away unskilfulness:</span></span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Fan away slow growth, fan + away difficulty of growth:</span></span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Fan away stuntedness, fan + away puniness:</span></span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Fan away drowsiness, fan + away stupidity:</span></span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Fan away debasedness, fan + away wretchedness:</span></span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 7.20em"> + <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left"><span class= + "tei tei-q" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-hi" + style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Fan away the whole + completely.</span></span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">’</span></span></span> + </div> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-q">“The Elder now changes his motion and fans up the child's + arm, saying:</span></p> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 0.90em; margin-top: 0.90em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left"><span class= + "tei tei-q" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">‘</span><span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Fan on power, fan on + influence:</span></span></span></span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Fan on the paddy bin, fan + on the paddy barn:</span></span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Fan on followers, fan on + dependants:</span></span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left"><span class= + "tei tei-q" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-hi" + style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Fan on good things, fan on + appropriate things.</span></span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">’</span></span><span style= + "font-size: 90%"> ”</span></span><a id="noteref_39" name= + "noteref_39" href="#note_39"><span class="tei tei-noteref" + style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">39</span></span></a> + </div> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Among the reasons for the use of the + winnowing-fan in birth-rites may have been the wish to avert + evils and to promote fertility and growth.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Thus in some of + the foregoing instances the employment of the winnowing-fan may have + been suggested by the proper use of the implement as a means of + separating the corn from the chaff, the same operation being extended + by analogy to rid men of evils of various sorts which would otherwise + adhere to them like husks to the grain. It was in this way that the + ancients explained the use of the winnowing-fan in the + mysteries.<a id="noteref_40" name="noteref_40" href= + "#note_40"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">40</span></span></a> But one + motive, and perhaps the original one, <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page011">[pg 011]</span><a name="Pg011" id="Pg011" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> for setting a newborn child in a winnowing-fan + and surrounding it with corn was probably the wish to communicate to + the infant, on the principle of sympathetic magic, the fertility and + especially the power of growth possessed by the grain. This was in + substance the explanation which W. Mannhardt gave of the + custom.<a id="noteref_41" name="noteref_41" href= + "#note_41"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">41</span></span></a> He + rightly insisted on the analogy which many peoples, and in particular + the ancient Greeks, have traced between the sowing of seed and the + begetting of children,<a id="noteref_42" name="noteref_42" href= + "#note_42"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">42</span></span></a> and he + confirmed his view of the function of the winnowing-fan in these + ceremonies by aptly comparing a German custom of sowing barley or + flax seed over weakly and stunted children in the belief that this + will make them grow with the growth of the barley or the flax.<a id= + "noteref_43" name="noteref_43" href="#note_43"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">43</span></span></a> An + Esthonian mode of accomplishing the same object is to set the child + in the middle of a plot of ground where a sower is sowing hemp and to + leave the little one there till the sowing is finished; after that + they imagine that the child will shoot up in stature like the hemp + which has just been sown.<a id="noteref_44" name="noteref_44" href= + "#note_44"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">44</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Use of the winnowing-fan in the + rites of Dionysus.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">With the foregoing + evidence before us of a widespread custom of placing newborn children + in winnowing-fans we clearly cannot argue that Dionysus must + necessarily have been a god of the corn because Greek tradition and + Greek art represent him as an infant cradled in a winnowing-fan. The + argument would prove too much, for it would apply equally to all the + infants that have been so cradled in all parts of the world. We + cannot even press the argument drawn from the surname <span class= + "tei tei-q">“He of the Winnowing-fan”</span> which was borne by + Dionysus, since we have seen that similar names are borne for similar + reasons in India by persons who have no claim whatever to be regarded + as deities of the corn. Yet when all necessary deductions have been + made on this score, the association of Dionysus with the + winnowing-fan appears to be too intimate to be explained away as a + mere reminiscence of a practice to which every Greek baby, whether + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page012">[pg 012]</span><a name="Pg012" + id="Pg012" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> human or divine, had to + submit. That practice would hardly account either for the use of the + winnowing-fan in the mysteries or for the appearance of the + implement, filled with fruitage of various kinds, on the monuments + which set forth the ritual of Dionysus.<a id="noteref_45" name= + "noteref_45" href="#note_45"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">45</span></span></a> This + last emblem points plainly to a conception of the god as a + personification of the fruits of the earth in general; and as if to + emphasise the idea of fecundity conveyed by such a symbol there + sometimes appears among the fruits in the winnowing-fan an effigy of + the male organ of generation. The prominent place which that effigy + occupied in the worship of Dionysus<a id="noteref_46" name= + "noteref_46" href="#note_46"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">46</span></span></a> hints + broadly, if it does not strictly prove, that to the Greek mind the + god stood for the powers of fertility in general, animal as well as + vegetable. In the thought of the ancients no sharp line of + distinction divided the fertility of animals from the fertility of + plants; rather the two ideas met and blended in a nebulous haze. We + need not wonder, therefore, that the same coarse but expressive + emblem figured conspicuously in the ritual of Father Liber, the + Italian counterpart of Dionysus, who in return for the homage paid to + the symbol of his creative energy was believed to foster the growth + of the crops and to guard the fields against the powers of + evil.<a id="noteref_47" name="noteref_47" href= + "#note_47"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">47</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Myth of the death and resurrection + of Dionysus. Legend that the infant Dionysus occupied for a short + time the throne of his father Zeus. Death and resurrection of + Dionysus represented in his rites.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Like the other + gods of vegetation whom we considered in the last volume, Dionysus + was believed to have died a violent death, but to have been brought + to life again; and his sufferings, death, and resurrection were + enacted in his sacred rites. His tragic story is thus told by the + poet Nonnus. Zeus in the form of a serpent visited Persephone, and + she bore him Zagreus, that is, Dionysus, a horned infant. Scarcely + was he born, when the babe mounted the throne of his father Zeus and + mimicked the great god by brandishing the lightning in his tiny hand. + But he did not occupy the throne long; for the treacherous Titans, + their faces whitened with chalk, attacked him with knives while he + was looking <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page013">[pg + 013]</span><a name="Pg013" id="Pg013" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> at + himself in a mirror. For a time he evaded their assaults by turning + himself into various shapes, assuming the likeness successively of + Zeus and Cronus, of a young man, of a lion, a horse, and a serpent. + Finally, in the form of a bull, he was cut to pieces by the murderous + knives of his enemies.<a id="noteref_48" name="noteref_48" href= + "#note_48"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">48</span></span></a> His + Cretan myth, as related by Firmicus Maternus, ran thus. He was said + to have been the bastard son of Jupiter, a Cretan king. Going abroad, + Jupiter transferred the throne and sceptre to the youthful Dionysus, + but, knowing that his wife Juno cherished a jealous dislike of the + child, he entrusted Dionysus to the care of guards upon whose + fidelity he believed he could rely. Juno, however, bribed the guards, + and amusing the child with rattles and a cunningly-wrought + looking-glass lured him into an ambush, where her satellites, the + Titans, rushed upon him, cut him limb from limb, boiled his body with + various herbs, and ate it. But his sister Minerva, who had shared in + the deed, kept his heart and gave it to Jupiter on his return, + revealing to him the whole history of the crime. In his rage, Jupiter + put the Titans to death by torture, and, to soothe his grief for the + loss of his son, made an image in which he enclosed the child's + heart, and then built a temple in his honour.<a id="noteref_49" name= + "noteref_49" href="#note_49"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">49</span></span></a> In this + version a Euhemeristic turn has been given to the myth by + representing Jupiter and Juno (Zeus and Hera) as a king and queen of + Crete. The guards referred to are the mythical Curetes who danced a + war-dance round the infant Dionysus, as they are said to have done + round the infant Zeus.<a id="noteref_50" name="noteref_50" href= + "#note_50"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">50</span></span></a> Very + noteworthy is the legend, recorded both by Nonnus and Firmicus, that + in his infancy Dionysus occupied for a short time the throne of his + father Zeus. So Proclus tells us that <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Dionysus was the last king of the gods appointed by + Zeus. For his father set him on the kingly throne, and placed in his + hand the sceptre, and made him king of all the gods of the + world.”</span><a id="noteref_51" name="noteref_51" href= + "#note_51"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">51</span></span></a> Such + traditions point to a custom of temporarily investing the king's son + with the royal dignity as a preliminary to sacrificing him instead of + his father. <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page014">[pg + 014]</span><a name="Pg014" id="Pg014" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + Pomegranates were supposed to have sprung from the blood of Dionysus, + as anemones from the blood of Adonis and violets from the blood of + Attis: hence women refrained from eating seeds of pomegranates at the + festival of the Thesmophoria.<a id="noteref_52" name="noteref_52" + href="#note_52"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">52</span></span></a> + According to some, the severed limbs of Dionysus were pieced + together, at the command of Zeus, by Apollo, who buried them on + Parnassus.<a id="noteref_53" name="noteref_53" href= + "#note_53"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">53</span></span></a> The + grave of Dionysus was shewn in the Delphic temple beside a golden + statue of Apollo.<a id="noteref_54" name="noteref_54" href= + "#note_54"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">54</span></span></a> However, + according to another account, the grave of Dionysus was at Thebes, + where he is said to have been torn in pieces.<a id="noteref_55" name= + "noteref_55" href="#note_55"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">55</span></span></a> Thus far + the resurrection of the slain god is not mentioned, but in other + versions of the myth it is variously related. According to one + version, which represented Dionysus as a son of Zeus and Demeter, his + mother pieced together his mangled limbs and made him young + again.<a id="noteref_56" name="noteref_56" href= + "#note_56"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">56</span></span></a> In + others it is simply said that shortly after his burial he rose from + the dead and ascended up to heaven;<a id="noteref_57" name= + "noteref_57" href="#note_57"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">57</span></span></a> or that + Zeus raised him up as he lay mortally wounded;<a id="noteref_58" + name="noteref_58" href="#note_58"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">58</span></span></a> or that + Zeus swallowed the heart of Dionysus and then begat him afresh by + Semele,<a id="noteref_59" name="noteref_59" href= + "#note_59"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">59</span></span></a> who in + the common legend figures as mother of Dionysus. Or, again, the heart + was pounded up and given in a portion to Semele, who thereby + conceived him.<a id="noteref_60" name="noteref_60" href= + "#note_60"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">60</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Turning from the + myth to the ritual, we find that the Cretans celebrated a + biennial<a id="noteref_61" name="noteref_61" href= + "#note_61"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">61</span></span></a> festival + at which the passion <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page015">[pg + 015]</span><a name="Pg015" id="Pg015" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> of + Dionysus was represented in every detail. All that he had done or + suffered in his last moments was enacted before the eyes of his + worshippers, who tore a live bull to pieces with their teeth and + roamed the woods with frantic shouts. In front of them was carried a + casket supposed to contain the sacred heart of Dionysus, and to the + wild music of flutes and cymbals they mimicked the rattles by which + the infant god had been lured to his doom.<a id="noteref_62" name= + "noteref_62" href="#note_62"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">62</span></span></a> Where + the resurrection formed part of the myth, it also was acted at the + rites,<a id="noteref_63" name="noteref_63" href= + "#note_63"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">63</span></span></a> and it + even appears that a general doctrine of resurrection, or at least of + immortality, was inculcated on the worshippers; for Plutarch, writing + to console his wife on the death of their infant daughter, comforts + her with the thought of the immortality of the soul as taught by + tradition and revealed in the mysteries of Dionysus.<a id= + "noteref_64" name="noteref_64" href="#note_64"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">64</span></span></a> A + different form of the myth of the death and resurrection of Dionysus + is that he descended into Hades to bring up his mother Semele from + the dead.<a id="noteref_65" name="noteref_65" href= + "#note_65"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">65</span></span></a> The + local Argive tradition was that he went down through the Alcyonian + lake; and his return from the lower world, in other words his + resurrection, was annually celebrated on the spot by the Argives, who + summoned him from the water by trumpet blasts, while they threw a + lamb into the lake as an offering to the warder of the dead.<a id= + "noteref_66" name="noteref_66" href="#note_66"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">66</span></span></a> Whether + this was a spring festival does not appear, but the Lydians certainly + celebrated the advent of Dionysus in spring; the god was supposed to + bring the season with him.<a id="noteref_67" name="noteref_67" href= + "#note_67"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">67</span></span></a> Deities + of vegetation, who are <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page016">[pg + 016]</span><a name="Pg016" id="Pg016" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + supposed to pass a certain portion of each year under ground, + naturally come to be regarded as gods of the lower world or of the + dead. Both Dionysus and Osiris were so conceived.<a id="noteref_68" + name="noteref_68" href="#note_68"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">68</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Dionysus represented in the form of + a bull.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">A feature in the + mythical character of Dionysus, which at first sight appears + inconsistent with his nature as a deity of vegetation, is that he was + often conceived and represented in animal shape, especially in the + form, or at least with the horns, of a bull. Thus he is spoken of as + <span class="tei tei-q">“cow-born,”</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q">“bull,”</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q">“bull-shaped,”</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q">“bull-faced,”</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q">“bull-browed,”</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q">“bull-horned,”</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q">“horn-bearing,”</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q">“two-horned,”</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q">“horned.”</span><a id="noteref_69" name="noteref_69" + href="#note_69"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">69</span></span></a> He was + believed to appear, at least occasionally, as a bull.<a id= + "noteref_70" name="noteref_70" href="#note_70"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">70</span></span></a> His + images were often, as at Cyzicus, made in bull shape,<a id= + "noteref_71" name="noteref_71" href="#note_71"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">71</span></span></a> or with + bull horns;<a id="noteref_72" name="noteref_72" href= + "#note_72"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">72</span></span></a> and he + was painted with horns.<a id="noteref_73" name="noteref_73" href= + "#note_73"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">73</span></span></a> Types of + the horned Dionysus are found amongst the surviving monuments of + antiquity.<a id="noteref_74" name="noteref_74" href= + "#note_74"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">74</span></span></a> On one + statuette he appears clad in a bull's hide, the head, horns, and + hoofs hanging down behind.<a id="noteref_75" name="noteref_75" href= + "#note_75"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">75</span></span></a> Again, + he is represented as a child with clusters of grapes round his brow, + and a calf's head, with sprouting horns, attached to the back of his + head.<a id="noteref_76" name="noteref_76" href= + "#note_76"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">76</span></span></a> On a + red-figured vase the god is portrayed as a calf-headed child seated + on a woman's lap.<a id="noteref_77" name="noteref_77" href= + "#note_77"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">77</span></span></a> The + people of Cynaetha in north-western Arcadia held a festival of + Dionysus in winter, when men, <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page017">[pg 017]</span><a name="Pg017" id="Pg017" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> who had greased their bodies with oil for the + occasion, used to pick out a bull from the herd and carry it to the + sanctuary of the god. Dionysus was supposed to inspire their choice + of the particular bull,<a id="noteref_78" name="noteref_78" href= + "#note_78"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">78</span></span></a> which + probably represented the deity himself; for at his festivals he was + believed to appear in bull form. The women of Elis hailed him as a + bull, and prayed him to come with his bull's foot. They sang, + <span class="tei tei-q">“Come hither, Dionysus, to thy holy temple by + the sea; come with the Graces to thy temple, rushing with thy bull's + foot, O goodly bull, O goodly bull!”</span><a id="noteref_79" name= + "noteref_79" href="#note_79"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">79</span></span></a> The + Bacchanals of Thrace wore horns in imitation of their god.<a id= + "noteref_80" name="noteref_80" href="#note_80"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">80</span></span></a> + According to the myth, it was in the shape of a bull that he was torn + to pieces by the Titans;<a id="noteref_81" name="noteref_81" href= + "#note_81"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">81</span></span></a> and the + Cretans, when they acted the sufferings and death of Dionysus, tore a + live bull to pieces with their teeth.<a id="noteref_82" name= + "noteref_82" href="#note_82"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">82</span></span></a> Indeed, + the rending and devouring of live bulls and calves appear to have + been a regular feature of the Dionysiac rites.<a id="noteref_83" + name="noteref_83" href="#note_83"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">83</span></span></a> When we + consider the practice of portraying the god as a bull or with some of + the features of the animal, the belief that he appeared in bull form + to his worshippers at the sacred rites, and the legend that in bull + form he had been torn in pieces, we cannot doubt that in rending and + devouring a live bull at his festival the worshippers of Dionysus + believed themselves to be killing the god, eating his flesh, and + drinking his blood.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Dionysus as a goat. Live goats rent + and devoured by his worshippers.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Another animal + whose form Dionysus assumed was the goat. One of his names was + <span class="tei tei-q">“Kid.”</span><a id="noteref_84" name= + "noteref_84" href="#note_84"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">84</span></span></a> At + Athens and at Hermion he was worshipped under the title of + <span class="tei tei-q">“the one of the Black Goatskin,”</span> and a + legend ran that on a certain occasion he had appeared clad in the + skin from which he took the title.<a id="noteref_85" name= + "noteref_85" href="#note_85"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">85</span></span></a> In the + wine-growing district of Phlius, where in autumn the plain is still + thickly mantled with the red and <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page018">[pg 018]</span><a name="Pg018" id="Pg018" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> golden foliage of the fading vines, there stood + of old a bronze image of a goat, which the husbandmen plastered with + gold-leaf as a means of protecting their vines against blight.<a id= + "noteref_86" name="noteref_86" href="#note_86"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">86</span></span></a> The + image probably represented the vine-god himself. To save him from the + wrath of Hera, his father Zeus changed the youthful Dionysus into a + kid;<a id="noteref_87" name="noteref_87" href="#note_87"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">87</span></span></a> and when + the gods fled to Egypt to escape the fury of Typhon, Dionysus was + turned into a goat.<a id="noteref_88" name="noteref_88" href= + "#note_88"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">88</span></span></a> Hence + when his worshippers rent in pieces a live goat and devoured it + raw,<a id="noteref_89" name="noteref_89" href="#note_89"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">89</span></span></a> they + must have believed that they were eating the body and blood of the + god.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Custom of rending and devouring + animals and men as a religious rite. Ceremonial cannibalism among + the Indians of British Columbia.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The custom of + tearing in pieces the bodies of animals and of men and then devouring + them raw has been practised as a religious rite by savages in modern + times. We need not therefore dismiss as a fable the testimony of + antiquity to the observance of similar rites among the frenzied + worshippers of Bacchus. An English missionary to the Coast Indians of + British Columbia has thus described a scene like the cannibal orgies + of the Bacchanals. After mentioning that an old chief had ordered a + female slave to be dragged to the beach, murdered, and thrown into + the water, he proceeds as follows: <span class="tei tei-q">“I did not + see the murder, but, immediately after, I saw crowds of people + running out of those houses near to where the corpse was thrown, and + forming themselves into groups at a good distance away. This I learnt + was from fear of what was to follow. Presently two bands of furious + wretches appeared, each headed by a man in a state of nudity. They + gave vent to the most unearthly sounds, and the two naked men made + themselves look as unearthly as possible, proceeding in a creeping + kind of stoop, and stepping like two proud horses, at the same time + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page019">[pg 019]</span><a name="Pg019" + id="Pg019" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> shooting forward each arm + alternately, which they held out at full length for a little time in + the most defiant manner. Besides this, the continual jerking their + heads back, causing their long black hair to twist about, added much + to their savage appearance. For some time they pretended to be + seeking the body, and the instant they came where it lay they + commenced screaming and rushing round it like so many angry wolves. + Finally they seized it, dragged it out of the water, and laid it on + the beach, where I was told the naked men would commence tearing it + to pieces with their teeth. The two bands of men immediately + surrounded them, and so hid their horrid work. In a few minutes the + crowd broke into two, when each of the naked cannibals appeared with + half of the body in his hands. Separating a few yards, they + commenced, amid horrid yells, their still more horrid feast. The + sight was too terrible to behold. I left the gallery with a depressed + heart. I may mention that the two bands of savages just alluded to + belong to that class which the whites term <span class= + "tei tei-q">‘medicine-men.’</span> ”</span> The same writer informs + us that at the winter ceremonials of these Indians <span class= + "tei tei-q">“the cannibal, on such occasions, is generally supplied + with two, three, or four human bodies, which he tears to pieces + before his audience. Several persons, either from bravado or as a + charm, present their arms for him to bite. I have seen several whom + he has bitten, and I hear two have died from the effects.”</span> And + when corpses were not forthcoming, these cannibals apparently seized + and devoured living people. Mr. Duncan has seen hundreds of the + Tsimshian Indians sitting in their canoes which they had just pushed + off from the shore in order to escape being torn to pieces by a party + of prowling cannibals. Others of these Indians contented themselves + with tearing dogs to pieces, while their attendants kept up a + growling noise, or a whoop, <span class="tei tei-q">“which was + seconded by a screeching noise made from an instrument which they + believe to be the abode of a spirit.”</span><a id="noteref_90" name= + "noteref_90" href="#note_90"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">90</span></span></a></p><span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page020">[pg 020]</span><a name="Pg020" id="Pg020" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Religious societies of Cannibals and + Dog-eaters among the Indians of British Columbia. Live goats rent + in pieces and devoured by fanatics in Morocco.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Mr. Duncan's + account of these savage rites has been fully borne out by later + observation. Among the Kwakiutl Indians the Cannibals (<span class= + "tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Hamatsas</span></span>) are the highest in rank + of the Secret Societies. They devour corpses, bite pieces out of + living people, and formerly ate slaves who had been killed for the + purpose. But when their fury has subsided, they are obliged to pay + compensation to the persons whom they have bitten and to the owners + of slaves whom they have killed. The indemnity consists sometimes of + blankets, sometimes of canoes. In the latter case the tariff is + fixed: one bite, one canoe. For some time after eating human flesh + the cannibal has to observe a great many rules, which regulate his + eating and drinking, his going out and his coming in, his clothing + and his intercourse with his wife.<a id="noteref_91" name= + "noteref_91" href="#note_91"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">91</span></span></a> Similar + customs prevail among other tribes of the same coast, such as the + Bella Coola, the Tsimshian, the Niska, and the Nootka. In the Nootka + tribe members of the Panther Society tear dogs to pieces and devour + them. They wear masks armed with canine teeth.<a id="noteref_92" + name="noteref_92" href="#note_92"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">92</span></span></a> So among + the Haida Indians of the Queen Charlotte Islands there is one + religion of cannibalism and another of dog-eating. The cannibals in a + state of frenzy, real or pretended, bite flesh out of the extended + arms of their fellow villagers. When they issue forth with cries of + <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Hop-pop</span></span> to observe this solemn + rite, all who are of a different religious persuasion make haste to + get out of their way; but men of the cannibal creed and of stout + hearts will resolutely hold out their arms to be <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page021">[pg 021]</span><a name="Pg021" id="Pg021" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> bitten. The sect of dog-eaters cut or + tear dogs to pieces and devour some of the flesh; but they have to + pay for the dogs which they consume in their religious + enthusiasm.<a id="noteref_93" name="noteref_93" href= + "#note_93"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">93</span></span></a> In the + performance of these savage rites the frenzied actors are believed to + be inspired by a Cannibal Spirit and a Dog-eating Spirit + respectively.<a id="noteref_94" name="noteref_94" href= + "#note_94"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">94</span></span></a> Again, + in Morocco there is an order of saints known as Isowa or Aïsawa, + followers of Mohammed ben Isa or Aïsa of Mequinez, whose tomb is at + Fez. Every year on their founder's birthday they assemble at his + shrine or elsewhere and holding each other's hands dance a frantic + dance round a fire. <span class="tei tei-q">“While the mad dance is + still proceeding, a sudden rush is made from the sanctuary, and the + dancers, like men delirious, speed away to a place where live goats + are tethered in readiness. At sight of these animals the fury of the + savage and excited crowd reaches its height. In a few minutes the + wretched animals are cut, or rather torn to pieces, and an orgy takes + place over the raw and quivering flesh. When they seem satiated, the + Emkaddim, who is generally on horseback, and carries a long stick, + forms a sort of procession, preceded by wild music, if such + discordant sounds will bear the name. Words can do no justice to the + frightful scene which now ensues. The naked savages—for on these + occasions a scanty piece of cotton is all their clothing—with their + long black hair, ordinarily worn in plaits, tossed about by the rapid + to-and-fro movements of the head, with faces and hands reeking with + blood, and uttering loud cries resembling the bleating of goats, + again enter the town. The place is now at their mercy, and the people + avoid them as much as possible by shutting themselves up in their + houses. A Christian or a Jew would run great risk of losing his life + if either were found in the street. Goats are pushed out from the + doors, and these the fanatics tear immediately to pieces with their + hands, and then dispute over the morsels of <span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page022">[pg 022]</span><a name="Pg022" id="Pg022" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> bleeding flesh, as though they were ravenous + wolves instead of men. Snakes also are thrown to them as tests of + their divine frenzy, and these share the fate of the goats. Sometimes + a luckless dog, straying as dogs will stray in a tumult, is seized + on. Then the laymen, should any be at hand, will try to prevent the + desecration of pious mouths. But the fanatics sometimes prevail, and + the unclean animal, abhorred by the mussulman, is torn in pieces and + devoured, or pretended to be devoured, with indiscriminating + rage.”</span><a id="noteref_95" name="noteref_95" href= + "#note_95"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">95</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Later misinterpretations of the + custom of killing a god in animal form.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The custom of + killing a god in animal form, which we shall examine more in detail + further on, belongs to a very early stage of human culture, and is + apt in later times to be misunderstood. The advance of thought tends + to strip the old animal and plant gods of their bestial and vegetable + husk, and to leave their human attributes (which are always the + kernel of the conception) as the final and sole residuum. In other + words, animal and plant gods tend to become purely anthropomorphic. + When they have become wholly or nearly so, the animals and plants + which were at first the deities themselves, still retain a vague and + ill-understood connexion with the anthropomorphic gods who have been + developed out of them. The origin of the relationship between the + deity and the animal or plant having been forgotten, various stories + are invented to explain it. These explanations may follow one of two + lines according as they are based on the habitual or on the + exceptional treatment of the sacred animal or plant. The sacred + animal was habitually spared, and only exceptionally slain; and + accordingly the myth might be devised to explain either why it was + spared or why it was killed. Devised for the former purpose, the myth + would tell of some service rendered to the deity by the animal; + devised for the latter purpose, the myth would tell of some injury + inflicted by the animal on the god. The reason given for sacrificing + goats to Dionysus exemplifies a myth of the latter sort. They were + sacrificed <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page023">[pg + 023]</span><a name="Pg023" id="Pg023" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> to + him, it was said, because they injured the vine.<a id="noteref_96" + name="noteref_96" href="#note_96"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">96</span></span></a> Now the + goat, as we have seen, was originally an embodiment of the god + himself. But when the god had divested himself of his animal + character and had become essentially anthropomorphic, the killing of + the goat in his worship came to be regarded no longer as a slaying of + the deity himself, but as a sacrifice offered to him; and since some + reason had to be assigned why the goat in particular should be + sacrificed, it was alleged that this was a punishment inflicted on + the goat for injuring the vine, the object of the god's especial + care. Thus we have the strange spectacle of a god sacrificed to + himself on the ground that he is his own enemy. And as the deity is + supposed to partake of the victim offered to him, it follows that, + when the victim is the god's old self, the god eats of his own flesh. + Hence the goat-god Dionysus is represented as eating raw goat's + blood;<a id="noteref_97" name="noteref_97" href= + "#note_97"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">97</span></span></a> and the + bull-god Dionysus is called <span class="tei tei-q">“eater of + bulls.”</span><a id="noteref_98" name="noteref_98" href= + "#note_98"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">98</span></span></a> On the + analogy of these instances we may conjecture that wherever a deity is + described as the eater of a particular animal, the animal in question + was originally nothing but the deity himself.<a id="noteref_99" name= + "noteref_99" href="#note_99"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">99</span></span></a> Later on + we shall find that some savages propitiate dead bears and whales by + offering them portions of their own bodies.<a id="noteref_100" name= + "noteref_100" href="#note_100"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">100</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Human sacrifices in the worship of + Dionysus.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">All this, however, + does not explain why a deity of vegetation should appear in animal + form. But the consideration of that point had better be deferred till + we have <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page024">[pg 024]</span><a name= + "Pg024" id="Pg024" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> discussed the + character and attributes of Demeter. Meantime it remains to mention + that in some places, instead of an animal, a human being was torn in + pieces at the rites of Dionysus. This was the practice in Chios and + Tenedos;<a id="noteref_101" name="noteref_101" href= + "#note_101"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">101</span></span></a> and at + Potniae in Boeotia the tradition ran that it had been formerly the + custom to sacrifice to the goat-smiting Dionysus a child, for whom a + goat was afterwards substituted.<a id="noteref_102" name= + "noteref_102" href="#note_102"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">102</span></span></a> At + Orchomenus, as we have seen, the human victim was taken from the + women of an old royal family.<a id="noteref_103" name="noteref_103" + href="#note_103"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">103</span></span></a> As the + slain bull or goat represented the slain god, so, we may suppose, the + human victim also represented him.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The legendary deaths of Pentheus and + Lycurgus may be reminiscences of a custom of sacrificing divine + kings in the character of Dionysus.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The legends of the + deaths of Pentheus and Lycurgus, two kings who are said to have been + torn to pieces, the one by Bacchanals, the other by horses, for their + opposition to the rites of Dionysus, may be, as I have already + suggested,<a id="noteref_104" name="noteref_104" href= + "#note_104"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">104</span></span></a> + distorted reminiscences of a custom of sacrificing divine kings in + the character of Dionysus and of dispersing the fragments of their + broken bodies over the fields for the purpose of fertilising them. In + regard to Lycurgus, king of the Thracian tribe of the Edonians, it is + expressly said that his subjects at the bidding of an oracle caused + him to be rent in pieces by horses for the purpose of restoring the + fertility of the ground after a period of barrenness and + dearth.<a id="noteref_105" name="noteref_105" href= + "#note_105"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">105</span></span></a> There + is no improbability in the tradition. We have seen that in Africa and + other parts of the world kings or chiefs have often been put to death + by their people for similar reasons.<a id="noteref_106" name= + "noteref_106" href="#note_106"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">106</span></span></a> + Further, it is significant that King Lycurgus is said to have slain + his own son Dryas with an axe in a fit of madness, mistaking him for + a vine-branch.<a id="noteref_107" name="noteref_107" href= + "#note_107"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">107</span></span></a> Have we + not in this tradition a reminiscence of a custom of sacrificing the + king's son in place of the father? Similarly Athamas, a King of + Thessaly or Boeotia, is said to have been doomed by an oracle to be + sacrificed at the altar in order to remove the curse of barrenness + which afflicted his country; however, he contrived to evade the + sentence and in a fit of madness killed his own son Learchus, + mistaking him for a wild beast. <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page025">[pg 025]</span><a name="Pg025" id="Pg025" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> That this legend was not a mere myth is made + probable by a custom observed at Alus down to historical times: the + eldest male scion of the royal house was regularly sacrificed in due + form to Laphystian Zeus if he ever set foot within the + town-hall.<a id="noteref_108" name="noteref_108" href= + "#note_108"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">108</span></span></a> The + close resemblance between the legends of King Athamas and King + Lycurgus furnishes a ground for believing both legends to be based on + a real custom of sacrificing either the king himself or one of his + sons for the good of the country; and the story that the king's son + Dryas perished because his frenzied father mistook him for a + vine-branch fits in well with the theory that the victim in these + sacrifices represented the vine-god Dionysus. It is probably no mere + coincidence that Dionysus himself is said to have been torn in pieces + at Thebes,<a id="noteref_109" name="noteref_109" href= + "#note_109"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">109</span></span></a> the + very place where according to legend the same fate befell king + Pentheus at the hands of the frenzied votaries of the vine-god.<a id= + "noteref_110" name="noteref_110" href="#note_110"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">110</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Survival of Dionysiac rites among + the modern Thracian peasantry.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The theory that in + prehistoric times Greek and Thracian kings or their sons may have + been dismembered in the character of the vine-god or the corn-god for + the purpose of fertilising the earth or quickening the vines has + received of late years some confirmation from the discovery that down + to the present time in Thrace, the original home of Dionysus, a drama + is still annually performed which reproduces with remarkable fidelity + some of the most striking traits in the Dionysiac myth and + ritual.<a id="noteref_111" name="noteref_111" href= + "#note_111"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">111</span></span></a> In a + former part of this work I have already called attention to this + interesting survival of paganism among a Christian peasantry;<a id= + "noteref_112" name="noteref_112" href="#note_112"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">112</span></span></a> but it + seems desirable and appropriate in this place to draw out somewhat + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page026">[pg 026]</span><a name="Pg026" + id="Pg026" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> more fully the parallelism + between the modern drama and the ancient worship.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Drama annually performed at the + Carnival in the villages round Viza, an old Thracian capital. The + actors in the drama.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The drama, which + may reasonably be regarded as a direct descendant of the Dionysiac + rites, is annually performed at the Carnival in all the Christian + villages which cluster round Viza, the ancient Bizya, a town of + Thrace situated about midway between Adrianople and Constantinople. + In antiquity the city was the capital of the Thracian tribe of the + Asti; the kings had their palace there,<a id="noteref_113" name= + "noteref_113" href="#note_113"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">113</span></span></a> + probably in the acropolis, of which some fine walls are still + standing. Inscriptions preserved in the modern town record the names + of some of these old kings.<a id="noteref_114" name="noteref_114" + href="#note_114"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">114</span></span></a> The + date of the celebration is Cheese Monday, as it is locally called, + which is the Monday of the last week of Carnival. At Viza itself the + mummery has been shorn of some of its ancient features, but these + have been kept up at the villages and have been particularly observed + and recorded at the village of St. George (Haghios Gheorgios). It is + to the drama as acted at that village that the following description + specially applies. The principal parts in the drama are taken by two + men disguised in goatskins. Each of them wears a headdress made of a + complete goatskin, which is stuffed so as to rise a foot or more like + a shako over his head, while the skin falls over the face, forming a + mask with holes cut for the eyes and mouth. Their shoulders are + thickly padded with hay to protect them from the blows which used to + be rained very liberally on their backs. Fawnskins on their shoulders + and goatskins on their legs are or used to be part of their + equipment, and another indispensable part of it is a number of + sheep-bells tied round their waists. One of the two skin-clad actors + carries a bow and the other a wooden effigy of the male organ of + generation. Both these actors must be married men. According to Mr. + Vizyenos, they are chosen for periods of four years. Two unmarried + boys dressed as girls and sometimes called brides also take part in + the play; and a man disguised as an old woman in rags carries a mock + baby in a basket; the brat is supposed to be a seven-months' child + born out of wedlock and begotten by an unknown <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page027">[pg 027]</span><a name="Pg027" id="Pg027" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> father. The basket in which the hopeful + infant is paraded bears the ancient name of the winnowing-fan + (<span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">likni</span></span>, contracted from + <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">liknon</span></span>) and the babe itself + receives the very title <span class="tei tei-q">“He of the + Winnowing-fan”</span> (<span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Liknites</span></span>) which in antiquity was + applied to Dionysus. Two other actors, clad in rags with blackened + faces and armed with stout saplings, play the parts of a gypsy-man + and his wife; others personate policemen armed with swords and whips; + and the troupe is completed by a man who discourses music on a + bagpipe.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The ceremonies include the forging + of a ploughshare, a mock marriage, and a pretence of death and + resurrection.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Such are the + masqueraders. The morning of the day on which they perform their + little drama is spent by them going from door to door collecting + bread, eggs, or money. At every door the two skin-clad maskers knock, + the boys disguised as girls dance, and the gypsy man and wife enact + an obscene pantomime on the straw-heap before the house. When every + house in the village has been thus visited, the troop takes up + position on the open space before the village church, where the whole + population has already mustered to witness the performance. After a + dance hand in hand, in which all the actors take part, the two + skin-clad maskers withdraw and leave the field to the gypsies, who + now pretend to forge a ploughshare, the man making believe to hammer + the share and his wife to work the bellows. At this point the old + woman's baby is supposed to grow up at a great pace, to develop a + huge appetite for meat and drink, and to clamour for a wife. One of + the skin-clad men now pursues one of the two pretended brides, and a + mock marriage is celebrated between the couple. After these nuptials + have been performed with a parody of a real wedding, the mock + bridegroom is shot by his comrade with the bow and falls down on his + face like dead. His slayer thereupon feigns to skin him with a knife; + but the dead man's wife laments over her deceased husband with loud + cries, throwing herself across his prostrate body. In this + lamentation the slayer himself and all the other actors join in: a + Christian funeral service is burlesqued; and the pretended corpse is + lifted up as if to be carried to the grave. At this point, however, + the dead man disconcerts the preparations for his burial by suddenly + coming to life <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page028">[pg + 028]</span><a name="Pg028" id="Pg028" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + again and getting up. So ends the drama of death and + resurrection.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The ceremonies also include a + simulation of ploughing and sowing by skin-clad men, accompanied + by prayers for good crops.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The next act opens + with a repetition of the pretence of forging a ploughshare, but this + time the gypsy man hammers on a real share. When the implement is + supposed to have been fashioned, a real plough is brought forward, + the mockery appears to cease, the two boys dressed as girls are yoked + to the plough and drag it twice round the village square contrary to + the way of the sun. One of the two skin-clad men walks at the tail of + the plough, the other guides it in front, and a third man follows in + the rear scattering seed from a basket. After the two rounds have + been completed, the gypsy and his wife are yoked to the plough, and + drag it a third time round the square, the two skin-clad men still + playing the part of ploughmen. At Viza the plough is drawn by the + skin-clad men themselves. While the plough is going its rounds, + followed by the sower sowing the seed, the people pray aloud, saying, + <span class="tei tei-q">“May wheat be ten piastres the bushel! Rye + five piastres the bushel! Amen, O God, that the poor may eat! Yea, O + God, that poor folk be filled!”</span> This ends the performance. The + evening is spent in feasting on the proceeds of the house-to-house + visitation which took place in the morning.<a id="noteref_115" name= + "noteref_115" href="#note_115"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">115</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Kindred ceremony performed by a + masked and skin-clad man who is called a king.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">A kindred festival + is observed on the same day of the Carnival at Kosti, a place in the + extreme north of Thrace, near the Black Sea. There a man dressed in + sheepskins or goatskins, with a mask on his face, bells round his + neck, and a broom in his hand, goes round the village collecting food + and presents. He is addressed as a king and escorted with music. With + him go boys dressed as girls, and another boy, not so disguised, who + carries wine in a wooden bottle and gives of it to every householder + to drink in a cup, receiving a gift in return. The king then mounts a + two-wheeled cart and is drawn to the church. He carries seed in his + hand, and at the church two bands of men, one of married men and the + other of unmarried men, try each in turn to induce the king to throw + the seed on them. Finally he casts it on the ground in front of the + church. The ceremony ends with <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page029">[pg 029]</span><a name="Pg029" id="Pg029" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> stripping the king of his clothes and flinging + him into the river, after which he resumes his usual dress.<a id= + "noteref_116" name="noteref_116" href="#note_116"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">116</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Analogy of these modern Thracian + ceremonies to the ancient rites of Dionysus.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In these + ceremonies, still annually held at and near an old capital of + Thracian kings, the points of similarity to the ritual of the ancient + Thracian deity Dionysus are sufficiently obvious.<a id="noteref_117" + name="noteref_117" href="#note_117"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">117</span></span></a> The + goatskins in which the principal actors are disguised remind us of + the identification of Dionysus with a goat: the infant, cradled in a + winnowing-fan and taking its name from the implement, answers exactly + to the traditions and the monuments which represent the infant + Dionysus as similarly cradled and similarly named: the pretence that + the baby is a seven-months' child born out of wedlock and begotten by + an unknown father tallies precisely with the legend that Dionysus was + born prematurely in the seventh month as the offspring of an intrigue + between a mortal woman and a mysterious divine father:<a id= + "noteref_118" name="noteref_118" href="#note_118"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">118</span></span></a> the + same coarse symbol of reproductive energy which characterised the + ancient ritual of Dionysus figures conspicuously in the modern drama: + the annual mock marriage of the goatskin-clad mummer with the + pretended bride may be compared with the annual pretence of marrying + Dionysus to the Queen of Athens: and the simulated slaughter and + resurrection of the same goatskin-clad actor may be compared with the + traditional slaughter and resurrection of the god himself. Further, + the ceremony of ploughing, in which after his resurrection the + goatskin-clad mummer takes a prominent part, fits in well not only + with the legend that Dionysus was the first to yoke oxen to the + plough, but also with the symbolism of the winnowing-fan in his + worship; while the prayers for plentiful crops which accompany the + ploughing accord with the omens of an abundant harvest which were + drawn of old from the mystic light seen to illumine by night one of + his ancient sanctuaries in Thrace. Lastly, in the ceremony as + observed at Kosti the giving of wine by the king's <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page030">[pg 030]</span><a name="Pg030" id="Pg030" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> attendant is an act worthy of the + wine-god: the throwing of seed by the king can only be interpreted, + like the ploughing, as a charm to promote the fertility of the + ground; and the royal title borne by the principal masker harmonises + well with the theory that the part of the god of the corn and the + wine was of old sustained by the Thracian kings who reigned at + Bisya.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The modern Thracian celebration + seems to correspond most closely to the ancient Athenian festival + of the Anthesteria.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">If we ask, To what + ancient festival of Dionysus does the modern celebration of the + Carnival in Thrace most nearly correspond? the answer can be hardly + doubtful. The Thracian drama of the mock marriage of the + goatskin-clad mummer, his mimic death and resurrection, and his + subsequent ploughing, corresponds both in date and in character most + nearly to the Athenian festival of the Anthesteria, which was + celebrated at Athens during three days in early spring, towards the + end of February or the beginning of March. Thus the date of the + Anthesteria could not fall far from, and it might sometimes actually + coincide with, the last week of the Carnival, the date of the + Thracian celebration. While the details of the festival of the + Anthesteria are obscure, its general character is well known. It was + a festival both of wine-drinking and of the dead, whose souls were + supposed to revisit the city and to go about the streets, just as in + modern Europe and in many other parts of the world the ghosts of the + departed are still believed to return to their old homes on one day + of the year and to be entertained by their relatives at a solemn + Feast of All Souls.<a id="noteref_119" name="noteref_119" href= + "#note_119"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">119</span></span></a> But the + Dionysiac nature of the festival was revealed not merely by the + opening of the wine-vats and the wassailing which went on throughout + the city among freemen and slaves alike; on the second day of the + festival the marriage of Dionysus with the Queen of Athens was + celebrated with great solemnity at the Bucolium or Ox-stall.<a id= + "noteref_120" name="noteref_120" href="#note_120"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">120</span></span></a> + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page031">[pg 031]</span><a name="Pg031" + id="Pg031" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> It has been suggested with + much probability<a id="noteref_121" name="noteref_121" href= + "#note_121"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">121</span></span></a> that at + this sacred marriage in the Ox-stall the god was represented wholly + or partly in bovine shape, whether by an image or by an actor dressed + in the hide and wearing the horns of a bull; for, as we have seen, + Dionysus was often supposed to assume the form of a bull and to + present himself in that guise to his worshippers. If this conjecture + should prove to be correct—though a demonstration of it can hardly be + expected—the sacred marriage of the Queen to the Bull-god at Athens + would be parallel to the sacred marriage of the Queen to the Bull-god + at Cnossus, according to the interpretation which I have suggested of + the myth of Pasiphae and the Minotaur;<a id="noteref_122" name= + "noteref_122" href="#note_122"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">122</span></span></a> only + whereas the bull-god at Cnossus, if I am right, stood for the Sun, + the bull-god at Athens stood for the powers of vegetation, especially + the corn and the vines. It would not be surprising that among a + cattle-breeding people in early days the bull, regarded as a type of + strength and reproductive energy, should be employed to symbolise and + represent more than one of the great powers of nature. If Dionysus + did indeed figure as a bull at his marriage, it is not improbable + that on that occasion his representative, whether a real bull or a + man dressed in a bull's hide, took part in a ceremony of ploughing; + for we have seen that the invention of yoking oxen to the plough was + ascribed to Dionysus, and we know that the Athenians performed a + sacred ceremony of ploughing, which went by the name of the Ox-yoked + Ploughing and took place in a field or other open piece of ground at + the foot of the Acropolis.<a id="noteref_123" name="noteref_123" + href="#note_123"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">123</span></span></a> It is a + reasonable conjecture that the field of the Ox-yoked Ploughing may + have adjoined the building called the Ox-stall in which the marriage + of Dionysus with the Queen was solemnised;<a id="noteref_124" name= + "noteref_124" href="#note_124"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">124</span></span></a> for + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page032">[pg 032]</span><a name="Pg032" + id="Pg032" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> that building is known to have + been near the Prytaneum or Town-Hall on the northern slope of the + Acropolis.<a id="noteref_125" name="noteref_125" href= + "#note_125"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">125</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Theory that the rites of the + Anthesteria comprised a drama of the violent death and + resurrection of Dionysus.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Thus on the whole + the ancient festival of the Anthesteria, so far as its features are + preserved by tradition or can be restored by the use of reasonable + conjecture, presents several important analogies to the modern + Thracian Carnival in respect of wine-drinking, a mock marriage of + disguised actors, and a ceremony of ploughing. The resemblance + between the ancient and the modern ritual would be still closer if + some eminent modern scholars, who wrote before the discovery of the + Thracian Carnival, and whose judgment was therefore not biassed by + its analogy to the Athenian festival, are right in holding that + another important feature of the Anthesteria was the dramatic death + and resurrection of Dionysus.<a id="noteref_126" name="noteref_126" + href="#note_126"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">126</span></span></a> They + point out that at the marriage of Dionysus fourteen Sacred Women + officiated at fourteen altars;<a id="noteref_127" name="noteref_127" + href="#note_127"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">127</span></span></a> that + the number of the Titans, who tore Dionysus in pieces, was fourteen, + namely seven male and seven female;<a id="noteref_128" name= + "noteref_128" href="#note_128"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">128</span></span></a> and + that Osiris, a god who in some respects corresponded closely to + Dionysus, is said to have been rent by Typhon into fourteen + fragments.<a id="noteref_129" name="noteref_129" href= + "#note_129"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">129</span></span></a> Hence + they conjecture that at Athens the body of Dionysus was dramatically + broken into fourteen fragments, one for each of the fourteen altars, + and that it was afterwards dramatically pieced together and restored + to life by the fourteen Sacred Women, just as the broken body of + Osiris was pieced together by a company of gods and goddesses and + restored to life by his sister Isis.<a id="noteref_130" name= + "noteref_130" href="#note_130"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">130</span></span></a> The + conjecture is ingenious and plausible, but with our existing sources + of information it must remain a conjecture and <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page033">[pg 033]</span><a name="Pg033" id="Pg033" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> nothing more. Could it be established, it + would forge another strong link in the chain of evidence which binds + the modern Thracian Carnival to the ancient Athenian Anthesteria; for + in that case the drama of the divine death and resurrection would + have to be added to the other features which these two festivals of + spring possess in common, and we should have to confess that Greece + had what we may call its Good Friday and its Easter Sunday long + before the events took place in Judaea which diffused these two + annual commemorations of the Dying and Reviving God over a great part + of the civilised world. From so simple a beginning may flow + consequences so far-reaching and impressive; for in the light of the + rude Thracian ceremony we may surmise that the high tragedy of the + death and resurrection of Dionysus originated in a rustic mummers' + play acted by ploughmen for the purpose of fertilising the brown + earth which they turned up with the gleaming share in sunshiny days + of spring, as they followed the slow-paced oxen down the long furrows + in the fallow field. Later on we shall see that a play of the same + sort is still acted, or was acted down to recent years, by English + yokels on Plough Monday.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Legends of human sacrifice in the + worship of Dionysus may be mere misinterpretations of + ritual.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But before we pass + from the tragic myth and ritual of Dionysus to the sweeter story and + milder worship of Demeter and Persephone, the true Greek deities of + the corn, it is fair to admit that the legends of human sacrifice, + which have left so dark a stain on the memory of the old Thracian + god, may have been nothing more than mere misinterpretations of a + sacrificial ritual in which an animal victim was treated as a human + being. For example, at Tenedos the new-born calf sacrificed to + Dionysus was shod in buskins, and the mother cow was tended like a + woman in child-bed.<a id="noteref_131" name="noteref_131" href= + "#note_131"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">131</span></span></a> At Rome + a she-goat was sacrificed to Vedijovis as if it were a human + victim.<a id="noteref_132" name="noteref_132" href= + "#note_132"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">132</span></span></a> Yet on + the other hand it is equally possible, and perhaps more probable, + that these curious rites were themselves mitigations of an older and + ruder custom of sacrificing human beings, and that the later pretence + of <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page034">[pg 034]</span><a name= + "Pg034" id="Pg034" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> treating the + sacrificial victims as if they were human beings was merely part of a + pious and merciful fraud, which palmed off on the deity less precious + victims than living men and women. This interpretation is supported + by the undoubted cases in which animals have been substituted for + human victims.<a id="noteref_133" name="noteref_133" href= + "#note_133"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">133</span></span></a> On the + whole we may conclude that neither the polished manners of a later + age, nor the glamour which Greek poetry and art threw over the figure + of Dionysus, sufficed to conceal or erase the deep lines of savagery + and cruelty imprinted on the features of this barbarous deity.</p> + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page035">[pg 035]</span><a name= + "Pg035" id="Pg035" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + <hr class="page" /> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> + <a name="toc5" id="toc5"></a> <a name="pdf6" id="pdf6"></a> + + <h1 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"> + <span style="font-size: 173%">Chapter II. Demeter And + Persephone.</span></h1> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Demeter and Persephone as Greek + personifications of the decay and revival of vegetation.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Dionysus was not + the only Greek deity whose tragic story and ritual appear to reflect + the decay and revival of vegetation. In another form and with a + different application the old tale reappears in the myth of Demeter + and Persephone. Substantially their myth is identical with the Syrian + one of Aphrodite (Astarte) and Adonis, the Phrygian one of Cybele and + Attis, and the Egyptian one of Isis and Osiris. In the Greek fable, + as in its Asiatic and Egyptian counterparts, a goddess mourns the + loss of a loved one, who personifies the vegetation, more especially + the corn, which dies in winter to revive in spring; only whereas the + Oriental imagination figured the loved and lost one as a dead lover + or a dead husband lamented by his leman or his wife, Greek fancy + embodied the same idea in the tenderer and purer form of a dead + daughter bewailed by her sorrowing mother.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The Homeric</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 80%; font-style: italic">Hymn to + Demeter</span></span><span style="font-size: 80%">. The rape of + Persephone. The wrath of Demeter. The return of + Persephone.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The oldest + literary document which narrates the myth of Demeter and Persephone + is the beautiful Homeric <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Hymn to Demeter</span></span>, which critics + assign to the seventh century before our era.<a id="noteref_134" + name="noteref_134" href="#note_134"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">134</span></span></a> The + object of the poem is to explain the origin of the Eleusinian + mysteries, and the complete silence of the poet as to Athens and the + Athenians, who in after ages took a conspicuous part in the festival, + renders it probable that the hymn was composed in the far off time + when Eleusis was still a petty independent state, and before the + stately procession of the Mysteries had begun to defile, in + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page036">[pg 036]</span><a name="Pg036" + id="Pg036" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> bright September days, over + the low chain of barren rocky hills which divides the flat Eleusinian + cornland from the more spacious olive-clad expanse of the Athenian + plain. Be that as it may, the hymn reveals to us the conception which + the writer entertained of the character and functions of the two + goddesses: their natural shapes stand out sharply enough under the + thin veil of poetical imagery. The youthful Persephone, so runs the + tale, was gathering roses and lilies, crocuses and violets, hyacinths + and narcissuses in a lush meadow, when the earth gaped and Pluto, + lord of the Dead, issuing from the abyss carried her off on his + golden car to be his bride and queen in the gloomy subterranean + world. Her sorrowing mother Demeter, with her yellow tresses veiled + in a dark mourning mantle, sought her over land and sea, and learning + from the Sun her daughter's fate she withdrew in high dudgeon from + the gods and took up her abode at Eleusis, where she presented + herself to the king's daughters in the guise of an old woman, sitting + sadly under the shadow of an olive tree beside the Maiden's Well, to + which the damsels had come to draw water in bronze pitchers for their + father's house. In her wrath at her bereavement the goddess suffered + not the seed to grow in the earth but kept it hidden under ground, + and she vowed that never would she set foot on Olympus and never + would she let the corn sprout till her lost daughter should be + restored to her. Vainly the oxen dragged the ploughs to and fro in + the fields; vainly the sower dropped the barley seed in the brown + furrows; nothing came up from the parched and crumbling soil. Even + the Rarian plain near Eleusis, which was wont to wave with yellow + harvests, lay bare and fallow.<a id="noteref_135" name="noteref_135" + href="#note_135"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">135</span></span></a> Mankind + would have perished of hunger and the gods would have been robbed of + the sacrifices which were their due, if Zeus in alarm had not + commanded Pluto to disgorge his prey, to restore his bride Persephone + to her mother Demeter. The grim lord of the Dead smiled and obeyed, + but before he sent back his queen to the upper air on a golden car, + he gave her the seed of a pomegranate to eat, which ensured that she + would return to him. But Zeus stipulated that henceforth Persephone + should spend two thirds of every <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page037">[pg 037]</span><a name="Pg037" id="Pg037" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> year with her mother and the gods in the upper + world and one third of the year with her husband in the nether world, + from which she was to return year by year when the earth was gay with + spring flowers. Gladly the daughter then returned to the sunshine, + gladly her mother received her and fell upon her neck; and in her joy + at recovering the lost one Demeter made the corn to sprout from the + clods of the ploughed fields and all the broad earth to be heavy with + leaves and blossoms. And straightway she went and shewed this happy + sight to the princes of Eleusis, to Triptolemus, Eumolpus, Diocles, + and to the king Celeus himself, and moreover she revealed to them her + sacred rites and mysteries. Blessed, says the poet, is the mortal man + who has seen these things, but he who has had no share of them in + life will never be happy in death when he has descended into the + darkness of the grave. So the two goddesses departed to dwell in + bliss with the gods on Olympus; and the bard ends the hymn with a + pious prayer to Demeter and Persephone that they would be pleased to + grant him a livelihood in return for his song.<a id="noteref_136" + name="noteref_136" href="#note_136"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">136</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The aim of the Homeric</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 80%; font-style: italic">Hymn to + Demeter</span></span><span style="font-size: 80%">is to explain + the traditional foundation of the Eleusinian mysteries by + Demeter.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It has been + generally recognised, and indeed it seems scarcely open to doubt, + that the main theme which the poet set before himself in composing + this hymn was to describe the traditional foundation of the + Eleusinian mysteries by the goddess Demeter. The whole poem leads up + to the transformation scene in which the bare leafless expanse of the + Eleusinian plain is suddenly turned, at the will of the goddess, into + a vast sheet of ruddy corn; the beneficent deity takes the princes of + Eleusis, shews them what she has done, teaches them her mystic rites, + and vanishes with her daughter to heaven. The revelation of the + mysteries is the triumphal close of the piece. This conclusion is + confirmed by a more minute examination of the poem, which proves that + the poet has given, not merely a general account of the foundation of + the mysteries, but also in more or less veiled language mythical + explanations of the origin of particular rites which we have good + reason to believe formed essential <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page038">[pg 038]</span><a name="Pg038" id="Pg038" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> features of the festival. Amongst the rites as + to which the poet thus drops significant hints are the preliminary + fast of the candidates for initiation, the torchlight procession, the + all-night vigil, the sitting of the candidates, veiled and in + silence, on stools covered with sheepskins, the use of scurrilous + language, the breaking of ribald jests, and the solemn communion with + the divinity by participation in a draught of barley-water from a + holy chalice.<a id="noteref_137" name="noteref_137" href= + "#note_137"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">137</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Revelation of a reaped ear of corn + the crowning act of the mysteries.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But there is yet + another and a deeper secret of the mysteries which the author of the + poem appears to have divulged under cover of his narrative. He tells + us how, as soon as she had transformed the barren brown expanse of + the Eleusinian plain into a field of golden grain, she gladdened the + eyes of Triptolemus and the other Eleusinian princes by shewing them + the growing or standing corn. When we compare this part of the story + with the statement of a Christian writer of the second century, + Hippolytus, that the very heart of the mysteries consisted in shewing + to the initiated a reaped ear of corn,<a id="noteref_138" name= + "noteref_138" href="#note_138"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">138</span></span></a> we can + hardly doubt that <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page039">[pg + 039]</span><a name="Pg039" id="Pg039" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> the + poet of the hymn was well acquainted with this solemn rite, and that + he deliberately intended to explain its origin in precisely the same + way as he explained other rites of the mysteries, namely by + representing Demeter as having set the example of performing the + ceremony in her own person. Thus myth and ritual mutually explain and + confirm each other. The poet of the seventh century before our era + gives us the myth—he could not without sacrilege have revealed the + ritual: the Christian father reveals the ritual, and his revelation + accords perfectly with the veiled hint of the old poet. On the whole, + then, we may, with many modern scholars, confidently accept the + statement of the learned Christian father Clement of Alexandria, that + the myth of Demeter and Persephone was acted as a sacred drama in the + mysteries of Eleusis.<a id="noteref_139" name="noteref_139" href= + "#note_139"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">139</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Demeter and Persephone + personifications of the corn. Persephone the seed sown in autumn + and sprouting in spring. Demeter the old corn of last year. The + view that Demeter was the Earth goddess is implicitly rejected by + the author of the Homeric</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 80%; font-style: italic">Hymn to + Demeter</span></span><span style="font-size: 80%">.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But if the myth + was acted as a part, perhaps as the principal part, of the most + famous and solemn religious rites of ancient Greece, we have still to + enquire, What was, after all, stripped of later accretions, the + original kernel of the myth which appears to later ages surrounded + and transfigured by an aureole of awe and mystery, lit up by some of + the most brilliant rays of Grecian literature and art? If we follow + the indications given by our oldest literary authority on the + subject, the author of the Homeric hymn to Demeter, the riddle is not + hard to read; the figures of the two goddesses, the mother and the + daughter, resolve themselves into personifications of the corn.<a id= + "noteref_140" name="noteref_140" href="#note_140"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">140</span></span></a> At + least this appears to be fairly certain for the daughter Persephone. + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page040">[pg 040]</span><a name="Pg040" + id="Pg040" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> The goddess who spends three + or, according to another version of the myth, six months of every + year with the dead under ground and the remainder of the year with + the living above ground;<a id="noteref_141" name="noteref_141" href= + "#note_141"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">141</span></span></a> in + whose absence the barley seed is hidden in the earth and the fields + lie bare and fallow; on whose return in spring to the upper world the + corn shoots up from the clods and the earth is heavy with leaves and + blossoms—this goddess can surely be nothing else than a mythical + embodiment of the vegetation, and particularly of the corn, which is + buried under the soil for some months of every winter and comes to + life again, as from the grave, in the sprouting cornstalks and the + opening flowers and foliage of every spring. No other reasonable and + probable explanation of Persephone seems possible.<a id="noteref_142" + name="noteref_142" href="#note_142"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">142</span></span></a> And if + the daughter goddess was a personification of the young corn of the + present year, may not the mother goddess be a personification of the + old corn of last year, which has given birth to the new crops? The + only alternative to this view of Demeter would seem to be to suppose + that she is a personification of the earth, from whose broad bosom + the corn and all other plants spring up, and of which accordingly + they may appropriately enough be regarded as the daughters. This view + of the original nature of Demeter has indeed been taken by some + writers, both ancient and modern,<a id="noteref_143" name= + "noteref_143" href="#note_143"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">143</span></span></a> and it + is <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page041">[pg 041]</span><a name= + "Pg041" id="Pg041" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> one which can be + reasonably maintained. But it appears to have been rejected by the + author of the Homeric hymn to Demeter, for he not only distinguishes + Demeter from the personified Earth but places the two in the sharpest + opposition to each other. He tells us that it was Earth who, in + accordance with the will of Zeus and to please Pluto, lured + Persephone to her doom by causing the narcissuses to grow which + tempted the young goddess to stray far beyond the reach of help in + the lush meadow.<a id="noteref_144" name="noteref_144" href= + "#note_144"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">144</span></span></a> Thus + Demeter of the hymn, far from being identical with the Earth-goddess, + must have regarded that divinity as her worst enemy, since it was to + her insidious wiles that she owed the loss of her daughter. But if + the Demeter of the hymn cannot have been a personification of the + earth, the only alternative apparently is to conclude that she was a + personification of the corn.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The Yellow Demeter, the goddess who + sifts the ripe grain from the chaff at the threshing-floor. The + Green Demeter the goddess of the green corn.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">With this + conclusion all the indications of the hymn-writer seem to harmonise. + He certainly represents Demeter as the goddess by whose power and at + whose pleasure the corn either grows or remains hidden in the ground; + and to what deity can such powers be so fittingly ascribed as to the + goddess of the corn? He calls Demeter yellow and tells how her yellow + tresses flowed down on her shoulders;<a id="noteref_145" name= + "noteref_145" href="#note_145"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">145</span></span></a> could + any colour be more appropriate with which to paint the divinity of + the yellow grain? The same identification of Demeter with the ripe, + the yellow corn is made even more clearly by a still older poet, + Homer himself, or at all events the author of the fifth book of the + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Iliad</span></span>. There we read: <span class= + "tei tei-q">“And even as the wind carries the chaff about the sacred + threshing-floors, when men are <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page042">[pg 042]</span><a name="Pg042" id="Pg042" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> winnowing, what time yellow Demeter sifts the + corn from the chaff on the hurrying blast, so that the heaps of chaff + grow white below, so were the Achaeans whitened above by the cloud of + dust which the hoofs of the horses spurned to the brazen + heaven.”</span><a id="noteref_146" name="noteref_146" href= + "#note_146"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">146</span></span></a> Here + the yellow Demeter who sifts the grain from the chaff at the + threshing-floor can hardly be any other than the goddess of the + yellow corn; she cannot be the Earth-goddess, for what has the + Earth-goddess to do with the grain and the chaff blown about a + threshing-floor? With this interpretation it agrees that elsewhere + Homer speaks of men eating <span class="tei tei-q">“Demeter's + corn”</span>;<a id="noteref_147" name="noteref_147" href= + "#note_147"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">147</span></span></a> and + still more definitely Hesiod speaks of <span class="tei tei-q">“the + annual store of food, which the earth bears, Demeter's + corn,”</span><a id="noteref_148" name="noteref_148" href= + "#note_148"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">148</span></span></a> thus + distinguishing the goddess of the corn from the earth which bears it. + Still more clearly does a later Greek poet personify the corn as + Demeter when, in allusion to the time of the corn-reaping, he says + that then <span class="tei tei-q">“the sturdy swains cleave Demeter + limb from limb.”</span><a id="noteref_149" name="noteref_149" href= + "#note_149"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">149</span></span></a> And + just as the ripe or yellow corn was personified as the Yellow + Demeter, so the unripe or green corn was personified as the Green + Demeter. In that character the goddess had sanctuaries at Athens and + other places; sacrifices were appropriately offered to Green Demeter + in spring when the earth was growing green with the fresh vegetation, + and the victims included sows big with young,<a id="noteref_150" + name="noteref_150" href="#note_150"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">150</span></span></a> which + no doubt were intended not merely to symbolise but magically to + promote the abundance of the crops.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The cereals called</span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 80%">“</span><span style="font-size: 80%">Demeter's + fruits.</span><span style="font-size: 80%">”</span></span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In Greek the + various kinds of corn were called by the general name of <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Demeter's fruits,”</span><a id="noteref_151" name= + "noteref_151" href="#note_151"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">151</span></span></a> just as + in Latin they were called the <span class="tei tei-q">“fruits or + gifts of Ceres,”</span><a id="noteref_152" name="noteref_152" href= + "#note_152"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">152</span></span></a> an + expression <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page043">[pg + 043]</span><a name="Pg043" id="Pg043" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + which survives in the English word cereals. Tradition ran that before + Demeter's time men neither cultivated corn nor tilled the ground, but + roamed the mountains and woods in search of the wild fruits which the + earth produced spontaneously from her womb for their subsistence. The + tradition clearly implies not only that Demeter was the goddess of + the corn, but that she was different from and younger than the + goddess of the Earth, since it is expressly affirmed that before + Demeter's time the earth existed and supplied mankind with + nourishment in the shape of wild herbs, grasses, flowers and + fruits.<a id="noteref_153" name="noteref_153" href= + "#note_153"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">153</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Corn and poppies as symbols of + Demeter.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In ancient art + Demeter and Persephone are characterised as goddesses of the corn by + the crowns of corn which they wear on their heads and by the stalks + of corn which they hold in their hands.<a id="noteref_154" name= + "noteref_154" href="#note_154"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">154</span></span></a> + Theocritus describes a smiling image of Demeter standing by a heap of + yellow grain on a threshing-floor and grasping sheaves of barley and + poppies in both her hands.<a id="noteref_155" name="noteref_155" + href="#note_155"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">155</span></span></a> Indeed + corn and poppies singly or together were a frequent symbol of the + goddess, as we learn not only from the testimony of ancient + writers<a id="noteref_156" name="noteref_156" href= + "#note_156"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">156</span></span></a> but + from many existing monuments of classical art.<a id="noteref_157" + name="noteref_157" href="#note_157"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">157</span></span></a> The + naturalness of the symbol <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page044">[pg + 044]</span><a name="Pg044" id="Pg044" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> can + be doubted by no one who has seen—and who has not seen?—a field of + yellow corn bespangled thick with scarlet poppies; and we need not + resort to the shifts of an ancient mythologist, who explained the + symbolism of the poppy in Demeter's hand by comparing the globular + shape of the poppy to the roundness of our globe, the unevenness of + its edges to hills and valleys, and the hollow interior of the + scarlet flower to the caves and dens of the earth.<a id="noteref_158" + name="noteref_158" href="#note_158"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">158</span></span></a> If only + students would study the little black and white books of men less and + the great rainbow-tinted book of nature more; if they would more + frequently exchange the heavy air and the dim light of libraries for + the freshness and the sunshine of the open sky; if they would oftener + unbend their minds by rural walks between fields of waving corn, + beside rivers rippling by under grey willows, or down green lanes, + where the hedges are white with the hawthorn bloom or red with wild + roses, they might sometimes learn more about primitive religion than + can be gathered from many dusty volumes, in which wire-drawn theories + are set forth with all the tedious parade of learning.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Persephone portrayed as the young + corn sprouting from the ground.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Nowhere, perhaps, + in the monuments of Greek art is the character of Persephone as a + personification of the young corn sprouting in spring portrayed more + gracefully and more truly than on a coin of Lampsacus of the fourth + century before our era. On it we see the goddess in the very act of + rising from the earth. <span class="tei tei-q">“Her face is upraised; + in her hand are three ears of corn, and others together with grapes + are springing behind her shoulder. Complete is here the + identification of the goddess and her attribute: she is embowered + amid the ears of growing corn, and like it half buried in the ground. + She does not make the corn and vine grow, but she <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">is</span></em> the + corn and vine growing, and returning again to the face of the earth + after lying hidden in its depths. Certainly the artist who designed + this beautiful figure thoroughly understood Hellenic + religion.”</span><a id="noteref_159" name="noteref_159" href= + "#note_159"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">159</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Demeter invoked and propitiated by + Greek farmers before the autumnal sowing. Boeotian festival of + mourning for the descent of Persephone at the autumnal + sowing.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">As the goddess who + first bestowed corn on mankind and taught them to sow and cultivate + it,<a id="noteref_160" name="noteref_160" href= + "#note_160"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">160</span></span></a> Demeter + was <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page045">[pg 045]</span><a name= + "Pg045" id="Pg045" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> naturally invoked and + propitiated by farmers before they undertook the various operations + of the agricultural year. In autumn, when he heard the sonorous + trumpeting of the cranes, as they winged their way southward in vast + flocks high overhead, the Greek husbandman knew that the rains were + near and that the time of ploughing was at hand; but before he put + his hand to the plough he prayed to Underground Zeus and to Holy + Demeter for a heavy crop of Demeter's sacred corn. Then he guided the + ox-drawn plough down the field, turning up the brown earth with the + share, while a swain followed close behind with a hoe, who covered up + the seed as fast as it fell to protect it from the voracious birds + that fluttered and twittered at the plough-tail.<a id="noteref_161" + name="noteref_161" href="#note_161"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">161</span></span></a> But + while the ordinary Greek farmer took the signal for ploughing from + the clangour of the cranes, Hesiod and other writers who aimed at + greater exactness laid it down as a rule that the ploughing should + begin with the autumnal setting of the Pleiades in the morning, which + in Hesiod's time fell on the twenty-sixth of October.<a id= + "noteref_162" name="noteref_162" href="#note_162"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">162</span></span></a> The + month in which the Pleiades set in the morning was generally + recognised by the Greeks as the month of sowing; it corresponded + apparently in part to our October, in part to <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page046">[pg 046]</span><a name="Pg046" id="Pg046" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> our November. The Athenians called it + Pyanepsion; the Boeotians named it significantly Damatrius, that is, + Demeter's month, and they celebrated a feast of mourning because, + says Plutarch, who as a Boeotian speaks with authority on such a + matter, Demeter was then in mourning for the descent of + Persephone.<a id="noteref_163" name="noteref_163" href= + "#note_163"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">163</span></span></a> Is it + possible to express more clearly the true original nature of + Persephone as the corn-seed which has just been buried in the earth? + The obvious, the almost inevitable conclusion did not escape + Plutarch. He tells us that the mournful rites which were held at the + time of the autumn sowing nominally commemorated the actions of + deities, but that the real sadness was for the fruits of the earth, + some of which at that season dropped of themselves and vanished from + the trees, while others in the shape of seed were committed with + anxious thoughts to the ground by men, who scraped the earth and then + huddled it up over the seed, just as if they were burying and + mourning for the dead.<a id="noteref_164" name="noteref_164" href= + "#note_164"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">164</span></span></a> Surely + this interpretation of the custom and of the myth of Persephone is + not only beautiful but true.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Thank-offerings of ripe grain + presented by Greek farmers to Demeter after the harvest. + Theocritus's description of a harvest-home in Cos.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">And just as the + Greek husbandman prayed to the Corn Goddess when he committed the + seed, with anxious forebodings, to the furrows, so after he had + reaped the harvest and brought back the yellow sheaves with rejoicing + to the threshing-floor, he paid the bountiful goddess her dues in the + form of a thank-offering of golden grain. Theocritus has painted for + us in glowing colours a picture of a <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page047">[pg 047]</span><a name="Pg047" id="Pg047" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> rustic harvest-home, as it fell on a bright + autumn day some two thousand years ago in the little Greek island of + Cos.<a id="noteref_165" name="noteref_165" href= + "#note_165"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">165</span></span></a> The + poet tells us how he went with two friends from the city to attend a + festival given by farmers, who were offering first-fruits to Demeter + from the store of barley with which she had filled their barns. The + day was warm, indeed so hot that the very lizards, which love to bask + and run about in the sun, were slumbering in the crevices of the + stone-walls, and not a lark soared carolling into the blue vault of + heaven. Yet despite the great heat there were everywhere signs of + autumn. <span class="tei tei-q">“All things,”</span> says the poet, + <span class="tei tei-q">“smelt of summer, but smelt of autumn + too.”</span> Indeed the day was really autumnal; for a goat-herd who + met the friends on their way to the rural merry-making, asked them + whether they were bound for the treading of the grapes in the + wine-presses. And when they had reached their destination and + reclined at ease in the dappled shade of over-arching poplars and + elms, with the babble of a neighbouring fountain, the buzz of the + cicadas, the hum of bees, and the cooing of doves in their ears, the + ripe apples and pears rolled in the grass at their feet and the + branches of the wild-plum trees were bowed down to the earth with the + weight of their purple fruit. So couched on soft beds of fragrant + lentisk they passed the sultry hours singing ditties alternately, + while a rustic image of Demeter, to whom the honours of the day were + paid, stood smiling beside a heap of yellow grain on the + threshing-floor, with corn-stalks and poppies in her hands.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The harvest-home described by + Theocritus fell in autumn.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In this + description the time of year when the harvest-home was celebrated is + clearly marked. Apart from the mention of the ripe apples, pears, and + plums, the reference to the treading of the grapes is decisive. The + Greeks gather and press the grapes in the first half of + October,<a id="noteref_166" name="noteref_166" href= + "#note_166"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">166</span></span></a> and + accordingly it is to this date that the harvest-festival described by + Theocritus must be assigned. At the present <span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page048">[pg 048]</span><a name="Pg048" id="Pg048" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> day in Greece the maize-harvest immediately + precedes the vintage, the grain being reaped and garnered at the end + of September. Travelling in rural districts of Argolis and Arcadia at + that time of the year you pass from time to time piles of the + orange-coloured cobs laid up ready to be shelled, or again heaps of + the yellow grain beside the pods. But maize was unknown to the + ancient Greeks, who, like their modern descendants, reaped their + wheat and barley crops much earlier in the summer, usually from the + end of April till June.<a id="noteref_167" name="noteref_167" href= + "#note_167"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">167</span></span></a> + However, we may conclude that the day immortalised by Theocritus was + one of those autumn days of great heat and effulgent beauty which in + Greece may occur at any time up to the very verge of winter. I + remember such a day at Panopeus on the borders of Phocis and Boeotia. + It was the first of November, yet the sun shone in cloudless + splendour and the heat was so great, that when I had examined the + magnificent remains of ancient Greek fortification-walls which crown + the summit of the hill, it was delicious to repose on a grassy slope + in the shade of some fine holly-oaks and to inhale the sweet scent of + the wild thyme, which perfumed all the air. But it was summer's + farewell. Next morning the weather had completely changed. A grey + November sky lowered sadly overhead, and grey mists hung like + winding-sheets on the lower slopes of the barren mountains which shut + in the fatal plain of Chaeronea.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The Greeks seem to have deferred the + offering of first-fruits till the autumn in order to propitiate + the Corn Goddess at the moment of ploughing and sowing, when her + help was urgently needed.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Thus we may infer + that in the rural districts of ancient Greece farmers offered their + first-fruits of the barley harvest to Demeter in autumn about the + time when the grapes were being trodden in the wine-presses and the + ripe apples and pears littered the ground in the orchards. At first + sight the lateness of the festival in the year is surprising; for in + the lowlands of Greece at the present day barley is reaped at the end + of April and wheat in May,<a id="noteref_168" name="noteref_168" + href="#note_168"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">168</span></span></a> and in + antiquity the time of harvest would seem not to have been very + different, for Hesiod bids the husbandman put the sickle to the corn + at the morning rising of the Pleiades,<a id="noteref_169" name= + "noteref_169" href="#note_169"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">169</span></span></a> which + in his time <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page049">[pg + 049]</span><a name="Pg049" id="Pg049" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + took place on the eleventh of May.<a id="noteref_170" name= + "noteref_170" href="#note_170"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">170</span></span></a> But if + the harvest was reaped in spring or early summer, why defer the + offerings of corn to the Corn Goddess until the middle of autumn? The + reason for the delay is not, so far as I am aware, explained by any + ancient author, and accordingly it must remain for us a matter of + conjecture. I surmise that the reason may have been a calculation on + the part of the practical farmer that the best time to propitiate the + Corn Goddess was not after harvest, when he had got all that was to + be got out of her, but immediately before ploughing and sowing, when + he had everything to hope from her good-will and everything to fear + from her displeasure. When he had reaped his corn, and the sheaves + had been safely garnered in his barns, he might, so to say, snap his + fingers at the Corn Goddess. What could she do for him on the bare + stubble-field which lay scorched and baking under the fierce rays of + the sun all the long rainless summer through? But matters wore a very + different aspect when, with the shortening and cooling of the days, + he began to scan the sky for clouds<a id="noteref_171" name= + "noteref_171" href="#note_171"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">171</span></span></a> and to + listen for the cries of the cranes as they flew southward, heralding + by their trumpet-like notes the approach of the autumnal rains. Then + he knew that the time had come to break up the ground that it might + receive the seed and be fertilised by the refreshing water of heaven; + then he bethought him of the Corn Goddess once more and brought forth + from the grange a share of the harvested corn with which to woo her + favour and induce her to quicken the grain which he was about to + commit to the earth. On this theory the Greek offering of + first-fruits was prompted not so much by gratitude for past favours + as by a shrewd eye to favours to come, and perhaps this + interpretation of the custom does no serious injustice to the cool + phlegmatic temper of the bucolic mind, which is more apt to be moved + by considerations of profit than by sentiment. At all events the + reasons suggested for delaying the harvest-festival accord perfectly + with the natural conditions and seasons of farming in Greece. For in + that country the summer is practically rainless, and during the + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page050">[pg 050]</span><a name="Pg050" + id="Pg050" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> long months of heat and + drought the cultivation of the two ancient cereals, barley and wheat, + is at a standstill. The first rains of autumn fall about the middle + of October,<a id="noteref_172" name="noteref_172" href= + "#note_172"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">172</span></span></a> and + that was the Greek farmer's great time for ploughing and + sowing.<a id="noteref_173" name="noteref_173" href= + "#note_173"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">173</span></span></a> Hence + we should expect him to make his offering of first-fruits to the Corn + Goddess shortly before he ploughed and sowed, and this expectation is + entirely confirmed by the date which we have inferred for the + offering from the evidence of Theocritus. Thus the sacrifice of + barley to Demeter in the autumn would seem to have been not so much a + thank-offering as a bribe judiciously administered to her at the very + moment of all the year when her services were most urgently + wanted.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The festival of the</span> + <span lang="el" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang= + "el"><span style="font-size: 80%; font-style: italic">Proerosia</span></span><span style="font-size: 80%">(</span><span class="tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 80%">“</span><span style="font-size: 80%">Before + the Ploughing</span><span style= + "font-size: 80%">”</span></span><span style="font-size: 80%">) + held at Eleusis in honour of Demeter.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">When with the + progress of civilisation a number of petty agricultural communities + have merged into a single state dependent for its subsistence mainly + on the cultivation of the ground, it commonly happens that, though + every farmer continues to perform for himself the simple old rites + designed to ensure the blessing of the gods on his crops, the + government undertakes to celebrate similar, though more stately and + elaborate, rites on behalf of the whole people, lest the neglect of + public worship should draw down on the country the wrath of the + offended deities. Hence it comes about that, for all their pomp and + splendour, the national festivals of such states are often merely + magnified and embellished copies of homely rites and uncouth + observances carried out by rustics in the open fields, in barns, and + on threshing-floors. In ancient Egypt the religion of Isis and Osiris + furnishes examples of solemnities which have been thus raised from + the humble rank of rural festivities to the dignity of national + celebrations;<a id="noteref_174" name="noteref_174" href= + "#note_174"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">174</span></span></a> and in + ancient Greece a like development may be traced in the religion of + Demeter. If the Greek ploughman prayed to Demeter and Underground + Zeus for a good crop before he put his hand to the plough in autumn, + the authorities of the Athenian state celebrated about the same time + and for the same purpose a public festival in honour of Demeter at + Eleusis. <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page051">[pg + 051]</span><a name="Pg051" id="Pg051" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> It + was called the Proerosia, which signifies <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Before the Ploughing”</span>; and as the festival was + dedicated to her, Demeter herself bore the name of Proerosia. + Tradition ran that once on a time the whole world was desolated by a + famine, and that to remedy the evil the Pythian oracle bade the + Athenians offer the sacrifice of the Proerosia on behalf of all men. + They did so, and the famine ceased accordingly. Hence to testify + their gratitude for the deliverance people sent the first-fruits of + their harvest from all quarters to Athens.<a id="noteref_175" name= + "noteref_175" href="#note_175"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">175</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The</span> <span lang="el" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="el"><span style= + "font-size: 80%; font-style: italic">Proerosia</span></span><span style="font-size: 80%">seems + to have been held before the ploughing in October but after the + Great Mysteries in September. However, the date of the Great + Mysteries, being determined by the lunar calendar, must have + fluctuated in the solar year; whereas the date of the</span> + <span lang="el" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang= + "el"><span style="font-size: 80%; font-style: italic">Proerosia</span></span><span style="font-size: 80%">, + being determined by observation of Arcturus, must have been + fixed.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But the exact date + at which the Proerosia or Festival before Ploughing took place is + somewhat uncertain, and enquirers are divided in opinion as to + whether it fell before or after the Great Mysteries, which began on + the fifteenth or sixteenth of Boedromion, a month corresponding + roughly to our September. Another name for the festival was + Proarcturia, that is, <span class="tei tei-q">“Before + Arcturus,”</span><a id="noteref_176" name="noteref_176" href= + "#note_176"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">176</span></span></a> which + points to a date either before the middle of September, when Arcturus + is a morning star, or before the end of October, when Arcturus is an + evening star.<a id="noteref_177" name="noteref_177" href= + "#note_177"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">177</span></span></a> In + favour of the earlier date it may be said, first, that the morning + phase of Arcturus was well known and much observed, because it marked + the middle of autumn, whereas little use was made of the evening + phase of Arcturus for the purpose of dating;<a id="noteref_178" name= + "noteref_178" href="#note_178"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">178</span></span></a> and, + second, that in an official Athenian inscription the Festival before + Ploughing (<span lang="el" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang= + "el"><span style="font-style: italic">Proerosia</span></span>) is + mentioned immediately before the Great <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page052">[pg 052]</span><a name="Pg052" id="Pg052" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> Mysteries.<a id="noteref_179" name= + "noteref_179" href="#note_179"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">179</span></span></a> On the + other hand, in favour of the later date, it may be said that as the + autumnal rains in Greece set in about the middle of October, the + latter part of that month would be a more suitable time for a + ceremony at the opening of ploughing than the middle of September, + when the soil is still parched with the summer drought; and, second, + that this date is confirmed by a Greek inscription of the fourth or + third century <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">b.c.</span></span>, found at Eleusis, in + which the Festival before Ploughing is apparently mentioned in the + month of Pyanepsion immediately before the festival of the Pyanepsia, + which was held on the seventh day of that month.<a id="noteref_180" + name="noteref_180" href="#note_180"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">180</span></span></a> It is + difficult to decide between these conflicting arguments, but on the + whole I incline, not without hesitation, to agree with some eminent + modern authorities in placing the Festival before Ploughing in + Pyanepsion (October) after the Mysteries, rather than in Boedromion + (September) before the Mysteries.<a id="noteref_181" name= + "noteref_181" href="#note_181"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">181</span></span></a> + However, we must bear in mind that as the Attic months, like the + Greek months generally, were lunar,<a id="noteref_182" name= + "noteref_182" href="#note_182"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">182</span></span></a> their + position in the solar year necessarily varied from year to year, and + though these variations were periodically corrected by intercalation, + nevertheless the beginning of each Attic month sometimes diverged by + several weeks from the beginning of the corresponding month to which + we equate it.<a id="noteref_183" name="noteref_183" href= + "#note_183"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">183</span></span></a> From + this it follows that the Great Mysteries, which were always dated by + the calendar month, must have annually shifted their place somewhat + in the solar year; whereas the Festival before Ploughing, if it was + indeed dated either by the morning or by the evening phase of + Arcturus, must have occupied a fixed place in the solar year. Hence + it appears to be not impossible that the Great Mysteries, oscillating + to and fro with the inconstant moon, <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page053">[pg 053]</span><a name="Pg053" id="Pg053" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> may sometimes have fallen before and sometimes + after the Festival before Ploughing, which apparently always remained + true to the constant star. At least this possibility, which seems to + have been overlooked by previous enquirers, deserves to be taken into + account. It is a corollary from the shifting dates of the lunar + months that the official Greek calendar, in spite of its appearance + of exactness, really furnished the ancient farmer with little + trustworthy guidance as to the proper seasons for conducting the + various operations of agriculture; and he was well advised in + trusting to various natural timekeepers, such as the rising and + setting of the constellations, the arrival and departure of the + migratory birds, the flowering of certain plants,<a id="noteref_184" + name="noteref_184" href="#note_184"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">184</span></span></a> the + ripening of fruits, and the setting in of the rains, rather than to + the fallacious indications of the public calendar. It is by natural + timekeepers, and not by calendar months, that Hesiod determines the + seasons of the farmer's year in the poem which is the oldest existing + treatise on husbandry.<a id="noteref_185" name="noteref_185" href= + "#note_185"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">185</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Offerings of the first-fruits of the + barley and wheat to Demeter and Persephone at Eleusis. Isocrates + on the offerings of first-fruits at Eleusis.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Just as the + ploughman's prayer to Demeter, before he drove the share through the + clods of the field, was taken up and reverberated, so to say, with a + great volume of sound in the public prayers which the Athenian state + annually offered to the goddess before the ploughing on behalf of the + whole world, so the simple first-fruits of barley, presented to the + rustic Demeter under the dappled shade of rustling poplars and elms + on the threshing-floor in Cos, were repeated year by year on a + grander scale in the first-fruits of the barley and wheat harvest, + which were presented to the Corn Mother and the Corn Maiden at + Eleusis, not merely by every husbandman in Attica, but by all the + allies and subjects of Athens far and near, and even by many free + Greek communities beyond the sea. The reason why year by year these + offerings of grain poured from far countries into the public + granaries at Eleusis, was <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page054">[pg + 054]</span><a name="Pg054" id="Pg054" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> the + widespread belief that the gift of corn had been first bestowed by + Demeter on the Athenians and afterwards disseminated by them among + all mankind through the agency of Triptolemus, who travelled over the + world in his dragon-drawn car teaching all peoples to plough the + earth and to sow the seed.<a id="noteref_186" name="noteref_186" + href="#note_186"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">186</span></span></a> In the + fifth century before our era the legend was celebrated by Sophocles + in a play called <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Triptolemus</span></span>, in which he + represented Demeter instructing the hero to carry the seed of the + fruits which she had bestowed on men to all the coasts of Southern + Italy,<a id="noteref_187" name="noteref_187" href= + "#note_187"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">187</span></span></a> from + which we may infer that the cities of Magna Graecia were among the + number of those that sent the thank-offering of barley and wheat + every year to Athens. Again, in the fourth century before our era + Xenophon represents Callias, the braggart Eleusinian Torchbearer, + addressing the Lacedaemonians in a set speech, in which he declared + that <span class="tei tei-q">“Our ancestor Triptolemus is said to + have bestowed the seed of Demeter's corn on the Peloponese before any + other land. How then,”</span> he asked with pathetic earnestness, + <span class="tei tei-q">“can it be right that you should come to + ravage the corn of the men from whom you received the + seed?”</span><a id="noteref_188" name="noteref_188" href= + "#note_188"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">188</span></span></a> Again, + writing in the fourth century before our era Isocrates relates with a + swell of patriotic pride how, in her search for her lost daughter + Persephone, the goddess Demeter came to Attica and gave to the + ancestors of the Athenians the two greatest of all gifts, the gift of + the corn and the gift of the mysteries, of which the one reclaimed + men from the life of beasts and the other held out hopes to them of a + blissful eternity beyond the grave. The antiquity of the tradition, + the orator proceeds to say, was no reason for rejecting it, but quite + the contrary it furnished a strong argument in its favour, for what + many affirmed and all had heard might be accepted as trustworthy. + <span class="tei tei-q">“And moreover,”</span> he adds, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“we are not driven to rest our case merely on the + venerable age of the tradition; we can appeal to stronger evidence in + its support. For most of the cities send us every year the + first-fruits of the corn as a memorial of that ancient benefit, and + when any of <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page055">[pg + 055]</span><a name="Pg055" id="Pg055" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + them have failed to do so the Pythian priestess has commanded them to + send the due portions of the fruits and to act towards our city + according to ancestral custom. Can anything be supported by stronger + evidence than by the oracle of god, the assent of many Greeks, and + the harmony of ancient legend with the deeds of to-day?”</span><a id= + "noteref_189" name="noteref_189" href="#note_189"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">189</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Athenian decree concerning the + offerings of first-fruits at Eleusis.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This testimony of + Isocrates to the antiquity both of the legend and of the custom might + perhaps have been set aside, or at least disparaged, as the empty + bombast of a wordy rhetorician, if it had not happened by good chance + to be amply confirmed by an official decree of the Athenian people + passed in the century before Isocrates wrote. The decree was found + inscribed on a stone at Eleusis and is dated by scholars in the + latter half of the fifth century before our era, sometime between 446 + and 420 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">b.c.</span></span><a id="noteref_190" + name="noteref_190" href="#note_190"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">190</span></span></a> It + deals with the first-fruits of barley and wheat which were offered to + the Two Goddesses, that is, to Demeter and Persephone, not only by + the Athenians and their allies but by the Greeks in general. It + prescribes the exact amount of barley and wheat which was to be + offered by the Athenians and their allies, and it directs the highest + officials at Eleusis, namely the Hierophant and the Torchbearer, to + exhort the other Greeks at the mysteries to offer likewise of the + first-fruits of the corn. The authority alleged in the decree for + requiring or inviting offerings of first-fruits alike from Athenians + and from foreigners is ancestral custom and the bidding of the + Delphic oracle. The Senate is further enjoined to send commissioners, + so far as it could be done, to all Greek cities whatsoever, + exhorting, though not commanding, them to send the first-fruits in + compliance with ancestral custom and the bidding of the Delphic + oracle, and the state officials are directed to receive the offerings + from such states in the same manner as the offerings of the Athenians + and their allies. Instructions are also given for the building of + three subterranean granaries at Eleusis, where the contributions of + grain from Attica were to be stored. The best of the corn + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page056">[pg 056]</span><a name="Pg056" + id="Pg056" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> was to be offered in sacrifice + as the Eumolpids might direct: oxen were to be bought and sacrificed, + with gilt horns, not only to the two Goddesses but also to the God + (Pluto), Triptolemus, Eubulus, and Athena; and the remainder of the + grain was to be sold and with the produce votive offerings were to be + dedicated with inscriptions setting forth that they had been + dedicated from the offerings of first-fruits, and recording the names + of all the Greeks who sent the offerings to Eleusis. The decree ends + with a prayer that all who comply with these injunctions or + exhortations and render their dues to the city of Athens and to the + Two Goddesses, may enjoy prosperity together with good and abundant + crops. Writing in the second century of our era, under the Roman + empire, the rhetorician Aristides records the custom which the Greeks + observed of sending year by year the first-fruits of the harvest to + Athens in gratitude for the corn, but he speaks of the practice as a + thing of the past.<a id="noteref_191" name="noteref_191" href= + "#note_191"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">191</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Even after foreign states ceased to + send first-fruits of the corn to Eleusis, they continued to + acknowledge the benefit which the Athenians had conferred on + mankind by diffusing among them Demeter's gift of the corn. + Testimony of the Sicilian historian Diodorus. Testimony of Cicero + and Himerius.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">We may suspect + that the tribute of corn ceased to flow from far countries to Athens, + when, with her falling fortunes and decaying empire, her proud + galleys had ceased to carry the terror of the Athenian arms into + distant seas. But if the homage was no longer paid in the substantial + shape of cargoes of grain, it continued down to the latest days of + paganism to be paid in the cheaper form of gratitude for that + inestimable benefit, which the Athenians claimed to have received + from the Corn Goddess and to have liberally communicated to the rest + of mankind. Even the Sicilians, who, inhabiting a fertile + corn-growing island, worshipped Demeter and Persephone above all the + gods and claimed to have been the first to receive the gift of the + corn from the Corn Goddess,<a id="noteref_192" name="noteref_192" + href="#note_192"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">192</span></span></a> + nevertheless freely acknowledged that the Athenians had spread, + though they had not originated, the useful discovery among the + nations. Thus the patriotic Sicilian historian Diodorus, while giving + the precedence to his fellow-countrymen, <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page057">[pg 057]</span><a name="Pg057" id="Pg057" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> strives to be just to the Athenian pretensions + in the following passage.<a id="noteref_193" name="noteref_193" href= + "#note_193"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">193</span></span></a> + <span class="tei tei-q">“Mythologists,”</span> says he, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“relate that Demeter, unable to find her daughter, lit + torches at the craters of Etna<a id="noteref_194" name="noteref_194" + href="#note_194"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">194</span></span></a> and + roamed over many parts of the world. Those people who received her + best she rewarded by giving them in return the fruit of the wheat; + and because the Athenians welcomed her most kindly of all, she + bestowed the fruit of the wheat on them next after the Sicilians. + Wherefore that people honoured the goddess more than any other folk + by magnificent sacrifices and the mysteries at Eleusis, which for + their extreme antiquity and sanctity have become famous among all + men. From the Athenians many others received the boon of the corn and + shared the seed with their neighbours, till they filled the whole + inhabited earth with it. But as the people of Sicily, on account of + the intimate relation in which they stood to Demeter and the Maiden, + were the first to participate in the newly discovered corn, they + appointed sacrifices and popular festivities in honour of each of the + two goddesses, naming the celebrations after them and signifying the + nature of the boons they had received by the dates of the festivals. + For they celebrated the bringing home of the Maiden at the time when + the corn was ripe, performing the sacrifice and holding the festivity + with all the solemnity and zeal that might be reasonably expected of + men who desired to testify their gratitude for so signal a gift + bestowed on them before all the rest of mankind. But the sacrifice to + Demeter they assigned to the time when the sowing of the corn begins; + and for ten days they hold a popular festivity which bears the name + of the goddess, and is remarkable as well for the <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page058">[pg 058]</span><a name="Pg058" id="Pg058" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> magnificence of its pomp as for the + costumes then worn in imitation of the olden time. During these days + it is customary for people to rail at each other in foul language, + because when Demeter was mourning for the rape of the Maiden she + laughed at a ribald jest.”</span><a id="noteref_195" name= + "noteref_195" href="#note_195"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">195</span></span></a> Thus + despite his natural prepossession in favour of his native land, + Diodorus bears testimony both to the special blessing bestowed on the + Athenians by the Corn Goddess, and to the generosity with which they + had imparted the blessing to others, until it gradually spread to the + ends of the earth. Again, Cicero, addressing a Roman audience, + enumerates among the benefits which Athens was believed to have + conferred on the world, the gift of the corn and its origin in Attic + soil; and the cursory manner in which he alludes to it seems to prove + that the tradition was familiar to his hearers.<a id="noteref_196" + name="noteref_196" href="#note_196"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">196</span></span></a> Four + centuries later the rhetorician Himerius speaks of Demeter's gift of + the corn and the mysteries to the Athenians as the source of the + first and greatest service rendered by their city to mankind;<a id= + "noteref_197" name="noteref_197" href="#note_197"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">197</span></span></a> so + ancient, widespread, and persistent was the legend which ascribed the + origin of the corn to the goddess Demeter and associated it with the + institution of the Eleusinian mysteries. No wonder that the Delphic + oracle called Athens <span class="tei tei-q">“the Metropolis of the + Corn.”</span><a id="noteref_198" name="noteref_198" href= + "#note_198"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">198</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The Sicilians seem to have + associated Demeter with the seed-corn and Persephone with the + ripe ears. Difficulty of distinguishing between Demeter and + Persephone as personifications of different aspects of the + corn.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">From the passage + of Diodorus which I have quoted we learn that the Sicilians + celebrated the festival of Demeter at the beginning of sowing, and + the festival of Persephone at harvest. This proves that they + associated, if they did not identify, the Mother Goddess with the + seed-corn and the Daughter Goddess with the ripe ears. Could any + association or identification be more easy and obvious to people who + personified the processes of nature under the form of <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page059">[pg 059]</span><a name="Pg059" id="Pg059" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> anthropomorphic deities? As the seed + brings forth the ripe ear, so the Corn Mother Demeter gave birth to + the Corn Daughter Persephone. It is true that difficulties arise when + we attempt to analyse this seemingly simple conception. How, for + example, are we to divide exactly the two persons of the divinity? At + what precise moment does the seed cease to be the Corn Mother and + begins to burgeon out into the Corn Daughter? And how far can we + identify the material substance of the barley and wheat with the + divine bodies of the Two Goddesses? Questions of this sort probably + gave little concern to the sturdy swains who ploughed, sowed, and + reaped the fat fields of Sicily. We cannot imagine that their night's + rest was disturbed by uneasy meditations on these knotty problems. It + would hardly be strange if the muzzy mind of the Sicilian bumpkin, + who looked with blind devotion to the Two Goddesses for his daily + bread, totally failed to distinguish Demeter from the seed and + Persephone from the ripe sheaves, and if he accepted implicitly the + doctrine of the real presence of the divinities in the corn without + discriminating too curiously between the material and the spiritual + properties of the barley or the wheat. And if he had been closely + questioned by a rigid logician as to the exact distinction to be + drawn between the two persons of the godhead who together represented + for him the annual vicissitudes of the cereals, Hodge might have + scratched his head and confessed that it puzzled him to say where + precisely the one goddess ended and the other began, or why the seed + buried in the ground should figure at one time as the dead daughter + Persephone descending into the nether world, and at another as the + living Mother Demeter about to give birth to next year's crop. + Theological subtleties like these have posed longer heads than are + commonly to be found on bucolic shoulders.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The time of the year when the + first-fruits of the corn were offered to Demeter and Persephone + at Eleusis is not known.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The time of year + at which the first-fruits were offered to Demeter and Persephone at + Eleusis is not explicitly mentioned by ancient authorities, and + accordingly no inference can be drawn from the date of the offering + as to its religious significance. It is true that at the Eleusinian + mysteries the Hierophant and Torchbearer publicly exhorted the Greeks + in general, as distinguished from the Athenians <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page060">[pg 060]</span><a name="Pg060" id="Pg060" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> and their allies, to offer the + first-fruits in accordance with ancestral custom and the bidding of + the Delphic oracle.<a id="noteref_199" name="noteref_199" href= + "#note_199"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">199</span></span></a> But + there is nothing to shew that the offerings were made immediately + after the exhortation. Nor does any ancient authority support the + view of a modern scholar that the offering of the first-fruits, or a + portion of them, took place at the Festival before Ploughing + (<span lang="el" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="el"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Proerosia</span></span>),<a id="noteref_200" + name="noteref_200" href="#note_200"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">200</span></span></a> though + that festival would no doubt be an eminently appropriate occasion for + propitiating with such offerings the goddess on whose bounty the next + year's crop was believed to depend.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The Festival of the Threshing-floor + (</span><span lang="el" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang= + "el"><span style= + "font-size: 80%; font-style: italic">Haloa</span></span><span style="font-size: 80%">) + at Eleusis.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">On the other hand, + we are positively told that the first-fruits were carried to Eleusis + to be used at the Festival of the Threshing-floor (<span lang="el" + class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="el"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Haloa</span></span>).<a id="noteref_201" name= + "noteref_201" href="#note_201"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">201</span></span></a> But the + statement, cursorily reported by writers of no very high authority, + cannot be implicitly relied upon; and even if it could, we should + hardly be justified in inferring from it that all the first-fruits of + the corn were offered to Demeter and Persephone at this <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page061">[pg 061]</span><a name="Pg061" id="Pg061" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> festival. Be that as it may, the Festival + of the Threshing-floor was intimately connected with the worship both + of Demeter and of Dionysus, and accordingly it deserves our + attention. It is said to have been sacred to both these + deities;<a id="noteref_202" name="noteref_202" href= + "#note_202"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">202</span></span></a> and + while the name seems to connect it rather with the Corn Goddess than + with the Wine God, we are yet informed that it was held by the + Athenians on the occasion of the pruning of the vines and the tasting + of the stored-up wine.<a id="noteref_203" name="noteref_203" href= + "#note_203"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">203</span></span></a> The + festival is frequently mentioned in Eleusinian inscriptions, from + some of which we gather that it included sacrifices to the two + goddesses and a so-called Ancestral Contest, as to the nature of + which we have no information.<a id="noteref_204" name="noteref_204" + href="#note_204"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">204</span></span></a> We may + suppose that the festival or some part of it was celebrated on the + Sacred Threshing-floor of Triptolemus at Eleusis;<a id="noteref_205" + name="noteref_205" href="#note_205"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">205</span></span></a> for as + Triptolemus was the hero who is said to have diffused the knowledge + of the corn all over the world, nothing could be more natural than + that the Festival of the Threshing-floor should be held on the sacred + threshing-floor which bore his name. As for Demeter, we have already + seen how intimate was her association with the threshing-floor and + the operation of threshing; according to Homer, she is the yellow + goddess who parts the yellow grain from the white chaff at the + threshing, and in Cos her image with the corn-stalks and the poppies + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page062">[pg 062]</span><a name="Pg062" + id="Pg062" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> in her hands stood on the + threshing-floor.<a id="noteref_206" name="noteref_206" href= + "#note_206"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">206</span></span></a> The + festival lasted one day, and no victims might be sacrificed at + it;<a id="noteref_207" name="noteref_207" href= + "#note_207"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">207</span></span></a> but + special use was made, as we have seen, of the first-fruits of the + corn. With regard to the dating of the festival we are informed that + it fell in the month Poseideon, which corresponds roughly to our + December, and as the date rests on the high authority of the ancient + Athenian antiquary Philochorus,<a id="noteref_208" name="noteref_208" + href="#note_208"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">208</span></span></a> and is, + moreover, indirectly confirmed by inscriptional evidence,<a id= + "noteref_209" name="noteref_209" href="#note_209"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">209</span></span></a> we are + bound to accept it. But it is certainly surprising to find a Festival + of the Threshing-floor held so late in the year, long after the + threshing, which in Greece usually takes place not later than + midsummer, though on high ground in Crete it is sometimes prolonged + till near the end of August.<a id="noteref_210" name="noteref_210" + href="#note_210"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">210</span></span></a> We seem + bound to conclude that the Festival of the Threshing-floor was quite + distinct from the actual threshing of the corn.<a id="noteref_211" + name="noteref_211" href="#note_211"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">211</span></span></a> It is + said to have included certain mystic rites performed by women alone, + who feasted and quaffed wine, while they broke filthy jests on each + other and exhibited cakes baked in the form of the male and female + organs of generation.<a id="noteref_212" name="noteref_212" href= + "#note_212"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">212</span></span></a> If the + latter particulars are correctly reported we may suppose that these + indecencies, like certain obscenities which seem to have formed part + of the Great Mysteries at Eleusis,<a id="noteref_213" name= + "noteref_213" href="#note_213"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">213</span></span></a> were no + mere wanton outbursts of licentious passion, but were deliberately + practised as rites calculated to promote the fertility of the ground + by means of homoeopathic or imitative magic. A like association of + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page063">[pg 063]</span><a name="Pg063" + id="Pg063" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> what we might call indecency + with rites intended to promote the growth of the crops meets us in + the Thesmophoria, a festival of Demeter celebrated by women alone, at + which the character of the goddess as a source of fertility comes out + clearly in the custom of mixing the remains of the sacrificial pigs + with the seed-corn in order to obtain a plentiful crop. We shall + return to this festival later on.<a id="noteref_214" name= + "noteref_214" href="#note_214"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">214</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The Green Festival and the Festival + of the Cornstalks at Eleusis. Epithets of Demeter referring to + the corn.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Other festivals + held at Eleusis in honour of Demeter and Persephone were known as the + Green Festival and the Festival of the Cornstalks.<a id="noteref_215" + name="noteref_215" href="#note_215"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">215</span></span></a> Of the + manner of their celebration we know nothing except that they + comprised sacrifices, which were offered to Demeter and Persephone. + But their names suffice to connect the two festivals with the green + and the standing corn. We have seen that Demeter herself bore the + title of Green, and that sacrifices were offered to her under that + title which plainly aimed at promoting fertility.<a id="noteref_216" + name="noteref_216" href="#note_216"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">216</span></span></a> Among + the many epithets applied to Demeter which mark her relation to the + corn may further be mentioned <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Wheat-lover,”</span><a id="noteref_217" name= + "noteref_217" href="#note_217"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">217</span></span></a> + <span class="tei tei-q">“She of the Corn,”</span><a id="noteref_218" + name="noteref_218" href="#note_218"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">218</span></span></a> + <span class="tei tei-q">“Sheaf-bearer,”</span><a id="noteref_219" + name="noteref_219" href="#note_219"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">219</span></span></a> + <span class="tei tei-q">“She of the Threshing-floor,”</span><a id= + "noteref_220" name="noteref_220" href="#note_220"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">220</span></span></a> + <span class="tei tei-q">“She of the Winnowing-fan,”</span><a id= + "noteref_221" name="noteref_221" href="#note_221"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">221</span></span></a> + <span class="tei tei-q">“Nurse of the Corn-ears,”</span><a id= + "noteref_222" name="noteref_222" href="#note_222"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">222</span></span></a> + <span class="tei tei-q">“Crowned with Ears of Corn,”</span><a id= + "noteref_223" name="noteref_223" href="#note_223"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">223</span></span></a> + <span class="tei tei-q">“She of the Seed,”</span><a id="noteref_224" + name="noteref_224" href="#note_224"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">224</span></span></a> + <span class="tei tei-q">“She of the Green Fruits,”</span><a id= + "noteref_225" name="noteref_225" href="#note_225"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">225</span></span></a> + <span class="tei tei-q">“Heavy with Summer Fruits,”</span><a id= + "noteref_226" name="noteref_226" href="#note_226"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">226</span></span></a> + <span class="tei tei-q">“Fruit-bearer,”</span><a id="noteref_227" + name="noteref_227" href="#note_227"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">227</span></span></a> + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page064">[pg 064]</span><a name="Pg064" + id="Pg064" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> <span class="tei tei-q">“She + of the Great Loaf,”</span> and <span class="tei tei-q">“She of the + Great Barley Loaf.”</span><a id="noteref_228" name="noteref_228" + href="#note_228"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">228</span></span></a> Of + these epithets it may be remarked that though all of them are quite + appropriate to a Corn Goddess, some of them would scarcely be + applicable to an Earth Goddess and therefore they add weight to the + other arguments which turn the scale in favour of the corn as the + fundamental attribute of Demeter.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Belief in ancient and modern times + that the corn-crops depend on possession of an image of + Demeter.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">How deeply + implanted in the mind of the ancient Greeks was this faith in Demeter + as goddess of the corn may be judged by the circumstance that the + faith actually persisted among their Christian descendants at her old + sanctuary of Eleusis down to the beginning of the nineteenth century. + For when the English traveller Dodwell revisited Eleusis, the + inhabitants lamented to him the loss of a colossal image of Demeter, + which was carried off by Clarke in 1802 and presented to the + University of Cambridge, where it still remains. <span class= + "tei tei-q">“In my first journey to Greece,”</span> says Dodwell, + <span class="tei tei-q">“this protecting deity was in its full glory, + situated in the centre of a threshing-floor, amongst the ruins of her + temple. The villagers were impressed with a persuasion that their + rich harvests were the effect of her bounty, and since her removal, + their abundance, as they assured me, has disappeared.”</span><a id= + "noteref_229" name="noteref_229" href="#note_229"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">229</span></span></a> Thus we + see the Corn Goddess Demeter <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page065">[pg 065]</span><a name="Pg065" id="Pg065" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> standing on the threshing-floor of Eleusis and + dispensing corn to her worshippers in the nineteenth century of the + Christian era, precisely as her image stood and dispensed corn to her + worshippers on the threshing-floor of Cos in the days of Theocritus. + And just as the people of Eleusis last century attributed the + diminution of their harvests to the loss of the image of Demeter, so + in antiquity the Sicilians, a corn-growing people devoted to the + worship of the two Corn Goddesses, lamented that the crops of many + towns had perished because the unscrupulous Roman governor Verres had + impiously carried off the image of Demeter from her famous temple at + Henna.<a id="noteref_230" name="noteref_230" href= + "#note_230"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">230</span></span></a> Could + we ask for a clearer proof that Demeter was indeed the goddess of the + corn than this belief, held by the Greeks down to modern times, that + the corn-crops depended on her presence and bounty and perished when + her image was removed?</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Sacred marriage of Zeus and Demeter + at Eleusis. Homer on the love of Zeus for Demeter. Zeus the Sky + God may have been confused with Subterranean Zeus, that is, + Pluto. Demeter may have been confused with Persephone; in art the + types of the two goddesses are often very similar.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In a former part + of this work I followed an eminent French scholar in concluding, from + various indications, that part of the religious drama performed in + the mysteries of Eleusis may have been a marriage between the sky-god + Zeus and the corn-goddess Demeter, represented by the hierophant and + the priestess of the goddess respectively.<a id="noteref_231" name= + "noteref_231" href="#note_231"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">231</span></span></a> The + conclusion is arrived at by combining a number of passages, all more + or less vague and indefinite, of late Christian writers; hence it + must remain to some extent uncertain and cannot at the best lay claim + to more than a fair degree of probability. It may be, as Professor W. + Ridgeway holds, that this dramatic marriage of the god and goddess + was an innovation foisted into the Eleusinian Mysteries in that great + welter of religions which followed the meeting of the East and the + West in the later ages of antiquity.<a id="noteref_232" name= + "noteref_232" href="#note_232"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">232</span></span></a> If a + marriage of Zeus and Demeter did indeed form an important feature of + the Mysteries in the fifth century before our era, it is certainly + remarkable, as Professor Ridgeway has justly pointed out, that no + mention of Zeus <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page066">[pg + 066]</span><a name="Pg066" id="Pg066" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + occurs in the public decree of that century which regulates the + offerings of first-fruits and the sacrifices to be made to the gods + and goddesses of Eleusis.<a id="noteref_233" name="noteref_233" href= + "#note_233"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">233</span></span></a> At the + same time we must bear in mind that, if the evidence for the ritual + marriage of Zeus and Demeter is late and doubtful, the evidence for + the myth is ancient and indubitable. The story was known to Homer, + for in the list of beauties to whom he makes Zeus, in a burst of + candour, confess that he had lost his too susceptible heart, there + occurs the name of <span class="tei tei-q">“the fair-haired Queen + Demeter”</span>;<a id="noteref_234" name="noteref_234" href= + "#note_234"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">234</span></span></a> and in + another passage the poet represents the jealous god smiting with a + thunderbolt the favoured lover with whom the goddess had forgotten + her dignity among the furrows of a fallow field.<a id="noteref_235" + name="noteref_235" href="#note_235"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">235</span></span></a> + Moreover, according to one tradition, Dionysus himself was the + offspring of the intrigue between Zeus and Demeter.<a id= + "noteref_236" name="noteref_236" href="#note_236"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">236</span></span></a> Thus + there is no intrinsic improbability in the view that one or other of + these unedifying incidents in the backstairs chronicle of Olympus + should have formed part of the sacred peep-show in the Eleusinian + Mysteries. But it seems just possible that the marriage to which the + Christian writers allude with malicious joy may after all have been + of a more regular and orthodox pattern. We are positively told that + the rape of Persephone was acted at the Mysteries;<a id="noteref_237" + name="noteref_237" href="#note_237"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">237</span></span></a> may + that scene not have been followed by another representing the + solemnisation of her nuptials with her ravisher and husband Pluto? It + is to be remembered that Pluto was sometimes known as a god of + fertility under the title of Subterranean Zeus. It was to him under + that title as well as to Demeter, that the Greek ploughman prayed at + the beginning of the ploughing;<a id="noteref_238" name="noteref_238" + href="#note_238"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">238</span></span></a> and the + people of Myconus used to sacrifice to Subterranean Zeus and + Subterranean Earth for the prosperity of the crops on the twelfth day + of the month Lenaeon.<a id="noteref_239" name="noteref_239" href= + "#note_239"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">239</span></span></a> Thus it + may be that the Zeus whose marriage was dramatically represented at + the Mysteries was not the sky-god Zeus, but his <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page067">[pg 067]</span><a name="Pg067" id="Pg067" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> brother Zeus of the Underworld, and that + the writers who refer to the ceremony have confused the two brothers. + This view, if it could be established, would dispose of the + difficulty raised by the absence of the name of Zeus in the decree + which prescribes the offerings to be made to the gods of Eleusis; for + although in that decree Pluto is not mentioned under the name of + Subterranean Zeus, he is clearly referred to, as the editors of the + inscription have seen, under the vague title of <span class= + "tei tei-q">“the God,”</span> while his consort Persephone is + similarly referred to under the title of <span class="tei tei-q">“the + Goddess,”</span> and it is ordained that perfect victims shall be + sacrificed to both of them. However, if we thus dispose of one + difficulty, it must be confessed that in doing so we raise another. + For if the bridegroom in the Sacred Marriage at Eleusis was not the + sky-god Zeus, but the earth-god Pluto, we seem driven to suppose + that, contrary to the opinion of the reverend Christian + scandal-mongers, the bride was his lawful wife Persephone and not his + sister and mother-in-law Demeter. In short, on the hypothesis which I + have suggested we are compelled to conclude that the ancient + busybodies who lifted the veil from the mystic marriage were mistaken + as to the person both of the divine bridegroom and of the divine + bride. In regard to the bridegroom I have conjectured that they may + have confused the two brothers, Zeus of the Upper World and Zeus of + the Lower World. In regard to the bride, can any reason be suggested + for confounding the persons of the mother and daughter? On the view + here taken of the nature of Demeter and Persephone nothing could be + easier than to confuse them with each other, for both of them were + mythical embodiments of the corn, the mother Demeter standing for the + old corn of last year and the daughter Persephone standing for the + new corn of this year. In point of fact Greek artists, both of the + archaic and of later periods, frequently represent the Mother and + Daughter side by side in forms which resemble each other so closely + that eminent modern experts have sometimes differed from each other + on the question, which is Demeter and which is Persephone; indeed in + some cases it might be quite impossible to distinguish the two if it + were not for the inscriptions attached to the <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page068">[pg 068]</span><a name="Pg068" id="Pg068" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> figures.<a id="noteref_240" name= + "noteref_240" href="#note_240"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">240</span></span></a> The + ancient sculptors, vase-painters, and engravers must have had some + good reason for portraying the two goddesses in types which are + almost indistinguishable from each other; and what better reason + could they have had than the knowledge that the two persons of the + godhead were one in substance, that they stood merely for two + different aspects of the same simple natural phenomenon, the growth + of the corn? Thus it is easy to understand why Demeter and Persephone + may have been confused in ritual as well as in art, why in particular + the part of the divine bride in a Sacred Marriage may sometimes have + been assigned to the Mother and sometimes to the Daughter. But all + this, I fully admit, is a mere speculation, and I only put it forward + as such. We possess far too little information as to a Sacred + Marriage in the Eleusinian Mysteries to be justified in speaking with + confidence on so obscure a subject.</p><span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page069">[pg 069]</span><a name="Pg069" id="Pg069" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The date of the Eleusinian Mysteries + in September would have been a very appropriate time for a Sacred + Marriage of the Sky God with the Corn Goddess or the Earth + Goddess.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">One thing, + however, which we may say with a fair degree of probability is that, + if such a marriage did take place at Eleusis, no date in the + agricultural year could well have been more appropriate for it than + the date at which the Mysteries actually fell, namely about the + middle of September. The long Greek summer is practically rainless + and in the fervent heat and unbroken drought all nature languishes. + The river-beds are dry, the fields parched. The farmer awaits + impatiently the setting-in of the autumnal rains, which begin in + October and mark the great season for ploughing and sowing. What time + could be fitter for celebrating the union of the Corn Goddess with + her husband the Earth God or perhaps rather with her paramour the Sky + God, who will soon descend in fertilising showers to quicken the seed + in the furrows? Such embraces of the divine powers or their human + representatives might well be deemed, on the principles of + homoeopathic or imitative magic, indispensable to the growth of the + crops. At least similar ideas have been entertained and similar + customs have been practised by many peoples;<a id="noteref_241" name= + "noteref_241" href="#note_241"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">241</span></span></a> and in + the legend of Demeter's love-adventure among the furrows of the + thrice-ploughed fallow<a id="noteref_242" name="noteref_242" href= + "#note_242"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">242</span></span></a> we seem + to catch a glimpse of rude rites of the same sort performed in the + fields at sowing-time by Greek ploughmen for the sake of ensuring the + growth of the seed which they were about to commit to the bosom of + the naked earth. In this connexion a statement of ancient writers as + to the rites of Eleusis receives fresh significance. We are told that + at these rites the worshippers looked up to the sky and cried + <span class="tei tei-q">“Rain!”</span> and then looked down at the + earth and cried <span class="tei tei-q">“Conceive!”</span><a id= + "noteref_243" name="noteref_243" href="#note_243"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">243</span></span></a> Nothing + could be more appropriate at a marriage of the Sky God and the Earth + or Corn Goddess than such invocations to the heaven to pour down rain + and to the earth or the corn to conceive seed under the fertilising + shower; in Greece no time could well be more suitable for + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page070">[pg 070]</span><a name="Pg070" + id="Pg070" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> the utterance of such prayers + than just at the date when the Great Mysteries of Eleusis were + celebrated, at the end of the long drought of summer and before the + first rains of autumn.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The Eleusinian games distinct from + the Eleusinian Mysteries. The Eleusinian games of later origin + than the Eleusinian Mysteries. The Eleusinian games sacred to + Demeter and Persephone. Triptolemus, the mythical hero of the + corn.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Different both + from the Great Mysteries and the offerings of first-fruits at Eleusis + were the games which were celebrated there on a great scale once in + every four years and on a less scale once in every two years.<a id= + "noteref_244" name="noteref_244" href="#note_244"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">244</span></span></a> That + the games were distinct from the Mysteries is proved by their + periods, which were quadriennial and biennial respectively, whereas + the Mysteries were celebrated annually. Moreover, in Greek epigraphy, + our most authentic evidence in such matters, the games and the + Mysteries are clearly distinguished from each other by being + mentioned separately in the same inscription.<a id="noteref_245" + name="noteref_245" href="#note_245"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">245</span></span></a> But + like the Mysteries the games seem to have been very ancient; for the + Parian Chronicler, who wrote in the year 264 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">b.c.</span></span>, assigns the foundation + of the Eleusinian games to the reign of Pandion, the son of Cecrops. + However, he represents them as of later origin than the Eleusinian + Mysteries, which according to him were instituted by Eumolpus in the + reign of Erechtheus, after Demeter had planted corn in Attica and + Triptolemus had sown seed in the Rarian plain at Eleusis.<a id= + "noteref_246" name="noteref_246" href="#note_246"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">246</span></span></a> This + testimony to the superior antiquity of the Mysteries is in harmony + with our most ancient authority on the rites of Eleusis, the author + of the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hymn + to Demeter</span></span>, who describes the origin of the Eleusinian + Mysteries, but makes no reference or allusion to the Eleusinian + Games. However, the great age of the games is again vouched for at a + much <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page071">[pg 071]</span><a name= + "Pg071" id="Pg071" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> later date by the + rhetorician Aristides, who even declares that they were the oldest of + all Greek games.<a id="noteref_247" name="noteref_247" href= + "#note_247"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">247</span></span></a> With + regard to the nature and meaning of the games our information is + extremely scanty, but an old scholiast on Pindar tells us that they + were celebrated in honour of Demeter and Persephone as a + thank-offering at the conclusion of the corn-harvest.<a id= + "noteref_248" name="noteref_248" href="#note_248"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">248</span></span></a> His + testimony is confirmed by that of the rhetorician Aristides, who + mentions the institution of the Eleusinian games in immediate + connexion with the offerings of the first-fruits of the corn, which + many Greek states sent to Athens;<a id="noteref_249" name= + "noteref_249" href="#note_249"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">249</span></span></a> and + from an inscription dated about the close of the third century before + our era we learn that at the Great Eleusinian Games sacrifices were + offered to Demeter and Persephone.<a id="noteref_250" name= + "noteref_250" href="#note_250"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">250</span></span></a> + Further, we gather from an official Athenian inscription of 329 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">b.c.</span></span> that both the Great and + the Lesser Games included athletic and musical contests, a + horse-race, and a competition which bore the name of the Ancestral or + Hereditary Contest, and which accordingly may well have formed the + original kernel of the games.<a id="noteref_251" name="noteref_251" + href="#note_251"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">251</span></span></a> + Unfortunately nothing is known about this Ancestral Contest. We might + be tempted to identify it with the Ancestral Contest included in the + Eleusinian Festival of the Threshing-floor,<a id="noteref_252" name= + "noteref_252" href="#note_252"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">252</span></span></a> which + was probably held <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page072">[pg + 072]</span><a name="Pg072" id="Pg072" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> on + the Sacred Threshing-floor of Triptolemus at Eleusis.<a id= + "noteref_253" name="noteref_253" href="#note_253"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">253</span></span></a> If the + identification could be proved, we should have another confirmation + of the tradition which connects the games with Demeter and the corn; + for according to the prevalent tradition it was to Triptolemus that + Demeter first revealed the secret of the corn, and it was he whom she + sent out as an itinerant missionary to impart the beneficent + discovery of the cereals to all mankind and to teach them to sow the + seed.<a id="noteref_254" name="noteref_254" href= + "#note_254"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">254</span></span></a> On + monuments of art, especially in vase-paintings, he is constantly + represented along with Demeter in this capacity, holding corn-stalks + in his hand and sitting in his car, which is sometimes winged and + sometimes drawn by dragons, and from which he is said to have sowed + the seed down on the whole world as he sped through the air.<a id= + "noteref_255" name="noteref_255" href="#note_255"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">255</span></span></a> At + Eleusis victims bought with the first-fruits of the wheat and barley + were sacrificed to him as well as to Demeter and Persephone.<a id= + "noteref_256" name="noteref_256" href="#note_256"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">256</span></span></a> In + short, if we may judge from the combined testimony of Greek + literature and art, Triptolemus was the corn-hero first and foremost. + Even beyond the limits of the Greek world, all men, we are told, + founded sanctuaries and erected altars in his honour because he had + bestowed on them the gift of the corn.<a id="noteref_257" name= + "noteref_257" href="#note_257"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">257</span></span></a> His + very name has been plausibly explained both in ancient and modern + times as <span class="tei tei-q">“Thrice-ploughed”</span> with + reference to the Greek custom of <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page073">[pg 073]</span><a name="Pg073" id="Pg073" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> ploughing the land thrice a year,<a id= + "noteref_258" name="noteref_258" href="#note_258"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">258</span></span></a> and the + derivation is said to be on philological principles free from + objection.<a id="noteref_259" name="noteref_259" href= + "#note_259"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">259</span></span></a> In fact + it would seem as if Triptolemus, like Demeter and Persephone + themselves, were a purely mythical being, an embodiment of the + conception of the first sower. At all events in the local Eleusinian + legend, according to an eminent scholar, who has paid special + attention to Attic genealogy, <span class="tei tei-q">“Triptolemus + does not, like his comrade Eumolpus or other founders of Eleusinian + priestly families, continue his kind, but without leaving offspring + who might perpetuate his priestly office, he is removed from the + scene of his beneficent activity. As he appeared, so he vanishes + again from the legend, after he has fulfilled his divine + mission.”</span><a id="noteref_260" name="noteref_260" href= + "#note_260"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">260</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Prizes of barley given to victors in + the Eleusinian games.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">However, there is + no sufficient ground for identifying the Ancestral Contest of the + Eleusinian games with the Ancestral Contest of the Threshing-festival + at Eleusis, and accordingly the connexion of the games with the + corn-harvest and with the corn-hero Triptolemus must so far remain + uncertain. But a clear trace of such a connexion may be seen in the + custom of rewarding the victors in the Eleusinian games with measures + of barley; in the official Athenian inscription of 329 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">b.c.</span></span>, which contains the + accounts of the superintendents of Eleusis and the Treasurers of the + Two Goddesses, the amounts of corn handed over by these officers to + the priests and priestesses for the purposes of the games is exactly + specified.<a id="noteref_261" name="noteref_261" href= + "#note_261"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">261</span></span></a> This of + itself is sufficient to prove that the <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page074">[pg 074]</span><a name="Pg074" id="Pg074" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> Eleusinian games were closely connected with + the worship of Demeter and Persephone. The grain thus distributed in + prizes was probably reaped on the Rarian plain near Eleusis, where + according to the legend Triptolemus sowed the first corn.<a id= + "noteref_262" name="noteref_262" href="#note_262"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">262</span></span></a> + Certainly we know that the barley grown on that plain was used in + sacrifices and for the baking of the sacrificial cakes,<a id= + "noteref_263" name="noteref_263" href="#note_263"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">263</span></span></a> from + which we may reasonably infer that the prizes of barley, to which no + doubt a certain sanctity attached in the popular mind, were brought + from the same holy fields. So sacred was the Rarian plain that no + dead body was allowed to defile it. When such a pollution + accidentally took place, it was expiated by the sacrifice of a + pig,<a id="noteref_264" name="noteref_264" href= + "#note_264"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">264</span></span></a> the + usual victim employed in Greek purificatory rites.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The Eleusinian games primarily + concerned with Demeter and Persephone. The Ancestral Contest in + the games may have been originally a contest between the reapers + to finish reaping.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Thus, so far as + the scanty evidence at our disposal permits us to judge, the + Eleusinian games, like the Eleusinian Mysteries, would seem to have + been primarily concerned with Demeter and Persephone as goddesses of + the corn. At least that is expressly affirmed by the old scholiast on + Pindar and it is borne out by the practice of rewarding the victors + with measures of barley. Perhaps the Ancestral Contest, which may + well have formed the original nucleus of the games, was a contest + between the reapers on the sacred Rarian plain to see who should + finish his allotted task before his fellows. For success in such a + contest no prize could be more appropriate than a measure of the + sacred barley which the victorious reaper had just cut on the + barley-field. In the sequel we shall see that similar contests + between reapers have been common on the harvest fields of modern + Europe, and it will appear that such competitions are not purely + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page075">[pg 075]</span><a name="Pg075" + id="Pg075" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> athletic; their aim is not + simply to demonstrate the superior strength, activity, and skill of + the victors; it is to secure for the particular farm the possession + of the blooming young Corn-maiden of the present year, conceived as + the embodiment of the vigorous grain, and to pass on to laggard + neighbours the aged Corn-mother of the past year, conceived as an + embodiment of the effete and outworn energies of the corn.<a id= + "noteref_265" name="noteref_265" href="#note_265"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">265</span></span></a> May it + not have been so at Eleusis? may not the reapers have vied with each + other for possession of the young corn-spirit Persephone and for + avoidance of the old corn-spirit Demeter? may not the prize of + barley, which rewarded the victor in the Ancestral Contest, have been + supposed to house in the ripe ears no less a personage than the + Corn-maiden Persephone herself? And if there is any truth in these + conjectures (for conjectures they are and nothing more), we may + hazard a guess as to the other Ancestral Contest which took place at + the Eleusinian Festival of the Threshing-floor. Perhaps it in like + manner was originally a competition between threshers on the sacred + threshing-floor of Triptolemus to determine who should finish + threshing his allotted quantity of corn before the rest. Such + competitions have also been common, as we shall see presently, on the + threshing-floors of modern Europe, and their motive again has not + been simple emulation between sturdy swains for the reward of + strength and dexterity; it has been a dread of being burdened with + the aged and outworn spirit of the corn conceived as present in the + bundle of corn-stalks which receives the last stroke at + threshing.<a id="noteref_266" name="noteref_266" href= + "#note_266"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">266</span></span></a> We know + that effigies of Demeter with corn and poppies in her hands stood on + Greek threshing-floors.<a id="noteref_267" name="noteref_267" href= + "#note_267"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">267</span></span></a> Perhaps + at the conclusion of the threshing these effigies, as representatives + of the old Corn-spirit, were passed on to neighbours who had not yet + finished threshing the corn. At least the supposition is in harmony + with modern customs observed on the threshing-floor.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Games at harvest festivals in modern + Europe.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It is possible + that the Eleusinian games were no more than a popular merrymaking + celebrated at the close of the harvest. This view of their character + might be supported by modern analogies; for in some parts of Germany + it has been <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page076">[pg + 076]</span><a name="Pg076" id="Pg076" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + customary for the harvesters, when their work is done, to engage in + athletic competitions of various kinds, which have at first sight no + very obvious connexion with the business of harvesting. For example, + at Besbau near Luckau great cakes were baked at the harvest-festival, + and the labourers, both men and women, ran races for them. He or she + who reached them first received not only a cake, but a handkerchief + or the like as a prize. Again, at Bergkirchen, when the harvest was + over, a garland was hung up and the harvesters rode at it on + horseback and tried to bring it down with a stab or a blow as they + galloped past. He who succeeded in bringing it down was proclaimed + King. Again, in the villages near Fürstenwald at harvest the young + men used to fetch a fir-tree from the wood, peel the trunk, and set + it up like a mast in the middle of the village. A handkerchief and + other prizes were fastened to the top of the pole and the men + clambered up for them.<a id="noteref_268" name="noteref_268" href= + "#note_268"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">268</span></span></a> Among + the peasantry of Silesia, we are told, the harvest-home broadened out + into a popular festival, in which athletic sports figured + prominently. Thus, for example, at Järischau, in the Strehlitz + district, a scythe, a rake, a flail, and a hay-fork or pitchfork were + fastened to the top of a smooth pole and awarded as prizes, in order + of merit, to the men who displayed most agility in climbing the pole. + Younger men amused themselves with running in sacks, high jumps, and + so forth. At Prauss, near Nimptsch, the girls ran a race in a field + for aprons as prizes. In the central parts of Silesia a favourite + amusement at harvest was a race between girls for a garland of leaves + or flowers.<a id="noteref_269" name="noteref_269" href= + "#note_269"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">269</span></span></a> Yet it + seems probable that all such sports at harvest were in origin not + mere pastimes, but that they were serious attempts to secure in one + way or another the help and blessing of the corn-spirit. Thus in some + parts of Prussia, at the close of the rye-harvest, a few sheaves used + to be left standing in the field after all the rest of the rye had + been carted home. These sheaves were then made up into the shape of a + man and dressed out in masculine costume, and all the young women + were obliged to run a race, of which the corn-man <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page077">[pg 077]</span><a name="Pg077" id="Pg077" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> was the goal. She who won the race led + off the dancing in the evening.<a id="noteref_270" name="noteref_270" + href="#note_270"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">270</span></span></a> Here + the aim of the foot-race among the young women is clearly to secure + the corn-spirit embodied in the last sheaf left standing on the + field; for, as we shall see later on, the last sheaf is commonly + supposed to harbour the corn-spirit and is treated accordingly like a + man or a woman.<a id="noteref_271" name="noteref_271" href= + "#note_271"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">271</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Date of the Eleusinian games + uncertain.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">If the Ancestral + Contest at the Eleusinian games was, as I have conjectured, a contest + between the reapers on the sacred barley-field, we should have to + suppose that the games were celebrated at barley-harvest, which in + the lowlands of Greece falls in May or even at the end of April. This + theory is in harmony with the evidence of the scholiast on Pindar, + who tells us that the Eleusinian games were celebrated after the + corn-harvest.<a id="noteref_272" name="noteref_272" href= + "#note_272"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">272</span></span></a> No + other ancient authority, so far as I am aware, mentions at what time + of the year these games were held. Modern authorities, arguing from + certain slight and to some extent conjectural data, have variously + assigned them to Metageitnion (August) and to Boedromion (September), + and those who assign them to Boedromion (September) are divided in + opinion as to whether they preceded or followed the Mysteries.<a id= + "noteref_273" name="noteref_273" href="#note_273"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">273</span></span></a> + However, the evidence is far too slender and uncertain to allow of + any conclusions being based on it.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Why should games intended to promote + the annual growth of the crops be held only every second or + fourth year? The Eleusinian Mysteries probably much older than + the Eleusinian games.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But there is a + serious difficulty in the way of connecting the Eleusinian games with + the goddesses of the corn. How is the quadriennial or the biennial + period of the games to be reconciled with the annual growth of the + crops? Year by year the barley and the wheat are sown and reaped; how + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page078">[pg 078]</span><a name="Pg078" + id="Pg078" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> then could the games, held + only every fourth or every second year, have been regarded as + thank-offerings for the annual harvest? On this view of their nature, + which is the one taken by the old scholiast on Pindar, though the + harvest was received at the hands of the Corn Goddess punctually + every year, men thanked her for her bounty only every second year or + even only every fourth year. What were her feelings likely to be in + the blank years when she got no thanks and no games? She might + naturally resent such negligence and ingratitude and punish them by + forbidding the seed to sprout, just as she did at Eleusis when she + mourned the loss of her daughter. In short, men could hardly expect + to reap crops in years in which they offered nothing to the Corn + Goddess. That would indeed appear to be the view generally taken by + the ancient Greeks; for we have seen that year by year they presented + the first-fruits of the barley and the wheat to Demeter, not merely + in the solemn state ritual of Eleusis, but also in rustic festivals + held by farmers on their threshing-floors. The pious Greek husbandman + would no doubt have been shocked and horrified at a proposal to pay + the Corn Goddess her dues only every second or fourth year. + <span class="tei tei-q">“No offerings, no crops,”</span> he would say + to himself, and would anticipate nothing but dearth and famine in any + year when he failed to satisfy the just and lawful demands of the + divinity on whose good pleasure he believed the growth of the corn to + be directly dependent. Accordingly we may regard it as highly + probable that from the very beginning of settled and regular + agriculture in Greece men annually propitiated the deities of the + corn with a ritual of some sort, and rendered them their dues in the + shape of offerings of the ripe barley and wheat. Now we know that the + Mysteries of Eleusis were celebrated every year, and accordingly, if + I am right in interpreting them as essentially a dramatic + representation of the annual vicissitudes of the corn performed for + the purpose of quickening the seed, it becomes probable that in some + form or another they were annually held at Eleusis long before the + practice arose of celebrating games there every fourth or every + second year. In short, the Eleusinian mysteries were in all + probability <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page079">[pg + 079]</span><a name="Pg079" id="Pg079" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> far + older than the Eleusinian games. How old they were we cannot even + guess. But when we consider that the cultivation of barley and wheat, + the two cereals specially associated with Demeter, appears to have + been practised in prehistoric Europe from the Stone Age + onwards,<a id="noteref_274" name="noteref_274" href= + "#note_274"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">274</span></span></a> we + shall be disposed to admit that the annual performance of religious + or magical rites at Eleusis for the purpose of ensuring good crops, + whether by propitiating the Corn Goddess with offerings of + first-fruits or by dramatically representing the sowing and the + growth of the corn in mythical form, probably dates from an extremely + remote antiquity.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Quadriennial period of many of the + great games of Greece. Old octennial period of the Pythian and + probably of the Olympian games. The octennial cycle was + instituted by the Greeks at a very early era for the purpose of + harmonising solar and lunar time.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But in order to + clear our ideas on this subject it is desirable to ascertain, if + possible, the reason for holding the Eleusinian games at intervals of + two or four years. The reason for holding a harvest festival and + thanksgiving every year is obvious enough; but why hold games only + every second or every fourth year? The reason for such limitations is + by no means obvious on the face of them, especially if the growth of + the crops is deemed dependent on the celebration. In order to find an + answer to this question it may be well at the outset to confine our + attention to the Great Eleusinian Games, which were celebrated only + every fourth year. That these were the principal games appears not + only from their name, but from the testimony of Aristotle, or at + least of the author of <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">The Constitution of Athens</span></span>, who + notices only the quadriennial or, as in accordance with Greek idiom + he calls it, the penteteric celebration of the games.<a id= + "noteref_275" name="noteref_275" href="#note_275"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">275</span></span></a> Now the + custom of holding games at intervals of <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page080">[pg 080]</span><a name="Pg080" id="Pg080" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> four years was very common in Greece; to take + only a few conspicuous examples the Olympic games at Olympia, the + Pythian games at Delphi, the Panathenaic games at Athens, and the + Eleutherian games at Plataea<a id="noteref_276" name="noteref_276" + href="#note_276"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">276</span></span></a> were + all celebrated at quadriennial or, as the Greeks called them, + penteteric periods; and at a later time when Augustus instituted, or + rather renewed on a more splendid scale, the games at Actium to + commemorate his great victory, he followed a well-established Greek + precedent by ordaining that they should be quadriennial.<a id= + "noteref_277" name="noteref_277" href="#note_277"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">277</span></span></a> Still + later the emperor Hadrian instituted quadriennial games at Mantinea + in honour of his dead favourite Antinous.<a id="noteref_278" name= + "noteref_278" href="#note_278"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">278</span></span></a> But in + regard to the two greatest of all the Greek games, the Olympian and + the Pythian, I have shewn reasons for thinking that they were + originally celebrated at intervals of eight instead of four years; + certainly this is attested for the Pythian games,<a id="noteref_279" + name="noteref_279" href="#note_279"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">279</span></span></a> and the + mode of calculating the Olympiads by alternate periods of fifty and + forty-nine lunar months,<a id="noteref_280" name="noteref_280" href= + "#note_280"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">280</span></span></a> which + added together make up eight solar years, seems to prove that the + Olympic cycle of four years was really based on a cycle of eight + years, from which it is natural to infer that in the beginning the + Olympic, like the Pythian, games may have been octennial instead of + quadriennial.<a id="noteref_281" name="noteref_281" href= + "#note_281"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">281</span></span></a> Now we + know from the testimony of the ancients themselves that the Greeks + instituted the eight-years' cycle for the purpose of harmonising + solar and lunar time.<a id="noteref_282" name="noteref_282" href= + "#note_282"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">282</span></span></a> They + regulated their calendar primarily by observation of the moon rather + than of the sun; their months were lunar, and their ordinary year + consisted of twelve lunar <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page081">[pg + 081]</span><a name="Pg081" id="Pg081" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + months. But the solar year of three hundred and sixty-five and a + quarter days exceeds the lunar year of twelve lunar months or three + hundred and fifty-four days by eleven and a quarter days, so that in + eight solar years the excess amounts to ninety days or roughly three + lunar months. Accordingly the Greeks equated eight solar years to + eight lunar years of twelve months each by intercalating three lunar + months of thirty days each in the octennial cycle; they intercalated + one lunar month in the third year of the cycle, a second lunar month + in the fifth year, and a third lunar month in the eighth year.<a id= + "noteref_283" name="noteref_283" href="#note_283"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">283</span></span></a> In this + way they, so to say, made the sun and moon keep time together by + reckoning ninety-nine lunar months as equivalent to eight solar + years; so that if, for example, the full moon coincided with the + summer solstice in one year, it coincided with it again after the + revolution of the eight years' cycle, but not before. The equation + was indeed not quite exact, and in order to render it so the Greeks + afterwards found themselves obliged, first, to intercalate three days + every sixteen years, and, next, to omit one intercalary month in + every period of one hundred and sixty years.<a id="noteref_284" name= + "noteref_284" href="#note_284"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">284</span></span></a> But + these corrections were doubtless refinements of a later age; they may + have been due to the astronomer Eudoxus of Cnidus, or to Cleostratus + of Tenedos, who were variously, but incorrectly, supposed to have + instituted the octennial cycle.<a id="noteref_285" name="noteref_285" + href="#note_285"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">285</span></span></a> There + are strong grounds for holding that in its simplest form the + octennial cycle of ninety-nine lunar months dates from an extremely + remote antiquity in Greece; that it was in fact, as a well-informed + Greek writer tell us,<a id="noteref_286" name="noteref_286" href= + "#note_286"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">286</span></span></a> the + first systematic attempt to bring solar and the lunar time into + harmony. Indeed, if the <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page082">[pg + 082]</span><a name="Pg082" id="Pg082" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + Olympiads were calculated, as they appear to have been, on the eight + years' cycle, this of itself suffices to place the origin of the + cycle not later than 776 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">b.c.</span></span>, the year with which + the reckoning by Olympiads begins. And when we bear in mind the very + remote period from which, judged by the wonderful remains of Mycenae, + Tiryns, Cnossus and other cities, civilisation in Greek lands appears + to date, it seems reasonable to suppose that the octennial cycle, + based as it was on very simple observations, for which nothing but + good eyes and almost no astronomical knowledge was necessary,<a id= + "noteref_287" name="noteref_287" href="#note_287"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">287</span></span></a> may + have been handed down among the inhabitants of these countries from + ages that preceded by many centuries, possibly by thousands of years, + the great period of Greek literature and art. The supposition is + confirmed by the traces which the octennial cycle has left of itself + in certain ancient Greek customs and superstitions, particularly by + the evidence which points to the conclusion that at two of the oldest + seats of monarchy in Greece, namely Cnossus and Sparta, the king's + tenure of office was formerly limited to eight years.<a id= + "noteref_288" name="noteref_288" href="#note_288"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">288</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The motive for instituting the eight + years' cycle was religious, not practical or scientific.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">We are informed, + and may readily believe, that the motive which led the Greeks to + adopt the eight years' cycle was religious rather than practical or + scientific: their aim was not so much to ensure the punctual despatch + of business or to solve an abstract problem in astronomy, as to + ascertain the exact days on which they ought to sacrifice to the + gods. For the Greeks regularly employed lunar months in their + reckonings,<a id="noteref_289" name="noteref_289" href= + "#note_289"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">289</span></span></a> and + accordingly if they had dated their religious festivals simply by the + number of the month and the day of <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page083">[pg 083]</span><a name="Pg083" id="Pg083" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> the month, the excess of eleven and a quarter + days of the solar over the lunar year would have had the effect of + causing the festivals gradually to revolve throughout the whole + circle of the seasons, so that in time ceremonies which properly + belonged to winter would come to be held in summer, and on the + contrary ceremonies which were only appropriate to summer would come + to be held in winter. To avoid this anomaly, and to ensure that + festivals dated by lunar months should fall at fixed or nearly fixed + points in the solar year, the Greeks adopted the octennial cycle by + the simple expedient of intercalating three lunar months in every + period of eight years. In doing so they acted, as one of their + writers justly pointed out, on a principle precisely the reverse of + that followed by the ancient Egyptians, who deliberately regulated + their religious festivals by a purely lunar calendar for the purpose + of allowing them gradually to revolve throughout the whole circle of + the seasons.<a id="noteref_290" name="noteref_290" href= + "#note_290"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">290</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">In early times the regulation of the + calendar is largely an affair of religion.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Thus at an early + stage of culture the regulation of the calendar is largely an affair + of religion: it is a means of maintaining the established relations + between gods and men on a satisfactory footing; and in public opinion + the great evil of a disordered calendar is not so much that it + disturbs and disarranges the ordinary course of business and the + various transactions of civil life, as that it endangers the welfare + or even the existence both of individuals and of the community by + interrupting their normal intercourse with those divine powers on + whose favour men believe themselves to be absolutely dependent. Hence + in states which take this view of the deep religious import of the + calendar its superintendence is naturally entrusted to priests rather + than to astronomers, because the science of astronomy is regarded + merely as ancillary to the deeper mysteries of theology. For example, + at Rome the method of determining the months and regulating the + festivals was a secret which the pontiffs for ages jealously guarded + from the profane vulgar; and in consequence of their ignorance and + incapacity the calendar fell into confusion and the festivals were + celebrated out of their natural seasons, until the greatest of all + the Roman pontiffs, Julius Caesar, remedied the confusion and + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page084">[pg 084]</span><a name="Pg084" + id="Pg084" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> placed the calendar of the + civilised world on the firm foundation on which, with little change, + it stands to this day.<a id="noteref_291" name="noteref_291" href= + "#note_291"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">291</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The quadriennial period of games and + festivals in Greece was probably arrived at by bisecting an older + octennial period.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">On the whole, + then, it appears probable that the octennial cycle, based on + considerations of religion and on elementary observations of the two + great luminaries, dated from a very remote period among the ancient + Greeks; if they did not bring it with them when they migrated + southwards from the oakwoods and beechwoods of Central Europe, they + may well have taken it over from their civilised predecessors of + different blood and different language whom they found leading a + settled agricultural life on the lands about the Aegean Sea. Now we + have seen reasons to hold that the two most famous of the great Greek + games, the Pythian and the Olympian, were both based on the ancient + cycle of eight years, and that the quadriennial period at which they + were regularly celebrated in historical times was arrived at by a + subdivision of the older octennial cycle. It is hardly rash, + therefore, to conjecture that the quadriennial period in general, + regarded as the normal period for the celebration of great games and + festivals, was originally founded on elementary religious and + astronomical considerations of the same kind, that is, on a somewhat + crude attempt to harmonise the discrepancies of solar and lunar time + and thereby to ensure the continued favour of the gods. It is, + indeed, certain or probable that some of these quadriennial festivals + were celebrated in honour of the dead;<a id="noteref_292" name= + "noteref_292" href="#note_292"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">292</span></span></a> but + there seems to be nothing in the beliefs or customs of the ancient + Greeks concerning the dead which would suggest a quadriennial period + as an appropriate one for propitiating the ghosts of the departed. At + first sight it is different with the octennial period; for according + to Pindar, the souls of the dead who had been purged of their guilt + by an abode of eight years in the nether world were born again on + earth in the ninth year as glorious kings, athletes, and sages.<a id= + "noteref_293" name="noteref_293" href="#note_293"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">293</span></span></a> Now if + this belief in the reincarnation of the dead after eight years were + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page085">[pg 085]</span><a name="Pg085" + id="Pg085" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> primitive, it might certainly + furnish an excellent reason for honouring the ghosts of great men at + their graves every eight years in order to facilitate their rebirth + into the world. Yet the period of eight years thus rigidly applied to + the life of disembodied spirits appears too arbitrary and + conventional to be really primitive, and we may suspect that in this + application it was nothing but an inference drawn from the old + octennial cycle, which had been instituted for the purpose of + reconciling solar and lunar time. If that was so, it will follow that + the quadriennial period of funeral games was, like the similar period + of other religious festivals, obtained through the bisection of the + octennial cycle, and hence that it was ultimately derived from + astronomical considerations rather than from any beliefs touching a + quadriennial revolution in the state of the dead. Yet in historical + times it may well have happened that these considerations were + forgotten, and that games and festivals were instituted at + quadriennial intervals, for example at Plataea<a id="noteref_294" + name="noteref_294" href="#note_294"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">294</span></span></a> in + honour of the slain, at Actium to commemorate the great victory, and + at Mantinea in honour of Antinous,<a id="noteref_295" name= + "noteref_295" href="#note_295"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">295</span></span></a> without + any conscious reference to the sun and moon, and merely because that + period had from time immemorial been regarded as the proper and + normal one for the celebration of certain solemn religious rites.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The reasons for bisecting the old + octennial period into two quadriennial periods may have been + partly religious, partly political.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">If we enquire why + the Greeks so often bisected the old octennial period into two + quadriennial periods for purposes of religion, the answer can only be + conjectural, for no positive information appears to be given us on + the subject by ancient writers. Perhaps they thought that eight years + was too long a time to elapse between the solemn services, and that + it was desirable to propitiate the deities at shorter intervals. But + it is possible that political as well as religious motives may have + operated to produce the change. We have seen reason to think that at + two of the oldest seats of monarchy in Greece, namely Cnossus and + Sparta, kings formerly held office for periods of eight years only, + after which their sovereignty either terminated or had to be formally + renewed. Now with the gradual growth of that democratic <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page086">[pg 086]</span><a name="Pg086" id="Pg086" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> sentiment, which ultimately dominated + Greek political life, men would become more and more jealous of the + kingly power and would seek to restrict it within narrower limits, + and one of the most obvious means of doing so was to shorten the + king's tenure of office. We know that this was done at Athens, where + the dynasty of the Medontids was reduced from the rank of monarchs + for life to that of magistrates holding office for ten years + only.<a id="noteref_296" name="noteref_296" href= + "#note_296"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">296</span></span></a> It is + possible that elsewhere the king's reign was cut down from eight + years to four years; and if I am right in my explanation of the + origin of the Olympic games this political revolution actually took + place at Olympia, where the victors in the chariot-race would seem at + first to have personated the Sun-god and perhaps held office in the + capacity of divine kings during the intervals between successive + celebrations of the games.<a id="noteref_297" name="noteref_297" + href="#note_297"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">297</span></span></a> If at + Olympia and elsewhere the games were of old primarily contests in + which the king had personally to take part for the purpose of + attesting his bodily vigour and therefore his capacity for office, + the repetition of the test at intervals of four instead of eight + years might be regarded as furnishing a better guarantee of the + maintenance of the king's efficiency and thereby of the general + welfare, which in primitive society is often supposed to be + sympathetically bound up with the health and strength of the + king.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The biennial period of some Greek + games may have been obtained by bisecting the quadriennial + period.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But while many of + the great Greek games were celebrated at intervals of four years, + others, such as the Nemean and the Isthmian, were celebrated at + intervals of two years only; and just as the quadriennial period + seems to have been arrived at through a bisection of the octennial + period, so we may surmise that the biennial period was produced by a + bisection of the quadriennial period. This was the view which the + admirable modern chronologer L. Ideler took of the origin of the + quadriennial and biennial festivals respectively,<a id="noteref_298" + name="noteref_298" href="#note_298"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">298</span></span></a> and it + appears far more probable than the contrary opinion of the ancient + chronologer Censorinus, that the quadriennial period was reached by + doubling the biennial, and the octennial period by doubling + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page087">[pg 087]</span><a name="Pg087" + id="Pg087" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> the quadriennial.<a id= + "noteref_299" name="noteref_299" href="#note_299"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">299</span></span></a> The + theory of Censorinus was that the Greeks started with a biennial + cycle of twelve and thirteen lunar months alternately in successive + years for the purpose of harmonising solar and lunar time.<a id= + "noteref_300" name="noteref_300" href="#note_300"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">300</span></span></a> But as + the cycle so produced exceeds the true solar time by seven and a half + days,<a id="noteref_301" name="noteref_301" href= + "#note_301"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">301</span></span></a> the + discrepancy which it leaves between the two great celestial clocks, + the sun and moon, was too glaring to escape the observation even of + simple farmers, who would soon have been painfully sensible that the + times were out of joint, if they had attempted to regulate the + various operations of the agricultural year by reference to so very + inaccurate an almanac. It is unlikely, therefore, that the Greeks + ever made much use of a biennial cycle of this sort.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Application of the foregoing + conclusion to the Eleusinian games.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Now to apply these + conclusions to the Eleusinian games, which furnished the + starting-point for the preceding discussion. Whatever the origin and + meaning of these games may have been, we may surmise that the + quadriennial and biennial periods at which they were held were + originally derived from astronomical considerations, and that they + had nothing to do directly either with the agricultural cycle, which + is annual, nor with the worship of the dead, which can scarcely be + said to have any cycle at all, unless indeed it be an annual one. In + other words, neither the needs of husbandry nor the superstitions + relating to ghosts furnish any natural explanation of the + quadriennial and biennial periods of the Eleusinian games, and to + discover such an explanation we are obliged to fall back on astronomy + or, to be more exact, on that blend of astronomy with religion which + appears to be mainly responsible for such Greek festivals as exceed a + year in their period. To admit this is not to decide the question + whether the Eleusinian games were agricultural or funereal in + character; but it is implicitly to acknowledge that the games were of + later origin than the annual ceremonies, including the Great + Mysteries, which were designed to propitiate the deities of the corn + for the very simple and practical purpose of ensuring good crops + within the year. For it cannot but be that men <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page088">[pg 088]</span><a name="Pg088" id="Pg088" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> observed and laid their account with the + annual changes of the seasons, especially as manifested by the growth + and maturity of the crops, long before they attempted to reconcile + the discrepancies of solar and lunar time by a series of observations + extending over several years.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Varro on the rites of + Eleusis.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">On the whole, + then, if, ignoring theories, we adhere to the evidence of the + ancients themselves in regard to the rites of Eleusis, including + under that general term the Great Mysteries, the games, the Festival + before Ploughing (<span lang="el" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang= + "el"><span style="font-style: italic">proerosia</span></span>), the + Festival of the Threshing-floor, the Green Festival, the Festival of + the Cornstalks, and the offerings of first-fruits, we shall probably + incline to agree with the most learned of ancient antiquaries, the + Roman Varro, who, to quote Augustine's report of his opinion, + <span class="tei tei-q">“interpreted the whole of the Eleusinian + mysteries as relating to the corn which Ceres (Demeter) had + discovered, and to Proserpine (Persephone), whom Pluto had carried + off from her. And Proserpine herself, he said, signifies the + fecundity of the seeds, the failure of which at a certain time had + caused the earth to mourn for barrenness, and therefore had given + rise to the opinion that the daughter of Ceres, that is, fecundity + itself, had been ravished by Pluto and detained in the nether world; + and when the dearth had been publicly mourned and fecundity had + returned once more, there was gladness at the return of Proserpine + and solemn rites were instituted accordingly. After that he + says,”</span> continues Augustine, reporting Varro, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“that many things were taught in her mysteries which had + no reference but to the discovery of the corn.”</span><a id= + "noteref_302" name="noteref_302" href="#note_302"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">302</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The close resemblance between the + artistic types of Demeter and Persephone militates against the + theory that the two goddesses personified two things so different + as the earth and the corn.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Thus far I have + for the most part assumed an identity of nature between Demeter and + Persephone, the divine mother and daughter personifying the corn in + its double aspect of the seed-corn of last year and the ripe ears of + this, and I pointed out that this view of the substantial unity of + mother and daughter is borne out by their portraits <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page089">[pg 089]</span><a name="Pg089" id="Pg089" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> in Greek art, which are often so alike as + to be indistinguishable. Such a close resemblance between the + artistic types of Demeter and Persephone militates decidedly against + the view that the two goddesses are mythical embodiments of two + things so different and so easily distinguishable from each other as + the earth and the vegetation which springs from it. Had Greek artists + accepted that view of Demeter and Persephone, they could surely have + devised types of them which would have brought out the deep + distinction between the goddesses. That they were capable of doing so + is proved by the simple fact that they regularly represented the + Earth Goddess by a type which differed widely both from that of + Demeter and from that of Persephone.<a id="noteref_303" name= + "noteref_303" href="#note_303"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">303</span></span></a> Not + only so, but they sometimes set the two types of the Earth Goddess + and the Corn Goddess (Demeter) side by side as if on purpose to + demonstrate their difference. Thus at Patrae there was a sanctuary of + Demeter, in which she and Persephone were portrayed standing, while + Earth was represented by a seated image;<a id="noteref_304" name= + "noteref_304" href="#note_304"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">304</span></span></a> and on + a vase-painting the Earth Goddess is seen appropriately emerging from + the ground with a horn of plenty and an infant in her uplifted arms, + while Demeter and Persephone, scarcely distinguishable from each + other, stand at full height behind her, looking down at her + half-buried figure, and Triptolemus in his wheeled car sits directly + above her.<a id="noteref_305" name="noteref_305" href= + "#note_305"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">305</span></span></a> In this + instructive picture, accordingly, we see grouped together the + principal personages in the myth of the corn: the Earth Goddess, the + two Goddesses of the old and the new corn, and the hero who is said + to have been sent forth by the Corn Goddess to sow the seed broadcast + over the earth. Such representations seem to prove that the artists + clearly distinguished Demeter from the Earth Goddess.<a id= + "noteref_306" name="noteref_306" href="#note_306"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">306</span></span></a> And if + Demeter did <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page090">[pg + 090]</span><a name="Pg090" id="Pg090" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> not + personify the earth, can there be any reasonable doubt that, like her + daughter, she personified the corn which was so commonly called by + her name from the time of Homer downwards? The essential identity of + mother and daughter is suggested, not only by the close resemblance + of their artistic types, but also by the official title of + <span class="tei tei-q">“the Two Goddesses”</span> which was + regularly applied to them in the great sanctuary at Eleusis without + any specification of their individual attributes and titles,<a id= + "noteref_307" name="noteref_307" href="#note_307"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">307</span></span></a> as if + their separate individualities had almost merged in a single divine + substance.<a id="noteref_308" name="noteref_308" href= + "#note_308"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">308</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">As goddesses of the corn Demeter and + Persephone came to be associated with the ideas of death and + resurrection.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Surveying the + evidence as a whole, we may say that from the myth of Demeter and + Persephone, from their ritual, from their representations in art, + from the titles which they bore, from the offerings of first-fruits + which were presented to them, and from the names applied to the + cereals, we are fairly entitled to conclude that in the mind of the + ordinary Greek the two goddesses were essentially personifications of + the corn, and that in this germ the whole efflorescence of their + religion finds implicitly its explanation. But to maintain this is + not to deny that in the long course of religious evolution high moral + and spiritual conceptions were grafted on this simple original stock + and blossomed out into fairer flowers than the bloom of the barley + and the wheat. Above all, the thought of the seed buried in the earth + in order to spring up to new and higher life readily suggested a + comparison with human destiny, and strengthened the hope that for man + too the grave may be but the beginning of a better and happier + existence in some brighter world unknown. This simple and natural + reflection seems perfectly sufficient to explain the association of + the Corn Goddess at Eleusis with the mystery of death and the hope of + a blissful immortality. For that the ancients regarded initiation in + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page091">[pg 091]</span><a name="Pg091" + id="Pg091" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> the Eleusinian mysteries as a + key to unlock the gates of Paradise appears to be proved by the + allusions which well-informed writers among them drop to the + happiness in store for the initiated hereafter.<a id="noteref_309" + name="noteref_309" href="#note_309"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">309</span></span></a> No + doubt it is easy for us to discern the flimsiness of the logical + foundation on which such high hopes were built.<a id="noteref_310" + name="noteref_310" href="#note_310"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">310</span></span></a> But + drowning men clutch at straws, and we need not wonder that the + Greeks, like ourselves, with death before them and a great love of + life in their hearts, should not have stopped to weigh with too nice + a hand the arguments that told for and against the prospect of human + immortality. The reasoning that satisfied Saint Paul<a id= + "noteref_311" name="noteref_311" href="#note_311"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">311</span></span></a> and has + brought comfort to untold thousands of sorrowing Christians, standing + by the deathbed or the open grave of their loved ones, was good + enough to pass muster with ancient pagans, when they too bowed their + heads under the burden of grief, and, with the taper of life burning + low in the socket, looked forward into the darkness of the unknown. + Therefore we do no indignity to the myth of Demeter and + Persephone—one of the few myths in which the sunshine and clarity of + the Greek genius are crossed by the shadow and mystery of death—when + we trace its origin to some of the most familiar, yet eternally + affecting aspects of nature, to the melancholy gloom and decay of + autumn and to the freshness, the brightness, and the verdure of + spring.</p> + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page092">[pg 092]</span><a name= + "Pg092" id="Pg092" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + <hr class="page" /> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> + <a name="toc7" id="toc7"></a> <a name="pdf8" id="pdf8"></a> + + <h1 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"> + <span style="font-size: 173%">Chapter III. Magical Significance of + Games in Primitive Agriculture.</span></h1> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Games played as magical ceremonies + to promote the growth of the crops. The Kayans of central Borneo, + a primitive agricultural people. The sacred rice-fields + (</span><span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-size: 80%; font-style: italic">luma + lali</span></span><span style="font-size: 80%">) on which all + religious ceremonies requisite for agriculture are + performed.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In the preceding + chapter we saw that among the rites of Eleusis were comprised certain + athletic sports, such as foot-races, horse-races, leaping, wrestling, + and boxing, the victors in which were rewarded with measures of + barley distributed among them by the priests.<a id="noteref_312" + name="noteref_312" href="#note_312"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">312</span></span></a> These + sports the ancients themselves associated with the worship of Demeter + and Persephone, the goddesses of the corn, and strange as such an + association may seem to us, it is not without its analogy among the + harvest customs of modern European peasantry.<a id="noteref_313" + name="noteref_313" href="#note_313"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">313</span></span></a> But to + discover clear cases of games practised for the express purpose of + promoting the growth of the crops, we must turn to more primitive + agricultural communities than the Athenians of classical antiquity or + the peoples of modern Europe. Such communities may be found at the + present day among the savage tribes of Borneo and New Guinea, who + subsist mainly by tilling the ground. Among them we take the Kayans + or Bahaus of central Borneo as typical. They are essentially an + agricultural people, and devote themselves mainly to the cultivation + of rice, which furnishes their staple food; all other products of the + ground are of subordinate importance. Hence agriculture, we are told, + dominates the whole life of these tribes: their year is the year of + the cultivation of the rice, and they divide it into various periods + which are determined by the conditions necessary for the tilling of + the fields and the manipulation <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page093">[pg 093]</span><a name="Pg093" id="Pg093" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> of the rice. <span class="tei tei-q">“In tribes + whose thoughts are so much engrossed by agriculture it is no wonder + that they associate with it their ideas of the powers which rule them + for good or evil. The spirit-world stands in close connexion with the + agriculture of the Bahaus; without the consent of the spirits no work + in the fields may be undertaken. Moreover, all the great popular + festivals coincide with the different periods of the cultivation of + the rice. As the people are in an unusual state of affluence after + harvest, all family festivals which require a large outlay are for + practical reasons deferred till the New Year festival at the end of + harvest. The two mighty spirits Amei Awi and his wife Buring Une, + who, according to the belief of the Kayans, live in a world under + ground, dominate the whole of the tillage and determine the issue of + the harvest in great measure by the behaviour of the owner of the + land, not so much by his moral conduct, as by the offerings he has + made to the spirits and the attention he has paid to their warnings. + An important part in agriculture falls to the chief: at the festivals + he has, in the name of the whole tribe, to see to it that the + prescribed conjurations are carried out by the priestesses. All + religious ceremonies required for the cultivation of the ground take + place in a small rice-field specially set apart for that purpose, + called <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">luma lali</span></span>: here the chief's family + ushers in every fresh operation in the cultivation of the rice, such + as sowing, hoeing, and reaping: the solemn actions there performed + have a symbolical significance.”</span><a id="noteref_314" name= + "noteref_314" href="#note_314"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">314</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Ceremonies observed at the sowing + festival. Taboos observed at the sowing festival.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Not only the + chief's family among the Kayans has such a consecrated field; every + family possesses one of its own. These little fields are never + cultivated for the sake of their produce: they serve only as the + scene of religious ceremonies and of those symbolical operations of + agriculture which are afterwards performed in earnest on the real + rice-fields.<a id="noteref_315" name="noteref_315" href= + "#note_315"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">315</span></span></a> For + example, at the festival before sowing a priestess sows some rice on + the consecrated field of the chief's family and then calls on a + number of young men and girls to complete the work; the young men + then dig holes in the ground with digging-sticks, and the girls come + behind them and <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page094">[pg + 094]</span><a name="Pg094" id="Pg094" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + plant the rice-seed in the holes. Afterwards the priestesses lay + offerings of food, wrapt in banana-leaves, here and there on the holy + field, while they croon prayers to the spirits in soft tones, which + are half drowned in the clashing music of the gongs. On another day + women gather all kinds of edible leaves in their gardens and fields, + boil them in water, and then sprinkle the water on the consecrated + rice-field. But on that and other days of the festival the people + attend also to their own wants, banqueting on a favourite species of + rice and other dainties. The ceremonies connected with sowing last + several weeks, and during this time certain taboos have to be + observed by the people. Thus on the first day of the festival the + whole population, except the very old and the very young, must + refrain from bathing; after that there follows a period of rest for + eight nights, during which the people may neither work nor hold + intercourse with their neighbours. On the tenth day the prohibition + to bathe is again enforced; and during the eight following days the + great rice-field of the village, where the real crops are raised, is + sowed.<a id="noteref_316" name="noteref_316" href= + "#note_316"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">316</span></span></a> The + reason for excluding strangers from the village at these times is a + religious one. It is a fear lest the presence of strangers might + frighten the spirits or put them in a bad humour, and so defeat the + object of the ceremony; for, while the religious ceremonies which + accompany the cultivation of the rice differ somewhat from each other + in different tribes, the ideas at the bottom of them, we are told, + are everywhere the same: the aim always is to appease and propitiate + the souls of the rice and the other spirits by sacrifices of all + sorts.<a id="noteref_317" name="noteref_317" href= + "#note_317"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">317</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Games played at the sowing festival. + Masquerade at the sowing festival.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">However, during + this obligatory period of seclusion and rest the Kayans employ + themselves in various pursuits, which, though at first sight they + might seem to serve no other purpose than that of recreation, have + really in the minds of the people a much deeper significance. For + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page095">[pg 095]</span><a name="Pg095" + id="Pg095" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> example, at this time the men + often play at spinning tops. The tops are smooth, flat pieces of wood + weighing several pounds. Each man tries to spin his own top so that + it knocks down those of his neighbours and continues itself to + revolve triumphantly. New tops are commonly carved for the festival. + The older men sometimes use heavy tops of iron-wood. Again, every + evening the young men assemble in the open space before the chief's + house and engage in contests of strength and agility, while the women + watch them from the long gallery or verandah of the house. Another + popular pastime during the festival of sowing is a masquerade. It + takes place on the evening of the tenth day, the day on which, for + the second time, the people are forbidden to bathe. The scene of the + performance is again the open space in front of the chief's house. As + the day draws towards evening, the villagers begin to assemble in the + gallery or verandah of the house in order to secure good places for + viewing the masquerade. All the maskers at these ceremonies represent + evil spirits. The men wear ugly wooden masks on their faces, and + their bodies are swathed in masses of slit banana leaves so as to + imitate the hideous faces and hairy bodies of the demons. The young + women wear on their heads cylindrical baskets, which conceal their + real features, while they exhibit to the spectators grotesque human + faces formed by stitches on pieces of white cotton, which are + fastened to the baskets. On the occasion when Dr. Nieuwenhuis + witnessed the ceremony, the first to appear on the scene were some + men wearing wooden masks and helmets and so thickly wrapt in banana + leaves that they looked like moving masses of green foliage. They + danced silently, keeping time to the beat of the gongs. They were + followed by other figures, some of whom executed war-dances; but the + weight of their leafy envelope was such that they soon grew tired, + and though they leaped high, they uttered none of the wild war-whoops + which usually accompany these martial exercises. When darkness fell, + the dances ceased and were replaced by a little drama representing a + boar brought to bay by a pack of hounds. The part of the boar was + played by an actor wearing a wooden boar's head mask, who ran about + on all fours and <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page096">[pg + 096]</span><a name="Pg096" id="Pg096" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + grunted in a life-like manner, while the hounds, acted by young men, + snarled, yelped, and made dashes at him. The play was watched with + lively interest and peals of laughter by the spectators. Later in the + evening eight disguised girls danced, one behind the other, with slow + steps and waving arms, to the glimmering light of torches and the + strains of a sort of jew's harp.<a id="noteref_318" name= + "noteref_318" href="#note_318"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">318</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Rites at hoeing.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The rites which + accompany the sowing of the fields are no sooner over than those + which usher in the hoeing begin. Like the sowing ceremonies, they are + inaugurated by a priestess, who hoes the sacred field round about a + sacrificial stage and then calls upon other people to complete the + work. After that the holy field is again sprinkled with a decoction + of herbs.<a id="noteref_319" name="noteref_319" href= + "#note_319"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">319</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The Kayan New Year festival. + Offerings and addresses to the spirits. Sacrifice of pigs.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But the crowning + point of the Kayan year is the New Year festival. The harvest has + then been fully housed: abundance reigns in every family, and for + eight days the people, dressed out in all their finery, give + themselves up to mirth and jollity. The festival was witnessed by the + Dutch explorer Dr. Nieuwenhuis. To lure the good spirits from the + spirit land baskets filled with precious objects were set out before + the windows, and the priestesses made long speeches, in which they + invited these beneficent beings to come to the chief's house and to + stay there during the whole of the ceremonies. Two days afterwards + one of the priestesses harangued the spirits for three-quarters of an + hour, telling them who the Kayans were, from whom the chief's family + was descended, what the tribe was doing, and what were its wishes, + not forgetting to implore the vengeance of the spirits on the + Batang-Lupars, the hereditary foes of the Kayans. The harangue was + couched in rhyming verse and delivered in sing-song tones. Five days + later eight priestesses ascended a sacrificial stage, on which food + was daily set forth for the spirits. There they joined hands and + crooned another long address to the spirits, marking the time with + their hands. Then a basket containing offerings of food was handed up + to them, and one of the priestesses opened it and invited the spirits + to enter the basket. When they were supposed to have done so, the lid + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page097">[pg 097]</span><a name="Pg097" + id="Pg097" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> was shut down on them, and the + basket with the spirits in it was conveyed into the chief's house. As + the priestesses in the performance of the sacred ceremonies might not + touch the ground, planks were cut from a fruit-tree and laid on the + ground for them to step on. But the great feature of the New Year + festival is the sacrifice of pigs, of which the spiritual essence is + appropriately offered to the spirits, while their material substance + is consumed by the worshippers. In carrying out this highly + satisfactory arrangement, while the live pigs lay tethered in a row + on the ground, the priestesses danced solemnly round a sacrificial + stage, each of them arrayed in a war-mantle of panther-skin and + wearing a war-cap on her head, and on either side two priests armed + with swords executed war dances for the purpose of scaring away evil + spirits. By their gesticulations the priestesses indicated to the + powers above that the pigs were intended for their benefit. One of + them, a fat but dignified lady, dancing composedly, seemed by her + courteous gestures to invite the souls of the pigs to ascend up to + heaven; but others, not content with this too ideal offering, rushed + at the pigs, seized the smallest of them by the hind legs, and + exerting all their strength danced with the squealing porker to and + from the sacrificial stage. In the evening, before darkness fell, the + animals were slaughtered and their livers examined for omens: if the + under side of the liver was pale, the omen was good; but if it was + dark, the omen was evil. On the last day of the festival one of the + chief priestesses, in martial array, danced round the sacrificial + stage, making passes with her old sword as if she would heave the + whole structure heavenward; while others stabbed with spears at the + foul fiends that might be hovering in the air, intent on disturbing + the sacred ministers at their holy work.<a id="noteref_320" name= + "noteref_320" href="#note_320"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">320</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Dr. Nieuwenhuis on the games played + by the Kayans in connexion with agriculture.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-q">“Thus,”</span> says Dr. Nieuwenhuis, reviewing the + agricultural rites which he witnessed among the Kayans on the + Mendalam river, <span class="tei tei-q">“every fresh operation on the + rice-field was ushered in by religious and culinary ceremonies, + during which the community had always to observe taboos for several + nights and to play certain definite games. As we saw, spinning-top + games <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page098">[pg 098]</span><a name= + "Pg098" id="Pg098" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> and masquerades were + played during the sowing festival: at the first bringing in of the + rice the people pelted each other with clay pellets discharged from + small pea-shooters, but in former times sham fights took place with + wooden swords; while during the New Year festival the men contend + with each other in wrestling, high leaps, long leaps, and running. + The women also fight each other with great glee, using bamboo vessels + full of water for their principal weapons.”</span><a id="noteref_321" + name="noteref_321" href="#note_321"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">321</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Serious religious or magical + significance of the games.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">What is the + meaning of the sports and pastimes which custom prescribes to the + Kayans on these occasions? Are they mere diversions meant to while + away the tedium of the holidays? or have they a serious, perhaps a + religious or magical significance? To this question it will be well + to let Dr. Nieuwenhuis give his answer. <span class="tei tei-q">“The + Kayans on the Mendalam river,”</span> he says, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“enjoy tolerably regular harvests, and their agricultural + festivals accordingly take place every year; whereas the Kayans on + the Mahakam river, on account of the frequent failure of the + harvests, can celebrate a New Year's festival only once in every two + or three years. Yet although these festivities are celebrated more + regularly on the Mendalam river, they are followed on the Mahakam + river with livelier interest, and the meaning of all ceremonies and + games can also be traced much better there. On the Mendalam river I + came to the false conclusion that the popular games which take place + at the festivals are undertaken quite arbitrarily at the seasons of + sowing and harvest; but on the Mahakam river, on the contrary, I + observed that even the masquerade at the sowing festival is invested + with as deep a significance as any of the ceremonies performed by the + priestesses.”</span><a id="noteref_322" name="noteref_322" href= + "#note_322"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">322</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-q">“The influence of religious worship, which dominates the + whole life of the Dyak tribes, manifests itself also in their games. + This holds good chiefly of pastimes in which all adults take part + together, mostly on definite occasions; it is less applicable to more + individual pastimes which are not restricted to any special season. + Pastimes of the former sort are very rarely indulged in at ordinary + times, and properly speaking they attain their full significance only + on <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page099">[pg 099]</span><a name= + "Pg099" id="Pg099" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> the occasion of the + agricultural festivals which bear a strictly religious stamp. Even + then the recreations are not left to choice, but definite games + belong to definite festivals; thus at the sowing festivals other + amusements are in vogue than at the little harvest festival or the + great harvest festival at the beginning of the reaping, and at the + New Year festival.... Is this connexion between festivals and games + merely an accidental one, or is it based on a real affinity? The + latter seems to me the more probable view, for in the case of one of + the most important games played by men I was able to prove directly a + religious significance; and although I failed to do so in the case of + the others, I conjecture, nevertheless, that a religious idea lies at + the bottom of all other games which are connected with definite + festivals.”</span><a id="noteref_323" name="noteref_323" href= + "#note_323"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">323</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The Kai, an agricultural people of + German New Guinea. Superstitious practices observed by the Kai + for the good of the crops.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">If the reader + should entertain any doubt on the subject, and should suspect that in + arriving at this conclusion the Dutch traveller gave the reins to his + fancy rather than followed the real opinion of the people, these + doubts and suspicions will probably be dispelled by comparing the + similar games which another primitive agricultural people avowedly + play for the purpose of ensuring good crops. The people in question + are the Kai of German New Guinea, who inhabit the rugged, densely + wooded mountains inland from Finsch Harbour. They subsist mainly on + the produce of the taro and yams which they cultivate in their + fields, though the more inland people also make much use of sweet + potatoes. All their crops are root crops. No patch of ground is + cultivated for more than a year at a time. As soon as it has yielded + a crop, it is deserted for another and is quickly overgrown with rank + weeds, bamboos, and bushes. In six or eight years, when the + undergrowth has died out under the shadow of the taller trees which + have shot up, the land may again be cleared and brought under + cultivation. Thus the area of cultivation shifts from year to year; + and the villages are not much more permanent; for in the damp + tropical climate the wooden houses soon rot and fall into + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page100">[pg 100]</span><a name="Pg100" + id="Pg100" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> ruins, and when this happens + the site of the village is changed.<a id="noteref_324" name= + "noteref_324" href="#note_324"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">324</span></span></a> To + procure good crops of the taro and yams, on which they depend for + their subsistence, the Kai resort to many superstitious practices. + For example, in order to make the yams strike deep roots, they touch + the shoots with the bone of a wild animal that has been killed in the + recesses of a cave, imagining that just as the creature penetrated + deep into the earth, so the shoots that have been touched with its + bone will descend deep into the ground. And in order that the taro + may bear large and heavy fruit, they place the shoots, before + planting them, on a large and heavy block of stone, believing that + the stone will communicate its valuable properties of size and weight + to the future fruit. Moreover, great use is made of spells and + incantations to promote the growth of the crops, and all persons who + utter such magical formulas for this purpose have to abstain from + eating certain foods until the plants have sprouted and give promise + of a good crop. For example, they may not eat young bamboo shoots, + which are a favourite article of diet with the people. The reason is + that the young shoots are covered with fine prickles, which cause + itching and irritation of the skin; from which the Kai infer that if + an enchanter of field fruits were to eat bamboo shoots, the contagion + of their prickles would be conveyed through him to the fruits and + would manifest itself in a pungent disagreeable flavour. For a + similar reason no charmer of the crops who knows his business would + dream of eating crabs, because he is well aware that if he were to do + so the leaves and stalks of the plants would be dashed in pieces by a + pelting rain, just like the long thin brittle legs of a dead crab. + Again, were such an enchanter to eat any of the edible kinds of + locusts, it seems obvious to the Kai that locusts would devour the + crops over which the imprudent wizard had recited his spells. Above + all, people who are concerned in planting fields must on no account + eat pork; because pigs, whether wild or tame, are the most deadly + enemies of the crops, which they grub up and destroy; from which it + follows, as surely as the night does the day, that if you eat pork + while <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page101">[pg 101]</span><a name= + "Pg101" id="Pg101" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> you are at work on the + farm, your fields will be devastated by inroads of pigs.<a id= + "noteref_325" name="noteref_325" href="#note_325"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">325</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Games played by the Kai people to + promote the growth of the yams and taro. Tales and legends told + by the Kai to cause the fruits of the earth to thrive.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">However, these + precautions are not the only measures which the Kai people adopt for + the benefit of the yams and the taro. <span class="tei tei-q">“In the + opinion of the natives various games are important for a proper + growth of the field-fruits; hence these games may only be played in + the time after the work on the fields has been done. Thus to swing on + a long Spanish reed fastened to a branch of a tree is thought to have + a good effect on the newly planted yams. Therefore swinging is + practised by old and young, by men and women. No one who has an + interest in the growth of his crop in the field leaves the swing + idle. As they swing to and fro they sing swing-songs. These songs + often contain only the names of the kinds of yams that have been + planted, together with the joyous harvest-cry repeated with + variations, <span class="tei tei-q">‘I have found a fine + fruit!’</span> In leaping from the swing, they cry <span class= + "tei tei-q">‘<span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Kakulili</span></span>!’</span> By calling out + the name of the yams they think to draw their shoots upwards out of + the ground. A small bow with a string, on which a wooden flag adorned + with a feather is made to slide down (the Kai call the instrument + <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">tawatawa</span></span>), may only be used when + the yams are beginning to wind up about their props. The tender + shoots are then touched with the bow, while a song is sung which is + afterwards often repeated in the village. It runs thus: <span class= + "tei tei-q">‘<span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Mama gelo, gelowaineja, gelowaineja; kikí + tambai, kíki tambai.</span></span>’</span> The meaning of the words + is unknown. The intention is to cause a strong upward growth of the + plants. In order that the foliage of the yams may sprout luxuriantly + and grow green and spread, the Kai people play cat's cradle. Each of + the intricate figures has a definite meaning and a name to match: for + example <span class="tei tei-q">‘the flock of pigeons’</span> + (<span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Hulua</span></span>), <span class= + "tei tei-q">‘the Star,’</span> <span class="tei tei-q">‘the Flying + Fox,’</span> <span class="tei tei-q">‘the Sago-palm Fan,’</span> + <span class="tei tei-q">‘the Araucaria,’</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q">‘the Lizard and the Dog,’</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q">‘the Pig,’</span> <span class="tei tei-q">‘the + Sentinel-box in the Fields,’</span> <span class="tei tei-q">‘the + Rat's Nest,’</span> <span class="tei tei-q">‘the Wasp's Nest in the + Bamboo-thicket,’</span> <span class="tei tei-q">‘the + Kangaroo,’</span> <span class="tei tei-q">‘the Spider's Web,’</span> + <span class="tei tei-q">‘the Little Children,’</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q">‘the Canoe,’</span> <span class="tei tei-q">‘Rain and + Sunshine,’</span> <span class="tei tei-q">‘the Pig's Pitfall,’</span> + <span class="tei tei-q">‘the Fish-spawn,’</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q">‘the Two Cousins, Kewâ and Imbiâwâ, carrying their dead + Mother to the <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page102">[pg + 102]</span><a name="Pg102" id="Pg102" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + Grave,’</span> etc. By spinning large native acorns or a sort of wild + fig they think that they foster the growth of the newly-planted taro; + the plants will <span class="tei tei-q">‘turn about and + broaden.’</span> The game must therefore only be played at the time + when the taro is planted. The same holds good of spearing at the + stalks of taro leaves with the ribs of sago leaves used as miniature + spears. This is done when the taro leaves have unfolded themselves, + but when the plants have not yet set any tubers. A single leaf is cut + from a number of stems, and these leaves are brought into the + village. The game is played by two partners, who sit down opposite to + each other at a distance of three or four paces. A number of taro + stalks lie beside each. He who has speared all his adversary's stalks + first is victor; then they change stalks and the game begins again. + By piercing the leaves they think that they incite the plants to set + tubers. Almost more remarkable than the limitation of these games to + the time when work on the fields is going forward is the custom of + the Kai people which only permits the tales of the olden time or + popular legends to be told at the time when the newly planted fruits + are budding and sprouting.”</span><a id="noteref_326" name= + "noteref_326" href="#note_326"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">326</span></span></a> At the + end of every such tale the Kai story-teller mentions the names of the + various kinds of yams and adds, <span class="tei tei-q">“Shoots (for + the new planting) and fruits (to eat) in abundance!”</span> + <span class="tei tei-q">“From their concluding words we see that the + Kai legends are only told for a quite definite purpose, namely, to + promote the welfare of the yams planted in the field. By reviving the + memory of the ancient beings, to whom the origin of the field-fruits + is referred, they imagine that they influence the growth of the + fruits for good. When the planting is over, and especially when the + young plants begin to sprout, the telling of legends comes to an end. + In the villages it is always only a few old men who as good + story-tellers can hold the attention of their hearers.”</span><a id= + "noteref_327" name="noteref_327" href="#note_327"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">327</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Thus among these New Guinea people + games are played and stories told as charms to ensure good + crops.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Thus with these + New Guinea people the playing of certain games and the recital of + certain legends are alike magical in their intention; they are charms + practised to ensure good crops. Both sets of charms appear to be + based on the principles of sympathetic magic. In playing the + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page103">[pg 103]</span><a name="Pg103" + id="Pg103" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> games the players perform acts + which are supposed to mimic or at all events to stimulate the + corresponding processes in the plants: by swinging high in the air + they make the plants grow high; by playing cat's cradle they cause + the leaves of the yams to spread and the stalks to intertwine, even + as the players spread their hands and twine the string about their + fingers; by spinning fruits they make the taro plants to turn and + broaden; and by spearing the taro leaves they induce the plants to + set tubers.<a id="noteref_328" name="noteref_328" href= + "#note_328"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">328</span></span></a> In + telling the legends the story-tellers mention the names of the + powerful beings who first created the fruits of the earth, and the + mere mention of their names avails, on the principle of the magical + equivalence of names and persons or things, to reproduce the + effect.<a id="noteref_329" name="noteref_329" href= + "#note_329"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">329</span></span></a> The + recitation of tales as a charm to promote the growth of the crops is + not peculiar to the Kai. It is practised also by the Bakaua, another + tribe of German New Guinea, who inhabit the coast of Huon Gulf, not + far from the Kai. These people tell stories in the evening at the + time when the yams and taro are ripe, and the stories always end with + a prayer to the ancestral spirits, invoked under various more or less + figurative designations, such as <span class="tei tei-q">“a + man”</span> or <span class="tei tei-q">“a cricket,”</span> that they + would be pleased to cause countless shoots to sprout, the great + tubers to swell, the sugar-cane to <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page104">[pg 104]</span><a name="Pg104" id="Pg104" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> thrive, and the bananas to hang in long + clusters. <span class="tei tei-q">“From this we see,”</span> says the + missionary who reports the custom, <span class="tei tei-q">“that the + object of telling the stories is to prove to the ancestors, whose + spirits are believed to be present at the recitation of the tales + which they either invented or inherited, that people always remember + them; for which reason they ought to be favourable to their + descendants, and above all to bestow their blessings on the shoots + which are ready to be planted or on the plants already in the + ground.”</span> As the story-teller utters the prayer, he looks + towards the house in which the young shoots ready for planting or the + ripe fruits are deposited.<a id="noteref_330" name="noteref_330" + href="#note_330"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">330</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The Yabim of German New Guinea also + tell tales on purpose to obtain abundant crops.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Similarly, the + Yabim, a neighbouring tribe of German New Guinea, at the entrance to + Huon Gulf, tell tales for the purpose of obtaining a plentiful + harvest of yams, taro, sugar-cane, and bananas.<a id="noteref_331" + name="noteref_331" href="#note_331"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">331</span></span></a> They + subsist chiefly by the fruits of the earth which they cultivate, and + among which taro, yams, and sugar-cane supply them with their staple + food.<a id="noteref_332" name="noteref_332" href= + "#note_332"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">332</span></span></a> In + their agricultural labours they believe themselves to be largely + dependent on the spirits of their dead, the <span class= + "tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">balum</span></span>, as they call them. Before + they plant the first taro in a newly cleared field they invoke the + souls of the dead to make the plants grow and prosper; and to + propitiate these powerful spirits they bring valuable objects, such + as boar's tusks and dog's teeth, into the field, in order that the + ghosts may deck themselves with the souls of these ornaments, while + at the same time they minister to the grosser appetites of the + disembodied spirits by offering them a savoury mess of taro porridge. + Later in the season they whirl bull-roarers in the fields and call + out the names of the dead, believing that this makes the crops to + thrive.<a id="noteref_333" name="noteref_333" href= + "#note_333"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">333</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Specimens of Yabim tales told as + charms to procure a good harvest. Such tales may be called + narrative spells.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But besides the + prayers which they address to the spirits of the dead for the sake of + procuring an abundant harvest, the Yabim utter spells for the same + purpose, and these spells sometimes take the form, not of a command, + but of a narrative. Here, for instance, is one of their spells: + <span class="tei tei-q">“Once upon a time a man laboured in his field + and complained that he had no <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page105">[pg 105]</span><a name="Pg105" id="Pg105" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> taro shoots. Then came two doves flying from + Poum. They had devoured much taro, and they perched on a tree in the + field, and during the night they vomited all the taro up. Thus the + man got so many taro shoots that he was even able to sell some of + them to other people.”</span> Or, again, if the taro will not bud, + the Yabim will have recourse to the following spell: <span class= + "tei tei-q">“A muraena lay at ebb-tide on the shore. It seemed to be + at its last gasp. Then the tide flowed on, and the muraena came to + life again and plunged into the deep water.”</span> This spell is + pronounced over twigs of a certain tree (<span class= + "tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">kalelong</span></span>), while the enchanter + smites the ground with them. After that the taro is sure to + bud.<a id="noteref_334" name="noteref_334" href= + "#note_334"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">334</span></span></a> + Apparently the mere recitation of such simple tales is thought to + produce the same effect as a direct appeal, whether in the shape of a + prayer or a command, addressed to the spirits. Such incantations may + be called narrative spells to distinguish them from the more familiar + imperative spells, in which the enchanter expresses his wishes in the + form of direct commands. Much use seems to be made of such narrative + spells among the natives of this part of German New Guinea. For + example, among the Bukaua, who attribute practically boundless powers + to sorcerers in every department of life and nature, the spells by + which these wizards attempt to work their will assume one of two + forms: either they are requests made to the ancestors, or they are + short narratives, addressed to nobody in particular, which the + sorcerer mutters while he is performing his magical rites.<a id= + "noteref_335" name="noteref_335" href="#note_335"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">335</span></span></a> It is + true, that here the distinction is drawn between narratives and + requests rather than between narratives and commands; but the + difference of a request from a command, though great in theory, may + be very slight in practice; so that prayer and spell, in the ordinary + sense of the words, may melt into each other almost imperceptibly. + Even the priest or the enchanter who utters the one may be hardly + conscious of the hairbreadth that divides it from the other. In + regard to narrative spells, it seems probable that they have been + used much more extensively among mankind than the evidence at our + disposal permits <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page106">[pg + 106]</span><a name="Pg106" id="Pg106" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> us + positively to affirm; in particular we may conjecture that many + ancient narratives, which we have been accustomed to treat as mere + myths, used to be regularly recited in magical rites as spells for + the purpose of actually producing events like those which they + describe.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Use of the bull-roarer to quicken + the fruits of the earth.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The use of the + bull-roarer to quicken the fruits of the earth is not peculiar to the + Yabim. On the other side of New Guinea the instrument is employed for + the same purpose by the natives of Kiwai, an island at the mouth of + the Fly River. They think that by whirling bull-roarers they produce + good crops of yams, sweet potatoes, and bananas; and in accordance + with this belief they call the implement <span class="tei tei-q">“the + mother of yams.”</span><a id="noteref_336" name="noteref_336" href= + "#note_336"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">336</span></span></a> + Similarly in Mabuiag, an island in Torres Straits, the bull-roarer is + looked upon as an instrument that can be used to promote the growth + of garden produce, such as yams and sweet potatoes; certain spirits + were supposed to march round the gardens at night swinging + bull-roarers for this purpose.<a id="noteref_337" name="noteref_337" + href="#note_337"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">337</span></span></a> Indeed + a fertilising or prolific virtue appears to be attributed to the + instrument by savages who are totally ignorant of agriculture. Thus + among the Dieri of central Australia, when a young man had undergone + the painful initiatory ceremony of having a number of gashes cut in + his back, he used to be given a bull-roarer, whereupon it was + believed that he became inspired by the spirits of the men of old, + and that by whirling it, when he went in search of game before his + wounds were healed, he had power to cause a good harvest of lizards, + snakes, and other reptiles. On the other hand, the Dieri thought that + if a woman were to see a bull-roarer that had been used at the + initiatory ceremonies and to learn its secret, the tribe would ever + afterwards be destitute of snakes, lizards, and other such + food.<a id="noteref_338" name="noteref_338" href= + "#note_338"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">338</span></span></a> It may + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page107">[pg 107]</span><a name="Pg107" + id="Pg107" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> very well be that a similar + power to fertilise or multiply edible plants and animals has been + ascribed to the bull-roarer by many other peoples who employ the + implement in their mysteries.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Swinging as an agricultural + charm.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Further, it is to + be observed that just as the Kai of New Guinea swing to and fro on + reeds suspended from the branches of trees in order to promote the + growth of the crops, in like manner Lettish peasants in Russia devote + their leisure to swinging in spring and early summer for the express + purpose of making the flax grow as high as they swing in the + air.<a id="noteref_339" name="noteref_339" href= + "#note_339"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">339</span></span></a> And we + may suspect that wherever swinging is practised as a ceremony at + certain times of the year, particularly in spring and at harvest, the + pastime is not so much a mere popular recreation as a magical rite + designed to promote the growth of the crops.<a id="noteref_340" name= + "noteref_340" href="#note_340"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">340</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">With these + examples before us we need not hesitate to believe that Dr. + Nieuwenhuis is right when he attributes a deep religious or magical + significance to the games which the Kayans or Bahaus of central + Borneo play at their various agricultural festivals.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Analogy of the Kayans of Borneo to + the Greeks of Eleusis in the early time. The Sacred Ploughing at + Eleusis.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It remains to + point out how far the religious or magical practices of these + primitive agricultural peoples of Borneo and New Guinea appear to + illustrate by analogy the original nature of the rites of Eleusis. So + far as we can recompose, from the broken fragments of tradition, a + picture of the religious and political condition of the Eleusinian + people in the olden time, it appears to tally fairly well with the + picture which Dr. Nieuwenhuis has drawn for us of the Kayans or + Bahaus at the present day in the forests of central Borneo. Here as + there we see a petty agricultural community ruled by hereditary + chiefs who, while they unite religious to civil authority, being + bound to preside over the numerous ceremonies performed for the good + of <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page108">[pg 108]</span><a name= + "Pg108" id="Pg108" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> the crops,<a id= + "noteref_341" name="noteref_341" href="#note_341"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">341</span></span></a> + nevertheless lead simple patriarchal lives and are so little raised + in outward dignity above their fellows that their daughters do not + deem it beneath them to fetch water for the household from the + village well.<a id="noteref_342" name="noteref_342" href= + "#note_342"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">342</span></span></a> Here as + there we see a people whose whole religion is dominated and coloured + by the main occupation of their lives; who believe that the growth of + the crops, on which they depend for their subsistence, is at the + mercy of two powerful spirits, a divine husband and his wife, + dwelling in a subterranean world; and who accordingly offer + sacrifices and perform ceremonies in order to ensure the favour of + these mighty beings and so to obtain abundant harvests. If we knew + more about the Rarian plain at Eleusis,<a id="noteref_343" name= + "noteref_343" href="#note_343"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">343</span></span></a> we + might discover that it was the scene of many religious ceremonies + like those which are performed on the little consecrated rice-fields + (the <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">luma lali</span></span>) of the Kayans, where + the various operations of the agricultural year are performed in + miniature by members of the chief's family before the corresponding + operations may be performed on a larger scale by common folk on their + fields. Certainly we know that the Rarian plain witnessed one such + ceremony in the year. It was a solemn ceremony of ploughing, one of + the three Sacred Ploughings which took place annually in various + parts of Attica.<a id="noteref_344" name="noteref_344" href= + "#note_344"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">344</span></span></a> + Probably the rite formed part of the <span lang="el" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="el"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Proerosia</span></span> or Festival before + Ploughing, which was intended to ensure a plentiful crop.<a id= + "noteref_345" name="noteref_345" href="#note_345"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">345</span></span></a> + Further, it appears that the priests who guided the sacred slow-paced + oxen as they dragged the plough down the furrows of the Rarian Plain, + were drawn from the old priestly family of Bouzygai or <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Ox-yokers,”</span> whose eponymous ancestor is said to + have been the first man to yoke oxen and to plough the fields. As + they performed this time-honoured ceremony, the priests uttered many + quaint curses against all churls who should refuse to lend fire or + water to neighbours, or to shew the way to wanderers, or who should + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page109">[pg 109]</span><a name="Pg109" + id="Pg109" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> leave a corpse unburied.<a id= + "noteref_346" name="noteref_346" href="#note_346"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">346</span></span></a> If we + had a complete list of the execrations fulminated by the holy + ploughmen on these occasions, we might find that some of them were + levelled at the impious wretches who failed to keep all the rules of + the Sabbath, as we may call those periods of enforced rest and + seclusion which the Kayans of Borneo and other primitive agricultural + peoples observe for the good of the crops.<a id="noteref_347" name= + "noteref_347" href="#note_347"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">347</span></span></a></p><span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page110">[pg 110]</span><a name="Pg110" id="Pg110" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The connexion of the Eleusinian + games with agriculture, attested by the ancients, is confirmed by + modern savage analogies.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Further, when we + see that many primitive peoples practise what we call games but what + they regard in all seriousness as solemn rites for the good of the + crops, we may be the more inclined to accept the view of the + ancients, who associated the Eleusinian games directly with the + worship of Demeter and Persephone, the Corn Goddesses.<a id= + "noteref_348" name="noteref_348" href="#note_348"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">348</span></span></a> One of + the contests at the Eleusinian games was in leaping,<a id= + "noteref_349" name="noteref_349" href="#note_349"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">349</span></span></a> and we + know that even in modern Europe to this day leaping or dancing high + is practised as a charm to make the crops grow tall.<a id= + "noteref_350" name="noteref_350" href="#note_350"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">350</span></span></a> Again, + the bull-roarer was swung so as to produce a humming sound at the + Greek mysteries;<a id="noteref_351" name="noteref_351" href= + "#note_351"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">351</span></span></a> and + when we find the same simple instrument whirled by savages in New + Guinea for the sake of ensuring good crops, we may reasonably + conjecture that it was whirled with a like intention by the rude + forefathers of the Greeks among the cornfields of Eleusis. If that + were so—though the conjecture is hardly susceptible of + demonstration—it would go some way to confirm the theory that the + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page111">[pg 111]</span><a name="Pg111" + id="Pg111" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> Eleusinian mysteries were in + their origin nothing more than simple rustic ceremonies designed to + make the farmer's fields to wave with yellow corn. And in the + practice of the Kayans, whose worship of the rice offers many + analogies to the Eleusinian worship of the corn, may we not detect a + hint of the origin of that rule of secrecy which always characterised + the Eleusinian mysteries? May it not have been that, just as the + Kayans exclude strangers from their villages while they are engaged + in the celebration of religious rites, lest the presence of these + intruders should frighten or annoy the shy and touchy spirits who are + invoked at these times, so the old Eleusinians may have debarred + foreigners from participation in their most solemn ceremonies, lest + the coy goddesses of the corn should take fright or offence at the + sight of strange faces and so refuse to bestow on men their annual + blessing? The admission of foreigners to the privilege of initiation + in the mysteries was probably a late innovation introduced at a time + when the fame of their sanctity had spread far and wide, and when the + old magical meaning of the ritual had long been obscured, if not + forgotten.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The sacred drama of the Eleusinian + mysteries compared to the masked dances of agricultural + savages.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Lastly, it may be + suggested that in the masked dances and dramatic performances, which + form a conspicuous and popular feature of the Sowing Festival among + the Kayans,<a id="noteref_352" name="noteref_352" href= + "#note_352"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">352</span></span></a> we have + the savage counterpart of that drama of divine death and resurrection + which appears to have figured so prominently in the mysteries of + Eleusis.<a id="noteref_353" name="noteref_353" href= + "#note_353"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">353</span></span></a> If my + interpretation of that solemn drama is correct, it represented in + mythical guise the various stages in the growth of the corn for the + purpose of magically fostering the natural processes which it + simulated. In like manner among the Kaua and Kobeua Indians of + North-western Brazil, who subsist chiefly by the cultivation of + manioc, dances or rather pantomimes are performed by masked men, who + represent spirits or demons of fertility, and by imitating the act of + procreation are believed to stimulate the growth of plants as well as + to quicken the wombs of women and to promote the multiplication of + animals. Coarse and grotesque as these dramatic performances may seem + to us, they convey no suggestion of <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page112">[pg 112]</span><a name="Pg112" id="Pg112" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> indecency to the minds either of the actors or + of the spectators, who regard them in all seriousness as rites + destined to confer the blessing of fruitfulness on the inhabitants of + the village, on their plantations, and on the whole realm of + nature.<a id="noteref_354" name="noteref_354" href= + "#note_354"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">354</span></span></a> + However, we possess so little exact information as to the rites of + Eleusis that all attempts to elucidate them by the ritual of savages + must necessarily be conjectural. Yet the candid reader may be willing + to grant that conjectures supported by analogies like the foregoing + do not exceed the limits of a reasonable hypothesis.</p> + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page113">[pg 113]</span><a name= + "Pg113" id="Pg113" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + <hr class="page" /> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> + <a name="toc9" id="toc9"></a> <a name="pdf10" id="pdf10"></a> + + <h1 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"> + <span style="font-size: 173%">Chapter IV. Woman's Part in Primitive + Agriculture.</span></h1> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Theory that the personification of + corn as feminine was suggested by the part played by women in + primitive agriculture.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">If Demeter was + indeed a personification of the corn, it is natural to ask, why did + the Greeks personify the corn as a goddess rather than a god? why did + they ascribe the origin of agriculture to a female rather than to a + male power? They conceived the spirit of the vine as masculine; why + did they conceive the spirit of the barley and wheat as feminine? To + this it has been answered that the personification of the corn as + feminine, or at all events the ascription of the discovery of + agriculture to a goddess, was suggested by the prominent part which + women take in primitive agriculture.<a id="noteref_355" name= + "noteref_355" href="#note_355"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">355</span></span></a> The + theory illustrates a recent tendency of mythologists to explain many + myths as reflections of primitive society rather than as + personifications of nature. For that reason, apart from its intrinsic + interest, the theory deserves to be briefly considered.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Among many savage tribes the labour + of hoeing the ground and sowing the seed devolves on women. + Agricultural work done by women among the Zulus and other tribes + of South Africa.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Before the + invention of the plough, which can hardly be worked without resort to + the labour of men, it was and still is customary in many parts of the + world to break up the soil for cultivation with hoes, and among not a + few savage peoples to this day the task of hoeing the ground and + sowing the seed devolves mainly or entirely upon the women, while the + men take little or no part in cultivation beyond clearing the land by + felling the forest trees and burning the fallen timber and brushwood + which encumber the soil. Thus, for example, among the Zulus, + <span class="tei tei-q">“when a piece of land has been selected for + cultivation, the task of clearing it <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page114">[pg 114]</span><a name="Pg114" id="Pg114" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> belongs to the men. If the ground be much + encumbered, this becomes a laborious undertaking, for their axe is + very small, and when a large tree has to be encountered, they can + only lop the branches; fire is employed when it is needful to remove + the trunk. The reader will therefore not be surprised that the people + usually avoid bush-land, though they seem to be aware of its superior + fertility. As a general rule the men take no further share in the + labour of cultivation; and, as the site chosen is seldom much + encumbered and frequently bears nothing but grass, their part of the + work is very slight. The women are the real labourers; for (except in + some particular cases) the entire business of digging, planting, and + weeding devolves on them; and, if we regard the assagai and shield as + symbolical of the man, the hoe may be looked upon as emblematic of + the woman.... With this rude and heavy instrument the woman digs, + plants, and weeds her garden. Digging and sowing are generally one + operation, which is thus performed; the seed is first scattered on + the ground, when the soil is dug or picked up with the hoe, to the + depth of three or four inches, the larger roots and tufts of grass + being gathered out, but all the rest left in or on the + ground.”</span><a id="noteref_356" name="noteref_356" href= + "#note_356"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">356</span></span></a> A + special term of contempt is applied to any Zulu man, who, deprived of + the services of his wife and family, is compelled by hard necessity + to handle the hoe himself.<a id="noteref_357" name="noteref_357" + href="#note_357"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">357</span></span></a> + Similarly among the Baronga of Delagoa Bay, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“when the rains begin to fall, sometimes as early as + September but generally later, they hasten to sow. With her hoe in + her hands, the mistress of the field walks with little steps; every + time she lifts a clod of earth well broken up, and in the hole thus + made she plants three or four grains of maize and covers them up. If + she has not finished clearing all the patch of the bush which she + contemplated, she proceeds to turn up again the fields she tilled + last year. The crop will be less abundant than in virgin soil, but + they plant three or four years successively in the <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page115">[pg 115]</span><a name="Pg115" id="Pg115" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> same field before it is exhausted. As for + enriching the soil with manure, they never think of it.”</span><a id= + "noteref_358" name="noteref_358" href="#note_358"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">358</span></span></a> Among + the Barotsé, who cultivate millet, maize, and peas to a small extent + and in a rudimentary fashion, women alone are occupied with the + field-work, and their only implement is a spade or hoe.<a id= + "noteref_359" name="noteref_359" href="#note_359"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">359</span></span></a> Of the + Matabelé we are told that <span class="tei tei-q">“most of the hard + work is performed by the women; the whole of the cultivation is done + by them. They plough with short spades of native manufacture; they + sow the fields, and they clear them of weeds.”</span><a id= + "noteref_360" name="noteref_360" href="#note_360"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">360</span></span></a> Among + the Awemba, to the west of Lake Tanganyika, the bulk of the work in + the plantations falls on the women; in particular the men refuse to + hoe the ground. They have a saying, <span class="tei tei-q">“Is not + each male child born for the axe and each female child for the + hoe?”</span><a id="noteref_361" name="noteref_361" href= + "#note_361"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">361</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Chastity required in the sowers of + seed.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The natives of the + Tanganyika plateau <span class="tei tei-q">“cultivate the banana, and + have a curious custom connected with it. No man is permitted to sow; + but when the hole is prepared a little girl is carried to the spot on + a man's shoulders. She first throws into the hole a sherd of broken + pottery, and then scatters the seed over it.”</span><a id= + "noteref_362" name="noteref_362" href="#note_362"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">362</span></span></a> The + reason of the latter practice has been explained by more recent + observers of these natives. <span class="tei tei-q">“Young children, + it may here be noted, are often employed to administer drugs, + remedies, even the Poison Ordeal, and to sow the first seeds. Such + acts, the natives say, must be performed by chaste and innocent + hands, lest a contaminated touch should destroy the potency of the + medicine or of the seedlings planted. It used to be a very common + sight upon the islands of Lake Bangweolo to watch how a Bisa woman + would solve the problem of her own moral unfitness by carrying her + baby-girl to the banana-plot, and inserting seedlings in the tiny + hands for dropping into the holes already prepared.”</span><a id= + "noteref_363" name="noteref_363" href="#note_363"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">363</span></span></a> + Similarly among the people of the Lower Congo <span class= + "tei tei-q">“women must remain chaste while planting pumpkin and + calabash seeds, they are not allowed to touch any pig-meat, and they + must wash their <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page116">[pg + 116]</span><a name="Pg116" id="Pg116" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + hands before touching the seeds. If a woman does not observe all + these rules, she must not plant the seeds, or the crop will be bad; + she may make the holes, and her baby girl, or another who has obeyed + the restrictions, can drop in the seeds and cover them + over.”</span><a id="noteref_364" name="noteref_364" href= + "#note_364"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">364</span></span></a> We can + now perhaps understand why Attic matrons had to observe strict + chastity when they celebrated the festival of the Thesmophoria.<a id= + "noteref_365" name="noteref_365" href="#note_365"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">365</span></span></a> In + Attica that festival was held in honour of Demeter in the month of + Pyanepsion, corresponding to October,<a id="noteref_366" name= + "noteref_366" href="#note_366"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">366</span></span></a> the + season of the autumn sowing; and the rites included certain + ceremonies which bore directly on the quickening of the seed.<a id= + "noteref_367" name="noteref_367" href="#note_367"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">367</span></span></a> We may + conjecture that the rule of chastity imposed on matrons at this + festival was a relic of a time when they too, like many savage women + down to the present time, discharged the important duty of sowing the + seed and were bound for that reason to observe strict continence, + lest any impurity on their part should defile the seed and prevent it + from bearing fruit.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Woman's part in agriculture among + the Caffres of South Africa in general.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Of the Caffres of + South Africa in general we read that <span class= + "tei tei-q">“agriculture is mainly the work of the women, for in + olden days the men were occupied in hunting and fighting. The women + do but scratch the land with hoes, sometimes using long-handled + instruments, as in Zululand, and sometimes short-handled ones, as + above the Zambesi. When the ground is thus prepared, the women + scatter the seed, throwing it over the soil quite at random. They + know the time to sow by the position of the constellations, chiefly + by that of the Pleiades. They date their new year from the time they + can see this constellation just before sunrise.”</span><a id= + "noteref_368" name="noteref_368" href="#note_368"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">368</span></span></a> In + Basutoland, where <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page117">[pg + 117]</span><a name="Pg117" id="Pg117" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> the + women also till the fields, though the lands of chiefs are dug and + sowed by men, an attempt is made to determine the time of sowing by + observation of the moon, but the people generally find themselves out + in their reckoning, and after much dispute are forced to fall back + upon the state of the weather and of vegetation as better evidence of + the season of sowing. Intelligent chiefs rectify the calendar at the + summer solstice, which they call the summer-house of the sun.<a id= + "noteref_369" name="noteref_369" href="#note_369"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">369</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Agricultural work done by women + among the Nandi, Baganda, the Congo, and other tribes of Central + and Western Africa.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Among the Nandi of + British East Africa <span class="tei tei-q">“the rough work of + clearing the bush for plantations is performed by the men, after + which nearly all work in connexion with them is done by the women. + The men, however, assist in sowing the seed, and in harvesting some + of the crops. As a rule trees are not felled, but the bark is + stripped off for about four feet from the ground and the trees are + then left to die. The planting is mostly, if not entirely, done + during the first half of the <span class= + "tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Kiptamo</span></span> moon (February), which is + the first month of the year, and when the <span class= + "tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Iwat-kut</span></span> moon rises (March) all + seed should be in the ground. The chief medicine man is consulted + before the planting operations begin, but the Nandi know by the + arrival in the fields of the guinea-fowl, whose song is supposed to + be, <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">O-kol, o-kol; mi-i tokoch</span></span> (Plant, + plant; there is luck in it), that the planting season is at hand. + When the first seed is sown, salt is mixed with it, and the sower + sings mournfully: <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Ak o-siek-u o-chok-chi</span></span> (And grow + quickly), as he sows. After fresh ground has been cleared, eleusine + grain is planted. This crop is generally repeated the second year, + after which millet is sown, and finally sweet potatoes or some other + product. Most fields are allowed to lie fallow every fourth or fifth + year. The Nandi manure their plantations with turf ashes.... The + eleusine crops are harvested by both men and women. All other crops + are reaped by the women only, who are at times assisted by the + children. The corn is pounded and winnowed by the women and + girls.”</span><a id="noteref_370" name="noteref_370" href= + "#note_370"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">370</span></span></a> Among + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page118">[pg 118]</span><a name="Pg118" + id="Pg118" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> the Suk and En-jemusi of + British East Africa it is the women who cultivate the fields and milk + the cows.<a id="noteref_371" name="noteref_371" href= + "#note_371"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">371</span></span></a> Among + the Wadowe of German East Africa the men clear the forest and break + up the hard ground, but the women sow and reap the crops.<a id= + "noteref_372" name="noteref_372" href="#note_372"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">372</span></span></a> So + among the Wanyamwezi, who are an essentially agricultural people, to + the south of Lake Victoria Nyanza, the men cut down the bush and hoe + the hard ground, but leave the rest of the labour of weeding, sowing, + and reaping to the women.<a id="noteref_373" name="noteref_373" href= + "#note_373"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">373</span></span></a> The + Baganda of Central Africa subsist chiefly on bananas, and among them + <span class="tei tei-q">“the garden and its cultivation have always + been the woman's department. Princesses and peasant women alike + looked upon cultivation as their special work; the garden with its + produce was essentially the wife's domain, and she would under no + circumstances allow her husband to do any digging or sowing in it. No + woman would remain with a man who did not give her a garden and a hoe + to dig it with; if these were denied her, she would seek an early + opportunity to escape from her husband and return to her relations to + complain of her treatment, and to obtain justice or a divorce. When a + man married he sought a plot of land for his wife in order that she + might settle to work and provide food for the household.... In + initial clearing of the land it was customary for the husband to take + part; he cut down the tall grass and shrubs, and so left the ground + ready for his wife to begin her digging. The grass and the trees she + heaped up and burned, reserving only so much as she needed for + firewood. A hoe was the only implement used in cultivation; the blade + was heart-shaped with a prong at the base, by which it was fastened + to the handle. The hoe-handle was never more than two feet long, so + that a woman had to stoop when using it.”</span><a id="noteref_374" + name="noteref_374" href="#note_374"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">374</span></span></a> In + Kiziba, a district immediately to the south of Uganda, the tilling of + the soil is exclusively the work of the women. They turn up the soil + with hoes, make holes in the ground with digging-sticks or their + fingers, and drop a few seeds into <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page119">[pg 119]</span><a name="Pg119" id="Pg119" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> each hole.<a id="noteref_375" name= + "noteref_375" href="#note_375"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">375</span></span></a> Among + the Niam-Niam of Central Africa <span class="tei tei-q">“the men most + studiously devote themselves to their hunting, and leave the culture + of the soil to be carried on exclusively by the women”</span>;<a id= + "noteref_376" name="noteref_376" href="#note_376"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">376</span></span></a> and + among the Monbuttoo of the same region in like manner, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“whilst the women attend to the tillage of the soil and + the gathering of the harvest, the men, unless they are absent either + for war or hunting, spend the entire day in idleness.”</span><a id= + "noteref_377" name="noteref_377" href="#note_377"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">377</span></span></a> As to + the Bangala of the Upper Congo we read that <span class= + "tei tei-q">“large farms were made around the towns. The men did the + clearing of the bush, felling the trees, and cutting down the + undergrowth; the women worked with them, heaping up the grass and + brushwood ready for burning, and helping generally. As a rule the + women did the hoeing, planting, and weeding, but the men did not so + despise this work as never to do it.”</span> In this tribe + <span class="tei tei-q">“the food belonged to the woman who + cultivated the farm, and while she supplied her husband with the + vegetable food, he had to supply the fish and meat and share them + with his wife or wives.”</span><a id="noteref_378" name="noteref_378" + href="#note_378"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">378</span></span></a> Amongst + the Tofoke, a tribe of the Congo State on the equator, all the field + labour, except the clearing away of the forest, is performed by the + women. They dig the soil with a hoe and plant maize and manioc. A + field is used only once.<a id="noteref_379" name="noteref_379" href= + "#note_379"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">379</span></span></a> So with + the Ba-Mbala, a Bantu tribe between the rivers Inzia and Kwilu, the + men clear the ground for cultivation, but all the rest of the work of + tillage falls to the women, whose only tool is an iron hoe. Fresh + ground is cleared for cultivation every year.<a id="noteref_380" + name="noteref_380" href="#note_380"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">380</span></span></a> The + Mpongwe of the Gaboon, in West Africa, cultivate manioc (cassava), + maize, yams, plantains, sweet potatoes, and ground nuts. When new + clearings have to be made in the forest, the men cut down and burn + the trees, and the women put in the crop. The only tool they use is a + dibble, with which they turn up a sod, put in a seed, and cover it + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page120">[pg 120]</span><a name="Pg120" + id="Pg120" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> over.<a id="noteref_381" name= + "noteref_381" href="#note_381"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">381</span></span></a> Among + the Ashira of the same region the cultivation of the soil is in the + hands of the women.<a id="noteref_382" name="noteref_382" href= + "#note_382"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">382</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Agricultural work done by women + among the Indian tribes of South America.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">A similar division + of labour between men and women prevails among many primitive + agricultural tribes of Indians in South America. <span class= + "tei tei-q">“In the interior of the villages,”</span> says an eminent + authority on aboriginal South America, <span class="tei tei-q">“the + man often absents himself to hunt or to go into the heart of the + forest in search of the honey of the wild bees, and he always goes + alone. He fells the trees in the places where he wishes to make a + field for cultivation, he fashions his weapons, he digs out his + canoe, while the woman rears the children, makes the garments, busies + herself with the interior, cultivates the field, gathers the fruits, + collects the roots, and prepares the food. Such is, generally at + least, the respective condition of the two sexes among almost all the + Americans. The Peruvians alone had already, in their semi-civilised + state, partially modified these customs; for among them the man + shared the toils of the other sex or took on himself the most + laborious tasks.”</span><a id="noteref_383" name="noteref_383" href= + "#note_383"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">383</span></span></a> Thus, + to take examples, among the Caribs of the West Indies the men used to + fell the trees and leave the fallen trunks to cumber the ground, + burning off only the smaller boughs. Then the women came and planted + manioc, potatoes, yams, and bananas wherever they found room among + the tree-trunks. In digging the ground to receive the seed or the + shoots they did not use hoes but simply pointed sticks. The men, we + are told, would rather have died of hunger than undertake such + agricultural labours.<a id="noteref_384" name="noteref_384" href= + "#note_384"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">384</span></span></a> Again, + the staple vegetable food of the Indians of British Guiana is cassava + bread, made from the roots of the manioc or cassava plant, which the + Indians cultivate in clearings of the forest. The men fell the trees, + cut down the undergrowth, and in dry weather set fire to the fallen + lumber, thus creating open patches in the forest which are covered + with white ashes. When the rains <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page121">[pg 121]</span><a name="Pg121" id="Pg121" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> set in, the women repair to these clearings, + heavily laden with baskets full of cassava sticks to be used as + cuttings. These they insert at irregular intervals in the soil, and + so the field is formed. While the cassava is growing, the women do + just as much weeding as is necessary to prevent the cultivated plants + from being choked by the rank growth of the tropical vegetation, and + in doing so they plant bananas, pumpkin seeds, yams, sweet potatoes, + sugar-cane, red and yellow peppers, and so forth, wherever there is + room for them. At last in the ninth or tenth month, when the seeds + appearing on the straggling branches of the cassava plants announce + that the roots are ripe, the women cut down the plants and dig up the + roots, not all at once, but as they are required. These roots they + afterwards peel, scrape, and bake into cassava bread.<a id= + "noteref_385" name="noteref_385" href="#note_385"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">385</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Cultivation of manioc by women among + the Indian tribes of tropical South America.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In like manner the + cassava or manioc plant is cultivated generally among all the Indian + tribes of tropical South America, wherever the plant will grow; and + the cultivation of it is altogether in the hands of the women, who + insert the sticks in the ground after the fashion already + described.<a id="noteref_386" name="noteref_386" href= + "#note_386"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">386</span></span></a> For + example, among the tribes of the Uaupes River, in the upper valley of + the Amazon, who are an agricultural people with settled abodes, + <span class="tei tei-q">“the men cut down the trees and brushwood, + which, after they have lain some months to dry, are burnt; and the + mandiocca is then planted by the women, together with little patches + of cane, sweet potatoes, and various fruits. The women also dig up + the mandiocca, and prepare from it the bread which is their main + subsistence.... The bread is made fresh every day, as when it gets + cold and dry it is far less palatable. The women thus have plenty to + do, for every other day at least they have to go to the field, often + a mile or two distant, to fetch the root, and every day to grate, + prepare, and bake the bread; as it forms by far the greater part of + their food, and they often pass days without eating anything else, + especially <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page122">[pg + 122]</span><a name="Pg122" id="Pg122" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + when the men are engaged in clearing the forest.”</span><a id= + "noteref_387" name="noteref_387" href="#note_387"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">387</span></span></a> Among + the Tupinambas, a tribe of Brazilian Indians, the wives <span class= + "tei tei-q">“had something more than their due share of labour, but + they were not treated with brutality, and their condition was on the + whole happy. They set and dug the mandioc; they sowed and gathered + the maize. An odd superstition prevailed, that if a sort of + earth-almond, which the Portugueze call <span class= + "tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">amendoens</span></span>, was planted by the men, + it would not grow.”</span><a id="noteref_388" name="noteref_388" + href="#note_388"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">388</span></span></a> Similar + accounts appear to apply to the Brazilian Indians in general: the men + occupy themselves with hunting, war, and the manufacture of their + weapons, while the women plant and reap the crops, and search for + fruits in the forest;<a id="noteref_389" name="noteref_389" href= + "#note_389"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">389</span></span></a> above + all they cultivate the manioc, scraping the soil clear of weeds with + pointed sticks and inserting the shoots in the earth.<a id= + "noteref_390" name="noteref_390" href="#note_390"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">390</span></span></a> + Similarly among the Indians of Peru, who cultivate maize in clearings + of the forest, the cultivation of the fields is left to the women, + while the men hunt with bows and arrows and blowguns in the woods, + often remaining away from home for weeks or even months + together.<a id="noteref_391" name="noteref_391" href= + "#note_391"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">391</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Agricultural work done by women + among savage tribes in India, New Guinea, and New Britain.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">A similar + distribution of labour between the sexes prevails among some savage + tribes in other parts of the world. Thus among the Lhoosai of + south-eastern India the men employ themselves chiefly in hunting or + in making forays on their weaker neighbours, but they clear the + ground and help to carry home the harvest. However, the main burden + of the bodily labour by which life is supported falls on the women; + they fetch water, hew wood, cultivate the ground, <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page123">[pg 123]</span><a name="Pg123" id="Pg123" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> and help to reap the crops.<a id= + "noteref_392" name="noteref_392" href="#note_392"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">392</span></span></a> Among + the Miris of Assam almost the whole of the field work is done by the + women. They cultivate a patch of ground for two successive years, + then suffer it to lie fallow for four or five. But they are deterred + by superstitious fear from breaking new ground so long as the fallow + suffices for their needs; they dread to offend the spirits of the + woods by needlessly felling the trees. They raise crops of rice, + maize, millet, yams, and sweet potatoes. But they seldom possess any + implement adapted solely for tillage; they have never taken to the + plough nor even to a hoe. They use their long straight swords to + clear, cut, and dig with.<a id="noteref_393" name="noteref_393" href= + "#note_393"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">393</span></span></a> Among + the Korwas, a savage hill tribe of Bengal, the men hunt with bows and + arrows, while the women till the fields, dig for wild roots, or cull + wild vegetables. Their principal crop is pulse (<span class= + "tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">Cajanus + Indicus</span></span>).<a id="noteref_394" name="noteref_394" href= + "#note_394"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">394</span></span></a> Among + the Papuans of Ayambori, near Doreh in Dutch New Guinea, it is the + men who lay out the fields by felling and burning the trees and + brushwood in the forest, and it is they who enclose the fields with + fences, but it is the women who sow and reap them and carry home the + produce in sacks on their backs. They cultivate rice, millet, and + bananas.<a id="noteref_395" name="noteref_395" href= + "#note_395"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">395</span></span></a> So + among the natives of Kaimani Bay in Dutch New Guinea the men occupy + themselves only with fishing and hunting, while all the field work + falls on the women.<a id="noteref_396" name="noteref_396" href= + "#note_396"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">396</span></span></a> In the + Gazelle Peninsula of New Britain, when the natives have decided to + convert a piece of grass-land into a plantation, the men cut down the + long grass, burn it, dig up the soil with sharp-pointed sticks, and + enclose the land with a fence of saplings. Then the women plant the + banana shoots, weed the ground, and in the intervals between the + bananas insert slips of yams, sweet potatoes, sugar-cane, or ginger. + When the produce is ripe, they carry it to the village. Thus the bulk + of the labour of cultivation devolves on the women.<a id= + "noteref_397" name="noteref_397" href="#note_397"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">397</span></span></a></p><span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page124">[pg 124]</span><a name="Pg124" id="Pg124" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Division of agricultural work + between men and women in the Indian Archipelago.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Among some peoples + of the Indian Archipelago, after the land has been cleared for + cultivation by the men, the work of planting and sowing is divided + between men and women, the men digging holes in the ground with + pointed sticks, and the women following them, putting the seeds or + shoots into the holes, and then huddling the earth over them; for + savages seldom sow broadcast, they laboriously dig holes and insert + the seed in them. This division of agricultural labour between the + sexes is adopted by various tribes of Celebes, Ceram, Borneo, Nias, + and New Guinea.<a id="noteref_398" name="noteref_398" href= + "#note_398"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">398</span></span></a> + Sometimes the custom of entrusting the sowing of the seed to women + appears to be influenced by superstitious as well as economic + considerations. Thus among the Indians of the Orinoco, who with an + infinitude of pains cleared the jungle for cultivation by cutting + down the forest trees with their stone axes, burning the fallen + lumber, and breaking up the ground with wooden instruments hardened + in the fire, the task of sowing the maize and planting the roots was + performed by the women alone; and when the Spanish missionaries + expostulated with the men for not helping their wives in this + toilsome duty, they received for answer that as women knew how to + conceive seed and bear children, so the seeds and roots planted by + them bore fruit far more abundantly than if they had been planted by + male hands.<a id="noteref_399" name="noteref_399" href= + "#note_399"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">399</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Among savages who have not learned + to till the ground the task of collecting the vegetable food in + the form of wild seeds and roots generally devolves on women. + Examples furnished by the Californian Indians.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Even among savages + who have not yet learned to cultivate any plants the task of + collecting the edible seeds and digging up the edible roots of wild + plants appears to devolve mainly on women, while the men contribute + their share to the common food supply by hunting and fishing, for + which their superior strength, agility, and courage especially + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page125">[pg 125]</span><a name="Pg125" + id="Pg125" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> qualify them. For example, + among the Indians of California, who were entirely ignorant of + agriculture, the general division of labour between the sexes in the + search for food was that the men killed the game and caught the + salmon, while the women dug the roots and brought in most of the + vegetable food, though the men helped them to gather acorns, nuts, + and berries.<a id="noteref_400" name="noteref_400" href= + "#note_400"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">400</span></span></a> Among + the Indians of San Juan Capistrano in California, while the men + passed their time in fowling, fishing, dancing, and lounging, + <span class="tei tei-q">“the women were obliged to gather seeds in + the fields, prepare them for cooking, and to perform all the meanest + offices, as well as the most laborious. It was painful in the + extreme, to behold them, with their infants hanging upon their + shoulders, groping about in search of herbs or seeds, and exposed as + they frequently were to the inclemency of the weather.”</span><a id= + "noteref_401" name="noteref_401" href="#note_401"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">401</span></span></a> Yet + these rude savages possessed a calendar containing directions as to + the seasons for collecting the different seeds and produce of the + earth. The calendar consisted of lunar months corrected by + observation of the solstices, <span class="tei tei-q">“for at the + conclusion of the moon in December, that is, at the conjunction, they + calculated the return of the sun from the tropic of Capricorn; and + another year commenced, the Indian saying <span class= + "tei tei-q">‘the sun has arrived at his home.’</span> ... They + observed with greater attention and celebrated with more pomp, the + sun's arrival at the tropic of Capricorn than they did his reaching + the tropic of Cancer, for the reason, that, as they were situated ten + degrees from the latter, they were pleased at the sun's approach + towards them; for it returned to ripen their fruits and seeds, to + give warmth to the atmosphere, and enliven again the fields with + beauty and increase.”</span> However, the knowledge of the calendar + was limited to the <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">puplem</span></span> or general council of the + tribe, who sent criers to make proclamation when the time had come to + go forth and gather the seeds and other produce of the earth. In + their calculations they were assisted by a <span class= + "tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">pul</span></span> + or <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page126">[pg 126]</span><a name= + "Pg126" id="Pg126" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> astrologer, who + observed the aspect of the moon.<a id="noteref_402" name= + "noteref_402" href="#note_402"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">402</span></span></a> When we + consider that these rude Californian savages, destitute alike of + agriculture and of the other arts of civilised life, yet succeeded in + forming for themselves a calendar based on observation both of the + moon and of the sun, we need not hesitate to ascribe to the + immeasurably more advanced Greeks at the dawn of history the + knowledge of a somewhat more elaborate calendar founded on a cycle of + eight solar years.<a id="noteref_403" name="noteref_403" href= + "#note_403"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">403</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Among the aborigines of Australia + the women provided the vegetable food, while the men + hunted.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Among the equally + rude aborigines of Australia, to whom agriculture in every form was + totally unknown, the division of labour between the sexes in regard + to the collection of food appears to have been similar. While the men + hunted game, the labour of gathering and preparing the vegetable food + fell chiefly to the women. Thus with regard to the Encounter Bay + tribe of South Australia we are told that while the men busied + themselves, according to the season, either with fishing or with + hunting emus, opossums, kangaroos, and so forth, the women and + children searched for roots and plants.<a id="noteref_404" name= + "noteref_404" href="#note_404"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">404</span></span></a> Again, + among the natives of Western Australia <span class="tei tei-q">“it is + generally considered the province of women to dig roots, and for this + purpose they carry a long, pointed stick, which is held in the right + hand, and driven firmly into the ground, where it is shaken, so as to + loosen the earth, which is scooped up and thrown out with the fingers + of the left hand, and in this manner they dig with great rapidity. + But the labour, in proportion to the amount obtained, is great. To + get a yam about half an inch in circumference and a foot in length, + they have to dig a hole above a foot square and two feet in depth; a + considerable portion of the time of the women and children is, + therefore, passed in this employment. If the men are absent upon any + expedition, the females are left in charge of one who is <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page127">[pg 127]</span><a name="Pg127" id="Pg127" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> old or sick; and in traversing the bush + you often stumble on a large party of them, scattered about in the + forest, digging roots and collecting the different species of + fungus.”</span><a id="noteref_405" name="noteref_405" href= + "#note_405"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">405</span></span></a> In + fertile districts, where the yams which the aborigines use as food + grow abundantly, the ground may sometimes be seen riddled with holes + made by the women in their search for these edible roots. Thus to + quote Sir George Grey: <span class="tei tei-q">“We now crossed the + dry bed of a stream, and from that emerged upon a tract of light + fertile soil, quite overrun with <span class= + "tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">warran</span></span> [yam] plants, the root of + which is a favourite article of food with the natives. This was the + first time we had yet seen this plant on our journey, and now for + three and a half consecutive miles we traversed a fertile piece of + land, literally perforated with the holes the natives had made to dig + this root; indeed we could with difficulty walk across it on that + account, whilst this tract extended east and west as far as we could + see.”</span><a id="noteref_406" name="noteref_406" href= + "#note_406"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">406</span></span></a> Again, + in the valley of the Lower Murray River a kind of yam (<span class= + "tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">Microseris + Forsteri</span></span>) grew plentifully and was easily found in the + spring and early summer, when the roots were dug up out of the earth + by the women and children. The root is small and of a sweetish taste + and grows throughout the greater part of Australia outside the + tropics; on the alpine pastures of the high Australian mountains it + attains to a much larger size and furnishes a not unpalatable + food.<a id="noteref_407" name="noteref_407" href= + "#note_407"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">407</span></span></a> But the + women gather edible herbs and seeds as well as roots; and at evening + they may be seen trooping in to the camp, each with a great bundle of + sow-thistles, dandelions, or trefoil on her head,<a id="noteref_408" + name="noteref_408" href="#note_408"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">408</span></span></a> or + carrying wooden vessels filled with seeds, which they afterwards + grind up between stones and knead into a paste with water or bake + into cakes.<a id="noteref_409" name="noteref_409" href= + "#note_409"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">409</span></span></a> Among + the aborigines of central Victoria, while the men hunted, the women + dug up edible <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page128">[pg + 128]</span><a name="Pg128" id="Pg128" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + roots and gathered succulent vegetables, such as the young tops of + the <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">munya</span></span>, the sow-thistle, and + several kinds of fig-marigold. The implement which they used to dig + up roots with was a pole seven or eight feet long, hardened in the + fire and pointed at the end, which also served them as a weapon both + of defence and of offence.<a id="noteref_410" name="noteref_410" + href="#note_410"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">410</span></span></a> Among + the tribes of Central Australia the principal vegetable food is the + seed of a species of Claytonia, called by white men <span class= + "tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">munyeru</span></span>, which the women gather in + large quantities and winnow by pouring the little black seeds from + one vessel to another so as to let the wind blow the loose husks + away.<a id="noteref_411" name="noteref_411" href= + "#note_411"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">411</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The digging of the earth for wild + fruits may have led to the origin of agriculture.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In these customs + observed by savages who are totally ignorant of agriculture we may + perhaps detect some of the steps by which mankind have advanced from + the enjoyment of the wild fruits of the earth to the systematic + cultivation of plants. For an effect of digging up the earth in the + search for roots has probably been in many cases to enrich and + fertilise the soil and so to increase the crop of roots or herbs; and + such an increase would naturally attract the natives in larger + numbers and enable them to subsist for longer periods on the spot + without being compelled by the speedy exhaustion of the crop to shift + their quarters and wander away in search of fresh supplies. Moreover, + the winnowing of the seeds on ground which had thus been turned up by + the digging-sticks of the women would naturally contribute to the + same result. For though savages at the level of the Californian + Indians and the aborigines of Australia have no idea of using seeds + for any purpose but that of immediate consumption, and it has never + occurred to them to incur a temporary loss for the sake of a future + gain by sowing them in the ground, yet it is almost certain that in + the process of winnowing the seeds as a preparation for eating them + many of the grains must have escaped and, being wafted by the wind, + have fallen on the upturned soil and borne fruit. Thus by the + operations of turning up the ground and winnowing the seed, though + neither operation <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page129">[pg + 129]</span><a name="Pg129" id="Pg129" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + aimed at anything beyond satisfying the immediate pangs of hunger, + savage man or rather savage woman was unconsciously preparing for the + whole community a future and more abundant store of food, which would + enable them to multiply and to abandon the old migratory and wasteful + manner of life for a more settled and economic mode of existence. So + curiously sometimes does man, aiming his shafts at a near but petty + mark, hit a greater and more distant target.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The discovery of agriculture due + mainly to women.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">On the whole, + then, it appears highly probable that as a consequence of a certain + natural division of labour between the sexes women have contributed + more than men towards the greatest advance in economic history, + namely, the transition from a nomadic to a settled life, from a + natural to an artificial basis of subsistence.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Women as agricultural labourers + among the Aryans of Europe. The Greek conception of the Corn + Goddess probably originated in a simple personification of the + corn.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Among the Aryan + peoples of Europe the old practice of hoeing the ground as a + preparation for sowing appears to have been generally replaced at a + very remote period by the far more effective process of + ploughing;<a id="noteref_412" name="noteref_412" href= + "#note_412"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">412</span></span></a> and as + the labour of ploughing practically necessitates the employment of + masculine strength, it is hardly to be expected that in Europe many + traces should remain of the important part formerly played by women + in primitive agriculture. However, we are told that among the + Iberians of Spain and the Athamanes of Epirus the women tilled the + ground,<a id="noteref_413" name="noteref_413" href= + "#note_413"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">413</span></span></a> and + that among the ancient Germans the care of the fields was left to the + women and old men.<a id="noteref_414" name="noteref_414" href= + "#note_414"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">414</span></span></a> But + these indications of an age when the cultivation of the ground was + committed mainly to feminine hands are few and slight; and if the + Greek conception of Demeter as a goddess of corn and agriculture + really dates from such an age and was directly suggested by such a + division of labour between the sexes, it <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page130">[pg 130]</span><a name="Pg130" id="Pg130" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> seems clear that its origin must be sought at a + period far back in the history of the Aryan race, perhaps long before + the segregation of the Greeks from the common stock and their + formation into a separate people. It may be so, but to me I confess + that this derivation of the conception appears somewhat far-fetched + and improbable; and I prefer to suppose that the idea of the corn as + feminine was suggested to the Greek mind, not by the position of + women in remote prehistoric ages, but by a direct observation of + nature, the teeming head of corn appearing to the primitive fancy to + resemble the teeming womb of a woman, and the ripe ear on the stalk + being likened to a child borne in the arms or on the back of its + mother. At least we know that similar sights suggest similar ideas to + some of the agricultural negroes of West Africa. Thus the Hos of + Togoland, who plant maize in February and reap it in July, say that + the maize is an image of a mother; when the cobs are forming, the + mother is binding the infant on her back, but in July she sinks her + head and dies and the child is taken away from her, to be afterwards + multiplied at the next sowing.<a id="noteref_415" name="noteref_415" + href="#note_415"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">415</span></span></a> When + the rude aborigines of Western Australia observe that a seed-bearing + plant has flowered, they call it the Mother of So-and-so, naming the + particular kind of plant, and they will not allow it to be dug + up.<a id="noteref_416" name="noteref_416" href= + "#note_416"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">416</span></span></a> + Apparently they think that respect and regard are due to the plant as + to a mother and her child. Such simple and natural comparisons, which + may occur to men in any age and country, suffice to explain the Greek + personification of the corn as mother and daughter, and we need not + cast about for more recondite theories. Be that as it may, the + conception of the corn as a woman and a mother was certainly not + peculiar to the ancient Greeks, but has been shared by them with many + other races, as will appear abundantly from the instances which I + shall cite in the following chapter.</p> + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page131">[pg 131]</span><a name= + "Pg131" id="Pg131" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + <hr class="page" /> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> + <a name="toc11" id="toc11"></a> <a name="pdf12" id="pdf12"></a> + + <h1 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"> + <span style="font-size: 173%">Chapter V. The Corn-Mother and the + Corn-Maiden in Northern Europe.</span></h1> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Suggested derivation of the name + Demeter.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It has been argued + by W. Mannhardt that the first part of Demeter's name is derived from + an alleged Cretan word <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">deai</span></span>, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“barley,”</span> and that accordingly Demeter means + neither more nor less than <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Barley-mother”</span> or <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Corn-mother”</span>;<a id="noteref_417" name= + "noteref_417" href="#note_417"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">417</span></span></a> for the + root of the word seems to have been applied to different kinds of + grain by different branches of the Aryans.<a id="noteref_418" name= + "noteref_418" href="#note_418"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">418</span></span></a> As + Crete appears to have been one of the most ancient seats of the + worship of Demeter,<a id="noteref_419" name="noteref_419" href= + "#note_419"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">419</span></span></a> it + would not be surprising if her name were of Cretan origin. But the + etymology is open to serious objections,<a id="noteref_420" name= + "noteref_420" href="#note_420"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">420</span></span></a> and it + is safer therefore to lay no stress on it. Be that as it may, we have + found independent reasons for identifying Demeter as the Corn-mother, + and of the two species of corn associated with her in Greek + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page132">[pg 132]</span><a name="Pg132" + id="Pg132" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> religion, namely barley and + wheat, the barley has perhaps the better claim to be her original + element; for not only would it seem to have been the staple food of + the Greeks in the Homeric age, but there are grounds for believing + that it is one of the oldest, if not the very oldest, cereal + cultivated by the Aryan race. Certainly the use of barley in the + religious ritual of the ancient Hindoos as well as of the ancient + Greeks furnishes a strong argument in favour of the great antiquity + of its cultivation, which is known to have been practised by the + lake-dwellers of the Stone Age in Europe.<a id="noteref_421" name= + "noteref_421" href="#note_421"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">421</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Analogies to the + Corn-mother or Barley-mother of ancient Greece have been collected in + great abundance by W. Mannhardt from the folk-lore of modern Europe. + The following may serve as specimens.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The Corn-mother among the Germans + and the Slavs.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In Germany the + corn is very commonly personified under the name of the Corn-mother. + Thus in spring, when the corn waves in the wind, the peasants say, + <span class="tei tei-q">“There comes the Corn-mother,”</span> or + <span class="tei tei-q">“The Corn-mother is running over the + field,”</span> or <span class="tei tei-q">“The Corn-mother is going + through the corn.”</span><a id="noteref_422" name="noteref_422" href= + "#note_422"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">422</span></span></a> When + children wish to go into the fields to pull the blue corn-flowers or + the red poppies, they are told not to do so, because the Corn-mother + is sitting in the corn and will catch them.<a id="noteref_423" name= + "noteref_423" href="#note_423"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">423</span></span></a> Or + again she is called, according to the crop, the Rye-mother or the + Pea-mother, and children are warned against straying in the rye or + among the peas by threats of the Rye-mother or the Pea-mother. In + Norway also the Pea-mother is said to sit among the peas.<a id= + "noteref_424" name="noteref_424" href="#note_424"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">424</span></span></a> Similar + expressions are current among the Slavs. The Poles and <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page133">[pg 133]</span><a name="Pg133" id="Pg133" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> Czechs warn children against the + Corn-mother who sits in the corn. Or they call her the old + Corn-woman, and say that she sits in the corn and strangles the + children who tread it down.<a id="noteref_425" name="noteref_425" + href="#note_425"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">425</span></span></a> The + Lithuanians say, <span class="tei tei-q">“The Old Rye-woman sits in + the corn.”</span><a id="noteref_426" name="noteref_426" href= + "#note_426"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">426</span></span></a> Again + the Corn-mother is believed to make the crop grow. Thus in the + neighbourhood of Magdeburg it is sometimes said, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“It will be a good year for flax; the Flax-mother has + been seen.”</span> At Dinkelsbühl, in Bavaria, down to the latter + part of the nineteenth century, people believed that when the crops + on a particular farm compared unfavourably with those of the + neighbourhood, the reason was that the Corn-mother had punished the + farmer for his sins.<a id="noteref_427" name="noteref_427" href= + "#note_427"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">427</span></span></a> In a + village of Styria it is said that the Corn-mother, in the shape of a + female puppet made out of the last sheaf of corn and dressed in + white, may be seen at midnight in the corn-fields, which she + fertilises by passing through them; but if she is angry with a + farmer, she withers up all his corn.<a id="noteref_428" name= + "noteref_428" href="#note_428"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">428</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The Corn-mother in the last sheaf. + Fertilising power of the Corn-mother. The Corn-mother in the last + sheaf among the Slavs and in France.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Further, the + Corn-mother plays an important part in harvest customs. She is + believed to be present in the handful of corn which is left standing + last on the field; and with the cutting of this last handful she is + caught, or driven away, or killed. In the first of these cases, the + last sheaf is carried joyfully home and honoured as a divine being. + It is placed in the barn, and at threshing the corn-spirit appears + again.<a id="noteref_429" name="noteref_429" href= + "#note_429"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">429</span></span></a> In the + Hanoverian district of Hadeln the reapers stand round the last sheaf + and beat it with sticks in order to drive the Corn-mother out of it. + They call to each other, <span class="tei tei-q">“There she is! hit + her! Take care she doesn't catch you!”</span> The beating goes on + till the grain is completely threshed out; then the Corn-mother is + believed to be driven away.<a id="noteref_430" name="noteref_430" + href="#note_430"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">430</span></span></a> In the + neighbourhood of Danzig the person who cuts the last ears of corn + makes them into a doll, which is called the Corn-mother or the Old + Woman and is brought home on the last waggon.<a id="noteref_431" + name="noteref_431" href="#note_431"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">431</span></span></a> In some + parts <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page134">[pg 134]</span><a name= + "Pg134" id="Pg134" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> of Holstein the last + sheaf is dressed in woman's clothes and called the Corn-mother. It is + carried home on the last waggon, and then thoroughly drenched with + water. The drenching with water is doubtless a rain-charm.<a id= + "noteref_432" name="noteref_432" href="#note_432"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">432</span></span></a> In the + district of Bruck in Styria the last sheaf, called the Corn-mother, + is made up into the shape of a woman by the oldest married woman in + the village, of an age from fifty to fifty-five years. The finest + ears are plucked out of it and made into a wreath, which, twined with + flowers, is carried on her head by the prettiest girl of the village + to the farmer or squire, while the Corn-mother is laid down in the + barn to keep off the mice.<a id="noteref_433" name="noteref_433" + href="#note_433"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">433</span></span></a> In + other villages of the same district the Corn-mother, at the close of + harvest, is carried by two lads at the top of a pole. They march + behind the girl who wears the wreath to the squire's house, and while + he receives the wreath and hangs it up in the hall, the Corn-mother + is placed on the top of a pile of wood, where she is the centre of + the harvest supper and dance. Afterwards she is hung up in the barn + and remains there till the threshing is over. The man who gives the + last stroke at threshing is called the son of the Corn-mother; he is + tied up in the Corn-mother, beaten, and carried through the village. + The wreath is dedicated in church on the following Sunday; and on + Easter Eve the grain is rubbed out of it by a seven-years-old girl + and scattered amongst the young corn. At Christmas the straw of the + wreath is placed in the manger to make the cattle thrive.<a id= + "noteref_434" name="noteref_434" href="#note_434"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">434</span></span></a> Here + the fertilising power of the Corn-mother is plainly brought out by + scattering the seed taken from her body (for the wreath is made out + of the Corn-mother) among the new corn; and her influence over animal + life is indicated by placing the straw in the manger. At Westerhüsen, + in Saxony, the last corn cut is made in the shape of a woman decked + with ribbons and cloth. It is fastened to a pole and brought home on + the last waggon. One of the people in the waggon keeps waving the + pole, so that the figure moves as if alive. It is placed on the + threshing-floor, and stays there till the threshing is done.<a id= + "noteref_435" name="noteref_435" href="#note_435"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">435</span></span></a> + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page135">[pg 135]</span><a name="Pg135" + id="Pg135" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> Amongst the Slavs also the + last sheaf is known as the Rye-mother, the Wheat-mother, the + Oats-mother, the Barley-mother, and so on, according to the crop. In + the district of Tarnow, Galicia, the wreath made out of the last + stalks is called the Wheat-mother, Rye-mother, or Pea-mother. It is + placed on a girl's head and kept till spring, when some of the grain + is mixed with the seed-corn.<a id="noteref_436" name="noteref_436" + href="#note_436"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">436</span></span></a> Here + again the fertilising power of the Corn-mother is indicated. In + France, also, in the neighbourhood of Auxerre, the last sheaf goes by + the name of the Mother of the Wheat, Mother of the Barley, Mother of + the Rye, or Mother of the Oats. They leave it standing in the field + till the last waggon is about to wend homewards. Then they make a + puppet out of it, dress it with clothes belonging to the farmer, and + adorn it with a crown and a blue or white scarf. A branch of a tree + is stuck in the breast of the puppet, which is now called the Ceres. + At the dance in the evening the Ceres is set in the middle of the + floor, and the reaper who reaped fastest dances round it with the + prettiest girl for his partner. After the dance a pyre is made. All + the girls, each wearing a wreath, strip the puppet, pull it to + pieces, and place it on the pyre, along with the flowers with which + it was adorned. Then the girl who was the first to finish reaping + sets fire to the pile, and all pray that Ceres may give a fruitful + year. Here, as Mannhardt observes, the old custom has remained + intact, though the name Ceres is a bit of schoolmaster's + learning.<a id="noteref_437" name="noteref_437" href= + "#note_437"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">437</span></span></a> In + Upper Brittany the last sheaf is always made into human shape; but if + the farmer is a married man, it is made double and consists of a + little corn-puppet placed inside of a large one. This is called the + Mother-sheaf. It is delivered to the farmer's wife, who unties it and + gives drink-money in return.<a id="noteref_438" name="noteref_438" + href="#note_438"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">438</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The Harvest-mother or the Great + Mother in the last sheaf.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Sometimes the last + sheaf is called, not the Corn-mother, but the Harvest-mother or the + Great Mother. In the province of Osnabrück, Hanover, it is called the + Harvest-mother; it is made up in female form, and then the reapers + dance about with it. In some parts of Westphalia the last sheaf at + the rye-harvest is made especially heavy by fastening <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page136">[pg 136]</span><a name="Pg136" id="Pg136" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> stones in it. They bring it home on the + last waggon and call it the Great Mother, though they do not fashion + it into any special shape. In the district of Erfurt a very heavy + sheaf, not necessarily the last, is called the Great Mother, and is + carried on the last waggon to the barn, where all hands lift it down + amid a fire of jokes.<a id="noteref_439" name="noteref_439" href= + "#note_439"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">439</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The Grandmother in the last + sheaf.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Sometimes again + the last sheaf is called the Grandmother, and is adorned with + flowers, ribbons, and a woman's apron. In East Prussia, at the rye or + wheat harvest, the reapers call out to the woman who binds the last + sheaf, <span class="tei tei-q">“You are getting the Old + Grandmother.”</span> In the neighbourhood of Magdeburg the men and + women servants strive who shall get the last sheaf, called the + Grandmother. Whoever gets it will be married in the next year, but + his or her spouse will be old; if a girl gets it, she will marry a + widower; if a man gets it, he will marry an old crone. In Silesia the + Grandmother—a huge bundle made up of three or four sheaves by the + person who tied the last sheaf—was formerly fashioned into a rude + likeness of the human form.<a id="noteref_440" name="noteref_440" + href="#note_440"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">440</span></span></a> In the + neighbourhood of Belfast the last sheaf sometimes goes by the name of + the Granny. It is not cut in the usual way, but all the reapers throw + their sickles at it and try to bring it down. It is plaited and kept + till the (next?) autumn. Whoever gets it will marry in the course of + the year.<a id="noteref_441" name="noteref_441" href= + "#note_441"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">441</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The Old Woman or the Old Man in the + last sheaf.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Oftener the last + sheaf is called the Old Woman or the Old Man. In Germany it is + frequently shaped and dressed as a woman, and the person who cuts it + or binds it is said to <span class="tei tei-q">“get the Old + Woman.”</span><a id="noteref_442" name="noteref_442" href= + "#note_442"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">442</span></span></a> At + Altisheim, in Swabia, when all the corn of a farm has been cut except + a single strip, all the reapers stand in a row before the strip; each + cuts his share rapidly, and he who gives the last cut <span class= + "tei tei-q">“has the Old Woman.”</span><a id="noteref_443" name= + "noteref_443" href="#note_443"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">443</span></span></a> When + the sheaves are being set up in heaps, the person who gets hold of + the Old Woman, which is the largest and thickest of all the sheaves, + is jeered at by the rest, who call out to him, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“He has the Old Woman and must keep her.”</span><a id= + "noteref_444" name="noteref_444" href="#note_444"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">444</span></span></a> The + woman who binds the last sheaf is <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page137">[pg 137]</span><a name="Pg137" id="Pg137" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> sometimes herself called the Old Woman, and it + is said that she will be married in the next year.<a id="noteref_445" + name="noteref_445" href="#note_445"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">445</span></span></a> In + Neusaass, West Prussia, both the last sheaf—which is dressed up in + jacket, hat, and ribbons—and the woman who binds it are called the + Old Woman. Together they are brought home on the last waggon and are + drenched with water.<a id="noteref_446" name="noteref_446" href= + "#note_446"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">446</span></span></a> In + various parts of North Germany the last sheaf at harvest is made up + into a human effigy and called <span class="tei tei-q">“the Old + Man”</span>; and the woman who bound it is said <span class= + "tei tei-q">“to have the Old Man.”</span><a id="noteref_447" name= + "noteref_447" href="#note_447"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">447</span></span></a> At + Hornkampe, near Tiegenhof (West Prussia), when a man or woman lags + behind the rest in binding the corn, the other reapers dress up the + last sheaf in the form of a man or woman, and this figure goes by the + laggard's name, as <span class="tei tei-q">“the old Michael,”</span> + <span class="tei tei-q">“the idle Trine.”</span> It is brought home + on the last waggon, and, as it nears the house, the bystanders call + out to the laggard, <span class="tei tei-q">“You have got the Old + Woman and must keep her.”</span><a id="noteref_448" name= + "noteref_448" href="#note_448"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">448</span></span></a> In + Brandenburg the young folks on the harvest-field race towards a sheaf + and jump over it. The last to jump over it has to carry a straw + puppet, adorned with ribbons, to the farmer and deliver it to him + while he recites some verses. Of the person who thus carries the + puppet it is said that <span class="tei tei-q">“he has the Old + Man.”</span> Probably the puppet is or used to be made out of the + last corn cut.<a id="noteref_449" name="noteref_449" href= + "#note_449"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">449</span></span></a> In many + districts of Saxony the last sheaf used to be adorned with ribbons + and set upright so as to look like a man. It was then known as + <span class="tei tei-q">“the Old Man,”</span> and the young women + brought it back in procession to the farm, singing as they went, + <span class="tei tei-q">“Now we are bringing the Old + Man.”</span><a id="noteref_450" name="noteref_450" href= + "#note_450"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">450</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The Old Man or the Old Woman in the + last sheaf.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In West Prussia, + when the last rye is being raked together, the women and girls hurry + with the work, for none of them likes to be the last and to get + <span class="tei tei-q">“the Old Man,”</span> that is, a puppet made + out of the last sheaf, which must be carried before the other reapers + by the person who was the last <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page138">[pg 138]</span><a name="Pg138" id="Pg138" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> to finish.<a id="noteref_451" name= + "noteref_451" href="#note_451"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">451</span></span></a> In + Silesia the last sheaf is called the Old Woman or the Old Man and is + the theme of many jests; it is made unusually large and is sometimes + weighted with a stone. At Girlachsdorf, near Reichenbach, when this + heavy sheaf is lifted into the waggon, they say, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“That is the Old Man whom we sought for so + long.”</span><a id="noteref_452" name="noteref_452" href= + "#note_452"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">452</span></span></a> Among + the Germans of West Bohemia the man who cuts the last corn is said to + <span class="tei tei-q">“have the Old Man.”</span> In former times it + used to be customary to put a wreath on his head and to play all + kinds of pranks with him, and at the harvest supper he was given the + largest portion.<a id="noteref_453" name="noteref_453" href= + "#note_453"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">453</span></span></a> At + Wolletz in Westphalia the last sheaf at harvest is called the Old + Man, and being made up into the likeness of a man and decorated with + flowers it is presented to the farmer, who in return prepares a feast + for the reapers. About Unna, in Westphalia, the last sheaf at harvest + is made unusually large, and stones are inserted to increase its + weight. It is called <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">de greaute meaur</span></span> (the Grey + Mother?), and when it is brought home on the waggon water is thrown + on the harvesters who accompany it.<a id="noteref_454" name= + "noteref_454" href="#note_454"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">454</span></span></a> Among + the Wends the man or woman who binds the last sheaf at wheat harvest + is said to <span class="tei tei-q">“have the Old Man.”</span> A + puppet is made out of the wheaten straw and ears in the likeness of a + man and decked with flowers. The person who bound the last sheaf must + carry the Old Man home, while the rest laugh and jeer at him. The + puppet is hung up in the farmhouse and remains till a new Old Man is + made at the next harvest.<a id="noteref_455" name="noteref_455" href= + "#note_455"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">455</span></span></a> At the + close of the harvest the Arabs of Moab bury the last sheaf in a grave + in the cornfield, saying as they do so, <span class="tei tei-q">“We + are burying the Old Man,”</span> or <span class="tei tei-q">“The Old + Man is dead.”</span><a id="noteref_456" name="noteref_456" href= + "#note_456"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">456</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Identification of the harvester with + the corn-spirit.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In some of these + customs, as Mannhardt has remarked, the person who is called by the + same name as the last sheaf and sits beside it on the last waggon is + obviously identified <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page139">[pg + 139]</span><a name="Pg139" id="Pg139" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + with it; he or she represents the corn-spirit which has been caught + in the last sheaf; in other words, the corn-spirit is represented in + duplicate, by a human being and by a sheaf.<a id="noteref_457" name= + "noteref_457" href="#note_457"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">457</span></span></a> The + identification of the person with the sheaf is made still clearer by + the custom of wrapping up in the last sheaf the person who cuts or + binds it. Thus at Hermsdorf in Silesia it used to be the regular + practice to tie up in the last sheaf the woman who had bound + it.<a id="noteref_458" name="noteref_458" href= + "#note_458"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">458</span></span></a> At + Weiden, in Bavaria, it is the cutter, not the binder, of the last + sheaf who is tied up in it.<a id="noteref_459" name="noteref_459" + href="#note_459"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">459</span></span></a> Here + the person wrapt up in the corn represents the corn-spirit, exactly + as a person wrapt in branches or leaves represents the + tree-spirit.<a id="noteref_460" name="noteref_460" href= + "#note_460"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">460</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The last sheaf made unusually large + and heavy.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The last sheaf, + designated as the Old Woman, is often distinguished from the other + sheaves by its size and weight. Thus in some villages of West Prussia + the Old Woman is made twice as long and thick as a common sheaf, and + a stone is fastened in the middle of it. Sometimes it is made so + heavy that a man can barely lift it.<a id="noteref_461" name= + "noteref_461" href="#note_461"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">461</span></span></a> At + Alt-Pillau, in Samland, eight or nine sheaves are often tied together + to make the Old Woman, and the man who sets it up grumbles at its + weight.<a id="noteref_462" name="noteref_462" href= + "#note_462"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">462</span></span></a> At + Itzgrund, in Saxe-Coburg, the last sheaf, called the Old Woman, is + made large with the express intention of thereby securing a good crop + next year.<a id="noteref_463" name="noteref_463" href= + "#note_463"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">463</span></span></a> Thus + the custom of making the last sheaf unusually large or heavy is a + charm, working by sympathetic magic, to ensure a large and heavy crop + at the following harvest. In Denmark also the last sheaf is made + larger than the others, and is called the Old Rye-woman or the Old + Barley-woman. No one likes to bind it, because whoever does so will + be sure, they think, to marry an old man or an old woman. Sometimes + the last wheat-sheaf, called the Old Wheat-woman, is made up in human + shape, with head, <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page140">[pg + 140]</span><a name="Pg140" id="Pg140" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + arms, and legs, and being dressed in clothes is carried home on the + last waggon, while the harvesters sit beside it drinking and + huzzaing.<a id="noteref_464" name="noteref_464" href= + "#note_464"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">464</span></span></a> Of the + person who binds the last sheaf it is said, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“She or he is the Old Rye-woman.”</span><a id= + "noteref_465" name="noteref_465" href="#note_465"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">465</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The Carlin and the Maiden in + Scotland. The Old Wife (</span><span class= + "tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-size: 80%; font-style: italic">Cailleach</span></span><span style="font-size: 80%">) + at harvest in the Highlands of Scotland.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In Scotland, when + the last corn was cut after Hallowmas, the female figure made out of + it was sometimes called the Carlin or Carline, that is, the Old + Woman. But if cut before Hallowmas, it was called the Maiden; if cut + after sunset, it was called the Witch, being supposed to bring bad + luck.<a id="noteref_466" name="noteref_466" href= + "#note_466"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">466</span></span></a> Among + the Highlanders of Scotland the last corn cut at harvest is known + either as the Old Wife (<span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Cailleach</span></span>) or as the Maiden; on + the whole the former name seems to prevail in the western and the + latter in the central and eastern districts. Of the Maiden we shall + speak presently; here we are dealing with the Old Wife. The following + general account of the custom is given by a careful and well-informed + enquirer, the Rev. J. G. Campbell, minister of the remote Hebridean + island of Tiree: <span class="tei tei-q">“The Harvest Old Wife + (<span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">a + Chailleach</span></span>).—In harvest, there was a struggle to escape + from being the last done with the shearing,<a id="noteref_467" name= + "noteref_467" href="#note_467"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">467</span></span></a> and + when tillage in common existed, instances were known of a ridge being + left unshorn (no person would claim it) because of it being behind + the rest. The fear entertained was that of having the <span class= + "tei tei-q">‘famine of the farm’</span> (<span class= + "tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">gort a + bhaile</span></span>), in the shape of an imaginary old woman + (<span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">cailleach</span></span>), to feed till next + harvest. Much emulation and amusement arose from the fear of this old + woman.... The first done made a doll of some blades of corn, which + was called the <span class="tei tei-q">‘old wife,’</span> and sent it + to his nearest neighbour. He in turn, when ready, passed it to + another still less expeditious, and the person it last remained with + had <span class="tei tei-q">‘the old woman’</span> to keep for that + year.”</span><a id="noteref_468" name="noteref_468" href= + "#note_468"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">468</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The Old Wife (</span><span class= + "tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-size: 80%; font-style: italic">Cailleach</span></span><span style="font-size: 80%">) + in the last sheaf at harvest in the islands of Lewis and Islay. + The Old Wife at harvest in Argyleshire. The reaper of the last + sheaf called the Winter.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">To illustrate the + custom by examples, in Bernera, on the west of Lewis, the harvest + rejoicing goes by the name of the Old Wife (<span class= + "tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Cailleach</span></span>) from the last sheaf + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page141">[pg 141]</span><a name="Pg141" + id="Pg141" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> cut, whether in a township, + farm, or croft. Where there are a number of crofts beside each other, + there is always great rivalry as to who shall first finish reaping, + and so have the Old Wife before his neighbours. Some people even go + out on a clear night to reap their fields after their neighbours have + retired to rest, in order that they may have the Old Wife first. More + neighbourly habits, however, usually prevail, and as each finishes + his own fields he goes to the help of another, till the whole crop is + cut. The reaping is still done with the sickle. When the corn has + been cut on all the crofts, the last sheaf is dressed up to look as + like an old woman as possible. She wears a white cap, a dress, an + apron, and a little shawl over the shoulders fastened with a sprig of + heather. The apron is tucked up to form a pocket, which is stuffed + with bread and cheese. A sickle, stuck in the string of the apron at + the back, completes her equipment. This costume and outfit mean that + the Old Wife is ready to bear a hand in the work of harvesting. At + the feast which follows, the Old Wife is placed at the head of the + table, and as the whisky goes round each of the company drinks to + her, saying, <span class="tei tei-q">“Here's to the one that has + helped us with the harvest.”</span> When the table has been cleared + away and dancing begins, one of the lads leads out the Old Wife and + dances with her; and if the night is fine the party will sometimes go + out and march in a body to a considerable distance, singing + harvest-songs, while one of them carries the Old Wife on his back. + When the Harvest-Home is over, the Old Wife is shorn of her gear and + used for ordinary purposes.<a id="noteref_469" name="noteref_469" + href="#note_469"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">469</span></span></a> In the + island of Islay the last corn cut also goes by the name of the Old + Wife (<span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Cailleach</span></span>), and when she has done + her duty at harvest she is hung up on the wall and stays there till + the time comes to plough the fields for the next year's crop. Then + she is taken down, and on the first day when the men go to plough she + is divided among them by the mistress of the house. They take her in + their pockets and give her to the horses to eat when they reach the + field. This is supposed to secure good luck for the next harvest, and + is understood to be the proper end of the Old <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page142">[pg 142]</span><a name="Pg142" id="Pg142" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> Wife.<a id="noteref_470" name= + "noteref_470" href="#note_470"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">470</span></span></a> In + Kintyre also the name of the Old Wife is given to the last corn + cut.<a id="noteref_471" name="noteref_471" href= + "#note_471"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">471</span></span></a> On the + shores of the beautiful Loch Awe, a long sheet of water, winding + among soft green hills, above which the giant Ben Cruachan towers + bold and rugged on the north, the harvest custom is somewhat + different. The name of the Old Wife (<span class= + "tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Cailleach</span></span>) is here bestowed, not + on the last corn cut, but on the reaper who is the last to finish. He + bears it as a term of reproach, and is not privileged to reap the + last ears left standing. On the contrary, these are cut by the reaper + who was the first to finish his <span class= + "tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">spagh</span></span> or strip (literally + <span class="tei tei-q">“claw”</span>), and out of them is fashioned + the Maiden, which is afterwards hung up, according to one statement, + <span class="tei tei-q">“for the purpose of preventing the death of + horses in spring.”</span><a id="noteref_472" name="noteref_472" href= + "#note_472"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">472</span></span></a> In the + north-east of Scotland <span class="tei tei-q">“the one who took the + last of the grain from the field to the stackyard was called the + <span class="tei tei-q">‘winter.’</span> Each one did what could be + done to avoid being the last on the field, and when there were + several on the field there was a race to get off. The unfortunate + <span class="tei tei-q">‘winter’</span> was the subject of a good + deal of teasing, and was dressed up in all the old clothes that could + be gathered about the farm, and placed on the <span class= + "tei tei-q">‘bink’</span> to eat his supper.”</span><a id= + "noteref_473" name="noteref_473" href="#note_473"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">473</span></span></a> So in + Caithness the person who cuts the last sheaf is called Winter and + retains the name till the next harvest.<a id="noteref_474" name= + "noteref_474" href="#note_474"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">474</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The Hag (</span><span class= + "tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-size: 80%; font-style: italic">wrach</span></span><span style="font-size: 80%">) + at harvest in North Pembrokeshire.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Usages of the same + sort are reported from Wales. Thus in North Pembrokeshire a tuft of + the last corn cut, from six to twelve inches long, is plaited and + goes by the name of the Hag (<span class= + "tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">wrach</span></span>); and quaint old customs + used to be practised with it within the memory of many persons still + alive. Great was the excitement among the reapers when the last patch + of standing corn was reached. All in turn threw their sickles at it, + and the one who succeeded in cutting it received a jug of home-brewed + ale. The Hag (<span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">wrach</span></span>) was then hurriedly made and + taken to a neighbouring farm, where the reapers were still busy at + their work. This was generally done by the ploughman; but he had to + be very <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page143">[pg 143]</span><a name= + "Pg143" id="Pg143" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> careful not to be + observed by his neighbours, for if they saw him coming and had the + least suspicion of his errand they would soon make him retrace his + steps. Creeping stealthily up behind a fence he waited till the + foreman of his neighbour's reapers was just opposite him and within + easy reach. Then he suddenly threw the Hag over the fence and, if + possible, upon the foreman's sickle, crying out</p> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 0.90em; margin-top: 0.90em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Boreu y codais + i,</span></span></span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Hwyr y dilynais + i,</span></span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left"><span class= + "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Ar ei gwar + hi.</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + </div> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The Hag (</span><span class= + "tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-size: 80%; font-style: italic">wrach</span></span><span style="font-size: 80%">) + at harvest in South Pembrokeshire. The Carley at harvest in + Antrim.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">On that he took to + his heels and made off as fast as he could run, and he was a lucky + man if he escaped without being caught or cut by the flying sickles + which the infuriated reapers hurled after him. In other cases the Hag + was brought home to the farmhouse by one of the reapers. He did his + best to bring it home dry and without being observed; but he was apt + to be roughly handled by the people of the house, if they suspected + his errand. Sometimes they stripped him of most of his clothes, + sometimes they would drench him with water which had been carefully + stored in buckets and pans for the purpose. If, however, he succeeded + in bringing the Hag in dry and unobserved, the master of the house + had to pay him a small fine; or sometimes a jug of beer <span class= + "tei tei-q">“from the cask next to the wall,”</span> which seems to + have commonly held the best beer, would be demanded by the bearer. + The Hag was then carefully hung on a nail in the hall or elsewhere + and kept there all the year. The custom of bringing in the Hag + (<span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">wrach</span></span>) into the house and hanging + it up still exists in some farms of North Pembrokeshire, but the + ancient ceremonies which have just been described are now + discontinued.<a id="noteref_475" name="noteref_475" href= + "#note_475"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">475</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Similar customs at + harvest were observed in South <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page144">[pg 144]</span><a name="Pg144" id="Pg144" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> Pembrokeshire within living memory. In that + part of the country there used to be a competition between + neighbouring farms to see which would finish reaping first. The + foreman of the reapers planned so as to finish the reaping in a + corner of the field out of sight of the people on the next farm. + There, with the last handful of corn cut, he would make two Old Women + or Hags (<span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">wrachs</span></span>). One of them he would send + by a lad or other messenger to be laid secretly in the field where + the neighbours were still at work cutting their corn. The messenger + would disguise himself to look like a stranger, and jumping the fence + and creeping through the corn he would lay the Hag (<span class= + "tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">wrach</span></span>) in a place where the + reapers in reaping would be sure to find it. Having done so he fled + for dear life, for were the reapers to catch him they would shut him + up in a dark room and not let him out till he had cleaned all the + muddy boots, shoes, and clogs in the house. The second Hag + (<span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">wrach</span></span>) was sent or taken by the + foreman of the reapers to his master's farmhouse. Generally he tried + to pop into the house unseen and lay the Hag on the kitchen table; + but if the people of the farm caught him before he laid it down, they + used to drench him with water. If a foreman succeeded in getting both + the Hags (<span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">wrachs</span></span>) laid safe in their proper + quarters, one at home, the other on a neighbour's farm, without + interruption, it was deemed a great honour.<a id="noteref_476" name= + "noteref_476" href="#note_476"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">476</span></span></a> In + County Antrim, down to some years ago, when the sickle was finally + expelled by the reaping machine, the few stalks of corn left standing + last on the field were plaited together; then the reapers, + blindfolded, threw their sickles at the plaited corn, and whoever + happened to cut it through took it home with him and put it over his + door. This bunch of corn was called the Carley<a id="noteref_477" + name="noteref_477" href="#note_477"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">477</span></span></a>—probably + the same word as Carlin.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The Old Woman (the Baba) at harvest + among Slavonic peoples.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Similar customs + are observed by Slavonic peoples. Thus in Poland the last sheaf is + commonly called the Baba, that is, the Old Woman. <span class= + "tei tei-q">“In the last sheaf,”</span> it is said, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“sits the Baba.”</span> The sheaf itself is also called + the Baba, and is <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page145">[pg + 145]</span><a name="Pg145" id="Pg145" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + sometimes composed of twelve smaller sheaves lashed together.<a id= + "noteref_478" name="noteref_478" href="#note_478"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">478</span></span></a> In some + parts of Bohemia the Baba, made out of the last sheaf, has the figure + of a woman with a great straw hat. It is carried home on the last + harvest-waggon and delivered, along with a garland, to the farmer by + two girls. In binding the sheaves the women strive not to be last, + for she who binds the last sheaf will have a child next year.<a id= + "noteref_479" name="noteref_479" href="#note_479"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">479</span></span></a> The + last sheaf is tied up with others into a large bundle, and a green + branch is stuck on the top of it.<a id="noteref_480" name= + "noteref_480" href="#note_480"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">480</span></span></a> + Sometimes the harvesters call out to the woman who binds the last + sheaf, <span class="tei tei-q">“She has the Baba,”</span> or + <span class="tei tei-q">“She is the Baba.”</span> She has then to + make a puppet, sometimes in female, sometimes in male form, out of + the corn; the puppet is occasionally dressed with clothes, often with + flowers and ribbons only. The cutter of the last stalks, as well as + the binder of the last sheaf, was also called Baba; and a doll, + called the Harvest-woman, was made out of the last sheaf and adorned + with ribbons. The oldest reaper had to dance, first with this doll, + and then with the farmer's wife.<a id="noteref_481" name= + "noteref_481" href="#note_481"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">481</span></span></a> In the + district of Cracow, when a man binds the last sheaf, they say, + <span class="tei tei-q">“The Grandfather is sitting in it”</span>; + when a woman binds it, they say, <span class="tei tei-q">“The Baba is + sitting in it,”</span> and the woman herself is wrapt up in the + sheaf, so that only her head projects out of it. Thus encased in the + sheaf, she is carried on the last harvest-waggon to the house, where + she is drenched with water by the whole family. She remains in the + sheaf till the dance is over, and for a year she retains the name of + Baba.<a id="noteref_482" name="noteref_482" href= + "#note_482"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">482</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The Old Woman (the Baba) at harvest + in Lithuania.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In Lithuania the + name for the last sheaf is Boba (Old Woman), answering to the Polish + name Baba. The Boba is said to sit in the corn which is left standing + last.<a id="noteref_483" name="noteref_483" href= + "#note_483"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">483</span></span></a> The + person who binds the last sheaf or digs the last potato is the + subject of much banter, and receives and long retains the name of the + Old Rye-woman or the Old Potato-woman.<a id="noteref_484" name= + "noteref_484" href="#note_484"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">484</span></span></a> The + last sheaf—the Boba—is made into the form of a woman, carried + solemnly through the village on the last harvest-waggon, and drenched + with water at the farmer's house; then every one dances with + it.<a id="noteref_485" name="noteref_485" href= + "#note_485"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">485</span></span></a></p><span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page146">[pg 146]</span><a name="Pg146" id="Pg146" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The Corn-queen and the + Harvest-queen.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In Russia also the + last sheaf is often shaped and dressed as a woman, and carried with + dance and song to the farmhouse. Out of the last sheaf the Bulgarians + make a doll which they call the Corn-queen or Corn-mother; it is + dressed in a woman's shirt, carried round the village, and then + thrown into the river in order to secure plenty of rain and dew for + the next year's crop. Or it is burned and the ashes strewn on the + fields, doubtless to fertilise them.<a id="noteref_486" name= + "noteref_486" href="#note_486"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">486</span></span></a> The + name Queen, as applied to the last sheaf, has its analogies in + central and northern Europe. Thus, in the Salzburg district of + Austria, at the end of the harvest a great procession takes place, in + which a Queen of the Corn-ears (<span lang="de" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="de"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Ährenkönigin</span></span>) is drawn along in a + little carriage by young fellows.<a id="noteref_487" name= + "noteref_487" href="#note_487"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">487</span></span></a> The + custom of the Harvest Queen appears to have been common in England. + Brand quotes from Hutchinson's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">History of Northumberland</span></span> the + following: <span class="tei tei-q">“I have seen, in some places, an + image apparelled in great finery, crowned with flowers, a sheaf of + corn placed under her arm, and a scycle in her hand, carried out of + the village in the morning of the conclusive reaping day, with music + and much clamour of the reapers, into the field, where it stands + fixed on a pole all day, and when the reaping is done, is brought + home in like manner. This they call the Harvest Queen, and it + represents the Roman Ceres.”</span><a id="noteref_488" name= + "noteref_488" href="#note_488"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">488</span></span></a> Again, + the traveller Dr. E. D. Clarke tells us that <span class= + "tei tei-q">“even in the town of Cambridge, and centre of our + University, such curious remains of antient customs may be noticed, + in different seasons of the year, which pass without observation. The + custom of blowing horns upon the first of May (Old Style) is derived + from a festival in honour of Diana. At the <span class= + "tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Hawkie</span></span>, as it is called, or + Harvest Home, I have seen a clown dressed in woman's clothes, having + his face painted, his head decorated with ears of corn, and bearing + about him other symbols of Ceres, carried in a waggon, with great + pomp and loud shouts, through the streets, the horses being covered + with white sheets: and when I inquired the meaning of the ceremony, + was answered by the people that they were drawing the Morgay (ΜΗΤΗΡ + ΓΗ) <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page147">[pg 147]</span><a name= + "Pg147" id="Pg147" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> or Harvest + Queen.”</span><a id="noteref_489" name="noteref_489" href= + "#note_489"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">489</span></span></a> Milton + must have been familiar with the custom of the Harvest Queen, for in + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Paradise + Lost</span></span><a id="noteref_490" name="noteref_490" href= + "#note_490"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">490</span></span></a> he + says:—</p> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 0.90em; margin-top: 0.90em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 16.20em"> + <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Adam the + while</span></span></span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Waiting desirous her + return, had wove</span></span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Of choicest flow'rs a + garland to adorn</span></span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Her tresses, and her rural + labours crown,</span></span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left"><span class= + "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">As reapers oft are wont + their harvest-queen.</span></span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + </div> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The corn-spirit as the Old Woman or + Old Man at threshing.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Often customs of + this sort are practised, not on the harvest-field but on the + threshing-floor. The spirit of the corn, fleeing before the reapers + as they cut down the ripe grain, quits the reaped corn and takes + refuge in the barn, where it appears in the last sheaf threshed, + either to perish under the blows of the flail or to flee thence to + the still unthreshed corn of a neighbouring farm.<a id="noteref_491" + name="noteref_491" href="#note_491"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">491</span></span></a> Thus + the last corn to be threshed is called the Mother-Corn or the Old + Woman. Sometimes the person who gives the last stroke with the flail + is called the Old Woman, and is wrapt in the straw of the last sheaf, + or has a bundle of straw fastened on his back. Whether wrapt in the + straw or carrying it on his back, he is carted through the village + amid general laughter. In some districts of Bavaria, Thüringen, and + elsewhere, the man who threshes the last sheaf is said to have the + Old Woman or the Old Corn-woman; he is tied up in straw, carried or + carted about the village, and set down at last <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page148">[pg 148]</span><a name="Pg148" id="Pg148" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> on the dunghill, or taken to the + threshing-floor of a neighbouring farmer who has not finished his + threshing.<a id="noteref_492" name="noteref_492" href= + "#note_492"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">492</span></span></a> In + Poland the man who gives the last stroke at threshing is called Baba + (Old Woman); he is wrapt in corn and wheeled through the + village.<a id="noteref_493" name="noteref_493" href= + "#note_493"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">493</span></span></a> + Sometimes in Lithuania the last sheaf is not threshed, but is + fashioned into female shape and carried to the barn of a neighbour + who has not finished his threshing.<a id="noteref_494" name= + "noteref_494" href="#note_494"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">494</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The man who gives the last stroke at + threshing is called the Corn-fool, the Oats-fool, etc.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">At Chorinchen, + near Neustadt, the man who gives the last stroke at threshing is said + to <span class="tei tei-q">“get the Old Man.”</span><a id= + "noteref_495" name="noteref_495" href="#note_495"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">495</span></span></a> In + various parts of Austrian Silesia he is called the corn-fool, the + oats-fool, and so forth according to the crop, and retains the name + till the next kind of grain has been reaped. Sometimes he is called + the <span lang="de" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang= + "de"><span style="font-style: italic">Klöppel</span></span> or + mallet. He is much ridiculed and in the Bennisch district he is + dressed out in the threshing-implements and obliged to carry them + about the farmyard to the amusement of his fellows. In Dobischwald + the man who gives the last stroke at threshing has to carry a log or + puppet of wood wrapt in straw to a neighbour who has not yet finished + his threshing. There he throws his burden into the barn, crying, + <span class="tei tei-q">“There you have the Mallet (<span lang="de" + class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="de"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Klöppel</span></span>),”</span> and makes off as + fast as he can. If they catch him, they tie the puppet on his back, + and he is known as the Mallet (<span lang="de" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="de"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Klöppel</span></span>) for the whole of the + year; he may be the Corn-mallet or the Wheat-mallet or so forth + according to the particular crop.<a id="noteref_496" name= + "noteref_496" href="#note_496"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">496</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The man who gives the last stroke at + threshing is said to get the Old Woman or the Old Man. The + Corn-woman at threshing.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">About Berneck, in + Upper Franken, the man who gives the last stroke at threshing runs + away. If the others catch him, he gets <span class="tei tei-q">“the + Old Woman,”</span> that is, the largest dumpling, which elsewhere is + baked in human shape. The custom of setting a dumpling baked in the + form of an old woman before the man who has given the last stroke at + threshing is also observed in various parts of Middle Franken. + Sometimes the excised genitals of a calf are served up to him at + table.<a id="noteref_497" name="noteref_497" href= + "#note_497"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">497</span></span></a> At + Langenbielau in Silesia the last sheaf, which <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page149">[pg 149]</span><a name="Pg149" id="Pg149" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> is called <span class="tei tei-q">“the + Old Man,”</span> is threshed separately and the corn ground into meal + and baked into a loaf. This loaf is believed to possess healing + virtue and to bring a blessing; hence none but members of the family + may partake of it. At Wittichenau, in the district of Hoyerswerda + (Silesia), when the threshing is ended, some of the straw of + <span class="tei tei-q">“the Old Man”</span> is carried to a + neighbour who has not yet finished his threshing, and the bearer is + rewarded with a gratuity.<a id="noteref_498" name="noteref_498" href= + "#note_498"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">498</span></span></a> Among + the Germans of the Falkenauer district in West Bohemia the man who + gives the last stroke at threshing gets <span class="tei tei-q">“the + Old Man,”</span> a hideous scarecrow, tied on his back. If threshing + is still proceeding at another farm, he may go thither and rid + himself of his burden, but must take care not to be caught. In this + way a farmer who is behind-hand with his threshing may receive + several such scarecrows, and so become the target for many gibes. + Among the Germans of the Planer district in West Bohemia, the man who + gives the last stroke at threshing is himself called <span class= + "tei tei-q">“the Old Man.”</span> Similarly at flax-dressing in + Silberberg (West Bohemia), the woman who is the last to finish her + task is said to get the Old Man, and a cake baked in human form is + served up to her at supper.<a id="noteref_499" name="noteref_499" + href="#note_499"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">499</span></span></a> The + Wends of Saxony say of the man who gives the last stroke at threshing + that <span class="tei tei-q">“he has struck the Old Man”</span> + (<span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">wón + je stareho bil</span></span>), and he is obliged to carry a straw + puppet to a neighbour, who has not yet finished his threshing, where + he throws the puppet unobserved over the fence.<a id="noteref_500" + name="noteref_500" href="#note_500"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">500</span></span></a> In some + parts of Sweden, when a stranger woman appears on the + threshing-floor, a flail is put round her body, stalks of corn are + wound round her neck, a crown of ears is placed on her head, and the + threshers call out, <span class="tei tei-q">“Behold the + Corn-woman.”</span> Here the stranger woman, thus suddenly appearing, + is taken to be the corn-spirit who has just been expelled by the + flails from the corn-stalks.<a id="noteref_501" name="noteref_501" + href="#note_501"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">501</span></span></a> In + other cases the farmer's wife represents the corn-spirit. Thus in the + Commune of Saligné, Canton de Poiret (Vendée), the farmer's wife, + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page150">[pg 150]</span><a name="Pg150" + id="Pg150" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> along with the last sheaf, is + tied up in a sheet, placed on a litter, and carried to the threshing + machine, under which she is shoved. Then the woman is drawn out and + the sheaf is threshed by itself, but the woman is tossed in the + sheet, as if she were being winnowed.<a id="noteref_502" name= + "noteref_502" href="#note_502"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">502</span></span></a> It + would be impossible to express more clearly the identification of the + woman with the corn than by this graphic imitation of threshing and + winnowing her. Mitigated forms of the custom are observed in various + places. Thus among the Germans of Schüttarschen in West Bohemia it + was customary at the close of the threshing to <span class= + "tei tei-q">“throttle”</span> the farmer's wife by squeezing her neck + between the arms of a flail till she consented to bake a special kind + of cake called a <span lang="de" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang= + "de"><span style="font-style: italic">drischala</span></span> (from + <span lang="de" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="de"><span style= + "font-style: italic">dreschen</span></span>, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“to thresh”</span>).<a id="noteref_503" name= + "noteref_503" href="#note_503"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">503</span></span></a> A + similar custom of <span class="tei tei-q">“throttling”</span> the + farmer's wife at the threshing is practised in some parts of Bavaria, + only there the pressure is applied by means of a straw rope instead + of a flail.<a id="noteref_504" name="noteref_504" href= + "#note_504"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">504</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The corn-spirit as a child at + harvest.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In these customs + the spirit of the ripe corn is regarded as old, or at least as of + mature age. Hence the names of Mother, Grandmother, Old Woman, and so + forth. But in other cases the corn-spirit is conceived as young. Thus + at Saldern, near Wolfenbuttel, when the rye has been reaped, three + sheaves are tied together with a rope so as to make a puppet with the + corn ears for a head. This puppet is called the Maiden or the + Corn-maiden (<span lang="de" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang= + "de"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Kornjungfer</span></span>).<a id="noteref_505" + name="noteref_505" href="#note_505"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">505</span></span></a> + Sometimes the corn-spirit is conceived as a child who is separated + from its mother by the stroke of the sickle. This last view appears + in the Polish custom of calling out to the man who cuts the last + handful of corn, <span class="tei tei-q">“You have cut the + navel-string.”</span><a id="noteref_506" name="noteref_506" href= + "#note_506"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">506</span></span></a> In some + districts of West Prussia the figure made out of the last sheaf is + called the Bastard, and a boy is wrapt up in it. The woman who binds + the last sheaf and represents the Corn-mother is told that she is + about to be brought to bed; she cries like a woman in travail, and an + old woman in the character of <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page151">[pg 151]</span><a name="Pg151" id="Pg151" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> grandmother acts as midwife. At last a cry is + raised that the child is born; whereupon the boy who is tied up in + the sheaf whimpers and squalls like an infant. The grandmother wraps + a sack, in imitation of swaddling bands, round the pretended baby, + who is carried joyfully to the barn, lest he should catch cold in the + open air.<a id="noteref_507" name="noteref_507" href= + "#note_507"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">507</span></span></a> In + other parts of North Germany the last sheaf, or the puppet made out + of it, is called the Child, the Harvest-Child, and so on, and they + call out to the woman who binds the last sheaf, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“you are getting the child.”</span><a id="noteref_508" + name="noteref_508" href="#note_508"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">508</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The last corn cut called the</span> + <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-size: 80%; font-style: italic">mell</span></span><span style="font-size: 80%">, + the</span> <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-size: 80%; font-style: italic">kirn</span></span><span style="font-size: 80%">, + or the</span> <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-size: 80%; font-style: italic">churn</span></span><span style="font-size: 80%">in + various parts of England. The</span> <span class= + "tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-size: 80%; font-style: italic">churn</span></span><span style="font-size: 80%">cut + by throwing sickles at it.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In the north of + England, particularly in the counties of Northumberland, Durham, and + Yorkshire, the last corn cut on the field at harvest is or used to be + variously known as the <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">mell</span></span> or the <span class= + "tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">kirn</span></span>, of which <span class= + "tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">kern</span></span> + and <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">churn</span></span> are merely local or + dialectical variations. The corn so cut is either plaited or made up + into a doll-like figure, which goes by the name of the mell-doll or + the kirn-doll, or the kirn-baby, and is brought home with rejoicings + at the end of the harvest.<a id="noteref_509" name="noteref_509" + href="#note_509"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">509</span></span></a> In the + North Riding of Yorkshire the last sheaf gathered in is called the + Mell-sheaf, and the expression <span class="tei tei-q">“We've gotten + wer mell”</span> is as much as to say <span class="tei tei-q">“The + Harvest is finished.”</span> Formerly a Mell-doll was made out of a + sheaf of corn decked with flowers and wrapped in such of the reapers' + garments as could be spared. It was carried with music and dancing to + the scene of the harvest-supper, which was called the + mell-supper.<a id="noteref_510" name="noteref_510" href= + "#note_510"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">510</span></span></a> In the + north of Yorkshire <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page152">[pg + 152]</span><a name="Pg152" id="Pg152" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> the + mell-sheaf <span class="tei tei-q">“was frequently made of such + dimensions as to be a heavy load for a man, and, within a few years + comparatively, was proposed as the prize to be won in a race of old + women. In other cases it was carefully preserved and set up in some + conspicuous place in the farmhouse.”</span><a id="noteref_511" name= + "noteref_511" href="#note_511"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">511</span></span></a> Where + the last sheaf of corn cut was called the <span class= + "tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">kirn</span></span> + or <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">kern</span></span> instead of the <span class= + "tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">mell</span></span>, the customs concerned with + it seem to have been essentially similar. Thus we are told that in + the north it was common for the reapers, on the last day of the + reaping, <span class="tei tei-q">“to have a contention for + superiority in quickness of dispatch, groups of three or four taking + each a ridge, and striving which should soonest get to its + termination. In Scotland, this was called a <span class= + "tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">kemping</span></span>, which simply means a + striving. In the north of England, it was a <span class= + "tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">mell</span></span>.... As the reapers went on + during the last day, they took care to leave a good handful of the + grain uncut, but laid down flat, and covered over; and, when the + field was done, the <span class="tei tei-q">‘bonniest lass’</span> + was allowed to cut this final handful, which was presently dressed up + with various sewings, tyings, and trimmings, like a doll, and hailed + as a <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Corn + Baby</span></em>. It was brought home in triumph, with music of + fiddles and bagpipes, was set up conspicuously that night at supper, + and was usually preserved in the farmer's parlour for the remainder + of the year. The bonny lass who cut this handful of grain was deemed + the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Har'st + Queen</span></em>”</span>.<a id="noteref_512" name="noteref_512" + href="#note_512"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">512</span></span></a> To cut + the last portion of standing corn in the harvest field was known as + <span class="tei tei-q">“to get the kirn”</span> or <span class= + "tei tei-q">“to win the kirn”</span>; and as soon as this was done + the reapers let the neighbours know that the harvest was finished by + giving three cheers, which was <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page153">[pg 153]</span><a name="Pg153" id="Pg153" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> called <span class="tei tei-q">“to cry or shout + the kirn.”</span><a id="noteref_513" name="noteref_513" href= + "#note_513"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">513</span></span></a> Where + the last handful of standing corn was called the <span class= + "tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">churn</span></span>, the stalks were roughly + plaited together, and the reapers threw their sickles at it till some + one cut it through, which was called <span class="tei tei-q">“cutting + the churn.”</span> The severed churn (that is, the plaited corn) was + then placed over the kitchen door or over the hob in the chimney for + good luck, and as a charm against witchcraft.<a id="noteref_514" + name="noteref_514" href="#note_514"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">514</span></span></a> In Kent + the Ivy Girl is, or used to be, <span class="tei tei-q">“a figure + composed of some of the best corn the field produces, and made as + well as they can into a human shape; this is afterwards curiously + dressed by the women, and adorned with paper trimmings, cut to + resemble a cap, ruffles, handkerchief, etc., of the finest lace. It + is brought home with the last load of corn from the field upon the + waggon, and they suppose entitles them to a supper at the expense of + the employer.”</span><a id="noteref_515" name="noteref_515" href= + "#note_515"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">515</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The last corn cut called the</span> + <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-size: 80%; font-style: italic">kirn</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 80%">in some parts of Scotland. + The</span> <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-size: 80%; font-style: italic">kirn</span></span><span style="font-size: 80%">cut + by reapers blindfold.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In some parts of + Scotland, as well as in the north of England, the last handful of + corn cut on the harvest-field was called the <span class= + "tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">kirn</span></span>, and the person who carried + it off was said <span class="tei tei-q">“to win the kirn.”</span> It + was then dressed up like a child's doll and went by the name of the + kirn-baby, the kirn-doll, or the Maiden.<a id="noteref_516" name= + "noteref_516" href="#note_516"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">516</span></span></a> In + Berwickshire down to about the middle of the nineteenth century there + was an eager competition among the reapers to cut the last bunch of + standing corn. They gathered round it at a little distance and threw + their sickles in turn at it, and the man who succeeded in cutting it + through gave it to the girl he preferred. She made the corn so cut + into a kirn-dolly and dressed it, and the doll was then taken to the + farmhouse and hung up there till the next harvest, when its place was + taken by the new kirn-dolly.<a id="noteref_517" name="noteref_517" + href="#note_517"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">517</span></span></a> At + Spottiswoode (Westruther Parish) in Berwickshire the reaping of the + last corn at harvest was called <span class="tei tei-q">“cutting the + Queen”</span> almost as often as <span class="tei tei-q">“cutting the + kirn.”</span> The mode of cutting it was not by throwing sickles. One + of the reapers consented to be blindfolded, and having been given a + sickle in his hand <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page154">[pg + 154]</span><a name="Pg154" id="Pg154" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> and + turned twice or thrice about by his fellows, he was bidden to go and + cut the kirn. His groping about and making wild strokes in the air + with his sickle excited much hilarity. When he had tired himself out + in vain and given up the task as hopeless, another reaper was + blindfolded and pursued the quest, and so on, one after the other, + till at last the kirn was cut. The successful reaper was tossed up in + the air with three cheers by his brother harvesters. To decorate the + room in which the kirn-supper was held at Spottiswoode as well as the + granary, where the dancing took place, two women made kirn-dollies or + Queens every year; and many of these rustic effigies of the + corn-spirit might be seen hanging up together.<a id="noteref_518" + name="noteref_518" href="#note_518"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">518</span></span></a> At + Lanfine in Ayrshire, down to near the end of the nineteenth century, + the last bunch of standing corn at harvest was, occasionally at + least, plaited together, and the reapers tried to cut it by throwing + their sickles at it; when they failed in the attempt, a woman has + been known to run in and sever the stalks at a blow. In Dumfriesshire + also, within living memory, it used to be customary to cut the last + standing corn by throwing the sickles at it.<a id="noteref_519" name= + "noteref_519" href="#note_519"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">519</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The</span> <span class= + "tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-size: 80%; font-style: italic">churn</span></span><span style="font-size: 80%">in + Ireland cut by throwing the sickles at it.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In the north of + Ireland the harvest customs were similar, but there, as in some parts + of England, the last patch of standing corn bore the name of the + <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">churn</span></span>, a dialectical variation of + <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">kirn</span></span>. <span class="tei tei-q">“The + custom of <span class="tei tei-q">‘Winning the Churn’</span> was + prevalent all through the counties of Down and Antrim fifty years + ago. It was carried out at the end of the harvest, or reaping the + grain, on each farm or holding, were it small or large. Oats are the + main crop of the district, but the custom was the same for other + kinds of grain. When the reapers had nearly finished the last field a + handful of the best-grown stalks was selected, carefully plaited as + it stood, and fastened at the top just under the ears to keep the + plait in place. Then when all the corn was cut from about this, which + was known as <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">The Churn</span></span>, and the sheaves about + it had been removed to some distance, the reapers stood in a group + about ten yards off it, and each <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page155">[pg 155]</span><a name="Pg155" id="Pg155" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> whirled his sickle at the <span class= + "tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Churn</span></span> till one lucky one succeeded + in cutting it down, when he was cheered on his achievement. This + person had then the right of presenting it to the master or mistress + of the farm, who gave the reaper a shilling.”</span> A supper and a + dance of the reapers in the farmhouse often concluded the day. The + <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Churn</span></span>, trimmed and adorned with + ribbons, was hung up on a wall in the farmhouse and carefully + preserved. It was no uncommon sight to see six or even twelve or more + such <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Churns</span></span> decorating the walls of a + farmhouse in County Down or Antrim.<a id="noteref_520" name= + "noteref_520" href="#note_520"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">520</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The last corn cut called the Maiden + in the Highlands of Scotland.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In some parts of + the Highlands of Scotland the last handful of corn that is cut by the + reapers on any particular farm is called the Maiden, or in Gaelic + <span lang="gd" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="gd"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Maidhdeanbuain</span></span>, literally + <span class="tei tei-q">“the shorn Maiden.”</span> Superstitions + attach to the winning of the Maiden. If it is got by a young person, + they think it an omen that he or she will be married before another + harvest. For that or other reasons there is a strife between the + reapers as to who shall get the Maiden, and they resort to various + stratagems for the purpose of securing it. One of them, for example, + will often leave a handful of corn uncut and cover it up with earth + to hide it from the other reapers, till all the rest of the corn on + the field is cut down. Several may try to play the same trick, and + the one who is coolest and holds out longest obtains the coveted + distinction. When it has been cut, the Maiden is dressed with ribbons + into a sort of doll and affixed to a wall of the farmhouse. In the + north of Scotland the Maiden is carefully preserved till Yule + morning, when it is divided among the cattle "to make them thrive all + the year round."<a id="noteref_521" name="noteref_521" href= + "#note_521"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">521</span></span></a> In the + island of Mull and some parts of the mainland of Argyleshire the last + handful of corn cut is called the Maiden (<span lang="gd" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="gd"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Maighdean-Bhuana</span></span>). Near + Ardrishaig, in Argyleshire, the <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page156">[pg 156]</span><a name="Pg156" id="Pg156" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> Maiden is made up in a fanciful three-cornered + shape, decorated with ribbons, and hung from a nail on the + wall.<a id="noteref_522" name="noteref_522" href= + "#note_522"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">522</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The cutting of the Maiden at harvest + in Argyleshire.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The following + account of the Maiden was obtained in the summer of 1897 from the + manager of a farm near Kilmartin in Argyleshire: <span class= + "tei tei-q">“The <span lang="gd" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang= + "gd"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Mhaighdean-Bhuana</span></span>, or <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Reaping + Maiden</span></em>, was the last sheaf of oats to be cut on a croft + or farm. Before the reaping-machine and binder took the place of the + sickle and the scythe, the young reapers of both sexes, when they + neared the end of the last rig or field, used to manœuvre to gain + possession of the <span lang="gd" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang= + "gd"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Mhaighdean-Bhuana</span></span>. The individual + who was fortunate enough to obtain it was <span lang="la" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style="font-style: italic">ex + officio</span></span> entitled to be the King or the Queen of the + Harvest-Home festival. The sheaf so designated was carefully + preserved and kept intact until the day they began leading home the + corn. A tuft of it was then given to each of the horses, as they + started from the corn-field with their first load. The rest of it was + neatly made up, and hung in some conspicuous corner of the farmhouse, + where it remained till it was replaced by a younger sister next + season. On the first day of ploughing a tuft of it was given (as on + the first day of leading home the corn) as a <span lang="gd" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="gd"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Sainnseal</span></span> or handsel for luck to + the horses. The <span lang="gd" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang= + "gd"><span style="font-style: italic">Mhaighdean-Bhuana</span></span> + so preserved and used was a symbol that the harvest had been duly + secured, and that the spring work had been properly inaugurated. It + was also believed to be a protection against fairies and + witchcraft.”</span><a id="noteref_523" name="noteref_523" href= + "#note_523"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">523</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The cutting of the Maiden at harvest + in Perthshire.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In the parish of + Longforgan, situated at the south-eastern corner of Perthshire, it + used to be customary to give what was called the Maiden Feast at the + end of the harvest. The last handful of corn reaped on the field was + called the Maiden, and things were generally so arranged that it fell + into the hands of a pretty girl. It was then decked out with ribbons + and brought home in triumph to the music of bagpipes and fiddles. In + the evening the reapers danced and made merry. Afterwards the Maiden + was dressed out, generally in the <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page157">[pg 157]</span><a name="Pg157" id="Pg157" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> form of a cross, and hung up, with the date + attached to it, in a conspicuous part of the house.<a id= + "noteref_524" name="noteref_524" href="#note_524"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">524</span></span></a> In the + neighbourhood of Balquhidder, Perthshire, the last handful of corn is + cut by the youngest girl on the field, and is made into the rude form + of a female doll, clad in a paper dress, and decked with ribbons. It + is called the Maiden, and is kept in the farmhouse, generally above + the chimney, for a good while, sometimes till the Maiden of the next + year is brought in. The writer of this book witnessed the ceremony of + cutting the Maiden at Balquhidder in September 1888.<a id= + "noteref_525" name="noteref_525" href="#note_525"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">525</span></span></a> A lady + friend<a id="noteref_526" name="noteref_526" href= + "#note_526"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">526</span></span></a> + informed me that as a young girl she cut the Maiden several times at + the request of the reapers in the neighbourhood of Perth. The name of + the Maiden was given to the last handful of standing corn; a reaper + held the top of the bunch while she cut it. Afterwards the bunch was + plaited, decked with ribbons, and hung up in a conspicuous place on + the wall of the kitchen till the next Maiden was brought in. The + harvest-supper in this neighbourhood was also called the Maiden; the + reapers danced at it.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The Maiden at harvest in Lochaber. + The cutting of the Maiden at harvest on the Gareloch in + Dumbartonshire.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In the Highland + district of Lochaber dancing and merry-making on the last night of + harvest used to be universal and are still generally observed. Here, + we are told, the festivity without the Maiden would be like a wedding + without the bride. The Maiden is carried home with tumultuous + rejoicing, and after being suitably decorated is hung up in the barn, + where the dancing usually takes place. When supper is over, one of + the company, generally the oldest man present, drinks a glass of + whisky, after turning to the suspended sheaf and saying, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Here's to the Maiden.”</span> The company follow his + example, each in turn drinking to the Maiden. Then the dancing + begins.<a id="noteref_527" name="noteref_527" href= + "#note_527"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">527</span></span></a> On some + farms on the Gareloch, in Dumbartonshire, about the year 1830, the + last handful of standing corn was called the Maiden. It was divided + in two, plaited, and then cut with the sickle by a girl, who, it was + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page158">[pg 158]</span><a name="Pg158" + id="Pg158" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> thought, would be lucky and + would soon be married. When it was cut the reapers gathered together + and threw their sickles in the air. The Maiden was dressed with + ribbons and hung in the kitchen near the roof, where it was kept for + several years with the date attached. Sometimes five or six Maidens + might be seen hanging at once on hooks. The harvest-supper was called + the Kirn.<a id="noteref_528" name="noteref_528" href= + "#note_528"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">528</span></span></a> In + other farms on the Gareloch the last handful of corn was called the + Maidenhead or the Head; it was neatly plaited, sometimes decked with + ribbons, and hung in the kitchen for a year, when the grain was given + to the poultry.<a id="noteref_529" name="noteref_529" href= + "#note_529"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">529</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The cutting of the</span> + <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-size: 80%; font-style: italic">clyack</span></span><span style="font-size: 80%">sheaf + at harvest in Aberdeenshire.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In the north-east + of Aberdeenshire the customs connected with the last corn cut at + harvest have been carefully collected and recorded by the late Rev. + Walter Gregor of Pitsligo. His account runs as follows: <span class= + "tei tei-q">“The last sheaf cut is the object of much care: the + manner of cutting it, binding it, and carrying it to the house varies + a little in the different districts. The following customs have been + reported to me by people who have seen them or who have practised + them, and some of the customs have now disappeared. The information + comes from the parishes of Pitsligo, Aberdour, and Tyrie, situated in + the north-east corner of the county of Aberdeen, but the customs are + not limited to these parishes.</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-q">“Some particulars relating to the sheaf may be noted as + always the same; thus (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">a</span></span>) it is cut and gathered by the + youngest person present in the field, the person who is supposed to + be the purest; (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">b</span></span>) the sheaf is not allowed to + touch the ground; (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">c</span></span>) it is made up and carried in + triumph to the house; (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">d</span></span>) it occupies a conspicuous place + in the festivals which follow the end of the reaping; (<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">e</span></span>) it is + kept till Christmas morning, and is then given to one or more of the + horses or to the cattle of the farm.</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The</span> <span class= + "tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-size: 80%; font-style: italic">clyack</span></span><span style="font-size: 80%">sheaf + cut by the youngest girl and not allowed to touch the + ground.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-q">“Before the introduction of the scythe, the corn was cut + by the sickle or <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">heuck</span></span>, a kind of curved sickle. + The last sheaf was shorn or cut by the youngest girl present. As the + corn might not touch the ground, the master or <span class= + "tei tei-q">‘gueedman’</span> <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page159">[pg 159]</span><a name="Pg159" id="Pg159" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> sat down, placed the band on his knees, and + received thereupon each handful as it was cut. The sheaf was bound, + dressed as a woman, and when it had been brought to the house, it was + placed in some part of the kitchen, where everybody could see it + during the meal which followed the end of the reaping. This sheaf was + called the <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">clyack</span></span> sheaf.<a id="noteref_530" + name="noteref_530" href="#note_530"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">530</span></span></a></span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-q">“The manner of receiving and binding the last sheaf is + not always the same. Here is another: three persons hold the band in + their hands, one of them at each end, while the third holds the knot + in the middle. Each handful of corn is placed so that the cut end is + turned to the breast of those who support the ears on the opposite + side. When all is cut, the youngest boy ties the knot. Two other + bands are fastened to the sheaf, one near the cut end, the other near + the ears. The sheaf is carried to the house by those who have helped + to cut or bind it (Aberdour).</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-q">“Since the introduction of the scythe, it is the youngest + boy who cuts the last sheaf; my informant (a woman) told me that when + he was not strong enough to wield the scythe, his hand was guided by + another. The youngest girl gathers it. When it is bound with three + bands, it is cut straight, and it is not allowed to touch the ground. + The youngest girls carry it to the house. My informant (a woman) told + me that she had seen it decked and placed at the head of the bed. + Formerly, and still sometimes, there was always a bed in the kitchen + (Tyrie).</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-q">“The corn is not allowed to fall on the ground: the young + girls who gather it take it by the ear and convey it handful by + handful, till the whole sheaf is cut. A woman who <span class= + "tei tei-q">‘has lost a feather of her wing,’</span> as an old woman + put it to me, may not touch it. Sometimes also they merely put the + two hands round the sheaf (New Deer).</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The</span> <span class= + "tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-size: 80%; font-style: italic">clyack</span></span><span style="font-size: 80%">feast + or</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 80%">“</span><span style="font-size: 80%">meal and + ale.</span><span style="font-size: 80%">”</span></span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-q">“Generally a feast and dance follow when all the wheat is + cut. This feast and dance bear the name of <span class= + "tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">clyack</span></span> or <span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page160">[pg 160]</span><a name="Pg160" id="Pg160" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> <span class="tei tei-q">‘meal and ale.’</span> + However, some people do not give <span class="tei tei-q">‘meal and + ale’</span> till all the cut corn has been got in: then the feast is + called <span class="tei tei-q">‘the Winter’</span> and they say that + a farmer <span class="tei tei-q">‘has the Winter’</span> when all his + sheaves have been carried home.</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-q">“At this feast two things are indispensable: a cheese + called the <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">clyack-kebback</span></span> and <span class= + "tei tei-q">‘meal and ale.’</span></span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-q">“The cheese <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">clyack-kebback</span></span> must be cut by the + master of the house. The first slice is larger than the rest; it is + known by the name of <span class="tei tei-q">‘the <span class= + "tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">kanave's + faang</span></span>,’</span>—the young man's big slice—and is + generally the share of the herd boy (Tyrie).</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-q">“The dish called <span class="tei tei-q">‘meal and + ale’</span> is made as follows. You take a suitable vessel, whether + an earthenware pot or a milk-bowl, if the crockery is scanty; but if + on the contrary the family is well off, they use other special + utensils. In each dish ale is poured and treacle is added to sweeten + it. Then oatmeal is mixed with the sweetened ale till the whole is of + a sufficient consistency. The cook adds whisky to the mixture in such + proportion as she thinks fit. In each plate is put a ring. To allow + the meal time to be completely absorbed, the dish is prepared on the + morning of the feast. At the moment of the feast the dish or dishes + containing the strong and savoury mixture are set on the middle of + the table. But it is not served up till the end. Six or seven persons + generally have a plate to themselves. Each of them plunges his spoon + into the plate as fast as possible in the hope of getting the ring; + for he who is lucky enough to get it will be married within the year. + Meantime some of the stuff is swallowed, but often in the struggle + some of it is spilt on the table or the floor.</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The</span> <span class= + "tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-size: 80%; font-style: italic">clyack</span></span><span style="font-size: 80%">sheaf + in the dance.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-q">“In some districts there used to be and still is dancing + in the evening of the feast. <span class="tei tei-q">‘The + sheaf’</span> figured in the dances. It was dressed as a girl and + carried on the back of the mistress of the house to the barn or + granary which served as a ballroom. The mistress danced a reel with + <span class="tei tei-q">‘the sheaf’</span> on her back.</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The</span> <span class= + "tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-size: 80%; font-style: italic">clyack</span></span><span style="font-size: 80%">sheaf + given to a mare in foal or to a cow in calf.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-q">“The woman who gave me this account had been a witness of + what she described when she was a girl. The sheaf was afterwards + carefully stored till the first day of Christmas, when it was given + to eat to a mare in foal, if there was one on the farm, or, if there + was not, to the oldest <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page161">[pg + 161]</span><a name="Pg161" id="Pg161" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> cow + in calf. Elsewhere the sheaf was divided between all the cows and + their calves or between all the horses and the cattle of the farm. + (Related by an eye-witness.)”</span><a id="noteref_531" name= + "noteref_531" href="#note_531"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">531</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Sanctity attributed to the</span> + <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-size: 80%; font-style: italic">clyack</span></span><span style="font-size: 80%">sheaf. + The sacrament of barley-meal and water at Eleusis.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In these + Aberdeenshire customs the sanctity attributed to the last corn cut at + harvest is clearly manifested, not merely by the ceremony with which + it is treated on the field, in the house, and in the barn, but also + by the great care taken to prevent it from touching the ground or + being handled by any unchaste person. The reason why the youngest + person on the field, whether a girl or a boy, is chosen to cut the + last standing corn and sometimes to carry it to the house is no doubt + a calculation that the younger the person the more likely is he or + she to be sexually pure. We have seen that for this reason some + negroes entrust the sowing of the seed to very young girls,<a id= + "noteref_532" name="noteref_532" href="#note_532"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">532</span></span></a> and + later on we shall meet with more evidence in Africa of the notion + that the corn may be handled only by the pure.<a id="noteref_533" + name="noteref_533" href="#note_533"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">533</span></span></a> And in + the gruel of oat-meal and ale, which the harvesters sup with spoons + as an indispensable part of the harvest supper, have we not the + Scotch equivalent of the gruel of barley-meal and water, flavoured + with pennyroyal, which the initiates at Eleusis drank as a solemn + form of communion with the Barley Goddess Demeter?<a id="noteref_534" + name="noteref_534" href="#note_534"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">534</span></span></a> May not + that mystic sacrament have <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page162">[pg + 162]</span><a name="Pg162" id="Pg162" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + originated in a simple harvest supper held by Eleusinian farmers at + the end of the reaping?</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">According to a + briefer account of the Aberdeenshire custom, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“the last sheaf cut, or <span class= + "tei tei-q">‘maiden,’</span> is carried home in merry procession by + the harvesters. It is then presented to the mistress of the house, + who dresses it up to be preserved till the first mare foals. The + maiden is then taken down and presented to the mare as its first + food. The neglect of this would have untoward effects upon the foal, + and disastrous consequences upon farm operations generally for the + season.”</span><a id="noteref_535" name="noteref_535" href= + "#note_535"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">535</span></span></a> In + Fifeshire the last handful of corn, known as the Maiden, is cut by a + young girl and made into the rude figure of a doll, tied with + ribbons, by which it is hung on the wall of the farm-kitchen till the + next spring.<a id="noteref_536" name="noteref_536" href= + "#note_536"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">536</span></span></a> The + custom of cutting the Maiden at harvest was also observed in + Inverness-shire and Sutherlandshire.<a id="noteref_537" name= + "noteref_537" href="#note_537"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">537</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The corn-spirit as a bride.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">A somewhat maturer + but still youthful age is assigned to the corn-spirit by the + appellations of Bride, Oats-bride, and Wheat-bride, which in Germany + are sometimes bestowed both on the last sheaf and on the woman who + binds it.<a id="noteref_538" name="noteref_538" href= + "#note_538"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">538</span></span></a> At + wheat-harvest near Müglitz, in Moravia, a small portion of the wheat + is left standing after all the rest has been reaped. This remnant is + then cut, amid the rejoicing of the reapers, by a young girl who + wears a wreath of wheaten ears on her head and goes by the name of + the Wheat-bride. It is supposed that she will be a real bride that + same year.<a id="noteref_539" name="noteref_539" href= + "#note_539"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">539</span></span></a> + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page163">[pg 163]</span><a name="Pg163" + id="Pg163" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> In the upland valley of + Alpach, in North Tyrol, the person who brings the last sheaf into the + granary is said to have the Wheat-bride or the Rye-bride according to + the crop, and is received with great demonstrations of respect and + rejoicing. The people of the farm go out to meet him, bells are rung, + and refreshments offered to him on a tray.<a id="noteref_540" name= + "noteref_540" href="#note_540"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">540</span></span></a> In + Austrian Silesia a girl is chosen to be the Wheat-bride, and much + honour is paid to her at the harvest-festival.<a id="noteref_541" + name="noteref_541" href="#note_541"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">541</span></span></a> Near + Roslin and Stonehaven, in Scotland, the last handful of corn cut + <span class="tei tei-q">“got the name of <span class="tei tei-q">‘the + bride,’</span> and she was placed over the <span class= + "tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">bress</span></span> or chimney-piece; she had a + ribbon tied below her numerous <span class= + "tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">ears</span></span>, and another round her + waist.”</span><a id="noteref_542" name="noteref_542" href= + "#note_542"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">542</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The corn-spirit as Bride and + Bridegroom.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Sometimes the idea + implied by the name of Bride is worked out more fully by representing + the productive powers of vegetation as bride and bridegroom. Thus in + the Vorharz an Oats-man and an Oats-woman, swathed in straw, dance at + the harvest feast.<a id="noteref_543" name="noteref_543" href= + "#note_543"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">543</span></span></a> In + South Saxony an Oats-bridegroom and an Oats-bride figure together at + the harvest celebration. The Oats-bridegroom is a man completely + wrapt in oats-straw; the Oats-bride is a man dressed in woman's + clothes, but not wrapt in straw. They are drawn in a waggon to the + ale-house, where the dance takes place. At the beginning of the dance + the dancers pluck the bunches of oats one by one from the + Oats-bridegroom, while he struggles to keep them, till at last he is + completely stript of them and stands bare, exposed to the laughter + and jests of the company.<a id="noteref_544" name="noteref_544" href= + "#note_544"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">544</span></span></a> In + Austrian Silesia the ceremony of <span class="tei tei-q">“the + Wheat-bride”</span> is celebrated by the young people at the end of + the harvest. The woman who bound the last sheaf plays the part of the + Wheat-bride, wearing the harvest-crown of wheat ears and flowers on + her head. Thus adorned, standing beside her Bridegroom in a waggon + and attended by bridesmaids, she is drawn by a pair of oxen, in full + imitation of a marriage <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page164">[pg + 164]</span><a name="Pg164" id="Pg164" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + procession, to the tavern, where the dancing is kept up till morning. + Somewhat later in the season the wedding of the Oats-bride is + celebrated with the like rustic pomp. About Neisse, in Silesia, an + Oats-king and an Oats-queen, dressed up quaintly as a bridal pair, + are seated on a harrow and drawn by oxen into the village.<a id= + "noteref_545" name="noteref_545" href="#note_545"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">545</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The corn-spirit in the double form + of the Old Wife and the Maiden simultaneously at harvest in the + Highlands of Scotland.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In these last + instances the corn-spirit is personified in double form as male and + female. But sometimes the spirit appears in a double female form as + both old and young, corresponding exactly to the Greek Demeter and + Persephone, if my interpretation of these goddesses is right. We have + seen that in Scotland, especially among the Gaelic-speaking + population, the last corn cut is sometimes called the Old Wife and + sometimes the Maiden. Now there are parts of Scotland in which both + an Old Wife (<span lang="gd" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang= + "gd"><span style="font-style: italic">Cailleach</span></span>) and a + Maiden are cut at harvest. As the accounts of this custom are not + quite clear and consistent, it may be well to give them first in the + words of the original authorities. Thus the late Sheriff Alexander + Nicolson tells us that there is a Gaelic proverb, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“A balk (<span lang="gd" class="tei tei-foreign" + xml:lang="gd"><span style= + "font-style: italic">léum-iochd</span></span>) in autumn is better + than a sheaf the more”</span>; and he explains it by saying that a + <span lang="gd" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="gd"><span style= + "font-style: italic">léum-iochd</span></span> or balk <span class= + "tei tei-q">“is a strip of a corn-field left fallow. The fear of + being left with the last sheaf of the harvest, called the <span lang= + "gd" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="gd"><span style= + "font-style: italic">cailleach</span></span>, or <span lang="gd" + class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="gd"><span style= + "font-style: italic">gobhar bhacach</span></span>, always led to an + exciting competition among the reapers in the last field. The reaper + who came on a <span lang="gd" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang= + "gd"><span style="font-style: italic">léum-iochd</span></span> would + of course be glad to have so much the less to cut.”</span><a id= + "noteref_546" name="noteref_546" href="#note_546"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">546</span></span></a> In + further explanation of the proverb the writer adds:</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-q">“The customs as to the <span lang="gd" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="gd"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Cailleach</span></span> and <span lang="gd" + class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="gd"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Maighdean-bhuana</span></span> seem to have + varied somewhat. Two reapers were usually set to each rig, and + according to one account, the man who was first done got the + <span lang="gd" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="gd"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Maighdean-bhuana</span></span> or <span class= + "tei tei-q">‘Reaping-Maiden,’</span> while the man who was last got + the <span lang="gd" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang= + "gd"><span style="font-style: italic">Cailleach</span></span> or + <span class="tei tei-q">‘old woman.’</span> The latter term is used + in Argyleshire; the term <span lang="gd" class="tei tei-foreign" + xml:lang="gd"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Gobhar-bhacach</span></span>, the lame goat, is + used in Skye.</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-q">“According to what appears to be the better version, the + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page165">[pg 165]</span><a name="Pg165" + id="Pg165" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> competition to avoid the + <span lang="gd" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="gd"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Cailleach</span></span> was not between reapers + but between neighbouring crofters, and the man who got his harvest + done first sent a handful of corn called the <span lang="gd" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="gd"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Cailleach</span></span> to his neighbour, who + passed it on, till it landed with him who was latest. That man's + penalty was to provide for the dearth of the township, <span lang= + "gd" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="gd"><span style= + "font-style: italic">gort a' bhaile</span></span>, in the ensuing + season.</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-q">“The <span lang="gd" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang= + "gd"><span style="font-style: italic">Maighdean-bhuana</span></span>, + again, was the last cut handful of oats, on a croft or farm, and was + an object of lively competition among the reapers. It was tastefully + tied up with ribbons, generally dressed like a doll, and then hung up + on a nail till spring. On the first day of ploughing it was solemnly + taken down, and given as a <span lang="gd" class="tei tei-foreign" + xml:lang="gd"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Sainnseal</span></span> (or handsel) to the + horses for luck. It was meant as a symbol that the harvest had been + secured, and to ward off the fairies, representatives of the ethereal + and unsubstantial, till the time came to provide for a new + crop.”</span><a id="noteref_547" name="noteref_547" href= + "#note_547"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">547</span></span></a> Again, + the Rev. Mr. Campbell of Kilchrenan, on Loch Awe, furnished Dr. R. C. + Maclagan with the following account of the Highland customs at + harvest. The recollections of Mrs. MacCorquodale, then resident at + Kilchrenan, refer to the customs practised about the middle of the + nineteenth century in the wild and gloomy valley of Glencoe, infamous + in history for the treacherous massacre perpetrated there by the + Government troops in 1692. <span class="tei tei-q">“Mrs. + MacCorquodale says that the rivalry was for the Maiden, and for the + privilege she gave of sending the Cailleach to the next neighbour. + The Maiden was represented by the last stalks reaped; the Cailleach + by a handful taken at random from the field, perhaps the last rig of + the reaper last to finish. The Cailleach was not dressed but carried + after binding to the neighbour's field. The Maiden was cut in the + following manner. All the reapers gathered round her and kept a short + distance from her. They then threw their hooks [sickles] at her. The + person successful in cutting her down in this manner was the man + whose possession she became. Mrs. MacCorquodale understood that the + man of a township who got the Cailleach finally was supposed to be + doomed to poverty for his want of energy. (Gaelic: <span lang="gd" + class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="gd"><span style= + "font-style: italic">treubhantas</span></span>—valour.)</span></p><span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page166">[pg 166]</span><a name="Pg166" id="Pg166" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-q">“A sample of the toast to the Cailleach at the harvest + entertainment was as follows: <span class="tei tei-q">‘The Cailleach + is with ... and is now with (me) since I was the last. I drink to her + health. Since she assisted me in harvest, it is likely that it is + with me she will abide during the winter.’</span> In explaining the + above toast Mr. Campbell says that it signifies that the Cailleach is + always with agriculturists. <span class="tei tei-q">‘She has been + with others before and is now with me (the proposer of the toast). + Though I did my best to avoid her I welcome her as my assistant, and + am prepared to entertain her during the winter.’</span> Another form + of the toast was as follows: <span class="tei tei-q">‘To your health, + good wife, who for harvest has come to help us, and if I live I'll + try to support you when winter comes.’</span></span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-q">“John MacCorquodale, Kilchrenan, says that at Crianlarich + in Strath Fillan, they make a Cailleach of sticks and a turnip, old + clothes and a pipe. In this case the effigy passed in succession to + seven farms, which he mentioned, and finally settled with an + innkeeper. The list suggested that the upper farms stood a bad + chance, and perhaps that a prosperous innkeeper could more easily + bear up against the reproach and loss (?) of supporting the + Cailleach.</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-q">“Duncan MacIntyre, Kilchrenan, says that in one case + where the last field to be reaped was the most fertile land on the + farm, the corn first cut in it, which was taken near the edge, was + reserved to make a Cailleach, should the owner be so happy as to be + able to pass her on to his neighbour. The last blades cut were + generally in the middle or best part of the field. These in any event + became the Maiden.”</span> Lastly, Dr. Maclagan observes that + <span class="tei tei-q">“having directed the attention of Miss Kerr, + Port Charlotte, Islay, to the practice of having two different + bunches on the mainland of Argyle, she informs me that in Islay and + Kintyre the last handful is the Cailleach, and they have no Maiden. + The same is the custom in Bernara and other parts of the Western + Isles, while in Mull the last handful is the Maiden, and they have no + Cailleach. In North Uist the habit still prevails of putting the + Cailleach over-night among the standing corn of lazy + crofters.”</span><a id="noteref_548" name="noteref_548" href= + "#note_548"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">548</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">In these customs the Old Wife + represents the old corn of last year, and the Maiden the new corn + of this year.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The general rule + to which these various accounts point <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page167">[pg 167]</span><a name="Pg167" id="Pg167" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> seems to be that, where both a Maiden and an + Old Wife (<span lang="gd" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang= + "gd"><span style="font-style: italic">Cailleach</span></span>) are + fashioned out of the reaped corn at harvest, the Maiden is always + made out of the last stalks left standing, and is kept by the farmer + on whose land it was cut; while the Old Wife is made out of other + stalks, sometimes out of the first stalks cut, and is regularly + passed on to a laggard farmer who happens to be still reaping after + his brisker neighbour has cut all his corn. Thus while each farmer + keeps his own Maiden, as the embodiment of the young and fruitful + spirit of the corn, he passes on the Old Wife as soon as he can to a + neighbour, and so the old lady may make the round of all the farms in + the district before she finds a place in which to lay her venerable + head. The farmer with whom she finally takes up her abode is of + course the one who has been the last of all the countryside to finish + reaping his crops, and thus the distinction of entertaining her is + rather an invidious one. Similarly we saw that in Pembrokeshire, + where the last corn cut is called, not the Maiden, but the Hag, she + is passed on hastily to a neighbour who is still at work in his + fields and who receives his aged visitor with anything but a + transport of joy. If the Old Wife represents the corn-spirit of the + past year, as she probably does wherever she is contrasted with and + opposed to a Maiden, it is natural enough that her faded charms + should have less attractions for the husbandman than the buxom form + of her daughter, who may be expected to become in her turn the mother + of the golden grain when the revolving year has brought round another + autumn. The same desire to get rid of the effete Mother of the Corn + by palming her off on other people comes out clearly in some of the + customs observed at the close of threshing, particularly in the + practice of passing on a hideous straw puppet to a neighbour farmer + who is still threshing his corn.<a id="noteref_549" name= + "noteref_549" href="#note_549"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">549</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Analogy of the harvest customs to + the spring customs of Europe.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The harvest + customs just described are strikingly analogous to the spring customs + which we reviewed in the first part of this work. (1) As in the + spring customs the tree-spirit is represented both by a tree and by a + person,<a id="noteref_550" name="noteref_550" href= + "#note_550"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">550</span></span></a> so in + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page168">[pg 168]</span><a name="Pg168" + id="Pg168" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> the harvest customs the + corn-spirit is represented both by the last sheaf and by the person + who cuts or binds or threshes it. The equivalence of the person to + the sheaf is shewn by giving him or her the same name as the sheaf; + by wrapping him or her in it; and by the rule observed in some + places, that when the sheaf is called the Mother, it must be made up + into human shape by the oldest married woman, but that when it is + called the Maiden, it must be cut by the youngest girl.<a id= + "noteref_551" name="noteref_551" href="#note_551"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">551</span></span></a> Here + the age of the personal representative of the corn-spirit corresponds + with that of the supposed age of the corn-spirit, just as the human + victims offered by the Mexicans to promote the growth of the maize + varied with the age of the maize.<a id="noteref_552" name= + "noteref_552" href="#note_552"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">552</span></span></a> For in + the Mexican, as in the European, custom the human beings were + probably representatives of the corn-spirit rather than victims + offered to it. (2) Again, the same fertilising influence which the + tree-spirit is supposed to exert over vegetation, cattle, and even + women<a id="noteref_553" name="noteref_553" href= + "#note_553"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">553</span></span></a> is + ascribed to the corn-spirit. Thus, its supposed influence on + vegetation is shewn by the practice of taking some of the grain of + the last sheaf (in which the corn-spirit is regularly supposed to be + present), and scattering it among the young corn in spring or mixing + it with the seed-corn.<a id="noteref_554" name="noteref_554" href= + "#note_554"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">554</span></span></a> Its + influence on animals is shewn by giving the last sheaf to a mare in + foal, to a cow in calf, and to horses at the first ploughing.<a id= + "noteref_555" name="noteref_555" href="#note_555"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">555</span></span></a> Lastly, + its influence on women is indicated by the custom of delivering the + Mother-sheaf, made into the likeness of a pregnant woman, to the + farmer's wife;<a id="noteref_556" name="noteref_556" href= + "#note_556"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">556</span></span></a> by the + belief that the woman who binds the last sheaf will have a child next + year;<a id="noteref_557" name="noteref_557" href= + "#note_557"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">557</span></span></a> + perhaps, too, by the idea that the person who gets it will soon be + married.<a id="noteref_558" name="noteref_558" href= + "#note_558"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">558</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The spring and harvest customs of + Europe are parts of a primitive heathen ritual.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Plainly, + therefore, these spring and harvest customs are based on the same + ancient modes of thought, and form parts of the same primitive + heathendom, which was doubtless practised by our forefathers long + before the dawn of history. <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page169">[pg + 169]</span><a name="Pg169" id="Pg169" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + Amongst the marks of a primitive ritual we may note the + following:—</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Marks of a primitive ritual.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">1. No special + class of persons is set apart for the performance of the rites; in + other words, there are no priests. The rites may be performed by any + one, as occasion demands.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">2. No special + places are set apart for the performance of the rites; in other + words, there are no temples. The rites may be performed anywhere, as + occasion demands.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">3. Spirits, not + gods, are recognised. (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">a</span></span>) As distinguished from gods, + spirits are restricted in their operations to definite departments of + nature. Their names are general, not proper. Their attributes are + generic, rather than individual; in other words, there is an + indefinite number of spirits of each class, and the individuals of a + class are all much alike; they have no definitely marked + individuality; no accepted traditions are current as to their origin, + life, adventures, and character. (<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">b</span></span>) On the + other hand gods, as distinguished from spirits, are not restricted to + definite departments of nature. It is true that there is generally + some one department over which they preside as their special + province; but they are not rigorously confined to it; they can exert + their power for good or evil in many other spheres of nature and + life. Again, they bear individual or proper names, such as Demeter, + Persephone, Dionysus; and their individual characters and histories + are fixed by current myths and the representations of art.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">4. The rites are + magical rather than propitiatory. In other words, the desired objects + are attained, not by propitiating the favour of divine beings through + sacrifice, prayer, and praise, but by ceremonies which, as I have + already explained,<a id="noteref_559" name="noteref_559" href= + "#note_559"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">559</span></span></a> are + believed to influence the course of nature directly through a + physical sympathy or resemblance between the rite and the effect + which it is the intention of the rite to produce.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Reasons for regarding the spring and + harvest customs of modern Europe as a primitive ritual.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Judged by these + tests, the spring and harvest customs of our European peasantry + deserve to rank as primitive. For no special class of persons and no + special places are set exclusively apart for their performance; they + may be performed by any one, master or man, mistress or maid, boy or + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page170">[pg 170]</span><a name="Pg170" + id="Pg170" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> girl; they are practised, not + in temples or churches, but in the woods and meadows, beside brooks, + in barns, on harvest fields and cottage floors. The supernatural + beings whose existence is taken for granted in them are spirits + rather than deities: their functions are limited to certain + well-defined departments of nature: their names are general, like the + Barley-mother, the Old Woman, the Maiden, not proper names like + Demeter, Persephone, Dionysus. Their generic attributes are known, + but their individual histories and characters are not the subject of + myths. For they exist in classes rather than as individuals, and the + members of each class are indistinguishable. For example, every farm + has its Corn-mother, or its Old Woman, or its Maiden; but every + Corn-mother is much like every other Corn-mother, and so with the Old + Women and Maidens. Lastly, in these harvest, as in the spring + customs, the ritual is magical rather than propitiatory. This is + shewn by throwing the Corn-mother into the river in order to secure + rain and dew for the crops;<a id="noteref_560" name="noteref_560" + href="#note_560"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">560</span></span></a> by + making the Old Woman heavy in order to get a heavy crop next + year;<a id="noteref_561" name="noteref_561" href= + "#note_561"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">561</span></span></a> by + strewing grain from the last sheaf amongst the young crops in + spring;<a id="noteref_562" name="noteref_562" href= + "#note_562"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">562</span></span></a> and by + giving the last sheaf to the cattle to make them thrive.<a id= + "noteref_563" name="noteref_563" href="#note_563"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">563</span></span></a></p> + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page171">[pg 171]</span><a name= + "Pg171" id="Pg171" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + <hr class="page" /> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> + <a name="toc13" id="toc13"></a> <a name="pdf14" id="pdf14"></a> + + <h1 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"> + <span style="font-size: 173%">Chapter VI. The Corn-Mother in Many + Lands.</span></h1> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em"> + <a name="toc15" id="toc15"></a> <a name="pdf16" id="pdf16"></a> + + <h2 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em"> + <span style="font-size: 144%">§ 1. The Corn-mother in + America.</span></h2> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The Corn-mother in many + lands.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">European + peoples, ancient and modern, have not been singular in personifying + the corn as a mother goddess. The same simple idea has suggested + itself to other agricultural races in distant parts of the world, + and has been applied by them to other indigenous cereals than + barley and wheat. If Europe has its Wheat-mother and its + Barley-mother, America has its Maize-mother and the East Indies + their Rice-mother. These personifications I will now illustrate, + beginning with the American personification of the maize.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The Maize-mother among the + Peruvian Indians.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">We have seen + that among European peoples it is a common custom to keep the + plaited corn-stalks of the last sheaf, or the puppet which is + formed out of them, in the farm-house from harvest to + harvest.<a id="noteref_564" name="noteref_564" href= + "#note_564"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">564</span></span></a> The + intention no doubt is, or rather originally was, by preserving the + representative of the corn-spirit to maintain the spirit itself in + life and activity throughout the year, in order that the corn may + grow and the crops be good. This interpretation of the custom is at + all events rendered highly probable by a similar custom observed by + the ancient Peruvians, and thus described by the old Spanish + historian Acosta:—<span class="tei tei-q">“They take a certain + portion of the most fruitful of the maize that grows in their + farms, the which they put in a certain granary which they do call + <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Pirua</span></span>, with certain ceremonies, + watching three nights; they put this maize in the richest garments + they have, and being thus wrapped and dressed, they worship this + <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Pirua</span></span>, and hold <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page172">[pg 172]</span><a name="Pg172" id="Pg172" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> it in great veneration, saying it is + the mother of the maize of their inheritances, and that by this + means the maize augments and is preserved. In this month [the sixth + month, answering to May] they make a particular sacrifice, and the + witches demand of this <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Pirua</span></span> if it hath strength + sufficient to continue until the next year; and if it answers no, + then they carry this maize to the farm to burn, whence they brought + it, according to every man's power; then they make another + <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Pirua</span></span>, with the same ceremonies, + saying that they renew it, to the end the seed of maize may not + perish, and if it answers that it hath force sufficient to last + longer, they leave it until the next year. This foolish vanity + continueth to this day, and it is very common amongst the Indians + to have these <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Piruas</span></span>.”</span><a id= + "noteref_565" name="noteref_565" href="#note_565"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">565</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The Maize-mother, the + Quinoa-mother, the Coca-mother, and the Potato-mother among the + Peruvian Indians.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In this + description of the custom there seems to be some error. Probably it + was the dressed-up bunch of maize, not the granary (<span class= + "tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Pirua</span></span>), which was worshipped by + the Peruvians and regarded as the Mother of the Maize. This is + confirmed by what we know of the Peruvian custom from another + source. The Peruvians, we are told, believed all useful plants to + be animated by a divine being who causes their growth. According to + the particular plant, these divine beings were called the + Maize-mother (<span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Zara-mama</span></span>), the Quinoa-mother + (<span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Quinoa-mama</span></span>), the Coca-mother + (<span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Coca-mama</span></span>), and the + Potato-mother (<span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Axo-mama</span></span>). Figures of these + divine mothers were made respectively of ears of maize and leaves + of the quinoa and coca plants; they were dressed in women's clothes + and worshipped. Thus the Maize-mother was represented by a puppet + made of stalks of maize dressed in full female attire; and the + Indians believed that <span class="tei tei-q">“as mother, it had + the power of producing and giving birth to much + maize.”</span><a id="noteref_566" name="noteref_566" href= + "#note_566"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">566</span></span></a> + Probably, therefore, Acosta misunderstood <span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page173">[pg 173]</span><a name="Pg173" id="Pg173" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> his informant, and the Mother of the Maize + which he describes was not the granary (<span class= + "tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Pirua</span></span>), but the bunch of maize + dressed in rich vestments. The Peruvian Mother of the Maize, like + the harvest-Maiden at Balquhidder, was kept for a year in order + that by her means the corn might grow and multiply. But lest her + strength might not suffice to last <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page174">[pg 174]</span><a name="Pg174" id="Pg174" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> till the next harvest, she was asked in the + course of the year how she felt, and if she answered that she felt + weak, she was burned and a fresh Mother of the Maize made, + <span class="tei tei-q">“to the end the seed of maize may not + perish.”</span> Here, it may be observed, we have a strong + confirmation of the explanation already given of the custom of + killing the god, both periodically and occasionally. The Mother of + the Maize was allowed, as a rule, to live through a year, that + being the period during which her strength might reasonably be + supposed to last unimpaired; but on any symptom of her strength + failing she was put to death, and a fresh and vigorous Mother of + the Maize took her place, lest the maize which depended on her for + its existence should languish and decay.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Customs of the ancient Mexicans at + the maize-harvest.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Hardly less + clearly does the same train of thought come out in the harvest + customs formerly observed by the Zapotecs of Mexico. At harvest the + priests, attended by the nobles and people, went in procession to + the maize fields, where they picked out the largest and finest + sheaf. This they took with great ceremony to the town or village, + and placed it in the temple upon an altar adorned with wild + flowers. After sacrificing to the harvest god, the priests + carefully wrapped up the sheaf in fine linen and kept it till + seed-time. Then the priests and nobles met again at the temple, one + of them bringing the skin of a wild beast, elaborately ornamented, + in which the linen cloth containing the sheaf was enveloped. The + sheaf was then carried once more in procession to the field from + which it had been taken. Here a small cavity or subterranean + chamber had been prepared, in which the precious sheaf was + deposited, wrapt in its various envelopes. After sacrifice had been + offered to the gods of the fields for an abundant crop the chamber + was closed and covered over with earth. Immediately thereafter the + sowing began. Finally, when the time of harvest drew near, the + buried sheaf was solemnly disinterred by the priests, who + distributed the grain to all who asked for it. The packets of grain + so distributed were carefully preserved as talismans till the + harvest.<a id="noteref_567" name="noteref_567" href= + "#note_567"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">567</span></span></a> In + these ceremonies, which continued to be annually celebrated + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page175">[pg 175]</span><a name= + "Pg175" id="Pg175" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> long after the + Spanish conquest, the intention of keeping the finest sheaf buried + in the maize field from seed-time to harvest was undoubtedly to + quicken the growth of the maize.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Sahagun's account of the ancient + Mexican religion.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">A fuller and to + some extent different account of the ancient Mexican worship of the + maize has been given us by the Franciscan monk Bernardino de + Sahagun, who arrived in Mexico in 1529, only eight years after its + conquest by the Spaniards, and devoted the remaining sixty-one + years of his long life to labouring among the Indians for their + moral and spiritual good. Uniting the curiosity of a scientific + enquirer to the zeal of a missionary, and adorning both qualities + with the humanity and benevolence of a good man, he obtained from + the oldest and most learned of the Indians accounts of their + ancient customs and beliefs, and embodied them in a work which, for + combined interest of matter and fulness of detail, has perhaps + never been equalled in the records of aboriginal peoples brought + into contact with European civilisation. This great document, after + lying neglected in the dust of Spanish archives for centuries, was + discovered and published almost simultaneously in Mexico and + England in the first half of the nineteenth century. It exists in + the double form of an Aztec text and a Spanish translation, both + due to Sahagun himself. Only the Spanish version has hitherto been + published in full, but the original Aztec text, to judge by the few + extracts of it which have been edited and translated, appears to + furnish much more ample details on many points, and in the interest + of learning it is greatly to be desired that a complete edition and + translation of it should be given to the world.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Sahagun's description of the + Mexican Maize-goddess and her festival.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Fortunately, + among the sections of this great work which have been edited and + translated from the Aztec original into German by Professor Eduard + Seler of Berlin is a long one describing the religious festivals of + the ancient Mexican calendar.<a id="noteref_568" name="noteref_568" + href="#note_568"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">568</span></span></a> From + it we learn some valuable particulars as to <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page176">[pg 176]</span><a name="Pg176" id="Pg176" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> the worship of the Maize-goddess and + the ceremonies observed by the Mexicans for the purpose of ensuring + a good crop of maize. The festival was the fourth of the Aztec + year, and went by the name of the Great Vigil. It fell on a date + which corresponds to the seventh of April. The name of the + Maize-goddess was Chicome couatl, and the Mexicans conceived and + represented her in the form of a woman, red in face and arms and + legs, wearing a paper crown dyed vermilion, and clad in garments of + the hue of ripe cherries. No doubt the red colour of the goddess + and her garments referred to the deep orange hue of the ripe maize; + it was like the yellow hair of the Greek corn-goddess Demeter. She + was supposed to make all kinds of maize, beans, and vegetables to + grow. On the day of the festival the Mexicans sent out to the + maize-fields and fetched from every field a plant of maize, which + they brought to their houses and greeted as their maize-gods, + setting them up in their dwellings, clothing them in garments, and + placing food before them. And after sunset they carried the + maize-plants to the temple of the Maize-goddess, where they + snatched them from one another and fought and struck each other + with them. Further, at this festival they brought to the temple of + the Maize-goddess the maize-cobs which were to be used in the + sowing. The cobs were carried by three maidens in bundles of seven + wrapt in red paper. One of the girls was small with short hair, + another was older with long hair hanging down, and the third was + full-grown with her hair wound round her head. Red feathers were + gummed to the arms and legs of the three maidens and their faces + were painted, probably to resemble the red Maize-goddess, whom they + may be supposed to have personated at various stages of the growth + of the corn. The maize-cobs which they brought to the temple of the + Maize-goddess were called by the name of the Maize-god Cinteotl, + and they were afterwards deposited in the granary <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page177">[pg 177]</span><a name="Pg177" id="Pg177" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> and kept there as <span class= + "tei tei-q">“the heart of the granary”</span> till the sowing time + came round, when they were used as seed.<a id="noteref_569" name= + "noteref_569" href="#note_569"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">569</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The Corn-mother among the North + American Indians.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The eastern + Indians of North America, who subsisted to a large extent by the + cultivation of maize, generally conceived the spirit of the maize + as a woman, and supposed that the plant itself had sprung + originally from the blood drops or the dead body of the Corn Woman. + In the sacred formulas of the Cherokee the corn is sometimes + invoked as <span class="tei tei-q">“the Old Woman,”</span> and one + of their myths relates how a hunter saw a fair woman issue from a + single green stalk of corn.<a id="noteref_570" name="noteref_570" + href="#note_570"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">570</span></span></a> The + Iroquois believe the Spirit of the Corn, the Spirit of Beans, and + the Spirit of Squashes to be three sisters clad in the leaves of + their respective plants, very fond of each other, and delighting to + dwell together. This divine trinity is known by the name of + <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">De-o-ha'-ko</span></span>, which means + <span class="tei tei-q">“Our Life”</span> or <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Our Supporters.”</span> The three persons of the + trinity have no individual names, and are never mentioned + separately except by means of description. The Indians have a + legend that of old the corn was easily cultivated, yielded + abundantly, and had a grain exceedingly rich in oil, till the Evil + One, envious of this good gift of the Great Spirit to man, went + forth into the fields and blighted them. And still, when the wind + rustles in the corn, the pious Indian fancies he hears the Spirit + of the Corn bemoaning her blighted fruitfulness.<a id="noteref_571" + name="noteref_571" href="#note_571"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">571</span></span></a> The + Huichol Indians of Mexico imagine maize to be a little girl, who + may sometimes be heard weeping in the fields; so afraid is she of + the wild beasts that eat the corn.<a id="noteref_572" name= + "noteref_572" href="#note_572"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">572</span></span></a></p> + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page178">[pg 178]</span><a name= + "Pg178" id="Pg178" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em"> + <a name="toc17" id="toc17"></a> <a name="pdf18" id="pdf18"></a> + + <h2 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em"> + <span style="font-size: 144%">§ 2. The Mother-cotton in the + Punjaub.</span></h2> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The Mother-cotton in the + Punjaub.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In the Punjaub, + to the east of the Jumna, when the cotton boles begin to burst, it + is usual to select the largest plant in the field, sprinkle it with + butter-milk and rice-water, and then bind to it pieces of cotton + taken from the other plants of the field. This selected plant is + called Sirdar or <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Bhogaldaí</span></span>, that is <span class= + "tei tei-q">“mother-cotton,”</span> from <span class= + "tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">bhogla</span></span>, a name sometimes given + to a large cotton-pod, and <span class= + "tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">daí</span></span> (for <span class= + "tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">daiya</span></span>), <span class= + "tei tei-q">“a mother,”</span> and after it has been saluted, + prayers are offered that the other plants may resemble it in the + richness of their produce.<a id="noteref_573" name="noteref_573" + href="#note_573"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">573</span></span></a></p> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em"> + <a name="toc19" id="toc19"></a> <a name="pdf20" id="pdf20"></a> + + <h2 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em"> + <span style="font-size: 144%">§ 3. The Barley Bride among the + Berbers.</span></h2> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The Barley Bride among the + Berbers.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The conception + of the corn-spirit as a bride seems to come out clearly in a + ceremony still practised by the Berbers near Tangier, in Morocco. + When the women assemble in the fields to weed the green barley or + reap the crops, they take with them a straw figure dressed like a + woman, and set it up among the corn. Suddenly a group of horsemen + from a neighbouring village gallops up and carries off the straw + puppet amid the screams and cries of the women. However, the + ravished effigy is rescued by another band of mounted men, and + after a struggle it remains, more or less dishevelled, in the hands + of the women. That this pretended abduction is a mimic marriage + appears from a Berber custom in accordance with which, at a real + wedding, the bridegroom carries off his seemingly unwilling bride + on horseback, while she screams and pretends to summon her friends + to her rescue. No fixed date is appointed for the simulated + abduction of the straw woman from the barley-field, the time + depends upon the state of the crops, but the day and hour are made + public before the event. Each village used to practise this mimic + contest for possession of the straw woman, who probably represents + the Barley Bride, but nowadays the custom is growing + obsolete.<a id="noteref_574" name="noteref_574" href= + "#note_574"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">574</span></span></a></p><span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page179">[pg 179]</span><a name="Pg179" id="Pg179" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Another account of the Barley + Bride among the Berbers. Competitions for the possession of the + image that represents the Corn-mother.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">An earlier + account of what seems to be the same practice runs as follows: + <span class="tei tei-q">“There is a curious custom which seems to + be a relic of their pagan masters, who made this and the adjoining + regions of North Africa the main granary of their Latin empire. + When the young corn has sprung up, which it does about the middle + of February, the women of the villages make up the figure of a + female, the size of a very large doll, which they dress in the + gaudiest fashion they can contrive, covering it with ornaments to + which all in the village contribute something; and they give it a + tall, peaked head-dress. This image they carry in procession round + their fields, screaming and singing a peculiar ditty. The doll is + borne by the foremost woman, who must yield it to any one who is + quick enough to take the lead of her, which is the cause of much + racing and squabbling. The men also have a similar custom, which + they perform on horseback. They call the image Mata. These + ceremonies are said by the people to bring good luck. Their + efficacy ought to be great, for you frequently see crowds of men + engaged in their performances running and galloping recklessly over + the young crops of wheat and barley. Such customs are directly + opposed to the faith of Islam, and I never met with a Moor who + could in any way enlighten me as to their origin. The Berber + tribes, the most ancient race now remaining in these regions, to + which they give the name, are the only ones which retain this + antique usage, and it is viewed by the Arabs and dwellers in the + town as a remnant of idolatry.”</span><a id="noteref_575" name= + "noteref_575" href="#note_575"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">575</span></span></a> We + may conjecture that this gaudily dressed effigy of a female, which + the Berber women carry about their fields when the corn is + sprouting, represents the Corn-mother, and that the procession is + designed to promote the growth of the crops by imparting to them + the quickening influence of the goddess. We can therefore + understand why there should be a competition among the women for + the possession of the effigy; each woman probably hopes to secure + for herself and her crops a larger measure of fertility by + appropriating the image of the Corn-mother. The competition on + horseback among the men is no doubt to be <span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page180">[pg 180]</span><a name="Pg180" id="Pg180" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> explained similarly; they, too, race with + each other in their eagerness to possess themselves of an effigy, + perhaps of a male power of the corn, by whose help they expect to + procure a heavy crop. Such contests for possession of the + corn-spirit embodied in the corn-stalks are common, as we have + seen, among the reapers on the harvest fields of Europe. Perhaps + they help to explain some of the contests in the Eleusinian games, + among which horse-races as well as foot-races were included.<a id= + "noteref_576" name="noteref_576" href="#note_576"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">576</span></span></a></p> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em"> + <a name="toc21" id="toc21"></a> <a name="pdf22" id="pdf22"></a> + + <h2 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em"> + <span style="font-size: 144%">§ 4. The Rice-mother in the East + Indies.</span></h2> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Comparison of the European ritual + of the corn with the Indonesian ritual of the rice.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">If the reader + still feels any doubts as to the meaning of the harvest customs + which have been practised within living memory by European + peasants, these doubts may perhaps be dispelled by comparing the + customs observed at the rice-harvest by the Malays and Dyaks of the + East Indies. For these Eastern peoples have not, like our + peasantry, advanced beyond the intellectual stage at which the + customs originated; their theory and their practice are still in + unison; for them the quaint rites which in Europe have long + dwindled into mere fossils, the pastime of clowns and the puzzle of + the learned, are still living realities of which they can render an + intelligible and truthful account. Hence a study of their beliefs + and usages concerning the rice may throw some light on the true + meaning of the ritual of the corn in ancient Greece and modern + Europe.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The Indonesian ritual of the rice + is based on the belief that the rice is animated by a + soul.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Now the whole of + the ritual which the Malays and Dyaks observe in connexion with the + rice is founded on the simple conception of the rice as animated by + a soul like that which these people attribute to mankind. They + explain the phenomena of reproduction, growth, decay and death in + the rice on the same principles on which they explain the + corresponding phenomena in human beings. They imagine that in the + fibres of the plant, as in the body of a man, there is a certain + vital element, which is so far independent of the plant that it may + for a time be completely separated from it without fatal effects, + though if its absence be prolonged beyond certain limits the plant + will wither and <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page181">[pg + 181]</span><a name="Pg181" id="Pg181" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + die. This vital yet separable element is what, for the want of a + better word, we must call the soul of a plant, just as a similar + vital and separable element is commonly supposed to constitute the + soul of man; and on this theory or myth of the plant-soul is built + the whole worship of the cereals, just as on the theory or myth of + the human soul is built the whole worship of the dead,—a towering + superstructure reared on a slender and precarious foundation.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Parallelism between the human soul + and the rice-soul.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The strict + parallelism between the Indonesian ideas about the soul of man and + the soul of rice is well brought out by Mr. R. J. Wilkinson in the + following passage: <span class="tei tei-q">“The spirit of + life,—which, according to the ancient Indonesian belief, existed in + all things, even in what we should now consider inanimate + objects—is known as the <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sĕmangat</span></span>. It was not a + <span class="tei tei-q">‘soul’</span> in the modern English sense, + since it was not the exclusive possession of mankind, its + separation from the body did not necessarily mean death, and its + nature may possibly not have been considered immortal. At the + present day, if a Malay feels faint, he will describe his condition + by saying that his <span class="tei tei-q">‘spirit of life’</span> + is weak or is <span class="tei tei-q">‘flying’</span> from his + body; he sometimes appeals to it to return: <span class= + "tei tei-q">‘Hither, hither, bird of my soul.’</span> Or again, if + a Malay lover wishes to influence the mind of a girl, he may seek + to obtain control of her <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sĕmangat</span></span>, for he believes that + this spirit of active and vigorous life must quit the body when the + body sleeps and so be liable to capture by the use of magic arts. + It is, however, in the ceremonies connected with the so-called + <span class="tei tei-q">‘spirit of the rice-crops’</span> that the + peculiar characteristics of the <span class= + "tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sĕmangat</span></span> come out most clearly. + The Malay considers it essential that the spirit of life should not + depart from the rice intended for next year's sowing as otherwise + the dead seed would fail to produce any crop whatever. He, + therefore, approaches the standing rice-crops at harvest-time in a + deprecatory manner; he addresses them in endearing terms; he offers + propitiatory sacrifices; he fears that he may scare away the + timorous <span class="tei tei-q">‘bird of life’</span> by the sight + of a weapon or the least sign of violence. He must reap the + seed-rice, but he does it with a knife of peculiar shape, such that + the cruel blade is hidden away beneath the reaper's fingers and + does not alarm the <span class="tei tei-q">‘soul of the + rice.’</span> When once the seed-rice <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page182">[pg 182]</span><a name="Pg182" id="Pg182" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> has been harvested, more expeditious + reaping-tools may be employed, since it is clearly unnecessary to + retain the spirit of life in grain that is only intended for the + cooking-pot. Similar rites attend all the processes of + rice-cultivation—the sowing and the planting-out as well as the + harvest,—for at each of these stages there is a risk that the + vitality of the crop may be ruined if the bird of life is scared + away. In the language used by the high-priests of these very + ancient ceremonies we constantly find references to Sri (the Hindu + Goddess of the Crops), to the fruit of the Tree of Knowledge, and + to Adam who, according to Moslem tradition, was the first planter + of cereals;—many of these references only represent the attempts of + the conservative Malays to make their old religions harmonize with + later beliefs. Beneath successive layers of religious veneer, we + see the animism of the old Indonesians, the theory of a bird-spirit + of life, and the characteristic view that the best protection + against evil lies in gentleness and courtesy to all animate and + inanimate things.”</span><a id="noteref_577" name="noteref_577" + href="#note_577"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">577</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The soul-stuff of rice.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-q">“It is a familiar fact,”</span> says another eminent + authority on the East Indies, <span class="tei tei-q">“that the + Indonesian imagines rice to be animated, to be provided with + <span class="tei tei-q">‘soul-stuff.’</span> Since rice is + everywhere cultivated in the Indian Archipelago, and with some + exceptions is the staple food, we need not wonder that the + Indonesian conceives the rice to be not merely animated in the + ordinary sense but to be possessed of a soul-stuff which in + strength and dignity ranks with that of man. Thus the Bataks apply + the same word <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">tondi</span></span> to the soul-stuff of rice + and the soul-stuff of human beings. Whereas the Dyaks of Poelopetak + give the name of <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">gana</span></span> to the soul-stuff of + things, animals, and plants, they give the name of <span class= + "tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">hambaruan</span></span> to the soul-stuff of + rice as well as of <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page183">[pg + 183]</span><a name="Pg183" id="Pg183" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + man. So also the inhabitants of Halmahera call the soul-stuff of + things and plants <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">giki</span></span> and <span class= + "tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">duhutu</span></span>, but in men and food they + recognise a <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">gurumi</span></span>. Of the Javanese, Malays, + Macassars, Buginese, and the inhabitants of the island of Buru we + know that they ascribe a <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sumangè</span></span>, <span class= + "tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sumangat</span></span>, or <span class= + "tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sĕmangat</span></span> to rice as well as to + men. So it is with the Toradjas of Central Celebes; while they + manifestly conceive all things and plants as animated, they + attribute a <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">tanoana</span></span> or soul-stuff only to + men, animals, and rice. It need hardly be said that this custom + originates in the very high value that is set on + rice.”</span><a id="noteref_578" name="noteref_578" href= + "#note_578"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">578</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Rice treated by the Indonesians as + if it were a woman.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Believing the + rice to be animated by a soul like that of a man, the Indonesians + naturally treat it with the deference and the consideration which + they shew to their fellows. Thus they behave towards the rice in + bloom as they behave towards a pregnant woman; they abstain from + firing guns or making loud noises in the field, lest they should so + frighten the soul of the rice that it would miscarry and bear no + grain; and for the same reason they will not talk of corpses or + demons in the rice-fields. Moreover, they feed the blooming rice + with foods of various kinds which are believed to be wholesome for + women with child; but when the rice-ears are just beginning to + form, they are looked upon as infants, and women go through the + fields feeding them with rice-pap as if they were human + babes.<a id="noteref_579" name="noteref_579" href= + "#note_579"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">579</span></span></a> In + such natural and obvious comparisons of the breeding plant to a + breeding woman, and of the young grain to a young child, is to be + sought the origin of the kindred Greek <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page184">[pg 184]</span><a name="Pg184" id="Pg184" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> conception of the Corn-mother and the + Corn-daughter, Demeter and Persephone, and we need not go further + afield to search for it in a primitive division of labour between + the sexes.<a id="noteref_580" name="noteref_580" href= + "#note_580"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">580</span></span></a> But + if the timorous feminine soul of the rice can be frightened into a + miscarriage even by loud noises, it is easy to imagine what her + feelings must be at harvest, when people are under the sad + necessity of cutting down the rice with the knife. At so critical a + season every precaution must be used to render the necessary + surgical operation of reaping as inconspicuous and as painless as + possible. For that reason, as we have seen,<a id="noteref_581" + name="noteref_581" href="#note_581"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">581</span></span></a> the + reaping of the seed-rice is done with knives of a peculiar pattern, + such that the blades are hidden in the reapers' hands and do not + frighten the rice-spirit till the very last moment, when her head + is swept off almost before she is aware; and from a like delicate + motive the reapers at work in the fields employ a special form of + speech, which the rice-spirit cannot be expected to understand, so + that she has no warning or inkling of what is going forward till + the heads of rice are safely deposited in the basket.<a id= + "noteref_582" name="noteref_582" href="#note_582"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">582</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The Kayans of Borneo, their + treatment of the soul of the rice.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Among the + Indonesian peoples who thus personify the rice we may take the + Kayans or Bahaus of Central Borneo as typical. As we have already + seen, they are essentially an agricultural people devoted to the + cultivation of rice, which furnishes their staple food; their + religion is deeply coloured by this main occupation of their lives, + and it presents many analogies to the Eleusinian worship of the + corn-goddesses Demeter and Persephone.<a id="noteref_583" name= + "noteref_583" href="#note_583"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">583</span></span></a> And + just as the Greeks regarded corn as a gift of the goddess Demeter, + so the Kayans believe that rice, maize, sweet potatoes, tobacco, + and all the other products of the earth which they cultivate, were + originally created for their benefit by the spirits.<a id= + "noteref_584" name="noteref_584" href="#note_584"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">584</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Instruments used by the Kayans for + the purpose of catching and detaining the soul of the rice. + Ceremonies performed by Kayan housewives at fetching rice from + the barn.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In order to + secure and detain the volatile soul of the rice the Kayans resort + to a number of devices. Among the instruments employed for this + purpose are a miniature ladder, a spatula, and a basket containing + hooks, thorns, and <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page185">[pg + 185]</span><a name="Pg185" id="Pg185" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + cords. With the spatula the priestess strokes the soul of the rice + down the little ladder into the basket, where it is naturally held + fast by the hooks, the thorn, and the cord; and having thus + captured and imprisoned the soul she conveys it into the + rice-granary. Sometimes a bamboo box and a net are used for the + same purpose. And in order to ensure a good harvest for the + following year it is necessary not only to detain the soul of all + the grains of rice which are safely stored in the granary, but also + to attract and recover the soul of all the rice that has been lost + through falling to the earth or being eaten by deer, apes, and + pigs. For this purpose instruments of various sorts have been + invented by the priests. One, for example, is a bamboo vessel + provided with four hooks made from the wood of a fruit-tree, by + means of which the absent rice-soul may be hooked and drawn back + into the vessel, which is then hung up in the house. Sometimes two + hands carved out of the wood of a fruit-tree are used for the same + purpose. And every time that a Kayan housewife fetches rice from + the granary for the use of her household, she must propitiate the + souls of the rice in the granary, lest they should be angry at + being robbed of their substance. To keep them in good humour a + bundle of shavings of a fruit-tree and a little basket are always + hung in the granary. An egg and a small vessel containing the juice + of sugar-cane are attached as offerings to the bundle of shavings, + and the basket contains a sacred mat, which is used at fetching the + rice. When the housewife comes to fetch rice from the granary, she + pours juice of the sugar-cane on the egg, takes the sacred mat from + the basket, spreads it on the ground, lays a stalk of rice on it, + and explains to the souls of the rice the object of her coming. + Then she kneels before the mat, mutters some prayers or spells, + eats a single grain from the rice-stalk, and having restored the + various objects to their proper place, departs from the granary + with the requisite amount of rice, satisfied that she has + discharged her religious duty to the spirits of the rice. At + harvest the spirits of the rice are propitiated with offerings of + food and water, which are carried by children to the rice-fields. + At evening the first rice-stalks which have been cut are solemnly + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page186">[pg 186]</span><a name= + "Pg186" id="Pg186" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> brought home in a + consecrated basket to the beating of a gong, and all cats and dogs + are driven from the house before the basket with its precious + contents is brought in.<a id="noteref_585" name="noteref_585" href= + "#note_585"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">585</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Masquerade performed by the Kayans + before sowing for the purpose of attracting the soul of the + rice.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Among the Kayans + of the Mahakam river in Central Borneo the sowing of the rice is + immediately preceded by a performance of masked men, which is + intended to attract the soul or rather souls of the rice and so to + make sure that the harvest will be a good one. The performers + represent spirits; for, believing that spirits are mightier than + men, the Kayans imagine that they can acquire and exert superhuman + power by imitating the form and actions of spirits.<a id= + "noteref_586" name="noteref_586" href="#note_586"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">586</span></span></a> To + support their assumed character they wear grotesque masks with + goggle eyes, great teeth, huge ears, and beards of white goat's + hair, while their bodies are so thickly wrapt up in shredded + banana-leaves that to the spectator they present the appearance of + unwieldy masses of green foliage. The leader of the band carries a + long wooden hook or rather crook, the shaft of which is partly + whittled into loose fluttering shavings. These disguises they don + at a little distance from the village, then dropping down the river + in boats they land and march in procession to an open space among + the houses, where the people, dressed out in all their finery, are + waiting to witness the performance. Here the maskers range + themselves in a circle and dance for some time under the burning + rays of the midday sun, waving their arms, shaking and turning + their heads, and executing a variety of steps to the sound of a + gong, which is beaten according to a rigidly prescribed rhythm. + After the dance they form a line, one behind the other, to fetch + the vagrant soul of the rice from far countries. At the head of the + procession marches the leader holding high his crook and behind him + follow all the other masked men in their leafy costume, each + holding his fellow by the hand. As he strides along, the leader + makes a motion with his crook as if he were hooking something and + drawing it to himself, and the gesture is imitated by all his + followers. What <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page187">[pg + 187]</span><a name="Pg187" id="Pg187" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + he is thus catching are the souls of the rice, which sometimes + wander far away, and by drawing them home to the village he is + believed to ensure that the seed of the rice which is about to be + sown will produce a plentiful harvest. As the spirits are thought + not to possess the power of speech, the actors who personate them + may not utter a word, else they would run the risk of falling down + dead. The great field of the chief is sown by representatives of + all the families, both free and slaves, on the day after the + masquerade. On the same day the free families sacrifice on their + fields and begin their sowing on one or other of the following + days. Every family sets up in its field a sacrificial stage or + altar, with which the sowers must remain in connexion during the + time of sowing. Therefore no stranger may pass between them and the + stage; indeed the Kayans are not allowed to have anything to do + with strangers in the fields; above all they may not speak with + them. If such a thing should accidentally happen, the sowing must + cease for that day. At the sowing festival, but at no other time, + Kayan men of the Mahakam river, like their brethren of the Mendalam + river, amuse themselves with spinning tops. For nine days before + the masquerade takes place the people are bound to observe certain + taboos: no stranger may enter the village: no villager may pass the + night out of his own house: they may not hunt, nor pluck fruits, + nor fish with the casting-net or the drag-net.<a id="noteref_587" + name="noteref_587" href="#note_587"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">587</span></span></a> In + this tribe the proper day for sowing is officially determined by a + priest from an observation of the sun setting behind the hills in a + line with two stones which the priest has set up, one behind the + other. However, the official day often does not coincide with the + actual day of sowing.<a id="noteref_588" name="noteref_588" href= + "#note_588"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">588</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Comparison of the Kayan masquerade + with the Eleusinian drama.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The masquerade + thus performed by the Kayans of the Mahakam river before sowing the + rice is an instructive example of a religious or rather magical + drama acted for the express purpose of ensuring a good crop. As + such it may be compared to the drama of Demeter and Persephone, + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page188">[pg 188]</span><a name= + "Pg188" id="Pg188" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> the Corn-mother and + the Corn-maiden, which was annually played at the Eleusinian + mysteries shortly before the autumnal sowing of the corn. If my + interpretation of these mysteries is correct, the intention of the + Greek and of the Kayan drama was one and the same.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Securing the soul of the rice + among the Dyaks of Northern Borneo.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">At harvest the + Dyaks of Northern Borneo have a special feast, the object of which + is <span class="tei tei-q">“to secure the soul of the rice, which + if not so detained, the produce of their farms would speedily rot + and decay. At sowing time, a little of the principle of life of the + rice, which at every harvest is secured by their priests, is + planted with their other seeds, and is thus propagated and + communicated.”</span> The mode of securing the soul of the rice + varies in different tribes. In the Quop district the ceremony is + performed by the chief priest alone, first in the long broad + verandah of the common house and afterwards in each separate family + apartment. As a preparation for the ceremony a bamboo altar, + decorated with green boughs and red and white streamers, is erected + in the verandah, and presents a very gay appearance. Here the + people, old and young, assemble, the priestesses dressed in + gorgeous array and the elder men wearing bright-coloured jackets + and trousers of purple, yellow, or scarlet hue, while the young men + and lads beat gongs and drums. When the priest, with a bundle of + charms in either hand, is observed to be gazing earnestly in the + air at something invisible to common eyes, the band strikes up with + redoubled energy, and the elderly men in the gay breeches begin to + shriek and revolve round the altar in the dance. Suddenly the + priest starts up and makes a rush at the invisible object; men run + to him with white cloths, and as he shakes his charms over the + cloths a few grains of rice fall into them. These grains are the + soul of the rice; they are carefully folded up in the cloths and + laid at the foot of the altar. The same performance is afterwards + repeated in every family apartment. In some tribes the soul of the + rice is secured at midnight. Outside the village a lofty altar is + erected in an open space surrounded by the stately forms of the + tropical palms. Huge bonfires cast a ruddy glow over the scene and + light up the dusky but picturesque forms of the Dyaks as they move + in slow and solemn dance round the altar, some <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page189">[pg 189]</span><a name="Pg189" id="Pg189" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> bearing lighted tapers in their hands, + others brass salvers with offerings of rice, others covered + baskets, of which the contents are hidden from all but the + initiated. The corner-posts of the altar are lofty bamboos, whose + leafy tops are yet green and rustle in the wind; and from one of + them a long narrow streamer of white cloth hangs down. Suddenly + elders and priests rush at this streamer, seize the end of it, and + amid the crashing music of drums and gongs and the yells of the + spectators begin dancing and swaying themselves backwards and + forwards, and to and fro. A priest or elder mounts the altar amid + the shouts of the bystanders and shakes the tall bamboos violently; + and in the midst of all this excitement and hubbub small stones, + bunches of hair, and grains of rice fall at the feet of the + dancers, and are carefully picked up by watchful attendants. These + grains are the soul of the rice. The ceremony ends with several of + the oldest priestesses falling, or pretending to fall, senseless to + the ground, where, till they come to themselves, their heads are + supported and their faces fanned by their younger colleagues. At + the end of the harvest, when the year's crop has been garnered, + another feast is held. A pig and fowls are killed, and for four + days gongs are beaten and dancing kept up. For eight days the + village is tabooed and no stranger may enter it. At this festival + the ceremony of catching the soul of the rice is repeated to + prevent the crop from rotting; and the soul so obtained is mixed + with the seed-rice of the next year.<a id="noteref_589" name= + "noteref_589" href="#note_589"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">589</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Recalling the soul of the rice + among the Karens of Burma.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The same need of + securing the soul of the rice, if the crop is to thrive, is keenly + felt by the Karens of Burma. When a rice-field does not flourish, + they suppose that the soul (<span class= + "tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">kelah</span></span>) of the rice is in some + way detained from the rice. If the soul cannot be called back, the + crop will fail. The following formula is used in recalling the + <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">kelah</span></span> (soul) of the rice: + <span class="tei tei-q">“O come, rice-<span class= + "tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">kelah</span></span>, come! Come to the field. + Come to the rice. With seed of each gender, come. Come from the + river Kho, come from the river Kaw; from the place where they meet, + come. Come from the West, come from <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page190">[pg 190]</span><a name="Pg190" id="Pg190" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> the East. From the throat of the bird, from + the maw of the ape, from the throat of the elephant. Come from the + sources of rivers and their mouths. Come from the country of the + Shan and Burman. From the distant kingdoms come. From all granaries + come. O rice-<span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">kelah</span></span>, come to the + rice.”</span><a id="noteref_590" name="noteref_590" href= + "#note_590"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">590</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Securing the soul of the rice in + various parts of Burma.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Among the + Taungthu of Upper Burma it is customary, when all the rice-fields + have been reaped, to make a trail of unhusked rice (paddy) and + husks all the way from the fields to the farm-house in order to + guide the spirit or butterfly, as they call it, of the rice home to + the granary. Care is taken that there should be no break in the + trail, and the butterfly of the rice is invited with loud cries to + come to the house. Were the spirit of the rice not secured in this + manner, next year's harvest would be bad.<a id="noteref_591" name= + "noteref_591" href="#note_591"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">591</span></span></a> + Similarly among the Cherokee Indians of North America <span class= + "tei tei-q">“care was always taken to keep a clean trail from the + field to the house, so that the corn might be encouraged to stay at + home and not go wandering elsewhere,”</span> and <span class= + "tei tei-q">“seven ears from the last year's crop were always put + carefully aside, in order to <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">attract the corn</span></em>, until the new + crop was ripened.”</span><a id="noteref_592" name="noteref_592" + href="#note_592"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">592</span></span></a> In + Hsa Möng Hkam, a native state of Upper Burma, when two men work + rice-fields in partnership, they take particular care as to the + division of the grain between them. Each partner has a basket made, + of which both top and bottom are carefully closed with wood to + prevent the butterfly spirit of the rice from escaping; for if it + were to flutter away, the next year's crop would be but poor.<a id= + "noteref_593" name="noteref_593" href="#note_593"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">593</span></span></a> Among + the Talaings of Lower Burma <span class="tei tei-q">“the last sheaf + is larger than the rest; it is brought home separately, usually if + not invariably on the morning after the remainder of the harvest + has been carted to the threshing-floor. The cultivators drive out + in their bullock-cart, taking with them a woman's comb, a + looking-glass, and a woman's skirt. The sheaf is dressed in the + skirt, and apparently the form is gone through of presenting + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page191">[pg 191]</span><a name= + "Pg191" id="Pg191" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> it with the glass + and comb. It is then brought home in triumph, the people decking + the cart with their silk kerchiefs, and cheering and singing the + whole way. On their arrival home they celebrate the occasion with a + feast. Strictly speaking the sheaf should be kept apart from the + rest of the harvest; owing, however, to the high price of paddy it + often finds its way to the threshing-floor. Even when this is not + the case it is rarely tended so carefully as it is said to have + been in former days, and if not threshed with the remaining crop is + apt to be eaten by the cattle. So far as I could ascertain it had + never been the custom to keep it throughout the year; but on the + first ploughing of the ensuing season there was some ceremony in + connection with it. The name of the sheaf was <span class= + "tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Bonmagyi</span></span>; at first I was + inclined to fancy that this was a contraction of <span class= + "tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">thelinbon ma + gyi</span></span>, <span class="tei tei-q">‘the old woman of the + threshing-floor.’</span> There are, however, various reasons for + discarding this derivation, and I am unable to suggest any + other.”</span><a id="noteref_594" name="noteref_594" href= + "#note_594"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">594</span></span></a> In + this custom the personification of the last sheaf of rice as a + woman comes out clearly in the practice of dressing it up in female + attire.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The Rice-mother among the + Minangkabauers of Sumatra.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The Corn-mother + of our European peasants has her match in the Rice-mother of the + Minangkabauers of Sumatra. The Minangkabauers definitely attribute + a soul to rice, and will sometimes assert that rice pounded in the + usual way tastes better than rice ground in a mill, because in the + mill the body of the rice was so bruised and battered that the soul + has fled from it. Like the Javanese they think that the rice is + under the special guardianship of a female spirit called Saning + Sari, who is conceived as so closely knit up with the plant that + the rice often goes by her name, as with the Romans the corn might + be called Ceres. In particular Saning Sari is represented by + certain stalks or grains called <span class= + "tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">indoea + padi</span></span>, that is, literally, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Mother of Rice,”</span> a name that is often given to + the guardian spirit herself. This so-called Mother of Rice is the + occasion of a number of ceremonies observed at the planting and + harvesting of the rice as well as during its preservation in the + barn. <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page192">[pg 192]</span><a name= + "Pg192" id="Pg192" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> When the seed of the + rice is about to be sown in the nursery or bedding-out ground, + where under the wet system of cultivation it is regularly allowed + to sprout before being transplanted to the fields, the best grains + are picked out to form the Rice-mother. These are then sown in the + middle of the bed, and the common seed is planted round about them. + The state of the Rice-mother is supposed to exert the greatest + influence on the growth of the rice; if she droops or pines away, + the harvest will be bad in consequence. The woman who sows the + Rice-mother in the nursery lets her hair hang loose and afterwards + bathes, as a means of ensuring an abundant harvest. When the time + comes to transplant the rice from the nursery to the field, the + Rice-mother receives a special place either in the middle or in a + corner of the field, and a prayer or charm is uttered as follows: + <span class="tei tei-q">“Saning Sari, may a measure of rice come + from a stalk of rice and a basketful from a root; may you be + frightened neither by lightning nor by passers-by! Sunshine make + you glad; with the storm may you be at peace; and may rain serve to + wash your face!”</span> While the rice is growing, the particular + plant which was thus treated as the Rice-mother is lost sight of; + but before harvest another Rice-mother is found. When the crop is + ripe for cutting, the oldest woman of the family or a sorcerer goes + out to look for her. The first stalks seen to bend under a passing + breeze are the Rice-mother, and they are tied together but not cut + until the first-fruits of the field have been carried home to serve + as a festal meal for the family and their friends, nay even for the + domestic animals; since it is Saning Sari's pleasure that the + beasts also should partake of her good gifts. After the meal has + been eaten, the Rice-mother is fetched home by persons in gay + attire, who carry her very carefully under an umbrella in a neatly + worked bag to the barn, where a place in the middle is assigned to + her. Every one believes that she takes care of the rice in the barn + and even multiplies it not uncommonly.<a id="noteref_595" name= + "noteref_595" href="#note_595"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">595</span></span></a></p><span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page193">[pg 193]</span><a name="Pg193" id="Pg193" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The Rice-mother among the Tomori + of Celebes. Special words used at reaping among the Tomori. + Riddles and stories in connexion with the rice.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">When the Tomori + of Central Celebes are about to plant the rice, they bury in the + field some betel as an offering to the spirits who cause the rice + to grow. Over the spot where the offering is buried a small floor + of wood is laid, and the family sits on it and consumes betel + together as a sort of silent prayer or charm to ensure the growth + of the crop. The rice that is planted round this spot is the last + to be reaped at harvest. At the commencement of the reaping the + stalks of this patch of rice are tied together into a sheaf, which + is called <span class="tei tei-q">“the Mother of the Rice”</span> + (<span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">ineno pae</span></span>), and offerings in the + shape of rice, fowl's liver, eggs, and other things are laid down + before it. When all the rest of the rice in the field has been + reaped, <span class="tei tei-q">“the Mother of the Rice”</span> is + cut down and carried with due honour to the rice-barn, where it is + laid on the floor, and all the other sheaves are piled upon it. The + Tomori, we are told, regard the Mother of the Rice as a special + offering made to the rice-spirit Omonga, who dwells in the moon. If + that spirit is not treated with proper respect, for example if the + people who fetch rice from the barn are not decently clad, he is + angry and punishes the offenders by eating up twice as much rice in + the barn as they have taken out of it; some people have heard him + smacking his lips in the barn, as he devoured the rice. On the + other hand the Toradjas of Central Celebes, who also practise the + custom of the Rice-mother at harvest, regard her as the actual + mother of the whole harvest, and therefore keep her carefully, lest + in her absence the garnered store of rice should all melt away and + disappear.<a id="noteref_596" name="noteref_596" href= + "#note_596"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">596</span></span></a> Among + the Tomori, as among other Indonesian peoples, reapers at work in + the field make use of special words which differ from the terms in + ordinary use; the reason for adopting this peculiar form of speech + at reaping appears to be, as I have already pointed out, a fear of + alarming the timid soul of the rice by revealing the fate in store + for it.<a id="noteref_597" name="noteref_597" href= + "#note_597"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">597</span></span></a> To + the same <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page194">[pg + 194]</span><a name="Pg194" id="Pg194" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + motive is perhaps to be ascribed the practice observed by the + Tomori of asking each other riddles at harvest.<a id="noteref_598" + name="noteref_598" href="#note_598"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">598</span></span></a> + Similarly among the Alfoors or Toradjas of Poso, in Central + Celebes, while the people are watching the crops in the fields they + amuse themselves with asking each other riddles and telling + stories, and when any one guesses a riddle aright, the whole + company cries out, <span class="tei tei-q">“Let our rice come up, + let fat ears come up both in the lowlands and on the + heights.”</span> But all the time between harvest and the laying + out of new fields the asking of riddles and the telling of stories + is strictly forbidden.<a id="noteref_599" name="noteref_599" href= + "#note_599"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">599</span></span></a> Thus + among these people it seems that the asking of riddles is for some + reason regarded as a charm which may make or mar the crops.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The Rice-mother among the Toradjas + of Celebes.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Among some of + the Toradjas of Celebes the ceremony of cutting and bringing home + the Mother of the Rice is observed as follows. When the crop is + ripe in the fields, the Mother of the Rice (<span class= + "tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">ânrong + pâre</span></span>) must be fetched before the rest of the harvest + is reaped. The ceremony is performed on a lucky day by a woman, who + knows the rites. For three days previously she observes certain + precautions to prevent the soul (<span class= + "tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">soemangâna + âse</span></span>) of the rice from escaping out of the field, as + it might be apt to do, if it got wind that the reapers with their + cruel knives were so soon to crop the ripe ears. With this view she + ties up a handful of standing stalks of the rice into a bunch in + each corner of the field, while she recites an invocation to the + spirits of the rice, bidding them gather in the field from the four + quarters of the heaven. As a further precaution she stops the + sluices, lest with the outrush of the water from the rice-field the + sly soul of the rice should make good its escape. And she ties + knots in the leaves of the rice-plants, all to hinder the soul of + the rice from running away. This she does in the afternoon of three + successive days. On the morning of the fourth day she comes again + to the field, sits down in a corner of it, and kisses the rice + three times, again inviting the souls of the rice to come thither + and assuring them of her affection and care. Then <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page195">[pg 195]</span><a name="Pg195" id="Pg195" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> she cuts the bunch of rice-stalks which + she had tied together on one of the previous days. The stalks in + the bunch must be nine in number, and their leaves must be cut with + them, not thrown away. As she cuts, she may not look about her, nor + cry out, nor speak to any one, nor be spoken to; but she says to + the rice, <span class="tei tei-q">“The prophet reaps you. I take + you, but you diminish not; I hold you in my hand and you increase. + You are the links of my soul, the support of my body, my blessing, + my salvation. There is no God but God.”</span> Then she passes to + another corner of the field to cut the bunch of standing rice in it + with the same ceremony; but before coming to it she stops half way + to pluck another bunch of five stalks in like manner. Thus from the + four sides of the field she collects in all fifty-six stalks of + rice, which together make up the Mother of the Rice (<span class= + "tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">ânrong + pâre</span></span>). Then in a corner of the field she makes a + little stage and lays the Mother of the Rice on it, with the ears + turned towards the standing rice and the cut stalks towards the + dyke which encloses the field. After that she binds the fifty-six + stalks of the Rice-mother into a sheaf with the bark of a + particular kind of tree. As she does so, she says, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“The prophet binds you into a sheaf; the angel + increases you; the <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">awâlli</span></span> cares for you. We loved + and cared for each other.”</span> Then, after anointing the sheaf + and fumigating it with incense, she lays it on the little stage. On + this stage she had previously placed several kinds of rice, betel, + one or more eggs, sweetmeats, and young coco-nuts, all as offerings + to the Mother of the Rice, who, if she did not receive these + attentions, would be offended and visit people with sickness or + even vanish away altogether. Sometimes on large farms a fowl is + killed and its blood deposited in the half of a coco-nut on the + stage. The standing rice round about the stage is the last of the + whole field to be reaped. When it has been cut, it is bound up with + the Mother of the Rice into a single sheaf and carried home. Any + body may carry the sheaf, but in doing so he or she must take care + not to let it fall, or the Rice-mother would be angry and might + disappear.<a id="noteref_600" name="noteref_600" href= + "#note_600"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">600</span></span></a></p><span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page196">[pg 196]</span><a name="Pg196" id="Pg196" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The rice personified as a young + woman among the Bataks of Sumatra.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Among the Battas + or Bataks of Sumatra the rice appears to be personified as a young + unmarried woman rather than as a mother. On the first day of + reaping the crop only a few ears of rice are plucked and made up + into a little sheaf. After that the reaping may begin, and while it + is going forward offerings of rice and betel are presented in the + middle of the field to the spirit of the rice, who is personified + under the name of Miss Dajang. The offering is accompanied by a + common meal shared by the reapers. When all the rice has been + reaped, threshed and garnered, the little sheaf which was first cut + is brought in and laid on the top of the heap in the granary, + together with an egg or a stone, which is supposed to watch over + the rice.<a id="noteref_601" name="noteref_601" href= + "#note_601"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">601</span></span></a> + Though we are not told, we may assume that the personified spirit + of the rice is supposed to be present in the first sheaf cut and in + that form to keep guard over the rice in the granary. Another + writer, who has independently described the customs of the + Karo-Bataks at the rice-harvest, tells us that the largest sheaf, + which is usually the one first made up, is regarded as the seat of + the rice-soul and is treated exactly like a person; at the + trampling of the paddy to separate the grain from the husks the + sheaf in question is specially entrusted to a girl who has a lucky + name, and whose parents are both alive.<a id="noteref_602" name= + "noteref_602" href="#note_602"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">602</span></span></a></p><span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page197">[pg 197]</span><a name="Pg197" id="Pg197" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The King of the Rice in + Mandeling.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In Mandeling, a + district of Sumatra, contrary to what seems to be the usual + practice, the spirit of the rice is personified as a male instead + of as a female and is called the Rajah or King of the Rice. He is + supposed to be immanent in certain rice-plants, which are + recognised by their peculiar formation, such as a concealment of + the ears in the sheath, an unusual arrangement of the leaves, or a + stunted growth. When one or more such plants have been discovered + in the field, they are sprinkled with lime-juice, and the spirits + are invoked by name and informed that they are expected at home and + that all is ready for their reception. Then the King of the Rice is + plucked with the hand and seven neighbouring rice-stalks cut with a + knife. He and his seven companions are then carefully brought home; + the bearer may not speak a word, and the children in the house may + make no noise till the King of the Rice has been safely lodged in + the granary and tethered, for greater security, with a grass rope + to one of the posts. As soon as that is done, the doors are shut to + prevent the spirits of the rice from escaping. The person who + fetches the King of the Rice from the field should prepare himself + for the important duty by eating a hearty meal, for it would be an + omen of a bad harvest if he presented himself before the King of + the Rice with an empty stomach. For the same reason the sower of + rice should sow the seed on a full stomach, in order that the ears + which spring from the seed may be full also.<a id="noteref_603" + name="noteref_603" href="#note_603"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">603</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The Rice-mother and the Rice-child + at harvest in the Malay Peninsula.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Again, just as + in Scotland the old and the young spirit of the corn are + represented as an Old Wife (<span lang="gd" class="tei tei-foreign" + xml:lang="gd"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Cailleach</span></span>) and a Maiden + respectively, so in the Malay Peninsula we find both the + Rice-mother and her child represented by different sheaves or + bundles of ears on the harvest-field. The following directions for + obtaining both are translated from a native Malay work on the + cultivation of rice: <span class="tei tei-q">“When the rice is + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page198">[pg 198]</span><a name= + "Pg198" id="Pg198" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> ripe all over, one + must first take the <span class="tei tei-q">‘soul’</span> out of + all the plots of one's field. You choose the spot where the rice is + best and where it is <span class="tei tei-q">‘female’</span> (that + is to say, where the bunch of stalks is big) and where there are + seven joints in the stalk. You begin with a bunch of this kind and + clip seven stems to be the <span class="tei tei-q">‘soul of the + rice’</span>; and then you clip yet another handful to be the + <span class="tei tei-q">‘mother-seed’</span> for the following + year. The <span class="tei tei-q">‘soul’</span> is wrapped in a + white cloth tied with a cord of <span class= + "tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">tĕrap</span></span> bark, and made into the + shape of a little child in swaddling clothes, and put into the + small basket. The <span class="tei tei-q">‘mother-seed’</span> is + put into another basket, and both are fumigated with benzoin, and + then the two baskets are piled the one on the other and taken home, + and put into the <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">kĕpuk</span></span> (the receptacle in which + rice is stored).”</span><a id="noteref_604" name="noteref_604" + href="#note_604"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">604</span></span></a> The + ceremony of cutting and bringing home the Soul of the Rice was + witnessed by Mr. W. W. Skeat at Chodoi in Selangor on the + twenty-eighth of January 1897. The particular bunch or sheaf which + was to serve as the Mother of the Rice-soul had previously been + sought and identified by means of the markings or shape of the + ears. From this sheaf an aged sorceress, with much solemnity, cut a + little bundle of seven ears, anointed them with oil, tied them + round with parti-coloured thread, fumigated them with incense, and + having wrapt them in a white cloth deposited them in a little + oval-shaped basket. These seven ears were the infant Soul of the + Rice and the little basket was its cradle. It was carried home to + the farmer's house by another woman, who held up an umbrella to + screen the tender infant from the hot rays of the sun. Arrived at + the house the Rice-child was welcomed by the women of the family, + and laid, cradle and all, on a new sleeping-mat with pillows at the + head. After that the farmer's wife was instructed to observe + certain rules of taboo for three days, the rules being in many + respects identical with those which have to be observed for three + days after the birth of a real child. For example, perfect quiet + must be observed, as in a house where a baby has just been born; a + light was placed near the head of the Rice-child's bed and might + not go out at night, while the fire on the hearth had to be kept + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page199">[pg 199]</span><a name= + "Pg199" id="Pg199" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> up both day and + night till the three days were over; hair might not be cut; and + money, rice, salt, oil, and so forth were forbidden to go out of + the house, though of course these valuable articles were quite free + to come in. Something of the same tender care which is thus + bestowed on the newly-born Rice-child is naturally extended also to + its parent, the sheaf from whose body it was taken. This sheaf, + which remains standing in the field after the Rice-soul has been + carried home and put to bed, is treated as a newly-made mother; + that is to say, young shoots of trees are pounded together and + scattered broadcast every evening for three successive days, and + when the three days are up you take the pulp of a coco-nut and what + are called <span class="tei tei-q">“goat-flowers,”</span> mix them + up, eat them with a little sugar, and spit some of the mixture out + among the rice. So after a real birth the young shoots of the + jack-fruit, the rose-apple, certain kinds of banana, and the thin + pulp of young coco-nuts are mixed with dried fish, salt, acid, + prawn-condiment, and the like dainties to form a sort of salad, + which is administered to mother and child for three successive + days. The last sheaf is reaped by the farmer's wife, who carries it + back to the house, where it is threshed and mixed with the + Rice-soul. The farmer then takes the Rice-soul and its basket and + deposits it, together with the product of the last sheaf, in the + big circular rice-bin used by the Malays. Some grains from the + Rice-soul are mixed with the seed which is to be sown in the + following year.<a id="noteref_605" name="noteref_605" href= + "#note_605"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">605</span></span></a> In + this Rice-mother and Rice-child of the Malay Peninsula we may see + the counterpart and in a sense the prototype of the Demeter and + Persephone of ancient Greece.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The Rice-bride and the + Rice-bridegroom at harvest in Java.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Once more, the + European custom of representing the corn-spirit in the double form + of bride and bridegroom<a id="noteref_606" name="noteref_606" href= + "#note_606"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">606</span></span></a> has + its parallel in a ceremony observed at the rice-harvest in Java. + Before the reapers begin to cut the rice, the priest or sorcerer + picks out a number of ears of rice, which are tied together, + smeared with ointment, and adorned with flowers. Thus decked out, + the ears are called the <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">padi-pĕngantèn</span></span>, that is, the + Rice-bride and the Rice-bridegroom; their wedding feast is + celebrated, and the cutting of the rice begins immediately + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page200">[pg 200]</span><a name= + "Pg200" id="Pg200" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> afterwards. Later + on, when the rice is being got in, a bridal chamber is partitioned + off in the barn, and furnished with a new mat, a lamp, and all + kinds of toilet articles. Sheaves of rice, to represent the wedding + guests, are placed beside the Rice-bride and the Rice-bridegroom. + Not till this has been done may the whole harvest be housed in the + barn. And for the first forty days after the rice has been housed, + no one may enter the barn, for fear of disturbing the newly-wedded + pair.<a id="noteref_607" name="noteref_607" href= + "#note_607"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">607</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Another account of the Javanese + custom.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Another account + of the Javanese custom runs as follows. When the rice at harvest is + to be brought home, two handfuls of common unhusked rice (paddy) + are tied together into a sheaf, and two handfuls of a special kind + of rice (<span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">kleefrijst</span></span>) are tied up into + another sheaf; then the two sheaves are fastened together in a + bundle which goes by the name of <span class="tei tei-q">“the + bridal pair”</span> (<span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">pĕn-gantenan</span></span>). The special rice + is the bridegroom, the common rice is the bride. At the barn + <span class="tei tei-q">“the bridal pair”</span> is received on a + winnowing-fan by a wizard, who removes them from the fan and lays + them on the floor with a couch of <span class= + "tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">kloewih</span></span> leaves under them + <span class="tei tei-q">“in order that the rice may + increase,”</span> and beside them he places a <span class= + "tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">kĕmiri</span></span> nut, tamarind pips, and a + top and string as playthings with which the young couple may divert + themselves. The bride is called Emboq Sri and the bridegroom + Sadana, and the wizard addresses them by name, saying: <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Emboq Sri and Sadana, I have now brought you home and + I have prepared a place for you. May you sleep agreeably in this + agreeable place! Emboq Sri and Sadana, you have been received by + So-and-So (the owner), let So-and-So <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page201">[pg 201]</span><a name="Pg201" id="Pg201" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> lead a life free from care. May Emboq Sri's + luck continue in this very agreeable place!”</span><a id= + "noteref_608" name="noteref_608" href="#note_608"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">608</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The rice-spirit as husband and + wife in Bali and Lombok.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The same idea of + the rice-spirit as a husband and wife meets us also in the harvest + customs of Bali and Lombok, two islands which lie immediately to + the east of Java. <span class="tei tei-q">“The inhabitants of + Lombok,”</span> we are told, <span class="tei tei-q">“think of the + rice-plant as animated by a soul. They regard it as one with a + divinity and treat it with the distinction and honour that are + shewn to a very important person. But as it is impossible to treat + all the rice-stalks in a field ceremoniously, the native, feeling + the need of a visible and tangible representative of the rice-deity + and taking a part for the whole, picks out some stalks and + conceives them as the visible abode of the rice-soul, to which he + can pay his homage and from which he hopes to derive advantage. + These few stalks, the foremost among their many peers, form what is + called the <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">ninin pantun</span></span> by the people of + Bali and the <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">inan paré</span></span> by the Sassaks”</span> + of Lombok.<a id="noteref_609" name="noteref_609" href= + "#note_609"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">609</span></span></a> The + name <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">ina paré</span></span> is sometimes translated + Rice-mother, but the more correct translation is said to be + <span class="tei tei-q">“the principal rice.”</span> The stalks of + which this <span class="tei tei-q">“principal rice”</span> consists + are the first nine shoots which the husbandman himself takes with + his own hands from the nursery or bedding-out ground and plants at + the upper end of the rice-field beside the inlet of the irrigation + water. They are planted with great care in a definite order, one of + them in the middle and the other eight in a circle about it. When + the whole field has been planted, an offering, which usually + consists of rice in many forms, is made to <span class= + "tei tei-q">“the principal rice”</span> (<span class= + "tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">inan + paré</span></span>). When the rice-stalks begin to swell the rice + is said to be pregnant, and the <span class="tei tei-q">“principal + rice”</span> is treated with the delicate attentions which are paid + to a woman with child. Thus rice-pap and eggs are laid down beside + it, and sour fruits are often presented to it, because pregnant + women are believed to long for sour fruit. Moreover <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page202">[pg 202]</span><a name="Pg202" id="Pg202" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> the fertilisation of the rice by the + irrigation water is compared to the union of the goddess Batari Sri + with her husband Ida Batara (Vishnu), who is identified with the + flowing water. Some people sprinkle the pregnant rice with water in + which cooling drugs have been infused or with water which has stood + on a holy grave, in order that the ears may fill out well. When the + time of harvest has come, the owner of the field himself makes a + beginning by cutting <span class="tei tei-q">“the principal + rice”</span> (<span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">inan paré</span></span> or <span class= + "tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">ninin + pantun</span></span>) with his own hands and binding it into two + sheaves, each composed of one hundred and eight stalks with their + leaves attached to them. One of the sheaves represents a man and + the other a woman, and they are called <span class= + "tei tei-q">“husband and wife”</span> (<span class= + "tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">istri + kakung</span></span>). The male sheaf is wound about with thread so + that none of the leaves are visible, whereas the female sheaf has + its leaves bent over and tied so as to resemble the roll of a + woman's hair. Sometimes, for further distinction, a necklace of + rice-straw is tied round the female sheaf. The two sheaves are then + fastened together and tied to a branch of a tree, which is stuck in + the ground at the inlet of the irrigation water. There they remain + while all the rest of the rice is being reaped. Sometimes, instead + of being tied to a bough, they are laid on a little bamboo altar. + The reapers at their work take great care to let no grains of rice + fall on the ground, otherwise the Rice-goddess would grieve and + weep at being parted from her sisters, who are carried to the barn. + If any portion of the field remains unreaped at nightfall, the + reapers make loops in the leaves of some of the standing stalks to + prevent the evil spirits from proceeding with the harvest during + the hours of darkness, or, according to another account, lest the + Rice-goddess should go astray. When the rice is brought home from + the field, the two sheaves representing the husband and wife are + carried by a woman on her head, and are the last of all to be + deposited in the barn. There they are laid to rest on a small + erection or on a cushion of rice-straw along with three lumps of + <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">nasi</span></span>, which are regarded as the + attendants or watchers of the bridal pair. The whole arrangement, + we are informed, has for its object to induce the rice to increase + and multiply in the granary, <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page203">[pg 203]</span><a name="Pg203" id="Pg203" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> so that the owner may get more out of it than + he put in. Hence when the people of Bali bring the two sheaves, the + husband and wife, into the barn, they say <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Increase ye and multiply without ceasing.”</span> When + a woman fetches rice from the granary for the use of her household, + she has to observe a number of rules, all of which are clearly + dictated by respect for the spirit of the rice. She should not + enter the barn in the dark or at noon perhaps because the spirit + may then be supposed to be sleeping. She must enter with her right + foot first. She must be decently clad with her breasts covered. She + must not chew betel, and she would do well to rinse her mouth + before repairing to the barn, just as she would do if she waited on + a person of distinction or on a divinity. No sick or menstruous + woman may enter the barn, and there must be no talking in it, just + as there must be no talking when shelled rice is being scooped up. + When all the rice in the barn has been used up, the two sheaves + representing the husband and wife remain in the empty building till + they have gradually disappeared or been devoured by mice. The pinch + of hunger sometimes drives individuals to eat up the rice of these + two sheaves, but the wretches who do so are viewed with disgust by + their fellows and branded as pigs and dogs. Nobody would ever sell + these holy sheaves with the rest of their profane brethren.<a id= + "noteref_610" name="noteref_610" href="#note_610"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">610</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The Father and Mother of the Rice + among the Szis of Burma.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The same notion + of the propagation of the rice by a male and female power finds + expression amongst the Szis of Upper Burma. When the paddy, that + is, the rice with the husks still on it, has been dried and piled + in a heap for threshing, all the friends of the household are + invited to the threshing-floor, and food and drink are brought out. + The heap of paddy is divided and one half spread out for threshing, + while the other half is left piled up. On the pile food and spirits + are set, and one of the elders, addressing <span class= + "tei tei-q">“the father and mother of the paddy-plant,”</span> + prays for plenteous harvests in future, and begs that the seed may + bear many fold. Then the whole party eat, drink, and make merry. + This ceremony at the threshing-floor is the <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page204">[pg 204]</span><a name="Pg204" id="Pg204" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> only occasion when these people invoke + <span class="tei tei-q">“the father and mother of the + paddy.”</span><a id="noteref_611" name="noteref_611" href= + "#note_611"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">611</span></span></a></p> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em"> + <a name="toc23" id="toc23"></a> <a name="pdf24" id="pdf24"></a> + + <h2 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em"> + <span style="font-size: 144%">§ 5. The Spirit of the Corn embodied + in Human Beings.</span></h2> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The spirit of the corn sometimes + thought to be embodied in men or women.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Thus the theory + which recognises in the European Corn-mother, Corn-maiden, and so + forth, the embodiment in vegetable form of the animating spirit of + the crops is amply confirmed by the evidence of peoples in other + parts of the world, who, because they have lagged behind the + European races in mental development, retain for that very reason a + keener sense of the original motives for observing those rustic + rites which among ourselves have sunk to the level of meaningless + survivals. The reader may, however, remember that according to + Mannhardt, whose theory I am expounding, the spirit of the corn + manifests itself not merely in vegetable but also in human form; + the person who cuts the last sheaf or gives the last stroke at + threshing passes for a temporary embodiment of the corn-spirit, + just as much as the bunch of corn which he reaps or threshes. Now + in the parallels which have been hitherto adduced from the customs + of peoples outside Europe the spirit of the crops appears only in + vegetable form. It remains, therefore, to prove that other races + besides our European peasantry have conceived the spirit of the + crops as incorporate in or represented by living men and women. + Such a proof, I may remind the reader, is germane to the theme of + this book; for the more instances we discover of human beings + representing in themselves the life or animating spirit of plants, + the less difficulty will be felt at classing amongst them the King + of the Wood at Nemi.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The Old Woman who Never Dies, the + goddess of the crops among the Mandans and Minnitarees.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The Mandans and + Minnitarees of North America used to hold a festival in spring + which they called the corn-medicine festival of the women. They + thought that a certain Old Woman who Never Dies made the crops to + grow, and that, living somewhere in the south, she sent the + migratory waterfowl in spring as her tokens and representatives. + Each sort of bird represented a special kind of crop cultivated by + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page205">[pg 205]</span><a name= + "Pg205" id="Pg205" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> the Indians: the + wild goose stood for the maize, the wild swan for the gourds, and + the wild duck for the beans. So when the feathered messengers of + the Old Woman began to arrive in spring the Indians celebrated the + corn-medicine festival of the women. Scaffolds were set up, on + which the people hung dried meat and other things by way of + offerings to the Old Woman; and on a certain day the old women of + the tribe, as representatives of the Old Woman who Never Dies, + assembled at the scaffolds each bearing in her hand an ear of maize + fastened to a stick. They first planted these sticks in the ground, + then danced round the scaffolds, and finally took up the sticks + again in their arms. Meanwhile old men beat drums and shook rattles + as a musical accompaniment to the performance of the old women. + Further, young women came and put dried flesh into the mouths of + the old women, for which they received in return a grain of the + consecrated maize to eat. Three or four grains of the holy corn + were also placed in the dishes of the young women, to be afterwards + carefully mixed with the seed-corn, which they were supposed to + fertilise. The dried flesh hung on the scaffold belonged to the old + women, because they represented the Old Woman who Never Dies. A + similar corn-medicine festival was held in autumn for the purpose + of attracting the herds of buffaloes and securing a supply of meat. + At that time every woman carried in her arms an uprooted plant of + maize. They gave the name of the Old Woman who Never Dies both to + the maize and to those birds which they regarded as symbols of the + fruits of the earth, and they prayed to them in autumn saying, + <span class="tei tei-q">“Mother, have pity on us! send us not the + bitter cold too soon, lest we have not meat enough! let not all the + game depart, that we may have something for the winter!”</span> In + autumn, when the birds were flying south, the Indians thought that + they were going home to the Old Woman and taking to her the + offerings that had been hung up on the scaffolds, especially the + dried meat, which she ate.<a id="noteref_612" name="noteref_612" + href="#note_612"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">612</span></span></a> Here + then we have the spirit or divinity of the corn conceived as an Old + Woman and represented in bodily form by old women, who in their + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page206">[pg 206]</span><a name= + "Pg206" id="Pg206" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> capacity of + representatives receive some at least of the offerings which are + intended for her.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Miami myth of the Corn-spirit in + the form of a broken-down old man.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The Miamis, + another tribe of North American Indians, tell a tale in which the + spirit of the corn figures as a broken-down old man. They say that + corn, that is, maize, first grew in heaven, and that the Good + Spirit commanded it to go down and dwell with men on earth. At + first it was reluctant to do so, but the Good Spirit prevailed on + it to go by promising that men would treat it well in return for + the benefit they derived from it. <span class="tei tei-q">“So corn + came down from heaven to benefit the Indian, and this is the reason + why they esteem it, and are bound to take good care of it, and to + nurture it, and not raise more than they actually require, for + their own consumption.”</span> But once a whole town of the Miamis + was severely punished for failing in respect for the corn. They had + raised a great crop and stored much of it under ground, and much of + it they packed for immediate use in bags. But the corn was so + plentiful that much of it still remained on the stalks, and the + young men grew reckless and played with the shelled cobs, throwing + them at each other, and at last they even broke the cobs from the + growing stalks and pelted each other with them too. But a judgment + soon followed on such wicked conduct. For when the hunters went out + to hunt, though the deer seemed to abound, they could kill nothing. + So the corn was gone and they could get no meat, and the people + were hungry. Well, one of the hunters, roaming by himself in the + woods to find something to eat for his aged father, came upon a + small lodge in the wilderness where a decrepit old man was lying + with his back to the fire. Now the old man was no other than the + Spirit of the Corn. He said to the young hunter, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“My grandson, the Indians have afflicted me much, and + reduced me to the sad state in which you see me. In the side of the + lodge you will find a small kettle. Take it and eat, and when you + have satisfied your hunger, I will speak to you.”</span> But the + kettle was full of such fine sweet corn as the hunter had never in + his life seen before. When he had eaten his fill, the old man + resumed the thread of his discourse, saying, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Your people have wantonly abused and reduced me to the + state you now see me in: my back-bone <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page207">[pg 207]</span><a name="Pg207" id="Pg207" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> is broken in many places; it was the foolish + young men of your town who did me this evil, for I am Mondamin, or + corn, that came down from heaven. In their play they threw + corn-cobs and corn-ears at one another, treating me with contempt. + I am the corn-spirit whom they have injured. That is why you + experience bad luck and famine. I am the cause; you feel my just + resentment, therefore your people are punished. Other Indians do + not treat me so. They respect me, and so it is well with them. Had + you no elders to check the youths at their wanton sport? You are an + eye-witness of my sufferings. They are the effect of what you did + to my body.”</span> With that he groaned and covered himself up. So + the young hunter returned and reported what he had seen and heard; + and since then the Indians have been very careful not to play with + corn in the ear.<a id="noteref_613" name="noteref_613" href= + "#note_613"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">613</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The harvest-goddess Gauri + represented by a girl and a bundle of plants.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In some parts of + India the harvest-goddess Gauri is represented at once by an + unmarried girl and by a bundle of wild balsam plants, which is made + up into the figure of a woman and dressed as such with mask, + garments, and ornaments. Both the human and the vegetable + representative of the goddess are worshipped, and the intention of + the whole ceremony appears to be to ensure a good crop of + rice.<a id="noteref_614" name="noteref_614" href= + "#note_614"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">614</span></span></a></p> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em"> + <a name="toc25" id="toc25"></a> <a name="pdf26" id="pdf26"></a> + + <h2 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em"> + <span style="font-size: 144%">§ 6. The Double Personification of + the Corn as Mother and Daughter.</span></h2> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Analogy of Demeter and Persephone + to the Corn-mother, the Harvest-maiden, and similar figures in + the harvest customs of modern European peasantry. The rustic + analogues of Demeter and Persephone.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Compared with + the Corn-mother of Germany and the Harvest-maiden of Scotland, the + Demeter and Persephone of Greece are late products of religious + growth. Yet as members of the Aryan family the Greeks must at one + time or another have observed harvest customs like those which are + still practised by Celts, Teutons, and Slavs, and which, far beyond + the limits of the Aryan world, have been practised by the Indians + of Peru, the Dyaks of Borneo, and many other natives of the East + Indies—a <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page208">[pg + 208]</span><a name="Pg208" id="Pg208" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + sufficient proof that the ideas on which these customs rest are not + confined to any one race, but naturally suggest themselves to all + untutored peoples engaged in agriculture. It is probable, + therefore, that Demeter and Persephone, those stately and beautiful + figures of Greek mythology, grew out of the same simple beliefs and + practices which still prevail among our modern peasantry, and that + they were represented by rude dolls made out of the yellow sheaves + on many a harvest-field long before their breathing images were + wrought in bronze and marble by the master hands of Phidias and + Praxiteles. A reminiscence of that olden time—a scent, so to say, + of the harvest-field—lingered to the last in the title of the + Maiden (<span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Kore</span></span>) by which Persephone was + commonly known. Thus if the prototype of Demeter is the Corn-mother + of Germany, the prototype of Persephone is the Harvest-maiden, + which, autumn after autumn, is still made from the last sheaf on + the Braes of Balquhidder. Indeed, if we knew more about the + peasant-farmers of ancient Greece, we should probably find that + even in classical times they continued annually to fashion their + Corn-mothers (Demeters) and Maidens (Persephones) out of the ripe + corn on the harvest-fields.<a id="noteref_615" name="noteref_615" + href="#note_615"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">615</span></span></a> But + unfortunately the Demeter and Persephone whom we know were the + denizens of towns, the majestic inhabitants of lordly temples; it + was for such divinities alone that the refined writers of antiquity + had eyes; the uncouth rites performed by rustics amongst the corn + were beneath their notice. Even if they noticed them, they probably + never dreamed of any connexion between the puppet of corn-stalks on + the sunny stubble-field and the marble divinity in the shady + coolness of the temple. Still the writings even of these town-bred + and cultured persons afford us an occasional glimpse of a Demeter + as rude as the rudest that a remote German village can shew. Thus + the story that Iasion begat a child Plutus (<span class= + "tei tei-q">“wealth,”</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q">“abundance”</span>) by Demeter on a thrice-ploughed + field,<a id="noteref_616" name="noteref_616" href= + "#note_616"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">616</span></span></a> may + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page209">[pg 209]</span><a name= + "Pg209" id="Pg209" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> be compared with the + West Prussian custom of the mock birth of a child on the + harvest-field.<a id="noteref_617" name="noteref_617" href= + "#note_617"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">617</span></span></a> In + this Prussian custom the pretended mother represents the + Corn-mother (<span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Žytniamatka</span></span>); the pretended + child represents the Corn-baby, and the whole ceremony is a charm + to ensure a crop next year.<a id="noteref_618" name="noteref_618" + href="#note_618"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">618</span></span></a> The + custom and the legend alike point to an older practice of + performing, among the sprouting crops in spring or the stubble in + autumn, one of those real or mimic acts of procreation by which, as + we have seen, primitive man often seeks to infuse his own vigorous + life into the languid or decaying energies of nature.<a id= + "noteref_619" name="noteref_619" href="#note_619"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">619</span></span></a> + Another glimpse of the savage under the civilised Demeter will be + afforded farther on, when we come to deal with another aspect of + these agricultural divinities.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Why did the Greeks personify the + corn as a mother and a daughter?</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The reader may + have observed that in modern folk-customs the corn-spirit is + generally represented either by a Corn-mother (Old Woman, etc.) or + by a Maiden (Harvest-child, etc.), not both by a Corn-mother and by + a Maiden. Why then did the Greeks represent the corn both as a + mother and a daughter?</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Demeter was perhaps the ripe crop + and Persephone the seed-corn.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In the Breton + custom the mother-sheaf—a large figure made out of the last sheaf + with a small corn-doll inside of it—clearly represents both the + Corn-mother and the Corn-daughter, the latter still unborn.<a id= + "noteref_620" name="noteref_620" href="#note_620"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">620</span></span></a> + Again, in the Prussian custom just referred to, the woman who plays + the part of Corn-mother represents the ripe grain; the child + appears to represent next year's corn, which may be regarded, + naturally enough, as the child of this year's corn, since it is + from the seed of this year's harvest that next year's crop will + spring. Further, we have seen that among the Malays of the + Peninsula <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page210">[pg + 210]</span><a name="Pg210" id="Pg210" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + and sometimes among the Highlanders of Scotland the spirit of the + grain is represented in double female form, both as old and young, + by means of ears taken alike from the ripe crop: in Scotland the + old spirit of the corn appears as the Carline or <span lang="gd" + class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="gd"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Cailleach</span></span>, the young spirit as + the Maiden; while among the Malays of the Peninsula the two spirits + of the rice are definitely related to each other as mother and + child.<a id="noteref_621" name="noteref_621" href= + "#note_621"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">621</span></span></a> + Judged by these analogies Demeter would be the ripe crop of this + year; Persephone would be the seed-corn taken from it and sown in + autumn, to reappear in spring.<a id="noteref_622" name= + "noteref_622" href="#note_622"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">622</span></span></a> The + descent of Persephone into the lower world would thus be a mythical + expression for the sowing of the seed; her reappearance in spring + would signify the sprouting of the young corn. In this way the + Persephone of one year becomes the Demeter of the next, and this + may very well have been the original form of the myth. But when + with the advance of religious thought the corn came to be + personified, no longer as a being that went through the whole cycle + of birth, growth, reproduction, and death within a year, but as an + immortal goddess, consistency required that one of the two + personifications, the mother or the daughter, should be sacrificed. + However, the double conception of the corn as mother and daughter + may have been too old and too deeply rooted in the popular mind to + be eradicated by logic, and so room had to be found in the reformed + myth both for mother and daughter. This was done by assigning to + Persephone the character of the corn sown in autumn and sprouting + in spring, while Demeter was left to play the somewhat vague part + of the heavy mother of the corn, who laments its annual + disappearance underground, and rejoices over its reappearance in + spring. Thus instead of a regular succession of divine beings, each + living a year and then giving birth to her successor, the reformed + myth exhibits the conception of two divine and immortal beings, one + of whom annually disappears into and reappears from the ground, + while the other has little to do but to weep and rejoice at the + appropriate seasons.<a id="noteref_623" name="noteref_623" href= + "#note_623"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">623</span></span></a></p><span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page211">[pg 211]</span><a name="Pg211" id="Pg211" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Or the Greeks may have started + with the personification of the corn as a single goddess, and + the conception of a second goddess may have been a later + development. Duplication of deities as a consequence of the + anthropomorphic tendency. Example of such duplication in Japan, + where there are two distinct deities of the sun. Perhaps the + Greek personification of the corn as a mother and a daughter + (Demeter and Persephone) is a case of such a mythical + duplication.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This theory of + the double personification of the corn in Greek myth assumes that + both personifications (Demeter and Persephone) are original. But if + we suppose that the Greek myth started with a single + personification, the after-growth of a second personification may + perhaps be explained as follows. On looking over the harvest + customs which have been passed under review, it may be noticed that + they involve two distinct conceptions of the corn-spirit. For + whereas in some of the customs the corn-spirit is treated as + immanent in the corn, in others it is regarded as external to it. + Thus when a particular sheaf is called by the name of the + corn-spirit, and is dressed in clothes and handled with + reverence,<a id="noteref_624" name="noteref_624" href= + "#note_624"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">624</span></span></a> the + spirit is clearly regarded as immanent in the corn. But when the + spirit is said to make the crops grow by passing through them, or + to blight the grain of those against whom she has a grudge,<a id= + "noteref_625" name="noteref_625" href="#note_625"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">625</span></span></a> she + is apparently conceived as distinct from, though exercising power + over, the corn. Conceived in the latter way the corn-spirit is in a + fair way to become a deity of the corn, if she has not become so + already. Of these two conceptions, that of the corn-spirit as + immanent in the corn is doubtless the older, since the view of + nature as animated by indwelling spirits appears to have generally + preceded the view of it as controlled by external deities; to put + it shortly, animism precedes deism. In the harvest customs of our + European peasantry the corn-spirit seems to be conceived now as + immanent in the corn and now as external to it. In Greek mythology, + on the other hand, Demeter is viewed rather as the deity of the + corn than as the spirit immanent in it.<a id="noteref_626" name= + "noteref_626" href="#note_626"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">626</span></span></a> The + process of thought which leads <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page212">[pg 212]</span><a name="Pg212" id="Pg212" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> to the change from the one mode of conception + to the other is anthropomorphism, or the gradual investment of the + immanent spirits with more and more of the attributes of humanity. + As men emerge from savagery the tendency to humanise their + divinities gains strength; and the more human these become the + wider is the breach which severs them from the natural objects of + which they were at first merely the animating spirits or souls. But + in the progress upwards from savagery men of the same generation do + not march abreast; and though the new anthropomorphic gods may + satisfy the religious wants of the more developed intelligences, + the backward members of the community will cling by preference to + the old animistic notions. Now when the spirit of any natural + object such as the corn has been invested with human qualities, + detached from the object, and converted into a deity controlling + it, the object itself is, by the withdrawal of its spirit, left + inanimate; it becomes, so to say, a spiritual vacuum. But the + popular fancy, intolerant of such a vacuum, in other words, unable + to conceive anything as inanimate, immediately creates a fresh + mythical being, with which it peoples the vacant object. Thus the + same natural object comes to be represented in mythology by two + distinct beings: first by the old spirit now separated from it and + raised to the rank of a deity; second, by the new spirit, freshly + created by the popular fancy to supply the place vacated by the old + spirit on its elevation to a higher sphere. For example, in + Japanese religion the solar character of Ama-terasu, the great + goddess of the Sun, has become obscured, and accordingly the people + have personified the sun afresh under the name of <span lang="ja" + class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Nichi-rin sama</span></span>, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“sun-wheeling personage,”</span> and <span lang="ja" + class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style= + "font-style: italic">O tentō sama</span></span>, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“august-heaven-path-personage”</span>; to the lower + class of Japanese at the present day, especially to women and + children, <span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang= + "ja"><span style="font-style: italic">O tentō sama</span></span> is + the actual sun, sexless, mythless, and unencumbered by any formal + worship, yet looked up to as a moral being who rewards the good, + punishes the wicked, and enforces oaths made in his name.<a id= + "noteref_627" name="noteref_627" href="#note_627"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">627</span></span></a> In + such cases the problem for mythology is, having got two distinct + personifications of the same object, what to do with them? How are + their relations to each other <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page213">[pg 213]</span><a name="Pg213" id="Pg213" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> to be adjusted, and room found for both in + the mythological system? When the old spirit or new deity is + conceived as creating or producing the object in question, the + problem is easily solved. Since the object is believed to be + produced by the old spirit, and animated by the new one, the + latter, as the soul of the object, must also owe its existence to + the former; thus the old spirit will stand to the new one as + producer to produced, that is, in mythology, as parent to child, + and if both spirits are conceived as female, their relation will be + that of mother and daughter. In this way, starting from a single + personification of the corn as female, mythic fancy might in time + reach a double personification of it as mother and daughter. It + would be very rash to affirm that this was the way in which the + myth of Demeter and Persephone actually took shape; but it seems a + legitimate conjecture that the reduplication of deities, of which + Demeter and Persephone furnish an example, may sometimes have + arisen in the way indicated. For example, among the pairs of + deities dealt with in a former part of this work, it has been shewn + that there are grounds for regarding both Isis and her companion + god Osiris as personifications of the corn.<a id="noteref_628" + name="noteref_628" href="#note_628"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">628</span></span></a> On + the hypothesis just suggested, Isis would be the old corn-spirit, + and Osiris would be the newer one, whose relationship to the old + spirit was variously explained as that of brother, husband, and + son;<a id="noteref_629" name="noteref_629" href= + "#note_629"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">629</span></span></a> for + of course mythology would always be free to account for the + coexistence of the two divinities in more ways than one. It must + not, however, be forgotten that this proposed explanation of such + pairs of deities as Demeter and Persephone or Isis and Osiris is + purely conjectural, and is only given for what it is worth.</p> + </div> + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page214">[pg 214]</span><a name= + "Pg214" id="Pg214" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + <hr class="page" /> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> + <a name="toc27" id="toc27"></a> <a name="pdf28" id="pdf28"></a> + + <h1 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"> + <span style="font-size: 173%">Chapter VII. Lityerses.</span></h1> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em"> + <a name="toc29" id="toc29"></a> <a name="pdf30" id="pdf30"></a> + + <h2 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em"> + <span style="font-size: 144%">§ 1. Songs of the Corn + Reapers.</span></h2> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Death and resurrection a leading + incident in the myth of Persephone, as in the myths of Adonis, + Attis, Osiris, and Dionysus.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In the preceding + pages an attempt has been made to shew that in the Corn-mother and + Harvest-maiden of Northern Europe we have the prototypes of Demeter + and Persephone. But an essential feature is still wanting to + complete the resemblance. A leading incident in the Greek myth is + the death and resurrection of Persephone; it is this incident + which, coupled with the nature of the goddess as a deity of + vegetation, links the myth with the cults of Adonis, Attis, Osiris, + and Dionysus; and it is in virtue of this incident that the myth + finds a place in our discussion of the Dying God. It remains, + therefore, to see whether the conception of the annual death and + resurrection of a god, which figures so prominently in these great + Greek and Oriental worships, has not also its origin or its analogy + in the rustic rites observed by reapers and vine-dressers amongst + the corn-shocks and the vines.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Popular harvest and vintage + customs in ancient Egypt, Syria, and Phrygia.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Our general + ignorance of the popular superstitions and customs of the ancients + has already been confessed. But the obscurity which thus hangs over + the first beginnings of ancient religion is fortunately dissipated + to some extent in the present case. The worships of Osiris, Adonis, + and Attis had their respective seats, as we have seen, in Egypt, + Syria, and Phrygia; and in each of these countries certain harvest + and vintage customs are known to have been observed, the + resemblance of which to each other and to the national rites struck + the ancients themselves, and, compared with the <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page215">[pg 215]</span><a name="Pg215" id="Pg215" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> harvest customs of modern peasants and + barbarians, seems to throw some light on the origin of the rites in + question.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Maneros, a plaintive song of + Egyptian reapers.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It has been + already mentioned, on the authority of Diodorus, that in ancient + Egypt the reapers were wont to lament over the first sheaf cut, + invoking Isis as the goddess to whom they owed the discovery of + corn.<a id="noteref_630" name="noteref_630" href= + "#note_630"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">630</span></span></a> To + the plaintive song or cry sung or uttered by Egyptian reapers the + Greeks gave the name of Maneros, and explained the name by a story + that Maneros, the only son of the first Egyptian king, invented + agriculture, and, dying an untimely death, was thus lamented by the + people.<a id="noteref_631" name="noteref_631" href= + "#note_631"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">631</span></span></a> It + appears, however, that the name Maneros is due to a + misunderstanding of the formula <span class= + "tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">mââ-ne-hra</span></span>, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Come to the house,”</span> which has been discovered + in various Egyptian writings, for example in the dirge of Isis in + the Book of the Dead.<a id="noteref_632" name="noteref_632" href= + "#note_632"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">632</span></span></a> Hence + we may suppose that the cry <span class= + "tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">mââ-ne-hra</span></span> was chanted by the + reapers over the cut corn as a dirge for the death of the + corn-spirit (Isis or Osiris) and a prayer for its return. As the + cry was raised over the first ears reaped, it would seem that the + corn-spirit was believed by the Egyptians to be present in the + first corn cut and to die under the sickle. We have seen that in + the Malay Peninsula and Java the first ears of rice are taken to + represent either the Soul of the Rice or the Rice-bride and the + Rice-bridegroom.<a id="noteref_633" name="noteref_633" href= + "#note_633"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">633</span></span></a> In + parts of Russia the first sheaf is treated much in the same way + that the last sheaf is treated elsewhere. It is reaped by the + mistress herself, taken home and set in the place of honour near + the holy pictures; afterwards it is threshed separately, and some + of its grain is mixed with the next year's seed-corn.<a id= + "noteref_634" name="noteref_634" href="#note_634"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">634</span></span></a> In + Aberdeenshire, while the last corn cut was generally used to make + the <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">clyack</span></span> sheaf,<a id="noteref_635" + name="noteref_635" href="#note_635"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">635</span></span></a> it + was sometimes, though rarely, the first corn <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page216">[pg 216]</span><a name="Pg216" id="Pg216" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> cut that was dressed up as a woman and + carried home with ceremony.<a id="noteref_636" name="noteref_636" + href="#note_636"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">636</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Linus or Ailinus, a plaintive song + sung at the vintage in Phoenicia.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In Phoenicia and + Western Asia a plaintive song, like that chanted by the Egyptian + corn-reapers, was sung at the vintage and probably (to judge by + analogy) also at harvest. This Phoenician song was called by the + Greeks Linus or Ailinus and explained, like Maneros, as a lament + for the death of a youth named Linus.<a id="noteref_637" name= + "noteref_637" href="#note_637"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">637</span></span></a> + According to one story Linus was brought up by a shepherd, but torn + to pieces by his dogs.<a id="noteref_638" name="noteref_638" href= + "#note_638"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">638</span></span></a> But, + like Maneros, the name Linus or Ailinus appears to have originated + in a verbal misunderstanding, and to be nothing more than the cry + <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">ai + lanu</span></span>, that is <span class="tei tei-q">“Woe to + us,”</span> which the Phoenicians probably uttered in mourning for + Adonis;<a id="noteref_639" name="noteref_639" href= + "#note_639"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">639</span></span></a> at + least Sappho seems to have regarded Adonis and Linus as + equivalent.<a id="noteref_640" name="noteref_640" href= + "#note_640"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">640</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Bormus, a plaintive song sung by + Mariandynian reapers in Bithynia.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In Bithynia a + like mournful ditty, called Bormus or Borimus, was chanted by + Mariandynian reapers. Bormus was said to have been a handsome + youth, the son of King Upias or of a wealthy and distinguished man. + One summer day, watching the reapers at work in his fields, he went + to fetch them a drink of water and was never heard of more. So the + reapers sought for him, calling him in plaintive strains, which + they continued to chant at harvest ever afterwards.<a id= + "noteref_641" name="noteref_641" href="#note_641"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">641</span></span></a></p> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em"> + <a name="toc31" id="toc31"></a> <a name="pdf32" id="pdf32"></a> + + <h2 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em"> + <span style="font-size: 144%">§ 2. Killing the + Corn-spirit.</span></h2> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Lityerses, a song sung at reaping + and threshing in Phrygia. Legend of Lityerses.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In Phrygia the + corresponding song, sung by harvesters both at reaping and at + threshing, was called Lityerses. <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page217">[pg 217]</span><a name="Pg217" id="Pg217" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> According to one story, Lityerses was a + bastard son of Midas, King of Phrygia, and dwelt at Celaenae. He + used to reap the corn, and had an enormous appetite. When a + stranger happened to enter the corn-field or to pass by it, + Lityerses gave him plenty to eat and drink, then took him to the + corn-fields on the banks of the Maeander and compelled him to reap + along with him. Lastly, it was his custom to wrap the stranger in a + sheaf, cut off his head with a sickle, and carry away his body, + swathed in the corn stalks. But at last Hercules undertook to reap + with him, cut off his head with the sickle, and threw his body into + the river.<a id="noteref_642" name="noteref_642" href= + "#note_642"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">642</span></span></a> As + Hercules is reported to have slain Lityerses in the same way that + Lityerses slew others (as Theseus treated Sinis and Sciron), we may + infer that Lityerses used to throw the bodies of his victims into + the river. According to another version of the story, Lityerses, a + son of Midas, was wont to challenge people to a reaping match with + him, and if he vanquished them he used to thrash them; but one day + he met with a stronger reaper, who slew him.<a id="noteref_643" + name="noteref_643" href="#note_643"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">643</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The story of Lityerses seems to + reflect an old Phrygian harvest custom of killing strangers as + embodiments of the corn-spirit.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">There are some + grounds for supposing that in these stories of Lityerses we have + the description of a Phrygian harvest custom in accordance with + which certain persons, especially strangers passing the harvest + field, were regularly regarded as embodiments of the corn-spirit, + and as such were seized by the reapers, wrapt in sheaves, and + beheaded, their bodies, bound up in the corn-stalks, being + afterwards thrown into water as a rain-charm. The grounds for this + supposition are, first, the resemblance of the Lityerses story to + the harvest customs of European peasantry, and, second, the + frequency of human sacrifices offered by savage races to + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page218">[pg 218]</span><a name= + "Pg218" id="Pg218" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> promote the + fertility of the fields. We will examine these grounds + successively, beginning with the former.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In comparing the + story with the harvest customs of Europe,<a id="noteref_644" name= + "noteref_644" href="#note_644"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">644</span></span></a> three + points deserve special attention, namely: I. the reaping match and + the binding of persons in the sheaves; II. the killing of the + corn-spirit or his representatives; III. the treatment of visitors + to the harvest field or of strangers passing it.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Contests among reapers, binders, + and threshers in order not to be the last at their work.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">I. In regard to + the first head, we have seen that in modern Europe the person who + cuts or binds or threshes the last sheaf is often exposed to rough + treatment at the hands of his fellow-labourers. For example, he is + bound up in the last sheaf, and, thus encased, is carried or carted + about, beaten, drenched with water, thrown on a dunghill, and so + forth. Or, if he is spared this horseplay, he is at least the + subject of ridicule or is thought to be destined to suffer some + misfortune in the course of the year. Hence the harvesters are + naturally reluctant to give the last cut at reaping or the last + stroke at threshing or to bind the last sheaf, and towards the + close of the work this reluctance produces an emulation among the + labourers, each striving to finish his task as fast as possible, in + order that he may escape the invidious distinction of being + last.<a id="noteref_645" name="noteref_645" href= + "#note_645"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">645</span></span></a> For + example, in the neighbourhood of Danzig, when the winter corn is + cut and mostly bound up in sheaves, the portion which still remains + to be bound is divided amongst the women binders, each of whom + receives a swath of equal length to bind. A crowd of reapers, + children, and idlers gather round to witness the contest, and at + the word, <span class="tei tei-q">“Seize the Old Man,”</span> the + women fall to work, all binding their allotted swaths as hard as + they can. The spectators watch them narrowly, and the woman who + cannot keep pace with the rest and consequently binds the last + sheaf has to carry <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page219">[pg + 219]</span><a name="Pg219" id="Pg219" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + the Old Man (that is, the last sheaf made up in the form of a man) + to the farmhouse and deliver it to the farmer with the words, + <span class="tei tei-q">“Here I bring you the Old Man.”</span> At + the supper which follows, the Old Man is placed at the table and + receives an abundant portion of food, which, as he cannot eat it, + falls to the share of the woman who carried him. Afterwards the Old + Man is placed in the yard and all the people dance round him. Or + the woman who bound the last sheaf dances for a good while with the + Old Man, while the rest form a ring round them; afterwards they + all, one after the other, dance a single round with him. Further, + the woman who bound the last sheaf goes herself by the name of the + Old Man till the next harvest, and is often mocked with the cry, + <span class="tei tei-q">“Here comes the Old Man.”</span><a id= + "noteref_646" name="noteref_646" href="#note_646"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">646</span></span></a> In + the Mittelmark district of Prussia, when the rye has been reaped, + and the last sheaves are about to be tied up, the binders stand in + two rows facing each other, every woman with her sheaf and her + straw rope before her. At a given signal they all tie up their + sheaves, and the one who is the last to finish is ridiculed by the + rest. Not only so, but her sheaf is made up into human shape and + called the Old Man, and she must carry it home to the farmyard, + where the harvesters dance in a circle round her and it. Then they + take the Old Man to the farmer and deliver it to him with the + words, <span class="tei tei-q">“We bring the Old Man to the Master. + He may keep him till he gets a new one.”</span> After that the Old + Man is set up against a tree, where he remains for a long time, the + butt of many jests.<a id="noteref_647" name="noteref_647" href= + "#note_647"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">647</span></span></a> At + Aschbach in Bavaria, when the reaping is nearly finished, the + reapers say, <span class="tei tei-q">“Now, we will drive out the + Old Man.”</span> Each of them sets himself to reap a patch of corn + as fast as he can; he who cuts the last handful or the last stalk + is greeted by the rest with an exulting cry, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“You have the Old Man.”</span> Sometimes a black mask + is fastened on the reaper's face and he is dressed in woman's + clothes; or if the reaper is a woman, she is dressed in man's + clothes. A dance follows. At the supper the Old Man gets twice as + large a portion of food as the others. The proceedings are similar + at threshing; the person who gives the last stroke is <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page220">[pg 220]</span><a name="Pg220" id="Pg220" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> said to have the Old Man. At the supper + given to the threshers he has to eat out of the cream-ladle and to + drink a great deal. Moreover, he is quizzed and teased in all sorts + of ways till he frees himself from further annoyance by treating + the others to brandy or beer.<a id="noteref_648" name="noteref_648" + href="#note_648"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">648</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Custom of wrapping up in + corn-stalks the last reaper, binder, or thresher.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">These examples + illustrate the contests in reaping, threshing, and binding which + take place amongst the harvesters, from their unwillingness to + suffer the ridicule and discomfort incurred by the one who happens + to finish his work last. It will be remembered that the person who + is last at reaping, binding, or threshing, is regarded as the + representative of the corn-spirit,<a id="noteref_649" name= + "noteref_649" href="#note_649"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">649</span></span></a> and + this idea is more fully expressed by binding him or her in + corn-stalks. The latter custom has been already illustrated, but a + few more instances may be added. At Kloxin, near Stettin, the + harvesters call out to the woman who binds the last sheaf, + <span class="tei tei-q">“You have the Old Man, and must keep + him.”</span> The Old Man is a great bundle of corn decked with + flowers and ribbons, and fashioned into a rude semblance of the + human form. It is fastened on a rake or strapped on a horse, and + brought with music to the village. In delivering the Old Man to the + farmer, the woman says:—</p> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 0.90em; margin-top: 0.90em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Here, dear Sir, is the + Old Man.</span></span></span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic"> + He can stay no longer on the field,</span></span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic"> + He can hide himself no longer,</span></span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic"> + He must come into the village.</span></span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic"> + Ladies and gentlemen, pray be so kind</span></span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left"><span class= + "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">As to give the Old Man a + present.</span></span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + </div> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">As late as the + first half of the nineteenth century the custom was to tie up the + woman herself in pease-straw, and bring her with music to the + farmhouse, where the harvesters danced with her till the + pease-straw fell off.<a id="noteref_650" name="noteref_650" href= + "#note_650"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">650</span></span></a> In + other villages round Stettin, when the last harvest-waggon is being + loaded, there is a regular race amongst the women, each striving + not to be last. For she who places the last sheaf on the waggon is + called the Old Man, and is completely <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page221">[pg 221]</span><a name="Pg221" id="Pg221" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> swathed in corn-stalks; she is also decked + with flowers, and flowers and a helmet of straw are placed on her + head. In solemn procession she carries the harvest-crown to the + squire, over whose head she holds it while she utters a string of + good wishes. At the dance which follows, the Old Man has the right + to choose his, or rather her, partner; it is an honour to dance + with him.<a id="noteref_651" name="noteref_651" href= + "#note_651"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">651</span></span></a> At + Blankenfelde, in the district of Potsdam, the woman who binds the + last sheaf at the rye-harvest is saluted with the cry, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“You have the Old Man.”</span> A woman is then tied up + in the last sheaf in such a way that only her head is left free; + her hair also is covered with a cap made of rye-stalks, adorned + with ribbons and flowers. She is called the Harvest-man, and must + keep dancing in front of the last harvest-waggon till it reaches + the squire's house, where she receives a present and is released + from her envelope of corn.<a id="noteref_652" name="noteref_652" + href="#note_652"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">652</span></span></a> At + Gommern, near Magdeburg, the reaper who cuts the last ears of corn + is often wrapt up in corn-stalks so completely that it is hard to + see whether there is a man in the bundle or not. Thus wrapt up he + is taken by another stalwart reaper on his back, and carried round + the field amidst the joyous cries of the harvesters.<a id= + "noteref_653" name="noteref_653" href="#note_653"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">653</span></span></a> At + Neuhausen, near Merseburg, the person who binds the last sheaf is + wrapt in ears of oats and saluted as the Oats-man, whereupon the + others dance round him.<a id="noteref_654" name="noteref_654" href= + "#note_654"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">654</span></span></a> At + Brie, Isle de France, the farmer himself is tied up in the + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">first</span></em> sheaf.<a id="noteref_655" + name="noteref_655" href="#note_655"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">655</span></span></a> At + the harvest-home at Udvarhely, Transylvania, a person is encased in + corn-stalks, and wears on his head a crown made out of the last + ears cut. On reaching the village he is soused with water over and + over.<a id="noteref_656" name="noteref_656" href= + "#note_656"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">656</span></span></a> At + Dingelstedt, in the district of Erfurt, down to the first half of + the nineteenth century it was the custom to tie up a man in the + last sheaf. He was called the Old Man, and was brought home on the + last waggon, amid huzzas and music. On reaching the farmyard he was + rolled round the barn and drenched with water.<a id="noteref_657" + name="noteref_657" href="#note_657"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">657</span></span></a> At + Nördlingen in Bavaria the man who gives the last stroke at + threshing is wrapt in straw and rolled on the <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page222">[pg 222]</span><a name="Pg222" id="Pg222" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> threshing-floor.<a id="noteref_658" + name="noteref_658" href="#note_658"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">658</span></span></a> In + some parts of Oberpfalz, Bavaria, he is said to <span class= + "tei tei-q">“get the Old Man,”</span> is wrapt in straw, and + carried to a neighbour who has not yet finished his + threshing.<a id="noteref_659" name="noteref_659" href= + "#note_659"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">659</span></span></a> In + Silesia the woman who binds the last sheaf has to submit to a good + deal of horse-play. She is pushed, knocked down, and tied up in the + sheaf, after which she is called the corn-puppet (<span class= + "tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Kornpopel</span></span>).<a id="noteref_660" + name="noteref_660" href="#note_660"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">660</span></span></a> In + Thüringen a sausage is stuck in the last sheaf at threshing, and + thrown, with the sheaf, on the threshing-floor. It is called the + <span lang="de" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="de"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Barrenwurst</span></span> or <span lang="de" + class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="de"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Bazenwurst</span></span>, and is eaten by all + the threshers. After they have eaten it a man is encased in + pease-straw, and thus attired is led through the village.<a id= + "noteref_661" name="noteref_661" href="#note_661"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">661</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The corn-spirit, driven out of the + last corn, lives in the barn during the winter.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-q">“In all these cases the idea is that the spirit of the + corn—the Old Man of vegetation—is driven out of the corn last cut + or last threshed, and lives in the barn during the winter. At + sowing-time he goes out again to the fields to resume his activity + as animating force among the sprouting corn.”</span><a id= + "noteref_662" name="noteref_662" href="#note_662"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">662</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Similar ideas as to the last corn + in India.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Ideas of the + same sort appear to attach to the last corn in India. At + Hoshangábád, in Central India, when the reaping is nearly done, a + patch of corn, about a rood in extent, is left standing in the + cultivator's last field, and the reapers rest a little. Then they + rush at this remnant, tear it up, and cast it into the air, + shouting victory to one or other of the local gods, according to + their religious persuasion. A sheaf is made out of this corn, tied + to a bamboo, set up in the last harvest cart, and carried home in + triumph. Here it is fastened up in the threshing-floor or attached + to a tree or to the cattle-shed, where its services are held to be + essential for the purpose of averting the evil-eye.<a id= + "noteref_663" name="noteref_663" href="#note_663"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">663</span></span></a> A + like custom prevails in the eastern districts of the North-Western + Provinces of India. Sometimes a little patch is left untilled as a + refuge for the field-spirit; sometimes it is sown, and when the + corn of this patch has been reaped with a rush and a shout, it is + presented to the <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page223">[pg + 223]</span><a name="Pg223" id="Pg223" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + priest, who offers it to the local gods or bestows it on a + beggar.<a id="noteref_664" name="noteref_664" href= + "#note_664"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">664</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The corn-spirit supposed to be + killed at reaping or threshing. Corn-spirit represented by a + man, who is threshed.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">II. Passing to + the second point of comparison between the Lityerses story and + European harvest customs, we have now to see that in the latter the + corn-spirit is often believed to be killed at reaping or threshing. + In the Romsdal and other parts of Norway, when the haymaking is + over, the people say that <span class="tei tei-q">“the Old Hay-man + has been killed.”</span> In some parts of Bavaria the man who gives + the last stroke at threshing is said to have killed the Corn-man, + the Oats-man, or the Wheat-man, according to the crop.<a id= + "noteref_665" name="noteref_665" href="#note_665"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">665</span></span></a> In + the Canton of Tillot, in Lothringen, at threshing the last corn the + men keep time with their flails, calling out as they thresh, + <span class="tei tei-q">“We are killing the Old Woman! We are + killing the Old Woman!”</span> If there is an old woman in the + house she is warned to save herself, or she will be struck + dead.<a id="noteref_666" name="noteref_666" href= + "#note_666"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">666</span></span></a> Near + Ragnit, in Lithuania, the last handful of corn is left standing by + itself, with the words, <span class="tei tei-q">“The Old Woman + (<span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Boba</span></span>) is sitting in + there.”</span> Then a young reaper whets his scythe, and, with a + strong sweep, cuts down the handful. It is now said of him that + <span class="tei tei-q">“he has cut off the Boba's head”</span>; + and he receives a gratuity from the farmer and a jugful of water + over his head from the farmer's wife.<a id="noteref_667" name= + "noteref_667" href="#note_667"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">667</span></span></a> + According to another account, every Lithuanian reaper makes haste + to finish his task; for the Old Rye-woman lives in the last stalks, + and whoever cuts the last stalks kills the Old Rye-woman, and by + killing her he brings trouble on himself.<a id="noteref_668" name= + "noteref_668" href="#note_668"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">668</span></span></a> In + Wilkischken, in the district of Tilsit, the man who cuts the last + corn goes by the name of <span class="tei tei-q">“the killer of the + Rye-woman.”</span><a id="noteref_669" name="noteref_669" href= + "#note_669"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">669</span></span></a> In + Lithuania, again, the corn-spirit is believed to be killed at + threshing as well as at reaping. When only a single pile of corn + remains to be threshed, all the threshers suddenly step back a few + paces, as if at the word of command. Then they fall to work, plying + their flails with the utmost rapidity and vehemence, till they come + to the last bundle. Upon this they fling themselves with almost + frantic fury, straining every nerve, and raining blows on it till + the word <span class="tei tei-q">“Halt!”</span> rings out + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page224">[pg 224]</span><a name= + "Pg224" id="Pg224" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> sharply from the + leader. The man whose flail is the last to fall after the command + to stop has been given is immediately surrounded by all the rest, + crying out that <span class="tei tei-q">“he has struck the Old + Rye-woman dead.”</span> He has to expiate the deed by treating them + to brandy; and, like the man who cuts the last corn, he is known as + <span class="tei tei-q">“the killer of the Old + Rye-woman.”</span><a id="noteref_670" name="noteref_670" href= + "#note_670"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">670</span></span></a> + Sometimes in Lithuania the slain corn-spirit was represented by a + puppet. Thus a female figure was made out of corn-stalks, dressed + in clothes, and placed on the threshing-floor, under the heap of + corn which was to be threshed last. Whoever thereafter gave the + last stroke at threshing <span class="tei tei-q">“struck the Old + Woman dead.”</span><a id="noteref_671" name="noteref_671" href= + "#note_671"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">671</span></span></a> We + have already met with examples of burning the figure which + represents the corn-spirit.<a id="noteref_672" name="noteref_672" + href="#note_672"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">672</span></span></a> In + the East Riding of Yorkshire a custom called <span class= + "tei tei-q">“burning the Old Witch”</span> is observed on the last + day of harvest. A small sheaf of corn is burnt on the field in a + fire of stubble; peas are parched at the fire and eaten with a + liberal allowance of ale; and the lads and lasses romp about the + flames and amuse themselves by blackening each other's faces.<a id= + "noteref_673" name="noteref_673" href="#note_673"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">673</span></span></a> + Sometimes, again, the corn-spirit is represented by a man, who lies + down under the last corn; it is threshed upon his body, and the + people say that <span class="tei tei-q">“the Old Man is being + beaten to death.”</span><a id="noteref_674" name="noteref_674" + href="#note_674"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">674</span></span></a> We + saw that sometimes the farmer's wife is thrust, together with the + last sheaf, under the threshing-machine, as if to thresh her, and + that afterwards a pretence is made of winnowing her.<a id= + "noteref_675" name="noteref_675" href="#note_675"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">675</span></span></a> At + Volders, in the Tyrol, husks of corn are stuck behind the neck of + the man who gives the last stroke at threshing, and he is throttled + with a straw garland. If he is tall, it is believed that the corn + will be tall next year. Then he is tied on a bundle and flung into + the river.<a id="noteref_676" name="noteref_676" href= + "#note_676"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">676</span></span></a> In + Carinthia, the thresher who gave the last stroke, and the person + who <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page225">[pg 225]</span><a name= + "Pg225" id="Pg225" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> untied the last + sheaf on the threshing-floor, are bound hand and foot with straw + bands, and crowns of straw are placed on their heads. Then they are + tied, face to face, on a sledge, dragged through the village, and + flung into a brook.<a id="noteref_677" name="noteref_677" href= + "#note_677"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">677</span></span></a> The + custom of throwing the representative of the corn-spirit into a + stream, like that of drenching him with water, is, as usual, a + rain-charm.<a id="noteref_678" name="noteref_678" href= + "#note_678"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">678</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Corn-spirit represented by a + stranger or a visitor to the harvest-field, who is treated + accordingly.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">III. Thus far + the representatives of the corn-spirit have generally been the man + or woman who cuts, binds, or threshes the last corn. We now come to + the cases in which the corn-spirit is represented either by a + stranger passing the harvest-field (as in the Lityerses tale), or + by a visitor entering it for the first time. All over Germany it is + customary for the reapers or threshers to lay hold of passing + strangers and bind them with a rope made of corn-stalks, till they + pay a forfeit; and when the farmer himself or one of his guests + enters the field or the threshing-floor for the first time, he is + treated in the same way. Sometimes the rope is only tied round his + arm or his feet or his neck.<a id="noteref_679" name="noteref_679" + href="#note_679"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">679</span></span></a> But + sometimes he is regularly swathed in corn. Thus at Solör in Norway, + whoever enters the field, be he the master or a stranger, is tied + up in a sheaf and must pay a ransom. In the neighbourhood of Soest, + when the farmer visits the flax-pullers for the first time, he is + completely enveloped in flax. Passers-by are also surrounded by the + women, tied up in flax, and compelled to stand brandy.<a id= + "noteref_680" name="noteref_680" href="#note_680"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">680</span></span></a> At + Nördlingen strangers are caught with straw ropes and tied up in a + sheaf till they pay a forfeit.<a id="noteref_681" name= + "noteref_681" href="#note_681"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">681</span></span></a> Among + the Germans of Haselberg, in West Bohemia, as soon as a farmer had + given the last corn to be threshed on the threshing-floor, he was + swathed in it and had to redeem <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page226">[pg 226]</span><a name="Pg226" id="Pg226" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> himself by a present of cakes.<a id= + "noteref_682" name="noteref_682" href="#note_682"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">682</span></span></a> In + Anhalt, when the proprietor or one of his family, the steward, or + even a stranger enters the harvest-field for the first time after + the reaping has begun, the wife of the chief reaper ties a rope + twisted of corn-ears, or a nosegay made of corn-ears and flowers, + to his arm, and he is obliged to ransom himself by the payment of a + fine.<a id="noteref_683" name="noteref_683" href= + "#note_683"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">683</span></span></a> In + the canton of Putanges, in Normandy, a pretence of tying up the + owner of the land in the last sheaf of wheat is still practised, or + at least was still practised some quarter of a century ago. The + task falls to the women alone. They throw themselves on the + proprietor, seize him by the arms, the legs, and the body, throw + him to the ground, and stretch him on the last sheaf. Then a show + is made of binding him, and the conditions to be observed at the + harvest-supper are dictated to him. When he has accepted them, he + is released and allowed to get up.<a id="noteref_684" name= + "noteref_684" href="#note_684"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">684</span></span></a> At + Brie, Isle de France, when any one who does not belong to the farm + passes by the harvest-field, the reapers give chase. If they catch + him, they bind him in a sheaf and bite him, one after the other, in + the forehead, crying, <span class="tei tei-q">“You shall carry the + key of the field.”</span><a id="noteref_685" name="noteref_685" + href="#note_685"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">685</span></span></a> + <span class="tei tei-q">“To have the key”</span> is an expression + used by harvesters elsewhere in the sense of to cut or bind or + thresh the last sheaf;<a id="noteref_686" name="noteref_686" href= + "#note_686"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">686</span></span></a> + hence, it is equivalent to the phrases <span class="tei tei-q">“You + have the Old Man,”</span> <span class="tei tei-q">“You are the Old + Man,”</span> which are addressed to the cutter, binder, or thresher + of the last sheaf. Therefore, when a stranger, as at Brie, is tied + up in a sheaf and told that he will <span class="tei tei-q">“carry + the key of the field,”</span> it is as much as to say that he is + the Old Man, that is, an embodiment of the corn-spirit. In + hop-picking, if a well-dressed stranger passes the hop-yard, he is + seized by the women, tumbled into the bin, covered with leaves, and + not released till he has paid a fine.<a id="noteref_687" name= + "noteref_687" href="#note_687"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">687</span></span></a> In + some parts of Scotland, <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page227">[pg + 227]</span><a name="Pg227" id="Pg227" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + particularly in the counties of Fife and Kinross, down to recent + times the reapers used to seize and dump, as it was called, any + stranger who happened to visit or pass by the harvest field. The + custom was to lay hold of the stranger by his ankles and armpits, + lift him up, and bring the lower part of his person into violent + contact with the ground. Women as well as men were liable to be + thus treated. The practice of interposing a sheaf between the + sufferer and the ground is said to be a modern refinement.<a id= + "noteref_688" name="noteref_688" href="#note_688"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">688</span></span></a> + Comparing this custom with the one practised at Putanges in + Normandy, which has just been described, we may conjecture that in + Scotland the <span class="tei tei-q">“dumping”</span> of strangers + on the harvest-field was originally a preliminary to wrapping them + up in sheaves of corn.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Ceremonies of the Tarahumare + Indians at hoeing, ploughing, and harvest.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Ceremonies of a + somewhat similar kind are performed by the Tarahumare Indians of + Mexico not only at harvest but also at hoeing and ploughing. + <span class="tei tei-q">“When the work of hoeing and weeding is + finished, the workers seize the master of the field, and, tying his + arms crosswise behind him, load all the implements, that is to say, + the hoes, upon his back, fastening them with ropes. Then they form + two single columns, the landlord in the middle between them, and + all facing the house. Thus they start homeward. Simultaneously the + two men at the heads of the columns begin to run rapidly forward + some thirty yards, cross each other, then turn back, run along the + two columns, cross each other again at the rear and take their + places each at the end of his row. As they pass each other ahead + and in the rear of the columns they beat their mouths with the + hollow of their hands and yell. As soon as they reach their places + at the foot, the next pair in front of the columns starts off, + running in the same way, and thus pair after pair performs the + tour, the procession all the time advancing toward the house. A + short distance in front of it they come to a halt, and are met by + two young men who carry red handkerchiefs tied to sticks like + flags. The father of the family, still tied up and loaded with the + hoes, steps forward alone and kneels down in front of his + house-door. The flag-bearers wave their banners over him, and the + women of the household come out and kneel on <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page228">[pg 228]</span><a name="Pg228" id="Pg228" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> their left knees, first toward the + east, and after a little while toward each of the other cardinal + points, west, south, and north. In conclusion the flags are waved + in front of the house. The father then rises and the people untie + him, whereupon he first salutes the women with the usual greeting, + <span class="tei tei-q">‘<span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Kwīra!</span></span>’</span> or <span class= + "tei tei-q">‘<span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Kwirevá!</span></span>’</span> Now they all go + into the house, and the man makes a short speech thanking them all + for the assistance they have given him, for how could he have + gotten through his work without them? They have provided him with a + year's life (that is, with the wherewithal to sustain it), and now + he is going to give them tesvino. He gives a drinking-gourd full to + each one in the assembly, and appoints one man among them to + distribute more to all. The same ceremony is performed after the + ploughing and after the harvesting. On the first occasion the tied + man may be made to carry the yoke of the oxen, on the second he + does not carry anything.”</span><a id="noteref_689" name= + "noteref_689" href="#note_689"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">689</span></span></a> The + meaning of these Mexican ceremonies is not clear. Perhaps the + custom of tying up the farmer at hoeing, ploughing, and reaping is + a form of expiation or apology offered to the spirits of the earth, + who are naturally disturbed by agricultural operations.<a id= + "noteref_690" name="noteref_690" href="#note_690"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">690</span></span></a> When + the Yabim of Simbang in German New Guinea see that the taro plants + in their fields are putting forth leaves, they offer sacrifice of + sago-broth and pork to the spirits of the former owners of the + land, in order that they may be kindly disposed and not do harm but + let the fruits ripen.<a id="noteref_691" name="noteref_691" href= + "#note_691"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">691</span></span></a> + Similarly when the Alfoors or Toradjas of Central Celebes are + planting a new field, they offer rice, eggs, and so forth to the + souls of the former owners of the land, hoping that, mollified by + these offerings, the souls will make the crops to grow and + thrive.<a id="noteref_692" name="noteref_692" href= + "#note_692"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">692</span></span></a> + However, this explanation of the Mexican ceremonies at hoeing, + ploughing, and reaping is purely conjectural. In these ceremonies + there is no evidence that, as in the parallel European customs, the + farmer is identified <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page229">[pg + 229]</span><a name="Pg229" id="Pg229" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + with the corn-spirit, since he is not wrapt up in the sheaves.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Pretence made by the reapers of + killing some one with their scythes.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Be that as it + may, the evidence adduced above suffices to prove that, like the + ancient Lityerses, modern European reapers have been wont to lay + hold of a passing stranger and tie him up in a sheaf. It is not to + be expected that they should complete the parallel by cutting off + his head; but if they do not take such a strong step, their + language and gestures are at least indicative of a desire to do so. + For instance, in Mecklenburg on the first day of reaping, if the + master or mistress or a stranger enters the field, or merely passes + by it, all the mowers face towards him and sharpen their scythes, + clashing their whet-stones against them in unison, as if they were + making ready to mow. Then the woman who leads the mowers steps up + to him and ties a band round his left arm. He must ransom himself + by payment of a forfeit.<a id="noteref_693" name="noteref_693" + href="#note_693"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">693</span></span></a> Near + Ratzeburg, when the master or other person of mark enters the field + or passes by it, all the harvesters stop work and march towards him + in a body, the men with their scythes in front. On meeting him they + form up in line, men and women. The men stick the poles of their + scythes in the ground, as they do in whetting them; then they take + off their caps and hang them on the scythes, while their leader + stands forward and makes a speech. When he has done, they all whet + their scythes in measured time very loudly, after which they put on + their caps. Two of the women binders then come forward; one of them + ties the master or stranger (as the case may be) with corn-ears or + with a silken band; the other delivers a rhyming address. The + following are specimens of the speeches made by the reaper on these + occasions. In some parts of Pomerania every passer-by is stopped, + his way being barred with a corn-rope. The reapers form a circle + round him and sharpen their scythes, while their leader says:—</p> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 0.90em; margin-top: 0.90em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">The men are + ready,</span></span></span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic"> + The scythes are bent,</span></span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic"> + The corn is great and small,</span></span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left"><span class= + "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">The gentleman must be + mowed.</span></span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + </div> + </div> + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page230">[pg 230]</span><a name= + "Pg230" id="Pg230" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Then the process + of whetting the scythes is repeated.<a id="noteref_694" name= + "noteref_694" href="#note_694"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">694</span></span></a> At + Ramin, in the district of Stettin, the stranger, standing encircled + by the reapers, is thus addressed:—</p> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 0.90em; margin-top: 0.90em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">We'll stroke the + gentleman</span></span></span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic"> + With our naked sword,</span></span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic"> + Wherewith we shear meadows and fields.</span></span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic"> + We shear princes and lords.</span></span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic"> + Labourers are often athirst;</span></span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic"> + If the gentleman will stand beer and brandy</span></span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic"> + The joke will soon be over.</span></span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic"> + But, if our prayer he does not like,</span></span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left"><span class= + "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">The sword has a right to + strike.</span></span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span><a id="noteref_695" name= + "noteref_695" href="#note_695"><span class="tei tei-noteref" + style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">695</span></span></a> + </div> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">That in these + customs the whetting of the scythes is really meant as a + preliminary to mowing appears from the following variation of the + preceding customs. In the district of Lüneburg, when any one enters + the harvest-field, he is asked whether he will engage a good + fellow. If he says yes, the harvesters mow some swaths, yelling and + screaming, and then ask him for drink-money.<a id="noteref_696" + name="noteref_696" href="#note_696"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">696</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Pretence made by threshers of + choking a person with their flails.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">On the + threshing-floor strangers are also regarded as embodiments of the + corn-spirit, and are treated accordingly. At Wiedingharde in + Schleswig when a stranger comes to the threshing-floor he is asked, + <span class="tei tei-q">“Shall I teach you the flail-dance?”</span> + If he says yes, they put the arms of the threshing-flail round his + neck as if he were a sheaf of corn, and press them together so + tight that he is nearly choked.<a id="noteref_697" name= + "noteref_697" href="#note_697"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">697</span></span></a> In + some parishes of Wermland (Sweden), when a stranger enters the + threshing-floor where the threshers are at work, they say that + <span class="tei tei-q">“they will teach him the + threshing-song.”</span> Then they put a flail round his neck and a + straw rope about his body. Also, as we have seen, if a stranger + woman enters the threshing-floor, the threshers put a flail round + her body and a wreath of corn-stalks round her neck, and call out, + <span class="tei tei-q">“See the Corn-woman! See! that is how the + Corn-maiden looks!”</span><a id="noteref_698" name="noteref_698" + href="#note_698"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">698</span></span></a></p><span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page231">[pg 231]</span><a name="Pg231" id="Pg231" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Custom observed at the + madder-harvest in Zealand.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In these + customs, observed both on the harvest-field and on the + threshing-floor, a passing stranger is regarded as a + personification of the corn, in other words, as the corn-spirit; + and a show is made of treating him like the corn by mowing, + binding, and threshing him. If the reader still doubts whether + European peasants can really regard a passing stranger in this + light, the following custom should set his doubts at rest. During + the madder-harvest in the Dutch province of Zealand a stranger + passing by a field, where the people are digging the madder-roots, + will sometimes call out to them <span lang="nl" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="nl"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Koortspillers</span></span> (a term of + reproach). Upon this, two of the fleetest runners make after him, + and, if they catch him, they bring him back to the madder-field and + bury him in the earth up to his middle at least, jeering at him the + while; then they ease nature before his face.<a id="noteref_699" + name="noteref_699" href="#note_699"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">699</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The spirit of the corn conceived + as poor and robbed by the reapers. Some of the corn left on the + harvest-field for the corn-spirit. Little fields or gardens + cultivated for spirits or gods.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This last act is + to be explained as follows. The spirit of the corn and of other + cultivated plants is sometimes conceived, not as immanent in the + plant, but as its owner; hence the cutting of the corn at harvest, + the digging of the roots, and the gathering of fruit from the + fruit-trees are each and all of them acts of spoliation, which + strip him of his property and reduce him to poverty. Hence he is + often known as <span class="tei tei-q">“the Poor Man”</span> or + <span class="tei tei-q">“the Poor Woman.”</span> Thus in the + neighbourhood of Eisenach a small sheaf is sometimes left standing + on the field for <span class="tei tei-q">“the Poor Old + Woman.”</span><a id="noteref_700" name="noteref_700" href= + "#note_700"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">700</span></span></a> At + Marksuhl, near Eisenach, the puppet formed out of the last sheaf is + itself called <span class="tei tei-q">“the Poor Woman.”</span> At + Alt Lest in Silesia the man who binds the last sheaf is called the + Beggar-man.<a id="noteref_701" name="noteref_701" href= + "#note_701"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">701</span></span></a> In a + village near Roeskilde, in Zealand (Denmark), old-fashioned + peasants sometimes make up the last sheaf into a rude puppet, which + is called the Rye-beggar.<a id="noteref_702" name="noteref_702" + href="#note_702"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">702</span></span></a> In + Southern Schonen the sheaf which is bound last is called the + Beggar; <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page232">[pg + 232]</span><a name="Pg232" id="Pg232" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + it is made bigger than the rest and is sometimes dressed in + clothes. In the district of Olmütz the last sheaf is called the + Beggar; it is given to an old woman, who must carry it home, + limping on one foot.<a id="noteref_703" name="noteref_703" href= + "#note_703"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">703</span></span></a> + Sometimes a little of the crop is left on the field for the spirit, + under other names than <span class="tei tei-q">“the Poor Old + Woman.”</span> Thus at Szagmanten, a village of the Tilsit + district, the last sheaf was left standing on the field + <span class="tei tei-q">“for the Old Rye-woman.”</span><a id= + "noteref_704" name="noteref_704" href="#note_704"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">704</span></span></a> In + Neftenbach (Canton of Zurich) the first three ears of corn reaped + are thrown away on the field <span class="tei tei-q">“to satisfy + the Corn-mother and to make the next year's crop + abundant.”</span><a id="noteref_705" name="noteref_705" href= + "#note_705"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">705</span></span></a> At + Kupferberg, in Bavaria, some corn is left standing on the field + when the rest has been cut. Of this corn left standing they say + that <span class="tei tei-q">“it belongs to the Old Woman,”</span> + to whom it is dedicated in the following words:—</p> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 0.90em; margin-top: 0.90em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">We give it to the Old + Woman;</span></span></span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic"> + She shall keep it.</span></span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic"> + Next year may she be to us</span></span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left"><span class= + "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">As kind as this time she + has been.</span></span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span><a id="noteref_706" name= + "noteref_706" href="#note_706"><span class="tei tei-noteref" + style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">706</span></span></a> + </div> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">These words + clearly shew that the Old Woman for whom the corn is left on the + field is not a real personage, poor and hungry, but the mythical + Old Woman who makes the corn to grow. At Schüttarschen, in West + Bohemia, after the crop has been reaped, a few stalks are left + standing and a garland is attached to them. <span class= + "tei tei-q">“That belongs to the Wood-woman,”</span> they say, and + offer a prayer. In this way the Wood-woman, we are told, has enough + to live on through the winter and the corn will thrive the better + next year. The same thing is done for all the different kinds of + corn-crop.<a id="noteref_707" name="noteref_707" href= + "#note_707"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">707</span></span></a> So in + Thüringen, when the after-grass (<span lang="de" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="de"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Grummet</span></span>) is being got in, a + little heap is left lying on the field; it belongs to <span class= + "tei tei-q">“the Little Wood-woman”</span> in return for the + blessing she has bestowed.<a id="noteref_708" name="noteref_708" + href="#note_708"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">708</span></span></a> In + the Frankenwald of Bavaria three handfuls of flax were left on the + field <span class="tei tei-q">“for the Wood-woman.”</span><a id= + "noteref_709" name="noteref_709" href="#note_709"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">709</span></span></a> + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page233">[pg 233]</span><a name= + "Pg233" id="Pg233" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> At Lindau in Anhalt + the reapers used to leave some stalks standing in the last corner + of the last field for <span class="tei tei-q">“the Corn-woman to + eat.”</span><a id="noteref_710" name="noteref_710" href= + "#note_710"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">710</span></span></a> In + some parts of Silesia it was till lately the custom to leave a few + corn-stalks standing in the field, <span class="tei tei-q">“in + order that the next harvest should not fail.”</span><a id= + "noteref_711" name="noteref_711" href="#note_711"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">711</span></span></a> In + Russia it is customary to leave patches of unreaped corn in the + fields and to place bread and salt on the ground near them. + <span class="tei tei-q">“These ears are eventually knotted + together, and the ceremony is called <span class="tei tei-q">‘the + plaiting of the beard of Volos,’</span> and it is supposed that + after it has been performed no wizard or other evilly-disposed + person will be able to hurt the produce of the fields. The unreaped + patch is looked upon as tabooed; and it is believed that if any one + meddles with it he will shrivel up, and become twisted like the + interwoven ears. Similar customs are kept up in various parts of + Russia. Near Kursk and Voroneje, for instance, a patch of rye is + usually left in honour of the Prophet Elijah, and in another + district one of oats is consecrated to St. Nicholas. As it is well + known that both the Saint and the Prophet have succeeded to the + place once held in the estimation of the Russian people by Perun, + it seems probable that Volos really was, in ancient times, one of + the names of the thunder-god.”</span><a id="noteref_712" name= + "noteref_712" href="#note_712"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">712</span></span></a> In + the north-east of Scotland a few stalks were sometimes left + unreaped on the field for the benefit of <span class= + "tei tei-q">“the aul' man.”</span><a id="noteref_713" name= + "noteref_713" href="#note_713"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">713</span></span></a> Here + <span class="tei tei-q">“the aul' man”</span> is probably the + equivalent of the harvest Old Man of Germany.<a id="noteref_714" + name="noteref_714" href="#note_714"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">714</span></span></a> Among + the Mohammedans of Zanzibar it is customary at sowing a field to + reserve a certain portion of it for the guardian spirits, who at + harvest are invited, to the tuck of drum, to come and take their + share; tiny huts are also built in which food is deposited for + their use.<a id="noteref_715" name="noteref_715" href= + "#note_715"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">715</span></span></a> In + the island of Nias, to prevent the depredations of wandering + spirits among the rice at harvest, a miniature field is dedicated + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page234">[pg 234]</span><a name= + "Pg234" id="Pg234" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> to them and in it + are sown all the plants that grow in the real fields.<a id= + "noteref_716" name="noteref_716" href="#note_716"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">716</span></span></a> The + Hos, a Ewe tribe of negroes in Togoland, observe a similar custom + for a similar reason. At the entrance to their yam-fields the + traveller may see on both sides of the path small mounds on which + yams, stock-yams, beans, and maize are planted and appear to + flourish with more than usual luxuriance. These little gardens, + tended with peculiar care, are dedicated to the <span class= + "tei tei-q">“guardian gods”</span> of the owner of the land; there + he cultivates for their benefit the same plants which he cultivates + for his own use in the fields; and the notion is that the + <span class="tei tei-q">“guardian gods”</span> will content + themselves with eating the fruits which grow in their little + private preserves and will not poach on the crops which are + destined for human use.<a id="noteref_717" name="noteref_717" href= + "#note_717"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">717</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Hence perhaps we may explain the + dedication of sacred fields and the offering of first-fruits to + gods and spirits.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">These customs + suggest that the little sacred rice-fields on which the Kayans of + Borneo perform the various operations of husbandry in mimicry + before they address themselves to the real labours of the + field,<a id="noteref_718" name="noteref_718" href= + "#note_718"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">718</span></span></a> may + be dedicated to the spirits of the rice to compensate them for the + loss they sustain by allowing men to cultivate all the rest of the + land for their own benefit. Perhaps the Rarian plain at + Eleusis<a id="noteref_719" name="noteref_719" href= + "#note_719"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">719</span></span></a> was a + spiritual preserve of the same kind set apart for the exclusive use + of the corn-goddesses Demeter and Persephone. It may even be that + the law which forbade the Hebrews to reap the corners and gather + the gleanings of the harvest-fields and to strip the <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page235">[pg 235]</span><a name="Pg235" id="Pg235" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> vines of their last grapes<a id= + "noteref_720" name="noteref_720" href="#note_720"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">720</span></span></a> was + originally intended for the benefit, not of the human poor, but of + the poor spirits of the corn and the vine, who had just been + despoiled by the reapers and the vintagers, and who, if some + provision were not made for their subsistence, would naturally die + of hunger before another year came round. In providing for their + wants the prudent husbandman was really consulting his own + interests; for how could he expect to reap wheat and barley and to + gather grapes next year if he suffered the spirits of the corn and + of the vine to perish of famine in the meantime? This train of + thought may possibly explain the wide-spread custom of offering the + first-fruits of the crops to gods or spirits:<a id="noteref_721" + name="noteref_721" href="#note_721"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">721</span></span></a> such + offerings may have been originally not so much an expression of + gratitude for benefits received as a means of enabling the + benefactors to continue their benefactions in time to come. + Primitive man has generally a shrewd eye to the main chance: he is + more prone to provide for the future than to sentimentalise over + the past.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Passing strangers treated as the + spirit of the madder-roots.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Thus when the + spirit of vegetation is conceived as a being who is robbed of his + store and impoverished by the harvesters, it is natural that his + representative—the passing stranger—should upbraid them; and it is + equally natural that they should seek to disable him from pursuing + them and recapturing the stolen property. Now, it is an old + superstition that by easing nature on the spot where a robbery is + committed, the robbers secure themselves, for a certain time, + against interruption.<a id="noteref_722" name="noteref_722" href= + "#note_722"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">722</span></span></a> Hence + when madder-diggers resort to this proceeding in presence of the + stranger whom they have caught and buried in the field, we may + infer that they consider themselves robbers and him as the person + robbed. Regarded as such, he must be the natural owner of the + madder-roots, that is, their spirit or demon; and this conception + is carried out by <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page236">[pg + 236]</span><a name="Pg236" id="Pg236" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + burying him, like the madder-roots, in the ground.<a id= + "noteref_723" name="noteref_723" href="#note_723"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">723</span></span></a> The + Greeks, it may be observed, were quite familiar with the idea that + a passing stranger may be a god. Homer says that the gods in the + likeness of foreigners roam up and down cities.<a id="noteref_724" + name="noteref_724" href="#note_724"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">724</span></span></a> Once + in Poso, a district of Celebes, when a new missionary entered a + house where a number of people were gathered round a sick man, one + of them addressed the newcomer in these words: <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Well, sir, as we had never seen you before, and you + came suddenly in, while we sat here by ourselves, we thought it was + a spirit.”</span><a id="noteref_725" name="noteref_725" href= + "#note_725"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">725</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Killing of the personal + representative of the corn-spirit.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Thus in these + harvest-customs of modern Europe the person who cuts, binds, or + threshes the last corn is treated as an embodiment of the + corn-spirit by being wrapt up in sheaves, killed in mimicry by + agricultural implements, and thrown into the water.<a id= + "noteref_726" name="noteref_726" href="#note_726"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">726</span></span></a> These + coincidences with the Lityerses story seem to prove that the latter + is a genuine description of an old Phrygian harvest-custom. But + since in the modern parallels the killing of the personal + representative of the corn-spirit is necessarily omitted or at most + enacted only in mimicry, it is desirable to shew that in rude + society human beings have been commonly killed as an agricultural + ceremony to promote the fertility of the fields. The following + examples will make this plain.</p> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em"> + <a name="toc33" id="toc33"></a> <a name="pdf34" id="pdf34"></a> + + <h2 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em"> + <span style="font-size: 144%">§ 3. Human Sacrifices for the + Crops.</span></h2> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Human sacrifices for the crops in + South and Central America.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The Indians of + Guayaquil, in Ecuador, used to sacrifice human blood and the hearts + of men when they sowed their fields.<a id="noteref_727" name= + "noteref_727" href="#note_727"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">727</span></span></a> The + people of Cañar (now Cuenca in Ecuador) used to sacrifice a hundred + children annually at harvest. The kings of Quito, the Incas of + Peru, and for a long time the Spaniards were unable to suppress the + bloody rite.<a id="noteref_728" name="noteref_728" href= + "#note_728"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">728</span></span></a> At a + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page237">[pg 237]</span><a name= + "Pg237" id="Pg237" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> Mexican + harvest-festival, when the first-fruits of the season were offered + to the sun, a criminal was placed between two immense stones, + balanced opposite each other, and was crushed by them as they fell + together. His remains were buried, and a feast and dance followed. + This sacrifice was known as <span class="tei tei-q">“the meeting of + the stones.”</span><a id="noteref_729" name="noteref_729" href= + "#note_729"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">729</span></span></a> + <span class="tei tei-q">“Tlaloc was worshipped in Mexico as the god + of the thunder and the storm which precedes the fertilising rain; + elsewhere his wife Xochiquetzal, who at Tlaxcallan was called + Matlalcuéyé or the Lady of the Blue Petticoats, shared these + honours, and it was to her that many countries in Central America + particularly paid their devotions. Every year, at the time when the + cobs of the still green and milky maize are about to coagulate and + ripen, they used to sacrifice to the goddess four young girls, + chosen among the noblest families of the country; they were decked + out in festal attire, crowned with flowers, and conveyed in rich + palanquins to the brink of the hallowed waters, where the sacrifice + was to be offered. The priests, clad in long floating robes, their + heads encircled with feather crowns, marched in front of the + litters carrying censers with burning incense. The town of + Elopango, celebrated for its temple, was near the lake of the same + name, the etymology of which refers to the sheaves of tender maize + (<span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">elotl</span></span>, <span class= + "tei tei-q">‘sheaf of tender maize’</span>). It was dedicated to + the goddess Xochiquetzal, to whom the young victims were offered by + being hurled from the top of a rock into the abyss. At the moment + of consummating this inhuman rite, the priests addressed themselves + in turn to the four virgins in order to banish the fear of death + from their minds. They drew for them a bright picture of the + delights they were about to enjoy in the company of the gods, and + advised them not to forget the earth which they had left behind, + but to entreat the divinity, to whom they despatched them, to bless + the forthcoming harvest.”</span><a id="noteref_730" name= + "noteref_730" href="#note_730"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">730</span></span></a> We + have seen that the ancient Mexicans also sacrificed human beings at + all the <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page238">[pg + 238]</span><a name="Pg238" id="Pg238" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + various stages in the growth of the maize, the age of the victims + corresponding to the age of the corn; for they sacrificed new-born + babes at sowing, older children when the grain had sprouted, and so + on till it was fully ripe, when they sacrificed old men.<a id= + "noteref_731" name="noteref_731" href="#note_731"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">731</span></span></a> No + doubt the correspondence between the ages of the victims and the + state of the corn was supposed to enhance the efficacy of the + sacrifice.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Human sacrifices for the crops + among the Pawnees.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The Pawnees + annually sacrificed a human victim in spring when they sowed their + fields. The sacrifice was believed to have been enjoined on them by + the Morning Star, or by a certain bird which the Morning Star had + sent to them as its messenger. The bird was stuffed and preserved + as a powerful talisman. They thought that an omission of this + sacrifice would be followed by the total failure of the crops of + maize, beans, and pumpkins. The victim was a captive of either sex. + He was clad in the gayest and most costly attire, was fattened on + the choicest food, and carefully kept in ignorance of his doom. + When he was fat enough, they bound him to a cross in the presence + of the multitude, danced a solemn dance, then cleft his head with a + tomahawk and shot him with arrows. According to one trader, the + squaws then cut pieces of flesh from the victim's body, with which + they greased their hoes; but this was denied by another trader who + had been present at the ceremony. Immediately after the sacrifice + the people proceeded to plant their fields. A particular account + has been preserved of the sacrifice of a Sioux girl by the Pawnees + in April 1837 or 1838. The girl was fourteen or fifteen years old + and had been kept for six months and well treated. Two days before + the sacrifice she was led from wigwam to wigwam, accompanied by the + whole council of chiefs and warriors. At each lodge she received a + small billet of wood and a little paint, which she handed to the + warrior next to her. In this way she called at every wigwam, + receiving at each the same present of wood and paint. On the + twenty-second of April she was taken out to be sacrificed, attended + by the warriors, each of whom carried two pieces of wood + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page239">[pg 239]</span><a name= + "Pg239" id="Pg239" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> which he had + received from her hands. Her body having been painted half red and + half black, she was attached to a sort of gibbet and roasted for + some time over a slow fire, then shot to death with arrows. The + chief sacrificer next tore out her heart and devoured it. While her + flesh was still warm it was cut in small pieces from the bones, put + in little baskets, and taken to a neighbouring corn-field. There + the head chief took a piece of the flesh from a basket and squeezed + a drop of blood upon the newly-deposited grains of corn. His + example was followed by the rest, till all the seed had been + sprinkled with the blood; it was then covered up with earth. + According to one account the body of the victim was reduced to a + kind of paste, which was rubbed or sprinkled not only on the maize + but also on the potatoes, the beans, and other seeds to fertilise + them. By this sacrifice they hoped to obtain plentiful crops.<a id= + "noteref_732" name="noteref_732" href="#note_732"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">732</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Human sacrifices for the crops in + Africa.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">A West African + queen used to sacrifice a man and woman in the month of March. They + were killed with spades and hoes, and their bodies buried in the + middle of a field which had just been tilled.<a id="noteref_733" + name="noteref_733" href="#note_733"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">733</span></span></a> At + Lagos in Guinea it was the custom annually to impale a young girl + alive soon after the spring equinox in order to secure good crops. + Along with her were sacrificed sheep and goats, which, with yams, + heads of maize, and plantains, were hung on stakes on each side of + her. The victims were bred up for the purpose in the king's + seraglio, and their minds had been so powerfully wrought upon by + the fetish men that they went cheerfully to <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page240">[pg 240]</span><a name="Pg240" id="Pg240" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> their fate.<a id="noteref_734" name= + "noteref_734" href="#note_734"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">734</span></span></a> A + similar sacrifice used to be annually offered at Benin, in + Guinea.<a id="noteref_735" name="noteref_735" href= + "#note_735"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">735</span></span></a> The + Marimos, a Bechuana tribe, sacrifice a human being for the crops. + The victim chosen is generally a short, stout man. He is seized by + violence or intoxicated and taken to the fields, where he is killed + amongst the wheat to serve as <span class="tei tei-q">“seed”</span> + (so they phrase it). After his blood has coagulated in the sun, it + is burned along with the frontal bone, the flesh attached to it, + and the brain; the ashes are then scattered over the ground to + fertilise it. The rest of the body is eaten.<a id="noteref_736" + name="noteref_736" href="#note_736"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">736</span></span></a> The + Wamegi of the Usagara hills in German East Africa used to offer + human sacrifices of a peculiar kind once a year about the time of + harvest, which was also the time of sowing; for the Wamegi have two + crops annually, one in September and one in February. The festival + was usually held in September or October. The victim was a girl who + had attained the age of puberty. She was taken to a hill where the + festival was to be celebrated, and there she was crushed to death + between two branches.<a id="noteref_737" name="noteref_737" href= + "#note_737"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">737</span></span></a> The + sacrifice was not performed in the fields, and my informant could + not ascertain its object, but we may conjecture that it was to + ensure good crops in the following year.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Human sacrifices for the crops in + the Philippines.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The Bagobos of + Mindanao, one of the Philippine Islands, offer a human sacrifice + before they sow their rice. The victim is a slave, who is hewn to + pieces in the forest.<a id="noteref_738" name="noteref_738" href= + "#note_738"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">738</span></span></a> The + natives of Bontoc, a province in the interior of Luzon, one of the + Philippine Islands, are passionate head-hunters. Their principal + seasons for head-hunting are the times of planting and reaping the + rice. In order that the crop may turn out well, every farm must get + at least one human head at planting and one at sowing. The + head-hunters go out in twos or threes, lie in wait for the victim, + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page241">[pg 241]</span><a name= + "Pg241" id="Pg241" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> whether man or + woman, cut off his or her head, hands, and feet, and bring them + back in haste to the village, where they are received with great + rejoicings. The skulls are at first exposed on the branches of two + or three dead trees which stand in an open space of every village + surrounded by large stones which serve as seats. The people then + dance round them and feast and get drunk. When the flesh has + decayed from the head, the man who cut it off takes it home and + preserves it as a relic, while his companions do the same with the + hands and the feet.<a id="noteref_739" name="noteref_739" href= + "#note_739"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">739</span></span></a> + Similar customs are observed by the Apoyaos, another tribe in the + interior of Luzon.<a id="noteref_740" name="noteref_740" href= + "#note_740"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">740</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Human sacrifices for the crops + among the Wild Wa of Burma.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The Wild Wa, an + agricultural tribe on the north-eastern frontier of Upper Burma, + still hunt for human heads as a means of promoting the welfare of + the crops. The Wa regards his skulls as a protection against the + powers of evil. <span class="tei tei-q">“Without a skull his crops + would fail; without a skull his kine might die; without a skull the + father and mother spirits would be shamed and might be enraged; if + there were no protecting skull the other spirits who are all + malignant, might gain entrance and kill the inhabitants, or drink + all the liquor.”</span> The Wa country is a series of mountain + ranges shelving rapidly down to narrow valleys from two to five + thousand feet deep. The villages are all perched high on the + slopes, some just under the crest of the ridge, some lower down on + a small projecting spur of flat ground. Industrious cultivation has + cleared away the jungle, and the villages stand out conspicuously + in the landscape as yellowish-brown blotches on the hillsides. Each + village is fortified by an earthen rampart so thickly overgrown + with cactuses and other shrubs as to be impenetrable. The only + entrance is through a narrow, low and winding tunnel, the floor of + which, for additional security, is thickly studded with pegs to + wound the feet of enemies who might attempt to force a way in. The + Wa depend for their subsistence mainly on their crops of + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page242">[pg 242]</span><a name= + "Pg242" id="Pg242" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> buckwheat, beans, + and maize; rice they cultivate only to distil a strong spirituous + liquor from it. They had need be industrious, for no field can be + reached without a climb up or down the steep mountain-side. + Sometimes the rice-fields lie three thousand feet or more below the + village, and they require constant attention. But the chief crop + raised by the Wa is the poppy, from which they make opium. In + February and March the hill-tops for miles are white with the + blossom, and you may travel for days through nothing but fields of + poppies. Then, too, is the proper season for head-hunting. It opens + in March and lasts through April. Parties of head-hunters at that + time go forth to prowl for human prey. As a rule they will not + behead people of a neighbouring village nor even of any village on + the same range of hills. To find victims they go to the next range + or at any rate to a distance, and the farther the better, for the + heads of strangers are preferred. The reason is that the ghosts of + strangers, being unfamiliar with the country, are much less likely + to stray away from their skulls; hence they make more vigilant + sentinels than the ghosts of people better acquainted with the + neighbourhood, who are apt to go off duty without waiting for the + tedious formality of relieving guard. When head-hunters return to a + village with human heads, the rejoicing is uproarious. Then the + great drum is beaten frantically, and its deep hollow boom + resounding far and wide through the hills announces to the + neighbourhood the glad tidings of murder successfully perpetrated. + Then the barrels, or rather the bamboos, of rice-spirit are tapped, + and while the genial stream flows and the women and children dance + and sing for glee, the men drink themselves blind and mad drunk. + The ghastly head, which forms the centre of all this rejoicing, is + first taken to the spirit-house, a small shed which usually stands + on the highest point of the village site. There, wrapt in grass or + leaves, it is hung up in a basket to ripen and bleach. When all the + flesh and sinews have mouldered away and nothing remains but the + blanched and grinning skull, it is put to rest in the village + Golgotha. This is an avenue of huge old trees, whose interlacing + boughs form a verdant archway overhead and, with the <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page243">[pg 243]</span><a name="Pg243" id="Pg243" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> dense undergrowth, cast a deep shadow + on the ground below. Every village has such an avenue stretching + along the hillside sometimes for a long distance, or even till it + meets the avenue of the neighbouring village. In the solemn gloom + of this verdurous canopy is the Place of Skulls. On one side of the + avenue stands a row of wooden posts, usually mere trunks of trees + with the bark peeled off, but sometimes rudely carved and painted + with designs in red and black. A little below the top of each post + is cut a niche, and in front of the niche is a ledge. On this ledge + the skull is deposited, sometimes so that it is in full view of + passers-by in the avenue, sometimes so that it only grins at them + through a slit. Most villages count their skulls by tens or + twenties, but some of them have hundreds of these trophies, + especially when the avenue forms an unbroken continuity of shade + between the villages. The old skulls ensure peace to the village, + but at least one new one should be taken every year, that the rice + may grow green far down in the depths of the valley, that the maize + may tinge with its golden hue the steep mountain-sides, and that + the hilltops may be white for miles and miles with the bloom of the + poppy.<a id="noteref_741" name="noteref_741" href= + "#note_741"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">741</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Human sacrifices for the crops + among the Shans of Indo-China and the Nagas and other tribes of + India.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The Shans of + Indo-China still believe in the efficacy of human sacrifice to + procure a good harvest, though they act on the belief less than + some other tribes of this region. Their practice now is to poison + somebody at the state festival, which is generally held at some + time between March and May.<a id="noteref_742" name="noteref_742" + href="#note_742"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">742</span></span></a> Among + the Lhota Naga, one of the many savage tribes who inhabit the deep + rugged labyrinthine glens which wind into the mountains from the + rich valley of Brahmapootra,<a id="noteref_743" name="noteref_743" + href="#note_743"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">743</span></span></a> it + used to be a common custom to chop off the heads, hands, and feet + of people they met with, and then to stick up the severed + extremities in their fields to ensure a good crop of grain. They + bore no <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page244">[pg + 244]</span><a name="Pg244" id="Pg244" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + ill-will whatever to the persons upon whom they operated in this + unceremonious fashion. Once they flayed a boy alive, carved him in + pieces, and distributed the flesh among all the villagers, who put + it into their corn-bins to avert bad luck and ensure plentiful + crops of grain. The Angami, another tribe of the same region, used + also to relieve casual passers-by of their heads, hands, and feet, + with the same excellent intention.<a id="noteref_744" name= + "noteref_744" href="#note_744"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">744</span></span></a> The + hill tribe Kudulu, near Vizagapatam in the Madras Presidency, + offered human sacrifices to the god Jankari for the purpose of + obtaining good crops. The ceremony was generally performed on the + Sunday before or after the Pongal feast. For the most part the + victim was purchased, and until the time for the sacrifice came he + was free to wander about the village, to eat and drink what he + liked, and even to lie with any woman he met. On the appointed day + he was carried before the idol drunk; and when one of the villagers + had cut a hole in his stomach and smeared the blood on the idol, + the crowds from the neighbouring villages rushed upon him and + hacked him to pieces. All who were fortunate enough to secure + morsels of his flesh carried them away and presented them to their + village idols.<a id="noteref_745" name="noteref_745" href= + "#note_745"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">745</span></span></a> The + Gonds of India, a Dravidian race, kidnapped Brahman boys, and kept + them as victims to be sacrificed on various occasions. At sowing + and reaping, after a triumphal procession, one of the lads was + slain by being punctured with a poisoned arrow. His blood was then + sprinkled over the ploughed field or the ripe crop, and his flesh + was devoured.<a id="noteref_746" name="noteref_746" href= + "#note_746"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">746</span></span></a> The + Oraons or Uraons of Chota Nagpur worship a goddess called Anna + Kuari, who can give good crops and make a man rich, but to induce + her to do so it is necessary to offer human sacrifices. In spite of + the vigilance of the British Government these sacrifices are said + to be still secretly perpetrated. The victims are poor waifs and + strays whose disappearance attracts no notice. April and May are + the months when the catchpoles are out on the prowl. At that time + strangers will not go about the <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page245">[pg 245]</span><a name="Pg245" id="Pg245" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> country alone, and parents will not let their + children enter the jungle or herd the cattle. When a catchpole has + found a victim, he cuts his throat and carries away the upper part + of the ring finger and the nose. The goddess takes up her abode in + the house of any man who has offered her a sacrifice, and from that + time his fields yield a double harvest. The form she assumes in the + house is that of a small child. When the householder brings in his + unhusked rice, he takes the goddess and rolls her over the heap to + double its size. But she soon grows restless and can only be + pacified with the blood of fresh human victims.<a id="noteref_747" + name="noteref_747" href="#note_747"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">747</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Human sacrifices for the crops + among the Khonds.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But the best + known case of human sacrifices, systematically offered to ensure + good crops, is supplied by the Khonds or Kandhs, another Dravidian + race in Bengal. Our knowledge of them is derived from the accounts + written by British officers who, about the middle of the nineteenth + century, were engaged in putting them down.<a id="noteref_748" + name="noteref_748" href="#note_748"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">748</span></span></a> The + sacrifices were offered to the Earth Goddess, Tari Pennu or Bera + Pennu, and were believed to ensure good crops and immunity from all + disease and accidents. In particular, they were considered + necessary in the cultivation of turmeric, the Khonds arguing that + the turmeric could not have a deep red colour without the shedding + of blood.<a id="noteref_749" name="noteref_749" href= + "#note_749"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">749</span></span></a> The + victim or Meriah, as he was called, was acceptable to the goddess + only if he had been purchased, or had been born a victim—that is, + the son of a victim father, or had been devoted as a child by his + father or guardian. Khonds in distress often sold their children + for victims, <span class="tei tei-q">“considering the beatification + of their souls certain, and their death, for the benefit of + mankind, the most honourable possible.”</span> A man of the Panua + tribe was once seen to load a Khond with curses, and finally to + spit in his face, because the Khond had sold for a victim his own + child, whom the Panua had wished to <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page246">[pg 246]</span><a name="Pg246" id="Pg246" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> marry. A party of Khonds, who saw this, + immediately pressed forward to comfort the seller of his child, + saying, <span class="tei tei-q">“Your child has died that all the + world may live, and the Earth Goddess herself will wipe that + spittle from your face.”</span><a id="noteref_750" name= + "noteref_750" href="#note_750"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">750</span></span></a> The + victims were often kept for years before they were sacrificed. + Being regarded as consecrated beings, they were treated with + extreme affection, mingled with deference, and were welcomed + wherever they went. A Meriah youth, on attaining maturity, was + generally given a wife, who was herself usually a Meriah or victim; + and with her he received a portion of land and farm-stock. Their + offspring were also victims. Human sacrifices were offered to the + Earth Goddess by tribes, branches of tribes, or villages, both at + periodical festivals and on extraordinary occasions. The periodical + sacrifices were generally so arranged by tribes and divisions of + tribes that each head of a family was enabled, at least once a + year, to procure a shred of flesh for his fields, generally about + the time when his chief crop was laid down.<a id="noteref_751" + name="noteref_751" href="#note_751"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">751</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Ceremonies preliminary to the + sacrifice.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The mode of + performing these tribal sacrifices was as follows. Ten or twelve + days before the sacrifice, the victim was devoted by cutting off + his hair, which, until then, had been kept unshorn. Crowds of men + and women assembled to witness the sacrifice; none might be + excluded, since the sacrifice was declared to be for all mankind. + It was preceded by several days of wild revelry and gross + debauchery.<a id="noteref_752" name="noteref_752" href= + "#note_752"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">752</span></span></a> On + the day before the sacrifice the victim, dressed in a new garment, + was led forth from the village in solemn procession, with music and + dancing, to the Meriah grove, a clump of high forest trees standing + a little way from the village and untouched by the axe. There they + tied him to a post, which was sometimes placed between two plants + of the sankissar shrub. He was then anointed with oil, ghee, and + turmeric, and adorned with flowers; and <span class="tei tei-q">“a + species of reverence, which it is not easy to distinguish from + adoration,”</span> was paid to him throughout the day. A great + struggle now arose to obtain the smallest relic from his person; a + particle of the <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page247">[pg + 247]</span><a name="Pg247" id="Pg247" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + turmeric paste with which he was smeared, or a drop of his spittle, + was esteemed of sovereign virtue, especially by the women.<a id= + "noteref_753" name="noteref_753" href="#note_753"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">753</span></span></a> The + crowd danced round the post to music, and, addressing the earth, + said, <span class="tei tei-q">“O God, we offer this sacrifice to + you; give us good crops, seasons, and health”</span>; then speaking + to the victim they said, <span class="tei tei-q">“We bought you + with a price, and did not seize you; now we sacrifice you according + to custom, and no sin rests with us.”</span><a id="noteref_754" + name="noteref_754" href="#note_754"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">754</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Consummation of the + sacrifice.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">On the last + morning the orgies, which had been scarcely interrupted during the + night, were resumed, and continued till noon, when they ceased, and + the assembly proceeded to consummate the sacrifice. The victim was + again anointed with oil, and each person touched the anointed part, + and wiped the oil on his own head. In some places they took the + victim in procession round the village, from door to door, where + some plucked hair from his head, and others begged for a drop of + his spittle, with which they anointed their heads.<a id= + "noteref_755" name="noteref_755" href="#note_755"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">755</span></span></a> As + the victim might not be bound nor make any show of resistance, the + bones of his arms and, if necessary, his legs were broken; but + often this precaution was rendered unnecessary by stupefying him + with opium.<a id="noteref_756" name="noteref_756" href= + "#note_756"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">756</span></span></a> The + mode of putting him to death varied in different places. One of the + commonest modes seems to have been strangulation, or squeezing to + death. The branch of a green tree was cleft several feet down the + middle; the victim's neck (in other places, his chest) was inserted + in the cleft, which the priest, aided by his assistants, strove + with all his force to close.<a id="noteref_757" name="noteref_757" + href="#note_757"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">757</span></span></a> Then + he wounded the victim slightly with his axe, whereupon the crowd + rushed at the wretch and hewed the flesh from the bones, leaving + the head and bowels untouched. Sometimes he was cut up alive.<a id= + "noteref_758" name="noteref_758" href="#note_758"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">758</span></span></a> In + Chinna Kimedy he was dragged along the fields, surrounded by the + crowd, who, avoiding his head and intestines, hacked the flesh from + his body with their knives till he died.<a id="noteref_759" name= + "noteref_759" href="#note_759"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">759</span></span></a> + Another very common mode of <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page248">[pg 248]</span><a name="Pg248" id="Pg248" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> sacrifice in the same district was to fasten + the victim to the proboscis of a wooden elephant, which revolved on + a stout post, and, as it whirled round, the crowd cut the flesh + from the victim while life remained. In some villages Major + Campbell found as many as fourteen of these wooden elephants, which + had been used at sacrifices.<a id="noteref_760" name="noteref_760" + href="#note_760"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">760</span></span></a> In + one district the victim was put to death slowly by fire. A low + stage was formed, sloping on either side like a roof; upon it they + laid the victim, his limbs wound round with cords to confine his + struggles. Fires were then lighted and hot brands applied, to make + him roll up and down the slopes of the stage as long as possible; + for the more tears he shed the more abundant would be the supply of + rain. Next day the body was cut to pieces.<a id="noteref_761" name= + "noteref_761" href="#note_761"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">761</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Flesh of the victim used to + fertilise the fields.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The flesh cut + from the victim was instantly taken home by the persons who had + been deputed by each village to bring it. To secure its rapid + arrival, it was sometimes forwarded by relays of men, and conveyed + with postal fleetness fifty or sixty miles.<a id="noteref_762" + name="noteref_762" href="#note_762"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">762</span></span></a> In + each village all who stayed at home fasted rigidly until the flesh + arrived. The bearer deposited it in the place of public assembly, + where it was received by the priest and the heads of families. The + priest divided it into two portions, one of which he offered to the + Earth Goddess by burying it in a hole in the ground with his back + turned, and without looking. Then each man added a little earth to + bury it, and the priest poured water on the spot from a hill gourd. + The other portion of flesh he divided into as many shares as there + were heads of houses present. Each head of a house rolled his shred + of flesh in leaves, and buried it in his favourite field, placing + it in the earth behind his back without looking.<a id="noteref_763" + name="noteref_763" href="#note_763"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">763</span></span></a> In + some <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page249">[pg 249]</span><a name= + "Pg249" id="Pg249" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> places each man + carried his portion of flesh to the stream which watered his + fields, and there hung it on a pole.<a id="noteref_764" name= + "noteref_764" href="#note_764"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">764</span></span></a> For + three days thereafter no house was swept; and, in one district, + strict silence was observed, no fire might be given out, no wood + cut, and no strangers received. The remains of the human victim + (namely, the head, bowels, and bones) were watched by strong + parties the night after the sacrifice; and next morning they were + burned, along with a whole sheep, on a funeral pile. The ashes were + scattered over the fields, laid as paste over the houses and + granaries, or mixed with the new corn to preserve it from + insects.<a id="noteref_765" name="noteref_765" href= + "#note_765"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">765</span></span></a> + Sometimes, however, the head and bones were buried, not + burnt.<a id="noteref_766" name="noteref_766" href= + "#note_766"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">766</span></span></a> After + the suppression of the human sacrifices, inferior victims were + substituted in some places; for instance, in the capital of Chinna + Kimedy a goat took the place of a human victim.<a id="noteref_767" + name="noteref_767" href="#note_767"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">767</span></span></a> + Others sacrifice a buffalo. They tie it to a wooden post in a + sacred grove, dance wildly round it with brandished knives, then, + falling on the living animal, hack it to shreds and tatters in a + few minutes, fighting and struggling with each other for every + particle of flesh. As soon as a man has secured a piece he makes + off with it at full speed to bury it in his fields, according to + ancient custom, before the sun has set, and as some of them have + far to go they must run very fast. All the women throw clods of + earth at the rapidly retreating figures of the men, some of them + taking very good aim. Soon the sacred grove, so lately a scene of + tumult, is silent and deserted except for a few people who remain + to guard all that is left of the buffalo, to wit, the head, the + bones, and the stomach, which are burned with ceremony at the foot + of the stake.<a id="noteref_768" name="noteref_768" href= + "#note_768"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">768</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">In these Khond sacrifices the + human victims appear to have been regarded as divine.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In these Khond + sacrifices the Meriahs are represented by our authorities as + victims offered to propitiate the Earth Goddess. But from the + treatment of the victims both before and after death it appears + that the custom cannot be explained as merely a propitiatory + sacrifice. A part of the flesh certainly was offered to the Earth + Goddess, but the <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page250">[pg + 250]</span><a name="Pg250" id="Pg250" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + rest was buried by each householder in his fields, and the ashes of + the other parts of the body were scattered over the fields, laid as + paste on the granaries, or mixed with the new corn. These latter + customs imply that to the body of the Meriah there was ascribed a + direct or intrinsic power of making the crops to grow, quite + independent of the indirect efficacy which it might have as an + offering to secure the good-will of the deity. In other words, the + flesh and ashes of the victim were believed to be endowed with a + magical or physical power of fertilising the land. The same + intrinsic power was ascribed to the blood and tears of the Meriah, + his blood causing the redness of the turmeric and his tears + producing rain; for it can hardly be doubted that, originally at + least, the tears were supposed to bring down the rain, not merely + to prognosticate it. Similarly the custom of pouring water on the + buried flesh of the Meriah was no doubt a rain-charm. Again, + magical power as an attribute of the Meriah appears in the + sovereign virtue believed to reside in anything that came from his + person, as his hair or spittle. The ascription of such power to the + Meriah indicates that he was much more than a mere man sacrificed + to propitiate a deity. Once more, the extreme reverence paid him + points to the same conclusion. Major Campbell speaks of the Meriah + as <span class="tei tei-q">“being regarded as something more than + mortal,”</span><a id="noteref_769" name="noteref_769" href= + "#note_769"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">769</span></span></a> and + Major Macpherson says, <span class="tei tei-q">“A species of + reverence, which it is not easy to distinguish from adoration, is + paid to him.”</span><a id="noteref_770" name="noteref_770" href= + "#note_770"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">770</span></span></a> In + short, the Meriah seems to have been regarded as divine. As such, + he may originally have represented the Earth Goddess or, perhaps, a + deity of vegetation; though in later times he came to be regarded + rather as a victim offered to a deity than as himself an incarnate + god. This later view of the Meriah as a victim rather than a + divinity may perhaps have received undue emphasis from the European + writers who have described the Khond religion. Habituated to the + later idea of sacrifice as an offering made to a god for the + purpose of conciliating his favour, European observers are apt to + interpret all religious slaughter in this sense, and to suppose + that wherever such slaughter takes place, there must necessarily be + a deity to whom the carnage is believed by <span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page251">[pg 251]</span><a name="Pg251" id="Pg251" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> the slayers to be acceptable. Thus their + preconceived ideas may unconsciously colour and warp their + descriptions of savage rites.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Traces of an identification of the + human victim with the god in other sacrifices.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The same custom + of killing the representative of a god, of which strong traces + appear in the Khond sacrifices, may perhaps be detected in some of + the other human sacrifices described above. Thus the ashes of the + slaughtered Marimo were scattered over the fields; the blood of the + Brahman lad was put on the crop and field; the flesh of the slain + Naga was stowed in the corn-bin; and the blood of the Sioux girl + was allowed to trickle on the seed.<a id="noteref_771" name= + "noteref_771" href="#note_771"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">771</span></span></a> + Again, the identification of the victim with the corn, in other + words, the view that he is an embodiment or spirit of the corn, is + brought out in the pains which seem to be taken to secure a + physical correspondence between him and the natural object which he + embodies or represents. Thus the Mexicans killed young victims for + the young corn and old ones for the ripe corn; the Marimos + sacrifice, as <span class="tei tei-q">“seed,”</span> a short, fat + man, the shortness of his stature corresponding to that of the + young corn, his fatness to the condition which it is desired that + the crops may attain; and the Pawnees fattened their victims + probably with the same view. Again, the identification of the + victim with the corn comes out in the African custom of killing him + with spades and hoes, and the Mexican custom of grinding him, like + corn, between two stones.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">One more point + in these savage customs deserves to be noted. The Pawnee chief + devoured the heart of the Sioux girl, and the Marimos and Gonds ate + the victim's flesh. If, as we suppose, the victim was regarded as + divine, it follows that in eating his flesh his worshippers + believed themselves to be partaking of the body of their god.</p> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em"> + <a name="toc35" id="toc35"></a> <a name="pdf36" id="pdf36"></a> + + <h2 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em"> + <span style="font-size: 144%">§ 4. The Corn-spirit slain in his + Human Representatives.</span></h2> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Analogy of these barbarous rites + to the harvest customs of Europe.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The barbarous + rites just described offer analogies to the harvest customs of + Europe. Thus the fertilising virtue ascribed to the corn-spirit is + shewn equally in the savage custom of mixing the victim's blood or + ashes with the seed-corn and the European custom of mixing the + grain from <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page252">[pg + 252]</span><a name="Pg252" id="Pg252" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + the last sheaf with the young corn in spring.<a id="noteref_772" + name="noteref_772" href="#note_772"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">772</span></span></a> + Again, the identification of the person with the corn appears alike + in the savage custom of adapting the age and stature of the victim + to the age and stature, whether actual or expected, of the crop; in + the Scotch and Styrian rules that when the corn-spirit is conceived + as the Maiden the last corn shall be cut by a young maiden, but + when it is conceived as the Corn-mother it shall be cut by an old + woman;<a id="noteref_773" name="noteref_773" href= + "#note_773"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">773</span></span></a> in + the Lothringian warning given to old women to save themselves when + the Old Woman is being killed, that is, when the last corn is being + threshed;<a id="noteref_774" name="noteref_774" href= + "#note_774"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">774</span></span></a> and + in the Tyrolese expectation that if the man who gives the last + stroke at threshing is tall, the next year's corn will be tall + also.<a id="noteref_775" name="noteref_775" href= + "#note_775"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">775</span></span></a> + Further, the same identification is implied in the savage custom of + killing the representative of the corn-spirit with hoes or spades + or by grinding him between stones, and in the European custom of + pretending to kill him with the scythe or the flail. Once more the + Khond custom of pouring water on the buried flesh of the victim is + parallel to the European customs of pouring water on the personal + representative of the corn-spirit or plunging him into a + stream.<a id="noteref_776" name="noteref_776" href= + "#note_776"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">776</span></span></a> Both + the Khond and the European customs are rain-charms.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Human representative of the + corn-spirit slain on the harvest-field.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">To return now to + the Lityerses story. It has been shewn that in rude society human + beings have been commonly killed to promote the growth of the + crops. There is therefore no improbability in the supposition that + they may once have been killed for a like purpose in Phrygia and + Europe; and when Phrygian legend and European folk-custom, closely + agreeing with each other, point to the conclusion that men were so + slain, we are bound, provisionally at least, to accept the + conclusion. Further, both the Lityerses story and European + harvest-customs agree in indicating that the victim was put to + death as a representative of the corn-spirit, and this indication + is in harmony with the view which some savages appear to take of + the victim slain to make the crops flourish. On the whole, then, we + may fairly suppose that both in Phrygia and in Europe the + representative of <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page253">[pg + 253]</span><a name="Pg253" id="Pg253" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + the corn-spirit was annually killed upon the harvest-field. Grounds + have been already shewn for believing that similarly in Europe the + representative of the tree-spirit was annually slain. The proofs of + these two remarkable and closely analogous customs are entirely + independent of each other. Their coincidence seems to furnish fresh + presumption in favour of both.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The victim who represented the + corn-spirit may have been a passing stranger or the reaper, + binder, or thresher of the last corn.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">To the question, + How was the representative of the corn-spirit chosen? one answer + has been already given. Both the Lityerses story and European + folk-custom shew that passing strangers were regarded as + manifestations of the corn-spirit escaping from the cut or threshed + corn, and as such were seized and slain. But this is not the only + answer which the evidence suggests. According to the Phrygian + legend the victims of Lityerses were not simply passing strangers, + but persons whom he had vanquished in a reaping contest and + afterwards wrapt up in corn-sheaves and beheaded.<a id= + "noteref_777" name="noteref_777" href="#note_777"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">777</span></span></a> This + suggests that the representative of the corn-spirit may have been + selected by means of a competition on the harvest-field, in which + the vanquished competitor was compelled to accept the fatal honour. + The supposition is countenanced by European harvest-customs. We + have seen that in Europe there is sometimes a contest amongst the + reapers to avoid being last, and that the person who is vanquished + in this competition, that is, who cuts the last corn, is often + roughly handled. It is true we have not found that a pretence is + made of killing him; but on the other hand we have found that a + pretence is made of killing the man who gives the last stroke at + threshing, that is, who is vanquished in the threshing + contest.<a id="noteref_778" name="noteref_778" href= + "#note_778"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">778</span></span></a> Now, + since it is in the character of representative of the corn-spirit + that the thresher of the last corn is slain in mimicry, and since + the same representative character attaches (as we have seen) to the + cutter and binder as well as to the thresher of the last corn, and + since the same repugnance is evinced by harvesters to be last in + any one of these labours, we may conjecture that a pretence has + been commonly made of killing the reaper and binder as well as the + thresher of the last corn, and that in ancient times this killing + was actually <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page254">[pg + 254]</span><a name="Pg254" id="Pg254" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + carried out. This conjecture is corroborated by the common + superstition that whoever cuts the last corn must die soon.<a id= + "noteref_779" name="noteref_779" href="#note_779"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">779</span></span></a> + Sometimes it is thought that the person who binds the last sheaf on + the field will die in the course of next year.<a id="noteref_780" + name="noteref_780" href="#note_780"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">780</span></span></a> The + reason for fixing on the reaper, binder, or thresher of the last + corn as the representative of the corn-spirit may be this. The + corn-spirit is supposed to lurk as long as he can in the corn, + retreating before the reapers, the binders, and the threshers at + their work. But when he is forcibly expelled from his refuge in the + last corn cut or the last sheaf bound or the last grain threshed, + he necessarily assumes some other form than that of the corn-stalks + which had hitherto been his garment or body. And what form can the + expelled corn-spirit assume more naturally than that of the person + who stands nearest to the corn from which he (the corn-spirit) has + just been expelled? But the person in question is necessarily the + reaper, binder, or thresher of the last corn. He or she, therefore, + is seized and treated as the corn-spirit himself.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Perhaps the victim annually + sacrificed in the character of the corn-spirit may have been + the king himself.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Thus the person + who was killed on the harvest-field as the representative of the + corn-spirit may have been either a passing stranger or the + harvester who was last at reaping, binding, or threshing. But there + is a third possibility, to which ancient legend and modern + folk-custom alike point. Lityerses not only put strangers to death; + he was himself slain, and apparently in the same way as he had + slain others, namely, by being wrapt in a corn-sheaf, beheaded, and + cast into the river; and it is implied that this happened to + Lityerses on his own land.<a id="noteref_781" name="noteref_781" + href="#note_781"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">781</span></span></a> + Similarly in modern harvest-customs the pretence of killing appears + to be carried out quite as often on the person of the master + (farmer or squire) as on that of strangers.<a id="noteref_782" + name="noteref_782" href="#note_782"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">782</span></span></a> Now + when we remember that Lityerses was said to have been a son of the + King of Phrygia, and that in one account he is himself called a + king, and when we combine with this the tradition that he was put + to death, apparently as a representative of the corn-spirit, we are + led to conjecture that we have here another <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page255">[pg 255]</span><a name="Pg255" id="Pg255" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> trace of the custom of annually slaying + one of those divine or priestly kings who are known to have held + ghostly sway in many parts of Western Asia and particularly in + Phrygia. The custom appears, as we have seen,<a id="noteref_783" + name="noteref_783" href="#note_783"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">783</span></span></a> to + have been so far modified in places that the king's son was slain + in the king's stead. Of the custom thus modified the story of + Lityerses would be, in one version at least, a reminiscence.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Relation of Lityerses to Attis: + both may have been originally corn-spirits, or the one a + corn-spirit and the other a tree-spirit. Human representatives + both of Lityerses and Attis annually slain.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Turning now to + the relation of the Phrygian Lityerses to the Phrygian Attis, it + may be remembered that at Pessinus—the seat of a priestly + kingship—the high-priest appears to have been annually slain in the + character of Attis, a god of vegetation, and that Attis was + described by an ancient authority as <span class="tei tei-q">“a + reaped ear of corn.”</span><a id="noteref_784" name="noteref_784" + href="#note_784"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">784</span></span></a> Thus + Attis, as an embodiment of the corn-spirit, annually slain in the + person of his representative, might be thought to be ultimately + identical with Lityerses, the latter being simply the rustic + prototype out of which the state religion of Attis was developed. + It may have been so; but, on the other hand, the analogy of + European folk-custom warns us that amongst the same people two + distinct deities of vegetation may have their separate personal + representatives, both of whom are slain in the character of gods at + different times of the year. For in Europe, as we have seen, it + appears that one man was commonly slain in the character of the + tree-spirit in spring, and another in the character of the + corn-spirit in autumn. It may have been so in Phrygia also. Attis + was especially a tree-god, and his connexion with corn may have + been only such an extension of the power of a tree-spirit as is + indicated in customs like the Harvest-May.<a id="noteref_785" name= + "noteref_785" href="#note_785"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">785</span></span></a> + Again, the representative of Attis appears to have been slain in + spring; whereas Lityerses must have been slain in summer or autumn, + according to the time of the harvest in Phrygia.<a id="noteref_786" + name="noteref_786" href="#note_786"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">786</span></span></a> On + the whole, then, while we are not justified in regarding Lityerses + as the prototype of Attis, the two may be regarded as parallel + products of the same religious idea, and may have stood to each + other as in Europe the Old Man of harvest <span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page256">[pg 256]</span><a name="Pg256" id="Pg256" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> stands to the Wild Man, the Leaf Man, and so + forth, of spring. Both were spirits or deities of vegetation, and + the personal representatives of both were annually slain. But + whereas the Attis worship became elevated into the dignity of a + State religion and spread to Italy, the rites of Lityerses seem + never to have passed the limits of their native Phrygia, and always + retained their character of rustic ceremonies performed by peasants + on the harvest-field. At most a few villages may have clubbed + together, as amongst the Khonds, to procure a human victim to be + slain as representative of the corn-spirit for their common + benefit. Such victims may have been drawn from the families of + priestly kings or kinglets, which would account for the legendary + character of Lityerses as the son of a Phrygian king or as himself + a king. When villages did not so club together, each village or + farm may have procured its own representative of the corn-spirit by + dooming to death either a passing stranger or the harvester who + cut, bound, or threshed the last sheaf. Perhaps in the olden time + the practice of head-hunting as a means of promoting the growth of + the corn may have been as common among the rude inhabitants of + Europe and Western Asia as it still is, or was till lately, among + the primitive agricultural tribes of Assam, Burma, the Philippine + Islands, and the Indian Archipelago.<a id="noteref_787" name= + "noteref_787" href="#note_787"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">787</span></span></a> It is + hardly necessary to add that in Phrygia, as in Europe, the old + barbarous custom of killing a man on the harvest-field or the + threshing-floor had doubtless passed into a mere pretence long + before the classical era, <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page257">[pg + 257]</span><a name="Pg257" id="Pg257" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + and was probably regarded by the reapers and threshers themselves + as no more than a rough jest which the license of a harvest-home + permitted them to play off on a passing stranger, a comrade, or + even on their master himself.<a id="noteref_788" name="noteref_788" + href="#note_788"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">788</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Similarity of the Bithynian Bormus + to the Phrygian Attis.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">I have dwelt on + the Lityerses song at length because it affords so many points of + comparison with European and savage folk-custom. The other harvest + songs of Western Asia and Egypt, to which attention has been called + above,<a id="noteref_789" name="noteref_789" href= + "#note_789"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">789</span></span></a> may + now be dismissed much more briefly. The similarity of the Bithynian + Bormus<a id="noteref_790" name="noteref_790" href= + "#note_790"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">790</span></span></a> to + the Phrygian Lityerses helps to bear out the interpretation which + has been given of the latter. Bormus, whose death or rather + disappearance was annually mourned by the reapers in a plaintive + song, was, like Lityerses, a king's son or at least the son of a + wealthy and distinguished man. The reapers whom he watched were at + work on his own fields, and he disappeared in going to fetch water + for them; according to one version of the story he was carried off + by the nymphs, doubtless the nymphs of the spring or pool or river + whither he went to draw water.<a id="noteref_791" name= + "noteref_791" href="#note_791"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">791</span></span></a> + Viewed in the light of the Lityerses story and of European + folk-custom, this disappearance of Bormus may be a reminiscence of + the custom of binding the farmer himself in a corn-sheaf and + throwing him into the water. The mournful strain which the reapers + sang was probably a lamentation over the death of the corn-spirit, + slain either in the cut corn or in the person of a human + representative; and the call which they addressed to him may have + been a prayer that he might return in fresh vigour next year.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The Phoenician Linus song at the + vintage. Linus identified with Adonis, who may have been + annually represented by a human victim.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The Phoenician + Linus song was sung at the vintage, at least in the west of Asia + Minor, as we learn from Homer; and this, combined with the legend + of Syleus, suggests that in ancient times passing strangers were + handled by vintagers and vine-diggers in much the same way as they + are said to have been handled by the reaper Lityerses. The Lydian + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page258">[pg 258]</span><a name= + "Pg258" id="Pg258" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> Syleus, so ran the + legend, compelled passers-by to dig for him in his vineyard, till + Hercules came and killed him and dug up his vines by the + roots.<a id="noteref_792" name="noteref_792" href= + "#note_792"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">792</span></span></a> This + seems to be the outline of a legend like that of Lityerses; but + neither ancient writers nor modern folk-custom enable us to fill in + the details.<a id="noteref_793" name="noteref_793" href= + "#note_793"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">793</span></span></a> But, + further, the Linus song was probably sung also by Phoenician + reapers, for Herodotus compares it to the Maneros song, which, as + we have seen, was a lament raised by Egyptian reapers over the cut + corn. Further, Linus was identified with Adonis, and Adonis has + some claims to be regarded as especially a corn-deity.<a id= + "noteref_794" name="noteref_794" href="#note_794"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">794</span></span></a> Thus + the Linus lament, as sung at harvest, would be identical with the + Adonis lament; each would be the lamentation raised by reapers over + the dead spirit of the corn. But whereas Adonis, like Attis, grew + into a stately figure of mythology, adored and mourned in splendid + cities far beyond the limits of his Phoenician home, Linus appears + to have remained a simple ditty sung by reapers and vintagers among + the corn-sheaves and the vines. The analogy of Lityerses and of + folk-custom, both European and savage, suggests that in Phoenicia + the slain corn-spirit—the dead Adonis—may formerly have been + represented by a human victim; and this suggestion is possibly + supported by the Harran legend that Tammuz (Adonis) was slain by + his cruel lord, who ground his bones in a mill and scattered them + to the wind. For in Mexico, as we have seen, the human victim at + harvest was crushed between two stones; and both in Africa and + India the ashes or other remains of the victim were scattered over + the fields.<a id="noteref_795" name="noteref_795" href= + "#note_795"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">795</span></span></a> But + the Harran legend may be only a mythical way of expressing the + grinding of corn in the mill and the scattering of the seed. It + seems worth suggesting that the mock king who was annually killed + at the Babylonian festival of the Sacaea on the sixteenth day of + the month Lous may have represented Tammuz himself. For the + historian Berosus, who records the festival and its date, probably + used the Macedonian <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page259">[pg + 259]</span><a name="Pg259" id="Pg259" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + calendar, since he dedicated his history to Antiochus Soter; and in + his day the Macedonian month Lous appears to have corresponded to + the Babylonian month Tammuz.<a id="noteref_796" name="noteref_796" + href="#note_796"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">796</span></span></a> If + this conjecture is right, the view that the mock king at the Sacaea + was slain in the character of a god would be established. But to + this point we shall return later on.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The corn-spirit in Egypt (Osiris) + annually represented by a human victim.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">There is a good + deal more evidence that in Egypt the slain corn-spirit—the dead + Osiris—was represented by a human victim, whom the reapers slew on + the harvest-field, mourning his death in a dirge, to which the + Greeks, through a verbal misunderstanding, gave the name of + Maneros.<a id="noteref_797" name="noteref_797" href= + "#note_797"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">797</span></span></a> For + the legend of Busiris seems to preserve a reminiscence of human + sacrifices once offered by the Egyptians in connexion with the + worship of Osiris. Busiris was said to have been an Egyptian king + who sacrificed all strangers on the altar of Zeus. The origin of + the custom was traced to a dearth which afflicted the land of Egypt + for nine years. A Cyprian seer informed Busiris that the dearth + would cease if a man were annually sacrificed to Zeus. So Busiris + instituted the sacrifice. But when Hercules came to Egypt, and was + being dragged to the altar to be sacrificed, he burst his bonds and + slew Busiris and his son.<a id="noteref_798" name="noteref_798" + href="#note_798"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">798</span></span></a> Here + then is a legend that in Egypt a human victim was annually + sacrificed to prevent <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page260">[pg + 260]</span><a name="Pg260" id="Pg260" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + the failure of the crops, and a belief is implied that an omission + of the sacrifice would have entailed a recurrence of that + infertility which it was the object of the sacrifice to prevent. So + the Pawnees, as we have seen, believed that an omission of the + human sacrifice at planting would have been followed by a total + failure of their crops. The name Busiris was in reality the name of + a city, <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">pe-Asar</span></span>, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“the house of Osiris,”</span><a id="noteref_799" name= + "noteref_799" href="#note_799"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">799</span></span></a> the + city being so called because it contained the grave of Osiris. + Indeed some high modern authorities believe that Busiris was the + original home of Osiris, from which his worship spread to other + parts of Egypt.<a id="noteref_800" name="noteref_800" href= + "#note_800"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">800</span></span></a> The + human sacrifices were said to have been offered at his grave, and + the victims were red-haired men, whose ashes were scattered abroad + by means of winnowing-fans.<a id="noteref_801" name="noteref_801" + href="#note_801"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">801</span></span></a> This + tradition of human sacrifices offered at the tomb of Osiris is + confirmed by the evidence of the monuments; for <span class= + "tei tei-q">“we find in the temple of Dendereh a human figure with + a hare's head and pierced with knives, tied to a stake before + Osiris Khenti-Amentiu, and Horus is shown in a Ptolemaic sculpture + at Karnak killing a bound hare-headed figure before the bier of + Osiris, who is represented in the form of Harpocrates. That these + figures are really human beings with the head of an animal fastened + on is proved by another sculpture at Dendereh, where a kneeling man + has the hawk's head and wings over his head and shoulders, and in + another place a priest has the jackal's head on his shoulders, his + own head appearing through the disguise. Besides, Diodorus tells us + that the Egyptian kings in former times had worn on their heads the + fore-part of a lion, or of a bull, or of a dragon, <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page261">[pg 261]</span><a name="Pg261" id="Pg261" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> showing that this method of disguise or + transformation was a well-known custom.”</span><a id="noteref_802" + name="noteref_802" href="#note_802"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">802</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Assimilation of human victims to + the corn which they represent.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In the light of + the foregoing discussion the Egyptian tradition of Busiris admits + of a consistent and fairly probable explanation. Osiris, the + corn-spirit, was annually represented at harvest by a stranger, + whose red hair made him a suitable representative of the ripe corn. + This man, in his representative character, was slain on the + harvest-field, and mourned by the reapers, who prayed at the same + time that the corn-spirit might revive and return (<span class= + "tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">mââ-ne-rha</span></span>, Maneros) with + renewed vigour in the following year. Finally, the victim, or some + part of him, was burned, and the ashes scattered by winnowing-fans + over the fields to fertilise them. Here the choice of the victim on + the ground of his resemblance to the corn which he was to represent + agrees with the Mexican and African customs already + described.<a id="noteref_803" name="noteref_803" href= + "#note_803"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">803</span></span></a> + Similarly the woman who died in the character of the Corn-mother at + the Mexican midsummer sacrifice had her face painted red and yellow + in token of the colours of the corn, and she wore a pasteboard + mitre surmounted by waving plumes in imitation of the tassel of the + maize.<a id="noteref_804" name="noteref_804" href= + "#note_804"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">804</span></span></a> On + the other hand, at the festival of the Goddess of the White Maize + the Mexicans sacrificed lepers.<a id="noteref_805" name= + "noteref_805" href="#note_805"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">805</span></span></a> The + Romans sacrificed red-haired puppies in spring to avert the + supposed blighting influence of the Dog-star, believing that the + crops would thus grow ripe and ruddy.<a id="noteref_806" name= + "noteref_806" href="#note_806"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">806</span></span></a> The + heathen of Harran offered to the sun, moon, and planets human + victims who were chosen on the ground of their supposed resemblance + to the heavenly bodies to which they were sacrificed; for example, + the priests, clothed in red and smeared with blood, offered a + red-haired, red-cheeked man to <span class="tei tei-q">“the red + planet <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page262">[pg + 262]</span><a name="Pg262" id="Pg262" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + Mars”</span> in a temple which was painted red and draped with red + hangings.<a id="noteref_807" name="noteref_807" href= + "#note_807"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">807</span></span></a> These + and the like cases of assimilating the victim to the god, or to the + natural phenomenon which he represents, are based ultimately on the + principle of homoeopathic or imitative magic, the notion being that + the object aimed at will be most readily attained by means of a + sacrifice which resembles the effect that it is designed to bring + about.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Remains of victims scattered over + the fields to fertilise them.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Again, the + scattering of the Egyptian victim's ashes over the fields resembles + the Marimo and Khond custom,<a id="noteref_808" name="noteref_808" + href="#note_808"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">808</span></span></a> and + the use of winnowing-fans for the purpose is another hint of his + identification with the corn. So in Vendée a pretence is made of + threshing and winnowing the farmer's wife, regarded as an + embodiment of the corn-spirit; in Mexico the victim was ground + between stones; and in Africa he was slain with spades and + hoes.<a id="noteref_809" name="noteref_809" href= + "#note_809"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">809</span></span></a> The + story that the fragments of Osiris's body were scattered up and + down the land, and buried by Isis on the spots where they + lay,<a id="noteref_810" name="noteref_810" href= + "#note_810"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">810</span></span></a> may + very well be a reminiscence of a custom, like that observed by the + Khonds, of dividing the human victim in pieces and burying the + pieces, often at intervals of many miles from each other, in the + fields.<a id="noteref_811" name="noteref_811" href= + "#note_811"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">811</span></span></a> + However, it is possible that the story of the dismemberment of + Osiris, like the similar story told of Tammuz, may have been simply + a mythical expression for the scattering of the seed. Once more, + the legend that the body of Osiris enclosed in a coffer was thrown + by Typhon into the Nile, perhaps points to a custom of casting the + body of the victim, or at least a portion of it, into the Nile as a + rain-charm, or rather to make the river rise. For a similar purpose + Phrygian reapers seem to have flung the headless bodies of their + victims, wrapt in corn-sheaves, into a river, and the Khonds poured + water on the buried flesh of the human victim. Probably when Osiris + ceased to be represented by a human victim, an image of him was + annually thrown into the Nile, just as the effigy of his Syrian + counterpart, <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page263">[pg + 263]</span><a name="Pg263" id="Pg263" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + Adonis, used to be cast into the sea at Alexandria. Or water may + have been simply poured over it, as on the monument already + mentioned<a id="noteref_812" name="noteref_812" href= + "#note_812"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">812</span></span></a> a + priest is seen pouring water over the body of Osiris, from which + corn-stalks are sprouting. The accompanying legend, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“This is Osiris of the mysteries, who springs from the + returning waters,”</span> bears out the view that at the mysteries + of Osiris a charm to make rain fall or the river rise was regularly + wrought by pouring water on his effigy or flinging it into the + Nile.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The black and green Osiris like + the black and green Demeter.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It may be + objected that the red-haired victims were slain as representatives, + not of Osiris, but of his enemy Typhon; for the victims were called + Typhonian, and red was the colour of Typhon, black the colour of + Osiris.<a id="noteref_813" name="noteref_813" href= + "#note_813"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">813</span></span></a> The + answer to this objection must be reserved for the present. Meantime + it may be pointed out that if Osiris is often represented on the + monuments as black, he is still more commonly depicted as + green,<a id="noteref_814" name="noteref_814" href= + "#note_814"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">814</span></span></a> + appropriately enough for a corn-god, who may be conceived as black + while the seed is under ground, but as green after it has sprouted. + So the Greeks recognised both a Green and a Black Demeter,<a id= + "noteref_815" name="noteref_815" href="#note_815"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">815</span></span></a> and + sacrificed to the Green Demeter in spring with mirth and + gladness.<a id="noteref_816" name="noteref_816" href= + "#note_816"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">816</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The key to the mysteries of Osiris + furnished by the lamentations of the reapers for the annual + death of the corn-spirit.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Thus, if I am + right, the key to the mysteries of Osiris is furnished by the + melancholy cry of the Egyptian reapers, which down to Roman times + could be heard year after year sounding across the fields, + announcing the death of the corn-spirit, the rustic prototype of + Osiris. Similar cries, as we have seen, were also heard on all the + harvest-fields of Western Asia. By the ancients they are spoken of + as songs; but to judge from the analysis of the names Linus and + Maneros, they probably consisted only of a few words uttered in a + prolonged musical note which could be heard for a great distance. + Such sonorous and long-drawn cries, raised by a number of strong + voices in concert, must have had a striking effect, and could + hardly fail to arrest the attention <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page264">[pg 264]</span><a name="Pg264" id="Pg264" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> of any wayfarer who happened to be within + hearing. The sounds, repeated again and again, could probably be + distinguished with tolerable ease even at a distance; but to a + Greek traveller in Asia or Egypt the foreign words would commonly + convey no meaning, and he might take them, not unnaturally, for the + name of some one (Maneros, Linus, Lityerses, Bormus) upon whom the + reapers were calling. And if his journey led him through more + countries than one, as Bithynia and Phrygia, or Phoenicia and + Egypt, while the corn was being reaped, he would have an + opportunity of comparing the various harvest cries of the different + peoples. Thus we can readily understand why these harvest cries + were so often noted and compared with each other by the Greeks. + Whereas, if they had been regular songs, they could not have been + heard at such distances, and therefore could not have attracted the + attention of so many travellers; and, moreover, even if the + wayfarer were within hearing of them, he could not so easily have + picked out the words.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Crying</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 80%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 80%">the neck</span><span style= + "font-size: 80%">”</span></span><span style="font-size: 80%">at + harvest in Devonshire.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Down to recent + times Devonshire reapers uttered cries of the same sort, and + performed on the field a ceremony exactly analogous to that in + which, if I am not mistaken, the rites of Osiris originated. The + cry and the ceremony are thus described by an observer who wrote in + the first half of the nineteenth century. <span class= + "tei tei-q">“After the wheat is all cut, on most farms in the north + of Devon, the harvest people have a custom of <span class= + "tei tei-q">‘crying the neck.’</span> I believe that this practice + is seldom omitted on any large farm in that part of the country. It + is done in this way. An old man, or some one else well acquainted + with the ceremonies used on the occasion (when the labourers are + reaping the last field of wheat), goes round to the shocks and + sheaves, and picks out a little bundle of all the best ears he can + find; this bundle he ties up very neat and trim, and plats and + arranges the straws very tastefully. This is called <span class= + "tei tei-q">‘the neck’</span> of wheat, or wheaten-ears. After the + field is cut out, and the pitcher once more circulated, the + reapers, binders, and the women stand round in a circle. The person + with <span class="tei tei-q">‘the neck’</span> stands in the + centre, grasping it with both his hands. He first stoops and holds + it near the ground, and all the men forming the ring take off their + hats, stooping and holding them <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page265">[pg 265]</span><a name="Pg265" id="Pg265" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> with both hands towards the ground. They then + all begin at once in a very prolonged and harmonious tone to cry + <span class="tei tei-q">‘The neck!’</span> at the same time slowly + raising themselves upright, and elevating their arms and hats above + their heads; the person with <span class="tei tei-q">‘the + neck’</span> also raising it on high. This is done three times. + They then change their cry to <span class="tei tei-q">‘Wee + yen!’</span>—<span class="tei tei-q">‘Way yen!’</span>—which they + sound in the same prolonged and slow manner as before, with + singular harmony and effect, three times. This last cry is + accompanied by the same movements of the body and arms as in crying + <span class="tei tei-q">‘the neck.’</span>... After having thus + repeated <span class="tei tei-q">‘the neck’</span> three times, and + <span class="tei tei-q">‘wee yen,’</span> or <span class= + "tei tei-q">‘way yen’</span> as often, they all burst out into a + kind of loud and joyous laugh, flinging up their hats and caps into + the air, capering about and perhaps kissing the girls. One of them + then gets 'the neck' and runs as hard as he can down to the + farmhouse, where the dairymaid, or one of the young female + domestics, stands at the door prepared with a pail of water. If he + who holds <span class="tei tei-q">‘the neck’</span> can manage to + get into the house, in any way unseen, or openly, by any other way + than the door at which the girl stands with the pail of water, then + he may lawfully kiss her; but, if otherwise, he is regularly soused + with the contents of the bucket. On a fine still autumn evening the + <span class="tei tei-q">‘crying of the neck’</span> has a wonderful + effect at a distance, far finer than that of the Turkish muezzin, + which Lord Byron eulogises so much, and which he says is preferable + to all the bells in Christendom. I have once or twice heard upwards + of twenty men cry it, and sometimes joined by an equal number of + female voices. About three years back, on some high grounds, where + our people were harvesting, I heard six or seven <span class= + "tei tei-q">‘necks’</span> cried in one night, although I know that + some of them were four miles off. They are heard through the quiet + evening air at a considerable distance sometimes.”</span><a id= + "noteref_817" name="noteref_817" href="#note_817"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">817</span></span></a> + Again, Mrs. Bray tells how, travelling in Devonshire, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“she saw a party of reapers standing in a circle on a + rising ground, holding their sickles aloft. One in the middle held + up some ears of corn tied together with flowers, and the party + shouted three times (what she writes as) <span class= + "tei tei-q">‘Arnack, arnack, arnack, we <span class= + "tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">haven</span></span>, we <span class= + "tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">haven</span></span>, we <span class= + "tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">haven</span></span>.’</span> They went + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page266">[pg 266]</span><a name= + "Pg266" id="Pg266" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> home, accompanied by + women and children carrying boughs of flowers, shouting and + singing. The manservant who attended Mrs. Bray said <span class= + "tei tei-q">‘it was only the people making their games, as they + always did, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">to the spirit of + harvest</span></em>.’</span> ”</span><a id="noteref_818" name= + "noteref_818" href="#note_818"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">818</span></span></a> Here, + as Miss Burne remarks, <span class="tei tei-q">“ <span class= + "tei tei-q">‘arnack, we haven!’</span> is obviously in the Devon + dialect, <span class="tei tei-q">‘a neck (or nack)! we have + un!’</span> ”</span> <span class="tei tei-q">“The neck”</span> is + generally hung up in the farmhouse, where it sometimes remains for + two or three years.<a id="noteref_819" name="noteref_819" href= + "#note_819"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">819</span></span></a> A + similar custom is still observed in some parts of Cornwall, as I + was told by my lamented friend J. H. Middleton. <span class= + "tei tei-q">“The last sheaf is decked with ribbons. Two + strong-voiced men are chosen and placed (one with the sheaf) on + opposite sides of a valley. One shouts, <span class= + "tei tei-q">‘I've gotten it.’</span> The other shouts, <span class= + "tei tei-q">‘What hast gotten?’</span> The first answers, + <span class="tei tei-q">‘I'se gotten the + neck.’</span> ”</span><a id="noteref_820" name="noteref_820" href= + "#note_820"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">820</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Other accounts of cutting and + crying</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 80%">“</span><span style="font-size: 80%">the + neck</span><span style= + "font-size: 80%">”</span></span><span style="font-size: 80%">in + Devonshire.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Another account + of this old custom, written at Truro in 1839, runs thus: + <span class="tei tei-q">“Now, when all the corn was cut at Heligan, + the farming men and maidens come in front of the house, and bring + with them a small sheaf of corn, the last that has been cut, and + this is adorned with ribbons and flowers, and one part is tied + quite tight, so as to look like a neck. Then they cry out + <span class="tei tei-q">‘Our (my) side, my side,’</span> as loud as + they can; then the dairymaid gives the neck to the head + farming-man. He takes it, and says, very loudly three times, + <span class="tei tei-q">‘I have him, I have him, I have + him.’</span> Then another farming-man shouts very loudly, + <span class="tei tei-q">‘What have ye? what have ye? what have + ye?’</span> Then the first says, <span class="tei tei-q">‘A neck, a + neck, a neck.’</span> And when he has said this, all the people + make a very great shouting. This they do three times, and after one + famous shout go away and eat supper, and dance, and sing + songs.”</span><a id="noteref_821" name="noteref_821" href= + "#note_821"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">821</span></span></a> + According to another account, <span class="tei tei-q">“all went out + to the field when the last corn was cut, the <span class= + "tei tei-q">‘neck’</span> was tied with ribbons and plaited, and + they danced round it, and carried it to the great kitchen, where + by-and-by the supper <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page267">[pg + 267]</span><a name="Pg267" id="Pg267" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + was. The words were as given in the previous account, and + <span class="tei tei-q">‘Hip, hip, hack, heck, I have 'ee, I have + 'ee, I have 'ee.’</span> It was hung up in the hall.”</span> + Another account relates that one of the men rushed from the field + with the last sheaf, while the rest pursued him with vessels of + water, which they tried to throw over the sheaf before it could be + brought into the barn.<a id="noteref_822" name="noteref_822" href= + "#note_822"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">822</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Cutting</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 80%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 80%">the neck</span><span style= + "font-size: 80%">”</span></span><span style="font-size: 80%">in + Pembrokeshire.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Similar customs + appear to have been formerly observed in Pembrokeshire, as appears + from the following account, in which, however, nothing is said of + the sonorous cries raised by the reapers when their work was done: + <span class="tei tei-q">“At harvest-time, in South Pembrokeshire, + the last ears of corn left standing in the field were tied + together, and the harvesters then tried to cut this neck by + throwing their hatchets at it. What happened afterwards appears to + have varied somewhat. I have been told by one old man that the one + who got possession of the neck would carry it over into some + neighbouring field, leave it there, and take to his heels as fast + as he could; for, if caught, he had a rough time of it. The men who + caught him would shut him up in a barn without food, or belabour + him soundly, or perhaps shoe him, as it was called, beating the + soles of his feet with rods—a very severe and much-dreaded + punishment. On my grandfather's farm the man used to make for the + house as fast as possible, and try to carry in the neck. The maids + were on the look-out for him, and did their best to drench him with + water. If they succeeded, they got the present of half-a-crown, + which my grandfather always gave, and which was considered a very + liberal present indeed. If the man was successful in dodging the + maids, and getting the neck into the house without receiving the + wetting, the half-crown became his. The neck was then hung up, and + kept until the following year, at any rate, like the bunches of + flowers or boughs gathered at the St. Jean, in the south of France. + Sometimes the necks of many successive years were to be found + hanging up together. In these two ways of disposing of the neck one + sees the embodiment, no doubt, of the two ways of looking at the + corn-spirit, as good (to be kept) or as bad (to be passed on to the + neighbour).”</span><a id="noteref_823" name="noteref_823" href= + "#note_823"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">823</span></span></a></p><span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page268">[pg 268]</span><a name="Pg268" id="Pg268" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Cutting</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 80%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 80%">the neck</span><span style= + "font-size: 80%">”</span></span><span style="font-size: 80%">in + Shropshire. Why the last corn cut is called</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 80%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 80%">the neck.</span><span style= + "font-size: 80%">”</span></span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In the foregoing + customs a particular bunch of ears, generally the last left + standing,<a id="noteref_824" name="noteref_824" href= + "#note_824"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">824</span></span></a> is + conceived as the neck of the corn-spirit, who is consequently + beheaded when the bunch is cut down. Similarly in Shropshire the + name <span class="tei tei-q">“neck,”</span> or <span class= + "tei tei-q">“the gander's neck,”</span> used to be commonly given + to the last handful of ears left standing in the middle of the + field when all the rest of the corn was cut. It was plaited + together, and the reapers, standing ten or twenty paces off, threw + their sickles at it. Whoever cut it through was said to have cut + off the gander's neck. The <span class="tei tei-q">“neck”</span> + was taken to the farmer's wife, who was supposed to keep it in the + house for good luck till the next harvest came round.<a id= + "noteref_825" name="noteref_825" href="#note_825"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">825</span></span></a> Near + Trèves, the man who reaps the last standing corn <span class= + "tei tei-q">“cuts the goat's neck off.”</span><a id="noteref_826" + name="noteref_826" href="#note_826"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">826</span></span></a> At + Faslane, on the Gareloch (Dumbartonshire), the last handful of + standing corn was sometimes called the <span class= + "tei tei-q">“head.”</span><a id="noteref_827" name="noteref_827" + href="#note_827"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">827</span></span></a> At + Aurich, in East Friesland, the man who reaps the last corn + <span class="tei tei-q">“cuts the hare's tail off.”</span><a id= + "noteref_828" name="noteref_828" href="#note_828"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">828</span></span></a> In + mowing down the last corner of a field French reapers sometimes + call out, <span class="tei tei-q">“We have the cat by the + tail.”</span><a id="noteref_829" name="noteref_829" href= + "#note_829"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">829</span></span></a> In + Bresse (Bourgogne) the last sheaf represented the fox. Beside it a + score of ears were left standing to form the tail, and each reaper, + going back some paces, threw his sickle at it. He who succeeded in + severing it <span class="tei tei-q">“cut off the fox's + tail,”</span> and a cry of <span class="tei tei-q">“<span class= + "tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">You cou + cou!</span></span>”</span> was raised in his honour.<a id= + "noteref_830" name="noteref_830" href="#note_830"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">830</span></span></a> These + examples leave no room to doubt the meaning of the Devonshire and + Cornish expression <span class="tei tei-q">“the neck,”</span> as + applied to the last sheaf. The corn-spirit is conceived in human or + animal form, and the last standing corn is part of its body—its + neck, its head, or its tail. Sometimes, as we have seen, the last + corn is regarded as the navel-string.<a id="noteref_831" name= + "noteref_831" href="#note_831"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">831</span></span></a> + Lastly, the Devonshire custom of drenching with water the person + who brings in <span class="tei tei-q">“the neck”</span> is a + rain-charm, such as we have had many examples of. Its parallel + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page269">[pg 269]</span><a name= + "Pg269" id="Pg269" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> in the mysteries of + Osiris was the custom of pouring water on the image of Osiris or on + the person who represented him.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Cries of the reapers in + Germany.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In Germany cries + of <span lang="de" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang= + "de"><span style="font-style: italic">Waul!</span></span> or + <span lang="de" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="de"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Wol!</span></span> or <span lang="de" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="de"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Wôld!</span></span> are sometimes raised by + the reapers at cutting the last corn. Thus in some places the last + patch of standing rye was called the <span lang="de" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="de"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Waul</span></span>-rye; a stick decked with + flowers was inserted in it, and the ears were fastened to the + stick. Then all the reapers took off their hats and cried thrice, + <span class="tei tei-q">“<span lang="de" class="tei tei-foreign" + xml:lang="de"><span style="font-style: italic">Waul!</span></span> + <span lang="de" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="de"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Waul!</span></span> <span lang="de" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="de"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Waul!</span></span>”</span> Sometimes they + accompanied the cry by clashing with their whetstones on their + scythes.<a id="noteref_832" name="noteref_832" href= + "#note_832"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">832</span></span></a></p> + </div> + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page270">[pg 270]</span><a name= + "Pg270" id="Pg270" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + <hr class="page" /> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> + <a name="toc37" id="toc37"></a> <a name="pdf38" id="pdf38"></a> + + <h1 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"> + <span style="font-size: 173%">Chapter VIII. The Corn-Spirit as an + Animal.</span></h1> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em"> + <a name="toc39" id="toc39"></a> <a name="pdf40" id="pdf40"></a> + + <h2 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em"> + <span style="font-size: 144%">§ 1. Animal Embodiments of the + Corn-spirit.</span></h2> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The corn-spirit as an + animal.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In some of the + examples which I have cited to establish the meaning of the term + <span class="tei tei-q">“neck”</span> as applied to the last sheaf, + the corn-spirit appears in animal form as a gander, a goat, a hare, + a cat, and a fox. This introduces us to a new aspect of the + corn-spirit, which we must now examine. By doing so we shall not + only have fresh examples of killing the god, but may hope also to + clear up some points which remain obscure in the myths and worship + of Adonis, Attis, Osiris, Dionysus, Demeter, and Virbius.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The corn-spirit in the form of an + animal is supposed to be present in the last corn cut or + threshed, and to be caught or killed by the reaper or + thresher.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Amongst the many + animals whose forms the corn-spirit is supposed to take are the + wolf, dog, hare, fox, cock, goose, quail, cat, goat, cow (ox, + bull), pig, and horse. In one or other of these shapes the + corn-spirit is often believed to be present in the corn, and to be + caught or killed in the last sheaf. As the corn is being cut the + animal flees before the reapers, and if a reaper is taken ill on + the field, he is supposed to have stumbled unwittingly on the + corn-spirit, who has thus punished the profane intruder. It is said + <span class="tei tei-q">“the Rye-wolf has got hold of him,”</span> + <span class="tei tei-q">“the Harvest-goat has given him a + push.”</span> The person who cuts the last corn or binds the last + sheaf gets the name of the animal, as the Rye-wolf, the Rye-sow, + the Oats-goat, and so forth, and retains the name sometimes for a + year. Also the animal is frequently represented by a puppet made + out of the last sheaf or of wood, flowers, and so on, which is + carried home amid rejoicings on the last harvest-waggon. Even where + the last sheaf is not made up in animal shape, it is often called + the Rye-wolf, the Hare, Goat, and so forth. <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page271">[pg 271]</span><a name="Pg271" id="Pg271" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> Generally each kind of crop is supposed + to have its special animal, which is caught in the last sheaf, and + called the Rye-wolf, the Barley-wolf, the Oats-wolf, the Pea-wolf, + or the Potato-wolf, according to the crop; but sometimes the figure + of the animal is only made up once for all at getting in the last + crop of the whole harvest. Sometimes the creature is believed to be + killed by the last stroke of the sickle or scythe. But oftener it + is thought to live so long as there is corn still unthreshed, and + to be caught in the last sheaf threshed. Hence the man who gives + the last stroke with the flail is told that he has got the + Corn-sow, the Threshing-dog, or the like. When the threshing is + finished, a puppet is made in the form of the animal, and this is + carried by the thresher of the last sheaf to a neighbouring farm, + where the threshing is still going on. This again shews that the + corn-spirit is believed to live wherever the corn is still being + threshed. Sometimes the thresher of the last sheaf himself + represents the animal; and if the people of the next farm, who are + still threshing, catch him, they treat him like the animal he + represents, by shutting him up in the pig-sty, calling him with the + cries commonly addressed to pigs, and so forth.<a id="noteref_833" + name="noteref_833" href="#note_833"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">833</span></span></a> These + general statements will now be illustrated by examples.</p> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em"> + <a name="toc41" id="toc41"></a> <a name="pdf42" id="pdf42"></a> + + <h2 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em"> + <span style="font-size: 144%">§ 2. The Corn-spirit as a Wolf or a + Dog.</span></h2> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The corn-spirit as a wolf or a + dog, supposed to run through the corn.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">We begin with + the corn-spirit conceived as a wolf or a dog. This conception is + common in France, Germany, and Slavonic countries. Thus, when the + wind sets the corn in wave-like motion the peasants often say, + <span class="tei tei-q">“The Wolf is going over, or through, the + corn,”</span> <span class="tei tei-q">“the Rye-wolf is rushing over + the field,”</span> <span class="tei tei-q">“the Wolf is in the + corn,”</span> <span class="tei tei-q">“the mad Dog is in the + corn,”</span> <span class="tei tei-q">“the big Dog is + there.”</span><a id="noteref_834" name="noteref_834" href= + "#note_834"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">834</span></span></a> When + children wish to go into the corn-fields to pluck ears <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page272">[pg 272]</span><a name="Pg272" id="Pg272" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> or gather the blue corn-flowers, they + are warned not to do so, for <span class="tei tei-q">“the big Dog + sits in the corn,”</span> or <span class="tei tei-q">“the Wolf sits + in the corn, and will tear you in pieces,”</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q">“the Wolf will eat you.”</span> The wolf against whom + the children are warned is not a common wolf, for he is often + spoken of as the Corn-wolf, Rye-wolf, or the like; thus they say, + <span class="tei tei-q">“The Rye-wolf will come and eat you up, + children,”</span> <span class="tei tei-q">“the Rye-wolf will carry + you off,”</span> and so forth.<a id="noteref_835" name= + "noteref_835" href="#note_835"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">835</span></span></a> Still + he has all the outward appearance of a wolf. For in the + neighbourhood of Feilenhof (East Prussia), when a wolf was seen + running through a field, the peasants used to watch whether he + carried his tail in the air or dragged it on the ground. If he + dragged it on the ground, they went after him, and thanked him for + bringing them a blessing, and even set tit-bits before him. But if + he carried his tail high, they cursed him and tried to kill him. + Here the wolf is the corn-spirit whose fertilising power is in his + tail.<a id="noteref_836" name="noteref_836" href= + "#note_836"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">836</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The corn-spirit as a dog at + reaping and threshing.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Both dog and + wolf appear as embodiments of the corn-spirit in harvest-customs. + Thus in some parts of Silesia the person who cuts or binds the last + sheaf is called the Wheat-dog or the Peas-pug.<a id="noteref_837" + name="noteref_837" href="#note_837"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">837</span></span></a> But + it is in the harvest-customs of the north-east of France that the + idea of the Corn-dog comes out most clearly. Thus when a harvester, + through sickness, weariness, or laziness, cannot or will not keep + up with the reaper in front of him, they say, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“The White Dog passed near him,”</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q">“he has the White Bitch,”</span> or <span class= + "tei tei-q">“the White Bitch has bitten him.”</span><a id= + "noteref_838" name="noteref_838" href="#note_838"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">838</span></span></a> In + the Vosges the Harvest-May is called the <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Dog of the harvest,”</span><a id="noteref_839" name= + "noteref_839" href="#note_839"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">839</span></span></a> and + the person who cuts the last handful of hay or wheat is said to + <span class="tei tei-q">“kill the Dog.”</span><a id="noteref_840" + name="noteref_840" href="#note_840"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">840</span></span></a> About + Lons-le-Saulnier, in the Jura, the last sheaf is called the Bitch. + In the neighbourhood of Verdun the regular expression for finishing + the reaping is, <span class="tei tei-q">“They are going to kill the + Dog”</span>; and at Epinal they say, according to the crop, + <span class="tei tei-q">“We will kill the Wheat-dog, or the + Rye-dog, or the <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page273">[pg + 273]</span><a name="Pg273" id="Pg273" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + Potato-dog.”</span><a id="noteref_841" name="noteref_841" href= + "#note_841"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">841</span></span></a> In + Lorraine it is said of the man who cuts the last corn, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“He is killing the Dog of the harvest.”</span><a id= + "noteref_842" name="noteref_842" href="#note_842"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">842</span></span></a> At + Dux, in the Tyrol, the man who gives the last stroke at threshing + is said to <span class="tei tei-q">“strike down the + Dog”</span>;<a id="noteref_843" name="noteref_843" href= + "#note_843"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">843</span></span></a> and + at Ahnebergen, near Stade, he is called, according to the crop, + Corn-pug, Rye-pug, Wheat-pug.<a id="noteref_844" name="noteref_844" + href="#note_844"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">844</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The corn-spirit as a wolf at + reaping.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">So with the + wolf. In Silesia, when the reapers gather round the last patch of + standing corn to reap it they are said to be about <span class= + "tei tei-q">“to catch the Wolf.”</span><a id="noteref_845" name= + "noteref_845" href="#note_845"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">845</span></span></a> In + various parts of Mecklenburg, where the belief in the Corn-wolf is + particularly prevalent, every one fears to cut the last corn, + because they say that the Wolf is sitting in it; hence every reaper + exerts himself to the utmost in order not to be the last, and every + woman similarly fears to bind the last sheaf because <span class= + "tei tei-q">“the Wolf is in it.”</span> So both among the reapers + and the binders there is a competition not to be the last to + finish.<a id="noteref_846" name="noteref_846" href= + "#note_846"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">846</span></span></a> And + in Germany generally it appears to be a common saying that + <span class="tei tei-q">“the Wolf sits in the last + sheaf.”</span><a id="noteref_847" name="noteref_847" href= + "#note_847"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">847</span></span></a> In + some places they call out to the reaper, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Beware of the Wolf”</span>; or they say, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“He is chasing the Wolf out of the corn.”</span><a id= + "noteref_848" name="noteref_848" href="#note_848"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">848</span></span></a> In + Mecklenburg the last bunch of standing corn is itself commonly + called the Wolf, and the man who reaps it <span class= + "tei tei-q">“has the Wolf,”</span> the animal being described as + the Rye-wolf, the Wheat-wolf, the Barley-wolf, and so on according + to the particular crop. The reaper of the last corn is himself + called Wolf or the Rye-wolf, if the crop is rye, and in many parts + of Mecklenburg he has to support the character by pretending to + bite the other harvesters or by howling like a wolf.<a id= + "noteref_849" name="noteref_849" href="#note_849"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">849</span></span></a> The + last sheaf of corn is also called the Wolf or the Rye-wolf or the + Oats-wolf according to the crop, and of the woman who binds it they + say, <span class="tei tei-q">“The Wolf is biting her,”</span> + <span class="tei tei-q">“She has the Wolf,”</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q">“She must fetch the Wolf”</span> (out of the corn). + Moreover, she <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page274">[pg + 274]</span><a name="Pg274" id="Pg274" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + herself is called Wolf; they cry out to her, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Thou art the Wolf,”</span> and she has to bear the + name for a whole year; sometimes, according to the crop, she is + called the Rye-wolf or the Potato-wolf.<a id="noteref_850" name= + "noteref_850" href="#note_850"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">850</span></span></a> In + the island of Rügen not only is the woman who binds the last sheaf + called Wolf, but when she comes home she bites the lady of the + house and the stewardess, for which she receives a large piece of + meat. Yet nobody likes to be the Wolf. The same woman may be + Rye-wolf, Wheat-wolf, and Oats-wolf, if she happens to bind the + last sheaf of rye, wheat, and oats.<a id="noteref_851" name= + "noteref_851" href="#note_851"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">851</span></span></a> At + Buir, in the district of Cologne, it was formerly the custom to + give to the last sheaf the shape of a wolf. It was kept in the barn + till all the corn was threshed. Then it was brought to the farmer + and he had to sprinkle it with beer or brandy.<a id="noteref_852" + name="noteref_852" href="#note_852"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">852</span></span></a> At + Brunshaupten in Mecklenburg the young woman who bound the last + sheaf of wheat used to take a handful of stalks out of it and make + <span class="tei tei-q">“the Wheat-wolf”</span> with them; it was + the figure of a wolf about two feet long and half a foot high, the + legs of the animal being represented by stiff stalks and its tail + and mane by wheat-ears. This Wheat-wolf she carried back at the + head of the harvesters to the village, where it was set up on a + high place in the parlour of the farm and remained there for a long + time.<a id="noteref_853" name="noteref_853" href= + "#note_853"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">853</span></span></a> In + many places the sheaf called the Wolf is made up in human form and + dressed in clothes. This indicates a confusion of ideas between the + corn-spirit conceived in human and in animal form. Generally the + Wolf is brought home on the last waggon with joyful cries. Hence + the last waggon-load itself receives the name of the Wolf.<a id= + "noteref_854" name="noteref_854" href="#note_854"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">854</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The corn-spirit as a wolf killed + at threshing.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Again, the Wolf + is supposed to hide himself amongst the cut corn in the granary, + until he is driven out of the last bundle by the strokes of the + flail. Hence at Wanzleben, near Magdeburg, after the threshing the + peasants go in procession, leading by a chain a man who is + enveloped in the <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page275">[pg + 275]</span><a name="Pg275" id="Pg275" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + threshed-out straw and is called the Wolf.<a id="noteref_855" name= + "noteref_855" href="#note_855"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">855</span></span></a> He + represents the corn-spirit who has been caught escaping from the + threshed corn. In the district of Treves it is believed that the + Corn-wolf is killed at threshing. The men thresh the last sheaf + till it is reduced to chopped straw. In this way they think that + the Corn-wolf, who was lurking in the last sheaf, has been + certainly killed.<a id="noteref_856" name="noteref_856" href= + "#note_856"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">856</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The corn-wolf at harvest in + France. The corn-wolf killed on the harvest-field.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In France also + the Corn-wolf appears at harvest. Thus they call out to the reaper + of the last corn, <span class="tei tei-q">“You will catch the + Wolf.”</span> Near Chambéry they form a ring round the last + standing corn, and cry, <span class="tei tei-q">“The Wolf is in + there.”</span> In Finisterre, when the reaping draws near an end, + the harvesters cry, <span class="tei tei-q">“There is the Wolf; we + will catch him.”</span> Each takes a swath to reap, and he who + finishes first calls out, <span class="tei tei-q">“I've caught the + Wolf.”</span><a id="noteref_857" name="noteref_857" href= + "#note_857"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">857</span></span></a> In + Guyenne, when the last corn has been reaped, they lead a wether all + round the field. It is called <span class="tei tei-q">“the Wolf of + the field.”</span> Its horns are decked with a wreath of flowers + and corn-ears, and its neck and body are also encircled with + garlands and ribbons. All the reapers march, singing, behind it. + Then it is killed on the field. In this part of France the last + sheaf is called the <span lang="fr" class="tei tei-foreign" + xml:lang="fr"><span style= + "font-style: italic">coujoulage</span></span>, which, in the + patois, means a wether. Hence the killing of the wether represents + the death of the corn-spirit, considered as present in the last + sheaf; but two different conceptions of the corn-spirit—as a wolf + and as a wether—are mixed up together.<a id="noteref_858" name= + "noteref_858" href="#note_858"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">858</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The corn-wolf at midwinter.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Sometimes it + appears to be thought that the Wolf, caught in the last corn, lives + during the winter in the farmhouse, ready to renew his activity as + corn-spirit in the spring. Hence at midwinter, when the lengthening + days begin to herald the approach of spring, the Wolf makes his + appearance once more. In Poland a man, with a wolf's skin thrown + over his head, is led about at Christmas; or a stuffed wolf is + carried about by persons who collect money.<a id="noteref_859" + name="noteref_859" href="#note_859"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">859</span></span></a> There + are facts which point to an old custom of leading about a man + enveloped in leaves and called the Wolf, while his conductors + collected money.<a id="noteref_860" name="noteref_860" href= + "#note_860"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">860</span></span></a></p> + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page276">[pg 276]</span><a name= + "Pg276" id="Pg276" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em"> + <a name="toc43" id="toc43"></a> <a name="pdf44" id="pdf44"></a> + + <h2 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em"> + <span style="font-size: 144%">§ 3. The Corn-spirit as a + Cock.</span></h2> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The corn-spirit as a cock at + harvest.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Another form + which the corn-spirit often assumes is that of a cock. In Austria + children are warned against straying in the corn-fields, because + the Corn-cock sits there, and will peck their eyes out.<a id= + "noteref_861" name="noteref_861" href="#note_861"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">861</span></span></a> In + North Germany they say that <span class="tei tei-q">“the Cock sits + in the last sheaf”</span>; and at cutting the last corn the reapers + cry, <span class="tei tei-q">“Now we will chase out the + Cock.”</span> When it is cut they say, <span class="tei tei-q">“We + have caught the Cock.”</span><a id="noteref_862" name="noteref_862" + href="#note_862"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">862</span></span></a> At + Braller, in Transylvania, when the reapers come to the last patch + of corn, they cry, <span class="tei tei-q">“Here we shall catch the + Cock.”</span><a id="noteref_863" name="noteref_863" href= + "#note_863"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">863</span></span></a> At + Fürstenwalde, when the last sheaf is about to be bound, the master + releases a cock, which he has brought in a basket, and lets it run + over the field. All the harvesters chase it till they catch it. + Elsewhere the harvesters all try to seize the last corn cut; he who + succeeds in grasping it must crow, and is called Cock.<a id= + "noteref_864" name="noteref_864" href="#note_864"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">864</span></span></a> Among + the Wends it is or used to be customary for the farmer to hide a + live cock under the last sheaf as it lay on the field; and when the + corn was being gathered up, the harvester who lighted upon this + sheaf had a right to keep the cock, provided he could catch it. + This formed the close of the harvest-festival and was known as + <span class="tei tei-q">“the Cock-catching,”</span> and the beer + which was served out to the reapers at this time went by the name + of <span class="tei tei-q">“Cock-beer.”</span><a id="noteref_865" + name="noteref_865" href="#note_865"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">865</span></span></a> The + last sheaf is called Cock, Cock-sheaf, Harvest-cock, Harvest-hen, + Autumn-hen. A distinction is made between a Wheat-cock, Bean-cock, + and so on, according to the crop.<a id="noteref_866" name= + "noteref_866" href="#note_866"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">866</span></span></a> At + Wünschensuhl, in Thüringen, the last sheaf is made into the shape + of a cock, and called the Harvest-cock.<a id="noteref_867" name= + "noteref_867" href="#note_867"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">867</span></span></a> A + figure of a cock, made of wood, pasteboard, ears of corn, + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page277">[pg 277]</span><a name= + "Pg277" id="Pg277" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> or flowers, is borne + in front of the harvest-waggon, especially in Westphalia, where the + cock carries in his beak fruits of the earth of all kinds. + Sometimes the image of the cock is fastened to the top of a + May-tree on the last harvest-waggon. Elsewhere a live cock, or a + figure of one, is attached to a harvest-crown and carried on a + pole. In Galicia and elsewhere this live cock is fastened to the + garland of corn-ears or flowers, which the leader of the + women-reapers carries on her head as she marches in front of the + harvest procession.<a id="noteref_868" name="noteref_868" href= + "#note_868"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">868</span></span></a> In + Silesia a live cock is presented to the master on a plate. The + harvest-supper is called Harvest-cock, Stubble-cock, etc., and a + chief dish at it, at least in some places, is a cock.<a id= + "noteref_869" name="noteref_869" href="#note_869"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">869</span></span></a> If a + waggoner upsets a harvest-waggon, it is said that <span class= + "tei tei-q">“he has spilt the Harvest cock,”</span> and he loses + the cock, that is, the harvest-supper.<a id="noteref_870" name= + "noteref_870" href="#note_870"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">870</span></span></a> The + harvest-waggon, with the figure of the cock on it, is driven round + the farmhouse before it is taken to the barn. Then the cock is + nailed over or at the side of the house-door, or on the gable, and + remains there till next harvest.<a id="noteref_871" name= + "noteref_871" href="#note_871"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">871</span></span></a> In + East Friesland the person who gives the last stroke at threshing is + called the Clucking-hen, and grain is strewed before him as if he + were a hen.<a id="noteref_872" name="noteref_872" href= + "#note_872"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">872</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The corn-spirit killed in the form + of a live cock.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Again, the + corn-spirit is killed in the form of a cock. In parts of Germany, + Hungary, Poland, and Picardy the reapers place a live cock in the + corn which is to be cut last, and chase it over the field, or bury + it up to the neck in the ground; afterwards they strike off its + head with a sickle or scythe.<a id="noteref_873" name="noteref_873" + href="#note_873"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">873</span></span></a> In + many parts of Westphalia, when the harvesters bring the wooden cock + to the farmer, he gives them a live <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page278">[pg 278]</span><a name="Pg278" id="Pg278" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> cock, which they kill with whips or sticks, + or behead with an old sword, or throw into the barn to the girls, + or give to the mistress to cook. If the harvest-cock has not been + spilt—that is, if no waggon has been upset—the harvesters have the + right to kill the farmyard cock by throwing stones at it or + beheading it. Where this custom has fallen into disuse, it is still + common for the farmer's wife to make cockie-leekie for the + harvesters, and to shew them the head of the cock which has been + killed for the soup.<a id="noteref_874" name="noteref_874" href= + "#note_874"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">874</span></span></a> In + the neighbourhood of Klausenburg, Transylvania, a cock is buried on + the harvest-field in the earth, so that only its head appears. A + young man then takes a scythe and cuts off the cock's head at a + single sweep. If he fails to do this, he is called the Red Cock for + a whole year, and people fear that next year's crop will be + bad.<a id="noteref_875" name="noteref_875" href= + "#note_875"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">875</span></span></a> Near + Udvarhely, in Transylvania, a live cock is bound up in the last + sheaf and killed with a spit. It is then skinned. The flesh is + thrown away, but the skin and feathers are kept till next year; and + in spring the grain from the last sheaf is mixed with the feathers + of the cock and scattered on the field which is to be tilled.<a id= + "noteref_876" name="noteref_876" href="#note_876"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">876</span></span></a> + Nothing could set in a clearer light the identification of the cock + with the spirit of the corn. By being tied up in the last sheaf and + killed, the cock is identified with the corn, and its death with + the cutting of the corn. By keeping its feathers till spring, then + mixing them with the seed-corn taken from the very sheaf in which + the bird had been bound, and scattering the feathers together with + the seed over the field, the identity of the bird with the corn is + again emphasised, and its quickening and fertilising power, as an + embodiment of the corn-spirit, is intimated in the plainest manner. + Thus the corn-spirit, in the form of a cock, is killed at harvest, + but rises to fresh life and activity in spring. Again, the + equivalence of the cock to the corn is expressed, hardly less + plainly, in the custom of burying the bird in the ground, and + cutting off its head (like the ears of corn) with the scythe.</p> + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page279">[pg 279]</span><a name= + "Pg279" id="Pg279" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em"> + <a name="toc45" id="toc45"></a> <a name="pdf46" id="pdf46"></a> + + <h2 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em"> + <span style="font-size: 144%">§ 4. The Corn-spirit as a + Hare.</span></h2> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The corn-spirit as a hare at + harvest. The corn-spirit as a hare killed in the last corn + cut.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Another common + embodiment of the corn-spirit is the hare.<a id="noteref_877" name= + "noteref_877" href="#note_877"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">877</span></span></a> In + Galloway the reaping of the last standing corn is called + <span class="tei tei-q">“cutting the Hare.”</span> The mode of + cutting it is as follows. When the rest of the corn has been + reaped, a handful is left standing to form the Hare. It is divided + into three parts and plaited, and the ears are tied in a knot. The + reapers then retire a few yards and each throws his or her sickle + in turn at the Hare to cut it down. It must be cut below the knot, + and the reapers continue to throw their sickles at it, one after + the other, until one of them succeeds in severing the stalks below + the knot. The Hare is then carried home and given to a maidservant + in the kitchen, who places it over the kitchen-door on the inside. + Sometimes the Hare used to be thus kept till the next harvest. In + the parish of Minnigaff, when the Hare was cut, the unmarried + reapers ran home with all speed, and the one who arrived first was + the first to be married.<a id="noteref_878" name="noteref_878" + href="#note_878"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">878</span></span></a> In + Southern Ayrshire the last corn cut is also called the Hare, and + the mode of cutting it seems to be the same as in Galloway; at + least in the neighbourhood of Kilmarnock the last corn left + standing in the middle of the field is plaited, and the reapers + used to try to cut it by throwing their sickles at it. When cut, it + was carried home and hung up over the door.<a id="noteref_879" + name="noteref_879" href="#note_879"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">879</span></span></a> In + the Vosges Mountains the person who cuts the last handful of hay or + wheat is sometimes said to have caught the Hare; he is + congratulated by his comrades and has the honour of carrying the + nosegay or the small fir-tree decorated with ribbons which marks + the conclusion of the harvest.<a id="noteref_880" name= + "noteref_880" href="#note_880"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">880</span></span></a> In + Germany also one of the names for the last sheaf is the Hare.<a id= + "noteref_881" name="noteref_881" href="#note_881"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">881</span></span></a> Thus + in some parts of Anhalt, when the corn has been reaped and only a + few stalks are left standing, they say, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“The Hare will soon come,”</span> or the reapers cry to + each other, <span class="tei tei-q">“Look how the Hare comes + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page280">[pg 280]</span><a name= + "Pg280" id="Pg280" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> jumping + out.”</span><a id="noteref_882" name="noteref_882" href= + "#note_882"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">882</span></span></a> In + East Prussia they say that the Hare sits in the last patch of + standing corn, and must be chased out by the last reaper. The + reapers hurry with their work, each being anxious not to have + <span class="tei tei-q">“to chase out the Hare”</span>; for the man + who does so, that is, who cuts the last corn, is much laughed + at.<a id="noteref_883" name="noteref_883" href= + "#note_883"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">883</span></span></a> At + Birk, in Transylvania, when the reapers come to the last patch, + they cry out, <span class="tei tei-q">“We have the + Hare.”</span><a id="noteref_884" name="noteref_884" href= + "#note_884"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">884</span></span></a> At + Aurich, as we have seen,<a id="noteref_885" name="noteref_885" + href="#note_885"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">885</span></span></a> an + expression for cutting the last corn is <span class="tei tei-q">“to + cut off the Hare's tail.”</span> <span class="tei tei-q">“He is + killing the Hare”</span> is commonly said of the man who cuts the + last corn in Germany, Sweden, Holland, France, and Italy.<a id= + "noteref_886" name="noteref_886" href="#note_886"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">886</span></span></a> In + Norway the man who is thus said to <span class="tei tei-q">“kill + the Hare”</span> must give <span class="tei tei-q">“hare's + blood”</span> in the form of brandy, to his fellows to drink.<a id= + "noteref_887" name="noteref_887" href="#note_887"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">887</span></span></a> In + Lesbos, when the reapers are at work in two neighbouring fields, + each party tries to finish first in order to drive the Hare into + their neighbour's field; the reapers who succeed in doing so + believe that next year the crop will be better. A small sheaf of + corn is made up and kept beside the holy picture till next + harvest.<a id="noteref_888" name="noteref_888" href= + "#note_888"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">888</span></span></a></p> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em"> + <a name="toc47" id="toc47"></a> <a name="pdf48" id="pdf48"></a> + + <h2 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em"> + <span style="font-size: 144%">§ 5. The Corn-spirit as a + Cat.</span></h2> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The corn-spirit as a cat sitting + in the corn. The corn-spirit as a cat killed at reaping and + threshing.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Again, the + corn-spirit sometimes takes the form of a cat. Near Kiel children + are warned not to go into the corn-fields because <span class= + "tei tei-q">“the Cat sits there.”</span> In the Eisenach Oberland + they are told <span class="tei tei-q">“the Corn-cat will come and + fetch you,”</span> <span class="tei tei-q">“the Corn-cat goes in + the corn.”</span> In some parts of Silesia at mowing the last corn + they say, <span class="tei tei-q">“The Cat is caught”</span>; and + at threshing, the man who gives the last stroke is called the Cat. + In the neighbourhood of Lyons the last sheaf and the harvest-supper + are both called the Cat. About Vesoul when they cut the last corn + they say, <span class="tei tei-q">“We have the Cat by the + tail.”</span> At Briançon, in Dauphiné, at the beginning of reaping + a <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page281">[pg 281]</span><a name= + "Pg281" id="Pg281" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> cat is decked out + with ribbons, flowers, and ears of corn. It is called the Cat of + the ball-skin (<span lang="fr" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang= + "fr"><span style="font-style: italic">le chat de peau de + balle</span></span>). If a reaper is wounded at his work, they make + the cat lick the wound. At the close of the reaping the cat is + again decked out with ribbons and ears of corn; then they dance and + make merry. When the dance is over the girls solemnly strip the cat + of its finery. At Grüneberg, in Silesia, the reaper who cuts the + last corn goes by the name of the Tom-cat. He is enveloped in + rye-stalks and green withes, and is furnished with a long plaited + tail. Sometimes as a companion he has a man similarly dressed, who + is called the (female) Cat. Their duty is to run after people whom + they see and to beat them with a long stick. Near Amiens the + expression for finishing the harvest is, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“They are going to kill the Cat”</span>; and when the + last corn is cut they kill a cat in the farmyard. At threshing, in + some parts of France, a live cat is placed under the last bundle of + corn to be threshed, and is struck dead with the flails. Then on + Sunday it is roasted and eaten as a holiday dish.<a id= + "noteref_889" name="noteref_889" href="#note_889"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">889</span></span></a> In + the Vosges Mountains the close of haymaking or harvest is called + <span class="tei tei-q">“catching the cat,”</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q">“killing the dog,”</span> or more rarely <span class= + "tei tei-q">“catching the hare.”</span> The cat, the dog, or the + hare is said to be fat or lean according as the crop is good or + bad. The man who cuts the last handful of hay or of wheat is said + to catch the cat or the hare or to kill the dog. He is + congratulated by his comrades and has the honour of carrying the + nosegay or rather the small fir-tree decked with ribbons which + marks the end of the haymaking or of the harvest.<a id= + "noteref_890" name="noteref_890" href="#note_890"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">890</span></span></a> In + Franche-Comté also the close of harvest is called <span class= + "tei tei-q">“catching or killing the cat.”</span><a id= + "noteref_891" name="noteref_891" href="#note_891"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">891</span></span></a></p> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em"> + <a name="toc49" id="toc49"></a> <a name="pdf50" id="pdf50"></a> + + <h2 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em"> + <span style="font-size: 144%">§ 6. The Corn-spirit as a + Goat.</span></h2> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The corn-spirit as a goat running + through the corn or sitting in it. The corn-goat at reaping and + binding the corn.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Further, the + corn-spirit often appears in the form of a goat. In some parts of + Prussia, when the corn bends before <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page282">[pg 282]</span><a name="Pg282" id="Pg282" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> the wind, they say, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“The Goats are chasing each other,”</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q">“the wind is driving the Goats through the + corn,”</span> <span class="tei tei-q">“the Goats are browsing + there,”</span> and they expect a very good harvest. Again they say, + <span class="tei tei-q">“The Oats-goat is sitting in the + oats-field,”</span> <span class="tei tei-q">“the Corn-goat is + sitting in the rye-field.”</span><a id="noteref_892" name= + "noteref_892" href="#note_892"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">892</span></span></a> + Children are warned not to go into the corn-fields to pluck the + blue corn-flowers, or amongst the beans to pluck pods, because the + Rye-goat, the Corn-goat, the Oats-goat, or the Bean-goat is sitting + or lying there, and will carry them away or kill them.<a id= + "noteref_893" name="noteref_893" href="#note_893"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">893</span></span></a> When + a harvester is taken sick or lags behind his fellows at their work, + they call out, <span class="tei tei-q">“The Harvest-goat has pushed + him,”</span> <span class="tei tei-q">“he has been pushed by the + Corn-goat.”</span><a id="noteref_894" name="noteref_894" href= + "#note_894"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">894</span></span></a> In + the neighbourhood of Braunsberg (East Prussia) at binding the oats + every harvester makes haste <span class="tei tei-q">“lest the + Corn-goat push him.”</span> At Oefoten, in Norway, each reaper has + his allotted patch to reap. When a reaper in the middle has not + finished reaping his piece after his neighbours have finished + theirs, they say of him, <span class="tei tei-q">“He remains on the + island.”</span> And if the laggard is a man, they imitate the cry + with which they call a he-goat; if a woman, the cry with which they + call a she-goat.<a id="noteref_895" name="noteref_895" href= + "#note_895"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">895</span></span></a> Near + Straubing, in Lower Bavaria, it is said of the man who cuts the + last corn that <span class="tei tei-q">“he has the Corn-goat, or + the Wheat-goat, or the Oats-goat,”</span> according to the crop. + Moreover, two horns are set up on the last heap of corn, and it is + called <span class="tei tei-q">“the horned Goat.”</span> At + Kreutzburg, East Prussia, they call out to the woman who is binding + the last sheaf, <span class="tei tei-q">“The Goat is sitting in the + sheaf.”</span><a id="noteref_896" name="noteref_896" href= + "#note_896"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">896</span></span></a> At + Gablingen, in Swabia, when the last field of oats upon a farm is + being reaped, the reapers carve a goat out of wood. Ears of oats + are inserted in its nostrils and mouth, and it is adorned with + garlands of flowers. It is set up on the field and called the + Oats-goat. When the reaping approaches an end, each reaper hastens + to finish his piece first; he who is the last to finish gets the + Oats-goat.<a id="noteref_897" name="noteref_897" href= + "#note_897"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">897</span></span></a> + Again, the last sheaf is itself called the Goat. Thus, in the + valley of the Wiesent, Bavaria, the last sheaf bound on the field + is called the Goat, <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page283">[pg + 283]</span><a name="Pg283" id="Pg283" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + and they have a proverb, <span class="tei tei-q">“The field must + bear a goat.”</span><a id="noteref_898" name="noteref_898" href= + "#note_898"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">898</span></span></a> At + Spachbrücken, in Hesse, the last handful of corn which is cut is + called the Goat, and the man who cuts it is much ridiculed.<a id= + "noteref_899" name="noteref_899" href="#note_899"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">899</span></span></a> At + Dürrenbüchig and about Mosbach in Baden the last sheaf is also + called the Goat.<a id="noteref_900" name="noteref_900" href= + "#note_900"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">900</span></span></a> + Sometimes the last sheaf is made up in the form of a goat, and they + say, <span class="tei tei-q">“The Goat is sitting in + it.”</span><a id="noteref_901" name="noteref_901" href= + "#note_901"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">901</span></span></a> + Again, the person who cuts or binds the last sheaf is called the + Goat. Thus, in parts of Mecklenburg they call out to the woman who + binds the last sheaf, <span class="tei tei-q">“You are the + Harvest-goat.”</span> Near Uelzen, in Hanover, the harvest festival + begins with <span class="tei tei-q">“the bringing of the + Harvest-goat”</span>; that is, the woman who bound the last sheaf + is wrapt in straw, crowned with a harvest-wreath, and brought in a + wheelbarrow to the village, where a round dance takes place. About + Luneburg, also, the woman who binds the last corn is decked with a + crown of corn-ears and is called the Corn-goat.<a id="noteref_902" + name="noteref_902" href="#note_902"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">902</span></span></a> At + Münzesheim in Baden the reaper who cuts the last handful of corn or + oats is called the Corn-goat or the Oats-goat.<a id="noteref_903" + name="noteref_903" href="#note_903"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">903</span></span></a> In + the Canton St. Gall, Switzerland, the person who cuts the last + handful of corn on the field, or drives the last harvest-waggon to + the barn, is called the Corn-goat or the Rye-goat, or simply the + Goat.<a id="noteref_904" name="noteref_904" href= + "#note_904"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">904</span></span></a> In + the Canton Thurgau he is called Corn-goat; like a goat he has a + bell hung round his neck, is led in triumph, and drenched with + liquor. In parts of Styria, also, the man who cuts the last corn is + called Corn-goat, Oats-goat, or the like. As a rule, the man who + thus gets the name of Corn-goat has to bear it a whole year till + the next harvest.<a id="noteref_905" name="noteref_905" href= + "#note_905"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">905</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The corn-spirit as the Cripple + Goat in Skye.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">According to one + view, the corn-spirit, who has been caught in the form of a goat or + otherwise, lives in the farmhouse or barn over winter. Thus, each + farm has its own embodiment of the corn-spirit. But, according to + another view, the corn-spirit is the genius or deity, not of the + corn <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page284">[pg 284]</span><a name= + "Pg284" id="Pg284" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> of one farm only, + but of all the corn. Hence when the corn on one farm is all cut, he + flees to another where there is still corn left standing. This idea + is brought out in a harvest-custom which was formerly observed in + Skye. The farmer who first finished reaping sent a man or woman + with a sheaf to a neighbouring farmer who had not finished; the + latter in his turn, when he had finished, sent on the sheaf to his + neighbour who was still reaping; and so the sheaf made the round of + the farms till all the corn was cut. The sheaf was called the + <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">goabbir bhacagh</span></span>, that is, the + Cripple Goat.<a id="noteref_906" name="noteref_906" href= + "#note_906"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">906</span></span></a> The + custom appears not to be extinct at the present day, for it was + reported from Skye only a few years ago. We are told that when the + crofters and small farmers are cutting down their corn, each tries + his best to finish before his neighbour. The first to finish goes + to his neighbour's field and makes up at one end of it a bundle of + sheaves in a fanciful shape which goes by the name of the + <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">gobhar bhacach</span></span> or Lame Goat. As + each man in succession finishes reaping his field, he proceeds to + set up a lame goat of this sort in his neighbour's field where + there is still corn standing. No one likes to have the Lame Goat + put in his field, <span class="tei tei-q">“not from any ill-luck it + brings, but because it is humiliating to have it standing there + visible to all neighbours and passers-by, and of course he cannot + retaliate.”</span><a id="noteref_907" name="noteref_907" href= + "#note_907"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">907</span></span></a> The + corn-spirit was probably thus represented as lame because he had + been crippled by the cutting of the corn. We have seen that + sometimes the old woman who brings home the last sheaf must limp on + one foot.<a id="noteref_908" name="noteref_908" href= + "#note_908"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">908</span></span></a> In + the Böhmer Wald mountains, between Bohemia and Bavaria, when two + peasants are driving home their corn together, they race against + each other to see who shall get home first. The village boys mark + the loser in the race, and at night they come and erect on the roof + of his house the Oats-goat, which is a colossal figure of a goat + made of straw.<a id="noteref_909" name="noteref_909" href= + "#note_909"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">909</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The corn-spirit killed as a goat + on the harvest-field.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But sometimes + the corn-spirit, in the form of a goat, is <span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page285">[pg 285]</span><a name="Pg285" id="Pg285" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> believed to be slain on the harvest-field by + the sickle or scythe. Thus, in the neighbourhood of Bernkastel, on + the Moselle, the reapers determine by lot the order in which they + shall follow each other. The first is called the fore-reaper, the + last the tail-bearer. If a reaper overtakes the man in front he + reaps past him, bending round so as to leave the slower reaper in a + patch by himself. This patch is called the Goat; and the man for + whom <span class="tei tei-q">“the Goat is cut”</span> in this way, + is laughed and jeered at by his fellows for the rest of the day. + When the tail-bearer cuts the last ears of corn, it is said, + <span class="tei tei-q">“He is cutting the Goat's neck + off.”</span><a id="noteref_910" name="noteref_910" href= + "#note_910"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">910</span></span></a> In + the neighbourhood of Grenoble, before the end of the reaping, a + live goat is adorned with flowers and ribbons and allowed to run + about the field. The reapers chase it and try to catch it. When it + is caught, the farmer's wife holds it fast while the farmer cuts + off its head. The goat's flesh serves to furnish the + harvest-supper. A piece of the flesh is pickled and kept till the + next harvest, when another goat is killed. Then all the harvesters + eat of the flesh. On the same day the skin of the goat is made into + a cloak, which the farmer, who works with his men, must always wear + at harvest-time if rain or bad weather sets in. But if a reaper + gets pains in his back, the farmer gives him the goat-skin to + wear.<a id="noteref_911" name="noteref_911" href= + "#note_911"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">911</span></span></a> The + reason for this seems to be that the pains in the back, being + inflicted by the corn-spirit, can also be healed by it. Similarly, + we saw that elsewhere, when a reaper is wounded at reaping, a cat, + as the representative of the corn-spirit, is made to lick the + wound.<a id="noteref_912" name="noteref_912" href= + "#note_912"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">912</span></span></a> + Esthonian reapers in the island of Mon think that the man who cuts + the first ears of corn at harvest will get pains in his back,<a id= + "noteref_913" name="noteref_913" href="#note_913"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">913</span></span></a> + probably because the corn-spirit is believed to resent especially + the first wound; and, in order to escape pains in the back, Saxon + reapers in Transylvania gird their loins with the first handful of + ears which they cut.<a id="noteref_914" name="noteref_914" href= + "#note_914"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">914</span></span></a> Here, + again, the corn-spirit is applied to for healing or protection, + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page286">[pg 286]</span><a name= + "Pg286" id="Pg286" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> but in his original + vegetable form, not in the form of a goat or a cat.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The corn-spirit in the form of a + goat supposed to lurk among the corn in the barn, till he is + expelled by the flail at threshing.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Further, the + corn-spirit under the form of a goat is sometimes conceived as + lurking among the cut corn in the barn, till he is driven from it + by the threshing-flail. Thus in Baden the last sheaf to be threshed + is called the Corn-goat, the Spelt-goat, or the Oats-goat according + to the kind of grain.<a id="noteref_915" name="noteref_915" href= + "#note_915"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">915</span></span></a> + Again, near Marktl, in Upper Bavaria, the sheaves are called + Straw-goats or simply Goats. They are laid in a great heap on the + open field and threshed by two rows of men standing opposite each + other, who, as they ply their flails, sing a song in which they say + that they see the Straw-goat amongst the corn-stalks. The last + Goat, that is, the last sheaf, is adorned with a wreath of violets + and other flowers and with cakes strung together. It is placed + right in the middle of the heap. Some of the threshers rush at it + and tear the best of it out; others lay on with their flails so + recklessly that heads are sometimes broken. In threshing this last + sheaf, each man casts up to the man opposite him the misdeeds of + which he has been guilty throughout the year.<a id="noteref_916" + name="noteref_916" href="#note_916"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">916</span></span></a> At + Oberinntal, in the Tyrol, the last thresher is called Goat.<a id= + "noteref_917" name="noteref_917" href="#note_917"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">917</span></span></a> So at + Haselberg, in West Bohemia, the man who gives the last stroke at + threshing oats is called the Oats-goat.<a id="noteref_918" name= + "noteref_918" href="#note_918"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">918</span></span></a> At + Tettnang, in Würtemburg, the thresher who gives the last stroke to + the last bundle of corn before it is turned goes by the name of the + He-goat, and it is said, <span class="tei tei-q">“He has driven the + He-goat away.”</span> The person who, after the bundle has been + turned, gives the last stroke of all, is called the She-goat.<a id= + "noteref_919" name="noteref_919" href="#note_919"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">919</span></span></a> In + this custom it is implied that the corn is inhabited by a pair of + corn-spirits, male and female.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The corn-spirit in the form of a + goat passed on to a neighbour who has not finished his + threshing.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Further, the + corn-spirit, captured in the form of a goat at threshing, is passed + on to a neighbour whose threshing is not yet finished. In Franche + Comté, as soon as the threshing is over, the young people set up a + straw figure of a goat on the <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page287">[pg 287]</span><a name="Pg287" id="Pg287" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> farmyard of a neighbour who is still + threshing. He must give them wine or money in return. At Ellwangen, + in Würtemburg, the effigy of a goat is made out of the last bundle + of corn at threshing; four sticks form its legs, and two its horns. + The man who gives the last stroke with the flail must carry the + Goat to the barn of a neighbour who is still threshing and throw it + down on the floor; if he is caught in the act, they tie the goat on + his back.<a id="noteref_920" name="noteref_920" href= + "#note_920"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">920</span></span></a> A + similar custom is observed at Indersdorf, in Upper Bavaria; the man + who throws the straw Goat into the neighbour's barn imitates the + bleating of a goat; if they catch him, they blacken his face and + tie the Goat on his back.<a id="noteref_921" name="noteref_921" + href="#note_921"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">921</span></span></a> At + Zabern, in Elsace, when a farmer is a week or more behind his + neighbours with his threshing, they set a real stuffed goat or fox + before his door.<a id="noteref_922" name="noteref_922" href= + "#note_922"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">922</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The corn-spirit in goat form + killed at threshing.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Sometimes the + spirit of the corn in goat form is believed to be killed at + threshing. In the district of Traunstein, Upper Bavaria, they think + that the Oats-goat is in the last sheaf of oats. He is represented + by an old rake set up on end, with an old pot for a head. The + children are then told to kill the Oats-goat.<a id="noteref_923" + name="noteref_923" href="#note_923"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">923</span></span></a> + Elsewhere, however, the corn-spirit in the form of a goat is + apparently thought to live in the field throughout the winter. + Hence at Wannefeld near Gardelegen, and also between Calbe and + Salzwedel, in the Altmark, the last stalks used to be left uncut on + the harvest-field with the words, <span class="tei tei-q">“That + shall the He-goat keep!”</span> Evidently the last corn was here + left as a provision for the corn-spirit, lest, robbed of all his + substance, he should die of hunger. A stranger passing a + harvest-field is sometimes taken for the Corn-goat escaping in + human shape from the cut or threshed grain. Thus, when a stranger + passes a harvest-field, all the labourers stop and shout as with + one voice, <span class="tei tei-q">“He-goat! He-goat!”</span> At + rape-seed threshing in Schleswig, which is generally done on the + field, the same cry is raised if the stranger does not take off his + hat.<a id="noteref_924" name="noteref_924" href= + "#note_924"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">924</span></span></a></p><span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page288">[pg 288]</span><a name="Pg288" id="Pg288" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Old Prussian custom of killing a + goat at sowing.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">At sowing their + winter corn the old Prussians used to kill a goat, consume its + flesh with many superstitious ceremonies, and hang the skin on a + high pole near an oak and a large stone. There it remained till + harvest, when a great bunch of corn and herbs was fastened to the + pole above the goat-skin. Then, after a prayer had been offered by + a peasant who acted as priest (<span lang="de" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="de"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Weidulut</span></span>), the young folks + joined hands and danced round the oak and the pole. Afterwards they + scrambled for the bunch of corn, and the priest distributed the + herbs with a sparing hand. Then he placed the goat-skin on the + large stone, sat down on it, and preached to the people about the + history of their forefathers and their old heathen customs and + beliefs.<a id="noteref_925" name="noteref_925" href= + "#note_925"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">925</span></span></a> The + goat-skin thus suspended on the field from sowing time to harvest + perhaps represents the corn-spirit superintending the growth of the + corn. The Tomori of Central Celebes imagine that the spirits which + cause rice to grow have the form of great goats with long hair and + long lips.<a id="noteref_926" name="noteref_926" href= + "#note_926"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">926</span></span></a></p> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em"> + <a name="toc51" id="toc51"></a> <a name="pdf52" id="pdf52"></a> + + <h2 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em"> + <span style="font-size: 144%">§ 7. The Corn-spirit as a Bull, Cow, + or Ox.</span></h2> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The corn-spirit in the form of a + bull running through the corn or lying in it. The corn-spirit + as a bull, ox, or cow at harvest.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Another form + which the corn-spirit often assumes is that of a bull, cow, or ox. + When the wind sweeps over the corn they say at Conitz, in West + Prussia, <span class="tei tei-q">“The Steer is running in the + corn”</span>;<a id="noteref_927" name="noteref_927" href= + "#note_927"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">927</span></span></a> when + the corn is thick and strong in one spot, they say in some parts of + East Prussia, <span class="tei tei-q">“The Bull is lying in the + corn.”</span> When a harvester has overstrained and lamed himself, + they say in the Graudenz district of West Prussia, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“The Bull pushed him”</span>; in Lothringen they say, + <span class="tei tei-q">“He has the Bull.”</span> The meaning of + both expressions is that he has unwittingly lighted upon the divine + corn-spirit, who has punished the profane intruder with + lameness.<a id="noteref_928" name="noteref_928" href= + "#note_928"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">928</span></span></a> So + near Chambéry when a reaper wounds himself with his sickle, it is + said that he has <span class="tei tei-q">“the wound of the + Ox.”</span><a id="noteref_929" name="noteref_929" href= + "#note_929"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">929</span></span></a> In + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page289">[pg 289]</span><a name= + "Pg289" id="Pg289" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> the district of + Bunzlau (Silesia) the last sheaf is sometimes made into the shape + of a horned ox, stuffed with tow and wrapt in corn-ears. This + figure is called the Old Man. In some parts of Bohemia the last + sheaf is made up in human form and called the Buffalo-bull.<a id= + "noteref_930" name="noteref_930" href="#note_930"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">930</span></span></a> These + cases shew a confusion of the human with the animal shape of the + corn-spirit. The confusion is like that of killing a wether under + the name of a wolf.<a id="noteref_931" name="noteref_931" href= + "#note_931"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">931</span></span></a> In + the Canton of Thurgau, Switzerland, the last sheaf, if it is a + large one, is called the Cow.<a id="noteref_932" name="noteref_932" + href="#note_932"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">932</span></span></a> All + over Swabia the last bundle of corn on the field is called the Cow; + the man who cuts the last ears <span class="tei tei-q">“has the + Cow,”</span> and is himself called Cow or Barley-cow or Oats-cow, + according to the crop; at the harvest-supper he gets a nosegay of + flowers and corn-ears and a more liberal allowance of drink than + the rest. But he is teased and laughed at; so no one likes to be + the Cow.<a id="noteref_933" name="noteref_933" href= + "#note_933"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">933</span></span></a> The + Cow was sometimes represented by the figure of a woman made out of + ears of corn and corn-flowers. It was carried to the farmhouse by + the man who had cut the last handful of corn. The children ran + after him and the neighbours turned out to laugh at him, till the + farmer took the Cow from him.<a id="noteref_934" name="noteref_934" + href="#note_934"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">934</span></span></a> Here + again the confusion between the human and the animal form of the + corn-spirit is apparent. In various parts of Switzerland the reaper + who cuts the last ears of corn is called Wheat-cow, Corn-cow, + Oats-cow, or Corn-steer, and is the butt of many a joke.<a id= + "noteref_935" name="noteref_935" href="#note_935"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">935</span></span></a> In + some parts of East Prussia, when a few ears of corn have been left + standing by inadvertence on the last swath, the foremost reaper + seizes them and cries, <span class="tei tei-q">“Bull! + Bull!”</span><a id="noteref_936" name="noteref_936" href= + "#note_936"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">936</span></span></a> On + the other hand, in the district of Rosenheim, Upper Bavaria, when a + farmer is later of getting in his harvest than his neighbours, they + set up on his land a Straw-bull, as it is called. This is a + gigantic figure of a bull made of stubble on a framework of wood + and adorned with flowers and leaves. Attached to it is a label on + which are scrawled <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page290">[pg + 290]</span><a name="Pg290" id="Pg290" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + doggerel verses in ridicule of the man on whose land the Straw-bull + is set up.<a id="noteref_937" name="noteref_937" href= + "#note_937"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">937</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The corn-spirit in the form of a + bull or ox killed at the close of the reaping.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Again, the + corn-spirit in the form of a bull or ox is killed on the + harvest-field at the close of the reaping. At Pouilly, near Dijon, + when the last ears of corn are about to be cut, an ox adorned with + ribbons, flowers, and ears of corn is led all round the field, + followed by the whole troop of reapers dancing. Then a man + disguised as the Devil cuts the last ears of corn and immediately + slaughters the ox. Part of the flesh of the animal is eaten at the + harvest-supper; part is pickled and kept till the first day of + sowing in spring. At Pont à Mousson and elsewhere on the evening of + the last day of reaping, a calf adorned with flowers and ears of + corn is led thrice round the farmyard, being allured by a bait or + driven by men with sticks, or conducted by the farmer's wife with a + rope. The calf chosen for this ceremony is the calf which was born + first on the farm in the spring of the year. It is followed by all + the reapers with their tools. Then it is allowed to run free; the + reapers chase it, and whoever catches it is called King of the + Calf. Lastly, it is solemnly killed; at Lunéville the man who acts + as butcher is the Jewish merchant of the village.<a id= + "noteref_938" name="noteref_938" href="#note_938"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">938</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The corn-spirit as a bull or cow + at threshing.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Sometimes again + the corn-spirit hides himself amongst the cut corn in the barn to + reappear in bull or cow form at threshing. Thus at Wurmlingen, in + Thüringen, the man who gives the last stroke at threshing is called + the Cow, or rather the Barley-cow, Oats-cow, Peas-cow, or the like, + according to the crop. He is entirely enveloped in straw; his head + is surmounted by sticks in imitation of horns, and two lads lead + him by ropes to the well to drink. On the way thither he must low + like a cow, and for a long time afterwards he goes by the name of + the Cow.<a id="noteref_939" name="noteref_939" href= + "#note_939"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">939</span></span></a> At + Obermedlingen, in Swabia, when the threshing draws near an end, + each man is careful to avoid giving the last stroke. He who does + give it <span class="tei tei-q">“gets the Cow,”</span> which is a + straw figure dressed in an old ragged petticoat, hood, and + stockings. It is tied on his back <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page291">[pg 291]</span><a name="Pg291" id="Pg291" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> with a straw-rope; his face is blackened, and + being bound with straw-ropes to a wheelbarrow he is wheeled round + the village.<a id="noteref_940" name="noteref_940" href= + "#note_940"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">940</span></span></a> Here, + again, we meet with that confusion between the human and animal + shape of the corn-spirit which we have noted in other customs. In + Canton Schaffhausen the man who threshes the last corn is called + the Cow; in Canton Thurgau, the Corn-bull; in Canton Zurich, the + Thresher-cow. In the last-mentioned district he is wrapt in straw + and bound to one of the trees in the orchard.<a id="noteref_941" + name="noteref_941" href="#note_941"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">941</span></span></a> At + Arad, in Hungary, the man who gives the last stroke at threshing is + enveloped in straw and a cow's hide with the horns attached to + it.<a id="noteref_942" name="noteref_942" href= + "#note_942"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">942</span></span></a> At + Pessnitz, in the district of Dresden, the man who gives the last + stroke with the flail is called Bull. He must make a straw-man and + set it up before a neighbour's window.<a id="noteref_943" name= + "noteref_943" href="#note_943"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">943</span></span></a> Here, + apparently, as in so many cases, the corn-spirit is passed on to a + neighbour who has not finished threshing. So at Herbrechtingen, in + Thüringen, the effigy of a ragged old woman is flung into the barn + of the farmer who is last with his threshing. The man who throws it + in cries, <span class="tei tei-q">“There is the Cow for + you.”</span> If the threshers catch him they detain him over night + and punish him by keeping him from the harvest-supper.<a id= + "noteref_944" name="noteref_944" href="#note_944"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">944</span></span></a> In + these latter customs the confusion between the human and the animal + shape of the corn-spirit meets us again.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The corn-spirit in the form of a + bull supposed to be killed at threshing.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Further, the + corn-spirit in bull form is sometimes believed to be killed at + threshing. At Auxerre, in threshing the last bundle of corn, they + call out twelve times, <span class="tei tei-q">“We are killing the + Bull.”</span> In the neighbourhood of Bordeaux, where a butcher + kills an ox on the field immediately after the close of the + reaping, it is said of the man who gives the last stroke at + threshing that <span class="tei tei-q">“he has killed the + Bull.”</span><a id="noteref_945" name="noteref_945" href= + "#note_945"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">945</span></span></a> At + Chambéry the last sheaf is called the sheaf of the Young Ox, and a + race takes place to it in which all the reapers join. When the last + stroke is given at threshing they say that <span class= + "tei tei-q">“the Ox is killed”</span>; and immediately thereupon + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page292">[pg 292]</span><a name= + "Pg292" id="Pg292" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> a real ox is + slaughtered by the reaper who cut the last corn. The flesh of the + ox is eaten by the threshers at supper.<a id="noteref_946" name= + "noteref_946" href="#note_946"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">946</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The corn-spirit as a calf at + harvest or in spring.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">We have seen + that sometimes the young corn-spirit, whose task it is to quicken + the corn of the coming year, is believed to be born as a Corn-baby + on the harvest-field.<a id="noteref_947" name="noteref_947" href= + "#note_947"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">947</span></span></a> + Similarly in Berry the young corn-spirit is sometimes supposed to + be born on the field in calf form; for when a binder has not rope + enough to bind all the corn in sheaves, he puts aside the wheat + that remains over and imitates the lowing of a cow. The meaning is + that <span class="tei tei-q">“the sheaf has given birth to a + calf.”</span><a id="noteref_948" name="noteref_948" href= + "#note_948"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">948</span></span></a> In + Puy-de-Dôme when a binder cannot keep up with the reaper whom he or + she follows, they say <span class="tei tei-q">“He (or she) is + giving birth to the Calf.”</span><a id="noteref_949" name= + "noteref_949" href="#note_949"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">949</span></span></a> In + some parts of Prussia, in similar circumstances, they call out to + the woman, <span class="tei tei-q">“The Bull is coming,”</span> and + imitate the bellowing of a bull.<a id="noteref_950" name= + "noteref_950" href="#note_950"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">950</span></span></a> In + these cases the woman is conceived as the Corn-cow or old + corn-spirit, while the supposed calf is the Corn-calf or young + corn-spirit. In some parts of Austria a mythical calf (<span lang= + "de" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="de"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Muhkälbchen</span></span>) is believed to be + seen amongst the sprouting corn in spring and to push the children; + when the corn waves in the wind they say, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“The Calf is going about.”</span> Clearly, as Mannhardt + observes, this calf of the spring-time is the same animal which is + afterwards believed to be killed at reaping.<a id="noteref_951" + name="noteref_951" href="#note_951"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">951</span></span></a></p> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em"> + <a name="toc53" id="toc53"></a> <a name="pdf54" id="pdf54"></a> + + <h2 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em"> + <span style="font-size: 144%">§ 8. The Corn-spirit as a Horse or + Mare.</span></h2> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The corn-spirit as a horse or mare + running through the corn.</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 80%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 80%">Crying the Mare</span><span style= + "font-size: 80%">”</span></span><span style="font-size: 80%">in + Hertfordshire and Shropshire.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Sometimes the + corn-spirit appears in the shape of a horse or mare. Between Kalw + and Stuttgart, when the corn bends before the wind, they say, + <span class="tei tei-q">“There runs the Horse.”</span><a id= + "noteref_952" name="noteref_952" href="#note_952"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">952</span></span></a> At + Bohlingen, near Radolfzell in Baden, the last sheaf of oats is + called the Oats-stallion.<a id="noteref_953" name="noteref_953" + href="#note_953"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">953</span></span></a> In + Hertfordshire, at the end of the reaping, there is or used to be + observed a ceremony called <span class="tei tei-q">“crying the + Mare.”</span> The last blades of corn left standing on the field + are tied together and called the Mare. <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page293">[pg 293]</span><a name="Pg293" id="Pg293" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> The reapers stand at a distance and throw + their sickles at it; he who cuts it through <span class= + "tei tei-q">“has the prize, with acclamations and good + cheer.”</span> After it is cut the reapers cry thrice with a loud + voice, <span class="tei tei-q">“I have her!”</span> Others answer + thrice, <span class="tei tei-q">“What have + you?”</span>—<span class="tei tei-q">“A Mare! a Mare! a + Mare!”</span>—<span class="tei tei-q">“Whose is she?”</span> is + next asked thrice. <span class="tei tei-q">“A. B.'s,”</span> naming + the owner thrice. <span class="tei tei-q">“Whither will you send + her?”</span>—<span class="tei tei-q">“To C. D.,”</span> naming some + neighbour who has not reaped all his corn.<a id="noteref_954" name= + "noteref_954" href="#note_954"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">954</span></span></a> In + this custom the corn-spirit in the form of a mare is passed on from + a farm where the corn is all cut to another farm where it is still + standing, and where therefore the corn-spirit may be supposed + naturally to take refuge. In Shropshire the custom is similar. + <span class="tei tei-q">“Crying, calling, or shouting the mare is a + ceremony performed by the men of that farm which is the first in + any parish or district to finish the harvest. The object of it is + to make known their own prowess, and to taunt the laggards by a + pretended offer of the <span class="tei tei-q">‘owd mar'’</span> + [old mare] to help out their <span class="tei tei-q">‘chem’</span> + [team]. All the men assemble (the wooden harvest-bottle being of + course one of the company) in the stackyard, or, better, on the + highest ground on the farm, and there shout the following dialogue, + preceding it by a grand <span class="tei tei-q">‘Hip, hip, hip, + hurrah!’</span></span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-q">“ <span class="tei tei-q">‘I 'ave 'er, I 'ave 'er, I + 'ave 'er!’</span></span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-q">“ <span class="tei tei-q">‘Whad 'ast thee, whad 'ast + thee, whad 'ast thee?’</span></span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-q">“ <span class="tei tei-q">‘A mar'! a mar'! a + mar'!’</span></span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-q">“ <span class="tei tei-q">‘Whose is 'er, whose is 'er, + whose is 'er?’</span></span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-q">“ <span class="tei tei-q">‘Maister A.'s, Maister A.'s, + Maister A.'s!’</span> (naming the farmer whose harvest is + finished).</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-q">“ <span class="tei tei-q">‘W'eer sha't the' send 'er? + w'eer sha't the' send 'er? w'eer sha't the' send + 'er?’</span></span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-q">“ <span class="tei tei-q">‘To Maister B.'s, to Maister + B.'s, to Maister B.'s’</span> (naming one whose harvest is + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">not</span></em> finished).</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-q">“ <span class="tei tei-q">‘'Uth a hip, hip, hip, + hurrah!’</span> (in chorus).”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The farmer who + finishes his harvest last, and who therefore cannot send the Mare + to any one else, is said <span class="tei tei-q">“to keep her all + winter.”</span> The mocking offer of the Mare was sometimes + responded to by a mocking acceptance of her help. Thus an old man + told an enquirer, <span class="tei tei-q">“While we wun at supper, + a mon cumm'd wi' a autar [halter] to fatch <span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page294">[pg 294]</span><a name="Pg294" id="Pg294" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> her away.”</span> But at one place (Longnor, + near Leebotwood), down to about 1850, the Mare used really to be + sent. <span class="tei tei-q">“The head man of the farmer who had + finished harvest first was mounted on the best horse of the + team—the leader—both horse and man being adorned with ribbons, + streamers, etc. Thus arrayed, a boy on foot led the pair in triumph + to the neighbouring farmhouses. Sometimes the man who took the + <span class="tei tei-q">‘mare’</span> received, as well as plenty + of harvest-ale, some rather rough, though good-humoured, treatment, + coming back minus his decorations, and so on.”</span><a id= + "noteref_955" name="noteref_955" href="#note_955"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">955</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The corn-spirit as a horse in + France.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In the + neighbourhood of Lille the idea of the corn-spirit in horse form is + clearly preserved. When a harvester grows weary at his work, it is + said, <span class="tei tei-q">“He has the fatigue of the + Horse.”</span> The first sheaf, called the <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Cross of the Horse,”</span> is placed on a cross of + boxwood in the barn, and the youngest horse on the farm must tread + on it. The reapers dance round the last blades of corn, crying, + <span class="tei tei-q">“See the remains of the Horse.”</span> The + sheaf made out of these last blades is given to the youngest horse + of the parish (<span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">commune</span></span>) to eat. This youngest + horse of the parish clearly represents, as Mannhardt says, the + corn-spirit of the following year, the Corn-foal, which absorbs the + spirit of the old Corn-horse by eating the last corn cut; for, as + usual, the old corn-spirit takes his final refuge in the last + sheaf. The thresher of the last sheaf is said to <span class= + "tei tei-q">“beat the Horse.”</span><a id="noteref_956" name= + "noteref_956" href="#note_956"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">956</span></span></a> + Again, a trace of the horse-shaped corn-spirit is reported from + Berry. The harvesters there are accustomed to take a noonday nap in + the field. This is called <span class="tei tei-q">“seeing the + Horse.”</span> The leader or <span class="tei tei-q">“King”</span> + of the harvesters gives the signal for going to sleep. If he delays + giving the signal, one of the harvesters will begin to neigh like a + horse, the rest imitate him, and then they all go <span class= + "tei tei-q">“to see the Horse.”</span><a id="noteref_957" name= + "noteref_957" href="#note_957"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">957</span></span></a></p> + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page295">[pg 295]</span><a name= + "Pg295" id="Pg295" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em"> + <a name="toc55" id="toc55"></a> <a name="pdf56" id="pdf56"></a> + + <h2 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em"> + <span style="font-size: 144%">§ 9. The Corn-spirit as a + Bird.</span></h2> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The corn-spirit as a quail. The + rice-spirit as a blue bird. The rice-spirit as a quail.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Sometimes the + corn-spirit assumes the form of a bird. Thus among the Saxons of + the Bistritz district in Transylvania there is a saying that the + quail is sitting in the last standing stalks on the harvest-field, + and all the reapers rush at these stalks in order, as they say, to + catch the quail.<a id="noteref_958" name="noteref_958" href= + "#note_958"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">958</span></span></a> + Exactly the same expression is used by reapers in Austrian Silesia + when they are about to cut the last standing corn, whatever the + kind of grain may be.<a id="noteref_959" name="noteref_959" href= + "#note_959"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">959</span></span></a> In + the Bocage of Normandy, when the reapers have come to the last ears + of the last rig, they surround them for the purpose of catching the + quail, which is supposed to have taken refuge there. They run about + the corn crying, <span class="tei tei-q">“Mind the Quail!”</span> + and make believe to grab at the bird amid shouts and + laughter.<a id="noteref_960" name="noteref_960" href= + "#note_960"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">960</span></span></a> + Connected with this identification of the corn-spirit with a quail + is probably the belief that the cry of the bird in spring is + prophetic of the price of corn in the autumn; in Germany they say + that corn will sell at as many gulden a bushel as the quail uttered + its cry over the fields in spring. Similar prognostications are + drawn from the note of the bird in central and western France, in + Switzerland and in Tuscany.<a id="noteref_961" name="noteref_961" + href="#note_961"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">961</span></span></a> + Perhaps one reason for identifying the quail with the corn-spirit + is that the bird lays its eggs on the ground, without making much + of a nest.<a id="noteref_962" name="noteref_962" href= + "#note_962"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">962</span></span></a> + Similarly the Toradjas of Central Celebes think that the soul of + the rice is embodied in a pretty little blue bird which builds its + nest in the rice-field at the time when the rice is beginning to + germinate, and which disappears again after the harvest. Thus both + the place and the time of the appearance of the bird suggest to the + natives the notion that the blue bird is the rice incarnate. And + like the note of the quail in Europe the note of this <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page296">[pg 296]</span><a name="Pg296" id="Pg296" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> little bird in Celebes is believed to + prognosticate the state of the harvest, foretelling whether the + rice will be abundant or scarce. Nobody may drive the bird away; to + do so would not merely injure the rice, it would hurt the eyes of + the sacrilegious person and might even strike him blind. In + Minahassa, a district in the north of Celebes, a similar though + less definite belief attaches to a sort of small quail which loves + to haunt the rice-fields before the rice is reaped; and when the + Galelareeze of Halmahera hear a certain kind of bird, which they + call <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">togè</span></span>, croaking among the rice in + ear, they say that the bird is putting the grain into the rice, so + they will not kill it.<a id="noteref_963" name="noteref_963" href= + "#note_963"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">963</span></span></a></p> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em"> + <a name="toc57" id="toc57"></a> <a name="pdf58" id="pdf58"></a> + + <h2 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em"> + <span style="font-size: 144%">§ 10. The Corn-spirit as a + Fox.</span></h2> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The corn-spirit as a fox running + through the corn or sitting in it. The corn-spirit as a fox at + reaping the last corn. The corn-spirit as a fox at threshing. + The Japanese rice-god associated with the fox.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Another animal + whose shape the corn-spirit is sometimes thought to assume is the + fox. The conception is recorded at various places in Germany and + France. Thus at Nördlingen in Bavaria, when the corn waves to and + fro in the wind, they say, <span class="tei tei-q">“The fox goes + through the corn,”</span> and at Usingen in Nassau they say, + <span class="tei tei-q">“The foxes are marching through the + corn.”</span> At Ravensberg, in Westphalia, and at Steinau, in + Kurhessen, children are warned against straying in the corn, + <span class="tei tei-q">“because the Fox is there.”</span> At + Campe, near Stade, when they are about to cut the last corn, they + call out to the reaper, <span class="tei tei-q">“The Fox is sitting + there, hold him fast!”</span> In the Department of the Moselle they + say, <span class="tei tei-q">“Watch whether the Fox comes + out.”</span> In Bourbonnais the expression is, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“You will catch the Fox.”</span> When a reaper wounds + himself or is sick at reaping, they say in the Lower Loire that + <span class="tei tei-q">“He has the Fox.”</span> In Côte-d'or they + say, <span class="tei tei-q">“He has killed the Fox.”</span> At + Louhans, in Sâone-et-Loire, when the reapers are cutting the last + corn they leave a handful standing and throw their sickles at it. + He who hits it is called the Fox, and two girls deck his bonnet + with flowers. <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page297">[pg + 297]</span><a name="Pg297" id="Pg297" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + In the evening there is a dance, at which the Fox dances with all + the girls. The supper which follows is also called the Fox; they + say, <span class="tei tei-q">“We have eaten the Fox,”</span> + meaning that they have partaken of the harvest-supper. In the + Canton of Zurich the last sheaf is called the Fox. At Bourgogne, in + Ain, they cry out, <span class="tei tei-q">“The Fox is sitting in + the last sheaf,”</span> and having made the figure of an animal out + of white cloth and some ears of the last corn, they dub it the Fox + and throw it into the house of a neighbour who has not yet got in + all his harvest.<a id="noteref_964" name="noteref_964" href= + "#note_964"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">964</span></span></a> In + Poitou, when the corn is being reaped in a district, all the + reapers strive to finish as quickly as possible in order that they + may send <span class="tei tei-q">“the Fox”</span> to the fields of + a farmer who has not yet garnered his sheaves. The man who cuts the + last handful of standing corn is said to <span class= + "tei tei-q">“have the Fox.”</span> This last handful is carried to + the farmer's house and occupies a place on the table during the + harvest-supper; and the custom is to drench it with water. After + that it is set up on the chimney-piece and remains there the whole + year.<a id="noteref_965" name="noteref_965" href= + "#note_965"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">965</span></span></a> At + threshing, also, in Sâone-et-Loire, the last sheaf is called the + Fox; in Lot they say, <span class="tei tei-q">“We are going to beat + the Fox”</span>; and at Zabern in Alsace they set a stuffed fox + before the door of the threshing-floor of a neighbour who has not + finished his threshing.<a id="noteref_966" name="noteref_966" href= + "#note_966"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">966</span></span></a> With + this conception of the fox as an embodiment of the corn-spirit may + possibly be connected an old custom, observed in Holstein and + Westphalia, of carrying a dead or living fox from house to house in + spring; the intention of the custom was perhaps to diffuse the + refreshing and invigorating influence of the reawakened spirit of + vegetation.<a id="noteref_967" name="noteref_967" href= + "#note_967"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">967</span></span></a> In + Japan the rice-god Inari is represented as an elderly man with a + long beard riding on a white fox, and the fox is always associated + with this deity. In front of his shrines may usually be seen a pair + of foxes carved in wood or stone.<a id="noteref_968" name= + "noteref_968" href="#note_968"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">968</span></span></a></p> + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page298">[pg 298]</span><a name= + "Pg298" id="Pg298" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em"> + <a name="toc59" id="toc59"></a> <a name="pdf60" id="pdf60"></a> + + <h2 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em"> + <span style="font-size: 144%">§ 11. The Corn-spirit as a Pig (Boar + or Sow).</span></h2> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The corn-spirit as a boar rushing + through the corn. The corn-spirit as a boar or sow at reaping. + The corn-spirit as a sow at threshing.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The last animal + embodiment of the corn-spirit which we shall notice is the pig + (boar or sow). In Thüringen, when the wind sets the young corn in + motion, they sometimes say, <span class="tei tei-q">“The Boar is + rushing through the corn.”</span><a id="noteref_969" name= + "noteref_969" href="#note_969"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">969</span></span></a> + Amongst the Esthonians of the island of Oesel the last sheaf is + called the Rye-boar, and the man who gets it is saluted with a cry + of <span class="tei tei-q">“You have the Rye-boar on your + back!”</span> In reply he strikes up a song, in which he prays for + plenty.<a id="noteref_970" name="noteref_970" href= + "#note_970"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">970</span></span></a> At + Kohlerwinkel, near Augsburg, at the close of the harvest, the last + bunch of standing corn is cut down, stalk by stalk, by all the + reapers in turn. He who cuts the last stalk <span class= + "tei tei-q">“gets the Sow,”</span> and is laughed at.<a id= + "noteref_971" name="noteref_971" href="#note_971"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">971</span></span></a> In + other Swabian villages also the man who cuts the last corn + <span class="tei tei-q">“has the Sow,”</span> or <span class= + "tei tei-q">“has the Rye-sow.”</span><a id="noteref_972" name= + "noteref_972" href="#note_972"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">972</span></span></a> In + the Traunstein district, Upper Bavaria, the man who cuts the last + handful of rye or wheat <span class="tei tei-q">“has the + Sow,”</span> and is called Sow-driver.<a id="noteref_973" name= + "noteref_973" href="#note_973"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">973</span></span></a> At + Bohlingen, near Radolfzell in Baden, the last sheaf is called the + Rye-sow or the Wheat-sow, according to the crop; and at Röhrenbach + in Baden the person who brings the last armful for the last sheaf + is called the Corn-sow or the Oats-sow. And in the south-east of + Baden the thresher who gives the last stroke at threshing, or is + the last to hang up his flail on the wall, is called the Sow or the + Rye-sow.<a id="noteref_974" name="noteref_974" href= + "#note_974"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">974</span></span></a> At + Friedingen, in Swabia, the thresher who gives the last stroke is + called Sow—Barley-sow, Corn-sow, or the like, according to the + crop. <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page299">[pg 299]</span><a name= + "Pg299" id="Pg299" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> At Onstmettingen the + man who gives the last stroke at threshing <span class= + "tei tei-q">“has the Sow”</span>; he is often bound up in a sheaf + and dragged by a rope along the ground.<a id="noteref_975" name= + "noteref_975" href="#note_975"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">975</span></span></a> And, + generally, in Swabia the man who gives the last stroke with the + flail is called Sow. He may, however, rid himself of this invidious + distinction by passing on to a neighbour the straw-rope, which is + the badge of his position as Sow. So he goes to a house and throws + the straw-rope into it, crying, <span class="tei tei-q">“There, I + bring you the Sow.”</span> All the inmates give chase; and if they + catch him they beat him, shut him up for several hours in the + pig-sty, and oblige him to take the <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Sow”</span> away again.<a id="noteref_976" name= + "noteref_976" href="#note_976"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">976</span></span></a> In + various parts of Upper Bavaria the man who gives the last stroke at + threshing must <span class="tei tei-q">“carry the Pig”</span>—that + is, either a straw effigy of a pig or merely a bundle of + straw-ropes. This he carries to a neighbouring farm where the + threshing is not finished, and throws it into the barn. If the + threshers catch him they handle him roughly, beating him, + blackening or dirtying his face, throwing him into filth, binding + the Sow on his back, and so on; if the bearer of the Sow is a woman + they cut off her hair. At the harvest supper or dinner the man who + <span class="tei tei-q">“carried the Pig”</span> gets one or more + dumplings made in the form of pigs; sometimes he gets a large + dumpling and a number of small ones, all in pig form, the large one + being called the sow and the small ones the sucking-pigs. Sometimes + he has the right to be the first to put his hand into the dish and + take out as many small dumplings (<span class= + "tei tei-q">“sucking-pigs”</span>) as he can, while the other + threshers strike at his hand with spoons or sticks. When the + dumplings are served up by the maid-servant, all the people at + table cry <span class="tei tei-q">“Süz, süz, süz!”</span> that + being the cry used in calling pigs. Sometimes after dinner the man + who <span class="tei tei-q">“carried the Pig”</span> has his face + blackened, and is set on a cart and drawn round the village by his + fellows, followed by a crowd crying <span class="tei tei-q">“Süz, + süz, süz!”</span> as if they were calling swine. Sometimes, after + being wheeled round the village, he is flung on the dunghill.<a id= + "noteref_977" name="noteref_977" href="#note_977"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">977</span></span></a></p><span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page300">[pg 300]</span><a name="Pg300" id="Pg300" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The corn-spirit as a pig at + sowing.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Again, the + corn-spirit in the form of a pig plays his part at sowing-time as + well as at harvest At Neuautz, in Courland, when barley is sown for + the first time in the year, the farmer's wife boils the chine of a + pig along with the tail, and brings it to the sower on the field. + He eats of it, but cuts off the tail and sticks it in the field; it + is believed that the ears of corn will then grow as long as the + tail.<a id="noteref_978" name="noteref_978" href= + "#note_978"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">978</span></span></a> Here + the pig is the corn-spirit, whose fertilising power is sometimes + supposed to lie especially in his tail.<a id="noteref_979" name= + "noteref_979" href="#note_979"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">979</span></span></a> As a + pig he is put in the ground at sowing-time, and as a pig he + reappears amongst the ripe corn at harvest. For amongst the + neighbouring Esthonians, as we have seen,<a id="noteref_980" name= + "noteref_980" href="#note_980"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">980</span></span></a> the + last sheaf is called the Rye-boar. Somewhat similar customs are + observed in Germany. In the Salza district, near Meiningen, a + certain bone in the pig is called <span class="tei tei-q">“the Jew + on the winnowing-fan.”</span> The flesh of this bone is boiled on + Shrove Tuesday, but the bone is put amongst the ashes which the + neighbours exchange as presents on St. Peter's Day (the + twenty-second of February), and then mix with the seed-corn.<a id= + "noteref_981" name="noteref_981" href="#note_981"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">981</span></span></a> In + the whole of Hesse, Meiningen, and other districts, people eat + pea-soup with dried pig-ribs on Ash Wednesday or Candlemas. The + ribs are then collected and hung in the room till sowing-time, when + they are inserted in the sown field or in the seed-bag amongst the + flax seed. This is thought to be an infallible specific against + earth-fleas and moles, and to cause the flax to grow well and + tall.<a id="noteref_982" name="noteref_982" href= + "#note_982"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">982</span></span></a> In + many parts of White Russia people eat a roast lamb or sucking-pig + at Easter, and then throw the bones backwards upon the fields, to + preserve the corn from hail.<a id="noteref_983" name="noteref_983" + href="#note_983"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">983</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The corn-spirit embodied in the + Yule Boar of Scandinavia. The Yule straw in Sweden.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But the idea of + the corn-spirit as embodied in pig form is nowhere more clearly + expressed than in the Scandinavian custom of the Yule Boar. In + Sweden and Denmark at Yule (Christmas) it is the custom to bake a + loaf in the form of a boar-pig. This is called the Yule Boar. The + corn of <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page301">[pg + 301]</span><a name="Pg301" id="Pg301" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + the last sheaf is often used to make it. All through Yule the Yule + Boar stands on the table. Often it is kept till the sowing-time in + spring, when part of it is mixed with the seed-corn and part given + to the ploughmen and plough-horses or plough-oxen to eat, in the + expectation of a good harvest.<a id="noteref_984" name= + "noteref_984" href="#note_984"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">984</span></span></a> In + this custom the corn-spirit, immanent in the last sheaf, appears at + midwinter in the form of a boar made from the corn of the last + sheaf; and his quickening influence on the corn is shewn by mixing + part of the Yule Boar with the seed-corn, and giving part of it to + the ploughman and his cattle to eat. Similarly we saw that the + Corn-wolf makes his appearance at midwinter, the time when the year + begins to verge towards spring.<a id="noteref_985" name= + "noteref_985" href="#note_985"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">985</span></span></a> We + may conjecture that the Yule straw, which Swedish peasants turn to + various superstitious uses, comes, in part at least, from the sheaf + out of which the Yule Boar is made. The Yule straw is long + rye-straw, a portion of which is always set apart for this season. + It is strewn over the floor at Christmas, and the peasants + attribute many virtues to it. For example, they think that some of + it scattered on the ground will make a barren field productive. + Again, the peasant at Christmas seats himself on a log; and his + eldest son or daughter, or the mother herself, if the children are + not old enough, places a wisp of the Yule straw on his knee. From + this he draws out single straws, and throws them, one by one, up to + the ceiling; and as many as lodge in the rafters, so many will be + the sheaves of rye he will have to thresh at harvest.<a id= + "noteref_986" name="noteref_986" href="#note_986"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">986</span></span></a> + Again, it is only the Yule straw which may be used in binding the + fruit-trees as a charm to fertilise them.<a id="noteref_987" name= + "noteref_987" href="#note_987"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">987</span></span></a> These + uses of the Yule straw shew that it is believed to possess + fertilising virtues analogous to those ascribed to the Yule Boar; + we may therefore fairly conjecture that the Yule straw is + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page302">[pg 302]</span><a name= + "Pg302" id="Pg302" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> made from the same + sheaf as the Yule Boar. Formerly a real boar was sacrificed at + Christmas,<a id="noteref_988" name="noteref_988" href= + "#note_988"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">988</span></span></a> and + apparently also a man in the character of the Yule Boar. This, at + least, may perhaps be inferred from a Christmas custom still + observed in Sweden. A man is wrapt up in a skin, and carries a wisp + of straw in his mouth, so that the projecting straws look like the + bristles of a boar. A knife is brought, and an old woman, with her + face blackened, pretends to sacrifice him.<a id="noteref_989" name= + "noteref_989" href="#note_989"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">989</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The Christmas Boar among the + Esthonians.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">On Christmas Eve + in some parts of the Esthonian island of Oesel they bake a long + cake with the two ends turned up. It is called the Christmas Boar, + and stands on the table till the morning of New Year's Day, when it + is distributed among the cattle. In other parts of the island the + Christmas Boar is not a cake but a little pig born in March, which + the housewife fattens secretly, often without the knowledge of the + other members of the family. On Christmas Eve the little pig is + secretly killed, then roasted in the oven, and set on the table + standing on all fours, where it remains in this posture for several + days. In other parts of the island, again, though the Christmas + cake has neither the name nor the shape of a boar, it is kept till + the New Year, when half of it is divided among all the members and + all the quadrupeds of the family. The other half of the cake is + kept till sowing-time comes round, when it is similarly distributed + in the morning among human beings and beasts.<a id="noteref_990" + name="noteref_990" href="#note_990"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">990</span></span></a> In + other parts of Esthonia, again, the Christmas Boar, as it is + called, is baked of the first rye cut at harvest; it has a conical + shape and a cross is impressed on it with a pig's bone or a key, or + three dints are made in it with a buckle or a piece of charcoal. It + stands with a light beside it on the table all through the festal + season. On New Year's Day and Epiphany, before sunrise, a little of + the cake is crumbled with salt and given to the cattle. The rest is + kept till the day when the cattle are driven out to pasture for the + first time in spring. It is then put in the <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page303">[pg 303]</span><a name="Pg303" id="Pg303" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> herdsman's bag, and at evening is + divided among the cattle to guard them from magic and harm. In some + places the Christmas Boar is partaken of by farm-servants and + cattle at the time of the barley sowing, for the purpose of thereby + producing a heavier crop.<a id="noteref_991" name="noteref_991" + href="#note_991"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">991</span></span></a></p> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em"> + <a name="toc61" id="toc61"></a> <a name="pdf62" id="pdf62"></a> + + <h2 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 2.88em; margin-top: 2.88em"> + <span style="font-size: 144%">§ 12. On the Animal Embodiments of + the Corn-spirit.</span></h2> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Sacramental character of the + harvest-supper.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">So much for the + animal embodiments of the corn-spirit as they are presented to us + in the folk-customs of Northern Europe. These customs bring out + clearly the sacramental character of the harvest-supper. The + corn-spirit is conceived as embodied in an animal; this divine + animal is slain, and its flesh and blood are partaken of by the + harvesters. Thus, the cock, the goose, the hare, the cat, the goat, + and the ox are eaten sacramentally by the harvesters, and the pig + is eaten sacramentally by ploughmen in spring.<a id="noteref_992" + name="noteref_992" href="#note_992"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">992</span></span></a> + Again, as a substitute for the real flesh of the divine being, + bread or dumplings are made in his image and eaten sacramentally; + thus, pig-shaped dumplings are eaten by the harvesters, and loaves + made in boar-shape (the Yule Boar) are eaten in spring by the + ploughman and his cattle.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Parallelism between the + conceptions of the corn-spirit in human and animal + forms.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The reader has + probably remarked the complete parallelism between the conceptions + of the corn-spirit in human and in animal form. The parallel may be + here briefly resumed. When the corn waves in the wind it is said + either that the Corn-mother or that the Corn-wolf, etc., is passing + through the corn. Children are warned against straying in + corn-fields either because the Corn-mother or because the + Corn-wolf, etc., is there. In the last corn cut or the last sheaf + threshed either the Corn-mother or the Corn-wolf, etc., is supposed + to be present. The last sheaf is itself called either the + Corn-mother or the Corn-wolf, etc., and is made up in the shape + either of a woman or of a wolf, etc. The person who cuts, binds, or + threshes the last sheaf is called either the Old Woman or the Wolf, + etc., according to <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page304">[pg + 304]</span><a name="Pg304" id="Pg304" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + the name bestowed on the sheaf itself. As in some places a sheaf + made in human form and called the Maiden, the Mother of the Maize, + etc., is kept from one harvest to the next in order to secure a + continuance of the corn-spirit's blessing; so in some places the + Harvest-cock and in others the flesh of the goat is kept for a + similar purpose from one harvest to the next. As in some places the + grain taken from the Corn-mother is mixed with the seed-corn in + spring to make the crop abundant; so in some places the feathers of + the cock, and in Sweden the Yule Boar, are kept till spring and + mixed with the seed-corn for a like purpose. As part of the + Corn-mother or Maiden is given to the cattle at Christmas or to the + horses at the first ploughing, so part of the Yule Boar is given to + the ploughing horses or oxen in spring. Lastly, the death of the + corn-spirit is represented by killing or pretending to kill either + his human or his animal representative; and the worshippers partake + sacramentally either of the actual body and blood of the + representative of the divinity, or of bread made in his + likeness.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The reason why the corn-spirit is + thought to take the forms of so many animals may be that wild + creatures are commonly penned by the advance of the reapers + into the last patch of standing corn, which is usually regarded + as the last refuge of the corn-spirit.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Other animal + forms assumed by the corn-spirit are the stag, roe, sheep, bear, + ass, mouse, stork, swan, and kite.<a id="noteref_993" name= + "noteref_993" href="#note_993"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">993</span></span></a> If it + is asked why the corn-spirit should be thought to appear in the + form of an animal and of so many different animals, we may reply + that to primitive man the simple appearance of an animal or bird + among the corn is probably enough to suggest a mysterious link + between the creature and the corn; and when we remember that in the + old days, before fields were fenced in, all kinds of animals must + have been free to roam over them, we need not wonder that the + corn-spirit should have been identified even with large animals + like the horse and cow, which nowadays could not, except by a rare + accident, be found straying in an English corn-field. This + explanation applies with peculiar force to the very common case in + which the animal embodiment of the corn-spirit is believed to lurk + in the last standing corn. For at harvest a number of wild animals, + such as hares, rabbits, and partridges, are commonly driven by the + progress of the reaping into the last patch of standing corn, and + make their escape from it as it is being cut down. So <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page305">[pg 305]</span><a name="Pg305" id="Pg305" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> regularly does this happen that reapers + and others often stand round the last patch of corn armed with + sticks or guns, with which they kill the animals as they dart out + of their last refuge among the stalks. Now, primitive man, to whom + magical changes of shape seem perfectly credible, finds it most + natural that the spirit of the corn, driven from his home in the + ripe grain, should make his escape in the form of the animal which + is seen to rush out of the last patch of corn as it falls under the + scythe of the reaper. Thus the identification of the corn-spirit + with an animal is analogous to the identification of him with a + passing stranger. As the sudden appearance of a stranger near the + harvest-field or threshing-floor is, to the primitive mind, enough + to identify him as the spirit of the corn escaping from the cut or + threshed corn, so the sudden appearance of an animal issuing from + the cut corn is enough to identify it with the corn-spirit escaping + from his ruined home. The two identifications are so analogous that + they can hardly be dissociated in any attempt to explain them. + Those who look to some other principle than the one here suggested + for the explanation of the latter identification are bound to shew + that their theory covers the former identification also.</p> + </div> + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page307">[pg 307]</span><a name= + "Pg307" id="Pg307" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + <hr class="page" /> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> + <a name="toc63" id="toc63"></a> <a name="pdf64" id="pdf64"></a> + + <h1 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"> + <span style="font-size: 173%">Note. The Pleiades in Primitive + Calendars.</span></h1> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Importance of the Pleiades in + primitive calendars.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The constellation + of the Pleiades plays an important part in the calendar of primitive + peoples, both in the northern and in the southern hemisphere; indeed + for reasons which at first sight are not obvious savages appear to + have paid more attention to this constellation than to any other + group of stars in the sky, and in particular they have commonly timed + the various operations of the agricultural year by observation of its + heliacal rising or setting. Some evidence on the subject was adduced + by the late Dr. Richard Andree,<a id="noteref_994" name="noteref_994" + href="#note_994"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">994</span></span></a> but + much more exists, and it may be worth while to put certain of the + facts together.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Attention paid to the Pleiades by + the Australian aborigines.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In the first place + it deserves to be noticed that great attention has been paid to the + Pleiades by savages in the southern hemisphere who do not till the + ground, and who therefore lack that incentive to observe the stars + which is possessed by peoples in the agricultural stage of society; + for we can scarcely doubt that in early ages the practical need of + ascertaining the proper seasons for sowing and planting has done more + than mere speculative curiosity to foster a knowledge of astronomy by + compelling savages to scrutinise the great celestial clock for + indications of the time of year. Now amongst the rudest of savages + known to us are the Australian aborigines, none of whom in their + native state ever practised agriculture. Yet we are told that + <span class="tei tei-q">“they do, according to their manner, worship + the hosts of heaven, and believe particular constellations rule + natural causes. For such they have names, and sing and dance to gain + the favour of the Pleiades (<span class= + "tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">Mormodellick</span></span>), + the constellation worshipped by one body as the giver of rain; but if + it should be deferred, instead of blessings curses are apt to be + bestowed upon it.”</span><a id="noteref_995" name="noteref_995" href= + "#note_995"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">995</span></span></a> + According to a writer, whose evidence on <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page308">[pg 308]</span><a name="Pg308" id="Pg308" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> other matters of Australian beliefs is open to + grave doubt, some of the aborigines of New South Wales denied that + the sun is the source of heat, because he shines also in winter when + the weather is cold; the real cause of warm weather they held to be + the Pleiades, because as the summer heat increases, that + constellation rises higher and higher in the sky, reaching its + greatest elevation in the height of summer, and gradually sinking + again in autumn as the days grow cooler, till in winter it is either + barely visible or lost to view altogether.<a id="noteref_996" name= + "noteref_996" href="#note_996"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">996</span></span></a> Another + writer, who was well acquainted with the natives of Victoria in the + early days of the colony and whose testimony can be relied upon, + tells us that an old chief of the Spring Creek tribe <span class= + "tei tei-q">“taught the young people the names of the favourite + planets and constellations, as indications of the seasons. For + example, when Canopus is a very little above the horizon in the east + at daybreak, the season for emu eggs has come; when the Pleiades are + visible in the east an hour before sunrise, the time for visiting + friends and neighbouring tribes is at hand.”</span><a id= + "noteref_997" name="noteref_997" href="#note_997"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">997</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Attention paid to the Pleiades by + the Indians of Paraguay and Brazil.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Again, the + Abipones of Paraguay, who neither sowed nor reaped,<a id= + "noteref_998" name="noteref_998" href="#note_998"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">998</span></span></a> + nevertheless regarded the Pleiades as an image of their ancestor. As + that constellation is invisible in the sky of South America for + several months every year, the Abipones believed that their ancestor + was then sick, and they were dreadfully afraid that he would die. But + when the constellation reappeared in the month of May, they saluted + the return of their ancestor with joyous shouts and the glad music of + flutes and horns, and they congratulated him on his recovery from + sickness. Next day they all went out to collect wild honey, from + which they brewed a favourite beverage. Then at sunset they feasted + and kept up the revelry all night by the <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page309">[pg 309]</span><a name="Pg309" id="Pg309" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> light of torches, while a sorceress, who + presided at the festivity, shook her rattle and danced. But the + proceedings were perfectly decorous; the sexes did not mix with each + other.<a id="noteref_999" name="noteref_999" href= + "#note_999"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">999</span></span></a> The + Mocobis of Paraguay also looked upon the Pleiades as their father and + creator.<a id="noteref_1000" name="noteref_1000" href= + "#note_1000"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">1000</span></span></a> The + Guaycurus of the Gran Chaco used to rejoice greatly at the + reappearance of the Pleiades. On this occasion they held a festival + at which men and women, boys and girls all beat each other soundly, + believing that this brought them health, abundance, and victory over + their enemies.<a id="noteref_1001" name="noteref_1001" href= + "#note_1001"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">1001</span></span></a> + Amongst the Lengua Indians of Paraguay at the present day the rising + of the Pleiades is connected with the beginning of spring, and feasts + are held at this time, generally of a markedly immoral + character.<a id="noteref_1002" name="noteref_1002" href= + "#note_1002"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">1002</span></span></a> The + Guaranis of Paraguay knew the time of sowing by observation of the + Pleiades;<a id="noteref_1003" name="noteref_1003" href= + "#note_1003"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">1003</span></span></a> they + are said to have revered the constellation and to have dated the + beginning of their year from the rising of the constellation in + May.<a id="noteref_1004" name="noteref_1004" href= + "#note_1004"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">1004</span></span></a> The + Tapuiyas, formerly a numerous and warlike tribe of Brazil, hailed the + rising of the Pleiades with great respect, and worshipped the + constellation with songs and dances.<a id="noteref_1005" name= + "noteref_1005" href="#note_1005"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">1005</span></span></a> The + Indians of north-western Brazil, an agricultural people who subsist + mainly by the cultivation of manioc, determine the time for their + various field labours by the position of certain constellations, + especially the Pleiades; when that constellation has sunk beneath the + horizon, the regular, heavy rains set in.<a id="noteref_1006" name= + "noteref_1006" href="#note_1006"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">1006</span></span></a> The + Omagua Indians of Brazil ascribe to the Pleiades a special influence + on human destiny.<a id="noteref_1007" name="noteref_1007" href= + "#note_1007"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">1007</span></span></a> A + Brazilian name for the Pleiades is <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Cyiuce</span></span>, + that is, <span class="tei tei-q">“Mother of those who are + thirsty.”</span> The constellation, we are told, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“is known to the Indians of the whole of Brasil and + appears to be even worshipped by some tribes in Matto Grosso. In the + valley of the Amazon a number of popular sayings are current about + it. Thus they say that in the first days of its appearance in the + firmament, while it is still low, the birds and especially the fowls + sleep on the lower branches or perches, and that just as it rises so + do they; that it brings much cold and rain; that when the + constellation vanishes, the serpents lose their venom; that the reeds + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page310">[pg 310]</span><a name="Pg310" + id="Pg310" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> used in making arrows must be + cut before the appearance of the Pleiades, else they will be + worm-eaten. According to the legend the Pleiades disappear in May and + reappear in June. Their reappearance coincides with the renewal of + vegetation and of animal life. Hence the legend relates that + everything which appears before the constellation is renewed, that + is, the appearance of the Pleiades, marks the beginning of + spring.”</span><a id="noteref_1008" name="noteref_1008" href= + "#note_1008"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">1008</span></span></a> The + Indians of the Orinoco called the Pleiades <span class= + "tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Ucasu</span></span> or <span class= + "tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Cacasau</span></span>, according to their + dialect, and they dated the beginning of their year from the time + when these stars are visible in the east after sunset.<a id= + "noteref_1009" name="noteref_1009" href="#note_1009"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">1009</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Attention paid to the Pleiades by + the Indians of Peru and Mexico.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">By the Indians of + Peru <span class="tei tei-q">“the Pleiades were called <span class= + "tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Collca</span></span> (the maize-heap): in this + constellation the Peruvians both of the sierra and the coast beheld + the prototype of their cherished stores of corn. It made their maize + to grow, and was worshipped accordingly.”</span><a id="noteref_1010" + name="noteref_1010" href="#note_1010"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">1010</span></span></a> When + the Pleiades appeared above the horizon on or about Corpus Christi + Day, these Indians celebrated their chief festival of the year and + adored the constellation <span class="tei tei-q">“in order that the + maize might not dry up.”</span><a id="noteref_1011" name= + "noteref_1011" href="#note_1011"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">1011</span></span></a> + Adjoining the great temple of the Sun at Cuzco there was a cloister + with halls opening off it. One of these halls was dedicated to the + Moon, and another to the planet Venus, the Pleiades, and all the + other stars. The Incas venerated the Pleiades because of their + curious position and the symmetry of their shape.<a id="noteref_1012" + name="noteref_1012" href="#note_1012"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">1012</span></span></a> The + tribes of Vera Cruz, on the coast of Mexico, dated the beginning of + their year from the heliacal setting of the Pleiades, which in the + latitude of Vera Cruz (19° N.) in the year 1519 fell on the first of + May of the Gregorian calendar.<a id="noteref_1013" name= + "noteref_1013" href="#note_1013"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">1013</span></span></a> The + Aztecs appear to have attached great importance to the Pleiades, for + they timed the most solemn and impressive of all their religious + ceremonies so as to coincide with the moment when that constellation + was in the middle of the sky at midnight. The ceremony consisted in + kindling a sacred new fire on the breast of a human victim on the + last night of a great period of fifty-two years. They expected that + at the close of one of these periods the stars would cease to revolve + and the world itself would come to an end. Hence, when the critical + moment approached, <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page311">[pg + 311]</span><a name="Pg311" id="Pg311" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> the + priests watched from the top of a mountain the movement of the stars, + and especially of the Pleiades, with the utmost anxiety. When that + constellation was seen to cross the meridian, great was the joy; for + they knew that the world was respited for another fifty-two years. + Immediately the bravest and handsomest of the captives was thrown + down on his back; a board of dry wood was placed on his breast, and + one of the priests made fire by twirling a stick between his hands on + the board. As soon as the flame burst forth, the breast of the victim + was cut open, his heart was torn out, and together with the rest of + his body was thrown into the fire. Runners carried the new fire at + full speed to all parts of the kingdom to rekindle the cold hearths; + for every fire throughout the country had been extinguished as a + preparation for this solemn rite.<a id="noteref_1014" name= + "noteref_1014" href="#note_1014"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">1014</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Attention paid to the Pleiades by + the North American Indians.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The Blackfeet + Indians of North America <span class="tei tei-q">“know and observe + the Pleiades, and regulate their most important feast by those stars. + About the first and the last days of the occultation of the Pleiades + there is a sacred feast among the Blackfeet. The mode of observance + is national, the whole of the tribe turning out for the celebration + of its rites, which include two sacred vigils, the solemn blessing + and planting of the seed. It is the opening of the agricultural + season.... In all highly religious feasts the calumet, or pipe, is + always presented towards the Pleiades, with invocation for + life-giving goods. The women swear by the Pleiades as the men do by + the sun or the morning star.”</span> At the general meeting of the + nation there is a dance of warriors, which is supposed to represent + the dance of the seven young men who are identified with the + Pleiades. For the Indians say that the seven stars of the + constellation were seven brothers, who guarded by night the field of + sacred seed and danced round it to keep themselves awake during the + long hours of darkness.<a id="noteref_1015" name="noteref_1015" href= + "#note_1015"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">1015</span></span></a> + According to another legend told by the Blackfeet, the Pleiades are + six children, who were so ashamed because they had no little yellow + hides of buffalo calves that they wandered away on the plains and + were at last taken up into the sky. <span class="tei tei-q">“They are + not seen during the moon, when the buffalo calves are yellow (spring, + the time of their shame), but, every year, when the calves turn brown + (autumn), the lost children can be seen in the sky every + night.”</span><a id="noteref_1016" name="noteref_1016" href= + "#note_1016"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">1016</span></span></a> This + version of the myth, it will be observed, recognises <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page312">[pg 312]</span><a name="Pg312" id="Pg312" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> only six stars in the constellation, and + many savages apparently see no more, which speaks ill for the + keenness of their vision; since among ourselves persons endowed with + unusually good sight are able, I understand, to discern seven. Among + the Pueblo Indians of Tusayan, an ancient province of Arizona, the + culmination of the Pleiades is often used to determine the proper + time for beginning a sacred nocturnal rite, especially an invocation + addressed to the six deities who are believed to rule the six + quarters of the world. The writer who records this fact adds: + <span class="tei tei-q">“I cannot explain its significance, and why + of all stellar objects this minute cluster of stars of a low + magnitude is more important than other stellar groups is not clear to + me.”</span><a id="noteref_1017" name="noteref_1017" href= + "#note_1017"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">1017</span></span></a> If the + Pueblo Indians see only six stars in the cluster, as to which I + cannot speak, it might seem to them a reason for assigning one of the + stars to each of the six quarters, namely, north, south, east, west, + above, and below.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Attention paid to the Pleiades by + the Polynesians.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The Society + Islanders in the South Pacific divided the year into two seasons, + which they determined by observation of the Pleiades. <span class= + "tei tei-q">“The first they called <span class= + "tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">Matarii i + nia</span></span>, Pleiades above. It commenced when, in the evening, + these stars appeared on or near the horizon; and the half year, + during which, immediately after sunset, they were seen above the + horizon, was called <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Matarii i nia</span></span>. The other season + commenced when, at sunset, the stars were invisible, and continued + until at that hour they appeared again above the horizon. This season + was called <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Matarii i raro</span></span>, Pleiades + below.”</span><a id="noteref_1018" name="noteref_1018" href= + "#note_1018"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">1018</span></span></a> In the + Hervey Islands of the South Pacific it is said that the constellation + was originally a single star, which was shattered into six fragments + by the god Tane. <span class="tei tei-q">“This cluster of little + stars is appropriately named Mata-riki or <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">little-eyes</span></em>, on account of their + brightness. It is also designated Tau-ono, or <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">the-six</span></em>, + on account of the apparent number of the fragments; the presence of + the seventh star not having been detected by the unassisted native + eye.”</span><a id="noteref_1019" name="noteref_1019" href= + "#note_1019"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">1019</span></span></a> Among + these islanders the arrival of the new year was indicated by the + appearance of the constellation on the eastern horizon just after + sunset, that is, about the middle of December. <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Hence the idolatrous worship paid to this beautiful + cluster of stars in many of the South Sea Islands. The Pleiades were + worshipped at Danger Island, and at the Penrhyns, down to the + introduction of Christianity in 1857. In many islands extravagant joy + is still manifested at the rising of this constellation out of the + ocean.”</span><a id="noteref_1020" name="noteref_1020" href= + "#note_1020"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">1020</span></span></a> For + example, in Manahiki or Humphrey's Island, South Pacific, + <span class="tei tei-q">“when the constellation Pleiades was seen + there was unusual joy all over the month, and expressed by singing, + dancing, <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page313">[pg + 313]</span><a name="Pg313" id="Pg313" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> and + blowing-shell trumpets.”</span><a id="noteref_1021" name= + "noteref_1021" href="#note_1021"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">1021</span></span></a> So the + Maoris of New Zealand, another Polynesian people of the South + Pacific, divided the year into moons and determined the first moon by + the rising of the Pleiades, which they called <span class= + "tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Matariki</span></span>.<a id="noteref_1022" + name="noteref_1022" href="#note_1022"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">1022</span></span></a> Indeed + throughout Polynesia the rising of the Pleiades (variously known as + Matariki, Mataliki, Matalii, Makalii, etc.) seems to have marked the + beginning of the year.<a id="noteref_1023" name="noteref_1023" href= + "#note_1023"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">1023</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Attention paid to the Pleiades by + the Melanesians.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Among some of the + Melanesians also the Pleiades occupy an important position in the + calendar. <span class="tei tei-q">“The Banks' islanders and Northern + New Hebrides people content themselves with distinguishing the + Pleiades, by which the approach of yam harvest is + marked.”</span><a id="noteref_1024" name="noteref_1024" href= + "#note_1024"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">1024</span></span></a> + <span class="tei tei-q">“Amongst the constellations, the Pleiades and + Orion's belt seem to be those which are most familiar to the natives + of Bougainville Straits. The former, which they speak of as + possessing six stars, they name <span class= + "tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Vuhu</span></span>; the latter <span class= + "tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Matatala</span></span>. They have also names for + a few other stars. As in the case of many other savage races, the + Pleiades is a constellation of great significance with the + inhabitants of these straits. The Treasury Islanders hold a great + feast towards the end of October, to celebrate, as far as I could + learn, the approaching appearance of the constellation above the + eastern horizon soon after sunset. Probably, as in many of the + Pacific Islands, this event marks the beginning of their year. I + learned from Mr. Stephens that, in Ugi, where of all the + constellations the Pleiades alone receives a name, the natives are + guided by it in selecting the times for planting and taking up the + yams.”</span><a id="noteref_1025" name="noteref_1025" href= + "#note_1025"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">1025</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Attention paid to the Pleiades by + the natives of New Guinea and the Indian Archipelago.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The natives of the + Torres Straits islands observe the appearance of the Pleiades + (<span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Usiam</span></span>) on the horizon at sunset; + and when they see it, they say that the new yam time has come.<a id= + "noteref_1026" name="noteref_1026" href="#note_1026"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">1026</span></span></a> The + Kai and the Bukaua, two agricultural tribes of German New Guinea, + also determine the season of their labour in the fields by + observation of the Pleiades: the Kai say that the time for such + labours is when the Pleiades are visible above the horizon at + night.<a id="noteref_1027" name="noteref_1027" href= + "#note_1027"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">1027</span></span></a> In + some districts of northern Celebes the rice-fields are similarly + prepared for cultivation when the Pleiades are seen at a certain + height above the <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page314">[pg + 314]</span><a name="Pg314" id="Pg314" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + horizon.<a id="noteref_1028" name="noteref_1028" href= + "#note_1028"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">1028</span></span></a> As to + the Dyaks of Sarawak we read that <span class="tei tei-q">“the + Pleiades themselves tell them when to farm; and according to their + position in the heavens, morning and evening, do they cut down the + forest, burn, plant, and reap. The Malays are obliged to follow their + example, or their lunar year would soon render their farming + operations unprofitable.”</span><a id="noteref_1029" name= + "noteref_1029" href="#note_1029"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">1029</span></span></a> When + the season for clearing fresh land in the forest approaches, a wise + man is appointed to go out before dawn and watch for the Pleiades. As + soon as the constellation is seen to rise while it is yet dark, they + know that the time has come to begin. But not until the Pleiades are + at the zenith before dawn do the Dyaks think it desirable to burn the + fallen timber and to sow the rice.<a id="noteref_1030" name= + "noteref_1030" href="#note_1030"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">1030</span></span></a> + However, the Kenyahs and Kayans, two other tribes of Sarawak, + determine the agricultural seasons by observation of the sun rather + than of the stars; and for this purpose they have devised certain + simple but ingenious mechanisms. The Kenyahs measure the length of + the shadow cast by an upright pole at noon; and the Kayans let in a + beam of light through a hole in the roof and measure the distance + from the point immediately below the hole to the place where the + light reaches the floor.<a id="noteref_1031" name="noteref_1031" + href="#note_1031"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">1031</span></span></a> But + the Kayans of the Mahakam river, in Dutch Borneo, determine the time + for sowing by observing when the sun sets in a line with two upright + stones.<a id="noteref_1032" name="noteref_1032" href= + "#note_1032"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">1032</span></span></a> In + Bali, an island to the east of Java, the appearance of the Pleiades + at sunset in March marks the end of the year.<a id="noteref_1033" + name="noteref_1033" href="#note_1033"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">1033</span></span></a> The + Pleiades and <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page315">[pg + 315]</span><a name="Pg315" id="Pg315" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + Orion are the only constellations which the people of Bali observe + for the purpose of correcting their lunar calendar by intercalation. + For example, they bring the lunar year into harmony with the solar by + prolonging the month Asada until the Pleiades are visible at + sunset.<a id="noteref_1034" name="noteref_1034" href= + "#note_1034"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">1034</span></span></a> The + natives of Nias, an island to the south of Sumatra, pay little heed + to the stars, but they have names for the Morning Star and for the + Pleiades; and when the Pleiades appear in the sky, the people + assemble to till their fields, for they think that to do so before + the rising of the constellation would be useless.<a id="noteref_1035" + name="noteref_1035" href="#note_1035"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">1035</span></span></a> In + some districts of Sumatra <span class="tei tei-q">“much confusion in + regard to the period of sowing is said to have arisen from a very + extraordinary cause. Anciently, say the natives, it was regulated by + the stars, and particularly by the appearance (heliacal rising) of + the <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">bintang baniak</span></span> or Pleiades; but + after the introduction of the Mahometan religion, they were induced + to follow the returns of the <span class= + "tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">puāsa</span></span> or great annual fast, and + forgot their old rules. The consequence of this was obvious; for the + lunar year of the <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">hejrah</span></span> being eleven days short of + the sidereal or solar year, the order of the seasons was soon + inverted; and it is only astonishing that its inaptness to the + purposes of agriculture should not have been immediately + discovered.”</span><a id="noteref_1036" name="noteref_1036" href= + "#note_1036"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">1036</span></span></a> The + Battas or Bataks of central Sumatra date the various operations of + the agricultural year by the positions of Orion and the Pleiades. + When the Pleiades rise before the sun at the beginning of July, the + Achinese of northern Sumatra know that the time has come to sow the + rice.<a id="noteref_1037" name="noteref_1037" href= + "#note_1037"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">1037</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">Attention paid to the Pleiades by + the natives of Africa, Greeks, and Romans.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Scattered and + fragmentary as these notices are, they suffice to shew that the + Pleiades have received much attention from savages in the tropical + regions of the world from Brasil in the east to Sumatra in the west. + Far to the north of the tropics the rude Kamchatkans are said to know + only three constellations, the Great Bear, the Pleiades, and three + stars in Orion.<a id="noteref_1038" name="noteref_1038" href= + "#note_1038"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">1038</span></span></a> When + we pass to Africa we again find the Pleiades employed by tribes in + various parts of the continent to mark the seasons of the + agricultural year. We have seen that the Caffres of South Africa date + their new year from the rising of the Pleiades just before sunrise + and fix the time for sowing by observation of that + constellation.<a id="noteref_1039" name="noteref_1039" href= + "#note_1039"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">1039</span></span></a> + <span class="tei tei-q">“They calculate <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page316">[pg 316]</span><a name="Pg316" id="Pg316" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> only twelve lunar months for the year, for + which they have descriptive names, and this results in frequent + confusion and difference of opinion as to which month it really is. + The confusion is always rectified by the first appearance of Pleiades + just before sunrise, and a fresh start is made and things go on + smoothly till once more the moons get out of place, and reference has + again to be made to the stars.”</span><a id="noteref_1040" name= + "noteref_1040" href="#note_1040"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">1040</span></span></a> + According to another authority on the Bantu tribes of South Africa, + <span class="tei tei-q">“the rising of the Pleiades shortly after + sunset was regarded as indicating the planting season. To this + constellation, as well as to several of the prominent stars and + planets, they gave expressive names. They formed no theories + concerning the nature of the heavenly bodies and their motions, and + were not given to thinking of such things.”</span><a id= + "noteref_1041" name="noteref_1041" href="#note_1041"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">1041</span></span></a> The + Amazulu call the Pleiades <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Isilimela</span></span>, which means + <span class="tei tei-q">“The digging-for (stars),”</span> because + when the Pleiades appear the people begin to dig. They say that + <span class="tei tei-q">“<span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Isilimela</span></span> (the Pleiades) dies, and + is not seen. It is not seen in winter; and at last, when the winter + is coming to an end, it begins to appear—one of its stars first, and + then three, until going on increasing it becomes a cluster of stars, + and is perfectly clear when the sun is about to rise. And we say + <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Isilimela</span></span> is renewed, and the year + is renewed, and so we begin to dig.”</span><a id="noteref_1042" name= + "noteref_1042" href="#note_1042"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">1042</span></span></a> The + Bechuanas <span class="tei tei-q">“are directed by the position of + certain stars in the heavens, that the time has arrived, in the + revolving year, when particular roots can be dug up for use, or when + they may commence their labours of the field. This is their + <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">likhakologo</span></span> (turnings or + revolvings), or what we should call the spring time of the year. The + Pleiades they call <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">seleméla</span></span>, which may be translated + <span class="tei tei-q">‘cultivator,’</span> or the precursor of + agriculture, from <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">leméla</span></span>, the relative verb to + cultivate <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">for</span></em>; and <span class= + "tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">se</span></span>, + a pronominal prefix, distinguishing them as the actors. Thus, when + this constellation assumes a certain position in the heavens, it is + the signal to commence cultivating their fields and + gardens.”</span><a id="noteref_1043" name="noteref_1043" href= + "#note_1043"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">1043</span></span></a> Among + some of these South African tribes the period of seclusion observed + by lads after circumcision comes to an end with the appearance of the + Pleiades, and accordingly the youths are said to long as ardently for + the rising of the constellation as Mohammedans for the rising of the + moon which will put an end to the fast of Ramadan.<a id= + "noteref_1044" name="noteref_1044" href="#note_1044"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">1044</span></span></a> The + Hottentots date the seasons of the <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page317">[pg 317]</span><a name="Pg317" id="Pg317" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> year by the rising and setting of the + Pleiades.<a id="noteref_1045" name="noteref_1045" href= + "#note_1045"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">1045</span></span></a> An + early Moravian missionary settled among the Hottentots, reports that + <span class="tei tei-q">“at the return of the Pleiades these natives + celebrate an anniversary; as soon as these stars appear above the + eastern horizon mothers will lift their little ones on their arms, + and running up to elevated spots, will show to them those friendly + stars, and teach them to stretch their little hands towards them. The + people of a kraal will assemble to dance and to sing according to the + old custom of their ancestors. The chorus always sings: <span class= + "tei tei-q">‘O Tiqua, our Father above our heads, give rain to us, + that the fruits (bulbs, etc.), <span class= + "tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">uientjes</span></span>, may ripen, and that we + may have plenty of food, send us a good year.’</span> ”</span><a id= + "noteref_1046" name="noteref_1046" href="#note_1046"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">1046</span></span></a> With + some tribes of British Central Africa the rising of the Pleiades + early in the evening is the signal for the hoeing to begin.<a id= + "noteref_1047" name="noteref_1047" href="#note_1047"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">1047</span></span></a> To the + Masai of East Africa the appearance of the Pleiades in the wrest is + the sign of the beginning of the rainy season, which takes its name + from the constellation.<a id="noteref_1048" name="noteref_1048" href= + "#note_1048"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">1048</span></span></a> In + Masailand the Pleiades are above the horizon from September till + about the seventeenth of May; and the people, as they express it + themselves, <span class="tei tei-q">“know whether it will rain or not + according to the appearance or non-appearance of the six stars, + called The Pleiades, which follow after one another like cattle. When + the month which the Masai call <span class="tei tei-q">‘Of the + Pleiades’</span><a id="noteref_1049" name="noteref_1049" href= + "#note_1049"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">1049</span></span></a> + arrives, and the Pleiades are no longer visible, they know that the + rains are over. For the Pleiades set in that month and are not seen + again until the season of showers has come to an end:<a id= + "noteref_1050" name="noteref_1050" href="#note_1050"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">1050</span></span></a> it is + then that they reappear.”</span><a id="noteref_1051" name= + "noteref_1051" href="#note_1051"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">1051</span></span></a> The + only other groups of stars for which the Masai appear to have names + are Orion's sword and Orion's belt.<a id="noteref_1052" name= + "noteref_1052" href="#note_1052"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">1052</span></span></a> The + Nandi of British East Africa have a special name (<span class= + "tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Koremerik</span></span>) for the Pleiades, + <span class="tei tei-q">“and it is by the appearance or + non-appearance of these stars that the Nandi know whether they may + expect a good or a bad harvest.”</span><a id="noteref_1053" name= + "noteref_1053" href="#note_1053"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">1053</span></span></a> The + Kikuyu of the same region say that <span class="tei tei-q">“the + Pleiades is the mark in the heavens to show the people when to plant + their crops; they plant when this constellation is in a certain + position early in the night.”</span><a id="noteref_1054" name= + "noteref_1054" href="#note_1054"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">1054</span></span></a> In + Sierra Leone <span class="tei tei-q">“the proper time <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page318">[pg 318]</span><a name="Pg318" id="Pg318" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> for preparing the plantations is shewn by + the particular situation in which the Pleiades, called by the Bulloms + <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">a-warrang</span></span>, the only stars which + they observe or distinguish by peculiar names, are to be seen at + sunset.”</span><a id="noteref_1055" name="noteref_1055" href= + "#note_1055"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">1055</span></span></a> We + have seen that ancient Greek farmers reaped their corn when the + Pleiades rose at sunrise in May, and that they ploughed their fields + when the constellation set at sunrise in November.<a id= + "noteref_1056" name="noteref_1056" href="#note_1056"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">1056</span></span></a> The + interval between the two dates is about six months. Both the Greeks + and the Romans dated the beginning of summer from the heliacal rising + of the Pleiades and the beginning of winter from their heliacal + setting.<a id="noteref_1057" name="noteref_1057" href= + "#note_1057"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">1057</span></span></a> Pliny + regarded the autumnal setting of the Pleiades as the proper season + for sowing the corn, particularly the wheat and the barley, and he + tells us that in Greece and Asia all the crops were sown at the + setting of that constellation.<a id="noteref_1058" name= + "noteref_1058" href="#note_1058"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">1058</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-marginnote tei-marginnote-margin"> + <div class="tei tei-marginnotetext"> + <span style="font-size: 80%">The widespread association of the + Pleiades with agriculture seems to be based on the coincidence of + their rising or setting with the commencement of the rainy + season.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">So widespread over + the world has been and is the association of the Pleiades with + agriculture, especially with the sowing or planting of the crops. The + reason for the association seems to be the coincidence of the rising + or setting of the constellation with the commencement of the rainy + season; since men must very soon have learned that the best, if not + the only, season to sow and plant is the time of year when the + newly-planted seeds or roots will be quickened by abundant showers. + The same association of the Pleiades with rain seems sufficient to + explain their importance even for savages who do not till the ground; + for ignorant though such races are, they yet can hardly fail to + observe that wild fruits grow more plentifully, and therefore that + they themselves have more to eat after a heavy fall of rain than + after a long drought. In point of fact we saw that some of the + Australian aborigines, who are wholly ignorant of agriculture, look + on the Pleiades as the givers of rain, and curse the constellation if + its appearance is not followed by the expected showers.<a id= + "noteref_1059" name="noteref_1059" href="#note_1059"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">1059</span></span></a> On the + other side of the world, and at the opposite end of the scale of + culture, the civilised Greeks similarly supposed that the autumnal + setting of the Pleiades was the cause of the rains which followed it; + and the astronomical writer Geminus thought it worth while to argue + against the supposition, pointing out that the vicissitudes of the + weather and of the seasons, though they may coincide with the risings + and settings of the constellations, are not produced by them, + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page319">[pg 319]</span><a name="Pg319" + id="Pg319" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> the stars being too distant + from the earth to exercise any appreciable influence on our + atmosphere. Hence, he says, though the constellations serve as the + signals, they must not be regarded as the causes, of atmospheric + changes; and he aptly illustrates the distinction by a reference to + beacon-fires, which are the signals, but not the causes, of + war.<a id="noteref_1060" name="noteref_1060" href= + "#note_1060"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">1060</span></span></a></p> + </div> + </div> + <hr class="doublepage" /> + + <div class="tei tei-back" style= + "margin-bottom: 2.00em; margin-top: 6.00em"> + <div id="footnotes" class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> + <a name="toc65" id="toc65"></a> <a name="pdf66" id="pdf66"></a> + + <h1 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"> + <span style="font-size: 173%">Footnotes</span></h1> + + <dl class="tei tei-list-footnotes"> + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_1" name="note_1" href= + "#noteref_1">1.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">On Dionysus in general, see L. + Preller, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Griechische + Mythologie</span></span>,<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "vertical-align: super">4</span></span> i. 659 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>; + Fr. Lenormant, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">s.v.</span></span> <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Bacchus,”</span> in Daremberg and Saglio's + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Dictionnaire des Antiquités Grecques et + Romaines</span></span>, i. 591 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>; + Voigt and Thraemer, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">s.v.</span></span> <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Dionysus,”</span> in W. H. Roscher's <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Lexikon der griech. + u. röm. Mythologie</span></span>, i. 1029 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>; + E. Rohde, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Psyche</span></span><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="vertical-align: super">3</span></span> + (Tübingen and Leipsic, 1903), ii. 1 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>; + Miss J. E. Harrison, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Prolegomena to the Study of Greek + Religion</span></span>, Second Edition (Cambridge, 1908), pp. 363 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>; Kern, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">s.v.</span></span> + <span class="tei tei-q">“Dionysus,”</span> in Pauly-Wissowa's + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Real-Encyclopädie der classischen + Altertumswissenschaft</span></span>, v. 1010 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>; + M. P. Nilsson, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Griechische Feste von religiöser + Bedeutung</span></span> (Leipsic, 1906), pp. 258 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>; + L. R. Farnell, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">The Cults of the Greek States</span></span>, + v. (Oxford, 1909) pp. 85 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span> The epithet <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Bromios</span></span> + bestowed on Dionysus, and his identification with the Thracian and + Phrygian deity Sabazius, have been adduced as evidence that + Dionysus was a god of beer or of other cereal intoxicants before he + became a god of wine. See W. Headlam, in <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Classical + Review</span></span>, xv. (1901) p. 23; Miss J. E. Harrison, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Prolegomena to the Study of Greek + Religion</span></span>, pp. 414-426.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_2" name="note_2" href= + "#noteref_2">2.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Plato, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Laws</span></span>, + i. p. 637 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">e</span></span>; Theopompus, cited by + Athenaeus, x. 60, p. 442 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">e</span></span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">f</span></span>; Suidas, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">s.v.</span></span> + κατασκεδάζειν; compare Xenophon, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Anabasis</span></span>, vii. 3. 32. For the + evidence of the Thracian origin of Dionysus, see the writers cited + in the preceding note, especially Dr. L. R. Farnell, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. + cit.</span></span> v. 85 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span> Compare W. Ridgeway, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The + Origin of Tragedy</span></span> (Cambridge, 1910), pp. 10 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_3" name="note_3" href= + "#noteref_3">3.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Herodotus, ii. 49; Diodorus Siculus, + i. 97. 4; P. Foucart, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Le Culte de Dionyse en Attique</span></span> + (Paris, 1904), pp. 9 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>, 159 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span> + (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Mémoires + de l'Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-lettres</span></span>, + xxxvii.).</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_4" name="note_4" href= + "#noteref_4">4.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Plutarch, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Quaest. + Conviv.</span></span> v. 3: Διονύσῳ δὲ δενδρίτῃ πάντες, ὡς ἔπος + εἰπεῖν, Ἕλληνες θύουσιν.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_5" name="note_5" href= + "#noteref_5">5.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Hesychius, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">s.v.</span></span> + Ἔνδενδρος.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_6" name="note_6" href= + "#noteref_6">6.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See the pictures of his images, drawn + from ancient vases, in C. Bötticher's <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Baumkultus der + Hellenen</span></span> (Berlin, 1856), plates 42, 43, 43 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">a</span></span>, 43 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">b</span></span>, 44; Daremberg et + Saglio, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Dictionnaire des Antiquités Grecques et + Romaines</span></span>, i. 361, 626 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_7" name="note_7" href= + "#noteref_7">7.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Daremberg et Saglio, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. + cit.</span></span> i. 626.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_8" name="note_8" href= + "#noteref_8">8.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">P. Wendland und O. Kern, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Beiträge zur + Geschichte der griechischen Philosophie und Religion</span></span> + (Berlin, 1895), pp. 79 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>; Ch. Michel, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Recueil d' + Inscriptions Grecques</span></span> (Brussels, 1900), No. 856.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_9" name="note_9" href= + "#noteref_9">9.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Cornutus, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Theologiae Graecae + Compendium</span></span>, 30.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_10" name="note_10" href= + "#noteref_10">10.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Pindar, quoted by Plutarch, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Isis et + Osiris</span></span>, 35.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_11" name="note_11" href= + "#noteref_11">11.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Maximus Tyrius, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Dissertat.</span></span> viii. 1.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_12" name="note_12" href= + "#noteref_12">12.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Athenaeus, iii. chs. 14 and 23, pp. 78 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">c</span></span>, 82 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">d</span></span>.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_13" name="note_13" href= + "#noteref_13">13.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Orphica</span></span>, Hymn l. 4. liii. + 8.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_14" name="note_14" href= + "#noteref_14">14.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Aelian, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Var. + Hist.</span></span> iii. 41; Hesychius, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">s.v.</span></span> + Φλέω[ς]. Compare Plutarch, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Quaest. Conviv.</span></span> v. 8. 3.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_15" name="note_15" href= + "#noteref_15">15.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Pausanias, i. 31. 4; <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">id.</span></span> + vii. 21. 6.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_16" name="note_16" href= + "#noteref_16">16.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Dittenberger, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Sylloge Inscriptionum + Graecarum</span></span>,<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "vertical-align: super">2</span></span> No. 636, vol. ii. p. 435, + τῶν καρπῶν τῶν ἐν τῇ χώρᾳ. However, the words may equally well + refer to the cereal crops.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_17" name="note_17" href= + "#noteref_17">17.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Plutarch, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Quaest. + Conviv.</span></span> v. 3.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_18" name="note_18" href= + "#noteref_18">18.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Pausanias, ii. 2. 6 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span> + Pausanias does not mention the kind of tree; but from Euripides, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Bacchae</span></span>, 1064 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>, + and Philostratus, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Imag.</span></span> i. 17 (18), we may infer + that it was a pine, though Theocritus (xxvi. 11) speaks of it as a + mastich-tree.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_19" name="note_19" href= + "#noteref_19">19.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Müller-Wieseler, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Denkmäler der alten + Kunst</span></span>, ii. pll. xxxii. <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>; + A. Baumeister, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Denkmäler des klassischen + Altertums</span></span>, i. figures 489, 491, 492, 495. Compare F. + Lenormant, in Daremberg et Saglio, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Dictionnaire des + Antiquités Grecques et Romaines</span></span>, i. 623; Ch. F. + Lobeck, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Aglaophamus</span></span> (Königsberg, 1829), + p. 700.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_20" name="note_20" href= + "#noteref_20">20.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Pausanias, i. 31. 6.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_21" name="note_21" href= + "#noteref_21">21.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Athenaeus, iii. 14, p. 78 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">c</span></span>.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_22" name="note_22" href= + "#noteref_22">22.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Himerius, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Orat.</span></span> + i. 10, Δίονυσος γεωργεῖ.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_23" name="note_23" href= + "#noteref_23">23.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Diodorus Siculus, iii. 64. 1-3, iv. 4. + 1 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span> On the agricultural aspect + of Dionysus, see L. R. Farnell, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Cults of the + Greek States</span></span>, v. (Oxford, 1909) pp. 123 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_24" name="note_24" href= + "#noteref_24">24.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">[Aristotle,] <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Mirab. + Auscult.</span></span> 122 (p. 842 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">a</span></span>, ed. Im. Bekker, Berlin + edition).</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_25" name="note_25" href= + "#noteref_25">25.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Servius on Virgil, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Georg.</span></span> + i. 166; Plutarch, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Isis et Osiris</span></span>, 35. The literary + and monumental evidence as to the winnowing-fan in the myth and + ritual of Dionysus has been collected and admirably interpreted by + Miss J. E. Harrison in her article <span class="tei tei-q">“Mystica + Vannus Iacchi,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Journal of Hellenic Studies</span></span>, + xxiii. (1903) pp. 292-324. Compare her <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Prolegomena to the + Study of Greek Religion</span></span><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="vertical-align: super">2</span></span> + (Cambridge, 1908), pp. 517 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span> I must refer the reader to + these works for full details on the subject. In the passage of + Servius referred to the reading is somewhat uncertain; in his + critical edition G. Thilo reads λικμητὴν and λικμὸς instead of the + usual λικνιτὴν and λικνόν. But the variation does not affect the + meaning.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_26" name="note_26" href= + "#noteref_26">26.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ἐν γὰρ λείκνοις τὸ παλαιὸν + κατεκοίμιζον τὰ Βρέφη πλοῦτον καὶ καρπούς οἰωνιζόμενοι, Scholiast + on Callimachus, i. 48 (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Callimachea</span></span>, edidit O. + Schneider, Leipsic, 1870-1873, vol. i. p. 109).</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_27" name="note_27" href= + "#noteref_27">27.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">T. S. Raffles, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">History of + Java</span></span> (London, 1817), i. 323; C. F. Winter, + <span class="tei tei-q">“Instellingen, Gewoontenen Gebruiken der + Javanen te Soerakarta,”</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Tijdschrift voor + Neêrlands Indie</span></span>, Vijfde Jaargang, Eerste Deel (1843), + p. 695; P. J. Veth, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Java</span></span> (Haarlem, 1875-1884), i. + 639.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_28" name="note_28" href= + "#noteref_28">28.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">C. Poensen, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Iets over de kleeding der Javanen,”</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Mededeelingen van wege het Nederlandsche + Zendelinggenootschap</span></span>, xx. (1876) pp. 279 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_29" name="note_29" href= + "#noteref_29">29.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Rev. J. Doolittle, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Social Life of the + Chinese</span></span>, edited and revised by the Rev. Paxton Hood + (London, 1868), pp. 90 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_30" name="note_30" href= + "#noteref_30">30.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Rev. E. M. Gordon, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Some Notes concerning the People of Mungēli Tahsīl, + Bilaspur District,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Journal of the Asiatic Society of + Bengal</span></span>, lxxi., Part iii. (Calcutta, 1903) p. 74; + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">id.</span></span>, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Indian Folk + Tales</span></span> (London, 1908), p. 41.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_31" name="note_31" href= + "#noteref_31">31.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">C. B. Klunzinger, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Bilder aus + Oberägypten</span></span> (Stuttgart, 1877), pp. 181, 182; + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">id.</span></span>, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Upper Egypt, its + People and Products</span></span> (London, 1878), pp. 185, + 186.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_32" name="note_32" href= + "#noteref_32">32.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">R. C. Temple, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Opprobrious Names,”</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Indian + Antiquary</span></span>, x. (1881) pp. 331 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span> + Compare H. A. Rose, <span class="tei tei-q">“Hindu Birth + Observances in the Punjab,”</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Journal of the Royal + Anthropological Institute</span></span>, xxxvii. (1907) p. 234. See + also <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Panjab Notes and Queries</span></span>, vol. + iii. August 1886, § 768, pp. 184 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>: + <span class="tei tei-q">“The winnowing fan in which a newly-born + child is laid, is used on the fifth day for the worship of Satwáí. + This makes it impure, and it is henceforward used only for the + house-sweepings.”</span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_33" name="note_33" href= + "#noteref_33">33.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Lieut.-Colonel Gunthorpe, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“On the Ghosí or Gaddí Gaolís of the Deccan,”</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Journal + of the Anthropological Society of Bombay</span></span>, i. 45.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_34" name="note_34" href= + "#noteref_34">34.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">C. Bock, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Temples and + Elephants</span></span> (London, 1884), pp. 258 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_35" name="note_35" href= + "#noteref_35">35.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">S. Mateer, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Native Life in + Travancore</span></span> (London, 1883), p. 213.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_36" name="note_36" href= + "#noteref_36">36.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. Richardson, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Tanala Customs, Superstitions, and Beliefs,”</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Antananarivo Annual and Madagascar Magazine, + Reprint of the First Four Numbers</span></span> (Antananarivo, + 1885), pp. 226 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_37" name="note_37" href= + "#noteref_37">37.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Pausanias, ii. 31. 8; K. F. Hermann, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Lehrbuch + der gottesdienstlichen Alterthümer der + Griechen</span></span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "vertical-align: super">2</span></span> (Heidelberg, 1858), pp. 132 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, § 23, 25.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_38" name="note_38" href= + "#noteref_38">38.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Rev. J. Doolittle, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Social Life of the + Chinese</span></span>, edited and revised by the Rev. Paxton Hood + (London, 1868), pp. 114 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span> The beans used in the + ceremony had previously been placed before an image of the goddess + of small-pox.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_39" name="note_39" href= + "#noteref_39">39.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Rev. F. Mason, D.D., <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Physical Character of the Karens,”</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Journal of the + Asiatic Society of Bengal</span></span>, New Series, No. cxxxi. + (Calcutta, 1866), pp. 9 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_40" name="note_40" href= + "#noteref_40">40.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Servius on Virgil, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Georg.</span></span> + i. 166: <span class="tei tei-q">“<span lang="la" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style="font-style: italic">Et + vannus Iacchi.... Mystica autem Bacchi ideo ait, quod Liberi patris + sacra ad purgationem animae pertinebant: et sic homines ejus + mysteriis purgabantur, sicut vannis frumenta + purgantur.</span></span>”</span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_41" name="note_41" href= + "#noteref_41">41.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. Mannhardt, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Kind und Korn,”</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Mythologische + Forschungen</span></span> (Strasburg, 1884), pp. 351-374.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_42" name="note_42" href= + "#noteref_42">42.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. Mannhardt, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. + cit.</span></span> pp. 351 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_43" name="note_43" href= + "#noteref_43">43.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. Mannhardt, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. + cit.</span></span> p. 372, citing A. Wuttke, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Der deutsche + Volks-aberglaube</span></span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "vertical-align: super">2</span></span> (Berlin, 1869), p. 339, § + 543; L. Strackerjan, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Aberglaube und Sagen aus dem Herzogthum + Oldenburg</span></span> (Oldenburg, 1867), i. 81.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_44" name="note_44" href= + "#noteref_44">44.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Boecler-Kreutzwald, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Der Ehsten + abergläubische Gebräuche</span></span> (St. Petersburg, 1854), p. + 61. This custom is also cited by Mannhardt (<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">l.c.</span></span>).</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_45" name="note_45" href= + "#noteref_45">45.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Miss J. E. Harrison, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Mystica Vannus Iacchi,”</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Journal of Hellenic + Studies</span></span>, xxiii. (1903) pp. 296 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>; + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">id.</span></span>, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Prolegomena to the + Study of Greek Religion</span></span>,<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="vertical-align: super">2</span></span> + pp. 518 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>; L. R. Farnell, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Cults + of the Greek States</span></span>, v. (Oxford, 1909) p. 243.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_46" name="note_46" href= + "#noteref_46">46.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Herodotus, ii. 48, 49; Clement of + Alexandria, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Protrept.</span></span> ii. 34, pp. 29-30, ed. + Potter; Dittenberger, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Sylloge Inscriptionum + Graecarum</span></span>,<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "vertical-align: super">2</span></span> No. 19, vol. i. p. 32; M. + P. Nilsson, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Studia de Dionysiis Atticis</span></span> + (Lund, 1900), pp. 90 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>; L. R. Farnell, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Cults + of the Greek States</span></span>, v. 125, 195, 205.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_47" name="note_47" href= + "#noteref_47">47.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Augustine, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">De civitate + Dei</span></span>, vii. 21.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_48" name="note_48" href= + "#noteref_48">48.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Nonnus, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Dionys.</span></span> + vi. 155-205.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_49" name="note_49" href= + "#noteref_49">49.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Firmicus Maternus, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">De errore profanarum + religionum</span></span>, 6.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_50" name="note_50" href= + "#noteref_50">50.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Clement of Alexandria, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Protrept.</span></span> ii. 17. Compare Ch. A. + Lobeck, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Aglaophamus</span></span>, pp. 1111 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_51" name="note_51" href= + "#noteref_51">51.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Proclus on Plato, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Cratylus</span></span>, p. 59, quoted by E. + Abel, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Orphica</span></span>, p. 228. Compare Chr. A. + Lobeck, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Aglaophamus</span></span>, pp. 552 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_52" name="note_52" href= + "#noteref_52">52.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Clement of Alexandria, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Protrept.</span></span> ii. 19. Compare + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">id.</span></span> ii. 22; Scholiast on Lucian, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Dial. + Meretr.</span></span> vii. p. 280, ed. H. Rabe.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_53" name="note_53" href= + "#noteref_53">53.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Clement of Alexandria, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Protrept.</span></span> ii. 18; Proclus on + Plato's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Timaeus</span></span>, iii. p. 200 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">d</span></span>, quoted by Lobeck, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Aglaophamus</span></span>, p. 562, and by + Abel, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Orphica</span></span>, p. 234. Others said + that the mangled body was pieced together, not by Apollo but by + Rhea (Cornutus, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Theologiae Graecae Compendium</span></span>, + 30).</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_54" name="note_54" href= + "#noteref_54">54.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ch. A. Lobeck, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Aglaophamus</span></span>, pp. 572 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span> See <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Dying + God</span></span>, p. 3. For a conjectural restoration of the + temple, based on ancient authorities and an examination of the + scanty remains, see an article by J. H. Middleton, in <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Journal of Hellenic + Studies</span></span>, ix. (1888) pp. 282 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span> + The ruins of the temple have now been completely excavated by the + French.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_55" name="note_55" href= + "#noteref_55">55.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">S. Clemens Romanus, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Recognitiones</span></span>, x. 24 (Migne's + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Patrologia Graeca</span></span>, i. col. + 1434).</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_56" name="note_56" href= + "#noteref_56">56.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Diodorus Siculus, iii. 62.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_57" name="note_57" href= + "#noteref_57">57.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Macrobius, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Comment. in Somn. + Scip.</span></span> i. 12. 12; <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Scriptores rerum + mythicarum Latini tres Romae nuper reperti</span></span> (commonly + referred to as <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Mythographi Vaticani</span></span>), ed. G. H. + Bode (Cellis, 1834), iii. 12. 5, p. 246; Origen, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Contra + Celsum</span></span>, iv. 17 (vol. i. p. 286, ed. P. + Koetschau).</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_58" name="note_58" href= + "#noteref_58">58.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Himerius, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Orat.</span></span> + ix. 4.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_59" name="note_59" href= + "#noteref_59">59.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Proclus, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hymn to + Minerva</span></span>, quoted by Ch. A. Lobeck, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Aglaophamus</span></span>, p. 561; + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Orphica</span></span>, ed. E. Abel, p. + 235.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_60" name="note_60" href= + "#noteref_60">60.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Hyginus, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Fabulae</span></span>, 167.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_61" name="note_61" href= + "#noteref_61">61.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">The festivals of Dionysus were + biennial in many places. See G. F. Schömann, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Griechische + Alterthümer</span></span>,<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "vertical-align: super">4</span></span> ii. 524 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span> + (The terms for the festival were τριετηρίς, τριετηρικός, both terms + of the series being included in the numeration, in accordance with + the ancient mode of reckoning.) Perhaps the festivals were formerly + annual and the period was afterwards lengthened, as has happened + with other festivals. See W. Mannhardt, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Baumkultus</span></span>, pp. 172, 175, 491, + 533 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, 598. Some of the festivals + of Dionysus, however, were annual. Dr. Farnell has conjectured that + the biennial period in many Greek festivals is to be explained by + <span class="tei tei-q">“the original shifting of land-cultivation + which is frequent in early society owing to the backwardness of the + agricultural processes; and which would certainly be consecrated by + a special ritual attached to the god of the soil.”</span> See L. R. + Farnell, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">The Cults of the Greek States</span></span>, + v. 180 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_62" name="note_62" href= + "#noteref_62">62.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Firmicus Maternus, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">De errore profanarum + religionum</span></span>, 6.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_63" name="note_63" href= + "#noteref_63">63.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Mythographi Vaticani</span></span>, ed. G. H. + Bode, iii. 12. 5, p. 246.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_64" name="note_64" href= + "#noteref_64">64.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Plutarch, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Consol. ad + uxor.</span></span> 10. Compare <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">id.</span></span>, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Isis et + Osiris</span></span>, 35; <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">id.</span></span>, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">De E + Delphico</span></span>, 9; <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">id.</span></span>, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">De esu + carnium</span></span>, i. 7.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_65" name="note_65" href= + "#noteref_65">65.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Pausanias, ii. 31. 2 and 37. 5; + Apollodorus, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Bibliotheca</span></span>, iii. 5. 3.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_66" name="note_66" href= + "#noteref_66">66.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Pausanias, ii. 37. 5 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; + Plutarch, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Isis et Osiris</span></span>, 35; <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">id.</span></span>, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Quaest. + Conviv.</span></span> iv. 6. 2.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_67" name="note_67" href= + "#noteref_67">67.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Himerius, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Orat.</span></span> + iii. 6, xiv. 7.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_68" name="note_68" href= + "#noteref_68">68.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">For Dionysus in this capacity see F. + Lenormant in Daremberg et Saglio, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Dictionnaire des + Antiquités Grecques et Romaines</span></span>, i. 632. For Osiris, + see <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Adonis, Attis, Osiris</span></span>, Second + Edition, pp. 344 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_69" name="note_69" href= + "#noteref_69">69.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Plutarch, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Isis et + Osiris</span></span>, 35; <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">id.</span></span>, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Quaest. + Graec.</span></span> 36; Athenaeus, xi. 51, p. 476 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">a</span></span>; Clement of Alexandria, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Protrept.</span></span> ii. 16; <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Orphica</span></span>, Hymn xxx. <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">vv.</span></span> 3, + 4, xlv. 1, lii. 2, liii. 8; Euripides, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Bacchae</span></span>, 99; Scholiast on + Aristophanes, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Frogs</span></span>, 357; Nicander, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Alexipharmaca</span></span>, 31; Lucian, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Bacchus</span></span>, 2. The title Εἰραφιώτης + applied to Dionysus (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Homeric Hymns</span></span>, xxxiv. 2; + Porphyry, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">De abstinentia</span></span>, iii. 17; + Dionysius, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Perieg.</span></span> 576; <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Etymologicum + Magnum</span></span>, p. 371. 57) is etymologically equivalent to + the Sanscrit <span lang="sa" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang= + "sa"><span style="font-style: italic">varsabha</span></span>, + <span class="tei tei-q">“a bull,”</span> as I was informed by my + lamented friend the late R. A. Neil of Pembroke College, + Cambridge.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_70" name="note_70" href= + "#noteref_70">70.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Euripides, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Bacchae</span></span>, 920 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>, + 1017; Nonnus, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Dionys.</span></span> vi. 197 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_71" name="note_71" href= + "#noteref_71">71.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Plutarch, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Isis et + Osiris</span></span>, 35; Athenaeus, xi. 51, p. 476 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">a</span></span>.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_72" name="note_72" href= + "#noteref_72">72.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Diodorus Siculus, iii. 64. 2, iv. 4. + 2; Cornutus, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Theologiae Graecae Compendium</span></span>, + 30.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_73" name="note_73" href= + "#noteref_73">73.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Diodorus Siculus, iii. 64. 2; J. + Tzetzes, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Schol. on Lycophron</span></span>, 209, 1236; + Philostratus, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Imagines</span></span>, i. 14 (15).</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_74" name="note_74" href= + "#noteref_74">74.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Müller-Wieseler, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Denkmäler der alten + Kunst</span></span>, ii. pl. xxxiii.; Daremberg et Saglio, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Dictionnaire des Antiquités Grecques et + Romaines</span></span>, i. 619 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, + 631; W. H. Roscher, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Lexikon d. griech. u. röm. + Mythologie</span></span>, i. 1149 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>; + F. Imhoof-Blumer, <span class="tei tei-q">“Coin-types of some + Kilikian Cities,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Journal of Hellenic Studies</span></span>, + xviii. (1898) p. 165.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_75" name="note_75" href= + "#noteref_75">75.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">F. G. Welcker, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Alte + Denkmäler</span></span> (Göttingen, 1849-1864), v. taf. 2.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_76" name="note_76" href= + "#noteref_76">76.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Archaeologische Zeitung</span></span>, ix. + (1851) pl. xxxiii., with Gerhard's remarks, pp. 371-373.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_77" name="note_77" href= + "#noteref_77">77.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Gazette Archéologique</span></span>, v. (1879) + pl. 3.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_78" name="note_78" href= + "#noteref_78">78.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Pausanias, viii. 19. 2.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_79" name="note_79" href= + "#noteref_79">79.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Plutarch, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Quaestiones + Graecae</span></span>, 36; <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">id.</span></span>, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Isis et + Osiris</span></span>, 35.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_80" name="note_80" href= + "#noteref_80">80.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. Tzetzes, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Schol. on + Lycophron</span></span>, 1236.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_81" name="note_81" href= + "#noteref_81">81.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Nonnus, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Dionys.</span></span> + vi. 205.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_82" name="note_82" href= + "#noteref_82">82.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Firmicus Maternus, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">De errore profanarum + religionum</span></span>, 6.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_83" name="note_83" href= + "#noteref_83">83.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Euripides, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Bacchae</span></span>, 735 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>; + Scholiast on Aristophanes, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Frogs</span></span>, 357.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_84" name="note_84" href= + "#noteref_84">84.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Hesychius, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">s.v.</span></span> + Ἔριφος ὁ Διόνυσος, on which there is a marginal gloss ὁ μικρὸς αἴξ, + ὁ ἐν τῷ ἔαρι φαινόμενος, ἤγουν ὁ πρώϊμος; Stephanus Byzantius, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">s.v.</span></span> Ἀκρώρεια.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_85" name="note_85" href= + "#noteref_85">85.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Pausanias, ii. 35. 1; Scholiast on + Aristophanes, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Acharn.</span></span> 146; <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Etymologicum + Magnum</span></span>, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">s.v.</span></span> Ἀπατούρια, p. 118. 54 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>; Suidas, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">s.vv.</span></span> + Ἀπατούρια and μελαναίγιδα Διόνυσον; Nonnus, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Dionys.</span></span> + xxvii. 302. Compare Conon, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Narrat.</span></span> 39, where for Μελανθίδῃ + we should perhaps read Μελαναίγιδι.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_86" name="note_86" href= + "#noteref_86">86.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Pausanias, ii. 13. 6. On their return + from Troy the Greeks are said to have found goats and an image of + Dionysus in a cave of Euboea (Pausanias, i. 23. 1).</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_87" name="note_87" href= + "#noteref_87">87.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Apollodorus, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Bibliotheca</span></span>, iii. 4. 3.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_88" name="note_88" href= + "#noteref_88">88.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ovid, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Metam.</span></span> + v. 329; Antoninus Liberalis, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Transform.</span></span> 28; <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Mythographi + Vaticani</span></span>, ed. G. H. Bode, i. 86, p. 29.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_89" name="note_89" href= + "#noteref_89">89.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Arnobius, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Adversus + nationes</span></span>, v. 19. Compare Suidas, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">s.v.</span></span> + αἰγίζειν. As fawns appear to have been also torn in pieces at the + rites of Dionysus (Photius, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Lexicon</span></span>, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">s.v.</span></span> + νεβρίζειν; Harpocration, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">s.v.</span></span> νεβρίζων), it is probable + that the fawn was another of the god's embodiments. But of this + there seems no direct evidence. Fawn-skins were worn both by the + god and his worshippers (Cornutus, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Theologiae Graecae + Compendium</span></span>, 30). Similarly the female Bacchanals wore + goat-skins (Hesychius, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">s.v.</span></span> τραγηφόροι).</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_90" name="note_90" href= + "#noteref_90">90.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Mr. Duncan, quoted by Commander R. C. + Mayne, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Four Years in British Columbia and Vancouver + Island</span></span> (London, 1862), pp. 284-288. The instrument + which made the screeching sound was no doubt a bull-roarer, a flat + piece of stick whirled at the end of a string so as to produce a + droning or screaming note according to the speed of revolution. + Such instruments are used by the Koskimo Indians of the same region + at their cannibal and other rites. See Fr. Boas, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“The Social Organization and the Secret Societies of + the Kwakiutl Indians,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Report of the U.S. National Museum for + 1895</span></span> (Washington, 1897), pp. 610, 611.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_91" name="note_91" href= + "#noteref_91">91.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Fr. Boas, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. + cit.</span></span> pp. 437-443, 527 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, + 536, 537 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, 579, 664; <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">id.</span></span>, in + <span class="tei tei-q">“Fifth Report on the North-western Tribes + of Canada,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Report of the British Association for + 1889</span></span>, pp. 54-56 (separate reprint); <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">id.</span></span>, in + <span class="tei tei-q">“Sixth Report on the North-western Tribes + of Canada,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Report of the British Association for + 1890</span></span>, pp. 62, 65 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span> + (separate reprint). As to the rules observed after the eating of + human flesh, see <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Taboo and the Perils of the + Soul</span></span>, pp. 188-190.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_92" name="note_92" href= + "#noteref_92">92.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Fr. Boas, <span class="tei tei-q">“The + Social Organization and the Secret Societies of the Kwakiutl + Indians,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Report of the U.S. National Museum for + 1895</span></span> (Washington, 1897), pp. 649 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, + 658 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">id.</span></span>, in + <span class="tei tei-q">“Sixth Report on the North-western Tribes + of Canada,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Report of the British Association for + 1890</span></span>, p. 51; (separate reprint); <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">id.</span></span>, + <span class="tei tei-q">“Seventh Report on the North-western Tribes + of Canada,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Report of the British Association for + 1891</span></span>, pp. 10 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span> (separate reprint); + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">id.</span></span>, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Tenth Report on the North-western Tribes of + Canada,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Report of the British Association for + 1895</span></span>, p. 58 (separate reprint).</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_93" name="note_93" href= + "#noteref_93">93.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">G. M. Dawson, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Report on the Queen + Charlotte Islands, 1878</span></span> (Montreal, 1880), pp. 125 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">b</span></span>, 128 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">b</span></span>.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_94" name="note_94" href= + "#noteref_94">94.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. R. Swanton, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Contributions to the + Ethnology of the Haida</span></span> (Leyden and New York, 1905), + pp. 156, 160 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, 170 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, + 181 (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The + Jesup North Pacific Expedition, Memoir of the American Museum of + Natural History</span></span>). For details as to the practice of + these savage rites among the Indian coast tribes of British + Columbia, see my <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Totemism and Exogamy</span></span> (London, + 1910), iii. pp. 501, 511 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, 515 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, + 519, 521, 526, 535 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, 537, 539 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, + 542 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, 544, 545.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_95" name="note_95" href= + "#noteref_95">95.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">A. Leared, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Morocco and the + Moors</span></span> (London, 1876), pp. 267-269. Compare Budgett + Meakin, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">The Moors</span></span> (London, 1902), pp. + 331 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span> The same order of fanatics + also exists and holds similar orgies in Algeria, especially at the + town of Tlemcen. See E. Doutté, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Les Aïssâoua à + Tlemcen</span></span> (Châlons-sur-Marne, 1900), p. 13.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_96" name="note_96" href= + "#noteref_96">96.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Varro, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Rerum + rusticarum</span></span>, i. 2. 19; Virgil, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Georg.</span></span> + ii. 376-381, with the comments of Servius on the passage and on + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Aen.</span></span> iii. 118; Ovid, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Fasti</span></span>, i. 353 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>; + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">id.</span></span>, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Metamorph.</span></span> xv. 114 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; + Cornutus, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Theologiae Graecae Compendium</span></span>, + 30.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_97" name="note_97" href= + "#noteref_97">97.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Euripides, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Bacchae</span></span>, 138 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>: + ἀγρεύων αἷμα τραγοκτόνον, ὠμοφάγον χάριν.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_98" name="note_98" href= + "#noteref_98">98.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Schol. on Aristophanes, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Frogs</span></span>, + 357.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_99" name="note_99" href= + "#noteref_99">99.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Hera αἰγοφάγος at Sparta, Pausanias, + iii. 15. 9; Hesychius, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">s.v.</span></span> αἰγοφάγος (compare the + representation of Hera clad in a goat's skin, with the animal's + head and horns over her head, Müller-Wieseler, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Denkmäler der alten + Kunst</span></span>, i. No. 229 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">b</span></span>; and the similar + representation of the Lanuvinian Juno, W. H. Roscher, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Lexikon d. griech. u. + röm. Mythologie</span></span>, ii. 605 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>); + Zeus αἰγοφάγος, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Etymologicum Magnum</span></span>, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">s.v.</span></span> αἰγοφάγος, p. 27. 52 + (compare Scholiast on Oppianus, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Halieut.</span></span> iii. 10; L. Stephani, + in <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Compte-Rendu de la Commission Impériale + Archéologique pour l'année 1869</span></span> (St. Petersburg, + 1870), pp. 16-18); Apollo ὀψοφάγος at Elis, Athenaeus, viii. 36, p. + 346 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">b</span></span>; Artemis καπροφάγος in + Samos, Hesychius, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">s.v.</span></span> καπροφάγος; compare + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">id.</span></span>, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">s.v.</span></span> + κριοφάγος. Divine titles derived from killing animals are probably + to be similarly explained, as Dionysus αἰγόβολος (Pausanias, ix. 8. + 2); Rhea or Hecate κυνοσφαγής (J. Tzetzes, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Scholia on + Lycophron</span></span>, 77); Apollo λυκοκτόνος (Sophocles, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Electra</span></span>, 6); Apollo σαυροκτόνος + (Pliny, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Nat. Hist.</span></span> xxxiv. 70).</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_100" name="note_100" + href="#noteref_100">100.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See below, vol. ii. pp. 184, 194, 196, + 197 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, 233.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_101" name="note_101" + href="#noteref_101">101.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Porphyry, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">De + abstinentia</span></span>, ii. 55.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_102" name="note_102" + href="#noteref_102">102.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Pausanias, ix. 8. 2.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_103" name="note_103" + href="#noteref_103">103.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Dying + God</span></span>, pp. 163 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_104" name="note_104" + href="#noteref_104">104.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Adonis, Attis, Osiris</span></span>, Second + Edition, pp. 332 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_105" name="note_105" + href="#noteref_105">105.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Apollodorus, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Bibliotheca</span></span>, iii. 5. 1.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_106" name="note_106" + href="#noteref_106">106.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">The Magic Art and the Evolution of + Kings</span></span>, i. 344, 345, 346, 352, 354, 366 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_107" name="note_107" + href="#noteref_107">107.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Apollodorus, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Bibliotheca</span></span>, iii. 5. 1.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_108" name="note_108" + href="#noteref_108">108.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Herodotus, vii. 197; Apollodorus, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Bibliotheca</span></span>, i. 9. 1 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; Scholiast on Aristophanes, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Clouds</span></span>, 257; J. Tzetzes, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Schol. on + Lycophron</span></span>, 21; Hyginus, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Fabulae</span></span>, 1-5. See <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Dying + God</span></span>, pp. 161-163.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_109" name="note_109" + href="#noteref_109">109.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Clemens Romanus, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Recognitiones</span></span>, x. 24 (Migne's + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Patrologia Graeca</span></span>, i. col. + 1434).</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_110" name="note_110" + href="#noteref_110">110.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Euripides, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Bacchae</span></span>, 43 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>, + 1043 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>; Theocritus, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Idyl.</span></span> + xxvi.; Pausanias, ii. 2. 7. Strictly speaking, the murder of + Pentheus is said to have been perpetrated not at Thebes, of which + he was king, but on Mount Cithaeron.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_111" name="note_111" + href="#noteref_111">111.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See Mr. R. M. Dawkins, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“The Modern Carnival in Thrace and the Cult of + Dionysus,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Journal of Hellenic Studies</span></span>, + xxvi. (1906) pp. 191-206. Mr. Dawkins describes the ceremonies + partly from his own observation, partly from an account of them + published by Mr. G. M. Vizyenos in a Greek periodical Θρακικὴ + Ἐπετηρίς, of which only one number was published at Athens in 1897. + From his personal observations Mr. Dawkins was able to confirm the + accuracy of Mr. Vizyenos's account.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_112" name="note_112" + href="#noteref_112">112.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Adonis, Attis, Osiris</span></span>, Second + Edition, pp. 333 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_113" name="note_113" + href="#noteref_113">113.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Strabo, vii. frag. 48; Stephanus + Byzantius, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">s.v.</span></span> Βιζύη.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_114" name="note_114" + href="#noteref_114">114.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">R. M. Dawkins, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. + cit.</span></span> p. 192.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_115" name="note_115" + href="#noteref_115">115.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">R. M. Dawkins, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“The Modern Carnival in Thrace and the Cult of + Dionysus,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Journal of Hellenic Studies</span></span>, + xxvi. (1906) pp. 193-201.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_116" name="note_116" + href="#noteref_116">116.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">R. M. Dawkins, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. + cit.</span></span> pp. 201 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_117" name="note_117" + href="#noteref_117">117.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">They have been clearly indicated by + Mr. R. M. Dawkins, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">op. cit.</span></span> pp. 203 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span> + Compare W. Ridgeway, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">The Origin of Tragedy</span></span> + (Cambridge, 1910), pp. 15 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>, who fully recognises the + connexion of the modern Thracian ceremonies with the ancient rites + of Dionysus.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_118" name="note_118" + href="#noteref_118">118.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Lucian, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Dialogi + Deorum</span></span>, ix. 2; Apollodorus, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Bibliotheca</span></span>, iii. 4. 4. + According to the latter writer Dionysus was born in the sixth + month.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_119" name="note_119" + href="#noteref_119">119.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">As to such festivals of All Souls see + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Adonis, + Attis, Osiris</span></span>, Second Edition, pp. 301-318.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_120" name="note_120" + href="#noteref_120">120.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">The passages of ancient authors which + refer to the Anthesteria are collected by Professor Martin P. + Nilsson, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Studia de Dionysiis Atticis</span></span> + (Lund, 1900), pp. 148 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span> As to the festival, which + has been much discussed of late years, see August Mommsen, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Heortologie</span></span> (Leipsic, 1864), pp. + 345 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>; <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">id.</span></span>, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Feste der + Stadt Athen im Altertum</span></span> (Leipsic, 1898), pp. 384 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>; G. F. Schoemann, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Griechische + Alterthümer</span></span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "vertical-align: super">4</span></span> (Berlin, 1902), ii. 516 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>; E. Rohde, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Psyche</span></span><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="vertical-align: super">3</span></span> + (Tübingen and Leipsic, 1903), i. 236 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>; + Martin P. Nilsson, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">op. cit.</span></span> pp. 115 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>; + P. Foucart, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Le Culte de Dionysos en Attique</span></span> + (Paris, 1904), pp. 107 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>; Miss J. E. Harrison, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Prolegomena to the Study of Greek + Religion</span></span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "vertical-align: super">2</span></span> (Cambridge, 1908), pp. 32 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>; L. R. Farnell, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Cults + of the Greek States</span></span>, v. (Oxford, 1909) pp. 214 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span> As to the marriage of + Dionysus to the Queen of Athens, see <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Magic Art and the + Evolution of Kings</span></span>, i. 136 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_121" name="note_121" + href="#noteref_121">121.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">By Professor U. von + Wilamowitz-Moellendorff, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Aristoteles und Athen</span></span> (Berlin, + 1893), ii. 42; and afterwards by Miss J. E. Harrison, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Prolegomena to the + Study of Greek Religion</span></span>,<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="vertical-align: super">2</span></span> p. + 536.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_122" name="note_122" + href="#noteref_122">122.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">The Dying God</span></span>, p. 71.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_123" name="note_123" + href="#noteref_123">123.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Plutarch, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Conjugalia + Praecepta</span></span>, 42.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_124" name="note_124" + href="#noteref_124">124.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Miss J. E. Harrison, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Mythology and + Monuments of Ancient Athens</span></span> (London, 1890), pp. 166 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_125" name="note_125" + href="#noteref_125">125.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Aristotle, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Constitution of + Athens</span></span>, 3. As to the situation of the Prytaneum see + my note on Pausanias, i. 18. 3 (vol. ii. p. 172).</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_126" name="note_126" + href="#noteref_126">126.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">August Mommsen, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Heortologie</span></span>, pp. 371 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>; <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">id.</span></span>, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Feste der + Stadt Athen im Altertum</span></span>, pp. 398 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>; + P. Foucart, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Le Culte de Dionysos en Attique</span></span>, + pp. 138 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_127" name="note_127" + href="#noteref_127">127.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Demosthenes, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Contra + Neaer</span></span>. 73, pp. 1369 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; + Julius Pollux, viii. 108; <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Etymologicum Magnum</span></span>, p. 227, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">s.v.</span></span> γεραῖραι; Hesychius, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">s.v.</span></span> γεραραί.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_128" name="note_128" + href="#noteref_128">128.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Chr. A. Lobeck, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Aglaophamus</span></span>, p. 505.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_129" name="note_129" + href="#noteref_129">129.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Plutarch, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Isis et + Osiris</span></span>, 18, 42.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_130" name="note_130" + href="#noteref_130">130.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">The resurrection of Osiris is not + described by Plutarch in his treatise <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Isis et + Osiris</span></span>, which is still our principal source for the + myth of the god; but it is fortunately recorded in native Egyptian + writings. See <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Adonis, Attis, Osiris</span></span>, Second + Edition, p. 274. P. Foucart supposes that the resurrection of + Dionysus was enacted at the Anthesteria; August Mommsen prefers to + suppose that it was enacted in the following month at the Lesser + Mysteries.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_131" name="note_131" + href="#noteref_131">131.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Aelian, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">De Natura + Animalium</span></span>, xii. 34. Compare W. Robertson Smith, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Religion + of the Semites</span></span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "vertical-align: super">2</span></span> (London, 1894), pp. 300 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_132" name="note_132" + href="#noteref_132">132.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Aulus Gellius, v. 12. 12.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_133" name="note_133" + href="#noteref_133">133.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Dying + God</span></span>, p. 166 note 1, and below, p. <a href="#Pg249" + class="tei tei-ref">249</a>.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_134" name="note_134" + href="#noteref_134">134.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">R. Foerster, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Der Raub und die + Rückkehr der Persephone</span></span> (Stuttgart, 1874), pp. 37-39; + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The + Homeric Hymns</span></span>, edited by T. W. Allen and E. E. Sikes + (London, 1904), pp. 10 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span> A later date—the age of the + Pisistratids—is assigned to the hymn by A. Baumeister (<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hymni + Homerici</span></span>, Leipsic, 1860, p. 280).</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_135" name="note_135" + href="#noteref_135">135.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Hymn to Demeter</span></span>, 1 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>, + 302 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>, 330 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>, + 349 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>, 414 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>, + 450 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_136" name="note_136" + href="#noteref_136">136.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Hymn to Demeter</span></span>, 310 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span> With the myth as set forth + in the Homeric hymn may be compared the accounts of Apollodorus + (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Bibliotheca</span></span>, i. 5) and Ovid + (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Fasti</span></span>, iv. 425-618; <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Metamorphoses</span></span>, v. 385 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>).</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_137" name="note_137" + href="#noteref_137">137.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Hymn to Demeter</span></span>, 47-50, 191-211, + 292-295, with the notes of Messrs. Allen and Sikes in their edition + of the Homeric Hymns (London, 1904). As to representations of the + candidates for initiation seated on stools draped with sheepskins, + see L. R. Farnell, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">The Cults of the Greek States</span></span>, + iii. (Oxford, 1907) pp. 237 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>, with plate xv <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">a</span></span>. On a + well-known marble vase there figured the stool is covered with a + lion's skin and one of the candidate's feet rests on a ram's skull + or horns; but in two other examples of the same scene the ram's + fleece is placed on the seat (Farnell, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. + cit.</span></span> p. 240 note a), just as it is said to have been + placed on Demeter's stool in the Homeric hymn. As to the form of + communion in the Eleusinian mysteries, see Clement of Alexandria, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Protrept.</span></span> 21, p. 18 ed. Potter; + Arnobius, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Adversus nationes</span></span>, v. 26; L. R. + Farnell, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">op. cit.</span></span> iii. 185 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, + 195 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span> For discussions of the + ancient evidence bearing on the Eleusinian mysteries it may suffice + to refer to Chr. A. Lobeck, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Aglaophamus</span></span> (Königsberg, 1829), + pp. 3 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>; G. F. Schoemann, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Griechische + Alterthümer</span></span>,<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "vertical-align: super">4</span></span> ii. 387 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>; + Aug. Mommsen, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Heortologie</span></span> (Leipsic, 1864), pp. + 222 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>; <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">id.</span></span>, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Feste der + Stadt Athen im Altertum</span></span> (Leipsic, 1898), pp. 204 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>; P. Foucart, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Recherches sur + l'Origine et la Nature des Mystères d'Eleusis</span></span> (Paris, + 1895) (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Mémoires de l'Académie des + Inscriptions</span></span>, xxxv.); <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">id.</span></span>, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Les + grands Mystères d'Eleusis</span></span> (Paris, 1900) (<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Mémoires de + l'Académie des Inscriptions</span></span>, xxxvii.); F. Lenormant + and E. Pottier, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">s.v.</span></span> <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Eleusinia,”</span> in Daremberg et Saglio, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Dictionnaire des Antiquités Grecques et + Romaines</span></span>, ii. 544 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>; + L. R. Farnell, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">The Cults of the Greek States</span></span>, + iii. 126 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_138" name="note_138" + href="#noteref_138">138.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Hippolytus, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Refutatio Omnium + Haeresium</span></span>, v. 8, p. 162, ed. L. Duncker et F. G. + Schneidewin (Göttingen, 1859). The word which the poet uses to + express the revelation (δεῖξε, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hymn to + Demeter</span></span>, verse 474) is a technical one in the + mysteries; the full phrase was δεικνύναι τὰ ἱερά. See Plutarch, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Alcibiades</span></span>, 22; Xenophon, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Hellenica</span></span>, vi. 3. 6; Isocrates, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Panegyricus</span></span>, 6; Lysias, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Contra + Andocidem</span></span>, 51; Chr. A. Lobeck, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Aglaophamus</span></span>, p. 51.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_139" name="note_139" + href="#noteref_139">139.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Clement of Alexandria, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Protrept.</span></span> ii. 12, p. 12 ed. + Potter: Δηὼ δὲ καὶ Κόρη δρᾶμα ἤδη ἐγενέσθην μυστικόν; καὶ τὴν + πλάνην καὶ τὴν ἀρπαγὴν καὶ τὸ πένθος αὐταῖν Ἐλευσὶς δᾳδουχεῖ. + Compare F. Lenormant, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">s.v.</span></span> <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Eleusinia,”</span> in Daremberg et Saglio, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Dictionnaire des Antiquités Grecques et + Romaines</span></span> iii. 578: <span class= + "tei tei-q">“<span lang="fr" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang= + "fr"><span style="font-style: italic">Que le drame mystique des + aventures de Déméter et de Coré constituât le spectacle essentiel + de l'initiation, c'est ce dont il nous semble impossible de + douter</span></span>.”</span> A similar view is expressed by G. F. + Schoemann (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Griechische + Alterthümer</span></span>,<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "vertical-align: super">4</span></span> ii. 402); Preller-Robert + (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Griechische Mythologie</span></span>, i. 793); + P. Foucart (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Recherches sur l'Origine et la Nature des + Mystères d'Eleusis</span></span>, Paris, 1895, pp. 43 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>; + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">id.</span></span>, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Les Grands Mystères + d'Eleusis</span></span>, Paris, 1900, p. 137); E. Rohde + (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Psyche</span></span>,<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="vertical-align: super">3</span></span> i. + 289); and L. R. Farnell (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">The Cults of the Greek States</span></span>, + iii. 134, 173 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>).</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_140" name="note_140" + href="#noteref_140">140.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">On Demeter and Proserpine as goddesses + of the corn, see L. Preller, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Demeter und Persephone</span></span> (Hamburg, + 1837), pp. 315 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>; and especially W. + Mannhardt, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Mythologische Forschungen</span></span> + (Strasburg, 1884), pp. 202 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_141" name="note_141" + href="#noteref_141">141.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">According to the author of the Homeric + Hymn to Demeter (verses 398 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>, 445 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>) + and Apollodorus (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Bibliotheca</span></span>, i. 5. 3) the time + which Persephone had to spend under ground was one third of the + year; according to Ovid (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Fasti</span></span>, iv. 613 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Metamorphoses</span></span>, v. 564 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>) and Hyginus (<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Fabulae</span></span>, 146) it was one + half.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_142" name="note_142" + href="#noteref_142">142.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">This view of the myth of Persephone + is, for example, accepted and clearly stated by L. Preller + (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Demeter + und Persephone</span></span>, pp. 128 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>).</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_143" name="note_143" + href="#noteref_143">143.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See, for example, Firmicus Maternus, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">De errore + profanarum religionum</span></span>, 17. 3: <span class= + "tei tei-q">“<span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang= + "la"><span style="font-style: italic">Frugum substantiam volunt + Proserpinam dicere, quia fruges hominibus cum seri coeperint + prosunt. Terram ipsam Cererem nominant, nomen hoc a gerendis + fructibus mutuati</span></span>”</span>; L. Preller, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Demeter und + Persephone</span></span>, p. 128, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Der Erdboden wird Demeter, die Vegetation + Persephone</span></span>.”</span> François Lenormant, again, held + that Demeter was originally a personification of the earth regarded + as divine, but he admitted that from the time of the Homeric poems + downwards she was sharply distinguished from Ge, the earth-goddess + proper. See Daremberg et Saglio, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Dictionnaire des + Antiquités Grecques et Romaines</span></span>, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">s.v.</span></span> + <span class="tei tei-q">“Ceres,”</span> ii. 1022 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span> + Some light might be thrown on the question whether Demeter was an + Earth Goddess or a Corn Goddess, if we could be sure of the + etymology of her name, which has been variously explained as + <span class="tei tei-q">“Earth Mother”</span> (Δῆ μήτηρ equivalent + to Γῆ μήτηρ) and as <span class="tei tei-q">“Barley Mother”</span> + (from an alleged Cretan word δηαί <span class= + "tei tei-q">“barley”</span>: see <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Etymologicum + Magnum</span></span>, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">s.v.</span></span> Δηώ, pp. 263 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>). + The former etymology has been the most popular; the latter is + maintained by W. Mannhardt. See L. Preller, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Demeter und + Persephone</span></span>, pp. 317, 366 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>; + F. G. Welcker, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Griechische Götterlehre</span></span>, i. 385 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>; Preller-Robert, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Griechische Mythologie</span></span>, i. 747 + note 6; Kern, in Pauly-Wissowa's <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Real-Encyclopädie der + classischen Altertumswissenschaft</span></span>, iv. 2713; W. + Mannhardt, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Mythologische Forschungen</span></span>, pp. + 281 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span> But my learned friend the + Rev. Professor J. H. Moulton informs me that both etymologies are + open to serious philological objections, and that no satisfactory + derivation of the first syllable of Demeter's name has yet been + proposed. Accordingly I prefer to base no argument on an analysis + of the name, and to rest my interpretation of the goddess entirely + on her myth, ritual, and representations in art. Etymology is at + the best a very slippery ground on which to rear mythological + theories.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_144" name="note_144" + href="#noteref_144">144.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Hymn to Demeter</span></span>, 8 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_145" name="note_145" + href="#noteref_145">145.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Hymn to Demeter</span></span>, 279, 302.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_146" name="note_146" + href="#noteref_146">146.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Homer, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Iliad</span></span>, + v. 499-504.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_147" name="note_147" + href="#noteref_147">147.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Iliad</span></span>, xiii. 322, xxi. 76.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_148" name="note_148" + href="#noteref_148">148.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Hesiod, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Works and + Days</span></span>, 31 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_149" name="note_149" + href="#noteref_149">149.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Quoted by Plutarch, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Isis et + Osiris</span></span>, 66.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_150" name="note_150" + href="#noteref_150">150.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Pausanias, i. 22. 3 with my note; + Dittenberger, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Sylloge Inscriptionum + Graecarum</span></span>,<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "vertical-align: super">2</span></span> No. 615; J. de Prott et L. + Ziehen, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Leges Graecorum Sacrae</span></span>, + Fasciculus I. (Leipsic, 1896) p. 49; Cornutus, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Theologiae Graecae + Compendium</span></span>, 28; Scholiast on Sophocles, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Oedipus + Colon.</span></span> 1600; L. R. Farnell, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Cults of the + Greek States</span></span>, iii. 312 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_151" name="note_151" + href="#noteref_151">151.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Herodotus, i. 193, iv. 198; Xenophon, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Hellenica</span></span>, vi. 3. 6; Aelian, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Historia + Animalium</span></span>, xvii. 16; Cornutus, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Theologiae Graecae + Compendium</span></span>, 28; <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Geoponica</span></span>, i. 12. 36; + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Paroemiographi Graeci</span></span>, ed. + Leutsch et Schneidewin, Appendix iv. 20 (vol. i. p. 439).</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_152" name="note_152" + href="#noteref_152">152.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Cerealia</span></span> in Pliny, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Nat. + Hist.</span></span> xxiii. 1; <span lang="la" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Cerealia munera</span></span> and <span lang= + "la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Cerealia dona</span></span> in Ovid, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Metamorphoses</span></span>, xi. 121 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_153" name="note_153" + href="#noteref_153">153.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Libanius, ed. J. J. Reiske, vol. iv. + p. 367, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Corinth. Oratio</span></span>: Οὐκ αὖθις ἡμῶν + ακαρποσ ἡ γῆ δοκεῖ γεγονέναι? οὐ πάλιν ὁ πρὸ Δήμητρος εἶναι βίος? + καί τοι καὶ πρὸ Δήμητρος αἱ γεωργίαι μὲν οὐκ ἦσαν; οὐδὲ ἄροτοι, + αὐτόφυτοι δὲ βοτάναι καὶ πόαι; καὶ πολλὰ εἶχεν εἰς σωτηρίαν + ἀνθρώπων αὐτοσχέδια ἄνθη ἡ γῆ ὠδίνουσα καὶ κύουσα πρὸ τῶν ἡμέρων τὰ + ἄγρια. Ἐπλανῶντο μὲν, ἀλλ᾽ οὐκ ἐπ᾽ ἀλλήλους; ἄλση καὶ ὄρη περιῄσαν, + ζητοῦντες αὐτόματον τροφήν. In this passage, which no doubt + represents the common Greek view on the subject, the earth is + plainly personified (ὠδίνουσα καὶ κύουσα), which points the + antithesis between her and the goddess of the corn. Diodorus + Siculus also says (v. 68) that corn grew wild with the other plants + before Demeter taught men to cultivate it and to sow the seed.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_154" name="note_154" + href="#noteref_154">154.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ovid, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Fasti</span></span>, + iv. 616; Eusebius, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Praeparatio Evangelii</span></span>, iii. 11. + 5; Cornutus, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Theologiae Graecae Compendium</span></span>, + 28; <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Anthologia Palatina</span></span>, vi. 104. 8; + W. Mannhardt, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Mythologische Forschungen</span></span>, p. + 235; J. Overbeck, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Griechische Kunstmythologie</span></span>, + iii. (Leipsic, 1873-1878) pp. 420, 421, 453, 479, 480, 502, 505, + 507, 514, 522, 523, 524, 525 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; L. R. Farnell, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Cults of the + Greek States</span></span>, iii. 217 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>, + 220 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, 222, 226, 232, 233, 237, + 260, 265, 268, 269 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, 271.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_155" name="note_155" + href="#noteref_155">155.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Theocritus, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Idyl.</span></span> + vii. 155 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span> That the sheaves which the + goddess grasped were of barley is proved by verses 31-34 of the + poem.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_156" name="note_156" + href="#noteref_156">156.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Eusebius, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Praeparatio + Evangelii</span></span>, iii. 11. 5; Cornutus, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Theologiae Graecae + Compendium</span></span>, 28, p. 56, ed. C. Lang; Virgil, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Georg.</span></span> i. 212, with the comment + of Servius.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_157" name="note_157" + href="#noteref_157">157.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See the references to the works of + Overbeck and Farnell above. For example, a fine statue at + Copenhagen, in the style of the age of Phidias, represents Demeter + holding poppies and ears of corn in her left hand. See Farnell, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. + cit.</span></span> iii. 268, with plate xxviii.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_158" name="note_158" + href="#noteref_158">158.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Cornutus, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Theologiae Graecae + Compendium</span></span>, 28, p. 56 ed. C. Lang.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_159" name="note_159" + href="#noteref_159">159.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Percy Gardner, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Types of Greek + Coins</span></span> (Cambridge, 1883), p. 174, with plate x. No. + 25.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_160" name="note_160" + href="#noteref_160">160.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Diodorus Siculus, v. 68. 1.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_161" name="note_161" + href="#noteref_161">161.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Hesiod, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Works and + Days</span></span>, 448-474; Epictetus, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Dissertationes</span></span>, iii. 21. 12. For + the autumnal migration and clangour of the cranes as the signal for + sowing, see Aristophanes, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Birds</span></span>, 711; compare Theognis, + 1197 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span> But the Greeks also + ploughed in spring (Hesiod, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">op. cit.</span></span> 462; Xenophon, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Oeconom.</span></span> 16); indeed they + ploughed thrice in the year (Theophrastus, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Historia + Plantarum</span></span>, vii. 13. 6). At the approach of autumn the + cranes of northern Europe collect about rivers and lakes, and after + much trumpeting set out in enormous bands on their southward + journey to the tropical regions of Africa and India. In early + spring they return northward, and their flocks may be descried + passing at a marvellous height overhead or halting to rest in the + meadows beside some broad river. The bird emits its trumpet-like + note both on the ground and on the wing. See Alfred Newton, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Dictionary of Birds</span></span> (London, + 1893-1896), pp. 110 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_162" name="note_162" + href="#noteref_162">162.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Hesiod, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Works and + Days</span></span>, 383 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, 615-617; Aratus, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Phaenomena</span></span>, 254-267; L. Ideler, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Handbuch + der mathematischen und technischen Chronologie</span></span> + (Berlin, 1825-1826), i. 241 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span> According to Pliny + (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Nat. + Hist.</span></span> xviii. 49) wheat, barley, and all other cereals + were sown in Greece and Asia from the time of the autumn setting of + the Pleiades. This date for ploughing and sowing is confirmed by + Hippocrates and other medical writers. See W. Smith's <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Dictionary of Greek + and Roman Antiquities</span></span>,<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="vertical-align: super">3</span></span> i. + 234. Latin writers prescribe the same date for the sowing of wheat. + See Virgil, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Georg.</span></span> i. 219-226; Columella, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">De re + rustica</span></span>, ii. 8; Pliny, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Nat. + Hist.</span></span> xviii. 223-226. In Columella's time the + Pleiades, he tells us (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">l.c.</span></span>), set in the morning of + October 24th of the Julian calendar, which would correspond to the + October 16th of our reckoning.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_163" name="note_163" + href="#noteref_163">163.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Plutarch, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Isis et + Osiris</span></span>, 69.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_164" name="note_164" + href="#noteref_164">164.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Plutarch, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Isis et + Osiris</span></span>, 70. Similarly Cornutus says that <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Hades is fabled to have carried off Demeter's daughter + because the seed vanishes for a time under the earth,”</span> and + he mentions that a festival of Demeter was celebrated at the time + of sowing (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Theologiae Graecae Compendium</span></span>, + 28, pp. 54, 55 ed. C. Lang). In a fragment of a Greek calendar + which is preserved in the Louvre <span class="tei tei-q">“the + ascent (ἀναβάσις) of the goddess”</span> is dated the seventh day + of the month Dius, and <span class="tei tei-q">“the descent or + setting (δύσις) of the goddess”</span> is dated the fourth day of + the month Hephaestius, a month which seems to be otherwise unknown. + See W. Froehner, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Musée Nationale du Louvre, Les Inscriptions + Grecques</span></span> (Paris, 1880), pp. 50 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span> + Greek inscriptions found at Mantinea refer to a worship of Demeter + and Persephone, who are known to have had a sanctuary there + (Pausanias, viii. 9. 2). The people of Mantinea celebrated + <span class="tei tei-q">“mysteries of the goddess”</span> and a + festival called the <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">koragia</span></span>, which seems to have + represented the return of Persephone from the lower world. See W. + Immerwahr, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Die Kulte und Mythen Arkadiens</span></span> + (Leipsic, 1891), pp. 100 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; S. Reinach, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Traité d'Epigraphie + Grecque</span></span> (Paris, 1885), pp. 141 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>; + Hesychius, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">s.v.</span></span> κοράγειν.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_165" name="note_165" + href="#noteref_165">165.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Theocritus, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Idyl.</span></span> + vii.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_166" name="note_166" + href="#noteref_166">166.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">In ancient Greece the vintage seems to + have fallen somewhat earlier; for Hesiod bids the husbandman gather + the ripe clusters at the time when Arcturus is a morning star, + which in the poet's age was on the 18th of September. See Hesiod, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Works and + Days</span></span>, 609 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>; L. Ideler, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Handbuch der + mathematischen und technischen Chronologie</span></span>, i. + 247.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_167" name="note_167" + href="#noteref_167">167.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Adonis, Attis, + Osiris</span></span>, Second Edition, p. 190 note 2.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_168" name="note_168" + href="#noteref_168">168.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Adonis, Attis, + Osiris</span></span>, Second Edition, p. 190 note 2.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_169" name="note_169" + href="#noteref_169">169.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Hesiod, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Works and + Days</span></span>, 383 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_170" name="note_170" + href="#noteref_170">170.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">L. Ideler, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Handbuch der + mathematischen und technischen Chronologie</span></span>, i. + 242.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_171" name="note_171" + href="#noteref_171">171.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Compare Xenophon, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Oeconomicus</span></span>, 17, ἐπειδὰν γὰρ ὁ + μετοπωρινὸς χρόνος ἔλθῃ, πάντες που οἱ ἄνθρωποι πρὸς τὸν θέον + ἀποβλέπουσιν, ὅποτε βρέξας τὴν γῆν ἀφήσει αὐτοὺς σπείρειν.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_172" name="note_172" + href="#noteref_172">172.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">August Mommsen, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Feste der Stadt Athen + im Altertum</span></span>, p. 193.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_173" name="note_173" + href="#noteref_173">173.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See above, pp. <a href="#Pg044" class= + "tei tei-ref">44</a> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_174" name="note_174" + href="#noteref_174">174.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Adonis, Attis, + Osiris</span></span>, Second Edition, pp. 283 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_175" name="note_175" + href="#noteref_175">175.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Scholiast on Aristophanes, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Knights</span></span>, 720; Suidas, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">s.vv</span></span>. εἰρεσιώνη and προηροσίαι; + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Etymologicum Magnum</span></span>, Hesychius, + and Photius, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Lexicon</span></span>, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">s.v.</span></span> + προηρόσια; Plutarch, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Septem Sapientum Convivium</span></span>, 15; + Dittenberger, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Sylloge Inscriptionum + Graecarum</span></span>,<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "vertical-align: super">2</span></span> No. 521, line 29, and No. + 628; Aug. Mommsen, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Feste der Stadt Athen im + Altertum</span></span> (Leipsic, 1898), pp. 192 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span> + The inscriptions prove that the Proerosia was held at Eleusis and + that it was distinct from the Great Mysteries, being mentioned + separately from them. Some of the ancients accounted for the origin + of the festival by a universal plague instead of a universal + famine. But this version of the story no doubt arose from the + common confusion between the similar Greek words for plague and + famine (λοιμός and λιμός). That in the original version famine and + not plague must have been alleged as the reason for instituting the + Proerosia, appears plainly from the reference of the name to + ploughing, from the dedication of the festival to Demeter, and from + the offerings of first-fruits; for these circumstances, though + quite appropriate to ceremonies designed to stay or avert dearth + and famine, would be quite inappropriate in the case of a + plague.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_176" name="note_176" + href="#noteref_176">176.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Hesychius, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">s.v.</span></span> + προηρόσια.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_177" name="note_177" + href="#noteref_177">177.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">August Mommsen, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Feste der Stadt Athen + im Altertum</span></span>, p. 194.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_178" name="note_178" + href="#noteref_178">178.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">August Mommsen, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">l.c.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_179" name="note_179" + href="#noteref_179">179.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Dittenberger, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Sylloge Inscriptionum + Graecarum</span></span>,<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "vertical-align: super">2</span></span> No. 521, lines 29 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_180" name="note_180" + href="#noteref_180">180.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Dittenberger, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Sylloge Inscriptionum + Graecarum</span></span>,<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "vertical-align: super">2</span></span> No. 628.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_181" name="note_181" + href="#noteref_181">181.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">The view that the Festival before + Ploughing (<span lang="el" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang= + "el"><span style="font-style: italic">Proerosia</span></span>) fell + in Pyanepsion is accepted by W. Mannhardt and W. Dittenberger. See + W. Mannhardt, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Antike Wald- und Feldkulte</span></span> + (Berlin, 1877), pp. 238 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">id.</span></span>, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Mythologische Forschungen</span></span>, p. + 258; Dittenberger, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Sylloge Inscriptionum + Graecarum</span></span>,<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "vertical-align: super">2</span></span> note 2 on Inscr. No. 628 + (vol. ii. pp. 423 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>). The view that the Festival + before Ploughing fell in Boedromion is maintained by August + Mommsen. See his <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Heortologie</span></span> (Leipsic, 1864), pp. + 218 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>; <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">id.</span></span>, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Feste der + Stadt Athen im Altertum</span></span> (Leipsic, 1898), pp. 192 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_182" name="note_182" + href="#noteref_182">182.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See below, p. <a href="#Pg082" class= + "tei tei-ref">82</a>.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_183" name="note_183" + href="#noteref_183">183.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">L. Ideler, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Handbuch der + mathematischen und technischen Chronologie</span></span> (Berlin, + 1825-1826), i. 292 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; compare August Mommsen, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Chronologie</span></span> (Leipsic, 1883), pp. + 58 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_184" name="note_184" + href="#noteref_184">184.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">For example, Theophrastus notes that + squills flowered thrice a year, and that each flowering marked the + time for one of the three ploughings. See Theophrastus, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Historia + Plantarum</span></span>, vii. 13. 6.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_185" name="note_185" + href="#noteref_185">185.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Hesiod, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Works and + Days</span></span>, 383 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span> The poet indeed refers + (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">vv.</span></span> 765 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>) + to days of the month as proper times for engaging in certain tasks; + but such references are always simply to days of the lunar month + and apply equally to every month; they are never to days as dates + in the solar year.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_186" name="note_186" + href="#noteref_186">186.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See below, p. <a href="#Pg072" class= + "tei tei-ref">72</a>.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_187" name="note_187" + href="#noteref_187">187.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Dionysius Halicarnasensis, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Antiquit. + Rom.</span></span> i. 12. 2.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_188" name="note_188" + href="#noteref_188">188.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Xenophon, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Historia + Graeca</span></span>, vi. 3. 6.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_189" name="note_189" + href="#noteref_189">189.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Isocrates, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Panegyric</span></span>, 6 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_190" name="note_190" + href="#noteref_190">190.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Dittenberger, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Sylloge Inscriptionum + Graecarum</span></span>,<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "vertical-align: super">2</span></span> No. 20 (vol. i. pp. 33 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>); E. S. Roberts and E. A. + Gardner, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">An Introduction to Greek + Epigraphy</span></span>, Part ii. (Cambridge, 1905) No. 9, pp. 22 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_191" name="note_191" + href="#noteref_191">191.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Aristides, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Panathen.</span></span> and <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Eleusin.</span></span>, vol. i. pp. 167 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, 417 ed. G. Dindorf + (Leipsic, 1829).</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_192" name="note_192" + href="#noteref_192">192.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Diodorus Siculus, v. 2 and 4; Cicero, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">In C. + Verrem</span></span>, act. ii. bk. iv. chapters 48 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span> + Both writers mention that the whole of Sicily was deemed sacred to + Demeter and Persephone, and that corn was said to have grown in the + island before it appeared anywhere else. In support of the latter + claim Diodorus Siculus (v. 2. 4) asserts that wheat grew wild in + many parts of Sicily.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_193" name="note_193" + href="#noteref_193">193.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Diodorus Siculus, v. 4.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_194" name="note_194" + href="#noteref_194">194.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">This legend, which is mentioned also + by Cicero (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">In C. Verrem</span></span>, act. ii. bk. iv. + ch. 48), was no doubt told to explain the use of torches in the + mysteries of Demeter and Persephone. The author of the Homeric + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hymn to + Demeter</span></span> tells us (verses 47 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>) + that Demeter searched for her lost daughter for nine days with + burning torches in her hands, but he does not say that the torches + were kindled at the flames of Etna. In art Demeter and Persephone + and their attendants were often represented with torches in their + hands. See L. R. Farnell, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">The Cults of the Greek States</span></span>, + iii. (Oxford, 1907) plates xiii., xv. <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">a</span></span>, + xvi., xvii., xviii., xix., xx., xxi. <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">a</span></span>, + xxv., xxvii. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">b</span></span>. Perhaps the legend of the + torchlight search for Persephone and the use of the torches in the + mysteries may have originated in a custom of carrying fire about + the fields as a charm to secure sunshine for the corn. See + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The + Golden Bough</span></span>,<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "vertical-align: super">2</span></span> iii. 313.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_195" name="note_195" + href="#noteref_195">195.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">The words which I have translated + <span class="tei tei-q">“the bringing home of the Maiden”</span> + (τῆς Κόρης τὴν καταγωγήν) are explained with great probability by + Professor M. P. Nilsson as referring to the bringing of the ripe + corn to the barn or the threshing-floor (<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Griechische + Feste</span></span>, Leipsic, 1906, pp. 356 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>). + This interpretation accords perfectly with a well-attested sense of + καταγωγή and its cognate verb κατάγειν, and is preferable to the + other possible interpretation <span class="tei tei-q">“the bringing + down,”</span> which would refer to the descent of Persephone into + the nether world; for such a descent is hardly appropriate to a + harvest festival.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_196" name="note_196" + href="#noteref_196">196.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Cicero, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Pro L. + Flacco</span></span>, 26.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_197" name="note_197" + href="#noteref_197">197.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Himerius, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Orat.</span></span> + ii. 5.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_198" name="note_198" + href="#noteref_198">198.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Μητρόπολις τῶν καρπῶν, Aristides, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Panathen.</span></span> vol. i. p. 168 ed. G. + Dindorf (Leipzig, 1829).</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_199" name="note_199" + href="#noteref_199">199.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Dittenberger, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Sylloge Inscriptionum + Graecarum</span></span>,<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "vertical-align: super">2</span></span> No. 20, lines 25 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>; E. S. Roberts and E. A. + Gardner, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Introduction to Greek Epigraphy</span></span>, + ii. (Cambridge, 1905) No. 9, lines 25 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>, + κελευέτω δὲ καί ὁ ἱεροφάντης καὶ ὁ δᾳδοῦχος μυστηρίοις ἀπάρχεσθαι + τοὺς Ἔλληνας τοῦ καρποῦ κατὰ τὰ πάτρια καὶ τὴν μαντείαν τὴν ἐγ + Δελφῶν. By coupling μυστηρίοις with ἀπάρχεσθαι instead of with + κελεύετω, Miss J. E. Harrison understands the offering instead of + the exhortation to have been made at the mysteries (<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Prolegomena to the + Study of Greek Religion</span></span>, Second Edition, p. 155, + <span class="tei tei-q">“Let the Hierophant and the Torchbearer + command that at the mysteries the Hellenes should offer + first-fruits of their crops,”</span> etc.). This interpretation is + no doubt grammatically permissible, but the context seems to plead + strongly, if not to be absolutely decisive, in favour of the other. + It is to be observed that the exhortation was addressed not to the + Athenians and their allies (who were compelled to make the + offering) but only to the other Greeks, who might make it or not as + they pleased; and the amount of such voluntary contributions was + probably small compared to that of the compulsory contributions, as + to the date of which nothing is said. That the proclamation to the + Greeks in general was an exhortation (κελευέτω), not a command, is + clearly shewn by the words of the decree a few lines lower down, + where commissioners are directed to go to all Greek states + exhorting but not commanding them to offer the first-fruits + (ἐκείνοις δὲ μὴ ἐπιτάττοντας, κελεύοντας δὲ ἀπάρχεσθαι ἐὰν + βούλωνται κατὰ τὰ πάτρια καὶ τὴν μαντείαν ἐγ Δελφῶν). The Athenians + could not command free and independent states to make such + offerings, still less could they prescribe the exact date when the + offerings were to be made. All that they could and did do was, + taking advantage of the great assembly of Greeks from all quarters + at the mysteries, to invite or exhort, by the mouth of the great + priestly functionaries, the foreigners to contribute.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_200" name="note_200" + href="#noteref_200">200.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">August Mommsen, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Feste der Stadt Athen + im Altertum</span></span> (Leipsic, 1898), pp. 192 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_201" name="note_201" + href="#noteref_201">201.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Eustathius on Homer, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Iliad</span></span>, + ix. 534, p. 772; Im. Bekker, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Anecdota Graeca</span></span>, i. 384 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">s.v.</span></span> + Ἁλῶα. Compare O. Rubensohn, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Die Mysterienheiligtümer in Eleusis und + Samothrake</span></span> (Berlin, 1892), p. 116.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_202" name="note_202" + href="#noteref_202">202.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Eustathius on Homer, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Iliad</span></span>, + ix. 534, p. 772; Im. Bekker, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Anecdota Graeca</span></span>, i. 384 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">s.v.</span></span> + Ἁλῶα.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_203" name="note_203" + href="#noteref_203">203.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Scholia in Lucianum</span></span>, ed. H. Rabe + (Leipsic, 1906), pp. 279 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span> (scholium on <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Dialog. + Meretr.</span></span> vii. 4).</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_204" name="note_204" + href="#noteref_204">204.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Dittenberger, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Sylloge Inscriptionum + Graecarum</span></span>,<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "vertical-align: super">2</span></span> Nos. 192, 246, 587, 640; + Ἐφημερὶς Ἀρχαιολογική, 1884, coll. 135 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span> The + passages of inscriptions and of ancient authors which refer to the + festival are collected by Dr. L. R. Farnell, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Cults of the + Greek States</span></span>, iii. (Oxford, 1907) pp. 315 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span> For a discussion of the + evidence see August Mommsen, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Feste der Stadt Athen im + Altertum</span></span> (Leipsic, 1898), pp. 359 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>; + Miss J. E. Harrison, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Prolegomena to the Study of Greek + Religion</span></span>, Second Edition (Cambridge, 1908), pp. 145 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_205" name="note_205" + href="#noteref_205">205.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">The threshing-floor of Triptolemus at + Eleusis (Pausanias, i. 38. 6) is no doubt identical with the Sacred + Threshing-floor mentioned in the great Eleusinian inscription of + 329 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">b.c.</span></span> (Dittenberger, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Sylloge + Inscriptionum Graecarum</span></span>,<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="vertical-align: super">2</span></span> + No. 587, line 234). We read of a hierophant who, contrary to + ancestral custom, sacrificed a victim on the hearth in the Hall at + Eleusis during the Festival of the Threshing-floor, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“it being unlawful to sacrifice victims on that + day”</span> (Demosthenes, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Contra Neaeram</span></span>, 116, pp. 1384 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>), but from such an unlawful + act no inference can be drawn as to the place where the festival + was held. That the festival probably had special reference to the + threshing-floor of Triptolemus has already been pointed out by O. + Rubensohn (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Die Mysterienheiligtümer in Eleusis und + Samothrake</span></span>, Berlin, 1892, p. 118).</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_206" name="note_206" + href="#noteref_206">206.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See above, pp. <a href="#Pg041" class= + "tei tei-ref">41</a> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg043" class= + "tei tei-ref">43</a>. Maximus Tyrius observes (<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Dissertat.</span></span> xxx. 5) that + husbandmen were the first to celebrate sacred rites in honour of + Demeter at the threshing-floor.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_207" name="note_207" + href="#noteref_207">207.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See above, p. <a href="#Pg061" class= + "tei tei-ref">61</a>, note 4.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_208" name="note_208" + href="#noteref_208">208.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Harpocration, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">s.v.</span></span> + Ἁλῶα (vol. i. p. 24, ed. G. Dindorf).</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_209" name="note_209" + href="#noteref_209">209.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Dittenberger, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Sylloge Inscriptionum + Graecarum</span></span>,<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "vertical-align: super">2</span></span> No. 587, lines 124, 144, + with the editor's notes; August Mommsen, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Feste der Stadt Athen + im Altertum</span></span>, p. 360.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_210" name="note_210" + href="#noteref_210">210.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">So I am informed by my friend + Professor J. L. Myres, who speaks from personal observation.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_211" name="note_211" + href="#noteref_211">211.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">This is recognised by Professor M. P. + Nilsson. See his <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Studia de Dionysiis Atticis</span></span> + (Lund, 1900), pp. 95 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>, and his <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Griechische + Feste</span></span>, p. 329. To explain the lateness of the + festival, Miss J. E. Harrison suggests that <span class= + "tei tei-q">“the shift of date is due to Dionysos. The rival + festivals of Dionysos were in mid-winter. He possessed himself of + the festivals of Demeter, took over her threshing-floor and + compelled the anomaly of a winter threshing festival”</span> + (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Prolegomena to the Study of Greek + Religion</span></span>, Second Edition, p. 147).</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_212" name="note_212" + href="#noteref_212">212.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Scholiast on Lucian, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Dial. + Meretr.</span></span> vii. 4 (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Scholia in Lucianum</span></span>, ed. H. + Rabe, Leipsic, 1906, pp. 279-281).</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_213" name="note_213" + href="#noteref_213">213.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Clement of Alexandria, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Protrept.</span></span> ii. 15 and 20, pp. 13 + and 17 ed. Potter; Arnobius, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Adversus Nationes</span></span>, v. 25-27, 35, + 39.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_214" name="note_214" + href="#noteref_214">214.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See below, p. <a href="#Pg116" class= + "tei tei-ref">116</a>; vol. ii. pp. 17 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_215" name="note_215" + href="#noteref_215">215.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Dittenberger, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Sylloge Inscriptionum + Graecarum</span></span>,<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "vertical-align: super">2</span></span> No. 640; Ch. Michel, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Recueil + d'Inscriptions Grecques</span></span> (Brussels, 1900), No. 135, p. + 145. To be exact, while the inscription definitely mentions the + sacrifices to Demeter and Persephone at the Green Festival, it does + not record the deities to whom the sacrifice at the Festival of the + Cornstalks (τὴν τῶν Καλαμαίων θυσίαν) was offered. But mentioned as + it is in immediate connexion with the sacrifices to Demeter and + Persephone at the Green Festival, we may fairly suppose that the + sacrifice at the Festival of the Cornstalks was also offered to + these goddesses.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_216" name="note_216" + href="#noteref_216">216.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See above, p. <a href="#Pg042" class= + "tei tei-ref">42</a>.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_217" name="note_217" + href="#noteref_217">217.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Anthologia Palatina</span></span>, vi. 36. 1 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_218" name="note_218" + href="#noteref_218">218.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Polemo, cited by Athenaeus, iii. 9, p. + 416 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">b</span></span>.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_219" name="note_219" + href="#noteref_219">219.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Nonnus, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Dionys.</span></span> + xvii. 153. The Athenians sacrificed to her under this title + (Eustathius, on Homer, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Iliad</span></span>, xviii. 553, p. + 1162).</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_220" name="note_220" + href="#noteref_220">220.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Theocritus, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Idyl.</span></span> + vii. 155; <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Orphica</span></span>, xl. 5.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_221" name="note_221" + href="#noteref_221">221.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Anthologia Palatina</span></span>, vi. 98. + 1.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_222" name="note_222" + href="#noteref_222">222.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Orphica</span></span>, xl. 3.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_223" name="note_223" + href="#noteref_223">223.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Anthologia Palatina</span></span>, vi. 104. + 8.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_224" name="note_224" + href="#noteref_224">224.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Orphica</span></span>, xl. 5.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_225" name="note_225" + href="#noteref_225">225.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Ibid.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_226" name="note_226" + href="#noteref_226">226.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Orphica</span></span>, xl. 18.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_227" name="note_227" + href="#noteref_227">227.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">This title she shared with Persephone + at Tegea (Pausanias, viii. 53. 7), and under it she received annual + sacrifices at Ephesus (Dittenberger, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Sylloge Inscriptionum + Graecarum</span></span>,<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "vertical-align: super">2</span></span> No. 655). It was applied to + her also at Epidaurus (Ἐφημ. Ἀρχ., 1883, col. 153) and at Athens + (Aristophanes, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Frogs</span></span>, 382), and appears to have + been a common title of the goddess. See L. R. Farnell, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Cults of the + Greek States</span></span>, iii. 318 note 30.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_228" name="note_228" + href="#noteref_228">228.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Polemo, cited by Athenaeus, iii. 73, + p. 109 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">a</span></span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">b</span></span>, x. 9. p. 416 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">c</span></span>.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_229" name="note_229" + href="#noteref_229">229.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">E. Dodwell, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">A Classical and + Topographical Tour through Greece</span></span> (London, 1819), i. + 583. E. D. Clarke found the image <span class="tei tei-q">“on the + side of the road, immediately before entering the village, and in + the midst of a heap of dung, buried as high as the neck, a little + beyond the farther extremity of the pavement of the temple. Yet + even this degrading situation had not been assigned to it wholly + independent of its antient history. The inhabitants of the small + village which is now situated among the ruins of Eleusis still + regarded this statue with a very high degree of superstitious + veneration. They attributed to its presence the fertility of their + land; and it was for this reason that they heaped around it the + manure intended for their fields. They believed that the loss of it + would be followed by no less a calamity than the failure of their + annual harvests; and they pointed to the ears of bearded wheat, + upon the sculptured ornaments upon the head of the figure, as a + never-failing indication of the produce of the soil.”</span> When + the statue was about to be removed, a general murmur ran among the + people, the women joining in the clamour. <span class= + "tei tei-q">“They had been always,”</span> they said, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“famous for their corn; and the fertility of the land + would cease when the statue was removed.”</span> See E. D. Clarke, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Travels + in various Countries of Europe, Asia, and Africa</span></span>, + iii. (London, 1814) pp. 772-774, 787 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span> + Compare J. C. Lawson, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Modern Greek Folklore and Ancient Greek + Religion</span></span> (Cambridge, 1910), p. 80, who tells us that + <span class="tei tei-q">“the statue was regularly crowned with + flowers in the avowed hope of obtaining good harvests.”</span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_230" name="note_230" + href="#noteref_230">230.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Cicero, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">In C. + Verrem</span></span>, act. ii. lib. iv. 51.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_231" name="note_231" + href="#noteref_231">231.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">The Magic Art and the Evolution of + Kings</span></span>, ii. 138 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_232" name="note_232" + href="#noteref_232">232.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">This view was expressed by my friend + Professor Ridgeway in a paper which I had the advantage of hearing + him read at Cambridge in the early part of 1911. Compare + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The + Athenaeum</span></span>, No. 4360, May 20th, 1911, p. 576.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_233" name="note_233" + href="#noteref_233">233.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Dittenberger, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Sylloge Inscriptionum + Graecarum</span></span>,<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "vertical-align: super">2</span></span> No. 20; E. S. Roberts and + E. A. Gardner, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Introduction to Greek Epigraphy</span></span>, + ii. (Cambridge, 1905) No. 9, pp. 22 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span> See + above, pp. <a href="#Pg055" class="tei tei-ref">55</a> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_234" name="note_234" + href="#noteref_234">234.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Homer, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Iliad</span></span>, + xiv. 326.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_235" name="note_235" + href="#noteref_235">235.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Homer, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Odyssey</span></span>, v. 125 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_236" name="note_236" + href="#noteref_236">236.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Diodorus Siculus, iii. 62. 6.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_237" name="note_237" + href="#noteref_237">237.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Clement of Alexandria, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Protrept.</span></span> 12, p. 12, ed. + Potter.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_238" name="note_238" + href="#noteref_238">238.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Hesiod, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Works and + Days</span></span>, 465 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_239" name="note_239" + href="#noteref_239">239.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Dittenberger, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Sylloge Inscriptionum + Graecarum</span></span>,<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "vertical-align: super">2</span></span> No. 615, lines 25 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; Ch. Michel, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Recueil + d'Inscriptions Grecques</span></span>, No. 714; J. de Prott et L. + Ziehen, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Leges Graecorum Sacrae</span></span>, No. + 4.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_240" name="note_240" + href="#noteref_240">240.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See L. R. Farnell, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Cults of the + Greek States</span></span>, iii. (Oxford, 1907), p. 259, + <span class="tei tei-q">“It was long before the mother could be + distinguished from the daughter by any organic difference of form + or by any expressive trait of countenance. On the more ancient + vases and terracottas they appear rather as twin-sisters, almost as + if the inarticulate artist were aware of their original identity of + substance. And even among the monuments of the transitional period + it is difficult to find any representation of the goddesses in + characters at once clear and impressive. We miss this even in the + beautiful vase of Hieron in the British Museum, where the divine + pair are seen with Triptolemos: the style is delicate and stately, + and there is a certain impression of inner tranquil life in the + group, but without the aid of the inscriptions the mother would not + be known from the daughter”</span>; <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">id.</span></span>, + vol. iii. 274, <span class="tei tei-q">“But it would be wrong to + give the impression that the numismatic artists of this period were + always careful to distinguish—in such a manner as the above works + indicate—between mother and daughter. The old idea of their unity + of substance still seemed to linger as an art-tradition: the very + type we have just been examining appears on a fourth-century coin + of Hermione, and must have been used here to designate Demeter + Chthonia who was there the only form that the corn-goddess assumed. + And even at Metapontum, where coin-engraving was long a great art, + a youthful head crowned with corn, which in its own right and on + account of its resemblance to the masterpiece of Euainetos could + claim the name of Kore [Persephone], is actually inscribed + <span class="tei tei-q">‘Damater.’</span> ”</span> Compare J. + Overbeck, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Griechische Kunstmythologie</span></span>, + iii. (Leipsic, 1873-1878), p. 453. In regard, for example, to the + famous Eleusinian bas-relief, one of the most beautiful monuments + of ancient religious art, which seems to represent Demeter giving + the corn-stalks to Triptolemus, while Persephone crowns his head, + there has been much divergence of opinion among the learned as to + which of the goddesses is Demeter and which Persephone. See J. + Overbeck, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">op. cit.</span></span> iii. 427 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>; + L. R. Farnell, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">op. cit.</span></span> iii. 263 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span> On + the close resemblance of the artistic types of Demeter and + Persephone see further E. Gerhard, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Gesammelte + akademische Abhandlungen</span></span> (Berlin, 1866-1868), ii. 357 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>; F. Lenormant, in Daremberg + et Saglio, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Dictionnaire des Antiquités Grecques et + Romaines</span></span>, i. 2, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">s.v.</span></span> <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Ceres,”</span> p. 1049.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_241" name="note_241" + href="#noteref_241">241.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">The Magic Art and the Evolution of + Kings</span></span>, ii. 97 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_242" name="note_242" + href="#noteref_242">242.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Homer, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Odyssey</span></span>, v. 125 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_243" name="note_243" + href="#noteref_243">243.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Proclus, on Plato, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Timaeus</span></span>, p. 293 c, quoted by L. + F. Farnell, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">The Cults of the Greek States</span></span>, + iii. 357, where Lobeck's emendation of ὔε, κύε for υἶε, τοκυῖε + (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Aglaophamus</span></span>, p. 782) may be + accepted as certain, confirmed as it is by Hippolytus, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Refutatio Omnium + Haeresium</span></span>, v. 7, p. 146, ed. Duncker and Schneidewin + (Göttingen, 1859), τὸ μέγα καὶ ἄρρητον Ἐλευσινίων μυστήριον ὔε + κύε.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_244" name="note_244" + href="#noteref_244">244.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">As to the Eleusinian games see August + Mommsen, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Feste der Stadt Athen im + Altertum</span></span>, pp. 179-204; P. Foucart, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Les Grands Mystères + d'Éleusis</span></span> (Paris, 1900), pp. 143-147; P. Stengel, in + Pauly-Wissowa's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Real-Encyclopädie der classischen + Altertumswissenschaft</span></span>, v. coll. 2330 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span> + The quadriennial celebration of the Eleusinian Games is mentioned + by Aristotle (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Constitution of Athens</span></span>, 54), and + in the great Eleusinian inscription of 329 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">b.c.</span></span>, which is also our + only authority for the biennial celebration of the games. See + Dittenberger, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Sylloge Inscriptionum + Graecarum</span></span>,<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "vertical-align: super">2</span></span> No. 587, lines 258 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span> The regular and official + name of the games was simply Eleusinia (τὰ Ἐλευσίνια), a name which + late writers applied incorrectly to the Mysteries. See August + Mommsen, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">op. cit.</span></span> pp. 179 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>; + Dittenberger, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">op. cit.</span></span> No. 587, note 171.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_245" name="note_245" + href="#noteref_245">245.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Dittenberger, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Sylloge Inscriptionum + Graecarum</span></span>,<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "vertical-align: super">2</span></span> No. 246, lines 25 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>; <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">id.</span></span> No. + 587, lines 244 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, 258 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_246" name="note_246" + href="#noteref_246">246.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Marmor Parium</span></span>, in <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Fragmenta + Historicorum Graecorum</span></span>, ed. C. Müller, i. 544 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_247" name="note_247" + href="#noteref_247">247.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Aristides, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Panathen.</span></span> and <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Eleusin.</span></span> vol. i. pp. 168, 417, + ed. G. Dindorf.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_248" name="note_248" + href="#noteref_248">248.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Schol. on Pindar, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Olymp.</span></span> + ix. 150, p. 228, ed. Aug. Boeckh.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_249" name="note_249" + href="#noteref_249">249.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Aristides, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">ll.cc.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_250" name="note_250" + href="#noteref_250">250.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Dittenberger, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Sylloge Inscriptionum + Graecarum</span></span>,<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "vertical-align: super">2</span></span> No. 246, lines 25 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span> The editor rightly points + out that the Great Eleusinian Games are identical with the games + celebrated every fourth year, which are mentioned in the decree of + 329 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">b.c.</span></span> (Dittenberger, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Sylloge + Inscriptionum Graecarum</span></span>,<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="vertical-align: super">2</span></span> + No. 587, lines 260 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>).</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_251" name="note_251" + href="#noteref_251">251.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Dittenberger, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Sylloge Inscriptionum + Graecarum</span></span>,<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "vertical-align: super">2</span></span> No. 587, lines 259 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span> From other Attic + inscriptions we learn that the Eleusinian games comprised a long + foot-race, a race in armour, and a pancratium. See Dittenberger, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. + cit.</span></span> No. 587 note 171 (vol. ii. p. 313). The Great + Eleusinian Games also included the pentathlum (Dittenberger, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. + cit.</span></span> No. 678, line 2). The pancratium included + wrestling and boxing; the pentathlum included a foot-race, leaping, + throwing the quoit, throwing the spear, and wrestling. See W. + Smith, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Dictionary of Greek and Roman + Antiquities</span></span>, Third Edition, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">s.vv.</span></span> + <span class="tei tei-q">“Pancratium”</span> and <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Pentathlon.”</span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_252" name="note_252" + href="#noteref_252">252.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Dittenberger, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Sylloge Inscriptionum + Graecarum</span></span>,<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "vertical-align: super">2</span></span> No. 246, lines 46 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>; Ch. Michel, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Recueil + d'Inscriptions Grecques</span></span>, No. 609. See above, p. + <a href="#Pg061" class="tei tei-ref">61</a>. The identification + lies all the nearer to hand because the inscription records a + decree in honour of a man who had sacrificed to Demeter and + Persephone at the Great Eleusinian Games, and a provision is + contained in the decree that the honour should be proclaimed + <span class="tei tei-q">“at the Ancestral Contest of the Festival + of the Threshing-floor.”</span> The same Ancestral Contest at the + Festival of the Threshing-floor is mentioned in another Eleusinian + inscription, which records honours decreed to a man who had + sacrificed to Demeter and Persephone at the Festival of the + Threshing-floor. See Ἐφημερὶς Ἀρχαιολογική, 1884, coll. 135 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_253" name="note_253" + href="#noteref_253">253.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See above, p. <a href="#Pg061" class= + "tei tei-ref">61</a>.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_254" name="note_254" + href="#noteref_254">254.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Diodorus Siculus, v. 68; Arrian, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Indic.</span></span> 7; Lucian, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Somnium</span></span>, 15; <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">id.</span></span>, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Philopseudes</span></span>, 3; Plato, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Laws</span></span>, vi. 22, p. 782; + Apollodorus, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Bibliotheca</span></span>, i. 5. 2; Cornutus, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Theologiae Graecae Compendium</span></span>, + 28, p. 53, ed. C. Lang; Pausanias, i. 14. 2, vii. 18. 2, viii. 4. + 1; Aristides, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Eleusin.</span></span> vol. i. pp. 416 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, ed. G. Dindorf; Hyginus, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Fabulae</span></span>, 147, 259, 277; Ovid, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Fasti</span></span>, iv. 549 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>; + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">id.</span></span>, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Metamorph.</span></span> v. 645 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>; + Servius, on Virgil, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Georg.</span></span> i. 19. See also above, p. + 54. As to Triptolemus, see L. Preller, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Demeter und + Persephone</span></span> (Hamburg, 1837), pp. 282 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>; + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">id.</span></span>, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Griechische + Mythologie</span></span>,<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "vertical-align: super">4</span></span> i. 769 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_255" name="note_255" + href="#noteref_255">255.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">C. Strube, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Studien über den + Bilderkreis von Eleusis</span></span> (Leipsic, 1870), pp. 4 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>; J. Overbeck, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Griechische + Kunstmythologie</span></span>, iii. (Leipsic, 1873-1880), pp. 530 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>; A. Baumeister, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Denkmäler + des classischen Altertums</span></span>, iii. 1855 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span> + That Triptolemus sowed the earth with corn from his car is + mentioned by Apollodorus, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Bibliotheca</span></span>, i. 5. 2; Cornutus, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Theologiae Graecae Compendium</span></span>, + 28, pp. 53 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, ed. C. Lang; Hyginus, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Fabulae</span></span>, 147; and Servius, on + Virgil, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Georg.</span></span> i. 19.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_256" name="note_256" + href="#noteref_256">256.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Dittenberger, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Sylloge Inscriptionum + Graecarum</span></span>,<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "vertical-align: super">2</span></span> No. 20, lines 37 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>; E. S. Roberts and E. A. + Gardner, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Introduction to Greek Epigraphy</span></span>, + ii. (Cambridge, 1905), No. 9, p. 24.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_257" name="note_257" + href="#noteref_257">257.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Arrian, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Epicteti + Dissertationes</span></span>, i. 4. 30.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_258" name="note_258" + href="#noteref_258">258.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Scholiast on Homer, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Iliad</span></span>, + xviii. 483; L. Preller, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Demeter und Persephone</span></span>, p. 286; + F. A. Paley on Hesiod, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Works and Days</span></span>, 460. The custom + of ploughing the land thrice is alluded to by Homer (<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Iliad</span></span>, + xviii. 542, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Odyssey</span></span>, v. 127) and Hesiod + (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Theogony</span></span>, 971), and is expressly + mentioned by Theophrastus (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Historia Plantarum</span></span>, vii. 13. + 6).</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_259" name="note_259" + href="#noteref_259">259.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">So I am informed by my learned friend + the Rev. Professor J. H. Moulton.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_260" name="note_260" + href="#noteref_260">260.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. Toepffer, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Attische + Genealogie</span></span> (Berlin, 1889), pp. 138 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span> + However, the Eleusinian Torchbearer Callias apparently claimed to + be descended from Triptolemus, for in a speech addressed to the + Lacedaemonians he is said by Xenophon (<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Hellenica</span></span>, vi. 3. 6) to have + spoken of Triptolemus as <span class="tei tei-q">“our + ancestor”</span> (ὁ ἡμέτερος πρόγονος). See above, p. <a href= + "#Pg054" class="tei tei-ref">54</a>. But it is possible that + Callias was here speaking, not as a direct descendant of + Triptolemus, but merely as an Athenian, who naturally ranked + Triptolemus among the most illustrious of the ancestral heroes of + his people. Even if he intended to claim actual descent from the + hero, this would prove nothing as to the historical character of + Triptolemus, for many Greek families boasted of being descended + from gods.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_261" name="note_261" + href="#noteref_261">261.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">The prize of barley is mentioned by + the Scholiast on Pindar, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Olymp.</span></span> ix. 150. The Scholiast on + Aristides (vol. iii. pp. 55, 56, ed. G. Dindorf) mentions ears of + corn as the prize without specifying the kind of corn. In the + official Athenian inscription of 329 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">b.c.</span></span>, though the amount of + corn distributed in prizes both at the quadriennial and at the + biennial games is stated, we are not told whether the corn was + barley or wheat. See Dittenberger, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Sylloge Inscriptionum + Graecarum</span></span>,<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "vertical-align: super">2</span></span> No. 587, lines 259 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span> According to Aristides + (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Eleusin.</span></span> vol. i. p. 417, ed. G. + Dindorf, compare p. 168) the prize consisted of the corn which had + first appeared at Eleusis.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_262" name="note_262" + href="#noteref_262">262.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class= + "tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">Marmor + Parium</span></span>, in <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Fragmenta Historicorum + Graecorum</span></span>, ed. C. Müller, i. 544. That the Rarian + plain was the first to be sown and the first to bear crops is + affirmed by Pausanias (i. 38. 6).</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_263" name="note_263" + href="#noteref_263">263.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Pausanias, i. 38. 6.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_264" name="note_264" + href="#noteref_264">264.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Dittenberger, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Sylloge Inscriptionum + Graecarum</span></span>,<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "vertical-align: super">2</span></span> No. 587, lines 119 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span> In the same inscription, a + few lines lower down, mention is made of two pigs which were used + in purifying the sanctuary at Eleusis. On the pig in Greek + purificatory rites, see my notes on Pausanias, ii. 31. 8 and v. 16. + 8.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_265" name="note_265" + href="#noteref_265">265.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See below, pp. <a href="#Pg140" class= + "tei tei-ref">140</a> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg155" class= + "tei tei-ref">155</a> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg164" class= + "tei tei-ref">164</a> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>, compare <a href="#Pg218" + class="tei tei-ref">218</a> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_266" name="note_266" + href="#noteref_266">266.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See below, pp. <a href="#Pg147" class= + "tei tei-ref">147</a> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg221" class= + "tei tei-ref">221</a> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg223" class= + "tei tei-ref">223</a> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_267" name="note_267" + href="#noteref_267">267.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See above, p. <a href="#Pg043" class= + "tei tei-ref">43</a>.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_268" name="note_268" + href="#noteref_268">268.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">A. Kuhn und W. Schwartz, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Norddeutsche Sagen, + Märchen und Gebräuche</span></span> (Leipsic, 1848), pp. 398, 399, + 400.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_269" name="note_269" + href="#noteref_269">269.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">P. Drechsler, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Sitte, Brauch und + Volksglaube in Schlesien</span></span> (Leipsic, 1903-1906), ii. 70 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_270" name="note_270" + href="#noteref_270">270.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">A. Kuhn, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Märkische Sagen und + Märchen</span></span> (Berlin, 1843), pp. 341 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_271" name="note_271" + href="#noteref_271">271.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See below, pp. <a href="#Pg133" class= + "tei tei-ref">133</a> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_272" name="note_272" + href="#noteref_272">272.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Scholiast on Pindar, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Olymp.</span></span> + ix. 150, p. 228, ed. Aug. Boeckh.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_273" name="note_273" + href="#noteref_273">273.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">The games are assigned to Metageitnion + by P. Stengel (Pauly-Wissowa, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Real-Encyclopädie der classischen + Altertumswissenschaft</span></span>, v. 2. coll. 2331 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>) + and to Boedromion by August Mommsen and W. Dittenberger. The + last-mentioned scholar supposes that the games immediately followed + the Mysteries, and August Mommsen formerly thought so too, but he + afterwards changed his view and preferred to suppose that the games + preceded the Mysteries. See Aug. Mommsen, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Heortologie</span></span> (Leipsic, 1864), p. + 263; <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">id.</span></span>, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Feste der Stadt Athen + im Altertum</span></span> (Leipsic, 1898), pp. 182 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>; + Dittenberger, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Sylloge Inscriptionum + Graecarum</span></span>,<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "vertical-align: super">2</span></span> No. 587, note 171 (vol. ii. + pp. 313 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>). The dating of the games in + Metageitnion or in the early part of Boedromion depends on little + more than a series of conjectures, particularly the conjectural + restoration of an inscription and the conjectural dating of a + certain sacrifice to Democracy.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_274" name="note_274" + href="#noteref_274">274.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">A. de Candolle, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Origin of Cultivated + Plants</span></span> (London, 1884), pp. 354 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, + 367 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>; R. Munro, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Lake-dwellings of + Europe</span></span> (London, Paris, and Melbourne, 1890), pp. 497 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>; O. Schrader, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Reallexikon der + indogermanischen Altertumskunde</span></span> (Strasburg, 1901), + pp. 8 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>; <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">id.</span></span>, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Sprachvergleichung und + Urgeschichte</span></span> (Jena, 1906-1907), ii. 185 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>; + H. Hirt, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Die Indogermanen</span></span> (Strasburg, + 1905-1907), i. 254 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>, 273 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, + 276 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>, ii. 640 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>; + M. Much, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Die Heimat der Indogermanen</span></span> + (Jena and Berlin, 1904), pp. 221 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>; + T. E. Peet, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">The Stone and Bronze Ages in Italy and + Sicily</span></span> (Oxford, 1909), p. 362.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_275" name="note_275" + href="#noteref_275">275.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Aristotle, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Constitution of + Athens</span></span>, 54, where the quadriennial (penteteric) + festival of the Eleusinian Games is mentioned along with the + quadriennial festivals of the Panathenaica, the Delia, the + Brauronia, and the Heraclea. The biennial (trieteric) festival of + the Eleusinian Games is mentioned only in the inscription of 329 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">b.c.</span></span> (Dittenberger, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Sylloge + Inscriptionum Graecarum</span></span>,<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="vertical-align: super">2</span></span> + No. 587, lines 259 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>). As to the identity of the + Great Eleusinian Games with the quadriennial games see + Dittenberger, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Sylloge Inscriptionum Graecarum</span></span>, + No. 246 note 9, No. 587 note 171.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_276" name="note_276" + href="#noteref_276">276.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">As to the Plataean games see Plutarch, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Aristides</span></span>, 21; Pausanias, ix. 2. + 6.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_277" name="note_277" + href="#noteref_277">277.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Strabo, vii. 7. 6, p. 325; Suetonius, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Augustus</span></span>, 18; Dio Cassius, li. + 1; Daremberg et Saglio, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Dictionnaire des Antiquités Grecques et + Romaines</span></span>, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">s.v.</span></span> <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Actia.”</span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_278" name="note_278" + href="#noteref_278">278.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Pausanias, viii. 9. 8.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_279" name="note_279" + href="#noteref_279">279.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Scholiast on Pindar, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Pyth.</span></span>, + Argument, p. 298, ed. Aug. Boeckh; Censorinus, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">De die + natali</span></span>, xviii. 6. According to the scholiast on + Pindar (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">l.c.</span></span>) the change from the + octennial to the quadriennial period was occasioned by the nymphs + of Parnassus bringing ripe fruits in their hands to Apollo, after + he had slain the dragon at Delphi.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_280" name="note_280" + href="#noteref_280">280.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Scholiast on Pindar, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Olymp.</span></span> + iii. 35 (20), p. 98, ed. Aug. Boeckh. Compare Boeckh's commentary + on Pindar (vol. iii. p. 138 of his edition); L. Ideler, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Handbuch + der mathematischen und technischen Chronologie</span></span>, i. + 366 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, ii. 605 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_281" name="note_281" + href="#noteref_281">281.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Dying + God</span></span>, chapter ii. § 4, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Octennial Tenure of the Kingship,”</span> especially + pp. 68 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, 80, 89 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_282" name="note_282" + href="#noteref_282">282.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Geminus, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Elementa + Astronomiae</span></span>, viii. 25 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>, + pp. 110 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>, ed. C. Manitius (Leipsic, + 1898); Censorinus, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">De die natali</span></span>, xviii. 2-6.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_283" name="note_283" + href="#noteref_283">283.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Geminus, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">l.c.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_284" name="note_284" + href="#noteref_284">284.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Geminus, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Elementa + Astronomiae</span></span>, viii. 36-41.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_285" name="note_285" + href="#noteref_285">285.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Censorinus, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">De die + natali</span></span>, xviii. 5. As Eudoxus flourished in the fourth + century <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">b.c.</span></span>, some sixty or + seventy years after Meton, who introduced the nineteen years' cycle + to remedy the defects of the octennial cycle, the claim of Eudoxus + to have instituted the latter cycle may at once be put out of + court. The claim of Cleostratus, who seems to have lived in the + sixth or fifth century <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">b.c.</span></span>, cannot be dismissed + so summarily; but for the reasons given in the text he can hardly + have done more than suggest corrections or improvements of the + ancient octennial cycle.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_286" name="note_286" + href="#noteref_286">286.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Geminus, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Elementa + Astronomiae</span></span>, viii. 27. With far less probability + Censorinus (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">De die natali</span></span>, xviii. 2-4) + supposes that the octennial cycle was produced by the successive + duplication of biennial and quadriennial cycles. See below, pp. 86 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_287" name="note_287" + href="#noteref_287">287.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">L. Ideler, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Handbuch der + mathematischen und technischen Chronologie</span></span>, ii. + 605.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_288" name="note_288" + href="#noteref_288">288.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">The Dying God</span></span>, pp. 58 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span> Speaking of the octennial + cycle Censorinus observes that <span class="tei tei-q">“<span lang= + "la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Ob hoc in Graecia multae religiones hoc + intervallo temporis summa caerimonia coluntur</span></span>”</span> + (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">De die + natali</span></span>, xviii. 6). Compare L. Ideler, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. + cit.</span></span> ii. 605 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; G. F. Unger, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Zeitrechnung der Griechen und Römer,”</span> in Iwan + Müller's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Handbuch der classischen + Altertumswissenschaft</span></span>, i.<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="vertical-align: super">2</span></span> + 732 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span> The great age and the wide + diffusion of the octennial cycle in Greece are rightly maintained + by A. Schmidt (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Handbuch der griechischen + Chronologie</span></span>, Jena, 1888, pp. 61 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>), + who suggests that the cycle may have owed something to the + astronomy of the Egyptians, with whom the inhabitants of Greece are + known to have had relations from a very early time.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_289" name="note_289" + href="#noteref_289">289.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Aratus, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Phaenomena</span></span>, 733 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>; + L. Ideler, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Handbuch der mathematischen und technischen + Chronologie</span></span>, i. 255 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_290" name="note_290" + href="#noteref_290">290.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Geminus, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Elementa + Astronomiae</span></span>, viii. 15-45.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_291" name="note_291" + href="#noteref_291">291.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Macrobius, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Saturnalia</span></span>, i. 15. 9 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>; Livy, ix. 46. 5; Valerius + Maximus, ii. 5. 2; Cicero, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Pro Muraena</span></span>, xi. 25; + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">id.</span></span>, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">De + legibus</span></span>, ii. 12. 29; Suetonius, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Divus + Iulius</span></span>, 40; Plutarch, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Caesar</span></span>, + 59.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_292" name="note_292" + href="#noteref_292">292.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Dying + God</span></span>, pp. 92 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_293" name="note_293" + href="#noteref_293">293.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Plato, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Meno</span></span>, + p. 81 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">a-c</span></span>; Pindar, ed. Aug. + Boeckh, vol. iii. pp. 623 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, Frag. 98. See further + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Dying + God</span></span>, pp. 69 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_294" name="note_294" + href="#noteref_294">294.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Plutarch, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Aristides</span></span>, 21; Pausanias, ix. 2. + 6.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_295" name="note_295" + href="#noteref_295">295.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See above, p. <a href="#Pg080" class= + "tei tei-ref">80</a>.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_296" name="note_296" + href="#noteref_296">296.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Pausanias, iv. 5. 10; compare + Aristotle, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Constitution of Athens</span></span>, iii. 1; + G. Gilbert, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Handbuch der griechischen + Staatsalterthumer</span></span>, i.<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="vertical-align: super">2</span></span> + (Leipsic, 1893) pp. 122 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_297" name="note_297" + href="#noteref_297">297.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Dying + God</span></span>, pp. 89-92.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_298" name="note_298" + href="#noteref_298">298.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">L. Ideler, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Handbuch der + mathematischen und technischen Chronologie</span></span>, ii. 606 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_299" name="note_299" + href="#noteref_299">299.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Censorinus, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">De die + natali</span></span>, xviii. 2-4.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_300" name="note_300" + href="#noteref_300">300.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Censorinus, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">De die + natali</span></span>, xviii. 2.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_301" name="note_301" + href="#noteref_301">301.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">L. Ideler, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Handbuch der + mathematischen und technischen Chronologie</span></span>, i. + 270.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_302" name="note_302" + href="#noteref_302">302.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Augustine, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">De civitate + Dei</span></span>, vii. 20. <span class="tei tei-q">“<span lang= + "la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style= + "font-style: italic">In Cereris autem sacris praedicantur illa + Eleusinia, quae apud Athenienses nobilissima fuerunt. De quibus + iste [Varro] nihil interpretatur, nisi quod attinet ad frumentum, + quod Ceres invenit, et ad Proserpinam, quam rapiente Orco perdidit. + Et hanc ipsam dicit significare foecunditatem seminum.... Dicit + deinde multa in mysteriis ejus tradi, quae nisi ad frugum + inventionem non pertineant.</span></span>”</span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_303" name="note_303" + href="#noteref_303">303.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">A. Baumeister, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Denkmäler des + classischen Altertums</span></span>, i. 577 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; + Drexler, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">s.v.</span></span> "Gaia," in W. H. Roscher's + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Lexikon + der griech. und röm. Mythologie</span></span>, i. 1574 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>; + L. R. Farnell, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">The Cults of the Greek States</span></span>, + iii. (Oxford, 1907) p. 27.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_304" name="note_304" + href="#noteref_304">304.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Pausanias, vii. 21. 11. At Athens + there was a sanctuary of Earth the Nursing-Mother and of Green + Demeter (Pausanias, i. 22. 3), but we do not know how the goddesses + were represented.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_305" name="note_305" + href="#noteref_305">305.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">L. R. Farnell, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Cults of the + Greek States</span></span>, iii. 256 with plate xxi. b.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_306" name="note_306" + href="#noteref_306">306.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The + distinction between Demeter (Ceres) and the Earth Goddess is + clearly marked by Ovid, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Fasti</span></span>, iv. 673 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>:</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-q">“<span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang= + "la"><span style="font-style: italic">Officium commune Ceres et + Terra tuentur;</span><br /> + <span style="font-style: italic">Haec praebet causam frugibus, + illa locum.</span></span>”</span></p> + </dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_307" name="note_307" + href="#noteref_307">307.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Dittenberger, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Sylloge Inscriptionum + Graecarum</span></span>,<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "vertical-align: super">2</span></span> Nos. 20, 408, 411, 587, + 646, 647, 652, 720, 789. Compare the expression διώνυμοι θέαι + applied to them by Euripides, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Phoenissae</span></span>, 683, with the + Scholiast's note.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_308" name="note_308" + href="#noteref_308">308.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">The substantial identity of Demeter + and Persephone has been recognised by some modern scholars, though + their interpretations of the myth do not altogether agree with the + one adopted in the text. See F. G. Welcker, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Griechische + Götterlehre</span></span> (Göttingen, 1857-1862), ii. 532; L. + Preller, in Pauly's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Realencyclopädie der classischen + Altertumswissenschaft</span></span>, vi. 106 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; F. + Lenormant, in Daremberg et Saglio, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Dictionnaire des + Antiquités Grecques et Romaines</span></span>, i. 2. pp. 1047 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_309" name="note_309" + href="#noteref_309">309.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Homeric Hymn to Demeter</span></span>, 480 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>; Pindar, quoted by Clement + of Alexandria, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Strom.</span></span> iii. 3. 17, p. 518, ed. + Potter; Sophocles, quoted by Plutarch, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">De audiendis + poetis</span></span>, 4; Isocrates, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Panegyricus</span></span>, 6; Cicero, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">De + legibus</span></span>, ii. 14. 36; Aristides, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Eleusin.</span></span> vol. i. p. 421, ed. G. + Dindorf.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_310" name="note_310" + href="#noteref_310">310.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">A learned German professor has thought + it worth while to break the poor butterfly argument on the wheel of + his inflexible logic. The cruel act, while it proves the hardness + of the professor's head, says little for his knowledge of human + nature, which does not always act in strict accordance with the + impulse of the syllogistic machinery. See Erwin Rohde, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Psyche</span></span><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="vertical-align: super">3</span></span> + (Tübingen and Leipsic, 1903), i. 290 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_311" name="note_311" + href="#noteref_311">311.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">1 Corinthians xv. 35 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_312" name="note_312" + href="#noteref_312">312.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See above, p. <a href="#Pg071" class= + "tei tei-ref">71</a>, with the footnote 5.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_313" name="note_313" + href="#noteref_313">313.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See above, pp. <a href="#Pg074" class= + "tei tei-ref">74</a> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_314" name="note_314" + href="#noteref_314">314.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">A. W. Nieuwenhuis, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Quer durch + Borneo</span></span> (Leyden, 1904-1907), i. 156 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_315" name="note_315" + href="#noteref_315">315.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">A. W. Nieuwenhuis, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. + cit.</span></span> i. 164.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_316" name="note_316" + href="#noteref_316">316.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">A. W. Nieuwenhuis, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Quer durch + Borneo</span></span>, i. 164-167.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_317" name="note_317" + href="#noteref_317">317.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">A. W. Nieuwenhuis, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. + cit.</span></span> i. 163. The motive assigned for the exclusion of + strangers at the sowing festival applies equally to all religious + rites. <span class="tei tei-q">“In all religious + observances,”</span> says Dr. Nieuwenhuis, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“the Kayans fear the presence of strangers, because + these latter might frighten and annoy the spirits which are + invoked.”</span> On the periods of seclusion and quiet observed in + connexion with agriculture by the Kayans of Sarawak, see W. H. + Furness, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Home-life of Borneo Head-hunters</span></span> + (Philadelphia, 1902), pp. 160 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_318" name="note_318" + href="#noteref_318">318.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">A. W. Nieuwenhuis, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. + cit.</span></span> i. 167-169.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_319" name="note_319" + href="#noteref_319">319.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">A. W. Nieuwenhuis, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. + cit.</span></span> i. 169.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_320" name="note_320" + href="#noteref_320">320.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">A. W. Nieuwenhuis, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Quer durch + Borneo</span></span>, i. 171-182.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_321" name="note_321" + href="#noteref_321">321.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">A. W. Nieuwenhuis, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. + cit.</span></span> i. 169 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_322" name="note_322" + href="#noteref_322">322.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">A. W. Nieuwenhuis, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. + cit.</span></span> i. 163 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_323" name="note_323" + href="#noteref_323">323.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">A. W. Nieuwenhuis, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Quer durch + Borneo</span></span>, ii. 130 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span> The game as to the religious + significance of which Dr. Nieuwenhuis has no doubt is the + masquerade performed by the Kayans of the Mahakam river, where + disguised men personate spirits and pretend to draw home the souls + of the rice from the far countries to which they may have wandered. + See below, pp. 186 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_324" name="note_324" + href="#noteref_324">324.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ch. Keysser, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Aus dem Leben der Kaileute,”</span> in R. Neuhauss, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Deutsch + Neu-Guinea</span></span>, iii. (Berlin, 1911) pp. 3, 9 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, 12 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_325" name="note_325" + href="#noteref_325">325.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ch. Keysser, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. + cit.</span></span> pp. 123-125.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_326" name="note_326" + href="#noteref_326">326.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ch. Keysser, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. + cit.</span></span> iii. 125 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_327" name="note_327" + href="#noteref_327">327.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ch. Keysser, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. + cit.</span></span> iii. 161.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_328" name="note_328" + href="#noteref_328">328.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">On the principles of homoeopathic or + imitative magic, see <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">The Magic Art and the Evolution of + Kings</span></span>, i. 52 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span> The Esquimaux play cat's + cradle as a charm to catch the sun in the meshes of the string and + so prevent him from sinking below the horizon in winter. See + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Magic + Art and the Evolution of Kings</span></span>, i. 316 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span> + Cat's cradle is played as a game by savages in many parts of the + world, including the Torres Straits Islands, the Andaman Islands, + Africa, and America. See A. C. Haddon, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Study of + Man</span></span> (London and New York, 1898), pp. 224-232; Miss + Kathleen Haddon, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Cat's Cradles from Many Lands</span></span> + (London, 1911). For example, the Indians of North-western Brazil + play many games of cat's cradle, each of which has its special + name, such as the Bow, the Moon, the Pleiades, the Armadillo, the + Spider, the Caterpillar, and the Guts of the Tapir. See Th. + Koch-Grünberg, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Zwei Jahre unter den Indianern</span></span> + (Berlin, 1909-1910), i. 120, 123, 252, 253, ii. 127, 131. Finding + the game played as a magical rite to stay the sun or promote the + growth of the crops among peoples so distant from each other as the + Esquimaux and the natives of New Guinea, we may reasonably surmise + that it has been put to similar uses by many other peoples, though + civilised observers have commonly seen in it nothing more than a + pastime. Probably many games have thus originated in magical rites. + When their old serious meaning was forgotten, they continued to be + practised simply for the amusement they afforded the players. + Another such game seems to be the <span class="tei tei-q">“Tug of + War.”</span> See <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">The Golden Bough</span></span>,<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="vertical-align: super">2</span></span> + iii. 95.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_329" name="note_329" + href="#noteref_329">329.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Taboo and the Perils + of the Soul</span></span>, pp. 318 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_330" name="note_330" + href="#noteref_330">330.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Stefan Lehner, "Bukaua," in R. + Neuhauss, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Deutsch Neu-Guinea</span></span>, iii. + (Berlin, 1911) pp. 478 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_331" name="note_331" + href="#noteref_331">331.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Taboo and the Perils + of the Soul</span></span>, p. 386.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_332" name="note_332" + href="#noteref_332">332.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">H. Zahn, <span class="tei tei-q">“Die + Jabim,”</span> in R. Neuhauss, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Deutsch + Neu-Guinea</span></span>, iii. (Berlin, 1911) p. 290.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_333" name="note_333" + href="#noteref_333">333.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">H. Zahn, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. + cit.</span></span> pp. 332 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_334" name="note_334" + href="#noteref_334">334.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">H. Zahn, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. + cit.</span></span> p. 333.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_335" name="note_335" + href="#noteref_335">335.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Stefan Lehner, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Bukaua,”</span> in R. Neuhauss, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Deutsch + Neu-Guinea</span></span>, iii. (Berlin, 1911) p. 448.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_336" name="note_336" + href="#noteref_336">336.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">A. C. Haddon, in <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Reports of the + Cambridge Anthropological Expedition to Torres + Straits</span></span>, v. (Cambridge, 1904) pp. 218, 219. Compare + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">id.</span></span>, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Head-hunters, Black, + White, and Brown</span></span> (London, 1901) p. 104.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_337" name="note_337" + href="#noteref_337">337.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">A. C. Haddon, in <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Reports of the + Cambridge Anthropological Expedition to Torres + Straits</span></span>, v. (Cambridge, 1904) pp. 346 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_338" name="note_338" + href="#noteref_338">338.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">A. W. Howitt, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“The Dieri and other kindred Tribes of Central + Australia,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Journal of the Anthropological + Institute</span></span>, xx. (1891) p. 83; <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">id.</span></span>, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Native + Tribes of South-East Australia</span></span> (London, 1904), p. + 660. The first, I believe, to point out the fertilising power + ascribed to the bull-roarer by some savages was Dr. A. C. Haddon. + See his essay, <span class="tei tei-q">“The Bull-roarer,”</span> in + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Study + of Man</span></span> (London and New York, 1898), pp. 277-327. In + this work Dr. Haddon recognises the general principle of the + possible derivation of many games from magical rites. As to the + bull-roarer compare my paper <span class="tei tei-q">“On some + Ceremonies of the Central Australian Tribes,”</span> in the + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Report of + the Australasian Association for the Advancement of Science for the + year 1900</span></span> (Melbourne, 1901), pp. 313-322.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_339" name="note_339" + href="#noteref_339">339.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. G. Kohl, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Die + deutsch-russischen Ostseeprovinzen</span></span> (Dresden and + Leipsic, 1841), ii. 25.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_340" name="note_340" + href="#noteref_340">340.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">For the evidence see <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Dying + God</span></span>, pp. 277-285.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_341" name="note_341" + href="#noteref_341">341.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">On the Kayan chiefs and their + religious duties, see A. W. Nieuwenhuis, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Quer durch + Borneo</span></span>, i. 58-60.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_342" name="note_342" + href="#noteref_342">342.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See above, p. <a href="#Pg036" class= + "tei tei-ref">36</a>.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_343" name="note_343" + href="#noteref_343">343.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See above, p. <a href="#Pg074" class= + "tei tei-ref">74</a>.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_344" name="note_344" + href="#noteref_344">344.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Plutarch, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Praecepta + Conjugalia</span></span>, 42. Another of these Sacred Ploughings + was performed at Scirum, and the third at the foot of the Acropolis + at Athens; for in this passage of Plutarch we must, with the latest + editor, read ὑπὸ πόλιν for the ὑπὸ πέλιν of the manuscripts.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_345" name="note_345" + href="#noteref_345">345.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See above, pp. <a href="#Pg050" class= + "tei tei-ref">50</a> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_346" name="note_346" + href="#noteref_346">346.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Etymologicum Magnum</span></span>, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">s.v.</span></span> Βουζυγία, p. 206, lines 47 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>; Im. Bekker, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Anecdota + Graeca</span></span> (Berlin, 1814-1821), i. 221; Pliny, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Nat. + Hist.</span></span> vii. 199; Hesychius, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">s.v.</span></span> + Βουζύγης; καθίστατο δὲ παρ᾽ αὐτοῖς καὶ ὁ τοὺς ἱεροὺς ἀρότους + ἐπιτελῶν Βουζύγης; <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Paroemiographi Graeci</span></span>, ed. E. L. + Leutsch und F. G. Schneidewin (Göttingen, 1839-1851), i. 388, + Βουζύγης; ἐπὶ τῶν πολλὰ ἀρωμένων. Ὁ γὰρ Βουζύγης Ἀθήνησιν ὁ τὸν + ἱερὸν ἄροτον ἐπιτελῶν ... ἄλλα τε πολλὰ ἀρᾶται καὶ τοῖς μὴ + κοινωνοῦσι κατὰ τὸν Βίον ὕδατος ἢ πυρὸς ἢ μὴ ὑποφαίνουσιν ὁδὸν + πλανωμένοις; Scholiast on Sophocles, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Antigone</span></span>, 255, λόγος δὲ ὅτι + Βουζύγης Ἀθήνησι κατηράσατο τοῖς περιορῶσιν ἄταφον σῶμα. The Sacred + Ploughing at the foot of the Acropolis was specially called + <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">bouzygios</span></span> (Plutarch, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Praecepta + Conjugalia</span></span>, 42). Compare J. Toepffer, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Attische + Genealogie</span></span> (Berlin, 1889) pp. 136 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_347" name="note_347" + href="#noteref_347">347.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Such Sabbaths are very commonly and + very strictly observed in connexion with the crops by the + agricultural hill tribes of Assam. The native name for such a + Sabbath is <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">genna</span></span>. See T. C. Hodson, + <span class="tei tei-q">“The <span class= + "tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Genna</span></span> amongst the Tribes of + Assam,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Journal of the Anthropological + Institute</span></span>, xxxvi. (1906) pp. 94 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>: + <span class="tei tei-q">“Communal tabus are observed by the whole + village.... Those which are of regular occurrence are for the most + part connected with the crops. Even where irrigated terraces are + made, the rice plant is much affected by deficiencies of rain and + excess of sun. Before the crop is sown, the village is tabu or + <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">genna</span></span>. The gates are closed and + the friend without has to stay outside, while the stranger that is + within the gates remains till all is ended. The festival is marked + among some tribes by an outburst of licentiousness, for, so long as + the crops remain ungarnered, the slightest incontinence might ruin + all. An omen of the prosperity of the crops is taken by a mock + contest, the girls pulling against the men. In some villages the + <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">gennas</span></span> last for ten days, but + the tenth day is the crowning day of all. The men cook, and eat + apart from the women during this time, and the food tabus are + strictly enforced. From the conclusion of the initial crop + <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">genna</span></span> to the commencement of the + <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">genna</span></span> which ushers in the + harvest-time, all trade, all fishing, all hunting, all cutting + grass and felling trees is forbidden. Those tribes which specialise + in cloth-weaving, salt-making or pottery-making are forbidden the + exercise of these minor but valuable industries. Drums and bugles + are silent all the while.... Between the initial crop <span class= + "tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">genna</span></span> and the harvest-home, some + tribes interpose a <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">genna</span></span> day which depends on the + appearance of the first blade of rice. All celebrate the + commencement of the gathering of the crops by a <span class= + "tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">genna</span></span>, which lasts at least two + days. It is mainly a repetition of the initial <span class= + "tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">genna</span></span> and, just as the first + seed was sown by the <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">gennabura</span></span>, the religious head of + the village, so he is obliged to cut the first ear of rice before + any one else may begin.”</span> On such occasions among the Kabuis, + in spite of the licence accorded to the people generally, the + strictest chastity is required of the religious head of the village + who initiates the sowing and the reaping, and his diet is extremely + limited; for example, he may not eat dogs or tomatoes. See T. C. + Hodson, <span class="tei tei-q">“The Native Tribes of + Manipur,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Journal of the Anthropological + Institute</span></span>, xxxi. (1901) pp. 306 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; + and for more details, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">id.</span></span>, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Naga Tribes of + Manipur</span></span> (London, 1911), pp. 168 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span> + The resemblance of some of these customs to those of the Kayans of + Borneo is obvious. We may conjecture that the <span class= + "tei tei-q">“tug of war”</span> which takes place between the sexes + on several of these Sabbaths was originally a magical ceremony to + ensure good crops rather than merely a mode of divination to + forecast the coming harvest. Magic regularly dwindles into + divination before it degenerates into a simple game. At one of + these taboo periods the men set up an effigy of a man and throw + pointed bamboos at it. He who hits the figure in the head will kill + an enemy; he who hits it in the belly will have plenty of food. See + T. C. Hodson, in <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Journal of the Anthropological + Institute</span></span>, xxxvi. (1906) p. 95; <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">id.</span></span>, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Naga + Tribes of Manipur</span></span>, p. 171. Here also we probably have + an old magical ceremony passing through a phase of divination + before it reaches the last stage of decay. On Sabbaths observed in + connexion with agriculture in Borneo and Assam, see further Hutton + Webster, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Rest Days, a Sociological Study</span></span>, + pp. 11 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span> (<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">University + Studies</span></span>, Lincoln, Nebraska, vol. xi. Nos. 1-2, + January-April, 1911).</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_348" name="note_348" + href="#noteref_348">348.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See above, p. <a href="#Pg071" class= + "tei tei-ref">71</a>.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_349" name="note_349" + href="#noteref_349">349.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See above, p. <a href="#Pg071" class= + "tei tei-ref">71</a> note 5.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_350" name="note_350" + href="#noteref_350">350.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Magic Art and the + Evolution of Kings</span></span>, i. 137-139.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_351" name="note_351" + href="#noteref_351">351.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See the old Greek scholiast on Clement + of Alexandria, quoted by Chr. Aug. Lobeck, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Aglaophamus</span></span> (Königsberg, 1829), + p. 700; Andrew Lang, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Custom and Myth</span></span> (London, 1884), + p. 39. It is true that the bull-roarer seems to have been + associated with the rites of Dionysus rather than of Demeter; + perhaps the sound of it was thought to mimick the bellowing of the + god in his character of a bull. But the worship of Dionysus was + from an early time associated with that of Demeter in the + Eleusinian mysteries; and the god himself, as we have seen, had + agricultural affinities. See above, p. <a href="#Pg005" class= + "tei tei-ref">5</a>. An annual festival of swinging (which, as we + have seen, is still practised both in New Guinea and Russia for the + good of the crops) was held by the Athenians in antiquity and was + believed to have originated in the worship of Dionysus. See + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Dying + God</span></span>, pp. 281 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_352" name="note_352" + href="#noteref_352">352.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See above, pp. <a href="#Pg095" class= + "tei tei-ref">95</a> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, and below, pp. <a href= + "#Pg186" class="tei tei-ref">186</a> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_353" name="note_353" + href="#noteref_353">353.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See above, p. <a href="#Pg039" class= + "tei tei-ref">39</a>.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_354" name="note_354" + href="#noteref_354">354.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Th. Koch-Grünberg, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Zwei Jahre unter den + Indianern</span></span> (Berlin, 1909-1910), i. 137-140, ii. + 193-196. As to the cultivation of manioc among these Indians see + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">id.</span></span> ii. 202 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_355" name="note_355" + href="#noteref_355">355.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">F. B. Jevons, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Introduction to the + History of Religion</span></span> (London, 1896), p. 240; H. Hirt, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Die + Indogermanen</span></span> (Strasburg, 1905-1907), i. 251 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_356" name="note_356" + href="#noteref_356">356.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Rev. J. Shooter, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Kafirs of Natal + and the Zulu Country</span></span> (London, 1857), pp. 17 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span> Speaking of the Zulus + another writer observes: <span class="tei tei-q">“In gardening, the + men clear the land, if need be, and sometimes fence it in; the + women plant, weed, and harvest”</span> (Rev. L. Grout, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Zulu-land</span></span>, Philadelphia, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">n.d.</span></span>, p. 110).</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_357" name="note_357" + href="#noteref_357">357.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">A. Delegorgue, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Voyage dans l'Afrique + Australe</span></span> (Paris, 1847), ii. 225.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_358" name="note_358" + href="#noteref_358">358.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">H. A. Junod, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Les + Ba-Ronga</span></span> (Neuchatel, 1908), pp. 195 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_359" name="note_359" + href="#noteref_359">359.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">L. Decle, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Three Years in Savage + Africa</span></span> (London, 1898), p. 85.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_360" name="note_360" + href="#noteref_360">360.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">L. Decle, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. + cit.</span></span> p. 160.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_361" name="note_361" + href="#noteref_361">361.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">C. Gouldsbury and H. Sheane, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Great + Plateau of Northern Rhodesia</span></span> (London, 1911), p. + 302.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_362" name="note_362" + href="#noteref_362">362.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">L. Decle, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. + cit.</span></span> p. 295.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_363" name="note_363" + href="#noteref_363">363.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">C. Gouldsbury and H. Sheane, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Great + Plateau of Northern Nigeria</span></span> (London, 1911), p. + 179.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_364" name="note_364" + href="#noteref_364">364.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Rev. J. H. Weeks, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Notes on some Customs of the Lower Congo + People,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Folk-lore</span></span>, xx. (1909) p. + 311.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_365" name="note_365" + href="#noteref_365">365.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">In order to guard against any breach + of the rule they strewed <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Agnus castus</span></span> and other plants, + which were esteemed anaphrodisiacs, under their beds. See + Dioscorides, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">De Materia Medica</span></span>, i. 134 (135), + vol. i. p. 130, ed. C. Sprengel (Leipsic, 1829-1830); Pliny, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Nat. + Hist.</span></span> xxiv. 59; Aelian, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">De Natura + Animalium</span></span>, ix. 26; Hesychius, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">s.v.</span></span> + κνέωρον; Scholiast on Theocritus, iv. 25; Scholiast on Nicander, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Ther.</span></span> 70 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_366" name="note_366" + href="#noteref_366">366.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Scholiast on Aristophanes, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Thesmophor.</span></span> 80; Plutarch, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Demosthenes</span></span>, 30; Aug. Mommsen, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Feste der + Stadt Athen im Altertum</span></span> (Leipsic, 1898), pp. 310 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span> That Pyanepsion was the + month of sowing is mentioned by Plutarch (<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Isis et + Osiris</span></span>, 69). See above, pp. <a href="#Pg045" class= + "tei tei-ref">45</a> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_367" name="note_367" + href="#noteref_367">367.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See below, vol. ii. p. 17 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_368" name="note_368" + href="#noteref_368">368.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Dudley Kidd, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Essential + Kaffir</span></span> (London, 1904), p. 323. Compare B. Ankermann, + <span class="tei tei-q">“L'Ethnographie actuelle de l'Afrique + méridionale,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Anthropos</span></span>, i. (1906) pp. 575 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span> As to the use of the + Pleiades to determine the time of sowing, see note at the end of + the volume, <span class="tei tei-q">“The Pleiades in Primitive + Calendars.”</span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_369" name="note_369" + href="#noteref_369">369.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Rev. E. Casalis, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The + Basutos</span></span> (London, 1861), pp. 143 (with plate), pp. + 162-165.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_370" name="note_370" + href="#noteref_370">370.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">A. C. Hollis, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The + Nandi</span></span> (Oxford, 1909), p. 19. However, among the Bantu + Kavirondo, an essentially agricultural people of British East + Africa, both men and women work in the fields with large iron hoes. + See Sir Harry Johnston, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">The Uganda Protectorate</span></span> (London, + 1904), ii. 738.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_371" name="note_371" + href="#noteref_371">371.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">M. W. H. Beech, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Suk</span></span> + (Oxford, 1911), p. 33.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_372" name="note_372" + href="#noteref_372">372.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">F. Stuhlmann, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Mit Emin Pascha ins + Herz von Afrika</span></span> (Berlin, 1894), p. 36.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_373" name="note_373" + href="#noteref_373">373.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">F. Stuhlmann, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. + cit.</span></span> p. 75.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_374" name="note_374" + href="#noteref_374">374.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Rev. J. Roscoe, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The + Baganda</span></span> (London, 1911), pp. 426, 427; compare pp. 5, + 38, 91 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, 93, 94, 95, 268.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_375" name="note_375" + href="#noteref_375">375.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">H. Rehse, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Kiziba, Land und + Leute</span></span> (Stuttgart, 1910), p. 53.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_376" name="note_376" + href="#noteref_376">376.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">G. Schweinfurth, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Heart of + Africa</span></span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "vertical-align: super">3</span></span> (London, 1878), i. + 281.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_377" name="note_377" + href="#noteref_377">377.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">G. Schweinfurth, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. + cit.</span></span> ii. 40.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_378" name="note_378" + href="#noteref_378">378.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Rev. J. H. Weeks, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Anthropological Notes on the Bangala of the Upper + Congo River,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Journal of the Royal Anthropological + Institute</span></span>, xxxix. (1909) pp. 117, 128.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_379" name="note_379" + href="#noteref_379">379.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">E. Torday, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Der Tofoke,”</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Mitteilungen der + Anthropologischen Gesellschaft in Wien</span></span>, xli. (1911) + p. 198.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_380" name="note_380" + href="#noteref_380">380.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">E. Torday and T. A. Joyce, + <span class="tei tei-q">“Notes on the Ethnography of the + Ba-Mbala,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Journal of the Anthropological + Institute</span></span>, xxxv. (1905) p. 405.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_381" name="note_381" + href="#noteref_381">381.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">P. B. du Chaillu, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Explorations and + Adventures in Equatorial Africa</span></span> (London, 1861), p. + 22.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_382" name="note_382" + href="#noteref_382">382.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">P. B. du Chaillu, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. + cit.</span></span> p. 417.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_383" name="note_383" + href="#noteref_383">383.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">A. D'Orbigny, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">L'Homme Américain (de + l'Amérique Méridionale)</span></span> (Paris, 1839), i. 198 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_384" name="note_384" + href="#noteref_384">384.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Le Sieur de la Borde, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Relation de l'Origine, Mœurs, Coustumes, Religion, + Guerres et Voyages des Caraibes Sauvages des Isles Antilles de + l'Amerique,”</span> pp. 21-23, in <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Recueil de divers + Voyages faits en Afrique et en l'Amerique</span></span> (Paris, + 1684).</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_385" name="note_385" + href="#noteref_385">385.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">E. F. im Thurn, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Among the Indians of + Guiana</span></span> (London, 1883), pp. 250 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>, + 260 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_386" name="note_386" + href="#noteref_386">386.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">C. F. Phil. v. Martius, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Zur Ethnographie + Amerika's, zumal Brasiliens</span></span> (Leipsic, 1867), pp. + 486-489. On the economic importance of the manioc or cassava plant + in the life of the South American Indians, see further E. J. Payne, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">History + of the New World called America</span></span>, i. (Oxford, 1892) + pp. 310 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>, 312 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_387" name="note_387" + href="#noteref_387">387.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">A. R. Wallace, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Narrative of Travels + on the Amazon and Rio Negro</span></span> (London, 1889), pp. 336, + 337 (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The + Minerva Library</span></span>). Mr. Wallace's account of the + agriculture of these tribes is entirely confirmed by the + observations of a recent explorer in north-western Brazil. See Th. + Koch-Grünberg, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Zwei Jahre unter den Indianern</span></span> + (Berlin, 1909-1910), ii. 202-209; <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">id.</span></span>, + <span class="tei tei-q">“Frauenarbeit bei den Indianern + Nordwest-Brasiliens,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Mitteilungen der Anthropologischen + Gesellschaft in Wien</span></span>, xxxviii. (1908) pp. 172-174. + This writer tells us (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Zwei Jahre unter den Indianern</span></span>, + ii. 203) that these Indians determine the time for planting by + observing certain constellations, especially the Pleiades. The + rainy season begins when the Pleiades have disappeared below the + horizon. See Note at end of the volume.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_388" name="note_388" + href="#noteref_388">388.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">R. Southey, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">History of + Brazil</span></span>, vol. i. Second Edition (London, 1822), p. + 253.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_389" name="note_389" + href="#noteref_389">389.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. B. von Spix und C. F. Ph. von + Martius, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Reise in Brasilien</span></span> (Munich, + 1823-1831), i. 381.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_390" name="note_390" + href="#noteref_390">390.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">K. von den Steinen, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Unter den + Naturvölkern Zentral-Brasiliens</span></span> (Berlin, 1894), p. + 214.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_391" name="note_391" + href="#noteref_391">391.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. J. von Tschudi, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Peru</span></span> + (St. Gallen, 1846), ii. 214.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_392" name="note_392" + href="#noteref_392">392.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Captain T. H. Lewin, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Wild Races of + South-Eastern India</span></span> (London, 1870), p. 255.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_393" name="note_393" + href="#noteref_393">393.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">E. T. Dalton, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Descriptive Ethnology + of Bengal</span></span> (Calcutta, 1872), p. 33.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_394" name="note_394" + href="#noteref_394">394.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">E. T. Dalton, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. + cit.</span></span> pp. 226, 227.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_395" name="note_395" + href="#noteref_395">395.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Nieuw Guinea, ethnographisch en natuurkundig + onderzocht en beschreven</span></span> (Amsterdam, 1862), p. + 159.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_396" name="note_396" + href="#noteref_396">396.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Op. cit.</span></span> p. 119; H. von + Rosenberg, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Der Malayische Archipel</span></span> + (Leipsic, 1878), p. 433.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_397" name="note_397" + href="#noteref_397">397.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">P. A. Kleintitschen, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Die Küstenbewohner + der Gazellehalbinsel</span></span> (Hiltrup bei Münster, preface + dated Christmas, 1906), pp. 60 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; G. + Brown, D.D., <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Melanesians and Polynesians</span></span> + (London, 1910), pp. 324 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_398" name="note_398" + href="#noteref_398">398.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">A. C. Kruijt, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Een en ander aangaande het geestelijk en + maatschappelijk leven van den Poso-Alfoer,”</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Mededeelingen van + wege het Nederlandsche Zendelinggenootschap</span></span>, xxxix. + (1895) pp. 132, 134; J. Boot, <span class="tei tei-q">“Korte schets + der noordkust van Ceram,”</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Tijdschrift van het + Nederlandsch Aardrijkskundig Genootschap</span></span>, Tweede + Serie, x. (1893) p. 672; E. H. Gomes, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Seventeen Years among + the Sea Dyaks of Borneo</span></span> (London, 1911), p. 46; E. + Modigliani, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Un Viaggio a Nías</span></span> (Milan, 1890), + pp. 590 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; K. Vetter, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Komm herüber und hilf + uns!</span></span> Heft 2 (Barmen, 1898), pp. 6 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; + Ch. Keysser, <span class="tei tei-q">“Aus dem Leben der + Kaileute,”</span> in R. Neuhauss, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Deutsch + Neu-Guinea</span></span>, iii. (Berlin, 1911) pp. 14, 85.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_399" name="note_399" + href="#noteref_399">399.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. Gumilla, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Histoire Naturelle, + Civile et Géographique de l'Orénoque</span></span> (Avignon, 1758), + ii. 166 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>, 183 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span> + Compare <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">The Magic Art and the Evolution of + Kings</span></span>, i. 139 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_400" name="note_400" + href="#noteref_400">400.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">S. Powers, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Tribes of + California</span></span> (Washington, 1877), p. 23.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_401" name="note_401" + href="#noteref_401">401.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Father Geronimo Boscana, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Chinigchinich,”</span> in [A. Robinson's] <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Life in + California</span></span> (New York, 1846), p. 287. Elsewhere the + same well-informed writer observes of these Indians that + <span class="tei tei-q">“they neither cultivated the ground, nor + planted any kind of grain; but lived upon the wild seeds of the + field, the fruits of the forest, and upon the abundance of + game”</span> (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">op. cit.</span></span> p. 285).</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_402" name="note_402" + href="#noteref_402">402.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Father Geronimo Boscana, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. + cit.</span></span> pp. 302-305. As to the <span class= + "tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">puplem</span></span>, see <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">id.</span></span> p. + 264. The writer says that criers informed the people <span class= + "tei tei-q">“when to cultivate their fields”</span> (p. 302). But + taken along with his express statement that they <span class= + "tei tei-q">“neither cultivated the ground, nor planted any kind of + grain”</span> (p. 285, see above, p. 125 note 2), this expression + <span class="tei tei-q">“to cultivate their fields”</span> must be + understood loosely to denote merely the gathering of the wild seeds + and fruits.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_403" name="note_403" + href="#noteref_403">403.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See above, pp. <a href="#Pg081" class= + "tei tei-ref">81</a> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_404" name="note_404" + href="#noteref_404">404.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">H. E. A. Meyer, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Manners and Customs of the Encounter Bay + Tribe,”</span> in <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Native Tribes of South Australia</span></span> + (Adelaide, 1879), pp. 191 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_405" name="note_405" + href="#noteref_405">405.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">(Sir) George Grey, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Journals of Two + Expeditions of Discovery in North-West and Western + Australia</span></span> (London, 1841), ii. 292 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span> The + women also collect the nuts from the palms in the month of March + (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">id.</span></span> ii. 296).</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_406" name="note_406" + href="#noteref_406">406.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">(Sir) George Grey, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. + cit.</span></span> ii. 12. The yam referred to is a species of + <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Diascorea</span></span>, like the sweet + potato.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_407" name="note_407" + href="#noteref_407">407.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">R. Brough Smyth, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Aborigines of + Victoria</span></span> (Melbourne, 1878), i. 209.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_408" name="note_408" + href="#noteref_408">408.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">P. Beveridge, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Of the Aborigines inhabiting the Great Lacustrine and + Riverine Depression of the Lower Murray, Lower Murrumbidgee, Lower + Lachlan, and Lower Darling,”</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Journal and + Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales for + 1883</span></span>, vol. xvii. (Sydney, 1884) p. 36.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_409" name="note_409" + href="#noteref_409">409.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">R. Brough Smyth, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Aborigines of + Victoria</span></span>, i. 214.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_410" name="note_410" + href="#noteref_410">410.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. Stanbridge, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Some Particulars of the General Characteristics, + Astronomy, and Mythology of the Tribes in the Central Part of + Victoria, South Australia,”</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Transactions of the + Ethnological Society of London</span></span>, N.S., i. (1861) p. + 291.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_411" name="note_411" + href="#noteref_411">411.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Baldwin Spencer and F. J. Gillen, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Native + Tribes of Central Australia</span></span> (London, 1899), p. + 22.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_412" name="note_412" + href="#noteref_412">412.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">O. Schrader, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Reallexikon der + indogermanischen Altertumskunde</span></span> (Strasburg, 1901), + pp. 6 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>, 630 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>; + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">id.</span></span>, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Sprachvergleichung + und Urgeschichte</span></span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "vertical-align: super">3</span></span> (Jena, 1905-1907), ii. 201 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>; H. Hirt, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Die + Indogermanen</span></span>, i. 251 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>, + 263, 274. The use of oxen to draw the plough is very ancient in + Europe. On the rocks at Bohuslän in Sweden there is carved a rude + representation of a plough drawn by oxen and guided by a ploughman: + it is believed to date from the Bronze Age. See H. Hirt, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. + cit.</span></span> i. 286.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_413" name="note_413" + href="#noteref_413">413.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Strabo, iii. 4. 17, p. 165; Heraclides + Ponticus, <span class="tei tei-q">“De rebus publicis,”</span> 33, + in <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Fragmenta Historicorum + Graecorum</span></span>, ed. C. Müller, ii. 219.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_414" name="note_414" + href="#noteref_414">414.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Tacitus, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Germania</span></span>, 15.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_415" name="note_415" + href="#noteref_415">415.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. Spieth, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Die + Ewe-Stämme</span></span> (Berlin, 1906), p. 313.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_416" name="note_416" + href="#noteref_416">416.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">(Sir) G. Grey, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Journals of Two + Expeditions of Discovery in North-west and Western + Australia</span></span> (London, 1841), ii. 292.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_417" name="note_417" + href="#noteref_417">417.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. Mannhardt, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Mythologische + Forschungen</span></span> (Strasburg, 1884), pp. 292 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span> + See above, p. <a href="#Pg040" class="tei tei-ref">40</a>, note + 3.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_418" name="note_418" + href="#noteref_418">418.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">O. Schrader, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Reallexikon der + indogermanischen Altertumskunde</span></span> (Strasburg, 1901), + pp. 11, 289; <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">id.</span></span>, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Sprachvergleichung + und Urgeschichte</span></span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "vertical-align: super">2</span></span> (Jena, 1890), pp. 409, 422; + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">id.</span></span>, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Sprachvergleichung + und Urgeschichte</span></span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "vertical-align: super">3</span></span> (Jena, 1905-1907), ii. 188 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span> Compare V. Hehn, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Kulturpflanzen und Hausthiere in ihrem + Uebergang aus Asien</span></span><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="vertical-align: super">7</span></span> + (Berlin, 1902), pp. 58 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_419" name="note_419" + href="#noteref_419">419.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Hesiod, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Theog.</span></span> + 969 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>; F. Lenormant, in Daremberg + et Saglio, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Dictionnaire des Antiquités Grecques et + Romaines</span></span>, i. 2, p. 1029; Kern, in Pauly-Wissowa's + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Real-Encyclopädie der classischen + Altertumswissenschaft</span></span>, iv. 2, coll. 2720 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_420" name="note_420" + href="#noteref_420">420.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">My friend Professor J. H. Moulton + tells me that there is great doubt as to the existence of a word + δηαί, <span class="tei tei-q">“barley”</span> (<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Etymologicum + Magnum</span></span>, p. 264, lines 12 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>), + and that the common form of Demeter's name, <span lang="el" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="el"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Dâmâter</span></span> (except in Ionic and + Attic) is inconsistent with η in the supposed Cretan form. + <span class="tei tei-q">“Finally if δηαί = ζειαί, you are bound to + regard her as a Cretan goddess, or as arising in some other area + where the dialect changed Indogermanic <span class= + "tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">y</span></span> + into δ and not ζ: since Ionic and Attic have ζ, the two crucial + letters of the name tell different tales”</span> (Professor J. H. + Moulton, in a letter to me, dated 19 December 1903).</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_421" name="note_421" + href="#noteref_421">421.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">A. Kuhn, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Die Herabkunft des + Feuers und des Göttertranks</span></span><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="vertical-align: super">2</span></span> + (Gütersloh, 1886), pp. 68 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; O. Schrader, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Reallexikon der + indogermanischen Altertumskunde</span></span>, pp. 11, 12, 289; + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">id.</span></span>, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Sprachvergleichung + und Urgeschichte</span></span>,<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="vertical-align: super">3</span></span> + ii. 189, 191, 197 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; H. Hirt, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Die + Indogermanen</span></span> (Strasburg, 1905-1907), i. 276 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span> In the oldest Vedic ritual + barley and not rice is the cereal chiefly employed. See H. + Oldenberg, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Die Religion des Veda</span></span> (Berlin, + 1894), p. 353. For evidence that barley was cultivated in Europe by + the lake-dwellers of the Stone Age, see A. de Candolle, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Origin of + Cultivated Plants</span></span> (London, 1884), pp. 368, 369; R. + Munro, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">The Lake-dwellings of Europe</span></span> + (London, Paris, and Melbourne, 1890), pp. 497 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span> + According to Pliny (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Nat. Hist.</span></span> xviii. 72) barley was + the oldest of all foods.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_422" name="note_422" + href="#noteref_422">422.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. Mannhardt, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Mythologische + Forschungen</span></span> (Strasburg, 1884), p. 296. Compare O. + Hartung, <span class="tei tei-q">“Zur Volkskunde aus + Anhalt,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Zeitschrift des Vereins für + Volkskunde</span></span>, vii. (1897) p. 150.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_423" name="note_423" + href="#noteref_423">423.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. Mannhardt, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Mythologische + Forschungen</span></span> (Strasburg, 1884), p. 297.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_424" name="note_424" + href="#noteref_424">424.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Ibid.</span></span> pp. 297 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_425" name="note_425" + href="#noteref_425">425.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Ibid.</span></span> p. 299. Compare R. Andree, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Braunschweiger Volkskunde</span></span> + (Brunswick, 1896), p. 281.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_426" name="note_426" + href="#noteref_426">426.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. Mannhardt, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Mythologische + Forschungen</span></span>, p. 300.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_427" name="note_427" + href="#noteref_427">427.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. Mannhardt, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Mythologische + Forschungen</span></span>, p. 310.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_428" name="note_428" + href="#noteref_428">428.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Ibid.</span></span> pp. 310 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span> + Compare O. Hartung, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">l.c.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_429" name="note_429" + href="#noteref_429">429.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. Mannhardt, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. + cit.</span></span> p. 316.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_430" name="note_430" + href="#noteref_430">430.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Ibid.</span></span> p. 316.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_431" name="note_431" + href="#noteref_431">431.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Ibid.</span></span> pp. 316 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_432" name="note_432" + href="#noteref_432">432.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Ibid.</span></span> p. 317. As to such + rain-charms see <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Adonis, Attis, Osiris</span></span>, Second + Edition, pp. 195-197.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_433" name="note_433" + href="#noteref_433">433.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. Mannhardt, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Mythologische + Forschungen</span></span>, p. 317.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_434" name="note_434" + href="#noteref_434">434.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Ibid.</span></span> pp. 317 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_435" name="note_435" + href="#noteref_435">435.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Ibid.</span></span> p. 318.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_436" name="note_436" + href="#noteref_436">436.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Ibid.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_437" name="note_437" + href="#noteref_437">437.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. Mannhardt, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. + cit.</span></span> pp. 318 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_438" name="note_438" + href="#noteref_438">438.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">P. Sébillot, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Coutumes populaires + de la Haute-Bretagne</span></span> (Paris, 1886), p. 306.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_439" name="note_439" + href="#noteref_439">439.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. Mannhardt, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Mythologische + Forschungen</span></span>, p. 319.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_440" name="note_440" + href="#noteref_440">440.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. Mannhardt, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Mythologische + Forschungen</span></span>, p. 320.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_441" name="note_441" + href="#noteref_441">441.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Ibid.</span></span> p. 321.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_442" name="note_442" + href="#noteref_442">442.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Ibid.</span></span> pp. 321, 323, 325 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_443" name="note_443" + href="#noteref_443">443.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Ibid.</span></span> p. 323; F. Panzer, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Beitrag + zur deutschen Mythologie</span></span> (Munich, 1848-1855), ii. p. + 219, § 403.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_444" name="note_444" + href="#noteref_444">444.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. Mannhardt, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. + cit.</span></span> p. 325.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_445" name="note_445" + href="#noteref_445">445.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Ibid.</span></span> p. 323.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_446" name="note_446" + href="#noteref_446">446.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Ibid.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_447" name="note_447" + href="#noteref_447">447.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">A. Kuhn and W. Schwartz, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Norddeutsche Sagen, + Märchen und Gebräuche</span></span> (Leipsic, 1848), pp. 396 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, 399; K. Bartsch, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Sagen, + Märchen und Gebräuche aus Meklenburg</span></span> (Vienna, + 1879-1880), ii. 309, § 1494.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_448" name="note_448" + href="#noteref_448">448.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. Mannhardt, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. + cit.</span></span> pp. 323 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_449" name="note_449" + href="#noteref_449">449.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">H. Prahn, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Glaube und Brauch in der Mark Brandenburg,”</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Zeitschrift des Vereins für + Volkskunde</span></span>, i. (1891) pp. 186 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_450" name="note_450" + href="#noteref_450">450.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">K. Haupt, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Sagenbuch der + Lausitz</span></span> (Leipsic, 1862-1863), i. p. 233, No. 277 + note.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_451" name="note_451" + href="#noteref_451">451.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">R. Krause, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Sitten, Gebräuche und + Aberglauben in Westpreussen</span></span> (Berlin, preface dated + March 1904), p. 51.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_452" name="note_452" + href="#noteref_452">452.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">P. Drechsler, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Sitte, Brauch und + Volksglaube in Schlesien</span></span> (Leipsic, 1903-1906), ii. 65 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_453" name="note_453" + href="#noteref_453">453.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">A. John, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Sitte, Brauch und + Volksglaube im deutschen Westböhmen</span></span> (Prague, 1905), + p. 189.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_454" name="note_454" + href="#noteref_454">454.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">A. Kuhn, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Sagen, Gebräuche und + Märchen aus Westfalen</span></span> (Leipsic, 1859), ii. 184, §§ + 512 b, 514.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_455" name="note_455" + href="#noteref_455">455.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. von Schulenburg, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Wendisches + Volksthum</span></span> (Berlin, 1882), p. 147.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_456" name="note_456" + href="#noteref_456">456.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">A. Jaussen, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Coutumes des Arabes + au pays de Moab</span></span> (Paris, 1908), pp. 252 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_457" name="note_457" + href="#noteref_457">457.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. Mannhardt, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Mythologische + Forschungen</span></span>, p. 324.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_458" name="note_458" + href="#noteref_458">458.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Ibid.</span></span> p. 320.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_459" name="note_459" + href="#noteref_459">459.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. Mannhardt, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. + cit.</span></span> p. 325.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_460" name="note_460" + href="#noteref_460">460.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Magic Art and the + Evolution of Kings</span></span>, ii. 74 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_461" name="note_461" + href="#noteref_461">461.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. Mannhardt, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. + cit.</span></span> p. 324.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_462" name="note_462" + href="#noteref_462">462.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Ibid.</span></span> pp. 324 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_463" name="note_463" + href="#noteref_463">463.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Ibid.</span></span> p. 325. The author of + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Die + gestriegelte Rockenphilosophie</span></span> (Chemnitz, 1759) + mentions (p. 891) the German superstition that the last sheaf + should be made large in order that all the sheaves next year may be + of the same size; but he says nothing as to the shape or name of + the sheaf. Compare A. John, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Sitte, Brauch und Volksglaube im deutschen + Westböhmen</span></span> (Prague, 1905), p. 188.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_464" name="note_464" + href="#noteref_464">464.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. Mannhardt, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. + cit.</span></span> p. 327.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_465" name="note_465" + href="#noteref_465">465.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Ibid.</span></span> p. 328.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_466" name="note_466" + href="#noteref_466">466.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. Jamieson, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Dictionary of the + Scottish Language</span></span>, New Edition (Paisley, 1879-1882), + iii. 206, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">s.v.</span></span> <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Maiden”</span>; W. Mannhardt, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Mythologische + Forschungen</span></span>, p. 326.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_467" name="note_467" + href="#noteref_467">467.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">That is, with the reaping.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_468" name="note_468" + href="#noteref_468">468.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Rev. J. G. Campbell, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Superstitions of the + Highlands and Islands of Scotland</span></span> (Glasgow, 1900), + pp. 243 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_469" name="note_469" + href="#noteref_469">469.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">R. C. Maclagan, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Notes on folk-lore objects collected in + Argyleshire,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Folk-lore</span></span>, vi. (1895) pp. 149 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_470" name="note_470" + href="#noteref_470">470.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">R. C. Maclagan, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. + cit.</span></span> p. 151.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_471" name="note_471" + href="#noteref_471">471.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">R. C. Maclagan, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. + cit.</span></span> p. 149.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_472" name="note_472" + href="#noteref_472">472.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Ibid.</span></span> pp. 151 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_473" name="note_473" + href="#noteref_473">473.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Rev. Walter Gregor, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Notes on the + Folk-lore of the North-East of Scotland</span></span> (London, + 1881), p. 182.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_474" name="note_474" + href="#noteref_474">474.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Rev. J. Macdonald, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Religion and + Myth</span></span> (London, 1893), p. 141.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_475" name="note_475" + href="#noteref_475">475.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">D. Jenkyn Evans, in an article + entitled <span class="tei tei-q">“The Harvest Customs of + Pembrokeshire,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Pembroke County Guardian</span></span>, 7th + December 1895. In a letter to me, dated 23 February 1901, Mr. E. S. + Hartland was so good as to correct the Welsh words in the text. He + tells me that they mean literally, <span class="tei tei-q">“I rose + early, I pursued late on her neck,”</span> and he adds: + <span class="tei tei-q">“The idea seems to be that the man has + pursued the Hag or Corn-spirit to a later refuge, namely, his + neighbour's field not yet completely reaped, and now he leaves her + for the other reapers to catch. The proper form of the Welsh word + for Hag is <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Gwrach</span></span>. That is the radical from + <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">gwr</span></span>, man; <span class= + "tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">gwraig</span></span>, woman. <span class= + "tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Wrach</span></span> is the <span class= + "tei tei-q">‘middle mutation.’</span> ”</span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_476" name="note_476" + href="#noteref_476">476.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">M. S. Clark, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“An old South Pembrokeshire Harvest Custom,”</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Folk-lore</span></span>, xv. (1904) pp. + 194-196.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_477" name="note_477" + href="#noteref_477">477.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Communicated by my friend Professor W. + Ridgeway.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_478" name="note_478" + href="#noteref_478">478.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. Mannhardt, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Mythologische + Forschungen</span></span>, p. 328.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_479" name="note_479" + href="#noteref_479">479.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. Mannhardt, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. + cit.</span></span> p. 238.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_480" name="note_480" + href="#noteref_480">480.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Ibid.</span></span> pp. 328 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_481" name="note_481" + href="#noteref_481">481.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Ibid.</span></span> p. 329.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_482" name="note_482" + href="#noteref_482">482.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Ibid.</span></span> p. 330.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_483" name="note_483" + href="#noteref_483">483.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Ibid.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_484" name="note_484" + href="#noteref_484">484.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. Mannhardt, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. + cit.</span></span> p. 331.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_485" name="note_485" + href="#noteref_485">485.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Ibid.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_486" name="note_486" + href="#noteref_486">486.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Ibid.</span></span> p. 332.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_487" name="note_487" + href="#noteref_487">487.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Th. Vernaleken, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Mythen und Bräuche + des Volkes in Oesterreich</span></span> (Vienna, 1859), p. + 310.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_488" name="note_488" + href="#noteref_488">488.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Hutchinson, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">History of + Northumberland</span></span>, ii. <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">ad + finem</span></span>, 17, quoted by J. Brand, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Popular Antiquities + of Great Britain</span></span>, ii. 20, Bohn's edition.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_489" name="note_489" + href="#noteref_489">489.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">E. D. Clarke, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Travels in Various + Countries of Europe, Asia, and Africa</span></span>, Part ii., + Section First, Second Edition (London, 1813), p. 229. Perhaps + <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Morgay</span></span> (which Clarke absurdly + explains as μητὴρ γῆ) is a mistake for <span class= + "tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Hawkie</span></span> or <span class= + "tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Hockey</span></span>. The waggon in which the + last corn was brought from the harvest field was called the + <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">hockey</span></span> cart or <span class= + "tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">hock</span></span> cart. In a poem called + <span class="tei tei-q">“The Hock-cart or Harvest Home”</span> + Herrick has described the joyous return of the laden cart drawn by + horses swathed in white sheets and attended by a merry crowd, some + of whom kissed or stroked the sheaves, while others pranked them + with oak leaves. See further J. Brand, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Popular + Antiquities</span></span>, ii. 22 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, + Bohn's edition. The name <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Hockey</span></span> or <span class= + "tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Hawkie</span></span> is no doubt the same with + the German <span lang="de" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang= + "de"><span style="font-style: italic">hokelmei</span></span>, + <span lang="de" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="de"><span style= + "font-style: italic">hörkelmei</span></span>, or <span lang="de" + class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="de"><span style= + "font-style: italic">harkelmei</span></span>, which in Westphalia + is applied to a green bush or tree set up in the field at the end + of harvest and brought home in the last waggon-load; the man who + carries it into the farmhouse is sometimes drenched with water. See + A. Kuhn, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Sagen, Gebräuche und Märchen aus + Westfalen</span></span> (Leipsic, 1859), ii. 178-180, §§ 494-497. + The word is thought to be derived from the Low German <span lang= + "de" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="de"><span style= + "font-style: italic">hokk</span></span> (plural <span lang="de" + class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="de"><span style= + "font-style: italic">hokken</span></span>), <span class= + "tei tei-q">“a heap of sheaves.”</span> See Joseph Wright, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">English + Dialect Dictionary</span></span>, iii. (London, 1902) p. 190, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">s.v.</span></span> <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Hockey,”</span> from which it appears that in England + the word has been in use in Yorkshire, Cambridgeshire, and + Suffolk.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_490" name="note_490" + href="#noteref_490">490.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Book ix. lines 838-842.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_491" name="note_491" + href="#noteref_491">491.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. Mannhardt, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Mythologische + Forschungen</span></span>, pp. 333 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_492" name="note_492" + href="#noteref_492">492.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Ibid.</span></span> p. 334.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_493" name="note_493" + href="#noteref_493">493.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. Mannhardt, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Mythologische + Forschungen</span></span>, p. 334.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_494" name="note_494" + href="#noteref_494">494.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Ibid.</span></span> p. 336.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_495" name="note_495" + href="#noteref_495">495.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">A. Kuhn and W. Schwartz, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Norddeutsche Sagen, + Märchen und Gebräuche</span></span> (Leipsic, 1848), p. 397.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_496" name="note_496" + href="#noteref_496">496.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">A. Peter, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Volksthümliches aus + Österreichisch-Schlesien</span></span> (Troppau, 1865-1867), ii. + 270.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_497" name="note_497" + href="#noteref_497">497.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Bavaria Landes- und Volkskunde des Königreichs + Bayern</span></span>, iii. (Munich, 1865) pp. 344, 969.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_498" name="note_498" + href="#noteref_498">498.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">P. Drechsler, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Sitte, Brauch und + Volksglaube in Schlesien</span></span> (Leipsic, 1903-1906), ii. + 67.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_499" name="note_499" + href="#noteref_499">499.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">A. John, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Sitte, Brauch und + Volksglaube in deutschen Westböhmen</span></span> (Prague, 1905), + pp. 193, 194, 197.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_500" name="note_500" + href="#noteref_500">500.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">R. Wuttke, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Sächsische + Volkskunde</span></span> (Dresden, 1901), p. 360.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_501" name="note_501" + href="#noteref_501">501.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. Mannhardt. <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Mythologische + Forschungen</span></span>, p. 336.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_502" name="note_502" + href="#noteref_502">502.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Ibid.</span></span> p. 336; W. Mannhardt, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Baumkultus</span></span>, p. 612.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_503" name="note_503" + href="#noteref_503">503.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">A. John, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Sitte, Brauch und + Volksglaube im deutschen Westböhmen</span></span> (Prague, 1905), + p. 194.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_504" name="note_504" + href="#noteref_504">504.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">E. H. Meyer, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Badisches + Volksleben</span></span> (Strasburg, 1900), p. 437.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_505" name="note_505" + href="#noteref_505">505.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">A. Kuhn, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Sagen, Gebräuche und + Märchen aus Westfalen</span></span> (Leipsic, 1859), ii. 184 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, § 515.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_506" name="note_506" + href="#noteref_506">506.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. Mannhardt, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Die + Korndämonen</span></span> (Berlin, 1868), p. 28.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_507" name="note_507" + href="#noteref_507">507.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. Mannhardt, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">l.c.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_508" name="note_508" + href="#noteref_508">508.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. Mannhardt, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">l.c.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_509" name="note_509" + href="#noteref_509">509.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Joseph Wright, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">English Dialect + Dictionary</span></span>, vol. i. (London, 1898) p. 605 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">s.v.</span></span> <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Churn”</span>; <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">id.</span></span>, vol. iii. (London, 1902) p. + 453 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">s.v.</span></span> <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Kirn”</span>; <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">id.</span></span> vol. iv. (London, 1903) pp. + 82 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span> Sir James Murray, editor of + the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">New + English Dictionary</span></span>, kindly informs me that the + popular etymology which identifies <span class= + "tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">kern</span></span> or <span class= + "tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">kirn</span></span> in this sense with + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">corn</span></em> is entirely mistaken; and + that <span class="tei tei-q">“baby”</span> or <span class= + "tei tei-q">“babbie”</span> in the same phrase means only + <span class="tei tei-q">“doll,”</span> not <span class= + "tei tei-q">“infant.”</span> He writes, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“<span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Kirn-babbie</span></span> does not mean + <span class="tei tei-q">‘corn-baby,’</span> but merely <span class= + "tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">kirn-doll</span></span>, <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">harvest-home + doll</span></em>. <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Bab</span></span>, <span class= + "tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">babbie</span></span> was even in my youth the + regular name for <span class="tei tei-q">‘doll’</span> in the + district, as it was formerly in England; the only woman who sold + dolls in Hawick early in the [nineteenth] century, and whose + toy-shop all bairns knew, was known as <span class= + "tei tei-q">‘Betty o' the Babs,’</span> Betty of the + dolls.”</span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_510" name="note_510" + href="#noteref_510">510.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. Henderson, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Folk-lore of the + Northern Counties of England</span></span> (London, 1879), pp. 88 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; M. C. F. Morris, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Yorkshire + Folk-talk</span></span>, pp. 212-214. Compare F. Grose, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Provincial Glossary</span></span> (London, + 1811), <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">s.v.</span></span> <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Mell-supper”</span>; J. Brand, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Popular + Antiquities</span></span>, ii. 27 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>, + Bohn's edition; <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">The Denham Tracts</span></span>, edited by Dr. + James Hardy (London, 1892-1895), ii. 2 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span> The + sheaf out of which the Mell-doll was made was no doubt the + Mell-sheaf, though this is not expressly said. Dr. Joseph Wright, + editor of <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">The English Dialect Dictionary</span></span>, + kindly informs me that the word <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">mell</span></em> is + well known in these senses in all the northern counties of England + down to Cheshire. He tells me that the proposals to connect + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">mell</span></em> with <span class= + "tei tei-q">“meal”</span> or with <span class= + "tei tei-q">“maiden”</span> (through a form like the German + <span lang="de" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="de"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Mädel</span></span>) are inadmissible.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_511" name="note_511" + href="#noteref_511">511.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Joseph Wright, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The English Dialect + Dictionary</span></span>, vol. iv. (London, 1903) <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">s.v.</span></span> + <span class="tei tei-q">“Mell,”</span> p. 83.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_512" name="note_512" + href="#noteref_512">512.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">R. Chambers, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Book of + Days</span></span> (Edinburgh, 1886), ii. 377 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span> The + expression <span class="tei tei-q">“Corn Baby”</span> used by the + writer is probably his interpretation of the correct expression + <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">kirn</span></span> or <span class= + "tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">kern</span></span> baby. See above, p. + <a href="#Pg151" class="tei tei-ref">151</a>, note 3. It is not + clear whether the account refers to England or Scotland. Compare F. + Grose, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Provincial Glossary</span></span> (London + 1811), <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">s.v.</span></span> <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Kern-baby,”</span> <span class="tei tei-q">“an image + dressed up with corn, carried before the reapers to their + mell-supper, or harvest-home”</span>; J. Brand, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Popular + Antiquities</span></span>, ii. 20; W. Henderson, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Folk-lore of the + Northern Counties of England</span></span>, p. 87.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_513" name="note_513" + href="#noteref_513">513.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Joseph Wright, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The English Dialect + Dictionary</span></span>, iii. (London, 1902) <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">s.v.</span></span> + <span class="tei tei-q">“Kirn,”</span> p. 453.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_514" name="note_514" + href="#noteref_514">514.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Joseph Wright, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The English Dialect + Dictionary</span></span>, i. (London, 1898) p. 605.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_515" name="note_515" + href="#noteref_515">515.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. Brand, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Popular + Antiquities</span></span>, ii. 21 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_516" name="note_516" + href="#noteref_516">516.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. Jamieson, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Etymological + Dictionary of the Scottish Language</span></span>, New Edition + (Paisley, 1879-1882), iii. 42 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">s.v.</span></span> + <span class="tei tei-q">“Kirn.”</span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_517" name="note_517" + href="#noteref_517">517.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Mrs. A. B. Gomme, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“A Berwickshire Kirn-dolly,”</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Folk-lore</span></span>, xii. (1901) p. + 215.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_518" name="note_518" + href="#noteref_518">518.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Mrs. A. B. Gomme, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Harvest Customs,”</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Folk-lore</span></span>, xiii. (1902) p. + 178.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_519" name="note_519" + href="#noteref_519">519.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. G. Frazer, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Notes on Harvest Customs,”</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Folk-lore</span></span>, vii. (1889) p. + 48.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_520" name="note_520" + href="#noteref_520">520.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">(Rev.) H. W. Lett, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Winning the Churn (Ulster),”</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Folk-lore</span></span>, xvi. (1905) p. 185. + My friend Miss Welsh, formerly Principal of Girton College, + Cambridge, told me (30th May 1901) that she remembers the custom of + the <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">churn</span></span> being observed in the + north of Ireland; the reapers cut the last handful of standing corn + (called the <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">churn</span></span>) by throwing their sickles + at it, and the corn so cut was taken home and kept for some + time.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_521" name="note_521" + href="#noteref_521">521.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. Jamieson, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Dictionary of the + Scottish Language</span></span>, New Edition (Paisley, 1879-1882), + iii. 206, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">s.v.</span></span> <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Maiden.”</span> An old Scottish name for the Maiden + (<span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">autumnalis nymphula</span></span>) was + <span lang="gd" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="gd"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Rapegyrne</span></span>. See Fordun, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Scotichren</span></span>. ii. 418, quoted by + J. Jamieson, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">op. cit.</span></span> iii. 624, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">s.v.</span></span> + <span class="tei tei-q">“Rapegyrne.”</span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_522" name="note_522" + href="#noteref_522">522.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">R. C. Maclagan, in <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Folk-lore</span></span>, vi. (1895) pp. 149, + 151.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_523" name="note_523" + href="#noteref_523">523.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Rev. M. MacPhail (Free Church Manse, + Kilmartin, Lochgilphead), <span class="tei tei-q">“Folk-lore from + the Hebrides,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Folk-lore</span></span>, xi. (1900) p. 441. + That the Maiden, hung up in the house, is thought to keep out + witches till the next harvest is mentioned also by the Rev. J. G. + Campbell, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Superstitions of the Highlands and Islands of + Scotland</span></span> (Glasgow, 1900), p. 20. So with the + <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">churn</span></span> (above, p. <a href= + "#Pg153" class="tei tei-ref">153</a>).</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_524" name="note_524" + href="#noteref_524">524.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Sir John Sinclair, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Statistical Account + of Scotland</span></span>, xix. (Edinburgh, 1797), pp. 550 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span> Compare Miss E. J. Guthrie, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Old + Scottish Customs</span></span> (London and Glasgow, 1885), pp. 130 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_525" name="note_525" + href="#noteref_525">525.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Folk-lore Journal</span></span>, vi. (1888) + pp. 268 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_526" name="note_526" + href="#noteref_526">526.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">The late Mrs. Macalister, wife of + Professor Alexander Macalister, Cambridge. Her recollections + referred especially to the neighbourhood of Glen Farg, some ten or + twelve miles to the south of Perth.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_527" name="note_527" + href="#noteref_527">527.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Rev. James Macdonald, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Religion and + Myth</span></span> (London, 1893), pp. 141 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_528" name="note_528" + href="#noteref_528">528.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">From information supplied by Archie + Leitch, late gardener to my father at Rowmore, Garelochhead. The + Kirn was the name of the harvest festivity in the south of Scotland + also. See Lockhart's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Life of Scott</span></span>, ii. 184 (first + edition); <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Early Letters of Thomas Carlyle</span></span>, + ed. Norton, ii. 325 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_529" name="note_529" + href="#noteref_529">529.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Communicated by the late Mr. + Macfarlane of Faslane, Gareloch.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_530" name="note_530" + href="#noteref_530">530.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">A slightly different mode of making up + the <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">clyack</span></span> sheaf is described by the + Rev. Walter Gregor elsewhere (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Notes on the Folk-lore of the North-east of + Scotland</span></span>, London, 1881, pp. 181 sq.): <span class= + "tei tei-q">“The <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">clyack</span></span> sheaf was cut by the + maidens on the harvest field. On no account was it allowed to touch + the ground. One of the maidens seated herself on the ground, and + over her knees was the band of the sheaf laid. Each of the maidens + cut a handful, or more if necessary, and laid it on the band. The + sheaf was then bound, still lying over the maiden's knees, and + dressed up in woman's clothing.”</span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_531" name="note_531" + href="#noteref_531">531.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. Gregor, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Quelques coutumes du Nord-est du Comté + d'Aberdeen,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Revue des Traditions populaires</span></span>, + iii. (October, 1888) pp. 484-487 (wrong pagination; should be + 532-535). This account, translated into French by M. Loys Brueyre + from the author's English and translated by me back from French + into English, is fuller than the account given by the same writer + in his <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Notes on the Folk-lore of the North-east of + Scotland</span></span> (London, 1881), pp. 181-183. I have + translated <span class="tei tei-q">“<span lang="fr" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="fr"><span style= + "font-style: italic">une jument ayant son + poulain</span></span>”</span> by <span class="tei tei-q">“a mare in + foal,”</span> and <span class="tei tei-q">“<span lang="fr" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="fr"><span style="font-style: italic">la + plus ancienne vache ayant son veau</span></span>”</span> by + <span class="tei tei-q">“the oldest cow in calf,”</span> because in + the author's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Notes on the Folk-lore of the North-east of + Scotland</span></span> (p. 182) we read that the last sheaf was + <span class="tei tei-q">“carefully preserved till Christmas or New + Year morning. On that morning it was given to a mare in + foal,”</span> etc. Otherwise the French words might naturally be + understood of a mare with its foal and a cow with its calf.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_532" name="note_532" + href="#noteref_532">532.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See above, pp. <a href="#Pg115" class= + "tei tei-ref">115</a> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_533" name="note_533" + href="#noteref_533">533.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See below, vol. ii. p. 110.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_534" name="note_534" + href="#noteref_534">534.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">The drinking of the draught (called + the κυκεών) as a solemn rite in the Eleusinian mysteries is + mentioned by Clement of Alexandria (<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Protrept.</span></span> 21, p. 18, ed. Potter) + and Arnobius (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Adversus Nationes</span></span>, v. 26). The + composition of the draught is revealed by the author of the Homeric + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hymn to + Demeter</span></span> (verses 206-211), where he represents Demeter + herself partaking of the sacred cup. That the compound was a kind + of thick gruel, half-solid, half-liquid, is mentioned by Eustathius + (on Homer, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Iliad</span></span>, xi. 638, p. 870). Compare + Miss J. E. Harrison, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Prolegomena to the Study of Greek + Religion</span></span>, Second Edition (Cambridge, 1908), pp. 155 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_535" name="note_535" + href="#noteref_535">535.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Rev. J. Macdonald, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Religion and + Myth</span></span> (London, 1893), pp. 140 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, + from MS. notes of Miss J. Ligertwood.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_536" name="note_536" + href="#noteref_536">536.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Folk-lore Journal</span></span>, vii. (1889) + p. 51; <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">The Quarterly Review</span></span>, clxxii. + (1891) p. 195.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_537" name="note_537" + href="#noteref_537">537.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">As to Inverness-shire my old friend + Mr. Hugh E. Cameron, formerly of Glen Moriston, Inverness-shire, + wrote to me many years ago: <span class="tei tei-q">“As a boy, I + remember the last bit of corn cut was taken home, and neatly tied + up with a ribbon, and then stuck up on the wall above the kitchen + fire-place, and there it often remained till the <span class= + "tei tei-q">‘maiden’</span> of the following year took its place. + There was no ceremony about it, beyond often a struggle as to who + would get, or cut, the last sheaf to select the <span class= + "tei tei-q">‘maiden’</span> from”</span> (<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Folk-lore + Journal</span></span>, vii. 1889, pp. 50 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>). + As to Sutherlandshire my mother was told by a servant, Isabella + Ross, that in that county <span class="tei tei-q">“they hang up the + <span class="tei tei-q">‘maiden’</span> generally over the + mantel-piece (chimney-piece) till the next harvest. They have + always a kirn, whipped cream, with often a ring in it, and + sometimes meal sprinkled over it. The girls must all be dressed in + lilac prints, they all dance, and at twelve o'clock they eat + potatoes and herrings”</span> (<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. + cit.</span></span> pp. 53 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>).</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_538" name="note_538" + href="#noteref_538">538.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. Mannhardt, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Die + Korndämonen</span></span> (Berlin, 1868), p. 30.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_539" name="note_539" + href="#noteref_539">539.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. Müller, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Beiträge zur + Volkskunde der Deutschen in Mähren</span></span> (Vienna and + Olmütz, 1893), p. 327.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_540" name="note_540" + href="#noteref_540">540.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. E. Waldfreund, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Volksgebräuche und Aberglaube in Tirol und dem + Salzburger Gebirg,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Zeitschrift für deutsche Mythologie und + Sittenkunde</span></span>, iii. (1855) p. 340.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_541" name="note_541" + href="#noteref_541">541.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Th. Vernaleken, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Mythen und Bräuche + des Volkes in Oesterreich</span></span> (Vienna, 1859), p. + 310.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_542" name="note_542" + href="#noteref_542">542.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Mr. R. Matheson, in <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Folk-lore + Journal</span></span>, vii. (1889) pp. 49, 50.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_543" name="note_543" + href="#noteref_543">543.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. Mannhardt, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Die + Korndämonen</span></span> (Berlin, 1868), p. 30.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_544" name="note_544" + href="#noteref_544">544.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">E. Sommer, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Sagen, Märchen und + Gebräuche aus Sachsen und Thüringen</span></span> (Halle, 1846), + pp. 160 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; W. Mannhardt, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">l.c.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_545" name="note_545" + href="#noteref_545">545.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. Mannhardt, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">l.c.</span></span>; + E. Peter, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Volksthümliches aus + Österreichisch-Schlesien</span></span> (Troppau, 1865-1867), ii. + 269.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_546" name="note_546" + href="#noteref_546">546.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Alexander Nicolson, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">A Collection of + Gaelic Proverbs and Familiar Phrases, based on Macintosh's + Collection</span></span> (Edinburgh and London, 1881), p. 248.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_547" name="note_547" + href="#noteref_547">547.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">A. Nicolson, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. + cit.</span></span> pp. 415 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_548" name="note_548" + href="#noteref_548">548.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">R. C. Maclagan, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Corn-maiden in Argyleshire,”</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Folk-lore</span></span>, vii. (1896) pp. 78 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_549" name="note_549" + href="#noteref_549">549.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See above, p. <a href="#Pg149" class= + "tei tei-ref">149</a>, where, however, the corn-spirit is conceived + as an Old Man.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_550" name="note_550" + href="#noteref_550">550.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Magic Art and the + Evolution of Kings</span></span>, ii. 73 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_551" name="note_551" + href="#noteref_551">551.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Above, pp. <a href="#Pg134" class= + "tei tei-ref">134</a>, <a href="#Pg137" class= + "tei tei-ref">137</a>, <a href="#Pg138" class="tei tei-ref">138</a> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg142" class= + "tei tei-ref">142</a>, <a href="#Pg145" class= + "tei tei-ref">145</a>, <a href="#Pg147" class= + "tei tei-ref">147</a>, <a href="#Pg148" class= + "tei tei-ref">148</a>, <a href="#Pg149" class= + "tei tei-ref">149</a>.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_552" name="note_552" + href="#noteref_552">552.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See below, pp. <a href="#Pg237" class= + "tei tei-ref">237</a> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_553" name="note_553" + href="#noteref_553">553.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">The Magic Art and the Evolution of + Kings</span></span>, ii. 47 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_554" name="note_554" + href="#noteref_554">554.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Above, pp. <a href="#Pg134" class= + "tei tei-ref">134</a>, <a href="#Pg135" class= + "tei tei-ref">135</a>.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_555" name="note_555" + href="#noteref_555">555.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Above, pp. <a href="#Pg141" class= + "tei tei-ref">141</a>, <a href="#Pg155" class= + "tei tei-ref">155</a>, <a href="#Pg156" class= + "tei tei-ref">156</a>, <a href="#Pg158" class= + "tei tei-ref">158</a>, <a href="#Pg160" class="tei tei-ref">160</a> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg162" class= + "tei tei-ref">162</a>, <a href="#Pg165" class= + "tei tei-ref">165</a>.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_556" name="note_556" + href="#noteref_556">556.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See above, p. <a href="#Pg135" class= + "tei tei-ref">135</a>.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_557" name="note_557" + href="#noteref_557">557.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Above, p. <a href="#Pg145" class= + "tei tei-ref">145</a>. Compare A. Kuhn, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Sagen, Gebräuche und + Märchen aus Westfalen</span></span> (Leipsic, 1859), ii. p. 185, § + 516.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_558" name="note_558" + href="#noteref_558">558.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Above, pp. <a href="#Pg136" class= + "tei tei-ref">136</a>, <a href="#Pg139" class= + "tei tei-ref">139</a>, <a href="#Pg155" class= + "tei tei-ref">155</a>, <a href="#Pg157" class="tei tei-ref">157</a> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg162" class= + "tei tei-ref">162</a>; compare p. <a href="#Pg160" class= + "tei tei-ref">160</a>.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_559" name="note_559" + href="#noteref_559">559.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">The Magic Art and the Evolution of + Kings</span></span>, i. 220 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_560" name="note_560" + href="#noteref_560">560.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Above, p. <a href="#Pg146" class= + "tei tei-ref">146</a>. The common custom of wetting the last sheaf + and its bearer is no doubt also a rain-charm; indeed the intention + to procure rain or make the corn grow is sometimes avowed. See + above, pp. <a href="#Pg134" class="tei tei-ref">134</a>, <a href= + "#Pg137" class="tei tei-ref">137</a>, <a href="#Pg143" class= + "tei tei-ref">143</a>, <a href="#Pg144" class= + "tei tei-ref">144</a>, <a href="#Pg145" class= + "tei tei-ref">145</a>; <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Adonis, Attis, Osiris</span></span>, Second + Edition, pp. 195-197.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_561" name="note_561" + href="#noteref_561">561.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Above, pp. <a href="#Pg135" class= + "tei tei-ref">135</a> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg138" class= + "tei tei-ref">138</a>, <a href="#Pg139" class= + "tei tei-ref">139</a>, <a href="#Pg152" class= + "tei tei-ref">152</a>.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_562" name="note_562" + href="#noteref_562">562.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Above, p. <a href="#Pg134" class= + "tei tei-ref">134</a>.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_563" name="note_563" + href="#noteref_563">563.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Above, pp. <a href="#Pg134" class= + "tei tei-ref">134</a>, <a href="#Pg155" class= + "tei tei-ref">155</a>, <a href="#Pg158" class= + "tei tei-ref">158</a>, <a href="#Pg161" class= + "tei tei-ref">161</a>.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_564" name="note_564" + href="#noteref_564">564.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Above, pp. <a href="#Pg136" class= + "tei tei-ref">136</a>, <a href="#Pg138" class= + "tei tei-ref">138</a>, <a href="#Pg140" class= + "tei tei-ref">140</a>, <a href="#Pg143" class= + "tei tei-ref">143</a>, <a href="#Pg152" class= + "tei tei-ref">152</a>, <a href="#Pg153" class= + "tei tei-ref">153</a>, <a href="#Pg154" class= + "tei tei-ref">154</a>, <a href="#Pg155" class= + "tei tei-ref">155</a>, <a href="#Pg156" class= + "tei tei-ref">156</a>, <a href="#Pg157" class= + "tei tei-ref">157</a>, <a href="#Pg158" class= + "tei tei-ref">158</a>: W. Mannhardt, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Die + Korndämonen</span></span>, pp. 7, 26.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_565" name="note_565" + href="#noteref_565">565.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. de Acosta, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Natural and Moral + History of the Indies</span></span>, bk. v. ch. 28, vol. ii. p. 374 + (Hakluyt Society, London, 1880). In quoting the passage I have + modernised the spelling. The original Spanish text of Acosta's work + was reprinted in a convenient form at Madrid in 1894. See vol. ii. + p. 117 of that edition.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_566" name="note_566" + href="#noteref_566">566.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. Mannhardt, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Mythologische + Forschungen</span></span>, pp. 342 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span> + Mannhardt's authority is a Spanish tract (<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Carta pastorale de + exortacion e instruccion contra las idolatrias de los Indios del + arçobispado de Lima</span></span>) by Pedro de Villagomez, + Archbishop of Lima, published at Lima in 1649, and communicated to + Mannhardt by J. J. v. Tschudi. The <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Carta + Pastorale</span></span> itself seems to be partly based on an + earlier work, the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Extirpacion de la Idolatria del Piru. Dirigido + al Rey N.S. en Su real conseio de Indias, por el Padre Pablo Joseph + de Arriaga de la Compañia de Jesus</span></span> (Lima, 1621). A + copy of this work is possessed by the British Museum, where I + consulted it. The writer explains (p. 16) that the Maize-mothers + (<span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Zaramamas</span></span>) are of three sorts, + namely (1) those which are made of maize stalks, dressed up like + women, (2) those which are carved of stone in the likeness of cobs + of maize, and (3) those which consist simply of fruitful stalks of + maize or of two maize-cobs naturally joined together. These last, + the writer tells us, were the principal <span class= + "tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Zaramamas</span></span>, and were revered by + the natives as Mothers of the Maize. Similarly, when two potatoes + were found growing together the Indians called them Potato-mothers + (<span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Axomamas</span></span>) and kept them in order + to get a good crop of potatoes. As Arriaga's work is rare, it may + be well to give his account of the Maize-mothers, Coca-mothers, and + Potato-mothers in his own words. He says (p. 16): <span class= + "tei tei-q">“<span lang="es" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang= + "es"><span style="font-style: italic">Zaramamas, son de tres + maneras, y son las que se quentan entre las cosas halladas en los + pueblos. La primera es una como muñeca hecha de cañas de maiz, + vestida como muger con su anaco, y llicilla, y sus topos de plata, + y entienden, que como madre tiene virtud de engendrar, y parir + mucho maiz. A este modo tienen tambien Cocamamas para augmento de + la coca. Otras son de piedra labradas como choclos, o mazorcas de + maiz, con sus granos relevados, y de estas suelen tener muchas en + lugar de Conopas</span></span> [household gods]. <span lang="es" + class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="es"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Otras son algunas cañas fertiles de maiz, que + con la fertilidad de la tierra dieron muchas maçorcas, y grandes, o + quando salen dos maçorcas juntas, y estas son las principales, + Zaramamas, y assi las reverencian como a madres del maiz, a estas + llaman tambien Huantayzara, o Ayrihuayzara. A este tercer genero no + le dan la adoracion que a Huaca, ni Conopa, sino que le tienen + supersticiosamente como una cosa sagrada, y colgando estas cañas + con muchos choclos de unos ramos de sauce bailen con ellas el + bayle, que llaman Ayrihua, y acabado el bayle, las queman, y + sacrifican a Libiac para que les de buena cosecha. Con la misma + supersticion guardan las mazorcas del maiz, que salen muy pintadas, + que llaman Micsazara, o Mantayzara, o Caullazara, y otros que + llaman Piruazara, que son otras maçorcas en que van subiendo los + granos no derechos sino haziendo caracol. Estas Micsazara, o + Piruazara, ponen supersticiosamente en los montones de maiz, y en + las Piruas (que son donde guardan el maiz) paraque se las guarde, y + el dia de las exhibiciones se junta tanto de estas maçorcas, que + tienen bien que comer las mulas. La misma supersticion tienen con + las que llaman Axomamas, que son quando salen algunas papas juntas, + y las guardan para tener buena cosecha de + papas.</span></span>”</span> The <span lang="es" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="es"><span style= + "font-style: italic">exhibiciones</span></span> here referred to + are the occasions when the Indians brought forth their idols and + other relics of superstition and delivered them to the + ecclesiastical visitors. At Tarija in Bolivia, down to the present + time, a cross is set up at harvest in the maize-fields, and on it + all maize-spadices growing as twins are hung. They are called + Pachamamas (Earth-mothers) and are thought to bring good harvests. + See Baron E. Nordenskiöld, <span class="tei tei-q">“Travels on the + Boundaries of Bolivia and Argentina,”</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Geographical + Journal</span></span>, xxi. (1903) pp. 517, 518. Compare E. J. + Payne, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">History of the New World called + America</span></span> (Oxford, 1892), i. 414 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_567" name="note_567" + href="#noteref_567">567.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Brasseur de Bourbourg, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Histoire des Nations + civilisées du Mexique et de l'Amérique Centrale</span></span> + (Paris 1857-1859), iii. 40 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span> Compare <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">id.</span></span>, + iii. 505 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; E. J. Payne, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">History of the New + World called America</span></span>, i. 419 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_568" name="note_568" + href="#noteref_568">568.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">E. Seler, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Altmexikanische Studien, ii.,”</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Veröffentlichungen + aus dem königlichen Museum für Völkerkunde</span></span>, vi. + (Berlin, 1899) 2/4 Heft, pp. 67 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span> + Another chapter of Sahagun's work, describing the costumes of the + Mexican gods, has been edited and translated into German by + Professor E. Seler in the same series of publications (<span class= + "tei tei-q">“Altmexikanische Studien,”</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Veröffentlichungen + aus dem königlichen Museum für Völkerkunde</span></span>, i. 4 + (Berlin, 1890) pp. 117 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>). Sahagun's work as a whole + is known to me only in the excellent French translation of Messrs. + D. Jourdanet and R. Simeon (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Histoire Générale des choses de la + Nouvelle-Espagne par le R. P. Fray Bernardino de + Sahagun</span></span>, Paris, 1880). As to the life and character + of Sahagun see M. R. Simeon's introduction to the translation, pp. + vii. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_569" name="note_569" + href="#noteref_569">569.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">B. de Sahagun, Aztec text of book ii., + translated by Professor E. Seler, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Altmexikanische Studien, ii.,”</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Veröffentlichungen + aus dem königlichen Museum für Völkerkunde</span></span>, vi. 2/4 + Heft (Berlin, 1899), pp. 188-194. The account of the ceremonies + given in the Spanish version of Sahagun's work is a good deal more + summary. See B. de Sahagun, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Histoire Générale des choses de la Nouvelle + Espagne</span></span> (Paris, 1880), pp. 94-96.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_570" name="note_570" + href="#noteref_570">570.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. Mooney, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Myths of the Cherokee,”</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Nineteenth Annual + Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology</span></span>, Part I. + (Washington, 1900) pp. 423, 432. See further <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Adonis, Attis, + Osiris</span></span>, Second Edition, pp. 296 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_571" name="note_571" + href="#noteref_571">571.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">L. H. Morgan, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">League of the + Iroquois</span></span> (Rochester, 1851), pp. 161 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, + 199. According to the Iroquois the corn plant sprang from the bosom + of the mother of the Great Spirit after her burial (L. H. Morgan, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. + cit.</span></span> p. 199 note 1).</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_572" name="note_572" + href="#noteref_572">572.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">C. Lumholtz, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Unknown + Mexico</span></span> (London, 1903), ii. 280.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_573" name="note_573" + href="#noteref_573">573.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">H. M. Elliot, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Supplemental Glossary + of Terms used in the North-Western Provinces</span></span>, edited + by J. Beames (London, 1869), i. 254.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_574" name="note_574" + href="#noteref_574">574.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. B. Harris, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“The Berbers of Morocco,”</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Journal of the + Anthropological Institute</span></span>, xxvii. (1898) p. 68.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_575" name="note_575" + href="#noteref_575">575.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Sir John Drummond Hay, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Western Barbary, its + Wild Tribes and Savage Animals</span></span> (1844), p. 9, quoted + in <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Folk-lore</span></span>, vii. (1896) pp. 306 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_576" name="note_576" + href="#noteref_576">576.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See above, pp. <a href="#Pg070" class= + "tei tei-ref">70</a> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_577" name="note_577" + href="#noteref_577">577.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">R. J. Wilkinson (of the Civil Service + of the Federated Malay States), <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Malay + Beliefs</span></span> (London and Leyden, 1906), pp. 49-51. On the + conception of the soul as a bird, see <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Taboo and the Perils + of the Soul</span></span>, pp. 33 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span> + The Toradjas of Central Celebes think that the soul of the rice is + embodied in a pretty little blue bird, which builds its nest in the + rice-field when the ears are forming and vanishes after harvest. + Hence no one may drive away, much less kill, these birds; to do so + would not only injure the crop, the sacrilegious wretch himself + would suffer from sickness, which might end in blindness. See A. C. + Kruyt, <span class="tei tei-q">“De Rijstmoeder in den Indischen + Archipel,”</span> p. 374 (see the full reference in the next + note).</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_578" name="note_578" + href="#noteref_578">578.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">A. C. Kruyt, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“De Rijstmoeder in den Indischen Archipel,”</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Verslagen + en Mededeelingen der koninklijke Akademie van + Wetenschappen</span></span>, Afdeeling Letterkunde, Vierde Reeks, + v. part 4 (Amsterdam, 1903), pp. 361 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span> + This essay (pp. 361-411) contains a valuable collection of facts + relating to what the writer calls the Rice-mother in the East + Indies. But it is to be observed that while all the Indonesian + peoples seem to treat a certain portion of the rice at harvest with + superstitious respect and ceremony, only a part of them actually + call it <span class="tei tei-q">“the Rice-mother.”</span> Mr. Kruyt + prefers to speak of <span class="tei tei-q">“soul-stuff”</span> + rather than of <span class="tei tei-q">“a soul,”</span> because, + according to him, in living beings the animating principle is + conceived, not as a tiny being confined to a single part of the + body, but as a sort of fluid or ether diffused through every part + of the body. See his work, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Het Animisme in den Indischen + Archipel</span></span> (The Hague, 1906), pp. 1 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span> In + the latter work (pp. 145-150) the writer gives a more summary + account of the Indonesian theory of the rice-soul.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_579" name="note_579" + href="#noteref_579">579.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Magic Art and the + Evolution of Kings</span></span>, ii. 28 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; A. + C. Kruyt, <span class="tei tei-q">“De Rijstmoeder,”</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. + cit.</span></span> pp. 363 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, 370 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_580" name="note_580" + href="#noteref_580">580.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See above, pp. <a href="#Pg113" class= + "tei tei-ref">113</a> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_581" name="note_581" + href="#noteref_581">581.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See above, p. <a href="#Pg181" class= + "tei tei-ref">181</a>.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_582" name="note_582" + href="#noteref_582">582.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Taboo and the Perils + of the Soul</span></span>, pp. 411 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; A. + C. Kruyt, <span class="tei tei-q">“De Rijstmoeder,”</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. + cit.</span></span> p. 372.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_583" name="note_583" + href="#noteref_583">583.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See above, pp. <a href="#Pg092" class= + "tei tei-ref">92</a> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_584" name="note_584" + href="#noteref_584">584.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">A. W. Nieuwenhuis, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Quer durch + Borneo</span></span> (Leyden, 1904-1907), i. 157 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_585" name="note_585" + href="#noteref_585">585.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">A. W. Nieuwenhuis, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. + cit.</span></span> i. 118-121. Compare <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">id.</span></span>, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">In + Centraal Borneo</span></span> (Leyden, 1900), i. 154 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_586" name="note_586" + href="#noteref_586">586.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">A similar belief probably explains the + masked dances and pantomimes of many savage tribes. If that is so, + it shews how deeply the principle of imitative magic has influenced + savage religion.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_587" name="note_587" + href="#noteref_587">587.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">A. W. Nieuwenhuis, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Quer durch + Borneo</span></span>, i. 322-330. Compare <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">id.</span></span>, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">In + Centraal Borneo</span></span>, i. 185 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span> As + to the masquerades performed and the taboos observed at the sowing + season by the Kayans of the Mendalam river, see above, pp. <a href= + "#Pg094" class="tei tei-ref">94</a> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_588" name="note_588" + href="#noteref_588">588.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">A. W. Nieuwenhuis, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. + cit.</span></span> i. 317.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_589" name="note_589" + href="#noteref_589">589.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Spenser St. John, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Life in the Forests + of the Far East</span></span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "vertical-align: super">2</span></span> (London, 1863), i. 187, 192 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>; W. Chalmers, quoted in H. + Ling Roth's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Natives of Sarawak and British North + Borneo</span></span> (London, 1896), i. 412-414.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_590" name="note_590" + href="#noteref_590">590.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Rev. E. B. Cross, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“On the Karens,”</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Journal of the + American Oriental Society</span></span>, iv. (1854) p. 309.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_591" name="note_591" + href="#noteref_591">591.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">(Sir) J. G. Scott and J. P. Hardiman, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Gazetteer + of Upper Burma and of the Shan States</span></span> (Rangoon, + 1900-1901), Part i. vol. i. p. 559.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_592" name="note_592" + href="#noteref_592">592.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. Mooney, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Myths of the Cherokee,”</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Nineteenth Annual + Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology</span></span>, Part i. + (Washington, 1900) p. 423. Compare <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Adonis, Attis, + Osiris</span></span>, Second Edition, pp. 296 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_593" name="note_593" + href="#noteref_593">593.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">(Sir) J. G. Scott and J. P. Hardiman, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. + cit.</span></span> Part ii. vol. i. p. 172.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_594" name="note_594" + href="#noteref_594">594.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">From a letter written to me by Mr. J. + S. Furnivall and dated Pegu Club, Rangoon, 6/6 (<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sic</span></span>). + Mr. Furnivall adds that in Upper Burma the custom of the + <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Bonmagyi</span></span> sheaf is unknown.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_595" name="note_595" + href="#noteref_595">595.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. L. van der Toorn, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Het animisme bij den Minangkabauer der Padangsche + Bovenlanden,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Bijdragen tot de Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde + van Nederlandsch Indië</span></span>, xxxix. (1890) pp. 63-65. In + the charm recited at sowing the Rice-mother in the bed, I have + translated the Dutch word <span lang="nl" class="tei tei-foreign" + xml:lang="nl"><span style="font-style: italic">stoel</span></span> + as <span class="tei tei-q">“root,”</span> but I am not sure of its + precise meaning in this connexion. It is doubtless identical with + the English agricultural term <span class="tei tei-q">“to + stool,”</span> which is said of a number of stalks sprouting from a + single seed, as I learn from my friend Professor W. Somerville of + Oxford.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_596" name="note_596" + href="#noteref_596">596.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">A. C. Kruijt, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Eenige ethnografische aanteekeningen omtrent de + Toboengkoe en de Tomori,”</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Mededeelingen van + wege het Nederlandsche Zendelinggenootschap</span></span>, xliv. + (1900) pp. 227, 230 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_597" name="note_597" + href="#noteref_597">597.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Taboo and the Perils + of the Soul</span></span>, pp. 411 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_598" name="note_598" + href="#noteref_598">598.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">A. C. Kruijt, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. + cit.</span></span> p. 228.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_599" name="note_599" + href="#noteref_599">599.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">A. C. Kruijt, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Een en ander aangaande het geestelijk en + maatschapelijk leven van den Poso-Alfoer,”</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Mededeelingen van + wege het Nederlandsche Zendelinggenootschap</span></span>, xxxix. + (1895) pp. 142 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_600" name="note_600" + href="#noteref_600">600.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">G. Maan, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Eenige mededeelingen omtrent de zeden en gewoonten der + Toerateya ten opzichte van den rijstbouw,”</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Tijdschrift voor + Indische Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde</span></span>, xlvi. (1903) pp. + 330-337. The writer dates his article from Tanneteya (in Celebes?), + but otherwise gives no indication of the geographical position of + the people he describes. A similar omission is common with Dutch + writers on the geography and ethnology of the East Indies, who too + often appear to assume that the uncouth names of these barbarous + tribes and obscure hamlets are as familiar to European readers as + Amsterdam or the Hague. The Toerateyas whose customs Mr. Maan + describes in this article are the inland inhabitants of Celebes. + Their name Toerateyas or Toradjas signifies simply <span class= + "tei tei-q">“inlanders”</span> and is applied to them by their + neighbours who live nearer the sea; it is not a name used by the + people themselves. The Toradjas include many tribes and the + particular tribe whose usages in regard to the Rice-mother are + described in the text is probably not one of those whose customs + and beliefs have been described by Mr. A. C. Kruijt in many + valuable papers. See above, p. 183 note 1, and <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Magic Art and the + Evolution of Kings</span></span>, i. 109 note 1.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_601" name="note_601" + href="#noteref_601">601.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">M. Joustra, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Het leven, de zeden en gewoonten der Bataks,”</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Mededeelingen van wege het Nederlandsche + Zendelinggenootschap</span></span>, xlvi. (1902) pp. 425 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_602" name="note_602" + href="#noteref_602">602.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. H. Neumann, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Iets over den landbouw bij de Karo-Bataks,”</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Mededeelingen van wege het Nederlandsche + Zendelinggenootschap</span></span>, xlvi. (1902) pp. 380 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span> As to the employment in + ritual of young people whose parents are both alive, see + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Adonis, + Attis, Osiris</span></span>, Second Edition, pp. 413 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_603" name="note_603" + href="#noteref_603">603.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">A. L. van Hasselt, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Nota, betreffende de rijstcultuur in de Residentie + Tapanoeli,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Tijdschrift voor Indische Taal- Land- en + Volkenkunde</span></span>, xxxvi. (1893) pp. 526-529; Th. A. L. + Heyting, <span class="tei tei-q">“Beschrijving der Onderafdeeling + Groot- mandeling en Batangnatal,”</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Tijdschrift van het + Nederlandsch Aardrijkskundig Genootschap</span></span>, Tweede + Serie, xiv. (1897) pp. 290 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span> As to the rule of sowing + seed on a full stomach, which is a simple case of homoeopathic or + imitative magic, see further <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">The Magic Art and the Evolution of + Kings</span></span>, i. 136.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_604" name="note_604" + href="#noteref_604">604.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. W. Skeat, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Malay + Magic</span></span> (London, 1900), pp. 225 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_605" name="note_605" + href="#noteref_605">605.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. W. Skeat, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Malay + Magic</span></span>, pp. 235-249.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_606" name="note_606" + href="#noteref_606">606.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See above, pp. <a href="#Pg163" class= + "tei tei-ref">163</a> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_607" name="note_607" + href="#noteref_607">607.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">P. J. Veth, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Java</span></span> + (Haarlem, 1875-1884), i. 524-526. The ceremony has also been + described by Miss Augusta de Wit (<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Facts and Fancies + about Java</span></span>, Singapore, 1898, pp. 229-241), who lays + stress on the extreme importance of the rice-harvest for the + Javanese. The whole island of Java, she tells us, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“is one vast rice-field. Rice on the swampy plains, + rice on the rising ground, rice on the slopes, rice on the very + summits of the hills. From the sod under one's feet to the verge of + the horizon, everything has one and the same colour, the + bluish-green of the young, or the gold of the ripened rice. The + natives are all, without exception, tillers of the soil, who reckon + their lives by seasons of planting and reaping, whose happiness or + misery is synonymous with the abundance or the dearth of the + precious grain. And the great national feast is the harvest home, + with its crowning ceremony of the Wedding of the Rice”</span> + (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. + cit.</span></span> pp. 229 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>). I have to thank my friend + Dr. A. C. Haddon for directing my attention to Miss de Wit's + book.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_608" name="note_608" + href="#noteref_608">608.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">A. C. Kruijt, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Gebruiken bij den rijstoogst in enkele streken op + Oost-Java,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Mededeelingen van wege het Nederlandsche + Zendelinggenootschap</span></span>, xlvii. (1903) pp. 132-134. + Compare <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">id.</span></span>, <span class="tei tei-q">“De + rijst-moeder in den Indischen Archipel,”</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Verslagen en + Mededeelingen der koninklijke Akademie van + Wetenschappen</span></span>, Afdeeling Letterkunde, Vierde Reeks, + v. part 4 (Amsterdam, 1903), pp. 398 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_609" name="note_609" + href="#noteref_609">609.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. C. van Eerde, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Gebruiken bij den rijstbouw en rijstoogst op + Lombok,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Tijdschrift voor Indische Taal- Land- en + Volkenkunde</span></span>, xlv. (1902) pp. 563-565 note.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_610" name="note_610" + href="#noteref_610">610.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. C. van Eerde, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Gebruiken bij den rijstbouw en rijstoogst op + Lombok,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Tijdschrift voor Indische Taal- Land- en + Volkenkunde</span></span>, xlv. (1902) pp. 563-573.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_611" name="note_611" + href="#noteref_611">611.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">(Sir) J. G. Scott and J. P. Hardiman, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Gazetteer + of Upper Burma and the Shan States</span></span>, Part i. vol. i. + (Rangoon, 1900) p. 426.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_612" name="note_612" + href="#noteref_612">612.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Maximilian, Prinz zu Wied, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Reise in + das innere Nord-America</span></span> (Coblenz, 1839-1841), ii. 182 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_613" name="note_613" + href="#noteref_613">613.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">H. R. Schoolcraft, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Indian Tribes of the + United States</span></span>, v. (Philadelphia, 1856) pp. + 193-195.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_614" name="note_614" + href="#noteref_614">614.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">B. A. Gupte, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Harvest Festivals in honour of Gauri and + Ganesh,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Indian Antiquary</span></span>, xxxv. (1906) + p. 61. For details see <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">The Magic Art and the Evolution of + Kings</span></span>, ii. 77 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_615" name="note_615" + href="#noteref_615">615.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">It is possible that the image of + Demeter with corn and poppies in her hands, which Theocritus (vii. + 155 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>) describes as standing on a + rustic threshing-floor (see above, p. <a href="#Pg047" class= + "tei tei-ref">47</a>), may have been a Corn-mother or a Corn-maiden + of the kind described in the text. The suggestion was made to me by + my learned and esteemed friend Dr. W. H. D. Rouse.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_616" name="note_616" + href="#noteref_616">616.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Homer, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Odyssey</span></span>, v. 125 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>; + Hesiod, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Theog.</span></span> 969 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_617" name="note_617" + href="#noteref_617">617.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See above, pp. <a href="#Pg150" class= + "tei tei-ref">150</a> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_618" name="note_618" + href="#noteref_618">618.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">It is possible that a ceremony + performed in a Cyprian worship of Ariadne may have been of this + nature: at a certain annual sacrifice a young man lay down and + mimicked a woman in child-bed. See Plutarch, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Theseus</span></span>, 20: ἐν δὴ τῇ θυσίᾳ τοῦ + Γορπιαίου μηνὸς ἰσταμένου δευτέρᾳ κατακλινόμενόν τινα τῶν νεανίσκων + φθέγγεσθαι καὶ ποιεῖν ἅπερ ὠδινοῦσαι γυναῖκες. We have already seen + grounds for regarding Ariadne as a goddess or spirit of vegetation. + See <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The + Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings</span></span>, ii. 138. + Amongst the Minnitarees in North America, the Prince of Neuwied saw + a tall strong woman pretend to bring up a stalk of maize out of her + stomach; the object of the ceremony was to secure a good crop of + maize in the following year. See Maximilian, Prinz zu Wied, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Reise in + das innere Nord-America</span></span> (Coblenz, 1839-1841), ii. + 269.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_619" name="note_619" + href="#noteref_619">619.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Magic Art and the + Evolution of Kings</span></span>, ii. 97 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_620" name="note_620" + href="#noteref_620">620.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See above, p. <a href="#Pg135" class= + "tei tei-ref">135</a>.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_621" name="note_621" + href="#noteref_621">621.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See above, pp. <a href="#Pg140" class= + "tei tei-ref">140</a> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg155" class= + "tei tei-ref">155</a> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg164" class= + "tei tei-ref">164</a> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg197" class= + "tei tei-ref">197</a> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_622" name="note_622" + href="#noteref_622">622.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">However, the Sicilians seem on the + contrary to have regarded Demeter as the seed-corn and Persephone + as the ripe crop. See above, pp. <a href="#Pg057" class= + "tei tei-ref">57</a>, <a href="#Pg058" class="tei tei-ref">58</a> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_623" name="note_623" + href="#noteref_623">623.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">According to Augustine (<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">De civitate + Dei</span></span>, iv. 8) the Romans imagined a whole series of + distinct deities, mostly goddesses, who took charge of the corn at + all its various stages from the time when it was committed to the + ground to the time when it was lodged in the granary. Such a + multiplication of mythical beings to account for the process of + growth is probably late rather than early.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_624" name="note_624" + href="#noteref_624">624.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">In some places it was customary to + kneel down before the last sheaf, in others to kiss it. See W. + Mannhardt, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Korndämonen</span></span>, p. 26; <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">id.</span></span>, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Mythologische Forschungen</span></span>, p. + 339. The custom of kneeling and bowing before the last corn is said + to have been observed, at least occasionally, in England. See + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Folk-lore + Journal</span></span>, vii. (1888) p. 270; and Herrick's evidence, + above, p. <a href="#Pg147" class="tei tei-ref">147</a>, note 1. The + Malay sorceress who cut the seven ears of rice to form the + Rice-child kissed the ears after she had cut them (W. W. Skeat, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Malay + Magic</span></span>, p. 241).</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_625" name="note_625" + href="#noteref_625">625.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Above, pp. <a href="#Pg132" class= + "tei tei-ref">132</a> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_626" name="note_626" + href="#noteref_626">626.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Even in one of the oldest documents, + the Homeric <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Hymn to Demeter</span></span>, Demeter is + represented as the goddess who controls the growth of the corn + rather than as the spirit who is immanent in it. See above, pp. + <a href="#Pg036" class="tei tei-ref">36</a> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_627" name="note_627" + href="#noteref_627">627.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. G. Aston, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Shinto</span></span> + (London, 1905), p. 127.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_628" name="note_628" + href="#noteref_628">628.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Adonis, Attis, + Osiris</span></span>, Second Edition, pp. 323 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>, + 330 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>, 346 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_629" name="note_629" + href="#noteref_629">629.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">A. Pauly, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Real-Encyclopädie der + classischen Alterthumswissenschaft</span></span>, v. (Stuttgart, + 1849) p. 1011.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_630" name="note_630" + href="#noteref_630">630.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Diodorus Siculus, i. 14, ἔτι γὰρ καὶ + νῦν κατὰ τὸν θερισμὸν τοὺς πρώτους ἀμηθέντας στάχυς θέντας τοὺς + ἀνθρώπους κόπτεσθαι πλησίον τοῦ δράγματοσ καὶ τὴν Ἶσιν ἀνακαλεῖσθαι + κτλ. For θέντας we should perhaps read σύνθεντας, which is + supported by the following δράγματος.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_631" name="note_631" + href="#noteref_631">631.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Herodotus, ii. 79; Julius Pollux, iv. + 54; Pausanias, ix. 29. 7; Athenaeus, xiv. 11, p. 620 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">a</span></span>.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_632" name="note_632" + href="#noteref_632">632.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">H. Brugsch, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Die Adonisklage und + das Linoslied</span></span> (Berlin, 1852), p. 24. According to + another interpretation, however, Maneros is the Egyptian + <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">manurosh</span></span>, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Let us be merry.”</span> See Lauth, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Über den ägyptischen Maneros,”</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Sitzungsberichte der + königl. bayer.</span></span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Akademie der Wissenschaften zu + München</span></span>, 1869, ii. 163-194.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_633" name="note_633" + href="#noteref_633">633.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Above, pp. <a href="#Pg197" class= + "tei tei-ref">197</a> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_634" name="note_634" + href="#noteref_634">634.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. R. S. Ralston, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Songs of the Russian + People</span></span> (London, 1872), pp. 249 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_635" name="note_635" + href="#noteref_635">635.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See above, pp. <a href="#Pg158" class= + "tei tei-ref">158</a> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_636" name="note_636" + href="#noteref_636">636.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. Gregor, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Quelques coutumes du Nord-est du comté + d'Aberdeen,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Revue des Traditions populaires</span></span>, + iii. (1888) p. 487 (should be 535).</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_637" name="note_637" + href="#noteref_637">637.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Homer, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Iliad</span></span>, + xviii. 570; Herodotus, ii. 79; Pausanias, ix. 29. 6-9; Conon, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Narrat</span></span>. 19. For the form Ailinus + see Suidas, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">s.v.</span></span>; Euripides, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Orestes</span></span>, 1395; Sophocles, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Ajax</span></span>, 627. Compare Moschus, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Idyl.</span></span> iii. 1; Callimachus, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hymn to + Apollo</span></span>, 20. See Greve, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">s.v.</span></span> + <span class="tei tei-q">“Linos,”</span> in W. H. Roscher's + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Ausführliches Lexikon der griech, und röm. + Mythologie</span></span>, ii. 2053 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_638" name="note_638" + href="#noteref_638">638.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Conon, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Narrat.</span></span> + 19.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_639" name="note_639" + href="#noteref_639">639.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">F. C. Movers, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Die + Phönizier</span></span>, i. (Bonn, 1841), p. 246; W. Mannhardt, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Antike + Wald- und Feldkulte</span></span> (Berlin, 1877), p. 281. In Hebrew + the expression would be <span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" + xml:lang="he"><span style="font-style: italic">oï + lanu</span></span> (אוי לנו), which occurs in 1 Samuel, iv. 7 and + 8; Jeremiah, iv. 13, vi. 4. However, the connexion of the Linus + song with the lament for Adonis is regarded by Baudissin as very + doubtful. See W. W. Graf Baudissin, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Adonis und + Esmun</span></span> (Leipsic, 1911), p. 360, note 3.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_640" name="note_640" + href="#noteref_640">640.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Pausanias, ix. 29. 8.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_641" name="note_641" + href="#noteref_641">641.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Julius Pollux, iv. 54; Athenaeus, xiv. + 11, pp. 619 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">f</span></span>-620 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">a</span></span>; Hesychius, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">svv.</span></span> + Βῶρμον and Μαριανουνὸς θρῆνος.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_642" name="note_642" + href="#noteref_642">642.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">The story was told by Sositheus in his + play of <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Daphnis</span></span>. His verses have been + preserved in the tract of an anonymous writer. See <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Scriptores rerum + mirabilium Graeci</span></span>, ed. A. Westermann (Brunswick, + 1839), pp. 220 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; also Athenaeus, x. 8, p. + 415 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">b</span></span>; Scholiast on + Theocritus, x. 41; Photius, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Lexicon</span></span>, Suidas, and Hesychius, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">s.v.</span></span> <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Lityerses”</span>; Apostolius, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Centur.</span></span> + x. 74; Servius, on Virgil, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Bucol.</span></span> viii. 68. Photius + mentions the sickle with which Lityerses beheaded his victims. + Servius calls Lityerses a king and says that Hercules cut off his + head with the sickle that had been given him to reap with. + Lityerses is the subject of a special study by W. Mannhardt + (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Mythologische Forschungen</span></span>, pp. 1 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>), whom I follow. Compare O. + Crusius, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">s.v.</span></span> <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Lityerses,”</span> in W. H. Roscher's <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ausführliches Lexikon + der griech. und röm. Mythologie</span></span>, ii. 2065 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_643" name="note_643" + href="#noteref_643">643.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Julius Pollux, iv. 54.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_644" name="note_644" + href="#noteref_644">644.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">In this comparison I closely follow W. + Mannhardt, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Mythologische Forschungen</span></span>, pp. + 18 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_645" name="note_645" + href="#noteref_645">645.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Compare above, pp. <a href="#Pg134" + class="tei tei-ref">134</a>, <a href="#Pg136" class= + "tei tei-ref">136</a>, <a href="#Pg137" class="tei tei-ref">137</a> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg140" class= + "tei tei-ref">140</a>, <a href="#Pg142" class= + "tei tei-ref">142</a>, <a href="#Pg143" class= + "tei tei-ref">143</a>, <a href="#Pg144" class= + "tei tei-ref">144</a>, <a href="#Pg145" class= + "tei tei-ref">145</a>, <a href="#Pg147" class="tei tei-ref">147</a> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg149" class= + "tei tei-ref">149</a>, <a href="#Pg164" class="tei tei-ref">164</a> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span> On the other hand, the last + sheaf is sometimes an object of desire and emulation. See above, + pp. <a href="#Pg136" class="tei tei-ref">136</a>, <a href="#Pg141" + class="tei tei-ref">141</a>, <a href="#Pg153" class= + "tei tei-ref">153</a>, <a href="#Pg154" class="tei tei-ref">154</a> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg156" class= + "tei tei-ref">156</a>, <a href="#Pg162" class="tei tei-ref">162</a> + note 3, <a href="#Pg165" class="tei tei-ref">165</a>. It is so at + Balquhidder also (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Folk-lore Journal</span></span>, vi. 269); and + it was formerly so on the Gareloch, Dumbartonshire, where there was + a competition for the honour of cutting it, and handfuls of + standing corn used to be hidden under sheaves in order that the + last to be uncovered should form the Maiden.—(From the information + of Archie Leitch. See pp. 157 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>)</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_646" name="note_646" + href="#noteref_646">646.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. Mannhardt, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Mythologische + Forschungen</span></span>, pp. 19 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_647" name="note_647" + href="#noteref_647">647.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">A. Kuhn, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Märkische Sagen und + Märchen</span></span> (Berlin, 1843), p. 342.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_648" name="note_648" + href="#noteref_648">648.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. Mannhardt, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Mythologische + Forschungen</span></span>, p. 20; F. Panzer, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Beitrag zur deutschen + Mythologie</span></span> (Munich, 1848-1855), ii. p. 217, § 397; A. + Witzschel, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Sagen, Sitten und Gebräuche aus + Thüringen</span></span> (Vienna, 1878), p. 222, § 69.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_649" name="note_649" + href="#noteref_649">649.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Above, pp. <a href="#Pg167" class= + "tei tei-ref">167</a> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_650" name="note_650" + href="#noteref_650">650.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. Mannhardt, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Mythologische + Forschungen</span></span>, p. 22.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_651" name="note_651" + href="#noteref_651">651.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. Mannhardt, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Mythologische + Forschungen</span></span>, p. 22.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_652" name="note_652" + href="#noteref_652">652.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Ibid.</span></span> pp. 22 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_653" name="note_653" + href="#noteref_653">653.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Ibid.</span></span> p. 23.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_654" name="note_654" + href="#noteref_654">654.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Ibid.</span></span> pp. 23 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_655" name="note_655" + href="#noteref_655">655.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Ibid.</span></span> p. 24.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_656" name="note_656" + href="#noteref_656">656.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Ibid.</span></span> p. 24.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_657" name="note_657" + href="#noteref_657">657.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Ibid.</span></span> p. 24.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_658" name="note_658" + href="#noteref_658">658.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Ibid.</span></span> pp. 24 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_659" name="note_659" + href="#noteref_659">659.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Ibid.</span></span> p. 25.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_660" name="note_660" + href="#noteref_660">660.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">P. Drechsler, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Sitte, Brauch und + Volksglaube in Schlesien</span></span> (Leipsic, 1903-1906), ii. + 65.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_661" name="note_661" + href="#noteref_661">661.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">A. Witzschel, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Sagen, Sitten und + Gebräuche aus Thüringen</span></span> (Vienna, 1878), p. 223, § + 70.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_662" name="note_662" + href="#noteref_662">662.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. Mannhardt, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Mythologische + Forschungen</span></span>, pp. 25 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_663" name="note_663" + href="#noteref_663">663.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">C. A. Elliot, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hoshangábád + Settlement Report</span></span>, p. 178, quoted in <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Panjab Notes and + Queries</span></span>, iii. §§ 8, 168 (October and December, 1885); + W. Crooke, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Popular Religion and Folklore of Northern + India</span></span> (Westminster, 1896), ii. 306.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_664" name="note_664" + href="#noteref_664">664.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. Crooke, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. + cit.</span></span> ii. 306 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_665" name="note_665" + href="#noteref_665">665.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. Mannhardt, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Mythologische + Forschungen</span></span>, p. 31.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_666" name="note_666" + href="#noteref_666">666.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Ibid.</span></span> p. 334.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_667" name="note_667" + href="#noteref_667">667.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Ibid.</span></span> p. 330.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_668" name="note_668" + href="#noteref_668">668.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Ibid.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_669" name="note_669" + href="#noteref_669">669.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Ibid.</span></span> p. 331.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_670" name="note_670" + href="#noteref_670">670.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. Mannhardt, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Mythologische + Forschungen</span></span>, p. 335.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_671" name="note_671" + href="#noteref_671">671.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Ibid.</span></span> p. 335.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_672" name="note_672" + href="#noteref_672">672.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Above, pp. <a href="#Pg135" class= + "tei tei-ref">135</a>, <a href="#Pg146" class= + "tei tei-ref">146</a>.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_673" name="note_673" + href="#noteref_673">673.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. Nicholson, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Folk-lore of East + Yorkshire</span></span> (London, Hull, and Driffield, 1890), p. 28, + supplemented by a letter of the author's addressed to Mr. E. S. + Hartland and dated 33 Leicester Street, Hull, 11th September, 1890. + I have to thank Mr. E. S. Hartland for calling my attention to the + custom and allowing me to see Mr. Nicholson's letter.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_674" name="note_674" + href="#noteref_674">674.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. Mannhardt, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Die + Korndämonen</span></span>, p. 26.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_675" name="note_675" + href="#noteref_675">675.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Above, pp. <a href="#Pg149" class= + "tei tei-ref">149</a> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_676" name="note_676" + href="#noteref_676">676.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. Mannhardt, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Mythologische + Forschungen</span></span>, p. 50.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_677" name="note_677" + href="#noteref_677">677.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Ibid.</span></span> pp. 50 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_678" name="note_678" + href="#noteref_678">678.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See above, pp. <a href="#Pg146" class= + "tei tei-ref">146</a>, <a href="#Pg170" class="tei tei-ref">170</a> + note 1; <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Adonis, Attis, Osiris</span></span>, Second + Edition, pp. 195 sqq.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_679" name="note_679" + href="#noteref_679">679.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. Mannhardt, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Mythologische + Forschunge</span></span> pp. 32 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span> + Compare K. Bartsch, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Sagen, Märchen und Gebräuche aus + Meklenburg</span></span> (Vienna, 1879-1880), ii. 296 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; P. + Drechsler, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Sitte, Brauch und Volksglaube in + Schlesien</span></span> (Leipsic, 1903-1906), ii. 62 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; A. + John, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Sitte, Brauch und Volksglaube im deutschen + Westböhmen</span></span> (Prague, 1905), p. 193; A. Witzschel, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Sagen, + Sitten und Gebräuche aus Thüringen</span></span> (Vienna, 1878), p. + 221, § 61; R. Krause, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Sitten, Gebräuche und Aberglauben in + Westpreussen</span></span> (Berlin, preface dated March, 1904), p. + 51; <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Revue + des Traditions populaires</span></span>, iii. (1888) p. 598.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_680" name="note_680" + href="#noteref_680">680.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. Mannhardt, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Mythologische + Forschungen</span></span>, pp. 35 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_681" name="note_681" + href="#noteref_681">681.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Ibid.</span></span> p. 36.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_682" name="note_682" + href="#noteref_682">682.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">A. John, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Sitte, Brauch, und + Volksglaube im deutschen Westböhmen</span></span>, (Prague, 1905), + p. 194.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_683" name="note_683" + href="#noteref_683">683.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">O. Hartung, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Zur Volkskunde aus Anhalt,”</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Zeitschrift des + Vereins für Volkskunde</span></span>, vii. (1897) p. 153.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_684" name="note_684" + href="#noteref_684">684.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. Lecœur, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Esquisses du Bocage + Normand</span></span> (Condé-sur-Noireau, 1883-1887), ii. 240 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_685" name="note_685" + href="#noteref_685">685.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. Mannhardt, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Mythologische + Forschungen</span></span>, p. 36.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_686" name="note_686" + href="#noteref_686">686.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">For the evidence, see <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">ibid.</span></span> + p. 36, note 2. The <span class="tei tei-q">“key”</span> in the + European custom is probably intended to serve the same purpose as + the <span class="tei tei-q">“knot”</span> in the Cingalese custom, + as to which see <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Taboo and the Perils of the + Soul</span></span>, pp. 308 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_687" name="note_687" + href="#noteref_687">687.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">From a letter written to me by Colonel + Henry Wilson, of Farnborough Lodge, Farnborough, Kent. The letter + is dated 21st March, 1901.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_688" name="note_688" + href="#noteref_688">688.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-q">“Notes on + Harvest Customs,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">The Folk-lore Journal</span></span>, vii. + (1889) pp. 52 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_689" name="note_689" + href="#noteref_689">689.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">C. Lumholtz, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Unknown + Mexico</span></span> (London, 1903), i. 214 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_690" name="note_690" + href="#noteref_690">690.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Compare <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Adonis, Attis, + Osiris</span></span>, Second Edition, pp. 75 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_691" name="note_691" + href="#noteref_691">691.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">K. Vetter, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Komm herüber und hilf + uns!</span></span> Heft 2 (Barmen, 1898), p. 7.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_692" name="note_692" + href="#noteref_692">692.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">A. C. Kruijt, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Een en ander aangaande het geestelijk en + maatschappelijk leven van den Poso-Alfoer,”</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Mededeelingen van + wege het Nederlandsche Zendelinggenootschap</span></span>, xxxix. + (1895) p. 137. As to influence which the spirits of the dead are + thought to exercise on the growth of the crops, see above, pp. + <a href="#Pg103" class="tei tei-ref">103</a> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, + and below, vol. ii. pp. 109 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_693" name="note_693" + href="#noteref_693">693.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. Mannhardt, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Mythologische + Forschungen</span></span>, p. 39.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_694" name="note_694" + href="#noteref_694">694.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. Mannhardt, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Mythologische + Forschungen</span></span>, pp. 39 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_695" name="note_695" + href="#noteref_695">695.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Ibid.</span></span> p. 40. For the speeches + made by the woman who binds the stranger or the master, see + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">ibid.</span></span> p. 41; C. Lemke, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Volksthümliches in Ostpreussen</span></span> + (Mohrungen, 1884-1887), i. 23 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_696" name="note_696" + href="#noteref_696">696.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. Mannhardt, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Mythologische + Forschungen</span></span>, pp. 41 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_697" name="note_697" + href="#noteref_697">697.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. Mannhardt, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. + cit.</span></span> p. 42. See also above, p. <a href="#Pg150" + class="tei tei-ref">150</a>.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_698" name="note_698" + href="#noteref_698">698.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. Mannhardt, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. + cit.</span></span> p. 42. See above, p. <a href="#Pg149" class= + "tei tei-ref">149</a>. In Thüringen a being called the Rush-cutter + (<span lang="de" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="de"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Binsenschneider</span></span>) used to be much + dreaded. On the morning of St. John's Day he was wont to walk + through the fields with sickles tied to his ankles cutting avenues + in the corn as he walked. To detect him, seven bundles of brushwood + were silently threshed with the flail on the threshing-floor, and + the stranger who appeared at the door of the barn during the + threshing was the Rush-cutter. See A. Witzschel, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Sagen, Sitten und + Gebräuche aus Thüringen</span></span> (Vienna, 1878), p. 221. With + the <span lang="de" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang= + "de"><span style="font-style: italic">Binsenschneider</span></span> + compare the <span lang="de" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang= + "de"><span style="font-style: italic">Bilschneider</span></span> + and <span lang="de" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang= + "de"><span style="font-style: italic">Biberschneider</span></span> + (F. Panzer, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Beitrag zur deutschen + Mythologie</span></span>, Munich, 1848-1855, ii. pp. 210 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, §§ 372-378).</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_699" name="note_699" + href="#noteref_699">699.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. Mannhardt, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Mythologische + Forschungen</span></span>, pp. 47 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_700" name="note_700" + href="#noteref_700">700.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. Mannhardt, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. + cit.</span></span> p. 48.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_701" name="note_701" + href="#noteref_701">701.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. Mannhardt, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">l.c.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_702" name="note_702" + href="#noteref_702">702.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Ibid.</span></span> pp. 48 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_703" name="note_703" + href="#noteref_703">703.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. Mannhardt, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Mythologische + Forschungen</span></span>, p. 49.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_704" name="note_704" + href="#noteref_704">704.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Ibid.</span></span> p. 337.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_705" name="note_705" + href="#noteref_705">705.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Ibid.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_706" name="note_706" + href="#noteref_706">706.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. Mannhardt, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Mythologische + Forschungen</span></span>, pp. 337 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_707" name="note_707" + href="#noteref_707">707.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">A. John, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Sitte, Brauch und + Volksglaube im deutschen Westböhmen</span></span> (Prague, 1905), + p. 189.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_708" name="note_708" + href="#noteref_708">708.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">A. Witzschel, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Sagen, Sitten und + Gebräuche aus Thüringen</span></span> (Vienna, 1878), p. 224, § + 74.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_709" name="note_709" + href="#noteref_709">709.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Bavaria, Landes- und Volkskunde des + Königreichs Bayern</span></span> (Munich, 1860-1867), iii. 343 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_710" name="note_710" + href="#noteref_710">710.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Zeitschrift des Vereins für + Volkskunde</span></span>, vii. (1897) p. 154.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_711" name="note_711" + href="#noteref_711">711.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">P. Drechsler, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Sitte, Brauch, und + Volksglaube in Schlesien</span></span> (Leipsic, 1903-1906), ii. + 64, § 419.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_712" name="note_712" + href="#noteref_712">712.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. R. S. Ralston, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Songs of the Russian + People</span></span>, Second Edition (London, 1872), pp. 251 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span> As to Perun, the old + Slavonic thunder-god, see <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">The Magic Art and the Evolution of + Kings</span></span>, ii. 365.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_713" name="note_713" + href="#noteref_713">713.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Rev. Walter Gregor, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Notes on the + Folk-lore of the North-east of Scotland</span></span> (London, + 1881), p. 182.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_714" name="note_714" + href="#noteref_714">714.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See above, pp. <a href="#Pg136" class= + "tei tei-ref">136</a> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_715" name="note_715" + href="#noteref_715">715.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">A. Germain, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Note zur Zanzibar et la Côte Orientale + d'Afrique,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Bulletin de la Société de + Géographie</span></span> (Paris), Vème Série, xvi. (1868) p. + 555.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_716" name="note_716" + href="#noteref_716">716.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">E. Modigliani, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Un Viaggio a + Nías</span></span> (Milan, 1890), p. 593.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_717" name="note_717" + href="#noteref_717">717.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. Spieth, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Die + Ewe-Stämme</span></span> (Berlin, 1906), p. 303. In the Central + Provinces of India <span class="tei tei-q">“sometimes the oldest + man in the house cuts the first five bundles of the crop and they + are afterwards left in the fields for the birds to eat. And at the + end of harvest the last one or two sheaves are left standing in the + field and any one who likes can cut and carry them away. In some + localities the last sheaves are left standing in the field and are + known as <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">barhona</span></span>, or the giver of + increase. Then all the labourers rush together at this last patch + of corn and tear it up by the roots; everybody seizes as much as he + can [and] keeps it, the master having no share in this patch. After + the <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">barhona</span></span> has been torn up all the + labourers fall on their faces to the ground and worship the + field”</span> (A. E. Nelson, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Central Provinces Gazetteers, Bilaspur + District</span></span>, vol. A, 1910, p. 75). This quotation was + kindly sent to me by Mr. W. Crooke; I have not seen the original. + It seems to shew that in the Central Provinces the last corn is + left standing on the field as a portion for the corn-spirit, and + that he is believed to be immanent in it; hence the name of + <span class="tei tei-q">“the giver of increase”</span> bestowed on + it, and the eagerness with which other people, though not the owner + of the land, seek to appropriate it.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_718" name="note_718" + href="#noteref_718">718.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See above, pp. <a href="#Pg093" class= + "tei tei-ref">93</a> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_719" name="note_719" + href="#noteref_719">719.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See above, pp. <a href="#Pg036" class= + "tei tei-ref">36</a>, <a href="#Pg074" class= + "tei tei-ref">74</a>.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_720" name="note_720" + href="#noteref_720">720.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Leviticus, xix. 9 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, + xxiii. 22; Deuteronomy, xxiv. 19-21.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_721" name="note_721" + href="#noteref_721">721.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See above, pp. <a href="#Pg046" class= + "tei tei-ref">46</a> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg053" class= + "tei tei-ref">53</a> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>, and below, vol. ii. pp. + 109 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_722" name="note_722" + href="#noteref_722">722.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. Mannhardt, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Mythologische + Forschungen</span></span>, pp. 49 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; A. + Wuttke, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Der deutsche + Volksaberglaube</span></span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "vertical-align: super">2</span></span> (Berlin, 1869), p. 254, § + 400; M. Töppen, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Aberglaube aus + Masuren</span></span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "vertical-align: super">2</span></span> (Danzig, 1867), p. 57. The + same belief is held and acted upon in Japan (L. Hearn, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Glimpses of + Unfamiliar Japan</span></span>, London, 1904, ii. 603).</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_723" name="note_723" + href="#noteref_723">723.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">The explanation of the custom is W. + Mannhardt's (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Mythologische Forschungen</span></span>, p. + 49).</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_724" name="note_724" + href="#noteref_724">724.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Odyssey</span></span>, xvii. 485 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span> + Compare Plato, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Sophist</span></span>, p. 216 A.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_725" name="note_725" + href="#noteref_725">725.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">A. C. Kruijt, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Mijne eerste ervaringen te Poso,”</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Mededeelingen van + wege het Nederlandsche Zendelinggenootschap</span></span>, xxxvi. + (1892) p. 402.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_726" name="note_726" + href="#noteref_726">726.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">For throwing him into the water, see + p. <a href="#Pg225" class="tei tei-ref">225</a>.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_727" name="note_727" + href="#noteref_727">727.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Cieza de Leon, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Travels</span></span>, translated by C. R. + Markham, p. 203 (Hakluyt Society, London, 1864).</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_728" name="note_728" + href="#noteref_728">728.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Juan de Velasco, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Histoire du Royaume + de Quito</span></span>, i. (Paris, 1840) pp. 121 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span> + (Ternaux-Compans, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Voyages, Relations et Mémoires Originaux pour + servir à l'Histoire de la Découverte de l'Amérique</span></span>, + vol. xviii.).</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_729" name="note_729" + href="#noteref_729">729.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Brasseur de Bourbourg, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Histoire des Nations + civilisées du Mexique et de l'Amérique Centrale</span></span> + (Paris, 1857-1859), i. 274; H. H. Bancroft, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Native Races of the + Pacific States</span></span> (London, 1875-1876), ii. 340.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_730" name="note_730" + href="#noteref_730">730.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Brasseur de Bourbourg, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Aperçus d'un voyage dans les États de San-Salvador et + de Guatemala,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Bulletin de la Société de + Géographie</span></span> (Paris), IVème Série, xiii. (1857) pp. 278 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_731" name="note_731" + href="#noteref_731">731.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Herrera, quoted by A. Bastian, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Die + Culturländer des alten Amerika</span></span> (Berlin, 1878), ii. + 379 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span> See <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Adonis, Attis, + Osiris</span></span>, Second Edition, pp. 338 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_732" name="note_732" + href="#noteref_732">732.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">E. James, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Account of an + Expedition from Pittsburgh to the Rocky Mountains</span></span> + (London, 1823), ii. 80 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; H. R. Schoolcraft, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Indian + Tribes of the United States</span></span> (Philadelphia, + 1853-1856), v. 77 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>; J. De Smet, in + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Annales + de la Propagation de la Foi</span></span>, xi. (1838) pp. 493 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">id.</span></span>, in + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Annales + de la Propagation de la Foi</span></span>, xv. (1843) pp. 277-279; + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">id.</span></span>, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Voyages aux Montagnes + Rocheuses</span></span>, Nouvelle Edition (Paris and Brussels, + 1873), pp. 121 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span> The accounts by Schoolcraft + and De Smet of the sacrifice of the Sioux girl are independent and + supplement each other. According to De Smet, who wrote from the + descriptions of four eye-witnesses, the procession from hut to hut + for the purpose of collecting wood took place on the morning of the + sacrifice. Another description of the sacrifice is given by Mr. G. + B. Grinnell from the recollection of an eye-witness (<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Pawnee Hero Stories + and Folk-tales</span></span>, New York, 1889, pp. 362-369). + According to this last account the victim was shot with arrows and + afterwards burnt. Before the body was consumed in the fire a man + pulled out the arrows, cut open the breast of the victim, and + having smeared his face with the blood ran away as fast as he + could.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_733" name="note_733" + href="#noteref_733">733.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. B. Labat, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Relation historique + de l'Ethiopie occidentale</span></span> (Paris, 1732), i. 380.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_734" name="note_734" + href="#noteref_734">734.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">John Adams, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Sketches taken during + Ten Voyages in Africa between the years 1786 and 1800</span></span> + (London, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">n.d.</span></span>), p. 25.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_735" name="note_735" + href="#noteref_735">735.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">P. Bouche, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">La Côte des + Esclaves</span></span> (Paris, 1885), p. 132.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_736" name="note_736" + href="#noteref_736">736.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">T. Arbousset et F. Daumas, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Voyage + d'exploration au Nord-est de la Colonie du Cap de + Bonne-Espérance</span></span> (Paris, 1842), pp. 117 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span> The + custom has probably long been obsolete.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_737" name="note_737" + href="#noteref_737">737.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">From information given me by my friend + the Rev. John Roscoe, who resided for some time among the Wamegi + and suppressed the sacrifice in 1886.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_738" name="note_738" + href="#noteref_738">738.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">F. Blumentritt, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Das Stromgebiet des Rio Grande de Mindanao,”</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Petermanns Mitteilungen</span></span>, xxxvii. + (1891) p. 110.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_739" name="note_739" + href="#noteref_739">739.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">A. Schadenberg, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Beiträge zur Kenntniss der im Innern Nordluzons + lebenden Stämme,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Verhandlungen der Berliner Gesellschaft für + Anthropologie, Ethnologie und Urgeschichte</span></span>, 1888, p. + (39) (bound with <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Zeitschrift für Ethnologie</span></span>, xx. + 1888).</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_740" name="note_740" + href="#noteref_740">740.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Schadenberg, in <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Verhandlungen der + Berliner Gesellschaft für Anthropologie, Ethnologie und + Urgeschichte</span></span>, 1889, p. (681) (bound with <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Zeitschrift für + Ethnologie</span></span>, xxi. 1889).</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_741" name="note_741" + href="#noteref_741">741.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">(Sir) J. G. Scott and J. P. Hardiman, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Gazetteer + of Upper Burma and the Shan States</span></span> (Rangoon, + 1900-1901), Part i. vol. i. pp. 493-509.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_742" name="note_742" + href="#noteref_742">742.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Col. R. G. Woodthorpe, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Some Account of the Shans and Hill Tribes of the + States on the Mekong,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Journal of the Anthropological + Institute</span></span>, xxvi. (1897) p. 24.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_743" name="note_743" + href="#noteref_743">743.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">For a general description of the + country and the tribes see L. A. Waddell, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“The Tribes of the Brahmaputra Valley,”</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Journal + of the Asiatic Society of Bengal</span></span>, lxix. Part iii. + (Calcutta, 1901), pp. 1-127.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_744" name="note_744" + href="#noteref_744">744.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Miss G. M. Godden, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Naga and other Frontier Tribes of North-Eastern + India,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Journal of the Anthropological + Institute</span></span>, xxvii. (1898) pp. 9 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, 38 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_745" name="note_745" + href="#noteref_745">745.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">North Indian Notes and Queries</span></span>, + i. p. 4, § 15 (April 1891).</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_746" name="note_746" + href="#noteref_746">746.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Panjab Notes and Queries</span></span>, ii. + pp. 127 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, § 721 (May 1885).</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_747" name="note_747" + href="#noteref_747">747.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Rev. P. Dehon, S.J., <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Religion and Customs of the Uraons,”</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Memoirs + of the Asiatic Society of Bengal</span></span>, vol. i. No. 9 + (Calcutta, 1906), pp. 141 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_748" name="note_748" + href="#noteref_748">748.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Major S. C. Macpherson, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Memorials of Service + in India</span></span> (London, 1865), pp. 113-131; Major-General + John Campbell, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Wild Tribes of Khondistan</span></span> + (London, 1864), pp. 52-58, etc. Compare Mgr. Neyret, Bishop of + Vizagapatam, in <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Annales de la Propagation de la + Foi</span></span>, xxiii. (1851) pp. 402-404; E. Thurston, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Ethnographic Notes on Southern + India</span></span> (Madras, 1906), pp. 510-519; <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">id.</span></span>, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Castes + and Tribes of Southern India</span></span> (Madras, 1909), iii. + 371-385.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_749" name="note_749" + href="#noteref_749">749.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. Campbell, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. + cit.</span></span> p. 56.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_750" name="note_750" + href="#noteref_750">750.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">S. C. Macpherson, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. + cit.</span></span> pp. 115 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_751" name="note_751" + href="#noteref_751">751.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">S. C. Macpherson, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. + cit.</span></span> pp. 117 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; J. Campbell, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. + cit.</span></span> p. 112.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_752" name="note_752" + href="#noteref_752">752.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">S. C. Macpherson, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. + cit.</span></span> pp. 117 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_753" name="note_753" + href="#noteref_753">753.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">S. C. Macpherson, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. + cit.</span></span> p. 118.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_754" name="note_754" + href="#noteref_754">754.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. Campbell, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. + cit.</span></span> pp. 54 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_755" name="note_755" + href="#noteref_755">755.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. Campbell, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. + cit.</span></span> pp. 55, 112.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_756" name="note_756" + href="#noteref_756">756.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">S. C. Macpherson, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. + cit.</span></span> p. 119; J. Campbell, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. + cit.</span></span> p. 113.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_757" name="note_757" + href="#noteref_757">757.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">S. C. Macpherson, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. + cit.</span></span> p. 127. Instead of the branch of a green tree, + Campbell mentions two strong planks or bamboos (p. 57) or a slit + bamboo (p. 182).</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_758" name="note_758" + href="#noteref_758">758.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. Campbell, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. + cit.</span></span> pp. 56, 58, 120.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_759" name="note_759" + href="#noteref_759">759.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">E. T. Dalton, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Descriptive Ethnology + of Bengal</span></span> (Calcutta, 1872), p. 288, quoting Colonel + Campbell's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Report</span></span>.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_760" name="note_760" + href="#noteref_760">760.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. Campbell, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. + cit.</span></span> p. 126. The elephant represented the Earth + Goddess herself, who was here conceived in elephant-form (Campbell, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. + cit.</span></span> pp. 51, 126). In the hill tracts of Goomsur she + was represented in peacock-form, and the post to which the victim + was bound bore the effigy of a peacock (Campbell, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. + cit.</span></span> p. 54).</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_761" name="note_761" + href="#noteref_761">761.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">S. C. Macpherson, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. + cit.</span></span> p. 130. In Mexico also the tears of the human + victims were sometimes regarded as an omen of rain (B. de Sahagun, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Histoire + générale des Choses de la Nouvelle Espagne</span></span>, traduite + par D. Jourdanet et R. Simeon, Paris, 1880, bk. ii. ch. 20, p. + 86).</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_762" name="note_762" + href="#noteref_762">762.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">E. T. Dalton, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Descriptive Ethnology + of Bengal</span></span>, p. 288, referring to Colonel Campbell's + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Report</span></span>.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_763" name="note_763" + href="#noteref_763">763.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">S. C. Macpherson, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. + cit.</span></span> p. 129. Compare J. Campbell, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. + cit.</span></span> pp. 55, 58, 113, 121, 187.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_764" name="note_764" + href="#noteref_764">764.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. Campbell, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. + cit.</span></span> p. 182.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_765" name="note_765" + href="#noteref_765">765.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">S. C. Macpherson, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. + cit.</span></span> p. 128; E. T. Dalton, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Descriptive Ethnology + of Bengal</span></span>, p. 288.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_766" name="note_766" + href="#noteref_766">766.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. Campbell, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. + cit.</span></span> pp. 55, 182.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_767" name="note_767" + href="#noteref_767">767.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. Campbell, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. + cit.</span></span> p. 187.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_768" name="note_768" + href="#noteref_768">768.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">E. Thurston, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Castes and Tribes of + Southern India</span></span> (Madras, 1909), iii. 381-385.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_769" name="note_769" + href="#noteref_769">769.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. Campbell, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. + cit.</span></span> p. 112.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_770" name="note_770" + href="#noteref_770">770.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">S. C. Macpherson, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. + cit.</span></span> p. 118.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_771" name="note_771" + href="#noteref_771">771.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Above, pp. <a href="#Pg239" class= + "tei tei-ref">239</a>, <a href="#Pg240" class= + "tei tei-ref">240</a>, <a href="#Pg244" class= + "tei tei-ref">244</a>.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_772" name="note_772" + href="#noteref_772">772.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Above, p. <a href="#Pg134" class= + "tei tei-ref">134</a>.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_773" name="note_773" + href="#noteref_773">773.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Above, pp. <a href="#Pg134" class= + "tei tei-ref">134</a>, <a href="#Pg157" class="tei tei-ref">157</a> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_774" name="note_774" + href="#noteref_774">774.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Above, p. <a href="#Pg223" class= + "tei tei-ref">223</a>.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_775" name="note_775" + href="#noteref_775">775.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Above, p. <a href="#Pg224" class= + "tei tei-ref">224</a>.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_776" name="note_776" + href="#noteref_776">776.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Above, p. <a href="#Pg170" class= + "tei tei-ref">170</a>, with the references in note 1; <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Adonis, Attis, + Osiris</span></span>, Second Edition, pp. 195-197.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_777" name="note_777" + href="#noteref_777">777.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See above, p. <a href="#Pg217" class= + "tei tei-ref">217</a>.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_778" name="note_778" + href="#noteref_778">778.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Above, p. <a href="#Pg224" class= + "tei tei-ref">224</a>.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_779" name="note_779" + href="#noteref_779">779.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. Mannhardt, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Die + Korndämonen</span></span>, p. 5.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_780" name="note_780" + href="#noteref_780">780.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">H. Pfannenschmid, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Germanische + Erntefeste</span></span> (Hanover, 1878), p. 98.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_781" name="note_781" + href="#noteref_781">781.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Above, p. <a href="#Pg217" class= + "tei tei-ref">217</a>. It is not expressly said that he was wrapt + in a sheaf.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_782" name="note_782" + href="#noteref_782">782.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Above, pp. <a href="#Pg225" class= + "tei tei-ref">225</a> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg229" class= + "tei tei-ref">229</a> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_783" name="note_783" + href="#noteref_783">783.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Dying + God</span></span>, pp. 160 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_784" name="note_784" + href="#noteref_784">784.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Adonis, Attis, + Osiris</span></span>, Second Edition, pp. 231 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>, + 239 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_785" name="note_785" + href="#noteref_785">785.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Magic Art and the + Evolution of Kings</span></span>, ii. 47 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_786" name="note_786" + href="#noteref_786">786.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">I do not know when the corn is reaped + in Phrygia; but the high upland character of the country makes it + likely that harvest is later there than on the coasts of the + Mediterranean.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_787" name="note_787" + href="#noteref_787">787.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See above, pp. <a href="#Pg240" class= + "tei tei-ref">240</a> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>; and <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Adonis, Attis, + Osiris</span></span>, Second Edition, pp. 247-249. As to + head-hunting in British Borneo see H. L. Roth, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Natives of + Sarawak and British North Borneo</span></span> (London, 1896), ii. + 140 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>; in Central Celebes, see A. + C. Kruijt, <span class="tei tei-q">“Het koppensnellen der Toradja's + van Midden-Celebes, en zijne Beteekenis,”</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Verslagen en + Mededeelingen der koninklijke Akademie van + Wetenschappen</span></span>, Afdeelung Letterkunde, Vierde Reeks, + iii. part 2 (Amsterdam, 1899), pp. 147-229; among the Igorot of + Bontoc in Luzon, see A. E. Jenks, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Bontoc + Igorot</span></span> (Manilla, 1905), pp. 172 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>; + among the Naga tribes of Assam, see Miss G. M. Godden, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Naga and other Frontier Tribes of North-East + India”</span>, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Journal of the Anthropological + Institute</span></span>, xxvii. (1898) pp. 12-17. It must not, + however, be thought that among these tribes the custom of procuring + human heads is practised merely as a means to ensure the growth of + the crops; it is apparently supposed to exert a salutary influence + on the whole life of the people by providing them with guardian + spirits in the shape of the ghosts of the men to whom in their + lifetime the heads belonged. The Scythians of Central Europe in + antiquity set great store on the heads of the enemies whom they had + slain in war. See Herodotus, iv. 64 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_788" name="note_788" + href="#noteref_788">788.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">There are traces in Greece itself of + an old custom of sacrificing human victims to promote the fertility + of the earth. See Pausanias, vii. 19. 3 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span> + compared with vii. 20. 1; <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">id.</span></span>, viii. 53. 3; L. R. Farnell, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Cults + of the Greek States</span></span>, ii. (Oxford, 1896) p. 455; and + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Dying + God</span></span>, pp. 161 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_789" name="note_789" + href="#noteref_789">789.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Above, pp. <a href="#Pg215" class= + "tei tei-ref">215</a> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_790" name="note_790" + href="#noteref_790">790.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Above, p. <a href="#Pg216" class= + "tei tei-ref">216</a>.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_791" name="note_791" + href="#noteref_791">791.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Hesychius, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">s.v.</span></span> + Βῶρμον.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_792" name="note_792" + href="#noteref_792">792.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Apollodorus, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Bibliotheca</span></span>, ii. 6. 3.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_793" name="note_793" + href="#noteref_793">793.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">The scurrilities exchanged both in + ancient and modern times between vine-dressers, vintagers, and + passers-by seem to belong to a different category. See W. + Mannhardt, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Mythologische Forschungen</span></span>, pp. + 53 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_794" name="note_794" + href="#noteref_794">794.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Adonis, Attis, + Osiris</span></span>, Second Edition, pp. 188 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_795" name="note_795" + href="#noteref_795">795.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Above, pp. <a href="#Pg236" class= + "tei tei-ref">236</a> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg240" class= + "tei tei-ref">240</a>, <a href="#Pg243" class= + "tei tei-ref">243</a>, <a href="#Pg244" class= + "tei tei-ref">244</a>, <a href="#Pg248" class="tei tei-ref">248</a> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_796" name="note_796" + href="#noteref_796">796.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">The probable correspondence of the + months, which supplies so welcome a confirmation of the conjecture + in the text, was pointed out to me by my friend W. Robertson Smith, + who furnished me with the following note: <span class= + "tei tei-q">“In the Syro-Macedonian calendar Lous represents Ab, + not Tammuz. Was it different in Babylon? I think it was, and one + month different, at least in the early times of the Greek monarchy + in Asia. For we know from a Babylonian observation in the Almagest + (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Ideler</span></span>, i. 396) that in 229 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">b.c.</span></span> Xanthicus began on + February 26. It was therefore the month before the equinoctial + moon, not Nisan but Adar, and consequently Lous answered to the + lunar month Tammuz.”</span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_797" name="note_797" + href="#noteref_797">797.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Above, p. <a href="#Pg215" class= + "tei tei-ref">215</a>.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_798" name="note_798" + href="#noteref_798">798.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Apollodorus, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Bibliotheca</span></span>, ii. 5. 11; + Scholiast on Apollonius Rhodius, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Argon.</span></span> + iv. 1396; Plutarch, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Parall.</span></span> 38. Herodotus (ii. 45) + discredits the idea that the Egyptians ever offered human + sacrifices. But his authority is not to be weighed against that of + Manetho (Plutarch, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Isis et Osiris</span></span>, 73), who affirms + that they did. See further Dr. E. A. Wallis Budge, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Osiris and the + Egyptian Resurrection</span></span> (London and New York, 1911), i. + 210 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>, who says (pp. 210, 212): + <span class="tei tei-q">“There is abundant proof for the statement + that the Egyptians offered up sacrifices of human beings, and that, + in common with many African tribes at the present day, their + customs in dealing with vanquished enemies were bloodthirsty and + savage.... The passages from Egyptian works quoted earlier in this + chapter prove that human sacrifices were offered up at Heliopolis + as well as at Tetu, or Busiris, and the rumour of such sacrifices + has found expression in the works of Greek writers.”</span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_799" name="note_799" + href="#noteref_799">799.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">E. Meyer, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Geschichte des + Altertums</span></span>, i. (Stuttgart, 1884), § 57, p. 68.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_800" name="note_800" + href="#noteref_800">800.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">E. Meyer, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Geschichte des + Altertums</span></span>,<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "vertical-align: super">2</span></span> i. 2 (Stuttgart and Berlin, + 1909), p. 97; G. Maspero, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Histoire Ancienne des Peuples de l'Orient + Classique, Les Origines</span></span> (Paris, 1895), pp. 129 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span> Both these eminent + historians have abandoned their former theory that Osiris was the + Sun-god. Professor E. Meyer now speaks of Osiris as <span class= + "tei tei-q">“the great vegetation god”</span> and, on the same + page, as <span class="tei tei-q">“an earth-god”</span> + (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. + cit.</span></span> i. 2. p. 70). I am happy to find the view of the + nature of Osiris, which I advocated many years ago, supported by + the authority of so distinguished an Oriental scholar. Dr. E. A. + Wallis Budge holds that Busiris was the oldest shrine of Osiris in + the north of Egypt, but that it was less ancient than his shrine at + Abydos in the south. See E. A. Wallis Budge, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Osiris and the + Egyptian Resurrection</span></span> (London and New York, 1911), + ii. 1.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_801" name="note_801" + href="#noteref_801">801.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Diodorus Siculus, i. 88; Plutarch, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Isis et + Osiris</span></span>, 73, compare 30, 33.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_802" name="note_802" + href="#noteref_802">802.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Margaret A. Murray, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Osireion at + Abydos</span></span> (London, 1904), p. 30, referring to Mariette, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Dendereh</span></span>, iv. plates xxxi., + lvi., and lxxxi. The passage of Diodorus Siculus referred to is i. + 62. 4. As to masks of animals worn by Egyptian men and women in + religious rites see <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">The Magic Art and the Evolution of + Kings</span></span>, ii. 133; <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">The Dying God</span></span>, p. 72.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_803" name="note_803" + href="#noteref_803">803.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Above, pp. <a href="#Pg237" class= + "tei tei-ref">237</a> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg240" class= + "tei tei-ref">240</a>, <a href="#Pg251" class= + "tei tei-ref">251</a>.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_804" name="note_804" + href="#noteref_804">804.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">E. J. Payne, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">History of the New + World called America</span></span>, i. (Oxford, 1892) p. 422.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_805" name="note_805" + href="#noteref_805">805.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Brasseur de Bourbourg, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Histoire des Nations + civilisées du Mexique et de l'Amérique Centrale</span></span> + (Paris, 1857-1859), iii. 535.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_806" name="note_806" + href="#noteref_806">806.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Festus, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">s.v.</span></span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Catularia</span></span>, p. 45 ed. C. O. + Müller. Compare <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">id.</span></span>, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">s.v.</span></span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Rutilae + canes</span></span>, p. 285; Columella, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">De re + rustica</span></span>, x. 342 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; Ovid, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Fasti</span></span>, + iv. 905 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>; Pliny, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Nat. + Hist.</span></span> xviii. 14.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_807" name="note_807" + href="#noteref_807">807.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">D. Chwolsohn, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Die Ssabier und der + Ssabismus</span></span> (St. Petersburg, 1856), ii. 388 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span> Compare <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">ibid.</span></span>, + pp. 384 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, 386 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, + 391, 393, 395, 397. For other instances of the assimilation of the + victim to the god, see H. Oldenberg, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Die Religion des + Veda</span></span> (Berlin, 1894), pp. 77 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, + 357-359.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_808" name="note_808" + href="#noteref_808">808.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Above, pp. <a href="#Pg240" class= + "tei tei-ref">240</a>, <a href="#Pg249" class= + "tei tei-ref">249</a>.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_809" name="note_809" + href="#noteref_809">809.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Above, pp. <a href="#Pg149" class= + "tei tei-ref">149</a> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg237" class= + "tei tei-ref">237</a> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg239" class= + "tei tei-ref">239</a>.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_810" name="note_810" + href="#noteref_810">810.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Plutarch, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Isis et + Osiris</span></span>, 18.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_811" name="note_811" + href="#noteref_811">811.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See above, p. <a href="#Pg248" class= + "tei tei-ref">248</a>; and compare <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Adonis, Attis, + Osiris</span></span>, Second Edition, pp. 331 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_812" name="note_812" + href="#noteref_812">812.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Adonis, Attis, + Osiris</span></span>, Second Edition, p. 323.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_813" name="note_813" + href="#noteref_813">813.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Plutarch, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Isis et + Osiris</span></span>, 22, 30, 31, 33, 73.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_814" name="note_814" + href="#noteref_814">814.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Sir J. G. Wilkinson, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Manners and Customs + of the Ancient Egyptians</span></span> (ed. 1878), iii. 81.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_815" name="note_815" + href="#noteref_815">815.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Pausanias, i. 22. 3, viii. 5. 8, viii. + 42. i.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_816" name="note_816" + href="#noteref_816">816.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Cornutus, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Theologiae Graecae + Compendium</span></span>, 28. See above, p. <a href="#Pg042" class= + "tei tei-ref">42</a>.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_817" name="note_817" + href="#noteref_817">817.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. Hone, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Every-day + Book</span></span> (London, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">n.d.</span></span>), ii. coll. 1170 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_818" name="note_818" + href="#noteref_818">818.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Miss C. S. Burne and Miss G. F. + Jackson, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Shropshire Folk-lore</span></span> (London, + 1883), pp. 372 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, referring to Mrs. Bray's + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Traditions of Devon</span></span>, i. + 330.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_819" name="note_819" + href="#noteref_819">819.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. Hone, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. + cit.</span></span> ii. 1172.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_820" name="note_820" + href="#noteref_820">820.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">The Rev. Sydney Cooper, of 80 + Gloucester Street, Cirencester, wrote to me (4th February 1893) + that his wife remembers the <span class="tei tei-q">“neck”</span> + being kept on the mantelpiece of the parlour in a Cornish + farmhouse; it generally stayed there throughout the year.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_821" name="note_821" + href="#noteref_821">821.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-q">“Old Harvest + Customs in Devon and Cornwall,”</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Folk-lore</span></span>, i. (1890) p. + 280.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_822" name="note_822" + href="#noteref_822">822.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Ibid.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_823" name="note_823" + href="#noteref_823">823.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Frances Hoggan, M.D., <span class= + "tei tei-q">“The Neck Feast,”</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Folk-lore</span></span>, iv. (1893) p. 123. In + Pembrokeshire the last sheaf of corn seems to have been commonly + known as <span class="tei tei-q">“the Hag”</span> (<span class= + "tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">wrach</span></span>) rather than as + <span class="tei tei-q">“the Neck.”</span> See above, pp. <a href= + "#Pg142" class="tei tei-ref">142-144</a>.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_824" name="note_824" + href="#noteref_824">824.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. Brand, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Popular + Antiquities</span></span>, ii. 20 (Bohn's edition); Miss C. S. + Burne and Miss G. F. Jackson, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Shropshire Folk-lore</span></span>, p. + 371.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_825" name="note_825" + href="#noteref_825">825.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Burne and Jackson, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">l.c.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_826" name="note_826" + href="#noteref_826">826.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. Mannhardt, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Mythologische + Forschungen</span></span>, p. 185.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_827" name="note_827" + href="#noteref_827">827.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See above, p. <a href="#Pg158" class= + "tei tei-ref">158</a>.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_828" name="note_828" + href="#noteref_828">828.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. Mannhardt, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Mythologische + Forschungen</span></span>, p. 185.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_829" name="note_829" + href="#noteref_829">829.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Ibid.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_830" name="note_830" + href="#noteref_830">830.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Revue des Traditions populaires</span></span>, + ii. (1887) p. 500.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_831" name="note_831" + href="#noteref_831">831.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Above, p. <a href="#Pg150" class= + "tei tei-ref">150</a>.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_832" name="note_832" + href="#noteref_832">832.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">E. Meier, in <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Zeitschrift für + deutsche Mythologie und Sittenkunde</span></span>, i. (1853) pp. + 170-173; U. Jahn, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Die deutschen Opfergebräuche bei Ackerbau und + Viehzucht</span></span> (Breslau, 1884), pp. 166-169; H. + Pfannenschmid, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Germanische Erntefeste</span></span> (Hanover, + 1878), pp. 104 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; A. Kuhn, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Sagen, Gebräuche und + Märchen aus Westfalen</span></span> (Leipsic, 1859), ii. pp. 177 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, §§ 491, 492; A. Kuhn und W. + Schwartz, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Norddeutsche Sagen, Märchen und + Gebräuche</span></span> (Leipsic, 1848), p. 395), § 97; K. Lynker, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Deutsche + Sagen und Sitten in hessischen Gauen</span></span> (Cassel and + Göttingen, 1860), p. 256, § 340.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_833" name="note_833" + href="#noteref_833">833.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. Mannhardt, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Die + Korndämonen</span></span> (Berlin, 1868), pp. 1-6.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_834" name="note_834" + href="#noteref_834">834.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. Mannhardt, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Roggenwolf und + Roggenhund</span></span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "vertical-align: super">2</span></span> (Danzig, 1866), pp. 6 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>; <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">id.</span></span>, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Antike + Wald- und Feldkulte</span></span> (Berlin, 1877), pp. 318 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">id.</span></span>, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Mythologische Forschungen</span></span>, p. + 103; A. Witzchel, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Sagen, Sitten und Gebräuche aus + Thüringen</span></span> (Vienna, 1878), p. 213; O. Hartung, + <span class="tei tei-q">“Zur Volkskunde aus Anhalt,”</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Zeitschrift des Vereins für + Volkskunde</span></span>, vii. (1897) p. 150; W. Müller, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Beiträge + zur Volkskunde der Deutschen in Mähren</span></span> (Vienna and + Olmütz, 1893), p. 327; P. Drechsler, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Sitte, Brauch und + Volksglaube in Schlesien</span></span> (Leipsic, 1903-1906), ii, + 60.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_835" name="note_835" + href="#noteref_835">835.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. Mannhardt, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Roggenwolf und + Roggenhund</span></span>,<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "vertical-align: super">2</span></span> pp. 10 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>; + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">id.</span></span>, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Antike Wald- und + Feldkulte</span></span>, p. 319.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_836" name="note_836" + href="#noteref_836">836.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. Mannhardt, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Roggenwolf und + Roggenhund</span></span>,<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "vertical-align: super">2</span></span> pp. 14 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_837" name="note_837" + href="#noteref_837">837.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. Mannhardt, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Mythologische + Forschungen</span></span>, p. 104; P. Drechsler, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Sitte, Brauch und + Volksglaube in Schlesien</span></span>, ii. 64.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_838" name="note_838" + href="#noteref_838">838.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. Mannhardt, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Mythologische + Forschungen</span></span>, p. 104.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_839" name="note_839" + href="#noteref_839">839.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Ibid.</span></span> pp. 104 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span> On + the Harvest-May, see <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">The Magic Art and the Evolution of + Kings</span></span>, ii. 47 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_840" name="note_840" + href="#noteref_840">840.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">L. F. Sauvé, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Folk-lore des + Hautes-Vosges</span></span> (Paris, 1889), p. 191.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_841" name="note_841" + href="#noteref_841">841.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. Mannhardt, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Mythologische + Forschungen</span></span>, p. 105.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_842" name="note_842" + href="#noteref_842">842.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Ibid.</span></span> p. 30.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_843" name="note_843" + href="#noteref_843">843.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Ibid.</span></span> pp. 30, 105.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_844" name="note_844" + href="#noteref_844">844.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Ibid.</span></span> pp. 105 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_845" name="note_845" + href="#noteref_845">845.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">P. Drechsler, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Sitte, Brauch und + Volksglaube in Schlesien</span></span> (Leipsic, 1903-1906), ii. + 64.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_846" name="note_846" + href="#noteref_846">846.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. Mannhardt, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Roggenwolf und + Roggenhund</span></span>,<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "vertical-align: super">2</span></span> pp. 33, 39; K. Bartsch, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Sagen, + Märchen und Gebräuche aus Meklenburg</span></span> (Vienna, + 1879-1880), ii. p. 309, § 1496, p. 310, §§ 1497, 1498.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_847" name="note_847" + href="#noteref_847">847.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. Mannhardt, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Antike Wald- und + Feldkulte</span></span>, p. 320.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_848" name="note_848" + href="#noteref_848">848.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. Mannhardt, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Roggenwolf und + Roggenhund</span></span>,<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "vertical-align: super">2</span></span> p. 33.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_849" name="note_849" + href="#noteref_849">849.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. Mannhardt, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Roggenwolf und + Roggenhund</span></span>,<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "vertical-align: super">2</span></span> pp. 33 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; K. + Bartsch, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">op. cit.</span></span> ii. p. 309, § 1496, p. + 310, §§ 1497, 1500, 1501.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_850" name="note_850" + href="#noteref_850">850.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. Mannhardt, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Roggenwolf und + Roggenhund</span></span>,<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "vertical-align: super">2</span></span> pp. 33, 34.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_851" name="note_851" + href="#noteref_851">851.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. Mannhardt, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Roggenwolf und + Roggenhund</span></span>,<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "vertical-align: super">2</span></span> p. 38; <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">id.</span></span>, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Antike + Wald- und Feldkulte</span></span>, p. 320.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_852" name="note_852" + href="#noteref_852">852.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. Mannhardt, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Roggenwolf und + Roggenhund</span></span>,<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "vertical-align: super">2</span></span> pp. 34 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_853" name="note_853" + href="#noteref_853">853.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">K. Bartsch, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. + cit.</span></span> ii. p. 311, § 1505.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_854" name="note_854" + href="#noteref_854">854.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. Mannhardt, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Roggenwolf und + Roggenhund</span></span>,<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "vertical-align: super">2</span></span> pp. 35-37; K. Bartsch, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. + cit.</span></span> ii. p. 309, § 1496, p. 310, §§ 1499, 1501, p. + 311, §§ 1506, 1507.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_855" name="note_855" + href="#noteref_855">855.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. Mannhardt, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Antike Wald- und + Feldkulte</span></span>, p. 321.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_856" name="note_856" + href="#noteref_856">856.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Ibid.</span></span> pp. 321 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_857" name="note_857" + href="#noteref_857">857.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Ibid.</span></span> p. 320.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_858" name="note_858" + href="#noteref_858">858.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Ibid.</span></span> pp. 320 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_859" name="note_859" + href="#noteref_859">859.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Ibid.</span></span> p. 322.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_860" name="note_860" + href="#noteref_860">860.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Ibid.</span></span> p. 323.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_861" name="note_861" + href="#noteref_861">861.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. Mannhardt, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Die + Korndämonen</span></span>, p. 13.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_862" name="note_862" + href="#noteref_862">862.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. Mannhardt, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">l.c.</span></span>; + J. H. Schmitz, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Sitten und Sagen, Lieder, Sprüchwörter und + Rathsel des Eifler Volkes</span></span> (Treves, 1856-1858), i. 95; + A. Kuhn und W. Schwartz, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Norddeutsche Sagen, Märchen und + Gebräuche</span></span> (Leipsic, 1848), p. 398.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_863" name="note_863" + href="#noteref_863">863.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">G. A. Heinrich, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Agrarische Sitten und + Gebräuche unter den Sachsen Siebenbürgens</span></span> + (Hermannstadt, 1880), p. 21.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_864" name="note_864" + href="#noteref_864">864.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. Mannhardt, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Die + Korndämonen</span></span>, p. 13. Compare A. Kuhn and W. Schwartz, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">l.c.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_865" name="note_865" + href="#noteref_865">865.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">K. Haupt, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Sagenbuch der + Lausitz</span></span> (Leipsic, 1862-1863), i. p. 232, No. 277 + note.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_866" name="note_866" + href="#noteref_866">866.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. Mannhardt, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Die + Korndämonen</span></span>, p. 13.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_867" name="note_867" + href="#noteref_867">867.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">A. Witzschel, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Sagen, Sitten und + Gebräuche aus Thüringen</span></span> (Vienna, 1878), p. 220.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_868" name="note_868" + href="#noteref_868">868.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. Mannhardt, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Die + Korndämonen</span></span>, pp. 13 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; J. + H. Schmitz, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Sitten und Sagen, Lieder, Sprüchwörter und + Räthsel des Eifler Volkes</span></span> (Treves, 1856-1858), i. 95; + A. Kuhn, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Sagen, Gebräuche und Märchen aus + Westfalen</span></span> (Leipsic, 1859), ii. 180 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; H. + Pfannenschmid, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Germanische Erntefeste</span></span> (Hanover, + 1878), p. 110.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_869" name="note_869" + href="#noteref_869">869.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. Mannhardt, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Die + Korndämonen</span></span>, p. 14; H. Pfannenschmid, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. + cit.</span></span> pp. 111, 419 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_870" name="note_870" + href="#noteref_870">870.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. Mannhardt, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Die + Korndämonen</span></span>, p. 15. So in Shropshire, where the + corn-spirit is conceived in the form of a gander (see above, p. + <a href="#Pg268" class="tei tei-ref">268</a>), the expression for + overthrowing a load at harvest is <span class="tei tei-q">“to lose + the goose,”</span> and the penalty used to be the loss of the goose + at the harvest-supper (C. S. Burne and G. F. Jackson, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Shropshire + Folk-lore</span></span>, London, 1883, p. 375); and in some parts + of England the harvest-supper was called the Harvest Gosling, or + the Inning Goose (J. Brand, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Popular Antiquities</span></span>, ii. 23, 26, + Bohn's edition).</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_871" name="note_871" + href="#noteref_871">871.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. Mannhardt, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Die + Korndämonen</span></span>, p. 14.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_872" name="note_872" + href="#noteref_872">872.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Ibid.</span></span> p. 15.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_873" name="note_873" + href="#noteref_873">873.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. Mannhardt, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Mythologische + Forschungen</span></span>, p. 30.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_874" name="note_874" + href="#noteref_874">874.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. Mannhardt, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Die + Korndämonen</span></span>, p. 15.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_875" name="note_875" + href="#noteref_875">875.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Ibid.</span></span> pp. 15 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_876" name="note_876" + href="#noteref_876">876.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. Mannhardt, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Die + Korndämonen</span></span>, p. 15; <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">id.</span></span>, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Mythologische Forschungen</span></span>, p. + 30.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_877" name="note_877" + href="#noteref_877">877.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. Mannhardt, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Die + Korndämonen</span></span>, p. 1.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_878" name="note_878" + href="#noteref_878">878.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. Gregor, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Preliminary Report on Folklore in Galloway, + Scotland,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Report of the British Association for + 1896</span></span>, p. 623.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_879" name="note_879" + href="#noteref_879">879.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Folk-lore Journal</span></span>, vii. (1889) + pp. 47 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_880" name="note_880" + href="#noteref_880">880.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">L. F. Sauvé, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Folk-lore des + Hautes-Vosges</span></span> (Paris, 1889), p. 191.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_881" name="note_881" + href="#noteref_881">881.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. Mannhardt, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Die + Korndämonen</span></span>, p. 3.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_882" name="note_882" + href="#noteref_882">882.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">O. Hartung, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Zur Volkskunde aus Anhalt,”</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Zeitschrift des + Vereins für Volkskunde</span></span>, vii. (1897) p. 154.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_883" name="note_883" + href="#noteref_883">883.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">C. Lemke, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Volksthümliches in + Ostpreussen</span></span> (Mohrungen, 1884-1887), i. 24.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_884" name="note_884" + href="#noteref_884">884.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">G. A. Heinrich, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Agrarische Sitten und + Gebräuche unter den Sachsen Siebenbürgens</span></span> + (Hermannstadt, 1880), p. 21.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_885" name="note_885" + href="#noteref_885">885.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Above, p. <a href="#Pg268" class= + "tei tei-ref">268</a>.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_886" name="note_886" + href="#noteref_886">886.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. Mannhardt, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Mythologische + Forschungen</span></span>, p. 29.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_887" name="note_887" + href="#noteref_887">887.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. Mannhardt, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Mythologische + Forschungen</span></span>, pp. 29 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">id.</span></span>, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Die + Korndämonen</span></span>, p. 5.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_888" name="note_888" + href="#noteref_888">888.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Georgeakis et Pineau, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Folk-lore de + Lesbos</span></span> (Paris, 1894), p. 310.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_889" name="note_889" + href="#noteref_889">889.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. Mannhardt, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Antike Wald- und + Feldkulte</span></span>, pp. 172-174; <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">id.</span></span>, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Mythologische Forschungen</span></span>, p. + 30; P. Drechsler, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Sitte, Brauch und Volksglaube in + Schlesien</span></span> (Leipsic, 1903-1906), ii. 64, 65.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_890" name="note_890" + href="#noteref_890">890.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">L. F. Sauvé, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Le Folk-lore des + Hautes-Vosges</span></span> (Paris, 1889), p. 191.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_891" name="note_891" + href="#noteref_891">891.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ch. Beauquier, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Les Mois en + Franche-Comté</span></span> (Paris, 1900), p. 102.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_892" name="note_892" + href="#noteref_892">892.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. Mannhardt, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Antike Wald- und + Feldkulte</span></span>, pp. 155 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_893" name="note_893" + href="#noteref_893">893.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Ibid.</span></span> pp. 157 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_894" name="note_894" + href="#noteref_894">894.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Ibid.</span></span> p. 159.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_895" name="note_895" + href="#noteref_895">895.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Ibid.</span></span> pp. 161 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_896" name="note_896" + href="#noteref_896">896.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Ibid.</span></span> p. 162.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_897" name="note_897" + href="#noteref_897">897.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">F. Panzer, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Beitrag zur deutschen + Mythologie</span></span> (Munich, 1848-1855), ii. pp. 232 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, § 426; W. Mannhardt, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Antike + Wald- und Feldkulte</span></span>, p. 162.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_898" name="note_898" + href="#noteref_898">898.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">F. Panzer, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. + cit.</span></span> ii. pp. 228 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, § + 422; W. Mannhardt, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Antike Wald- und Feldkulte</span></span>, p. + 163; <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Bavaria, Landes- und Volkskunde des + Königreichs Bayern</span></span>, iii. (Munich, 1865) p. 344.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_899" name="note_899" + href="#noteref_899">899.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. Mannhardt, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Antike Wald- und + Feldkulte</span></span>, p. 163.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_900" name="note_900" + href="#noteref_900">900.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">E. H. Meyer, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Badisches + Volksleben</span></span> (Strasburg, 1900), p. 428.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_901" name="note_901" + href="#noteref_901">901.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. Mannhardt, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Antike Wald- und + Feldkulte</span></span>, p. 164.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_902" name="note_902" + href="#noteref_902">902.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Ibid.</span></span> p. 164.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_903" name="note_903" + href="#noteref_903">903.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">E. H. Meyer, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Badisches + Volksleben</span></span> (Strasburg, 1900), p. 428.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_904" name="note_904" + href="#noteref_904">904.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. Mannhardt, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Antike Wald- und + Feldkulte</span></span>, pp. 164 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_905" name="note_905" + href="#noteref_905">905.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Ibid.</span></span> p. 165.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_906" name="note_906" + href="#noteref_906">906.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. Brand, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Popular + Antiquities</span></span>, ii. 24, Bohn's edition, quoting + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The + Gentleman's Magazine</span></span> for February, 1795, p. 124; W. + Mannhardt, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">op. cit.</span></span> p. 165.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_907" name="note_907" + href="#noteref_907">907.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">R. C. Maclagan, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Notes on folk-lore objects collected in + Argyleshire,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Folk-lore</span></span>, vi. (1895) p. 151, + from information given by Mrs. C. Nicholson.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_908" name="note_908" + href="#noteref_908">908.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Above, p. <a href="#Pg232" class= + "tei tei-ref">232</a>.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_909" name="note_909" + href="#noteref_909">909.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. Mannhardt, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Antike Wald- und + Feldkulte</span></span>, p. 165.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_910" name="note_910" + href="#noteref_910">910.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. Mannhardt, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. + cit.</span></span> p. 166; <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">id.</span></span>, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Mythologische + Forschungen</span></span>, p. 185.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_911" name="note_911" + href="#noteref_911">911.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. Mannhardt, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Antike Wald- und + Feldkulte</span></span>, p. 166.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_912" name="note_912" + href="#noteref_912">912.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Above, p. <a href="#Pg281" class= + "tei tei-ref">281</a>.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_913" name="note_913" + href="#noteref_913">913.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. B. Holzmayer, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Osiliana,”</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Verhandlungen der + gelehrten Estnischen Gesellschaft zu Dorpat</span></span>, vii. + Heft 2 (Dorpat, 1872), p. 107.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_914" name="note_914" + href="#noteref_914">914.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">G. A. Heinrich, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Agrarische Sitten und + Gebräuche unter den Sachsen Siebenbürgens</span></span> + (Hermannstadt, 1880), p. 19. Compare W. Mannhardt, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Baumkultus</span></span>, pp. 482 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_915" name="note_915" + href="#noteref_915">915.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">E. L. Meyer, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Badisches + Volksleben</span></span> (Strasburg, 1900), p. 436.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_916" name="note_916" + href="#noteref_916">916.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">F. Panzer, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Beitrag zur deutschen + Mythologie</span></span>, ii. pp. 225 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>, § + 421; W. Mannhardt, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Antike Wald- und Feldkulte</span></span>, pp. + 167 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_917" name="note_917" + href="#noteref_917">917.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. Mannhardt, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Antike Wald- und + Feldkulte</span></span>, p. 168.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_918" name="note_918" + href="#noteref_918">918.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">A. John, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Sitte, Brauch und + Volksglaube im deutschen Westböhmen</span></span> (Prague, 1905), + p. 194.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_919" name="note_919" + href="#noteref_919">919.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">E. Meier, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Deutsche Sagen, + Sitten und Gebräuche aus Schwaben</span></span> (Stuttgart, 1852), + p. 445, § 162; W. Mannhardt, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Antike Wald- und Feldkulte</span></span>, p. + 168.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_920" name="note_920" + href="#noteref_920">920.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. Mannhardt, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. + cit.</span></span> p. 169.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_921" name="note_921" + href="#noteref_921">921.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">F. Panzer, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Beitrag zur deutschen + Mythologie</span></span>, ii. pp. 224 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, § + 420; W. Mannhardt, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Antike Wald- und Feldkulte</span></span>, p. + 169.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_922" name="note_922" + href="#noteref_922">922.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. Mannhardt, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. + cit.</span></span> p. 169.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_923" name="note_923" + href="#noteref_923">923.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Ibid.</span></span> p. 170.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_924" name="note_924" + href="#noteref_924">924.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Ibid.</span></span> p. 170. As to the custom + of leaving a little corn on the field for the subsistence of the + corn-spirit, see above, pp. <a href="#Pg231" class= + "tei tei-ref">231</a> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_925" name="note_925" + href="#noteref_925">925.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">M. Praetorius, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Deliciae + Prussicae</span></span> (Berlin, 1871), pp. 23 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; W. + Mannhardt, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Baumkultus</span></span>, pp. 394 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_926" name="note_926" + href="#noteref_926">926.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">A. C. Kruijt, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Eenige ethnografische aanteekeningen omtrent de + Toboengkoe en de Tomori,”</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Mededeelingen van + wege het Nederlandsche Zendelinggenootschap</span></span>, xliv. + (1900) p. 241.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_927" name="note_927" + href="#noteref_927">927.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. Mannhardt, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Mythologische + Forschungen</span></span>, p. 58.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_928" name="note_928" + href="#noteref_928">928.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Ibid.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_929" name="note_929" + href="#noteref_929">929.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Ibid.</span></span> p. 62.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_930" name="note_930" + href="#noteref_930">930.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. Mannhardt, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Mythologische + Forschungen</span></span>, p. 59.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_931" name="note_931" + href="#noteref_931">931.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Above, p. <a href="#Pg275" class= + "tei tei-ref">275</a>.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_932" name="note_932" + href="#noteref_932">932.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. Mannhardt, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. + cit.</span></span> p. 59.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_933" name="note_933" + href="#noteref_933">933.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">E. Meier, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Deutsche Sagen, + Sitten und Gebräuche aus Schwaben</span></span> (Stuttgart, 1852), + pp. 440 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, §§ 151, 152, 153; F. + Panzer, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Beitrag zur deutschen + Mythologie</span></span>, ii. p. 234, § 428; W. Mannhardt, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Mythologische Forschungen</span></span>, p. + 59.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_934" name="note_934" + href="#noteref_934">934.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">F. Panzer, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. + cit.</span></span> ii. p. 233, § 427; W. Mannhardt, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Mythologische + Forschungen</span></span>, p. 59.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_935" name="note_935" + href="#noteref_935">935.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. Mannhardt, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. + cit.</span></span> pp. 59 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_936" name="note_936" + href="#noteref_936">936.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Ibid.</span></span> p. 58.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_937" name="note_937" + href="#noteref_937">937.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. Mannhardt, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Mythologische + Forschungen</span></span>, pp. 58 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_938" name="note_938" + href="#noteref_938">938.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Ibid.</span></span> p. 60.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_939" name="note_939" + href="#noteref_939">939.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">E. Meier, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Deutsche Sagen, + Sitten und Gebräuche aus Schwaben</span></span>, pp. 444 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, § 162; W. Mannhardt, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Mythologische Forschungen</span></span>, p. + 61.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_940" name="note_940" + href="#noteref_940">940.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">F. Panzer, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Beitrag zur deutschen + Mythologie</span></span>, ii. p. 233, § 427.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_941" name="note_941" + href="#noteref_941">941.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. Mannhardt, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Mythologische + Forschungen</span></span>, pp. 61 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_942" name="note_942" + href="#noteref_942">942.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Ibid.</span></span> p. 62.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_943" name="note_943" + href="#noteref_943">943.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Ibid.</span></span> p. 62.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_944" name="note_944" + href="#noteref_944">944.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">E. Meier, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Deutsche Sagen, + Sitten und Gebräuche aus Schwaben</span></span>, pp. 445 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, § 163.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_945" name="note_945" + href="#noteref_945">945.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. Mannhardt, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Mythologische + Forschungen</span></span>, p. 60.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_946" name="note_946" + href="#noteref_946">946.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. Mannhardt, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. + cit.</span></span> p. 62.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_947" name="note_947" + href="#noteref_947">947.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Above, pp. <a href="#Pg150" class= + "tei tei-ref">150</a> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_948" name="note_948" + href="#noteref_948">948.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Laisnel de la Salle, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Croyances et Légendes + du Centre de la France</span></span> (Paris, 1875), ii. 135.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_949" name="note_949" + href="#noteref_949">949.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. Mannhardt, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Mythologische + Forschungen</span></span>, p. 62: <span class= + "tei tei-q">“<span lang="fr" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang= + "fr"><span style="font-style: italic">Il fait le + veau.</span></span>”</span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_950" name="note_950" + href="#noteref_950">950.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Ibid.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_951" name="note_951" + href="#noteref_951">951.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Ibid.</span></span> p. 63.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_952" name="note_952" + href="#noteref_952">952.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Ibid.</span></span> p. 167.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_953" name="note_953" + href="#noteref_953">953.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">E. H. Meyer, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Badisches + Volksleben</span></span> (Strasburg, 1900), p. 428.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_954" name="note_954" + href="#noteref_954">954.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. Brand, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Popular + Antiquities</span></span>, ii. 24, Bohn's edition.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_955" name="note_955" + href="#noteref_955">955.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">C. F. Burne and G. F. Jackson, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Shropshire Folk-lore</span></span> (London, + 1883), pp. 373 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_956" name="note_956" + href="#noteref_956">956.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. Mannhardt, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Mythologische + Forschungen</span></span>, p. 167. We may compare the Scotch custom + of giving the last sheaf to a horse or mare to eat. See above, pp. + <a href="#Pg141" class="tei tei-ref">141</a>, <a href="#Pg156" + class="tei tei-ref">156</a>, <a href="#Pg158" class= + "tei tei-ref">158</a>, <a href="#Pg160" class="tei tei-ref">160</a> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg162" class= + "tei tei-ref">162</a>.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_957" name="note_957" + href="#noteref_957">957.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Laisnel de la Salle, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Croyances et Légendes + du Centre de la France</span></span> (Paris, 1875), ii. 133; W. + Mannhardt, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Mythologische Forschungen</span></span>, pp. + 167 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span> We have seen (above, p. + <a href="#Pg267" class="tei tei-ref">267</a>) that in South + Pembrokeshire the man who cut the <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Neck”</span> used to be <span class= + "tei tei-q">“shod,”</span> that is, to have the soles of his feet + severely beaten with sods. Perhaps he was thus treated as + representing the corn-spirit in the form of a horse.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_958" name="note_958" + href="#noteref_958">958.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">G. A. Heinrich, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Agrarische Sitten und + Gebräuche unter den Sachsen Siebenbürgens</span></span> + (Hermannstadt, 1880), p. 21.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_959" name="note_959" + href="#noteref_959">959.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">A. Peter, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Völksthumliches aus + Österreichisch-Schlesien</span></span> (Troppau, 1865-1867), ii. + 268.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_960" name="note_960" + href="#noteref_960">960.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. Lecoeur, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Esquisses du Bocage + Normand</span></span> (Condé-sur-Noireau, 1883-1887), ii. 240.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_961" name="note_961" + href="#noteref_961">961.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">A. Wuttke, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Der deutsche Volks + aberglaube</span></span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "vertical-align: super">2</span></span> (Berlin, 1869), p. 189, § + 277; Chr. Schneller, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Märchen und Sagen aus + Wälschtirol</span></span> (Innsbruck, 1867), p. 238; Rev. Ch. + Swainson, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">The Folk Lore and Provincial Names of British + Birds</span></span> (London, 1886), p. 173.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_962" name="note_962" + href="#noteref_962">962.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Alfred Newton, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Dictionary of + Birds</span></span>, New Edition (London, 1893-1896), p. 755.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_963" name="note_963" + href="#noteref_963">963.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">A. C. Kruijt, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Eenige ethnografische aanteekeningen omtrent de + Toboengkoe en de Tomori,”</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Mededeelingen van + wege het Nederlandsche Zendelinggenootschap</span></span>, xliv. + (1900) pp. 228, 229; <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">id.</span></span>, <span class="tei tei-q">“De + rijstmoeder in den Indischen Archipel,”</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Verslagen en + Mededeelingen van der koninklijke Akademie van + Wetenschappen</span></span>, Afdeeling Letterkunde, Vierde Reeks, + v., part 3 (Amsterdam, 1903), pp. 374 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_964" name="note_964" + href="#noteref_964">964.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. Mannhardt, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Mythologische + Forschungen</span></span>, p. 109 note 2.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_965" name="note_965" + href="#noteref_965">965.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">L. Pineau, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Folk-lore du + Poitou</span></span> (Paris, 1892), pp. 500 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_966" name="note_966" + href="#noteref_966">966.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. Mannhardt, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Mythologische + Forschungen</span></span>, pp. 109 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, + note 2.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_967" name="note_967" + href="#noteref_967">967.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. F. L. Woeste, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Völksüberlieferungen + in der Grafschaft Mark</span></span> (Iserlohn, 1848), p. 27; W. + Mannhardt, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Mythologische Forschungen</span></span>, p. + 110 note.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_968" name="note_968" + href="#noteref_968">968.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Lafcadio Hearn, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Glimpses of + Unfamiliar Japan</span></span> (London, 1894), ii. 312 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>; + W. G. Aston, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Shinto</span></span> (London, 1905), pp. 162 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span> At the festival of the Roman + corn-goddess Ceres, celebrated on the nineteenth of April, foxes + were allowed to run about with burning torches tied to their tails, + and the custom was explained as a punishment inflicted on foxes + because a fox had once in this way burned down the crops (Ovid, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Fasti</span></span>, iv. 679 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>). + Samson is said to have burned the crops of the Philistines in a + similar fashion (Judges xv. 4 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>). Whether the custom and the + tradition are connected with the idea of the fox as an embodiment + of the corn-spirit is doubtful. Compare W. Mannhardt, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Mythologische + Forschungen</span></span>, pp. 108 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; W. + Warde Fowler, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Roman Festivals of the Period of the + Republic</span></span> (London, 1899), pp. 77-79.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_969" name="note_969" + href="#noteref_969">969.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">A. Witzschel, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Sagen, Sitten und + Gebräuche aus Thüringen</span></span> (Vienna, 1878), p. 213, § 4. + So at Klepzig, in Anhalt (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Zeitschrift des Vereins für + Volkskunde</span></span>, vii. (1897) p. 150).</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_970" name="note_970" + href="#noteref_970">970.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. B. Holzmayer, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Osiliana,”</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Verhandlungen der + gelehrten Estnischen Gesellschaft zu Dorpat</span></span>, vii. + Heft 2 (Dorpat, 1872), p. 107; W. Mannhardt, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Mythologische + Forschungen</span></span>, p. 187.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_971" name="note_971" + href="#noteref_971">971.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">A. Birlinger, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Aus + Schwaben</span></span> (Wiesbaden, 1874), ii. 328.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_972" name="note_972" + href="#noteref_972">972.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">F. Panzer, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Beitrag zur deutschen + Mythologie</span></span> (Munich, 1848-1855), ii. pp. 223, 224, §§ + 417, 419.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_973" name="note_973" + href="#noteref_973">973.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. Mannhardt, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Mythologische + Forschungen</span></span>, p. 112.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_974" name="note_974" + href="#noteref_974">974.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">E. L. Meyer, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Badisches + Volksleben</span></span> (Strasburg, 1900), pp. 428, 436.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_975" name="note_975" + href="#noteref_975">975.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">E. Meier, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Deutsche Sagen, + Sitten und Gebaüche aus Schwaben</span></span> (Stuttgart, 1852), + p. 445, § 162.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_976" name="note_976" + href="#noteref_976">976.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">A. Birlinger, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Volksthümliches aus + Schwaben</span></span> (Freiburg im Breisgau, 1861-1862), ii. p. + 425, § 379.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_977" name="note_977" + href="#noteref_977">977.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">F. Panzer, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Beitrag zur deutschen + Mythologie</span></span>, ii. pp. 221-224, §§ 409, 410, 411, 412, + 413, 414, 415, 418.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_978" name="note_978" + href="#noteref_978">978.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. Mannhardt, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Mythologische + Forschungen</span></span>, pp. 186 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_979" name="note_979" + href="#noteref_979">979.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Above, p. <a href="#Pg272" class= + "tei tei-ref">272</a>; compare <a href="#Pg268" class= + "tei tei-ref">268</a>.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_980" name="note_980" + href="#noteref_980">980.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Above, p. <a href="#Pg298" class= + "tei tei-ref">298</a>.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_981" name="note_981" + href="#noteref_981">981.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. Mannhardt, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. + cit.</span></span> p. 187.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_982" name="note_982" + href="#noteref_982">982.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. Mannhardt, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. + cit.</span></span> pp. 187 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; A. Witzschel, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Sagen, Sitten und + Gebräuche aus Thüringen</span></span>, pp. 189, 218; W. Kolbe, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hessische + Volks-Sitten und Gebräuche</span></span> (Marburg, 1888), p. + 35.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_983" name="note_983" + href="#noteref_983">983.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. Mannhardt, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Mythologische + Forschungen</span></span>, p. 188; W. R. S. Ralston, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Songs of the Russian + People</span></span> (London, 1872), p. 220.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_984" name="note_984" + href="#noteref_984">984.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. Mannhardt, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Antike Wald- und + Feldkulte</span></span>, pp. 197 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; F. + Panzer, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Beitrag zur deutschen + Mythologie</span></span>, ii. 491; J. Jamieson, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Etymological + Dictionary of the Scottish Language</span></span>, New Edition + (Paisley, 1879-1882), vol. iii. pp. 206 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">s.v.</span></span> <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Maiden”</span>; Arv. Aug. Afzelius, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Volkssagen und + Volkslieder aus Schwedens älterer und neuerer Zeit</span></span>, + übersetzt von F. H. Ungewitter (Leipsic, 1842), i. 9.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_985" name="note_985" + href="#noteref_985">985.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Above, p. <a href="#Pg275" class= + "tei tei-ref">275</a>.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_986" name="note_986" + href="#noteref_986">986.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">L. Lloyd, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Peasant Life in + Sweden</span></span> (London, 1870), pp. 169 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, + 182. On Christmas night children sleep on a bed of the Yule straw + (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">ibid.</span></span> p. 177).</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_987" name="note_987" + href="#noteref_987">987.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">U. Jahn, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Die deutschen + Opfergebräuche</span></span> (Breslau, 1884), p. 215. Compare + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Magic + Art and the Evolution of Kings</span></span>, ii. 17, 27 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_988" name="note_988" + href="#noteref_988">988.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">A. A. Afzelius, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. + cit.</span></span> i. 31.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_989" name="note_989" + href="#noteref_989">989.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">A. A. Afzelius, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. + cit.</span></span> i. 9; L. Lloyd, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Peasant Life in + Sweden</span></span>, pp. 181, 185.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_990" name="note_990" + href="#noteref_990">990.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. B. Holzmayer, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Osiliana,”</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Verhandlungen der + gelehrten Estnischen Gesellschaft zu Dorpat</span></span>, vii. + Heft 2 (Dorpat, 1872), pp. 55 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_991" name="note_991" + href="#noteref_991">991.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">F. J. Wiedemann, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Aus dem inneren und + äussern Leben der Ehsten</span></span> (St. Petersburg, 1876), pp. + 344, 485.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_992" name="note_992" + href="#noteref_992">992.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Above, pp. <a href="#Pg277" class= + "tei tei-ref">277</a> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg280" class= + "tei tei-ref">280</a>, <a href="#Pg281" class= + "tei tei-ref">281</a>, <a href="#Pg285" class= + "tei tei-ref">285</a>, <a href="#Pg290" class= + "tei tei-ref">290</a>, <a href="#Pg300" class= + "tei tei-ref">300</a>, <a href="#Pg301" class= + "tei tei-ref">301</a>. In regard to the hare, the substitution of + brandy for hare's blood is probably modern.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_993" name="note_993" + href="#noteref_993">993.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. Mannhardt, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Die + Korndämonen</span></span> (Berlin, 1868), p. 1.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_994" name="note_994" + href="#noteref_994">994.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">R. Andree, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Die Pleiaden im Mythus und in ihrer Beziehung zum + Jahresbeginn und Landbau,”</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Globus</span></span>, + lxiv. (1893) pp. 362-366.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_995" name="note_995" + href="#noteref_995">995.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Mr. McKellar, quoted by the Rev. W. + Ridley, <span class="tei tei-q">“Report on Australian Languages and + Traditions,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Journal of the Anthropological + Institute</span></span>, ii. (1873) p. 279; <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">id.</span></span>, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Kamilaroi</span></span> (Sydney, 1875), p. + 138. Mr. McKellar's evidence was given before a Select Committee of + the Legislative Council of Victoria in 1858; from which we may + perhaps infer that his statement refers especially to the tribes of + Victoria or at all events of south-eastern Australia. It seems to + be a common belief among the aborigines of central and + south-eastern Australia that the Pleiades are women who once lived + on earth but afterwards went up into the sky. See W. E. Stanbridge, + in <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Transactions of the Ethnological Society of + London</span></span>, N.S. i. (1861) p. 302; P. Beveridge, + <span class="tei tei-q">“Of the Aborigines inhabiting the great + Lacustrine and Riverine Depression of the Lower Murray,”</span> + etc., <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Journal and Proceedings of the Royal Society + of New South Wales</span></span>, xvii. (Sydney, 1884) p. 61; + Baldwin Spencer and F. J. Gillen, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Native Tribes of + Central Australia</span></span> (London, 1899), p. 566; + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">id.</span></span>, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Northern Tribes of + Central Australia</span></span> (London, 1904), p. 628; A. W. + Howitt, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Native Tribes of South-East + Australia</span></span> (London, 1904), pp. 429 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span> + Some tribes of Victoria believed that the Pleiades were originally + a queen and six of her attendants, but that the Crow (Waa) fell in + love with the queen and ran away with her, and that since then the + Pleiades have been only six in number. See James Dawson, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Australian Aborigines</span></span> + (Melbourne, Sydney, and Adelaide, 1881), p. 100.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_996" name="note_996" + href="#noteref_996">996.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. Manning, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Notes on the Aborigines of New Holland,”</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Journal + and Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South + Wales</span></span>, xvi. (Sydney, 1883) p. 168.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_997" name="note_997" + href="#noteref_997">997.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">James Dawson, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Australian + Aborigines</span></span>, p. 75.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_998" name="note_998" + href="#noteref_998">998.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">M. Dobrizhoffer, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Historia de + Abiponibus</span></span> (Vienna, 1784), ii. 118.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_999" name="note_999" + href="#noteref_999">999.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">M. Dobrizhoffer, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. + cit.</span></span> ii. 77 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, 101-105.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_1000" name="note_1000" + href="#noteref_1000">1000.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Pedro de Angelis, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Coleccion de Obras y + Documentes relativos a la Historia antigua y moderna de las + Provincias del Rio de la Plata</span></span> (Buenos Ayres, + 1836-1837), iv. 15.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_1001" name="note_1001" + href="#noteref_1001">1001.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">P. Lozano, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Descripcion + chorographico del terreno, rios, arboles, y animales del Gran + Chaco</span></span> (Cordova, 1733). p. 67.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_1002" name="note_1002" + href="#noteref_1002">1002.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. Barbrooke Grubb, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">An Unknown People in + an Unknown Land</span></span> (London, 1911), p. 139.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_1003" name="note_1003" + href="#noteref_1003">1003.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Pedro de Angelis, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. + cit.</span></span> iv. 14.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_1004" name="note_1004" + href="#noteref_1004">1004.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Th. Waitz, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Anthropologie der + Naturvölker</span></span>, iii. (Leipsic, 1862) p. 418, referring + to Marcgrav de Liebstadt, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Hist. rerum naturalium Brasil</span></span>. + (Amsterdam, 1648), viii. 5 and 12.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_1005" name="note_1005" + href="#noteref_1005">1005.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">M. Dobrizhoffer, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Historia de + Abiponibus</span></span>, ii. 104.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_1006" name="note_1006" + href="#noteref_1006">1006.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Th. Koch-Grünberg, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Zwei Jahre unter den + Indianern</span></span> (Berlin, 1909-1910), ii. 203.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_1007" name="note_1007" + href="#noteref_1007">1007.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">C. F. Phil. v. Martius, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Zur Ethnographie + Amerika's, zumal Brasiliens</span></span> (Leipsic, 1867), p. + 441.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_1008" name="note_1008" + href="#noteref_1008">1008.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Carl Teschauer, S.J., <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Mythen und alte Volkssagen aus Brasilien,”</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Anthropos</span></span>, i. (1906) p. + 736.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_1009" name="note_1009" + href="#noteref_1009">1009.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. Gumilla, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Histoire Naturelle et + Civile et Géographique de l'Orenoque</span></span> (Avignon, 1758), + iii. 254 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_1010" name="note_1010" + href="#noteref_1010">1010.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">E. J. Payne, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">History of the New + World called America</span></span>, i. (Oxford, 1892) p. 492.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_1011" name="note_1011" + href="#noteref_1011">1011.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">P. J. de Arriaga, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Extirpacion de la + Idolatria del Piru</span></span> (Lima, 1621), pp. 11, 29 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span> According to Arriaga, the + Peruvian name for the Pleiades is <span class= + "tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Oncoy</span></span>.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_1012" name="note_1012" + href="#noteref_1012">1012.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Garcilasso de la Vega, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">First Part of the + Royal Commentaries of the Yncas</span></span>, translated by (Sir) + Clements R. Markham (London, 1869-1871, Hakluyt Society), i. 275. + Compare J. de Acosta, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Natural and Moral History of the + Indies</span></span> (London, 1880, Hakluyt Society), ii. 304.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_1013" name="note_1013" + href="#noteref_1013">1013.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">E. Seler, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Alt-Mexikanische + Studien</span></span>, ii. (Berlin, 1899) pp. 166 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, + referring to Petrus Martyr, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">De nuper sub D. Carolo repertis + insulis</span></span> (Basileae, 1521), p. 15.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_1014" name="note_1014" + href="#noteref_1014">1014.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">B. de Sahagun, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Histoire Générale des + choses de la Nouvelle Espagne</span></span> (Paris, 1880), pp. 288 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, 489 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span>; + A. de Herrera, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">General History of the Vast Continent and + Islands of America</span></span>, translated by Capt. J. Stevens + (London, 1725-1726), iii. 222; F. S. Clavigero, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">History of + Mexico</span></span>, translated by C. Cullen (London, 1807), i. + 315 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; J. G. Müller, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Geschichte der + amerikanischen Urreligionen</span></span> (Bâle, 1867), pp. 519 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>; H. H. Bancroft, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The + Native Races of the Pacific States of North America</span></span> + (London, 1875-1876), iii. 393-395.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_1015" name="note_1015" + href="#noteref_1015">1015.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Jean l'Heureux, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Ethnological Notes on the Astronomical Customs and + Religious Ideas of the Chokitapia or Blackfeet Indians,”</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Journal + of the Anthropological Institute</span></span>, xv. (1886) pp. + 301-303.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_1016" name="note_1016" + href="#noteref_1016">1016.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Walter McClintock, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Old North + Trail</span></span> (London, 1910), p. 490.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_1017" name="note_1017" + href="#noteref_1017">1017.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. Walter Fewkes, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“The Tusayan New Fire Ceremony,”</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Proceedings of the + Boston Society of Natural History</span></span>, xxvi. (1895) p. + 453.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_1018" name="note_1018" + href="#noteref_1018">1018.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Rev. W. Ellis, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Polynesian + Researches</span></span>, Second Edition (London, 1832-1836), i. + 87.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_1019" name="note_1019" + href="#noteref_1019">1019.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Rev. W. W. Gill, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Myths and Songs from + the South Pacific</span></span> (London, 1876), p. 43.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_1020" name="note_1020" + href="#noteref_1020">1020.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Rev. W. W. Gill, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. + cit.</span></span> p. 317, compare p. 44.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_1021" name="note_1021" + href="#noteref_1021">1021.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">G. Turner, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Samoa</span></span> + (London, 1884), p. 279.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_1022" name="note_1022" + href="#noteref_1022">1022.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">E. Shortland, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Traditions and + Superstitions of the New Zealanders</span></span>, Second Edition + (London, 1856), p. 219.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_1023" name="note_1023" + href="#noteref_1023">1023.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">The United States Exploring Expedition, + Ethnography and Philology</span></span>, by Horatio Hale + (Philadelphia, 1846), p. 170; E. Tregear, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Maori-Polynesian + Comparative Dictionary</span></span> (Wellington, N.Z., 1891), p. + 226.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_1024" name="note_1024" + href="#noteref_1024">1024.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Rev. R. H. Codrington, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The + Melanesians</span></span> (Oxford, 1891), p. 348. In the island of + Florida the Pleiades are called <span class= + "tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">togo ni + samu</span></span>, <span class="tei tei-q">“the company of + maidens”</span> (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">op. cit.</span></span> p. 349).</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_1025" name="note_1025" + href="#noteref_1025">1025.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">H. B. Guppy, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Solomon Islands + and their Natives</span></span> (London, 1887), p. 56.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_1026" name="note_1026" + href="#noteref_1026">1026.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">A. C. Haddon, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Legends from Torres Straits,”</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Folk-lore</span></span>, i. (1890) p. 195. We + may conjecture that the <span class="tei tei-q">“new yam + time”</span> means the time for planting yams.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_1027" name="note_1027" + href="#noteref_1027">1027.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">R. Neuhauss, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Deutsch + Neu-Guinea</span></span> (Berlin, 1911), pp. 159, 431 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_1028" name="note_1028" + href="#noteref_1028">1028.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">A. F. van Spreeuwenberg, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Een blik op de Minahassa,”</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Tijdschrift voor + Neerlands Indië</span></span>, Vierde Deel (Batavia, 1845), p. 316; + J. G. F. Riedel, <span class="tei tei-q">“De landschappen + Holontalo, Limoeto, Bone, Boalemo, en Kattinggola, of + Andagile,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Tijdschrift voor Indische Taal- Land- en + Volkenkunde</span></span>, xix. (1869) p. 140; <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">id.</span></span>, in + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Zeitschrift für Ethnologie</span></span>, iii. + (1871) p. 404.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_1029" name="note_1029" + href="#noteref_1029">1029.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Spenser St. John, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Life in the Forests + of the Far East</span></span>, Second Edition (London, 1863), i. + 214. Compare H. Low, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Sarawak</span></span> (London, 1848), p. + 251.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_1030" name="note_1030" + href="#noteref_1030">1030.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Dr. Charles Hose, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Various Modes of computing the Time for Planting among + the Races of Borneo,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Journal of the Straits Branch of the Royal + Asiatic Society</span></span>, No. 42 (Singapore, 1905), pp. 1 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span> Compare Charles Brooke, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ten Years + in Sarawak</span></span> (London, 1866), i. 59; Rev. J. Perham, + <span class="tei tei-q">“Sea Dyak Religion,”</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Journal of the + Straits Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society</span></span>, No. 10 + (Singapore, 1883), p. 229.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_1031" name="note_1031" + href="#noteref_1031">1031.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Dr. Charles Hose, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">op. + cit.</span></span> p. 4. Compare <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">id.</span></span>, + <span class="tei tei-q">“The Natives of Borneo,”</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Journal + of the Anthropological Institute</span></span>, xxiii. (1894) pp. + 168 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, where the writer tells us + that the Kayans and many other races in Borneo sow the rice when + the Pleiades appear just above the horizon at daybreak, though the + Kayans more usually determine the time for sowing by observation of + the sun. As to the Kayan mode of determining the time for sowing by + the length of shadow cast by an upright pole, see also W. + Kükenthal, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Forschungsreise in den Molukken und in + Borneo</span></span> (Frankfort, 1896), pp. 292 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sq.</span></span> + Some Dyaks employ a species of sun-dial for dating the twelve + months of the year. See H. E. D. Engelhaard, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Aanteekeningen betreffende de Kindjin Dajaks in het + Landschap Baloengan,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Tijdschrift voor Indische Taal- Land- en + Volkenkunde</span></span>, xxxix. (1897) pp. 484-486.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_1032" name="note_1032" + href="#noteref_1032">1032.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">A. W. Nieuwenhuis, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Quer durch + Borneo</span></span> (Leyden, 1904-1907), i. 160.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_1033" name="note_1033" + href="#noteref_1033">1033.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">F. K. Ginzel, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Handbuch der + mathematischen und technischen Chronologie</span></span>, i. + (Leipsic, 1906) p. 424.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_1034" name="note_1034" + href="#noteref_1034">1034.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">R. Friederich, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Voorloopig Verslag van het eiland Bali,”</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Verhandelingen van het Bataviaasch Genootschap + van Kunsten en Wetenschappen</span></span>, xxiii. (1849) p. + 49.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_1035" name="note_1035" + href="#noteref_1035">1035.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">J. T. Nieuwenhuisen en H. C. B. von + Rosenberg, <span class="tei tei-q">“Verslag omtrent het eiland Nias + en deszelfs Bewoners,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Verhandelingen van het Bataviaasch Genootschap + van Kunsten en Wetenschappen</span></span>, xxx. (Batavia, 1863) p. + 119.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_1036" name="note_1036" + href="#noteref_1036">1036.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. Marsden, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">History of + Sumatra</span></span>, Third Edition (London, 1811), p. 71.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_1037" name="note_1037" + href="#noteref_1037">1037.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">F. K. Ginzel, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Handbuch der + mathematischen und technischen Chronologie</span></span>, i. + (Leipsic, 1906) p. 428.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_1038" name="note_1038" + href="#noteref_1038">1038.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">S. Krascheninnikow, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Beschreibung des + Landes Kamtschatka</span></span> (Lemgo, 1766), p. 217. The three + stars are probably the Belt.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_1039" name="note_1039" + href="#noteref_1039">1039.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See above, vol. i. p. <a href="#Pg116" + class="tei tei-ref">116</a>.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_1040" name="note_1040" + href="#noteref_1040">1040.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Rev. J. Macdonald, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Light in + Africa</span></span>, Second Edition (London, 1890), pp. 194 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span> Compare J. Sechefo, + <span class="tei tei-q">“The Twelve Lunar Months among the + Basuto,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Anthropos</span></span>, iv. (1909) p. + 931.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_1041" name="note_1041" + href="#noteref_1041">1041.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">G. McCall Theal, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Records of + South-Eastern Africa</span></span>, vii. (1901) p. 418. Compare G. + Thompson, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Travels and Adventures in Southern + Africa</span></span> (London, 1827), ii. 359.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_1042" name="note_1042" + href="#noteref_1042">1042.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Rev. H. Callaway, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Religious System + of the Amazulu</span></span>, Part iii. (London, etc., 1870), p. + 397.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_1043" name="note_1043" + href="#noteref_1043">1043.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">R. Moffat, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Missionary Labours + and Scenes in Southern Africa</span></span> (London, 1842), pp. 337 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_1044" name="note_1044" + href="#noteref_1044">1044.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Stephen Kay, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Travels and + Researches in Caffraria</span></span> (London, 1833), p. 273.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_1045" name="note_1045" + href="#noteref_1045">1045.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Gustav Fritsch, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Die Eingeborenen + Süd-Afrika's</span></span> (Breslau, 1872). p. 340.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_1046" name="note_1046" + href="#noteref_1046">1046.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Theophilus Hahn, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Tsuni-Goam, the + Supreme Being of the Khoi-Khoi</span></span> (London, 1881), p. 43, + quoting the Moravian missionary George Schmidt, who was sent out to + the Cape of Good Hope in 1737.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_1047" name="note_1047" + href="#noteref_1047">1047.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">H. S. Stannus, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Notes on some Tribes of British Central + Africa,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Journal of the R. Anthropological + Institute</span></span>, xl. (1910) p. 289.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_1048" name="note_1048" + href="#noteref_1048">1048.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">M. Merker, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Die + Masai</span></span> (Berlin, 1894), pp. 155, 198.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_1049" name="note_1049" + href="#noteref_1049">1049.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">May.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_1050" name="note_1050" + href="#noteref_1050">1050.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">June-August.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_1051" name="note_1051" + href="#noteref_1051">1051.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">A. C. Hollis, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The + Masai</span></span> (Oxford, 1905), p. 275, compare p. 333. The + <span class="tei tei-q">“season of showers”</span> seems to be a + name for the dry season (June, July, August), when rain falls only + occasionally; it is thus distinguished from the rainy season of + winter, which begins after the reappearance of the Pleiades in + September.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_1052" name="note_1052" + href="#noteref_1052">1052.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">A. C. Hollis, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The + Masai</span></span>, pp. 275 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_1053" name="note_1053" + href="#noteref_1053">1053.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">A. C. Hollis, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The + Nandi</span></span> (Oxford, 1909), p. 100.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_1054" name="note_1054" + href="#noteref_1054">1054.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">C. W. Hobley, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Further Researches into Kikuyu and Kamba Religious + Beliefs and Customs,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Journal of the Royal Anthropological + Institute</span></span>, xli. (1911) p. 442.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_1055" name="note_1055" + href="#noteref_1055">1055.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Thomas Winterbottom, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">An Account of the + Native Africans in the Neighbourhood of Sierra Leone</span></span> + (London, 1803), p. 48.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_1056" name="note_1056" + href="#noteref_1056">1056.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Hesiod, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Works and + Days</span></span>, 383 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span>, 615 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span> + See above, pp. <a href="#Pg045" class="tei tei-ref">45</a>, + <a href="#Pg048" class="tei tei-ref">48</a>.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_1057" name="note_1057" + href="#noteref_1057">1057.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Aratus, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Phaenomena</span></span>, 264-267; Pliny, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Nat. + Hist.</span></span> ii. 123, 125, xviii. 280, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“<span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang= + "la"><span style="font-style: italic">Vergiliae privatim attinent + ad fructus, ut quarum exortu aestas incipiat, occasu hiems, + semenstri spatio intra se messes vindemiasque et omnium maturitatem + conplexae.</span></span>”</span> Compare L. Ideler, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Handbuch der + mathematischen und technischen Chronologie</span></span> (Berlin, + 1825-1826), i. 241 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span> Pliny dated the rising of + the Pleiades on the 10th of May and their setting on the 11th of + November (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Nat. Hist.</span></span> ii. 123, 125).</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_1058" name="note_1058" + href="#noteref_1058">1058.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Pliny, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Nat. + Hist.</span></span> xviii. 49 and 223.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_1059" name="note_1059" + href="#noteref_1059">1059.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See above, p. <a href="#Pg307" class= + "tei tei-ref">307</a>.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_1060" name="note_1060" + href="#noteref_1060">1060.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Geminus, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Elementa + Astronomiae</span></span>, xvii. 10 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span> If + <span class="tei tei-q">“the sweet influences of the + Pleiades”</span> in the Authorised Version of the English Bible + were an exact translation of the corresponding Hebrew words in Job + xxxviii. 31, we should naturally explain the <span class= + "tei tei-q">“sweet influences”</span> by the belief that the + autumnal setting of the constellation is the cause of rain. But the + rendering of the words is doubtful; it is not even certain that the + constellation referred to is the Pleiades. See the commentaries of + A. B. Davidson and Professor A. S. Peak on the passage. The Revised + English Version translates the words in question <span class= + "tei tei-q">“the cluster of the Pleiades.”</span> Compare H. + Grimme, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Das israelitische Pfingstfest und der + Plejadenkult</span></span> (Paderborn, 1907), pp. 61 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sqq.</span></span></dd> + </dl> + </div> + <hr class="doublepage" /> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> + <div id="pgfooter" class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em"> + <pre class="pre tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> +***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE GOLDEN BOUGH (THIRD EDITION, VOL. 7 OF 12)*** +</pre> + <hr class="doublepage" /> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <a name="rightpageheader67" id="rightpageheader67"></a><a name= + "pgtoc68" id="pgtoc68"></a><a name="pdf69" id="pdf69"></a> + + <h1 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"> + <span style="font-size: 173%">Credits</span></h1> + + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <tbody> + <tr> + <th class="tei tei-label tei-label-gloss">February 10, + 2013 </th> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="tei tei-item tei-item-gloss"> + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list" + style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <tbody> + <tr class="tei tei-labelitem"> + <th class="tei tei-label"></th> + + <td class="tei tei-item">Project Gutenberg TEI + edition 1</td> + </tr> + + <tr class="tei tei-labelitem"> + <th class="tei tei-label"></th> + + <td class="tei tei-item"><span class= + "tei tei-respStmt"><span class= + "tei tei-name">Produced by David Edwards, David + King, and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team + at <http://www.pgdp.net/>. 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