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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Golden Bough (Third Edition, Vol. 7 of
+12) by James George Frazer
+
+
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with almost no
+restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under
+the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or
+online at http://www.gutenberg.org/license
+
+
+
+Title: The Golden Bough (Third Edition, Vol. 7 of 12)
+
+Author: James George Frazer
+
+Release Date: February 10, 2013 [Ebook #42067]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: US-ASCII
+
+
+***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE GOLDEN BOUGH (THIRD EDITION, VOL. 7 OF 12)***
+
+
+
+
+
+                             The Golden Bough
+
+                      A Study in Magic and Religion
+
+                                    By
+
+               James George Frazer, D.C.L., LL.D., Litt.D.
+
+                   Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge
+
+     Professor of Social Anthropology in the University of Liverpool
+
+                            Vol. VII. of XII.
+
+               Part V: Spirits of the Corn and of the Wild.
+
+                               Vol. 1 of 2.
+
+                           New York and London
+
+                            MacMillan and Co.
+
+                                   1912
+
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+Preface.
+Chapter I. Dionysus.
+Chapter II. Demeter And Persephone.
+Chapter III. Magical Significance of Games in Primitive Agriculture.
+Chapter IV. Woman's Part in Primitive Agriculture.
+Chapter V. The Corn-Mother and the Corn-Maiden in Northern Europe.
+Chapter VI. The Corn-Mother in Many Lands.
+   § 1. The Corn-mother in America.
+   § 2. The Mother-cotton in the Punjaub.
+   § 3. The Barley Bride among the Berbers.
+   § 4. The Rice-mother in the East Indies.
+   § 5. The Spirit of the Corn embodied in Human Beings.
+   § 6. The Double Personification of the Corn as Mother and Daughter.
+Chapter VII. Lityerses.
+   § 1. Songs of the Corn Reapers.
+   § 2. Killing the Corn-spirit.
+   § 3. Human Sacrifices for the Crops.
+   § 4. The Corn-spirit slain in his Human Representatives.
+Chapter VIII. The Corn-Spirit as an Animal.
+   § 1. Animal Embodiments of the Corn-spirit.
+   § 2. The Corn-spirit as a Wolf or a Dog.
+   § 3. The Corn-spirit as a Cock.
+   § 4. The Corn-spirit as a Hare.
+   § 5. The Corn-spirit as a Cat.
+   § 6. The Corn-spirit as a Goat.
+   § 7. The Corn-spirit as a Bull, Cow, or Ox.
+   § 8. The Corn-spirit as a Horse or Mare.
+   § 9. The Corn-spirit as a Bird.
+   § 10. The Corn-spirit as a Fox.
+   § 11. The Corn-spirit as a Pig (Boar or Sow).
+   § 12. On the Animal Embodiments of the Corn-spirit.
+Note. The Pleiades in Primitive Calendars.
+Footnotes
+
+
+
+
+
+
+                               [Cover Art]
+
+[Transcriber's Note: The above cover image was produced by the submitter
+at Distributed Proofreaders, and is being placed into the public domain.]
+
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE.
+
+
+In the last part of this work we examined the figure of the Dying and
+Reviving God as it appears in the Oriental religions of classical
+antiquity. With the present instalment of _The Golden Bough_ we pursue the
+same theme in other religions and among other races. Passing from the East
+to Europe we begin with the religion of ancient Greece, which embodies the
+now familiar conception in two typical examples, the vine-god Dionysus and
+the corn-goddess Persephone, with her mother and duplicate Demeter. Both
+of these Greek divinities are personifications of cultivated plants, and a
+consideration of them naturally leads us on to investigate similar
+personifications elsewhere. Now of all the plants which men have
+artificially reared for the sake of food the cereals are on the whole the
+most important; therefore it is natural that the religion of primitive
+agricultural communities should be deeply coloured by the principal
+occupation of their lives, the care of the corn. Hence the frequency with
+which the figures of the Corn-mother and Corn-maiden, answering to the
+Demeter and Persephone of ancient Greece, meet us in other parts of the
+world, and not least of all on the harvest-fields of modern Europe. But
+edible roots as well as cereals have been cultivated by many races,
+especially in the tropical regions, as a subsidiary or even as a principal
+means of subsistence; and accordingly they too enter largely into the
+religious ideas of the peoples who live by them. Yet in the case of the
+roots, such as yams, taro, and potatoes, the conception of the Dying and
+Reviving God appears to figure less prominently than in the case of the
+cereals, perhaps for the simple reason that while the growth and decay of
+the one sort of fruit go on above ground for all to see, the similar
+processes of the other are hidden under ground and therefore strike the
+popular imagination less forcibly.
+
+Having surveyed the variations of our main theme among the agricultural
+races of mankind, we prosecute the enquiry among savages who remain more
+or less completely in the hunting, fishing, and pastoral stages of
+society. The same motive which leads the primitive husbandman to adore the
+corn or the roots, induces the primitive hunter, fowler, fisher, or
+herdsman to adore the beasts, birds, or fishes which furnish him with the
+means of subsistence. To him the conception of the death of these
+worshipful beings is naturally presented with singular force and
+distinctness; since it is no figurative or allegorical death, no poetical
+embroidery thrown over the skeleton, but the real death, the naked
+skeleton, that constantly thrusts itself importunately on his attention.
+And strange as it may seem to us civilised men, the notion of the
+immortality and even of the resurrection of the lower animals appears to
+be almost as familiar to the savage and to be accepted by him with nearly
+as unwavering a faith as the obvious fact of their death and destruction.
+For the most part he assumes as a matter of course that the souls of dead
+animals survive their decease; hence much of the thought of the savage
+hunter is devoted to the problem of how he can best appease the naturally
+incensed ghosts of his victims so as to prevent them from doing him a
+mischief. This refusal of the savage to recognise in death a final
+cessation of the vital process, this unquestioning faith in the unbroken
+continuity of all life, is a fact that has not yet received the attention
+which it seems to merit from enquirers into the constitution of the human
+mind as well as into the history of religion. In the following pages I
+have collected examples of this curious faith; I must leave it to others
+to appraise them.
+
+Thus on the whole we are concerned in these volumes with the reverence or
+worship paid by men to the natural resources from which they draw their
+nutriment, both vegetable and animal. That they should invest these
+resources with an atmosphere of wonder and awe, often indeed with a halo
+of divinity, is no matter for surprise. The circle of human knowledge,
+illuminated by the pale cold light of reason, is so infinitesimally small,
+the dark regions of human ignorance which lie beyond that luminous ring
+are so immeasurably vast, that imagination is fain to step up to the
+border line and send the warm, richly coloured beams of her fairy lantern
+streaming out into the darkness; and so, peering into the gloom, she is
+apt to mistake the shadowy reflections of her own figure for real beings
+moving in the abyss. In short, few men are sensible of the sharp line that
+divides the known from the unknown; to most men it is a hazy borderland
+where perception and conception melt indissolubly into one. Hence to the
+savage the ghosts of dead animals and men, with which his imagination
+peoples the void, are hardly less real than the solid shapes which the
+living animals and men present to his senses; and his thoughts and
+activities are nearly as much absorbed by the one as by the other. Of him
+it may be said with perhaps even greater truth than of his civilised
+brother, "What shadows we are, and what shadows we pursue!"
+
+But having said so much in this book of the misty glory which the human
+imagination sheds round the hard material realities of the food supply, I
+am unwilling to leave my readers under the impression, natural but
+erroneous, that man has created most of his gods out of his belly. That is
+not so, at least that is not my reading of the history of religion. Among
+the visible, tangible, perceptible elements by which he is surrounded--and
+it is only of these that I presume to speak--there are others than the
+merely nutritious which have exerted a powerful influence in touching his
+imagination and stimulating his energies, and so have contributed to build
+up the complex fabric of religion. To the preservation of the species the
+reproductive faculties are no less essential than the nutritive; and with
+them we enter on a very different sphere of thought and feeling, to wit,
+the relation of the sexes to each other, with all the depths of tenderness
+and all the intricate problems which that mysterious relation involves.
+The study of the various forms, some gross and palpable, some subtle and
+elusive, in which the sexual instinct has moulded the religious
+consciousness of our race, is one of the most interesting, as it is one of
+the most difficult and delicate tasks, which await the future historian of
+religion.
+
+But the influence which the sexes exert on each other, intimate and
+profound as it has been and must always be, is far indeed from exhausting
+the forces of attraction by which mankind are bound together in society.
+The need of mutual protection, the economic advantages of co-operation,
+the contagion of example, the communication of knowledge, the great ideas
+that radiate from great minds, like shafts of light from high
+towers,--these and many other things combine to draw men into communities,
+to drill them into regiments, and to set them marching on the road of
+progress with a concentrated force to which the loose skirmishers of mere
+anarchy and individualism can never hope to oppose a permanent resistance.
+Hence when we consider how intimately humanity depends on society for many
+of the boons which it prizes most highly, we shall probably admit that of
+all the forces open to our observation which have shaped human destiny the
+influence of man on man is by far the greatest. If that is so, it seems to
+follow that among the beings, real or imaginary, which the religious
+imagination has clothed with the attributes of divinity, human spirits are
+likely to play a more important part than the spirits of plants, animals,
+or inanimate objects. I believe that a careful examination of the
+evidence, which has still to be undertaken, will confirm this conclusion;
+and that if we could strictly interrogate the phantoms which the human
+mind has conjured up out of the depths of its bottomless ignorance and
+enshrined as deities in the dim light of temples, we should find that the
+majority of them have been nothing but the ghosts of dead men. However, to
+say this is necessarily to anticipate the result of future research; and
+if in saying it I have ventured to make a prediction, which like all
+predictions is liable to be falsified by the event, I have done so only
+from a fear lest, without some such warning, the numerous facts recorded
+in these volumes might lend themselves to an exaggerated estimate of their
+own importance and hence to a misinterpretation and distortion of history.
+
+J. G. Frazer.
+
+CAMBRIDGE, _4th May 1912_.
+
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I. DIONYSUS.
+
+
+(M1) In the preceding part of this work we saw that in antiquity the
+civilised nations of western Asia and Egypt pictured to themselves the
+changes of the seasons, and particularly the annual growth and decay of
+vegetation, as episodes in the life of gods, whose mournful death and
+happy resurrection they celebrated with dramatic rites of alternate
+lamentation and rejoicing. But if the celebration was in form dramatic, it
+was in substance magical; that is to say, it was intended, on the
+principles of sympathetic magic, to ensure the vernal regeneration of
+plants and the multiplication of animals, which had seemed to be menaced
+by the inroads of winter. In the ancient world, however, such ideas and
+such rites were by no means confined to the Oriental peoples of Babylon
+and Syria, of Phrygia and Egypt; they were not a product peculiar to the
+religious mysticism of the dreamy East, but were shared by the races of
+livelier fancy and more mercurial temperament who inhabited the shores and
+islands of the Aegean. We need not, with some enquirers in ancient and
+modern times, suppose that these Western peoples borrowed from the older
+civilisation of the Orient the conception of the Dying and Reviving God,
+together with the solemn ritual, in which that conception was dramatically
+set forth before the eyes of the worshippers. More probably the
+resemblance which may be traced in this respect between the religions of
+the East and the West is no more than what we commonly, though
+incorrectly, call a fortuitous coincidence, the effect of similar causes
+acting alike on the similar constitution of the human mind in different
+countries and under different skies. The Greek had no need to journey into
+far countries to learn the vicissitudes of the seasons, to mark the
+fleeting beauty of the damask rose, the transient glory of the golden
+corn, the passing splendour of the purple grapes. Year by year in his own
+beautiful land he beheld, with natural regret, the bright pomp of summer
+fading into the gloom and stagnation of winter, and year by year he hailed
+with natural delight the outburst of fresh life in spring. Accustomed to
+personify the forces of nature, to tinge her cold abstractions with the
+warm hues of imagination, to clothe her naked realities with the gorgeous
+drapery of a mythic fancy, he fashioned for himself a train of gods and
+goddesses, of spirits and elves, out of the shifting panorama of the
+seasons, and followed the annual fluctuations of their fortunes with
+alternate emotions of cheerfulness and dejection, of gladness and sorrow,
+which found their natural expression in alternate rites of rejoicing and
+lamentation, of revelry and mourning. A consideration of some of the Greek
+divinities who thus died and rose again from the dead may furnish us with
+a series of companion pictures to set side by side with the sad figures of
+Adonis, Attis, and Osiris. We begin with Dionysus.
+
+(M2) The god Dionysus or Bacchus is best known to us as a personification
+of the vine and of the exhilaration produced by the juice of the grape.(1)
+His ecstatic worship, characterised by wild dances, thrilling music, and
+tipsy excess, appears to have originated among the rude tribes of Thrace,
+who were notoriously addicted to drunkenness.(2) Its mystic doctrines and
+extravagant rites were essentially foreign to the clear intelligence and
+sober temperament of the Greek race. Yet appealing as it did to that love
+of mystery and that proneness to revert to savagery which seem to be
+innate in most men, the religion spread like wildfire through Greece until
+the god whom Homer hardly deigned to notice had become the most popular
+figure of the pantheon. The resemblance which his story and his ceremonies
+present to those of Osiris have led some enquirers both in ancient and
+modern times to hold that Dionysus was merely a disguised Osiris, imported
+directly from Egypt into Greece.(3) But the great preponderance of
+evidence points to his Thracian origin, and the similarity of the two
+worships is sufficiently explained by the similarity of the ideas and
+customs on which they were founded.
+
+(M3) While the vine with its clusters was the most characteristic
+manifestation of Dionysus, he was also a god of trees in general. Thus we
+are told that almost all the Greeks sacrificed to "Dionysus of the
+tree."(4) In Boeotia one of his titles was "Dionysus in the tree."(5) His
+image was often merely an upright post, without arms, but draped in a
+mantle, with a bearded mask to represent the head, and with leafy boughs
+projecting from the head or body to shew the nature of the deity.(6) On a
+vase his rude effigy is depicted appearing out of a low tree or bush.(7)
+At Magnesia on the Maeander an image of Dionysus is said to have been
+found in a plane-tree, which had been broken by the wind.(8) He was the
+patron of cultivated trees;(9) prayers were offered to him that he would
+make the trees grow;(10) and he was especially honoured by husbandmen,
+chiefly fruit-growers, who set up an image of him, in the shape of a
+natural tree-stump, in their orchards.(11) He was said to have discovered
+all tree-fruits, amongst which apples and figs are particularly
+mentioned;(12) and he was referred to as "well-fruited," "he of the green
+fruit," and "making the fruit to grow."(13) One of his titles was
+"teeming" or "bursting" (as of sap or blossoms);(14) and there was a
+Flowery Dionysus in Attica and at Patrae in Achaia.(15) The Athenians
+sacrificed to him for the prosperity of the fruits of the land.(16)
+Amongst the trees particularly sacred to him, in addition to the vine, was
+the pine-tree.(17) The Delphic oracle commanded the Corinthians to worship
+a particular pine-tree "equally with the god," so they made two images of
+Dionysus out of it, with red faces and gilt bodies.(18) In art a wand,
+tipped with a pine-cone, is commonly carried by the god or his
+worshippers.(19) Again, the ivy and the fig-tree were especially
+associated with him. In the Attic township of Acharnae there was a
+Dionysus Ivy;(20) at Lacedaemon there was a Fig Dionysus; and in Naxos,
+where figs were called _meilicha_, there was a Dionysus Meilichios, the
+face of whose image was made of fig-wood.(21)
+
+(M4) Further, there are indications, few but significant, that Dionysus
+was conceived as a deity of agriculture and the corn. He is spoken of as
+himself doing the work of a husbandman:(22) he is reported to have been
+the first to yoke oxen to the plough, which before had been dragged by
+hand alone; and some people found in this tradition the clue to the bovine
+shape in which, as we shall see, the god was often supposed to present
+himself to his worshippers. Thus guiding the ploughshare and scattering
+the seed as he went, Dionysus is said to have eased the labour of the
+husbandman.(23) Further, we are told that in the land of the Bisaltae, a
+Thracian tribe, there was a great and fair sanctuary of Dionysus, where at
+his festival a bright light shone forth at night as a token of an abundant
+harvest vouchsafed by the deity; but if the crops were to fail that year,
+the mystic light was not seen, darkness brooded over the sanctuary as at
+other times.(24) Moreover, among the emblems of Dionysus was the
+winnowing-fan, that is the large open shovel-shaped basket, which down to
+modern times has been used by farmers to separate the grain from the chaff
+by tossing the corn in the air. This simple agricultural instrument
+figured in the mystic rites of Dionysus; indeed the god is traditionally
+said to have been placed at birth in a winnowing-fan as in a cradle: in
+art he is represented as an infant so cradled; and from these traditions
+and representations he derived the epithet of _Liknites_, that is, "He of
+the Winnowing-fan."(25)
+
+(M5) At first sight this symbolism might be explained very simply and
+naturally by supposing that the divine infant cradled in the winnowing-fan
+was identified with the corn which it is the function of the instrument to
+winnow and sift. Yet against this identification it may be urged with
+reason that the use of a winnowing-fan as a cradle was not peculiar to
+Dionysus; it was a regular practice with the ancient Greeks to place their
+infants in winnowing-fans as an omen of wealth and fertility for the
+future life of the children.(26) Customs of the same sort have been
+observed, apparently for similar reasons, by other peoples in other lands.
+For example, in Java it is or used to be customary to place every child at
+birth in a bamboo basket like the sieve or winnowing-basket which Javanese
+farmers use for separating the rice from the chaff.(27) It is the midwife
+who places the child in the basket, and as she does so she suddenly knocks
+with the palms of both hands on the basket in order that the child may not
+be timid and fearful. Then she addresses the child thus: "Cry not, for
+Njai-among and Kaki-among" (two spirits) "are watching over you." Next she
+addresses these two spirits, saying, "Bring not your grandchild to the
+road, lest he be trampled by a horse; bring him not to the bank of the
+river, lest he fall into the river." The object of the ceremony is said to
+be that these two spirits should always and everywhere guard the
+child.(28) On the first anniversary of a child's birthday the Chinese of
+Foo-Chow set the little one in a large bamboo sieve, such as farmers
+employ in winnowing grain, and in the sieve they place along with the
+child a variety of articles, such as fruits, gold or silver ornaments, a
+set of money-scales, books, a pencil, pen, ink, paper, and so on, and they
+draw omens of the child's future career from the object which it first
+handles and plays with. Thus, if the infant first grasps the money-scale,
+he will be wealthy; if he seizes on a book, he will be learned, and so
+forth.(29) In the Bilaspore district of India it is customary for
+well-to-do people to place a newborn infant in a winnowing-fan filled with
+rice and afterwards to give the grain to the nurse in attendance.(30) In
+Upper Egypt a newly-born babe is immediately laid upon a corn-sieve and
+corn is scattered around it; moreover, on the seventh day after birth the
+infant is carried on a sieve through the whole house, while the midwife
+scatters wheat, barley, pease and salt. The intention of these ceremonies
+is said to be to avert evil spirits from the child,(31) and a like motive
+is assigned by other peoples for the practice of placing newborn infants
+in a winnowing-basket or corn-sieve. For example, in the Punjaub, when
+several children of a family have died in succession, a new baby will
+sometimes be put at birth into an old winnowing-basket (_chhaj_) along
+with the sweepings of the house, and so dragged out into the yard; such a
+child may, like Dionysus, in after life be known by the name of
+Winnowing-basket (_Chhajju_) or Dragged (_Ghasita_).(32) The object of
+treating the child in this way seems to be to save its life by deceiving
+the spirits, who are supposed to have carried off its elder brothers and
+sisters; these malevolent beings are on the look-out for the new baby, but
+they will never think of raking for it in the dust-bin, that being the
+last place where they would expect to find the hope of the family. The
+same may perhaps be the intention of a ceremony observed by the Gaolis of
+the Deccan. As soon as a child is born, it is bathed and then placed on a
+sieve for a few minutes. On the fifth day the sieve, with a lime and _pan_
+leaves on it, is removed outside the house and then, after the worship of
+Chetti has been performed, the sieve is thrown away on the road.(33)
+Again, the same notion of rescuing the child from dangerous spirits comes
+out very clearly in a similar custom observed by the natives of Laos, a
+province of Siam. These people "believe that an infant is the child, not
+of its parents, but of the spirits, and in this belief they go through the
+following formalities. As soon as an infant is born it is bathed and
+dressed, laid upon a rice-sieve, and placed--by the grandmother if present,
+if not, by the next near female relative--at the head of the stairs or of
+the ladder leading to the house. The person performing this duty calls out
+in a loud tone to the spirits to come and take the child away to-day, or
+for ever after to let it alone; at the same moment she stamps violently on
+the floor to frighten the child, or give it a jerk, and make it cry. If it
+does not cry this is regarded as an evil omen. If, on the other hand, it
+follows the ordinary laws of nature and begins to exercise its vocal
+organs, it is supposed to have a happy and prosperous life before it.
+Sometimes the spirits do come and take the infant away, _i.e._ it dies
+before it is twenty-four hours old, but, to prevent such a calamity,
+strings are tied round its wrists on the first night after its birth, and
+if it sickens or is feeble the spirit-doctors are called in to prescribe
+certain offerings to be made to keep away the very spirits who, only a few
+hours previously, were ceremoniously called upon to come and carry the
+child off. On the day after its birth the child is regarded as being the
+property no longer of the spirits, who could have taken it if they had
+wanted it, but of the parents, who forthwith sell it to some relation for
+a nominal sum--an eighth or a quarter of a rupee perhaps. This again is a
+further guarantee against molestation by the spirits, who apparently are
+regarded as honest folk that would not stoop to take what has been bought
+and paid for."(34)
+
+(M6) A like intention of averting evil in some shape from a child is
+assigned in other cases of the same custom. Thus in Travancore, "if an
+infant is observed to distort its limbs as if in pain, it is supposed to
+be under the pressure of some one who has stooped over it, to relieve
+which the mother places it with a nut-cracker on a winnowing fan and
+shakes it three or four times."(35) Again, among the Tanala people of
+Madagascar almost all children born in the unlucky month of Faosa are
+buried alive in the forest. But if the parents resolve to let the child
+live, they must call in the aid of a diviner, who performs a ceremony for
+averting the threatened ill-luck. The child is placed in a winnowing-fan
+along with certain herbs. Further, the diviner takes herbs of the same
+sort, a worn-out spade, and an axe, fastens them to the father's spear,
+and sets the spear up in the ground. Then the child is bathed in water
+which has been medicated with some of the same herbs. Finally the diviner
+says: "The worn-out spade to the grandchild; may it (the child) not
+despoil its father, may it not despoil its mother, may it not despoil the
+children; let it be good." This ceremony, we are told, "puts an end to the
+child's evil days, and the father gets the spear to put away all evil. The
+child then joins its father and mother; its evil days are averted, and the
+water and the other things are buried, for they account them evil."(36)
+Similarly the ancient Greeks used to bury, or throw into the sea, or
+deposit at cross-roads, the things that had been used in ceremonies of
+purification, no doubt because the things were supposed to be tainted by
+the evil which had been transferred to them in the rites.(37) Another
+example of the use of a winnowing-fan in what may be called a purificatory
+ceremony is furnished by the practice of the Chinese of Foo-Chow. A lad
+who is suffering from small-pox is made to squat in a large winnowing
+sieve. On his head is placed a piece of red cloth, and on the cloth are
+laid some parched beans, which are then allowed to roll off. As the name
+for beans, pronounced in the local dialect, is identical with the common
+name for small-pox, and as moreover the scars left by the pustules are
+thought to resemble beans, it appears to be imagined that just as the
+beans roll off the boy's head, so will the pustules vanish from his body
+without leaving a trace behind.(38) Thus the cure depends on the principle
+of homoeopathic magic. Perhaps on the same principle a winnowing-fan is
+employed in the ceremony from a notion that it will help to waft or fan
+away the disease like chaff from the grain. We may compare a purificatory
+ceremony observed by the Karens of Burma at the naming of a new-born
+child. Amongst these people "children are supposed to come into the world
+defiled, and unless that defilement is removed, they will be unfortunate,
+and unsuccessful in their undertakings. An Elder takes a thin splint of
+bamboo, and, tying a noose at one end, he fans it down the child's arm,
+saying:
+
+
+    '_Fan away ill luck, fan away ill success:_
+    _Fan away inability, fan away unskilfulness:_
+    _Fan away slow growth, fan away difficulty of growth:_
+    _Fan away stuntedness, fan away puniness:_
+    _Fan away drowsiness, fan away stupidity:_
+    _Fan away debasedness, fan away wretchedness:_
+            _Fan away the whole completely._'
+
+
+"The Elder now changes his motion and fans up the child's arm, saying:
+
+
+    '_Fan on power, fan on influence:_
+    _Fan on the paddy bin, fan on the paddy barn:_
+    _Fan on followers, fan on dependants:_
+    _Fan on good things, fan on appropriate things._' "(39)
+
+
+(M7) Thus in some of the foregoing instances the employment of the
+winnowing-fan may have been suggested by the proper use of the implement
+as a means of separating the corn from the chaff, the same operation being
+extended by analogy to rid men of evils of various sorts which would
+otherwise adhere to them like husks to the grain. It was in this way that
+the ancients explained the use of the winnowing-fan in the mysteries.(40)
+But one motive, and perhaps the original one, for setting a newborn child
+in a winnowing-fan and surrounding it with corn was probably the wish to
+communicate to the infant, on the principle of sympathetic magic, the
+fertility and especially the power of growth possessed by the grain. This
+was in substance the explanation which W. Mannhardt gave of the
+custom.(41) He rightly insisted on the analogy which many peoples, and in
+particular the ancient Greeks, have traced between the sowing of seed and
+the begetting of children,(42) and he confirmed his view of the function
+of the winnowing-fan in these ceremonies by aptly comparing a German
+custom of sowing barley or flax seed over weakly and stunted children in
+the belief that this will make them grow with the growth of the barley or
+the flax.(43) An Esthonian mode of accomplishing the same object is to set
+the child in the middle of a plot of ground where a sower is sowing hemp
+and to leave the little one there till the sowing is finished; after that
+they imagine that the child will shoot up in stature like the hemp which
+has just been sown.(44)
+
+(M8) With the foregoing evidence before us of a widespread custom of
+placing newborn children in winnowing-fans we clearly cannot argue that
+Dionysus must necessarily have been a god of the corn because Greek
+tradition and Greek art represent him as an infant cradled in a
+winnowing-fan. The argument would prove too much, for it would apply
+equally to all the infants that have been so cradled in all parts of the
+world. We cannot even press the argument drawn from the surname "He of the
+Winnowing-fan" which was borne by Dionysus, since we have seen that
+similar names are borne for similar reasons in India by persons who have
+no claim whatever to be regarded as deities of the corn. Yet when all
+necessary deductions have been made on this score, the association of
+Dionysus with the winnowing-fan appears to be too intimate to be explained
+away as a mere reminiscence of a practice to which every Greek baby,
+whether human or divine, had to submit. That practice would hardly account
+either for the use of the winnowing-fan in the mysteries or for the
+appearance of the implement, filled with fruitage of various kinds, on the
+monuments which set forth the ritual of Dionysus.(45) This last emblem
+points plainly to a conception of the god as a personification of the
+fruits of the earth in general; and as if to emphasise the idea of
+fecundity conveyed by such a symbol there sometimes appears among the
+fruits in the winnowing-fan an effigy of the male organ of generation. The
+prominent place which that effigy occupied in the worship of Dionysus(46)
+hints broadly, if it does not strictly prove, that to the Greek mind the
+god stood for the powers of fertility in general, animal as well as
+vegetable. In the thought of the ancients no sharp line of distinction
+divided the fertility of animals from the fertility of plants; rather the
+two ideas met and blended in a nebulous haze. We need not wonder,
+therefore, that the same coarse but expressive emblem figured
+conspicuously in the ritual of Father Liber, the Italian counterpart of
+Dionysus, who in return for the homage paid to the symbol of his creative
+energy was believed to foster the growth of the crops and to guard the
+fields against the powers of evil.(47)
+
+(M9) Like the other gods of vegetation whom we considered in the last
+volume, Dionysus was believed to have died a violent death, but to have
+been brought to life again; and his sufferings, death, and resurrection
+were enacted in his sacred rites. His tragic story is thus told by the
+poet Nonnus. Zeus in the form of a serpent visited Persephone, and she
+bore him Zagreus, that is, Dionysus, a horned infant. Scarcely was he
+born, when the babe mounted the throne of his father Zeus and mimicked the
+great god by brandishing the lightning in his tiny hand. But he did not
+occupy the throne long; for the treacherous Titans, their faces whitened
+with chalk, attacked him with knives while he was looking at himself in a
+mirror. For a time he evaded their assaults by turning himself into
+various shapes, assuming the likeness successively of Zeus and Cronus, of
+a young man, of a lion, a horse, and a serpent. Finally, in the form of a
+bull, he was cut to pieces by the murderous knives of his enemies.(48) His
+Cretan myth, as related by Firmicus Maternus, ran thus. He was said to
+have been the bastard son of Jupiter, a Cretan king. Going abroad, Jupiter
+transferred the throne and sceptre to the youthful Dionysus, but, knowing
+that his wife Juno cherished a jealous dislike of the child, he entrusted
+Dionysus to the care of guards upon whose fidelity he believed he could
+rely. Juno, however, bribed the guards, and amusing the child with rattles
+and a cunningly-wrought looking-glass lured him into an ambush, where her
+satellites, the Titans, rushed upon him, cut him limb from limb, boiled
+his body with various herbs, and ate it. But his sister Minerva, who had
+shared in the deed, kept his heart and gave it to Jupiter on his return,
+revealing to him the whole history of the crime. In his rage, Jupiter put
+the Titans to death by torture, and, to soothe his grief for the loss of
+his son, made an image in which he enclosed the child's heart, and then
+built a temple in his honour.(49) In this version a Euhemeristic turn has
+been given to the myth by representing Jupiter and Juno (Zeus and Hera) as
+a king and queen of Crete. The guards referred to are the mythical Curetes
+who danced a war-dance round the infant Dionysus, as they are said to have
+done round the infant Zeus.(50) Very noteworthy is the legend, recorded
+both by Nonnus and Firmicus, that in his infancy Dionysus occupied for a
+short time the throne of his father Zeus. So Proclus tells us that
+"Dionysus was the last king of the gods appointed by Zeus. For his father
+set him on the kingly throne, and placed in his hand the sceptre, and made
+him king of all the gods of the world."(51) Such traditions point to a
+custom of temporarily investing the king's son with the royal dignity as a
+preliminary to sacrificing him instead of his father. Pomegranates were
+supposed to have sprung from the blood of Dionysus, as anemones from the
+blood of Adonis and violets from the blood of Attis: hence women refrained
+from eating seeds of pomegranates at the festival of the Thesmophoria.(52)
+According to some, the severed limbs of Dionysus were pieced together, at
+the command of Zeus, by Apollo, who buried them on Parnassus.(53) The
+grave of Dionysus was shewn in the Delphic temple beside a golden statue
+of Apollo.(54) However, according to another account, the grave of
+Dionysus was at Thebes, where he is said to have been torn in pieces.(55)
+Thus far the resurrection of the slain god is not mentioned, but in other
+versions of the myth it is variously related. According to one version,
+which represented Dionysus as a son of Zeus and Demeter, his mother pieced
+together his mangled limbs and made him young again.(56) In others it is
+simply said that shortly after his burial he rose from the dead and
+ascended up to heaven;(57) or that Zeus raised him up as he lay mortally
+wounded;(58) or that Zeus swallowed the heart of Dionysus and then begat
+him afresh by Semele,(59) who in the common legend figures as mother of
+Dionysus. Or, again, the heart was pounded up and given in a portion to
+Semele, who thereby conceived him.(60)
+
+Turning from the myth to the ritual, we find that the Cretans celebrated a
+biennial(61) festival at which the passion of Dionysus was represented in
+every detail. All that he had done or suffered in his last moments was
+enacted before the eyes of his worshippers, who tore a live bull to pieces
+with their teeth and roamed the woods with frantic shouts. In front of
+them was carried a casket supposed to contain the sacred heart of
+Dionysus, and to the wild music of flutes and cymbals they mimicked the
+rattles by which the infant god had been lured to his doom.(62) Where the
+resurrection formed part of the myth, it also was acted at the rites,(63)
+and it even appears that a general doctrine of resurrection, or at least
+of immortality, was inculcated on the worshippers; for Plutarch, writing
+to console his wife on the death of their infant daughter, comforts her
+with the thought of the immortality of the soul as taught by tradition and
+revealed in the mysteries of Dionysus.(64) A different form of the myth of
+the death and resurrection of Dionysus is that he descended into Hades to
+bring up his mother Semele from the dead.(65) The local Argive tradition
+was that he went down through the Alcyonian lake; and his return from the
+lower world, in other words his resurrection, was annually celebrated on
+the spot by the Argives, who summoned him from the water by trumpet
+blasts, while they threw a lamb into the lake as an offering to the warder
+of the dead.(66) Whether this was a spring festival does not appear, but
+the Lydians certainly celebrated the advent of Dionysus in spring; the god
+was supposed to bring the season with him.(67) Deities of vegetation, who
+are supposed to pass a certain portion of each year under ground,
+naturally come to be regarded as gods of the lower world or of the dead.
+Both Dionysus and Osiris were so conceived.(68)
+
+(M10) A feature in the mythical character of Dionysus, which at first
+sight appears inconsistent with his nature as a deity of vegetation, is
+that he was often conceived and represented in animal shape, especially in
+the form, or at least with the horns, of a bull. Thus he is spoken of as
+"cow-born," "bull," "bull-shaped," "bull-faced," "bull-browed,"
+"bull-horned," "horn-bearing," "two-horned," "horned."(69) He was believed
+to appear, at least occasionally, as a bull.(70) His images were often, as
+at Cyzicus, made in bull shape,(71) or with bull horns;(72) and he was
+painted with horns.(73) Types of the horned Dionysus are found amongst the
+surviving monuments of antiquity.(74) On one statuette he appears clad in
+a bull's hide, the head, horns, and hoofs hanging down behind.(75) Again,
+he is represented as a child with clusters of grapes round his brow, and a
+calf's head, with sprouting horns, attached to the back of his head.(76)
+On a red-figured vase the god is portrayed as a calf-headed child seated
+on a woman's lap.(77) The people of Cynaetha in north-western Arcadia held
+a festival of Dionysus in winter, when men, who had greased their bodies
+with oil for the occasion, used to pick out a bull from the herd and carry
+it to the sanctuary of the god. Dionysus was supposed to inspire their
+choice of the particular bull,(78) which probably represented the deity
+himself; for at his festivals he was believed to appear in bull form. The
+women of Elis hailed him as a bull, and prayed him to come with his bull's
+foot. They sang, "Come hither, Dionysus, to thy holy temple by the sea;
+come with the Graces to thy temple, rushing with thy bull's foot, O goodly
+bull, O goodly bull!"(79) The Bacchanals of Thrace wore horns in imitation
+of their god.(80) According to the myth, it was in the shape of a bull
+that he was torn to pieces by the Titans;(81) and the Cretans, when they
+acted the sufferings and death of Dionysus, tore a live bull to pieces
+with their teeth.(82) Indeed, the rending and devouring of live bulls and
+calves appear to have been a regular feature of the Dionysiac rites.(83)
+When we consider the practice of portraying the god as a bull or with some
+of the features of the animal, the belief that he appeared in bull form to
+his worshippers at the sacred rites, and the legend that in bull form he
+had been torn in pieces, we cannot doubt that in rending and devouring a
+live bull at his festival the worshippers of Dionysus believed themselves
+to be killing the god, eating his flesh, and drinking his blood.
+
+(M11) Another animal whose form Dionysus assumed was the goat. One of his
+names was "Kid."(84) At Athens and at Hermion he was worshipped under the
+title of "the one of the Black Goatskin," and a legend ran that on a
+certain occasion he had appeared clad in the skin from which he took the
+title.(85) In the wine-growing district of Phlius, where in autumn the
+plain is still thickly mantled with the red and golden foliage of the
+fading vines, there stood of old a bronze image of a goat, which the
+husbandmen plastered with gold-leaf as a means of protecting their vines
+against blight.(86) The image probably represented the vine-god himself.
+To save him from the wrath of Hera, his father Zeus changed the youthful
+Dionysus into a kid;(87) and when the gods fled to Egypt to escape the
+fury of Typhon, Dionysus was turned into a goat.(88) Hence when his
+worshippers rent in pieces a live goat and devoured it raw,(89) they must
+have believed that they were eating the body and blood of the god.
+
+(M12) The custom of tearing in pieces the bodies of animals and of men and
+then devouring them raw has been practised as a religious rite by savages
+in modern times. We need not therefore dismiss as a fable the testimony of
+antiquity to the observance of similar rites among the frenzied
+worshippers of Bacchus. An English missionary to the Coast Indians of
+British Columbia has thus described a scene like the cannibal orgies of
+the Bacchanals. After mentioning that an old chief had ordered a female
+slave to be dragged to the beach, murdered, and thrown into the water, he
+proceeds as follows: "I did not see the murder, but, immediately after, I
+saw crowds of people running out of those houses near to where the corpse
+was thrown, and forming themselves into groups at a good distance away.
+This I learnt was from fear of what was to follow. Presently two bands of
+furious wretches appeared, each headed by a man in a state of nudity. They
+gave vent to the most unearthly sounds, and the two naked men made
+themselves look as unearthly as possible, proceeding in a creeping kind of
+stoop, and stepping like two proud horses, at the same time shooting
+forward each arm alternately, which they held out at full length for a
+little time in the most defiant manner. Besides this, the continual
+jerking their heads back, causing their long black hair to twist about,
+added much to their savage appearance. For some time they pretended to be
+seeking the body, and the instant they came where it lay they commenced
+screaming and rushing round it like so many angry wolves. Finally they
+seized it, dragged it out of the water, and laid it on the beach, where I
+was told the naked men would commence tearing it to pieces with their
+teeth. The two bands of men immediately surrounded them, and so hid their
+horrid work. In a few minutes the crowd broke into two, when each of the
+naked cannibals appeared with half of the body in his hands. Separating a
+few yards, they commenced, amid horrid yells, their still more horrid
+feast. The sight was too terrible to behold. I left the gallery with a
+depressed heart. I may mention that the two bands of savages just alluded
+to belong to that class which the whites term 'medicine-men.' " The same
+writer informs us that at the winter ceremonials of these Indians "the
+cannibal, on such occasions, is generally supplied with two, three, or
+four human bodies, which he tears to pieces before his audience. Several
+persons, either from bravado or as a charm, present their arms for him to
+bite. I have seen several whom he has bitten, and I hear two have died
+from the effects." And when corpses were not forthcoming, these cannibals
+apparently seized and devoured living people. Mr. Duncan has seen hundreds
+of the Tsimshian Indians sitting in their canoes which they had just
+pushed off from the shore in order to escape being torn to pieces by a
+party of prowling cannibals. Others of these Indians contented themselves
+with tearing dogs to pieces, while their attendants kept up a growling
+noise, or a whoop, "which was seconded by a screeching noise made from an
+instrument which they believe to be the abode of a spirit."(90)
+
+(M13) Mr. Duncan's account of these savage rites has been fully borne out
+by later observation. Among the Kwakiutl Indians the Cannibals
+(_Hamatsas_) are the highest in rank of the Secret Societies. They devour
+corpses, bite pieces out of living people, and formerly ate slaves who had
+been killed for the purpose. But when their fury has subsided, they are
+obliged to pay compensation to the persons whom they have bitten and to
+the owners of slaves whom they have killed. The indemnity consists
+sometimes of blankets, sometimes of canoes. In the latter case the tariff
+is fixed: one bite, one canoe. For some time after eating human flesh the
+cannibal has to observe a great many rules, which regulate his eating and
+drinking, his going out and his coming in, his clothing and his
+intercourse with his wife.(91) Similar customs prevail among other tribes
+of the same coast, such as the Bella Coola, the Tsimshian, the Niska, and
+the Nootka. In the Nootka tribe members of the Panther Society tear dogs
+to pieces and devour them. They wear masks armed with canine teeth.(92) So
+among the Haida Indians of the Queen Charlotte Islands there is one
+religion of cannibalism and another of dog-eating. The cannibals in a
+state of frenzy, real or pretended, bite flesh out of the extended arms of
+their fellow villagers. When they issue forth with cries of _Hop-pop_ to
+observe this solemn rite, all who are of a different religious persuasion
+make haste to get out of their way; but men of the cannibal creed and of
+stout hearts will resolutely hold out their arms to be bitten. The sect of
+dog-eaters cut or tear dogs to pieces and devour some of the flesh; but
+they have to pay for the dogs which they consume in their religious
+enthusiasm.(93) In the performance of these savage rites the frenzied
+actors are believed to be inspired by a Cannibal Spirit and a Dog-eating
+Spirit respectively.(94) Again, in Morocco there is an order of saints
+known as Isowa or Aisawa, followers of Mohammed ben Isa or Aisa of
+Mequinez, whose tomb is at Fez. Every year on their founder's birthday
+they assemble at his shrine or elsewhere and holding each other's hands
+dance a frantic dance round a fire. "While the mad dance is still
+proceeding, a sudden rush is made from the sanctuary, and the dancers,
+like men delirious, speed away to a place where live goats are tethered in
+readiness. At sight of these animals the fury of the savage and excited
+crowd reaches its height. In a few minutes the wretched animals are cut,
+or rather torn to pieces, and an orgy takes place over the raw and
+quivering flesh. When they seem satiated, the Emkaddim, who is generally
+on horseback, and carries a long stick, forms a sort of procession,
+preceded by wild music, if such discordant sounds will bear the name.
+Words can do no justice to the frightful scene which now ensues. The naked
+savages--for on these occasions a scanty piece of cotton is all their
+clothing--with their long black hair, ordinarily worn in plaits, tossed
+about by the rapid to-and-fro movements of the head, with faces and hands
+reeking with blood, and uttering loud cries resembling the bleating of
+goats, again enter the town. The place is now at their mercy, and the
+people avoid them as much as possible by shutting themselves up in their
+houses. A Christian or a Jew would run great risk of losing his life if
+either were found in the street. Goats are pushed out from the doors, and
+these the fanatics tear immediately to pieces with their hands, and then
+dispute over the morsels of bleeding flesh, as though they were ravenous
+wolves instead of men. Snakes also are thrown to them as tests of their
+divine frenzy, and these share the fate of the goats. Sometimes a luckless
+dog, straying as dogs will stray in a tumult, is seized on. Then the
+laymen, should any be at hand, will try to prevent the desecration of
+pious mouths. But the fanatics sometimes prevail, and the unclean animal,
+abhorred by the mussulman, is torn in pieces and devoured, or pretended to
+be devoured, with indiscriminating rage."(95)
+
+(M14) The custom of killing a god in animal form, which we shall examine
+more in detail further on, belongs to a very early stage of human culture,
+and is apt in later times to be misunderstood. The advance of thought
+tends to strip the old animal and plant gods of their bestial and
+vegetable husk, and to leave their human attributes (which are always the
+kernel of the conception) as the final and sole residuum. In other words,
+animal and plant gods tend to become purely anthropomorphic. When they
+have become wholly or nearly so, the animals and plants which were at
+first the deities themselves, still retain a vague and ill-understood
+connexion with the anthropomorphic gods who have been developed out of
+them. The origin of the relationship between the deity and the animal or
+plant having been forgotten, various stories are invented to explain it.
+These explanations may follow one of two lines according as they are based
+on the habitual or on the exceptional treatment of the sacred animal or
+plant. The sacred animal was habitually spared, and only exceptionally
+slain; and accordingly the myth might be devised to explain either why it
+was spared or why it was killed. Devised for the former purpose, the myth
+would tell of some service rendered to the deity by the animal; devised
+for the latter purpose, the myth would tell of some injury inflicted by
+the animal on the god. The reason given for sacrificing goats to Dionysus
+exemplifies a myth of the latter sort. They were sacrificed to him, it was
+said, because they injured the vine.(96) Now the goat, as we have seen,
+was originally an embodiment of the god himself. But when the god had
+divested himself of his animal character and had become essentially
+anthropomorphic, the killing of the goat in his worship came to be
+regarded no longer as a slaying of the deity himself, but as a sacrifice
+offered to him; and since some reason had to be assigned why the goat in
+particular should be sacrificed, it was alleged that this was a punishment
+inflicted on the goat for injuring the vine, the object of the god's
+especial care. Thus we have the strange spectacle of a god sacrificed to
+himself on the ground that he is his own enemy. And as the deity is
+supposed to partake of the victim offered to him, it follows that, when
+the victim is the god's old self, the god eats of his own flesh. Hence the
+goat-god Dionysus is represented as eating raw goat's blood;(97) and the
+bull-god Dionysus is called "eater of bulls."(98) On the analogy of these
+instances we may conjecture that wherever a deity is described as the
+eater of a particular animal, the animal in question was originally
+nothing but the deity himself.(99) Later on we shall find that some
+savages propitiate dead bears and whales by offering them portions of
+their own bodies.(100)
+
+(M15) All this, however, does not explain why a deity of vegetation should
+appear in animal form. But the consideration of that point had better be
+deferred till we have discussed the character and attributes of Demeter.
+Meantime it remains to mention that in some places, instead of an animal,
+a human being was torn in pieces at the rites of Dionysus. This was the
+practice in Chios and Tenedos;(101) and at Potniae in Boeotia the
+tradition ran that it had been formerly the custom to sacrifice to the
+goat-smiting Dionysus a child, for whom a goat was afterwards
+substituted.(102) At Orchomenus, as we have seen, the human victim was
+taken from the women of an old royal family.(103) As the slain bull or
+goat represented the slain god, so, we may suppose, the human victim also
+represented him.
+
+(M16) The legends of the deaths of Pentheus and Lycurgus, two kings who
+are said to have been torn to pieces, the one by Bacchanals, the other by
+horses, for their opposition to the rites of Dionysus, may be, as I have
+already suggested,(104) distorted reminiscences of a custom of sacrificing
+divine kings in the character of Dionysus and of dispersing the fragments
+of their broken bodies over the fields for the purpose of fertilising
+them. In regard to Lycurgus, king of the Thracian tribe of the Edonians,
+it is expressly said that his subjects at the bidding of an oracle caused
+him to be rent in pieces by horses for the purpose of restoring the
+fertility of the ground after a period of barrenness and dearth.(105)
+There is no improbability in the tradition. We have seen that in Africa
+and other parts of the world kings or chiefs have often been put to death
+by their people for similar reasons.(106) Further, it is significant that
+King Lycurgus is said to have slain his own son Dryas with an axe in a fit
+of madness, mistaking him for a vine-branch.(107) Have we not in this
+tradition a reminiscence of a custom of sacrificing the king's son in
+place of the father? Similarly Athamas, a King of Thessaly or Boeotia, is
+said to have been doomed by an oracle to be sacrificed at the altar in
+order to remove the curse of barrenness which afflicted his country;
+however, he contrived to evade the sentence and in a fit of madness killed
+his own son Learchus, mistaking him for a wild beast. That this legend was
+not a mere myth is made probable by a custom observed at Alus down to
+historical times: the eldest male scion of the royal house was regularly
+sacrificed in due form to Laphystian Zeus if he ever set foot within the
+town-hall.(108) The close resemblance between the legends of King Athamas
+and King Lycurgus furnishes a ground for believing both legends to be
+based on a real custom of sacrificing either the king himself or one of
+his sons for the good of the country; and the story that the king's son
+Dryas perished because his frenzied father mistook him for a vine-branch
+fits in well with the theory that the victim in these sacrifices
+represented the vine-god Dionysus. It is probably no mere coincidence that
+Dionysus himself is said to have been torn in pieces at Thebes,(109) the
+very place where according to legend the same fate befell king Pentheus at
+the hands of the frenzied votaries of the vine-god.(110)
+
+(M17) The theory that in prehistoric times Greek and Thracian kings or
+their sons may have been dismembered in the character of the vine-god or
+the corn-god for the purpose of fertilising the earth or quickening the
+vines has received of late years some confirmation from the discovery that
+down to the present time in Thrace, the original home of Dionysus, a drama
+is still annually performed which reproduces with remarkable fidelity some
+of the most striking traits in the Dionysiac myth and ritual.(111) In a
+former part of this work I have already called attention to this
+interesting survival of paganism among a Christian peasantry;(112) but it
+seems desirable and appropriate in this place to draw out somewhat more
+fully the parallelism between the modern drama and the ancient worship.
+
+(M18) The drama, which may reasonably be regarded as a direct descendant
+of the Dionysiac rites, is annually performed at the Carnival in all the
+Christian villages which cluster round Viza, the ancient Bizya, a town of
+Thrace situated about midway between Adrianople and Constantinople. In
+antiquity the city was the capital of the Thracian tribe of the Asti; the
+kings had their palace there,(113) probably in the acropolis, of which
+some fine walls are still standing. Inscriptions preserved in the modern
+town record the names of some of these old kings.(114) The date of the
+celebration is Cheese Monday, as it is locally called, which is the Monday
+of the last week of Carnival. At Viza itself the mummery has been shorn of
+some of its ancient features, but these have been kept up at the villages
+and have been particularly observed and recorded at the village of St.
+George (Haghios Gheorgios). It is to the drama as acted at that village
+that the following description specially applies. The principal parts in
+the drama are taken by two men disguised in goatskins. Each of them wears
+a headdress made of a complete goatskin, which is stuffed so as to rise a
+foot or more like a shako over his head, while the skin falls over the
+face, forming a mask with holes cut for the eyes and mouth. Their
+shoulders are thickly padded with hay to protect them from the blows which
+used to be rained very liberally on their backs. Fawnskins on their
+shoulders and goatskins on their legs are or used to be part of their
+equipment, and another indispensable part of it is a number of sheep-bells
+tied round their waists. One of the two skin-clad actors carries a bow and
+the other a wooden effigy of the male organ of generation. Both these
+actors must be married men. According to Mr. Vizyenos, they are chosen for
+periods of four years. Two unmarried boys dressed as girls and sometimes
+called brides also take part in the play; and a man disguised as an old
+woman in rags carries a mock baby in a basket; the brat is supposed to be
+a seven-months' child born out of wedlock and begotten by an unknown
+father. The basket in which the hopeful infant is paraded bears the
+ancient name of the winnowing-fan (_likni_, contracted from _liknon_) and
+the babe itself receives the very title "He of the Winnowing-fan"
+(_Liknites_) which in antiquity was applied to Dionysus. Two other actors,
+clad in rags with blackened faces and armed with stout saplings, play the
+parts of a gypsy-man and his wife; others personate policemen armed with
+swords and whips; and the troupe is completed by a man who discourses
+music on a bagpipe.
+
+(M19) Such are the masqueraders. The morning of the day on which they
+perform their little drama is spent by them going from door to door
+collecting bread, eggs, or money. At every door the two skin-clad maskers
+knock, the boys disguised as girls dance, and the gypsy man and wife enact
+an obscene pantomime on the straw-heap before the house. When every house
+in the village has been thus visited, the troop takes up position on the
+open space before the village church, where the whole population has
+already mustered to witness the performance. After a dance hand in hand,
+in which all the actors take part, the two skin-clad maskers withdraw and
+leave the field to the gypsies, who now pretend to forge a ploughshare,
+the man making believe to hammer the share and his wife to work the
+bellows. At this point the old woman's baby is supposed to grow up at a
+great pace, to develop a huge appetite for meat and drink, and to clamour
+for a wife. One of the skin-clad men now pursues one of the two pretended
+brides, and a mock marriage is celebrated between the couple. After these
+nuptials have been performed with a parody of a real wedding, the mock
+bridegroom is shot by his comrade with the bow and falls down on his face
+like dead. His slayer thereupon feigns to skin him with a knife; but the
+dead man's wife laments over her deceased husband with loud cries,
+throwing herself across his prostrate body. In this lamentation the slayer
+himself and all the other actors join in: a Christian funeral service is
+burlesqued; and the pretended corpse is lifted up as if to be carried to
+the grave. At this point, however, the dead man disconcerts the
+preparations for his burial by suddenly coming to life again and getting
+up. So ends the drama of death and resurrection.
+
+(M20) The next act opens with a repetition of the pretence of forging a
+ploughshare, but this time the gypsy man hammers on a real share. When the
+implement is supposed to have been fashioned, a real plough is brought
+forward, the mockery appears to cease, the two boys dressed as girls are
+yoked to the plough and drag it twice round the village square contrary to
+the way of the sun. One of the two skin-clad men walks at the tail of the
+plough, the other guides it in front, and a third man follows in the rear
+scattering seed from a basket. After the two rounds have been completed,
+the gypsy and his wife are yoked to the plough, and drag it a third time
+round the square, the two skin-clad men still playing the part of
+ploughmen. At Viza the plough is drawn by the skin-clad men themselves.
+While the plough is going its rounds, followed by the sower sowing the
+seed, the people pray aloud, saying, "May wheat be ten piastres the
+bushel! Rye five piastres the bushel! Amen, O God, that the poor may eat!
+Yea, O God, that poor folk be filled!" This ends the performance. The
+evening is spent in feasting on the proceeds of the house-to-house
+visitation which took place in the morning.(115)
+
+(M21) A kindred festival is observed on the same day of the Carnival at
+Kosti, a place in the extreme north of Thrace, near the Black Sea. There a
+man dressed in sheepskins or goatskins, with a mask on his face, bells
+round his neck, and a broom in his hand, goes round the village collecting
+food and presents. He is addressed as a king and escorted with music. With
+him go boys dressed as girls, and another boy, not so disguised, who
+carries wine in a wooden bottle and gives of it to every householder to
+drink in a cup, receiving a gift in return. The king then mounts a
+two-wheeled cart and is drawn to the church. He carries seed in his hand,
+and at the church two bands of men, one of married men and the other of
+unmarried men, try each in turn to induce the king to throw the seed on
+them. Finally he casts it on the ground in front of the church. The
+ceremony ends with stripping the king of his clothes and flinging him into
+the river, after which he resumes his usual dress.(116)
+
+(M22) In these ceremonies, still annually held at and near an old capital
+of Thracian kings, the points of similarity to the ritual of the ancient
+Thracian deity Dionysus are sufficiently obvious.(117) The goatskins in
+which the principal actors are disguised remind us of the identification
+of Dionysus with a goat: the infant, cradled in a winnowing-fan and taking
+its name from the implement, answers exactly to the traditions and the
+monuments which represent the infant Dionysus as similarly cradled and
+similarly named: the pretence that the baby is a seven-months' child born
+out of wedlock and begotten by an unknown father tallies precisely with
+the legend that Dionysus was born prematurely in the seventh month as the
+offspring of an intrigue between a mortal woman and a mysterious divine
+father:(118) the same coarse symbol of reproductive energy which
+characterised the ancient ritual of Dionysus figures conspicuously in the
+modern drama: the annual mock marriage of the goatskin-clad mummer with
+the pretended bride may be compared with the annual pretence of marrying
+Dionysus to the Queen of Athens: and the simulated slaughter and
+resurrection of the same goatskin-clad actor may be compared with the
+traditional slaughter and resurrection of the god himself. Further, the
+ceremony of ploughing, in which after his resurrection the goatskin-clad
+mummer takes a prominent part, fits in well not only with the legend that
+Dionysus was the first to yoke oxen to the plough, but also with the
+symbolism of the winnowing-fan in his worship; while the prayers for
+plentiful crops which accompany the ploughing accord with the omens of an
+abundant harvest which were drawn of old from the mystic light seen to
+illumine by night one of his ancient sanctuaries in Thrace. Lastly, in the
+ceremony as observed at Kosti the giving of wine by the king's attendant
+is an act worthy of the wine-god: the throwing of seed by the king can
+only be interpreted, like the ploughing, as a charm to promote the
+fertility of the ground; and the royal title borne by the principal masker
+harmonises well with the theory that the part of the god of the corn and
+the wine was of old sustained by the Thracian kings who reigned at Bisya.
+
+(M23) If we ask, To what ancient festival of Dionysus does the modern
+celebration of the Carnival in Thrace most nearly correspond? the answer
+can be hardly doubtful. The Thracian drama of the mock marriage of the
+goatskin-clad mummer, his mimic death and resurrection, and his subsequent
+ploughing, corresponds both in date and in character most nearly to the
+Athenian festival of the Anthesteria, which was celebrated at Athens
+during three days in early spring, towards the end of February or the
+beginning of March. Thus the date of the Anthesteria could not fall far
+from, and it might sometimes actually coincide with, the last week of the
+Carnival, the date of the Thracian celebration. While the details of the
+festival of the Anthesteria are obscure, its general character is well
+known. It was a festival both of wine-drinking and of the dead, whose
+souls were supposed to revisit the city and to go about the streets, just
+as in modern Europe and in many other parts of the world the ghosts of the
+departed are still believed to return to their old homes on one day of the
+year and to be entertained by their relatives at a solemn Feast of All
+Souls.(119) But the Dionysiac nature of the festival was revealed not
+merely by the opening of the wine-vats and the wassailing which went on
+throughout the city among freemen and slaves alike; on the second day of
+the festival the marriage of Dionysus with the Queen of Athens was
+celebrated with great solemnity at the Bucolium or Ox-stall.(120) It has
+been suggested with much probability(121) that at this sacred marriage in
+the Ox-stall the god was represented wholly or partly in bovine shape,
+whether by an image or by an actor dressed in the hide and wearing the
+horns of a bull; for, as we have seen, Dionysus was often supposed to
+assume the form of a bull and to present himself in that guise to his
+worshippers. If this conjecture should prove to be correct--though a
+demonstration of it can hardly be expected--the sacred marriage of the
+Queen to the Bull-god at Athens would be parallel to the sacred marriage
+of the Queen to the Bull-god at Cnossus, according to the interpretation
+which I have suggested of the myth of Pasiphae and the Minotaur;(122) only
+whereas the bull-god at Cnossus, if I am right, stood for the Sun, the
+bull-god at Athens stood for the powers of vegetation, especially the corn
+and the vines. It would not be surprising that among a cattle-breeding
+people in early days the bull, regarded as a type of strength and
+reproductive energy, should be employed to symbolise and represent more
+than one of the great powers of nature. If Dionysus did indeed figure as a
+bull at his marriage, it is not improbable that on that occasion his
+representative, whether a real bull or a man dressed in a bull's hide,
+took part in a ceremony of ploughing; for we have seen that the invention
+of yoking oxen to the plough was ascribed to Dionysus, and we know that
+the Athenians performed a sacred ceremony of ploughing, which went by the
+name of the Ox-yoked Ploughing and took place in a field or other open
+piece of ground at the foot of the Acropolis.(123) It is a reasonable
+conjecture that the field of the Ox-yoked Ploughing may have adjoined the
+building called the Ox-stall in which the marriage of Dionysus with the
+Queen was solemnised;(124) for that building is known to have been near
+the Prytaneum or Town-Hall on the northern slope of the Acropolis.(125)
+
+(M24) Thus on the whole the ancient festival of the Anthesteria, so far as
+its features are preserved by tradition or can be restored by the use of
+reasonable conjecture, presents several important analogies to the modern
+Thracian Carnival in respect of wine-drinking, a mock marriage of
+disguised actors, and a ceremony of ploughing. The resemblance between the
+ancient and the modern ritual would be still closer if some eminent modern
+scholars, who wrote before the discovery of the Thracian Carnival, and
+whose judgment was therefore not biassed by its analogy to the Athenian
+festival, are right in holding that another important feature of the
+Anthesteria was the dramatic death and resurrection of Dionysus.(126) They
+point out that at the marriage of Dionysus fourteen Sacred Women
+officiated at fourteen altars;(127) that the number of the Titans, who
+tore Dionysus in pieces, was fourteen, namely seven male and seven
+female;(128) and that Osiris, a god who in some respects corresponded
+closely to Dionysus, is said to have been rent by Typhon into fourteen
+fragments.(129) Hence they conjecture that at Athens the body of Dionysus
+was dramatically broken into fourteen fragments, one for each of the
+fourteen altars, and that it was afterwards dramatically pieced together
+and restored to life by the fourteen Sacred Women, just as the broken body
+of Osiris was pieced together by a company of gods and goddesses and
+restored to life by his sister Isis.(130) The conjecture is ingenious and
+plausible, but with our existing sources of information it must remain a
+conjecture and nothing more. Could it be established, it would forge
+another strong link in the chain of evidence which binds the modern
+Thracian Carnival to the ancient Athenian Anthesteria; for in that case
+the drama of the divine death and resurrection would have to be added to
+the other features which these two festivals of spring possess in common,
+and we should have to confess that Greece had what we may call its Good
+Friday and its Easter Sunday long before the events took place in Judaea
+which diffused these two annual commemorations of the Dying and Reviving
+God over a great part of the civilised world. From so simple a beginning
+may flow consequences so far-reaching and impressive; for in the light of
+the rude Thracian ceremony we may surmise that the high tragedy of the
+death and resurrection of Dionysus originated in a rustic mummers' play
+acted by ploughmen for the purpose of fertilising the brown earth which
+they turned up with the gleaming share in sunshiny days of spring, as they
+followed the slow-paced oxen down the long furrows in the fallow field.
+Later on we shall see that a play of the same sort is still acted, or was
+acted down to recent years, by English yokels on Plough Monday.
+
+(M25) But before we pass from the tragic myth and ritual of Dionysus to
+the sweeter story and milder worship of Demeter and Persephone, the true
+Greek deities of the corn, it is fair to admit that the legends of human
+sacrifice, which have left so dark a stain on the memory of the old
+Thracian god, may have been nothing more than mere misinterpretations of a
+sacrificial ritual in which an animal victim was treated as a human being.
+For example, at Tenedos the new-born calf sacrificed to Dionysus was shod
+in buskins, and the mother cow was tended like a woman in child-bed.(131)
+At Rome a she-goat was sacrificed to Vedijovis as if it were a human
+victim.(132) Yet on the other hand it is equally possible, and perhaps
+more probable, that these curious rites were themselves mitigations of an
+older and ruder custom of sacrificing human beings, and that the later
+pretence of treating the sacrificial victims as if they were human beings
+was merely part of a pious and merciful fraud, which palmed off on the
+deity less precious victims than living men and women. This interpretation
+is supported by the undoubted cases in which animals have been substituted
+for human victims.(133) On the whole we may conclude that neither the
+polished manners of a later age, nor the glamour which Greek poetry and
+art threw over the figure of Dionysus, sufficed to conceal or erase the
+deep lines of savagery and cruelty imprinted on the features of this
+barbarous deity.
+
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II. DEMETER AND PERSEPHONE.
+
+
+(M26) Dionysus was not the only Greek deity whose tragic story and ritual
+appear to reflect the decay and revival of vegetation. In another form and
+with a different application the old tale reappears in the myth of Demeter
+and Persephone. Substantially their myth is identical with the Syrian one
+of Aphrodite (Astarte) and Adonis, the Phrygian one of Cybele and Attis,
+and the Egyptian one of Isis and Osiris. In the Greek fable, as in its
+Asiatic and Egyptian counterparts, a goddess mourns the loss of a loved
+one, who personifies the vegetation, more especially the corn, which dies
+in winter to revive in spring; only whereas the Oriental imagination
+figured the loved and lost one as a dead lover or a dead husband lamented
+by his leman or his wife, Greek fancy embodied the same idea in the
+tenderer and purer form of a dead daughter bewailed by her sorrowing
+mother.
+
+(M27) The oldest literary document which narrates the myth of Demeter and
+Persephone is the beautiful Homeric _Hymn to Demeter_, which critics
+assign to the seventh century before our era.(134) The object of the poem
+is to explain the origin of the Eleusinian mysteries, and the complete
+silence of the poet as to Athens and the Athenians, who in after ages took
+a conspicuous part in the festival, renders it probable that the hymn was
+composed in the far off time when Eleusis was still a petty independent
+state, and before the stately procession of the Mysteries had begun to
+defile, in bright September days, over the low chain of barren rocky hills
+which divides the flat Eleusinian cornland from the more spacious
+olive-clad expanse of the Athenian plain. Be that as it may, the hymn
+reveals to us the conception which the writer entertained of the character
+and functions of the two goddesses: their natural shapes stand out sharply
+enough under the thin veil of poetical imagery. The youthful Persephone,
+so runs the tale, was gathering roses and lilies, crocuses and violets,
+hyacinths and narcissuses in a lush meadow, when the earth gaped and
+Pluto, lord of the Dead, issuing from the abyss carried her off on his
+golden car to be his bride and queen in the gloomy subterranean world. Her
+sorrowing mother Demeter, with her yellow tresses veiled in a dark
+mourning mantle, sought her over land and sea, and learning from the Sun
+her daughter's fate she withdrew in high dudgeon from the gods and took up
+her abode at Eleusis, where she presented herself to the king's daughters
+in the guise of an old woman, sitting sadly under the shadow of an olive
+tree beside the Maiden's Well, to which the damsels had come to draw water
+in bronze pitchers for their father's house. In her wrath at her
+bereavement the goddess suffered not the seed to grow in the earth but
+kept it hidden under ground, and she vowed that never would she set foot
+on Olympus and never would she let the corn sprout till her lost daughter
+should be restored to her. Vainly the oxen dragged the ploughs to and fro
+in the fields; vainly the sower dropped the barley seed in the brown
+furrows; nothing came up from the parched and crumbling soil. Even the
+Rarian plain near Eleusis, which was wont to wave with yellow harvests,
+lay bare and fallow.(135) Mankind would have perished of hunger and the
+gods would have been robbed of the sacrifices which were their due, if
+Zeus in alarm had not commanded Pluto to disgorge his prey, to restore his
+bride Persephone to her mother Demeter. The grim lord of the Dead smiled
+and obeyed, but before he sent back his queen to the upper air on a golden
+car, he gave her the seed of a pomegranate to eat, which ensured that she
+would return to him. But Zeus stipulated that henceforth Persephone should
+spend two thirds of every year with her mother and the gods in the upper
+world and one third of the year with her husband in the nether world, from
+which she was to return year by year when the earth was gay with spring
+flowers. Gladly the daughter then returned to the sunshine, gladly her
+mother received her and fell upon her neck; and in her joy at recovering
+the lost one Demeter made the corn to sprout from the clods of the
+ploughed fields and all the broad earth to be heavy with leaves and
+blossoms. And straightway she went and shewed this happy sight to the
+princes of Eleusis, to Triptolemus, Eumolpus, Diocles, and to the king
+Celeus himself, and moreover she revealed to them her sacred rites and
+mysteries. Blessed, says the poet, is the mortal man who has seen these
+things, but he who has had no share of them in life will never be happy in
+death when he has descended into the darkness of the grave. So the two
+goddesses departed to dwell in bliss with the gods on Olympus; and the
+bard ends the hymn with a pious prayer to Demeter and Persephone that they
+would be pleased to grant him a livelihood in return for his song.(136)
+
+(M28) It has been generally recognised, and indeed it seems scarcely open
+to doubt, that the main theme which the poet set before himself in
+composing this hymn was to describe the traditional foundation of the
+Eleusinian mysteries by the goddess Demeter. The whole poem leads up to
+the transformation scene in which the bare leafless expanse of the
+Eleusinian plain is suddenly turned, at the will of the goddess, into a
+vast sheet of ruddy corn; the beneficent deity takes the princes of
+Eleusis, shews them what she has done, teaches them her mystic rites, and
+vanishes with her daughter to heaven. The revelation of the mysteries is
+the triumphal close of the piece. This conclusion is confirmed by a more
+minute examination of the poem, which proves that the poet has given, not
+merely a general account of the foundation of the mysteries, but also in
+more or less veiled language mythical explanations of the origin of
+particular rites which we have good reason to believe formed essential
+features of the festival. Amongst the rites as to which the poet thus
+drops significant hints are the preliminary fast of the candidates for
+initiation, the torchlight procession, the all-night vigil, the sitting of
+the candidates, veiled and in silence, on stools covered with sheepskins,
+the use of scurrilous language, the breaking of ribald jests, and the
+solemn communion with the divinity by participation in a draught of
+barley-water from a holy chalice.(137)
+
+(M29) But there is yet another and a deeper secret of the mysteries which
+the author of the poem appears to have divulged under cover of his
+narrative. He tells us how, as soon as she had transformed the barren
+brown expanse of the Eleusinian plain into a field of golden grain, she
+gladdened the eyes of Triptolemus and the other Eleusinian princes by
+shewing them the growing or standing corn. When we compare this part of
+the story with the statement of a Christian writer of the second century,
+Hippolytus, that the very heart of the mysteries consisted in shewing to
+the initiated a reaped ear of corn,(138) we can hardly doubt that the poet
+of the hymn was well acquainted with this solemn rite, and that he
+deliberately intended to explain its origin in precisely the same way as
+he explained other rites of the mysteries, namely by representing Demeter
+as having set the example of performing the ceremony in her own person.
+Thus myth and ritual mutually explain and confirm each other. The poet of
+the seventh century before our era gives us the myth--he could not without
+sacrilege have revealed the ritual: the Christian father reveals the
+ritual, and his revelation accords perfectly with the veiled hint of the
+old poet. On the whole, then, we may, with many modern scholars,
+confidently accept the statement of the learned Christian father Clement
+of Alexandria, that the myth of Demeter and Persephone was acted as a
+sacred drama in the mysteries of Eleusis.(139)
+
+(M30) But if the myth was acted as a part, perhaps as the principal part,
+of the most famous and solemn religious rites of ancient Greece, we have
+still to enquire, What was, after all, stripped of later accretions, the
+original kernel of the myth which appears to later ages surrounded and
+transfigured by an aureole of awe and mystery, lit up by some of the most
+brilliant rays of Grecian literature and art? If we follow the indications
+given by our oldest literary authority on the subject, the author of the
+Homeric hymn to Demeter, the riddle is not hard to read; the figures of
+the two goddesses, the mother and the daughter, resolve themselves into
+personifications of the corn.(140) At least this appears to be fairly
+certain for the daughter Persephone. The goddess who spends three or,
+according to another version of the myth, six months of every year with
+the dead under ground and the remainder of the year with the living above
+ground;(141) in whose absence the barley seed is hidden in the earth and
+the fields lie bare and fallow; on whose return in spring to the upper
+world the corn shoots up from the clods and the earth is heavy with leaves
+and blossoms--this goddess can surely be nothing else than a mythical
+embodiment of the vegetation, and particularly of the corn, which is
+buried under the soil for some months of every winter and comes to life
+again, as from the grave, in the sprouting cornstalks and the opening
+flowers and foliage of every spring. No other reasonable and probable
+explanation of Persephone seems possible.(142) And if the daughter goddess
+was a personification of the young corn of the present year, may not the
+mother goddess be a personification of the old corn of last year, which
+has given birth to the new crops? The only alternative to this view of
+Demeter would seem to be to suppose that she is a personification of the
+earth, from whose broad bosom the corn and all other plants spring up, and
+of which accordingly they may appropriately enough be regarded as the
+daughters. This view of the original nature of Demeter has indeed been
+taken by some writers, both ancient and modern,(143) and it is one which
+can be reasonably maintained. But it appears to have been rejected by the
+author of the Homeric hymn to Demeter, for he not only distinguishes
+Demeter from the personified Earth but places the two in the sharpest
+opposition to each other. He tells us that it was Earth who, in accordance
+with the will of Zeus and to please Pluto, lured Persephone to her doom by
+causing the narcissuses to grow which tempted the young goddess to stray
+far beyond the reach of help in the lush meadow.(144) Thus Demeter of the
+hymn, far from being identical with the Earth-goddess, must have regarded
+that divinity as her worst enemy, since it was to her insidious wiles that
+she owed the loss of her daughter. But if the Demeter of the hymn cannot
+have been a personification of the earth, the only alternative apparently
+is to conclude that she was a personification of the corn.
+
+(M31) With this conclusion all the indications of the hymn-writer seem to
+harmonise. He certainly represents Demeter as the goddess by whose power
+and at whose pleasure the corn either grows or remains hidden in the
+ground; and to what deity can such powers be so fittingly ascribed as to
+the goddess of the corn? He calls Demeter yellow and tells how her yellow
+tresses flowed down on her shoulders;(145) could any colour be more
+appropriate with which to paint the divinity of the yellow grain? The same
+identification of Demeter with the ripe, the yellow corn is made even more
+clearly by a still older poet, Homer himself, or at all events the author
+of the fifth book of the _Iliad_. There we read: "And even as the wind
+carries the chaff about the sacred threshing-floors, when men are
+winnowing, what time yellow Demeter sifts the corn from the chaff on the
+hurrying blast, so that the heaps of chaff grow white below, so were the
+Achaeans whitened above by the cloud of dust which the hoofs of the horses
+spurned to the brazen heaven."(146) Here the yellow Demeter who sifts the
+grain from the chaff at the threshing-floor can hardly be any other than
+the goddess of the yellow corn; she cannot be the Earth-goddess, for what
+has the Earth-goddess to do with the grain and the chaff blown about a
+threshing-floor? With this interpretation it agrees that elsewhere Homer
+speaks of men eating "Demeter's corn";(147) and still more definitely
+Hesiod speaks of "the annual store of food, which the earth bears,
+Demeter's corn,"(148) thus distinguishing the goddess of the corn from the
+earth which bears it. Still more clearly does a later Greek poet personify
+the corn as Demeter when, in allusion to the time of the corn-reaping, he
+says that then "the sturdy swains cleave Demeter limb from limb."(149) And
+just as the ripe or yellow corn was personified as the Yellow Demeter, so
+the unripe or green corn was personified as the Green Demeter. In that
+character the goddess had sanctuaries at Athens and other places;
+sacrifices were appropriately offered to Green Demeter in spring when the
+earth was growing green with the fresh vegetation, and the victims
+included sows big with young,(150) which no doubt were intended not merely
+to symbolise but magically to promote the abundance of the crops.
+
+(M32) In Greek the various kinds of corn were called by the general name
+of "Demeter's fruits,"(151) just as in Latin they were called the "fruits
+or gifts of Ceres,"(152) an expression which survives in the English word
+cereals. Tradition ran that before Demeter's time men neither cultivated
+corn nor tilled the ground, but roamed the mountains and woods in search
+of the wild fruits which the earth produced spontaneously from her womb
+for their subsistence. The tradition clearly implies not only that Demeter
+was the goddess of the corn, but that she was different from and younger
+than the goddess of the Earth, since it is expressly affirmed that before
+Demeter's time the earth existed and supplied mankind with nourishment in
+the shape of wild herbs, grasses, flowers and fruits.(153)
+
+(M33) In ancient art Demeter and Persephone are characterised as goddesses
+of the corn by the crowns of corn which they wear on their heads and by
+the stalks of corn which they hold in their hands.(154) Theocritus
+describes a smiling image of Demeter standing by a heap of yellow grain on
+a threshing-floor and grasping sheaves of barley and poppies in both her
+hands.(155) Indeed corn and poppies singly or together were a frequent
+symbol of the goddess, as we learn not only from the testimony of ancient
+writers(156) but from many existing monuments of classical art.(157) The
+naturalness of the symbol can be doubted by no one who has seen--and who
+has not seen?--a field of yellow corn bespangled thick with scarlet
+poppies; and we need not resort to the shifts of an ancient mythologist,
+who explained the symbolism of the poppy in Demeter's hand by comparing
+the globular shape of the poppy to the roundness of our globe, the
+unevenness of its edges to hills and valleys, and the hollow interior of
+the scarlet flower to the caves and dens of the earth.(158) If only
+students would study the little black and white books of men less and the
+great rainbow-tinted book of nature more; if they would more frequently
+exchange the heavy air and the dim light of libraries for the freshness
+and the sunshine of the open sky; if they would oftener unbend their minds
+by rural walks between fields of waving corn, beside rivers rippling by
+under grey willows, or down green lanes, where the hedges are white with
+the hawthorn bloom or red with wild roses, they might sometimes learn more
+about primitive religion than can be gathered from many dusty volumes, in
+which wire-drawn theories are set forth with all the tedious parade of
+learning.
+
+(M34) Nowhere, perhaps, in the monuments of Greek art is the character of
+Persephone as a personification of the young corn sprouting in spring
+portrayed more gracefully and more truly than on a coin of Lampsacus of
+the fourth century before our era. On it we see the goddess in the very
+act of rising from the earth. "Her face is upraised; in her hand are three
+ears of corn, and others together with grapes are springing behind her
+shoulder. Complete is here the identification of the goddess and her
+attribute: she is embowered amid the ears of growing corn, and like it
+half buried in the ground. She does not make the corn and vine grow, but
+she _is_ the corn and vine growing, and returning again to the face of the
+earth after lying hidden in its depths. Certainly the artist who designed
+this beautiful figure thoroughly understood Hellenic religion."(159)
+
+(M35) As the goddess who first bestowed corn on mankind and taught them to
+sow and cultivate it,(160) Demeter was naturally invoked and propitiated
+by farmers before they undertook the various operations of the
+agricultural year. In autumn, when he heard the sonorous trumpeting of the
+cranes, as they winged their way southward in vast flocks high overhead,
+the Greek husbandman knew that the rains were near and that the time of
+ploughing was at hand; but before he put his hand to the plough he prayed
+to Underground Zeus and to Holy Demeter for a heavy crop of Demeter's
+sacred corn. Then he guided the ox-drawn plough down the field, turning up
+the brown earth with the share, while a swain followed close behind with a
+hoe, who covered up the seed as fast as it fell to protect it from the
+voracious birds that fluttered and twittered at the plough-tail.(161) But
+while the ordinary Greek farmer took the signal for ploughing from the
+clangour of the cranes, Hesiod and other writers who aimed at greater
+exactness laid it down as a rule that the ploughing should begin with the
+autumnal setting of the Pleiades in the morning, which in Hesiod's time
+fell on the twenty-sixth of October.(162) The month in which the Pleiades
+set in the morning was generally recognised by the Greeks as the month of
+sowing; it corresponded apparently in part to our October, in part to our
+November. The Athenians called it Pyanepsion; the Boeotians named it
+significantly Damatrius, that is, Demeter's month, and they celebrated a
+feast of mourning because, says Plutarch, who as a Boeotian speaks with
+authority on such a matter, Demeter was then in mourning for the descent
+of Persephone.(163) Is it possible to express more clearly the true
+original nature of Persephone as the corn-seed which has just been buried
+in the earth? The obvious, the almost inevitable conclusion did not escape
+Plutarch. He tells us that the mournful rites which were held at the time
+of the autumn sowing nominally commemorated the actions of deities, but
+that the real sadness was for the fruits of the earth, some of which at
+that season dropped of themselves and vanished from the trees, while
+others in the shape of seed were committed with anxious thoughts to the
+ground by men, who scraped the earth and then huddled it up over the seed,
+just as if they were burying and mourning for the dead.(164) Surely this
+interpretation of the custom and of the myth of Persephone is not only
+beautiful but true.
+
+(M36) And just as the Greek husbandman prayed to the Corn Goddess when he
+committed the seed, with anxious forebodings, to the furrows, so after he
+had reaped the harvest and brought back the yellow sheaves with rejoicing
+to the threshing-floor, he paid the bountiful goddess her dues in the form
+of a thank-offering of golden grain. Theocritus has painted for us in
+glowing colours a picture of a rustic harvest-home, as it fell on a bright
+autumn day some two thousand years ago in the little Greek island of
+Cos.(165) The poet tells us how he went with two friends from the city to
+attend a festival given by farmers, who were offering first-fruits to
+Demeter from the store of barley with which she had filled their barns.
+The day was warm, indeed so hot that the very lizards, which love to bask
+and run about in the sun, were slumbering in the crevices of the
+stone-walls, and not a lark soared carolling into the blue vault of
+heaven. Yet despite the great heat there were everywhere signs of autumn.
+"All things," says the poet, "smelt of summer, but smelt of autumn too."
+Indeed the day was really autumnal; for a goat-herd who met the friends on
+their way to the rural merry-making, asked them whether they were bound
+for the treading of the grapes in the wine-presses. And when they had
+reached their destination and reclined at ease in the dappled shade of
+over-arching poplars and elms, with the babble of a neighbouring fountain,
+the buzz of the cicadas, the hum of bees, and the cooing of doves in their
+ears, the ripe apples and pears rolled in the grass at their feet and the
+branches of the wild-plum trees were bowed down to the earth with the
+weight of their purple fruit. So couched on soft beds of fragrant lentisk
+they passed the sultry hours singing ditties alternately, while a rustic
+image of Demeter, to whom the honours of the day were paid, stood smiling
+beside a heap of yellow grain on the threshing-floor, with corn-stalks and
+poppies in her hands.
+
+(M37) In this description the time of year when the harvest-home was
+celebrated is clearly marked. Apart from the mention of the ripe apples,
+pears, and plums, the reference to the treading of the grapes is decisive.
+The Greeks gather and press the grapes in the first half of October,(166)
+and accordingly it is to this date that the harvest-festival described by
+Theocritus must be assigned. At the present day in Greece the
+maize-harvest immediately precedes the vintage, the grain being reaped and
+garnered at the end of September. Travelling in rural districts of Argolis
+and Arcadia at that time of the year you pass from time to time piles of
+the orange-coloured cobs laid up ready to be shelled, or again heaps of
+the yellow grain beside the pods. But maize was unknown to the ancient
+Greeks, who, like their modern descendants, reaped their wheat and barley
+crops much earlier in the summer, usually from the end of April till
+June.(167) However, we may conclude that the day immortalised by
+Theocritus was one of those autumn days of great heat and effulgent beauty
+which in Greece may occur at any time up to the very verge of winter. I
+remember such a day at Panopeus on the borders of Phocis and Boeotia. It
+was the first of November, yet the sun shone in cloudless splendour and
+the heat was so great, that when I had examined the magnificent remains of
+ancient Greek fortification-walls which crown the summit of the hill, it
+was delicious to repose on a grassy slope in the shade of some fine
+holly-oaks and to inhale the sweet scent of the wild thyme, which perfumed
+all the air. But it was summer's farewell. Next morning the weather had
+completely changed. A grey November sky lowered sadly overhead, and grey
+mists hung like winding-sheets on the lower slopes of the barren mountains
+which shut in the fatal plain of Chaeronea.
+
+(M38) Thus we may infer that in the rural districts of ancient Greece
+farmers offered their first-fruits of the barley harvest to Demeter in
+autumn about the time when the grapes were being trodden in the
+wine-presses and the ripe apples and pears littered the ground in the
+orchards. At first sight the lateness of the festival in the year is
+surprising; for in the lowlands of Greece at the present day barley is
+reaped at the end of April and wheat in May,(168) and in antiquity the
+time of harvest would seem not to have been very different, for Hesiod
+bids the husbandman put the sickle to the corn at the morning rising of
+the Pleiades,(169) which in his time took place on the eleventh of
+May.(170) But if the harvest was reaped in spring or early summer, why
+defer the offerings of corn to the Corn Goddess until the middle of
+autumn? The reason for the delay is not, so far as I am aware, explained
+by any ancient author, and accordingly it must remain for us a matter of
+conjecture. I surmise that the reason may have been a calculation on the
+part of the practical farmer that the best time to propitiate the Corn
+Goddess was not after harvest, when he had got all that was to be got out
+of her, but immediately before ploughing and sowing, when he had
+everything to hope from her good-will and everything to fear from her
+displeasure. When he had reaped his corn, and the sheaves had been safely
+garnered in his barns, he might, so to say, snap his fingers at the Corn
+Goddess. What could she do for him on the bare stubble-field which lay
+scorched and baking under the fierce rays of the sun all the long rainless
+summer through? But matters wore a very different aspect when, with the
+shortening and cooling of the days, he began to scan the sky for
+clouds(171) and to listen for the cries of the cranes as they flew
+southward, heralding by their trumpet-like notes the approach of the
+autumnal rains. Then he knew that the time had come to break up the ground
+that it might receive the seed and be fertilised by the refreshing water
+of heaven; then he bethought him of the Corn Goddess once more and brought
+forth from the grange a share of the harvested corn with which to woo her
+favour and induce her to quicken the grain which he was about to commit to
+the earth. On this theory the Greek offering of first-fruits was prompted
+not so much by gratitude for past favours as by a shrewd eye to favours to
+come, and perhaps this interpretation of the custom does no serious
+injustice to the cool phlegmatic temper of the bucolic mind, which is more
+apt to be moved by considerations of profit than by sentiment. At all
+events the reasons suggested for delaying the harvest-festival accord
+perfectly with the natural conditions and seasons of farming in Greece.
+For in that country the summer is practically rainless, and during the
+long months of heat and drought the cultivation of the two ancient
+cereals, barley and wheat, is at a standstill. The first rains of autumn
+fall about the middle of October,(172) and that was the Greek farmer's
+great time for ploughing and sowing.(173) Hence we should expect him to
+make his offering of first-fruits to the Corn Goddess shortly before he
+ploughed and sowed, and this expectation is entirely confirmed by the date
+which we have inferred for the offering from the evidence of Theocritus.
+Thus the sacrifice of barley to Demeter in the autumn would seem to have
+been not so much a thank-offering as a bribe judiciously administered to
+her at the very moment of all the year when her services were most
+urgently wanted.
+
+(M39) When with the progress of civilisation a number of petty
+agricultural communities have merged into a single state dependent for its
+subsistence mainly on the cultivation of the ground, it commonly happens
+that, though every farmer continues to perform for himself the simple old
+rites designed to ensure the blessing of the gods on his crops, the
+government undertakes to celebrate similar, though more stately and
+elaborate, rites on behalf of the whole people, lest the neglect of public
+worship should draw down on the country the wrath of the offended deities.
+Hence it comes about that, for all their pomp and splendour, the national
+festivals of such states are often merely magnified and embellished copies
+of homely rites and uncouth observances carried out by rustics in the open
+fields, in barns, and on threshing-floors. In ancient Egypt the religion
+of Isis and Osiris furnishes examples of solemnities which have been thus
+raised from the humble rank of rural festivities to the dignity of
+national celebrations;(174) and in ancient Greece a like development may
+be traced in the religion of Demeter. If the Greek ploughman prayed to
+Demeter and Underground Zeus for a good crop before he put his hand to the
+plough in autumn, the authorities of the Athenian state celebrated about
+the same time and for the same purpose a public festival in honour of
+Demeter at Eleusis. It was called the Proerosia, which signifies "Before
+the Ploughing"; and as the festival was dedicated to her, Demeter herself
+bore the name of Proerosia. Tradition ran that once on a time the whole
+world was desolated by a famine, and that to remedy the evil the Pythian
+oracle bade the Athenians offer the sacrifice of the Proerosia on behalf
+of all men. They did so, and the famine ceased accordingly. Hence to
+testify their gratitude for the deliverance people sent the first-fruits
+of their harvest from all quarters to Athens.(175)
+
+(M40) But the exact date at which the Proerosia or Festival before
+Ploughing took place is somewhat uncertain, and enquirers are divided in
+opinion as to whether it fell before or after the Great Mysteries, which
+began on the fifteenth or sixteenth of Boedromion, a month corresponding
+roughly to our September. Another name for the festival was Proarcturia,
+that is, "Before Arcturus,"(176) which points to a date either before the
+middle of September, when Arcturus is a morning star, or before the end of
+October, when Arcturus is an evening star.(177) In favour of the earlier
+date it may be said, first, that the morning phase of Arcturus was well
+known and much observed, because it marked the middle of autumn, whereas
+little use was made of the evening phase of Arcturus for the purpose of
+dating;(178) and, second, that in an official Athenian inscription the
+Festival before Ploughing (_Proerosia_) is mentioned immediately before
+the Great Mysteries.(179) On the other hand, in favour of the later date,
+it may be said that as the autumnal rains in Greece set in about the
+middle of October, the latter part of that month would be a more suitable
+time for a ceremony at the opening of ploughing than the middle of
+September, when the soil is still parched with the summer drought; and,
+second, that this date is confirmed by a Greek inscription of the fourth
+or third century B.C., found at Eleusis, in which the Festival before
+Ploughing is apparently mentioned in the month of Pyanepsion immediately
+before the festival of the Pyanepsia, which was held on the seventh day of
+that month.(180) It is difficult to decide between these conflicting
+arguments, but on the whole I incline, not without hesitation, to agree
+with some eminent modern authorities in placing the Festival before
+Ploughing in Pyanepsion (October) after the Mysteries, rather than in
+Boedromion (September) before the Mysteries.(181) However, we must bear in
+mind that as the Attic months, like the Greek months generally, were
+lunar,(182) their position in the solar year necessarily varied from year
+to year, and though these variations were periodically corrected by
+intercalation, nevertheless the beginning of each Attic month sometimes
+diverged by several weeks from the beginning of the corresponding month to
+which we equate it.(183) From this it follows that the Great Mysteries,
+which were always dated by the calendar month, must have annually shifted
+their place somewhat in the solar year; whereas the Festival before
+Ploughing, if it was indeed dated either by the morning or by the evening
+phase of Arcturus, must have occupied a fixed place in the solar year.
+Hence it appears to be not impossible that the Great Mysteries,
+oscillating to and fro with the inconstant moon, may sometimes have fallen
+before and sometimes after the Festival before Ploughing, which apparently
+always remained true to the constant star. At least this possibility,
+which seems to have been overlooked by previous enquirers, deserves to be
+taken into account. It is a corollary from the shifting dates of the lunar
+months that the official Greek calendar, in spite of its appearance of
+exactness, really furnished the ancient farmer with little trustworthy
+guidance as to the proper seasons for conducting the various operations of
+agriculture; and he was well advised in trusting to various natural
+timekeepers, such as the rising and setting of the constellations, the
+arrival and departure of the migratory birds, the flowering of certain
+plants,(184) the ripening of fruits, and the setting in of the rains,
+rather than to the fallacious indications of the public calendar. It is by
+natural timekeepers, and not by calendar months, that Hesiod determines
+the seasons of the farmer's year in the poem which is the oldest existing
+treatise on husbandry.(185)
+
+(M41) Just as the ploughman's prayer to Demeter, before he drove the share
+through the clods of the field, was taken up and reverberated, so to say,
+with a great volume of sound in the public prayers which the Athenian
+state annually offered to the goddess before the ploughing on behalf of
+the whole world, so the simple first-fruits of barley, presented to the
+rustic Demeter under the dappled shade of rustling poplars and elms on the
+threshing-floor in Cos, were repeated year by year on a grander scale in
+the first-fruits of the barley and wheat harvest, which were presented to
+the Corn Mother and the Corn Maiden at Eleusis, not merely by every
+husbandman in Attica, but by all the allies and subjects of Athens far and
+near, and even by many free Greek communities beyond the sea. The reason
+why year by year these offerings of grain poured from far countries into
+the public granaries at Eleusis, was the widespread belief that the gift
+of corn had been first bestowed by Demeter on the Athenians and afterwards
+disseminated by them among all mankind through the agency of Triptolemus,
+who travelled over the world in his dragon-drawn car teaching all peoples
+to plough the earth and to sow the seed.(186) In the fifth century before
+our era the legend was celebrated by Sophocles in a play called
+_Triptolemus_, in which he represented Demeter instructing the hero to
+carry the seed of the fruits which she had bestowed on men to all the
+coasts of Southern Italy,(187) from which we may infer that the cities of
+Magna Graecia were among the number of those that sent the thank-offering
+of barley and wheat every year to Athens. Again, in the fourth century
+before our era Xenophon represents Callias, the braggart Eleusinian
+Torchbearer, addressing the Lacedaemonians in a set speech, in which he
+declared that "Our ancestor Triptolemus is said to have bestowed the seed
+of Demeter's corn on the Peloponese before any other land. How then," he
+asked with pathetic earnestness, "can it be right that you should come to
+ravage the corn of the men from whom you received the seed?"(188) Again,
+writing in the fourth century before our era Isocrates relates with a
+swell of patriotic pride how, in her search for her lost daughter
+Persephone, the goddess Demeter came to Attica and gave to the ancestors
+of the Athenians the two greatest of all gifts, the gift of the corn and
+the gift of the mysteries, of which the one reclaimed men from the life of
+beasts and the other held out hopes to them of a blissful eternity beyond
+the grave. The antiquity of the tradition, the orator proceeds to say, was
+no reason for rejecting it, but quite the contrary it furnished a strong
+argument in its favour, for what many affirmed and all had heard might be
+accepted as trustworthy. "And moreover," he adds, "we are not driven to
+rest our case merely on the venerable age of the tradition; we can appeal
+to stronger evidence in its support. For most of the cities send us every
+year the first-fruits of the corn as a memorial of that ancient benefit,
+and when any of them have failed to do so the Pythian priestess has
+commanded them to send the due portions of the fruits and to act towards
+our city according to ancestral custom. Can anything be supported by
+stronger evidence than by the oracle of god, the assent of many Greeks,
+and the harmony of ancient legend with the deeds of to-day?"(189)
+
+(M42) This testimony of Isocrates to the antiquity both of the legend and
+of the custom might perhaps have been set aside, or at least disparaged,
+as the empty bombast of a wordy rhetorician, if it had not happened by
+good chance to be amply confirmed by an official decree of the Athenian
+people passed in the century before Isocrates wrote. The decree was found
+inscribed on a stone at Eleusis and is dated by scholars in the latter
+half of the fifth century before our era, sometime between 446 and 420
+B.C.(190) It deals with the first-fruits of barley and wheat which were
+offered to the Two Goddesses, that is, to Demeter and Persephone, not only
+by the Athenians and their allies but by the Greeks in general. It
+prescribes the exact amount of barley and wheat which was to be offered by
+the Athenians and their allies, and it directs the highest officials at
+Eleusis, namely the Hierophant and the Torchbearer, to exhort the other
+Greeks at the mysteries to offer likewise of the first-fruits of the corn.
+The authority alleged in the decree for requiring or inviting offerings of
+first-fruits alike from Athenians and from foreigners is ancestral custom
+and the bidding of the Delphic oracle. The Senate is further enjoined to
+send commissioners, so far as it could be done, to all Greek cities
+whatsoever, exhorting, though not commanding, them to send the
+first-fruits in compliance with ancestral custom and the bidding of the
+Delphic oracle, and the state officials are directed to receive the
+offerings from such states in the same manner as the offerings of the
+Athenians and their allies. Instructions are also given for the building
+of three subterranean granaries at Eleusis, where the contributions of
+grain from Attica were to be stored. The best of the corn was to be
+offered in sacrifice as the Eumolpids might direct: oxen were to be bought
+and sacrificed, with gilt horns, not only to the two Goddesses but also to
+the God (Pluto), Triptolemus, Eubulus, and Athena; and the remainder of
+the grain was to be sold and with the produce votive offerings were to be
+dedicated with inscriptions setting forth that they had been dedicated
+from the offerings of first-fruits, and recording the names of all the
+Greeks who sent the offerings to Eleusis. The decree ends with a prayer
+that all who comply with these injunctions or exhortations and render
+their dues to the city of Athens and to the Two Goddesses, may enjoy
+prosperity together with good and abundant crops. Writing in the second
+century of our era, under the Roman empire, the rhetorician Aristides
+records the custom which the Greeks observed of sending year by year the
+first-fruits of the harvest to Athens in gratitude for the corn, but he
+speaks of the practice as a thing of the past.(191)
+
+(M43) We may suspect that the tribute of corn ceased to flow from far
+countries to Athens, when, with her falling fortunes and decaying empire,
+her proud galleys had ceased to carry the terror of the Athenian arms into
+distant seas. But if the homage was no longer paid in the substantial
+shape of cargoes of grain, it continued down to the latest days of
+paganism to be paid in the cheaper form of gratitude for that inestimable
+benefit, which the Athenians claimed to have received from the Corn
+Goddess and to have liberally communicated to the rest of mankind. Even
+the Sicilians, who, inhabiting a fertile corn-growing island, worshipped
+Demeter and Persephone above all the gods and claimed to have been the
+first to receive the gift of the corn from the Corn Goddess,(192)
+nevertheless freely acknowledged that the Athenians had spread, though
+they had not originated, the useful discovery among the nations. Thus the
+patriotic Sicilian historian Diodorus, while giving the precedence to his
+fellow-countrymen, strives to be just to the Athenian pretensions in the
+following passage.(193) "Mythologists," says he, "relate that Demeter,
+unable to find her daughter, lit torches at the craters of Etna(194) and
+roamed over many parts of the world. Those people who received her best
+she rewarded by giving them in return the fruit of the wheat; and because
+the Athenians welcomed her most kindly of all, she bestowed the fruit of
+the wheat on them next after the Sicilians. Wherefore that people honoured
+the goddess more than any other folk by magnificent sacrifices and the
+mysteries at Eleusis, which for their extreme antiquity and sanctity have
+become famous among all men. From the Athenians many others received the
+boon of the corn and shared the seed with their neighbours, till they
+filled the whole inhabited earth with it. But as the people of Sicily, on
+account of the intimate relation in which they stood to Demeter and the
+Maiden, were the first to participate in the newly discovered corn, they
+appointed sacrifices and popular festivities in honour of each of the two
+goddesses, naming the celebrations after them and signifying the nature of
+the boons they had received by the dates of the festivals. For they
+celebrated the bringing home of the Maiden at the time when the corn was
+ripe, performing the sacrifice and holding the festivity with all the
+solemnity and zeal that might be reasonably expected of men who desired to
+testify their gratitude for so signal a gift bestowed on them before all
+the rest of mankind. But the sacrifice to Demeter they assigned to the
+time when the sowing of the corn begins; and for ten days they hold a
+popular festivity which bears the name of the goddess, and is remarkable
+as well for the magnificence of its pomp as for the costumes then worn in
+imitation of the olden time. During these days it is customary for people
+to rail at each other in foul language, because when Demeter was mourning
+for the rape of the Maiden she laughed at a ribald jest."(195) Thus
+despite his natural prepossession in favour of his native land, Diodorus
+bears testimony both to the special blessing bestowed on the Athenians by
+the Corn Goddess, and to the generosity with which they had imparted the
+blessing to others, until it gradually spread to the ends of the earth.
+Again, Cicero, addressing a Roman audience, enumerates among the benefits
+which Athens was believed to have conferred on the world, the gift of the
+corn and its origin in Attic soil; and the cursory manner in which he
+alludes to it seems to prove that the tradition was familiar to his
+hearers.(196) Four centuries later the rhetorician Himerius speaks of
+Demeter's gift of the corn and the mysteries to the Athenians as the
+source of the first and greatest service rendered by their city to
+mankind;(197) so ancient, widespread, and persistent was the legend which
+ascribed the origin of the corn to the goddess Demeter and associated it
+with the institution of the Eleusinian mysteries. No wonder that the
+Delphic oracle called Athens "the Metropolis of the Corn."(198)
+
+(M44) From the passage of Diodorus which I have quoted we learn that the
+Sicilians celebrated the festival of Demeter at the beginning of sowing,
+and the festival of Persephone at harvest. This proves that they
+associated, if they did not identify, the Mother Goddess with the
+seed-corn and the Daughter Goddess with the ripe ears. Could any
+association or identification be more easy and obvious to people who
+personified the processes of nature under the form of anthropomorphic
+deities? As the seed brings forth the ripe ear, so the Corn Mother Demeter
+gave birth to the Corn Daughter Persephone. It is true that difficulties
+arise when we attempt to analyse this seemingly simple conception. How,
+for example, are we to divide exactly the two persons of the divinity? At
+what precise moment does the seed cease to be the Corn Mother and begins
+to burgeon out into the Corn Daughter? And how far can we identify the
+material substance of the barley and wheat with the divine bodies of the
+Two Goddesses? Questions of this sort probably gave little concern to the
+sturdy swains who ploughed, sowed, and reaped the fat fields of Sicily. We
+cannot imagine that their night's rest was disturbed by uneasy meditations
+on these knotty problems. It would hardly be strange if the muzzy mind of
+the Sicilian bumpkin, who looked with blind devotion to the Two Goddesses
+for his daily bread, totally failed to distinguish Demeter from the seed
+and Persephone from the ripe sheaves, and if he accepted implicitly the
+doctrine of the real presence of the divinities in the corn without
+discriminating too curiously between the material and the spiritual
+properties of the barley or the wheat. And if he had been closely
+questioned by a rigid logician as to the exact distinction to be drawn
+between the two persons of the godhead who together represented for him
+the annual vicissitudes of the cereals, Hodge might have scratched his
+head and confessed that it puzzled him to say where precisely the one
+goddess ended and the other began, or why the seed buried in the ground
+should figure at one time as the dead daughter Persephone descending into
+the nether world, and at another as the living Mother Demeter about to
+give birth to next year's crop. Theological subtleties like these have
+posed longer heads than are commonly to be found on bucolic shoulders.
+
+(M45) The time of year at which the first-fruits were offered to Demeter
+and Persephone at Eleusis is not explicitly mentioned by ancient
+authorities, and accordingly no inference can be drawn from the date of
+the offering as to its religious significance. It is true that at the
+Eleusinian mysteries the Hierophant and Torchbearer publicly exhorted the
+Greeks in general, as distinguished from the Athenians and their allies,
+to offer the first-fruits in accordance with ancestral custom and the
+bidding of the Delphic oracle.(199) But there is nothing to shew that the
+offerings were made immediately after the exhortation. Nor does any
+ancient authority support the view of a modern scholar that the offering
+of the first-fruits, or a portion of them, took place at the Festival
+before Ploughing (_Proerosia_),(200) though that festival would no doubt
+be an eminently appropriate occasion for propitiating with such offerings
+the goddess on whose bounty the next year's crop was believed to depend.
+
+(M46) On the other hand, we are positively told that the first-fruits were
+carried to Eleusis to be used at the Festival of the Threshing-floor
+(_Haloa_).(201) But the statement, cursorily reported by writers of no
+very high authority, cannot be implicitly relied upon; and even if it
+could, we should hardly be justified in inferring from it that all the
+first-fruits of the corn were offered to Demeter and Persephone at this
+festival. Be that as it may, the Festival of the Threshing-floor was
+intimately connected with the worship both of Demeter and of Dionysus, and
+accordingly it deserves our attention. It is said to have been sacred to
+both these deities;(202) and while the name seems to connect it rather
+with the Corn Goddess than with the Wine God, we are yet informed that it
+was held by the Athenians on the occasion of the pruning of the vines and
+the tasting of the stored-up wine.(203) The festival is frequently
+mentioned in Eleusinian inscriptions, from some of which we gather that it
+included sacrifices to the two goddesses and a so-called Ancestral
+Contest, as to the nature of which we have no information.(204) We may
+suppose that the festival or some part of it was celebrated on the Sacred
+Threshing-floor of Triptolemus at Eleusis;(205) for as Triptolemus was the
+hero who is said to have diffused the knowledge of the corn all over the
+world, nothing could be more natural than that the Festival of the
+Threshing-floor should be held on the sacred threshing-floor which bore
+his name. As for Demeter, we have already seen how intimate was her
+association with the threshing-floor and the operation of threshing;
+according to Homer, she is the yellow goddess who parts the yellow grain
+from the white chaff at the threshing, and in Cos her image with the
+corn-stalks and the poppies in her hands stood on the
+threshing-floor.(206) The festival lasted one day, and no victims might be
+sacrificed at it;(207) but special use was made, as we have seen, of the
+first-fruits of the corn. With regard to the dating of the festival we are
+informed that it fell in the month Poseideon, which corresponds roughly to
+our December, and as the date rests on the high authority of the ancient
+Athenian antiquary Philochorus,(208) and is, moreover, indirectly
+confirmed by inscriptional evidence,(209) we are bound to accept it. But
+it is certainly surprising to find a Festival of the Threshing-floor held
+so late in the year, long after the threshing, which in Greece usually
+takes place not later than midsummer, though on high ground in Crete it is
+sometimes prolonged till near the end of August.(210) We seem bound to
+conclude that the Festival of the Threshing-floor was quite distinct from
+the actual threshing of the corn.(211) It is said to have included certain
+mystic rites performed by women alone, who feasted and quaffed wine, while
+they broke filthy jests on each other and exhibited cakes baked in the
+form of the male and female organs of generation.(212) If the latter
+particulars are correctly reported we may suppose that these indecencies,
+like certain obscenities which seem to have formed part of the Great
+Mysteries at Eleusis,(213) were no mere wanton outbursts of licentious
+passion, but were deliberately practised as rites calculated to promote
+the fertility of the ground by means of homoeopathic or imitative magic. A
+like association of what we might call indecency with rites intended to
+promote the growth of the crops meets us in the Thesmophoria, a festival
+of Demeter celebrated by women alone, at which the character of the
+goddess as a source of fertility comes out clearly in the custom of mixing
+the remains of the sacrificial pigs with the seed-corn in order to obtain
+a plentiful crop. We shall return to this festival later on.(214)
+
+(M47) Other festivals held at Eleusis in honour of Demeter and Persephone
+were known as the Green Festival and the Festival of the Cornstalks.(215)
+Of the manner of their celebration we know nothing except that they
+comprised sacrifices, which were offered to Demeter and Persephone. But
+their names suffice to connect the two festivals with the green and the
+standing corn. We have seen that Demeter herself bore the title of Green,
+and that sacrifices were offered to her under that title which plainly
+aimed at promoting fertility.(216) Among the many epithets applied to
+Demeter which mark her relation to the corn may further be mentioned
+"Wheat-lover,"(217) "She of the Corn,"(218) "Sheaf-bearer,"(219) "She of
+the Threshing-floor,"(220) "She of the Winnowing-fan,"(221) "Nurse of the
+Corn-ears,"(222) "Crowned with Ears of Corn,"(223) "She of the Seed,"(224)
+"She of the Green Fruits,"(225) "Heavy with Summer Fruits,"(226)
+"Fruit-bearer,"(227) "She of the Great Loaf," and "She of the Great Barley
+Loaf."(228) Of these epithets it may be remarked that though all of them
+are quite appropriate to a Corn Goddess, some of them would scarcely be
+applicable to an Earth Goddess and therefore they add weight to the other
+arguments which turn the scale in favour of the corn as the fundamental
+attribute of Demeter.
+
+(M48) How deeply implanted in the mind of the ancient Greeks was this
+faith in Demeter as goddess of the corn may be judged by the circumstance
+that the faith actually persisted among their Christian descendants at her
+old sanctuary of Eleusis down to the beginning of the nineteenth century.
+For when the English traveller Dodwell revisited Eleusis, the inhabitants
+lamented to him the loss of a colossal image of Demeter, which was carried
+off by Clarke in 1802 and presented to the University of Cambridge, where
+it still remains. "In my first journey to Greece," says Dodwell, "this
+protecting deity was in its full glory, situated in the centre of a
+threshing-floor, amongst the ruins of her temple. The villagers were
+impressed with a persuasion that their rich harvests were the effect of
+her bounty, and since her removal, their abundance, as they assured me,
+has disappeared."(229) Thus we see the Corn Goddess Demeter standing on
+the threshing-floor of Eleusis and dispensing corn to her worshippers in
+the nineteenth century of the Christian era, precisely as her image stood
+and dispensed corn to her worshippers on the threshing-floor of Cos in the
+days of Theocritus. And just as the people of Eleusis last century
+attributed the diminution of their harvests to the loss of the image of
+Demeter, so in antiquity the Sicilians, a corn-growing people devoted to
+the worship of the two Corn Goddesses, lamented that the crops of many
+towns had perished because the unscrupulous Roman governor Verres had
+impiously carried off the image of Demeter from her famous temple at
+Henna.(230) Could we ask for a clearer proof that Demeter was indeed the
+goddess of the corn than this belief, held by the Greeks down to modern
+times, that the corn-crops depended on her presence and bounty and
+perished when her image was removed?
+
+(M49) In a former part of this work I followed an eminent French scholar
+in concluding, from various indications, that part of the religious drama
+performed in the mysteries of Eleusis may have been a marriage between the
+sky-god Zeus and the corn-goddess Demeter, represented by the hierophant
+and the priestess of the goddess respectively.(231) The conclusion is
+arrived at by combining a number of passages, all more or less vague and
+indefinite, of late Christian writers; hence it must remain to some extent
+uncertain and cannot at the best lay claim to more than a fair degree of
+probability. It may be, as Professor W. Ridgeway holds, that this dramatic
+marriage of the god and goddess was an innovation foisted into the
+Eleusinian Mysteries in that great welter of religions which followed the
+meeting of the East and the West in the later ages of antiquity.(232) If a
+marriage of Zeus and Demeter did indeed form an important feature of the
+Mysteries in the fifth century before our era, it is certainly remarkable,
+as Professor Ridgeway has justly pointed out, that no mention of Zeus
+occurs in the public decree of that century which regulates the offerings
+of first-fruits and the sacrifices to be made to the gods and goddesses of
+Eleusis.(233) At the same time we must bear in mind that, if the evidence
+for the ritual marriage of Zeus and Demeter is late and doubtful, the
+evidence for the myth is ancient and indubitable. The story was known to
+Homer, for in the list of beauties to whom he makes Zeus, in a burst of
+candour, confess that he had lost his too susceptible heart, there occurs
+the name of "the fair-haired Queen Demeter";(234) and in another passage
+the poet represents the jealous god smiting with a thunderbolt the
+favoured lover with whom the goddess had forgotten her dignity among the
+furrows of a fallow field.(235) Moreover, according to one tradition,
+Dionysus himself was the offspring of the intrigue between Zeus and
+Demeter.(236) Thus there is no intrinsic improbability in the view that
+one or other of these unedifying incidents in the backstairs chronicle of
+Olympus should have formed part of the sacred peep-show in the Eleusinian
+Mysteries. But it seems just possible that the marriage to which the
+Christian writers allude with malicious joy may after all have been of a
+more regular and orthodox pattern. We are positively told that the rape of
+Persephone was acted at the Mysteries;(237) may that scene not have been
+followed by another representing the solemnisation of her nuptials with
+her ravisher and husband Pluto? It is to be remembered that Pluto was
+sometimes known as a god of fertility under the title of Subterranean
+Zeus. It was to him under that title as well as to Demeter, that the Greek
+ploughman prayed at the beginning of the ploughing;(238) and the people of
+Myconus used to sacrifice to Subterranean Zeus and Subterranean Earth for
+the prosperity of the crops on the twelfth day of the month Lenaeon.(239)
+Thus it may be that the Zeus whose marriage was dramatically represented
+at the Mysteries was not the sky-god Zeus, but his brother Zeus of the
+Underworld, and that the writers who refer to the ceremony have confused
+the two brothers. This view, if it could be established, would dispose of
+the difficulty raised by the absence of the name of Zeus in the decree
+which prescribes the offerings to be made to the gods of Eleusis; for
+although in that decree Pluto is not mentioned under the name of
+Subterranean Zeus, he is clearly referred to, as the editors of the
+inscription have seen, under the vague title of "the God," while his
+consort Persephone is similarly referred to under the title of "the
+Goddess," and it is ordained that perfect victims shall be sacrificed to
+both of them. However, if we thus dispose of one difficulty, it must be
+confessed that in doing so we raise another. For if the bridegroom in the
+Sacred Marriage at Eleusis was not the sky-god Zeus, but the earth-god
+Pluto, we seem driven to suppose that, contrary to the opinion of the
+reverend Christian scandal-mongers, the bride was his lawful wife
+Persephone and not his sister and mother-in-law Demeter. In short, on the
+hypothesis which I have suggested we are compelled to conclude that the
+ancient busybodies who lifted the veil from the mystic marriage were
+mistaken as to the person both of the divine bridegroom and of the divine
+bride. In regard to the bridegroom I have conjectured that they may have
+confused the two brothers, Zeus of the Upper World and Zeus of the Lower
+World. In regard to the bride, can any reason be suggested for confounding
+the persons of the mother and daughter? On the view here taken of the
+nature of Demeter and Persephone nothing could be easier than to confuse
+them with each other, for both of them were mythical embodiments of the
+corn, the mother Demeter standing for the old corn of last year and the
+daughter Persephone standing for the new corn of this year. In point of
+fact Greek artists, both of the archaic and of later periods, frequently
+represent the Mother and Daughter side by side in forms which resemble
+each other so closely that eminent modern experts have sometimes differed
+from each other on the question, which is Demeter and which is Persephone;
+indeed in some cases it might be quite impossible to distinguish the two
+if it were not for the inscriptions attached to the figures.(240) The
+ancient sculptors, vase-painters, and engravers must have had some good
+reason for portraying the two goddesses in types which are almost
+indistinguishable from each other; and what better reason could they have
+had than the knowledge that the two persons of the godhead were one in
+substance, that they stood merely for two different aspects of the same
+simple natural phenomenon, the growth of the corn? Thus it is easy to
+understand why Demeter and Persephone may have been confused in ritual as
+well as in art, why in particular the part of the divine bride in a Sacred
+Marriage may sometimes have been assigned to the Mother and sometimes to
+the Daughter. But all this, I fully admit, is a mere speculation, and I
+only put it forward as such. We possess far too little information as to a
+Sacred Marriage in the Eleusinian Mysteries to be justified in speaking
+with confidence on so obscure a subject.
+
+(M50) One thing, however, which we may say with a fair degree of
+probability is that, if such a marriage did take place at Eleusis, no date
+in the agricultural year could well have been more appropriate for it than
+the date at which the Mysteries actually fell, namely about the middle of
+September. The long Greek summer is practically rainless and in the
+fervent heat and unbroken drought all nature languishes. The river-beds
+are dry, the fields parched. The farmer awaits impatiently the setting-in
+of the autumnal rains, which begin in October and mark the great season
+for ploughing and sowing. What time could be fitter for celebrating the
+union of the Corn Goddess with her husband the Earth God or perhaps rather
+with her paramour the Sky God, who will soon descend in fertilising
+showers to quicken the seed in the furrows? Such embraces of the divine
+powers or their human representatives might well be deemed, on the
+principles of homoeopathic or imitative magic, indispensable to the growth
+of the crops. At least similar ideas have been entertained and similar
+customs have been practised by many peoples;(241) and in the legend of
+Demeter's love-adventure among the furrows of the thrice-ploughed
+fallow(242) we seem to catch a glimpse of rude rites of the same sort
+performed in the fields at sowing-time by Greek ploughmen for the sake of
+ensuring the growth of the seed which they were about to commit to the
+bosom of the naked earth. In this connexion a statement of ancient writers
+as to the rites of Eleusis receives fresh significance. We are told that
+at these rites the worshippers looked up to the sky and cried "Rain!" and
+then looked down at the earth and cried "Conceive!"(243) Nothing could be
+more appropriate at a marriage of the Sky God and the Earth or Corn
+Goddess than such invocations to the heaven to pour down rain and to the
+earth or the corn to conceive seed under the fertilising shower; in Greece
+no time could well be more suitable for the utterance of such prayers than
+just at the date when the Great Mysteries of Eleusis were celebrated, at
+the end of the long drought of summer and before the first rains of
+autumn.
+
+(M51) Different both from the Great Mysteries and the offerings of
+first-fruits at Eleusis were the games which were celebrated there on a
+great scale once in every four years and on a less scale once in every two
+years.(244) That the games were distinct from the Mysteries is proved by
+their periods, which were quadriennial and biennial respectively, whereas
+the Mysteries were celebrated annually. Moreover, in Greek epigraphy, our
+most authentic evidence in such matters, the games and the Mysteries are
+clearly distinguished from each other by being mentioned separately in the
+same inscription.(245) But like the Mysteries the games seem to have been
+very ancient; for the Parian Chronicler, who wrote in the year 264 B.C.,
+assigns the foundation of the Eleusinian games to the reign of Pandion,
+the son of Cecrops. However, he represents them as of later origin than
+the Eleusinian Mysteries, which according to him were instituted by
+Eumolpus in the reign of Erechtheus, after Demeter had planted corn in
+Attica and Triptolemus had sown seed in the Rarian plain at Eleusis.(246)
+This testimony to the superior antiquity of the Mysteries is in harmony
+with our most ancient authority on the rites of Eleusis, the author of the
+_Hymn to Demeter_, who describes the origin of the Eleusinian Mysteries,
+but makes no reference or allusion to the Eleusinian Games. However, the
+great age of the games is again vouched for at a much later date by the
+rhetorician Aristides, who even declares that they were the oldest of all
+Greek games.(247) With regard to the nature and meaning of the games our
+information is extremely scanty, but an old scholiast on Pindar tells us
+that they were celebrated in honour of Demeter and Persephone as a
+thank-offering at the conclusion of the corn-harvest.(248) His testimony
+is confirmed by that of the rhetorician Aristides, who mentions the
+institution of the Eleusinian games in immediate connexion with the
+offerings of the first-fruits of the corn, which many Greek states sent to
+Athens;(249) and from an inscription dated about the close of the third
+century before our era we learn that at the Great Eleusinian Games
+sacrifices were offered to Demeter and Persephone.(250) Further, we gather
+from an official Athenian inscription of 329 B.C. that both the Great and
+the Lesser Games included athletic and musical contests, a horse-race, and
+a competition which bore the name of the Ancestral or Hereditary Contest,
+and which accordingly may well have formed the original kernel of the
+games.(251) Unfortunately nothing is known about this Ancestral Contest.
+We might be tempted to identify it with the Ancestral Contest included in
+the Eleusinian Festival of the Threshing-floor,(252) which was probably
+held on the Sacred Threshing-floor of Triptolemus at Eleusis.(253) If the
+identification could be proved, we should have another confirmation of the
+tradition which connects the games with Demeter and the corn; for
+according to the prevalent tradition it was to Triptolemus that Demeter
+first revealed the secret of the corn, and it was he whom she sent out as
+an itinerant missionary to impart the beneficent discovery of the cereals
+to all mankind and to teach them to sow the seed.(254) On monuments of
+art, especially in vase-paintings, he is constantly represented along with
+Demeter in this capacity, holding corn-stalks in his hand and sitting in
+his car, which is sometimes winged and sometimes drawn by dragons, and
+from which he is said to have sowed the seed down on the whole world as he
+sped through the air.(255) At Eleusis victims bought with the first-fruits
+of the wheat and barley were sacrificed to him as well as to Demeter and
+Persephone.(256) In short, if we may judge from the combined testimony of
+Greek literature and art, Triptolemus was the corn-hero first and
+foremost. Even beyond the limits of the Greek world, all men, we are told,
+founded sanctuaries and erected altars in his honour because he had
+bestowed on them the gift of the corn.(257) His very name has been
+plausibly explained both in ancient and modern times as "Thrice-ploughed"
+with reference to the Greek custom of ploughing the land thrice a
+year,(258) and the derivation is said to be on philological principles
+free from objection.(259) In fact it would seem as if Triptolemus, like
+Demeter and Persephone themselves, were a purely mythical being, an
+embodiment of the conception of the first sower. At all events in the
+local Eleusinian legend, according to an eminent scholar, who has paid
+special attention to Attic genealogy, "Triptolemus does not, like his
+comrade Eumolpus or other founders of Eleusinian priestly families,
+continue his kind, but without leaving offspring who might perpetuate his
+priestly office, he is removed from the scene of his beneficent activity.
+As he appeared, so he vanishes again from the legend, after he has
+fulfilled his divine mission."(260)
+
+(M52) However, there is no sufficient ground for identifying the Ancestral
+Contest of the Eleusinian games with the Ancestral Contest of the
+Threshing-festival at Eleusis, and accordingly the connexion of the games
+with the corn-harvest and with the corn-hero Triptolemus must so far
+remain uncertain. But a clear trace of such a connexion may be seen in the
+custom of rewarding the victors in the Eleusinian games with measures of
+barley; in the official Athenian inscription of 329 B.C., which contains
+the accounts of the superintendents of Eleusis and the Treasurers of the
+Two Goddesses, the amounts of corn handed over by these officers to the
+priests and priestesses for the purposes of the games is exactly
+specified.(261) This of itself is sufficient to prove that the Eleusinian
+games were closely connected with the worship of Demeter and Persephone.
+The grain thus distributed in prizes was probably reaped on the Rarian
+plain near Eleusis, where according to the legend Triptolemus sowed the
+first corn.(262) Certainly we know that the barley grown on that plain was
+used in sacrifices and for the baking of the sacrificial cakes,(263) from
+which we may reasonably infer that the prizes of barley, to which no doubt
+a certain sanctity attached in the popular mind, were brought from the
+same holy fields. So sacred was the Rarian plain that no dead body was
+allowed to defile it. When such a pollution accidentally took place, it
+was expiated by the sacrifice of a pig,(264) the usual victim employed in
+Greek purificatory rites.
+
+(M53) Thus, so far as the scanty evidence at our disposal permits us to
+judge, the Eleusinian games, like the Eleusinian Mysteries, would seem to
+have been primarily concerned with Demeter and Persephone as goddesses of
+the corn. At least that is expressly affirmed by the old scholiast on
+Pindar and it is borne out by the practice of rewarding the victors with
+measures of barley. Perhaps the Ancestral Contest, which may well have
+formed the original nucleus of the games, was a contest between the
+reapers on the sacred Rarian plain to see who should finish his allotted
+task before his fellows. For success in such a contest no prize could be
+more appropriate than a measure of the sacred barley which the victorious
+reaper had just cut on the barley-field. In the sequel we shall see that
+similar contests between reapers have been common on the harvest fields of
+modern Europe, and it will appear that such competitions are not purely
+athletic; their aim is not simply to demonstrate the superior strength,
+activity, and skill of the victors; it is to secure for the particular
+farm the possession of the blooming young Corn-maiden of the present year,
+conceived as the embodiment of the vigorous grain, and to pass on to
+laggard neighbours the aged Corn-mother of the past year, conceived as an
+embodiment of the effete and outworn energies of the corn.(265) May it not
+have been so at Eleusis? may not the reapers have vied with each other for
+possession of the young corn-spirit Persephone and for avoidance of the
+old corn-spirit Demeter? may not the prize of barley, which rewarded the
+victor in the Ancestral Contest, have been supposed to house in the ripe
+ears no less a personage than the Corn-maiden Persephone herself? And if
+there is any truth in these conjectures (for conjectures they are and
+nothing more), we may hazard a guess as to the other Ancestral Contest
+which took place at the Eleusinian Festival of the Threshing-floor.
+Perhaps it in like manner was originally a competition between threshers
+on the sacred threshing-floor of Triptolemus to determine who should
+finish threshing his allotted quantity of corn before the rest. Such
+competitions have also been common, as we shall see presently, on the
+threshing-floors of modern Europe, and their motive again has not been
+simple emulation between sturdy swains for the reward of strength and
+dexterity; it has been a dread of being burdened with the aged and outworn
+spirit of the corn conceived as present in the bundle of corn-stalks which
+receives the last stroke at threshing.(266) We know that effigies of
+Demeter with corn and poppies in her hands stood on Greek
+threshing-floors.(267) Perhaps at the conclusion of the threshing these
+effigies, as representatives of the old Corn-spirit, were passed on to
+neighbours who had not yet finished threshing the corn. At least the
+supposition is in harmony with modern customs observed on the
+threshing-floor.
+
+(M54) It is possible that the Eleusinian games were no more than a popular
+merrymaking celebrated at the close of the harvest. This view of their
+character might be supported by modern analogies; for in some parts of
+Germany it has been customary for the harvesters, when their work is done,
+to engage in athletic competitions of various kinds, which have at first
+sight no very obvious connexion with the business of harvesting. For
+example, at Besbau near Luckau great cakes were baked at the
+harvest-festival, and the labourers, both men and women, ran races for
+them. He or she who reached them first received not only a cake, but a
+handkerchief or the like as a prize. Again, at Bergkirchen, when the
+harvest was over, a garland was hung up and the harvesters rode at it on
+horseback and tried to bring it down with a stab or a blow as they
+galloped past. He who succeeded in bringing it down was proclaimed King.
+Again, in the villages near Fuerstenwald at harvest the young men used to
+fetch a fir-tree from the wood, peel the trunk, and set it up like a mast
+in the middle of the village. A handkerchief and other prizes were
+fastened to the top of the pole and the men clambered up for them.(268)
+Among the peasantry of Silesia, we are told, the harvest-home broadened
+out into a popular festival, in which athletic sports figured prominently.
+Thus, for example, at Jaerischau, in the Strehlitz district, a scythe, a
+rake, a flail, and a hay-fork or pitchfork were fastened to the top of a
+smooth pole and awarded as prizes, in order of merit, to the men who
+displayed most agility in climbing the pole. Younger men amused themselves
+with running in sacks, high jumps, and so forth. At Prauss, near Nimptsch,
+the girls ran a race in a field for aprons as prizes. In the central parts
+of Silesia a favourite amusement at harvest was a race between girls for a
+garland of leaves or flowers.(269) Yet it seems probable that all such
+sports at harvest were in origin not mere pastimes, but that they were
+serious attempts to secure in one way or another the help and blessing of
+the corn-spirit. Thus in some parts of Prussia, at the close of the
+rye-harvest, a few sheaves used to be left standing in the field after all
+the rest of the rye had been carted home. These sheaves were then made up
+into the shape of a man and dressed out in masculine costume, and all the
+young women were obliged to run a race, of which the corn-man was the
+goal. She who won the race led off the dancing in the evening.(270) Here
+the aim of the foot-race among the young women is clearly to secure the
+corn-spirit embodied in the last sheaf left standing on the field; for, as
+we shall see later on, the last sheaf is commonly supposed to harbour the
+corn-spirit and is treated accordingly like a man or a woman.(271)
+
+(M55) If the Ancestral Contest at the Eleusinian games was, as I have
+conjectured, a contest between the reapers on the sacred barley-field, we
+should have to suppose that the games were celebrated at barley-harvest,
+which in the lowlands of Greece falls in May or even at the end of April.
+This theory is in harmony with the evidence of the scholiast on Pindar,
+who tells us that the Eleusinian games were celebrated after the
+corn-harvest.(272) No other ancient authority, so far as I am aware,
+mentions at what time of the year these games were held. Modern
+authorities, arguing from certain slight and to some extent conjectural
+data, have variously assigned them to Metageitnion (August) and to
+Boedromion (September), and those who assign them to Boedromion
+(September) are divided in opinion as to whether they preceded or followed
+the Mysteries.(273) However, the evidence is far too slender and uncertain
+to allow of any conclusions being based on it.
+
+(M56) But there is a serious difficulty in the way of connecting the
+Eleusinian games with the goddesses of the corn. How is the quadriennial
+or the biennial period of the games to be reconciled with the annual
+growth of the crops? Year by year the barley and the wheat are sown and
+reaped; how then could the games, held only every fourth or every second
+year, have been regarded as thank-offerings for the annual harvest? On
+this view of their nature, which is the one taken by the old scholiast on
+Pindar, though the harvest was received at the hands of the Corn Goddess
+punctually every year, men thanked her for her bounty only every second
+year or even only every fourth year. What were her feelings likely to be
+in the blank years when she got no thanks and no games? She might
+naturally resent such negligence and ingratitude and punish them by
+forbidding the seed to sprout, just as she did at Eleusis when she mourned
+the loss of her daughter. In short, men could hardly expect to reap crops
+in years in which they offered nothing to the Corn Goddess. That would
+indeed appear to be the view generally taken by the ancient Greeks; for we
+have seen that year by year they presented the first-fruits of the barley
+and the wheat to Demeter, not merely in the solemn state ritual of
+Eleusis, but also in rustic festivals held by farmers on their
+threshing-floors. The pious Greek husbandman would no doubt have been
+shocked and horrified at a proposal to pay the Corn Goddess her dues only
+every second or fourth year. "No offerings, no crops," he would say to
+himself, and would anticipate nothing but dearth and famine in any year
+when he failed to satisfy the just and lawful demands of the divinity on
+whose good pleasure he believed the growth of the corn to be directly
+dependent. Accordingly we may regard it as highly probable that from the
+very beginning of settled and regular agriculture in Greece men annually
+propitiated the deities of the corn with a ritual of some sort, and
+rendered them their dues in the shape of offerings of the ripe barley and
+wheat. Now we know that the Mysteries of Eleusis were celebrated every
+year, and accordingly, if I am right in interpreting them as essentially a
+dramatic representation of the annual vicissitudes of the corn performed
+for the purpose of quickening the seed, it becomes probable that in some
+form or another they were annually held at Eleusis long before the
+practice arose of celebrating games there every fourth or every second
+year. In short, the Eleusinian mysteries were in all probability far older
+than the Eleusinian games. How old they were we cannot even guess. But
+when we consider that the cultivation of barley and wheat, the two cereals
+specially associated with Demeter, appears to have been practised in
+prehistoric Europe from the Stone Age onwards,(274) we shall be disposed
+to admit that the annual performance of religious or magical rites at
+Eleusis for the purpose of ensuring good crops, whether by propitiating
+the Corn Goddess with offerings of first-fruits or by dramatically
+representing the sowing and the growth of the corn in mythical form,
+probably dates from an extremely remote antiquity.
+
+(M57) But in order to clear our ideas on this subject it is desirable to
+ascertain, if possible, the reason for holding the Eleusinian games at
+intervals of two or four years. The reason for holding a harvest festival
+and thanksgiving every year is obvious enough; but why hold games only
+every second or every fourth year? The reason for such limitations is by
+no means obvious on the face of them, especially if the growth of the
+crops is deemed dependent on the celebration. In order to find an answer
+to this question it may be well at the outset to confine our attention to
+the Great Eleusinian Games, which were celebrated only every fourth year.
+That these were the principal games appears not only from their name, but
+from the testimony of Aristotle, or at least of the author of _The
+Constitution of Athens_, who notices only the quadriennial or, as in
+accordance with Greek idiom he calls it, the penteteric celebration of the
+games.(275) Now the custom of holding games at intervals of four years was
+very common in Greece; to take only a few conspicuous examples the Olympic
+games at Olympia, the Pythian games at Delphi, the Panathenaic games at
+Athens, and the Eleutherian games at Plataea(276) were all celebrated at
+quadriennial or, as the Greeks called them, penteteric periods; and at a
+later time when Augustus instituted, or rather renewed on a more splendid
+scale, the games at Actium to commemorate his great victory, he followed a
+well-established Greek precedent by ordaining that they should be
+quadriennial.(277) Still later the emperor Hadrian instituted quadriennial
+games at Mantinea in honour of his dead favourite Antinous.(278) But in
+regard to the two greatest of all the Greek games, the Olympian and the
+Pythian, I have shewn reasons for thinking that they were originally
+celebrated at intervals of eight instead of four years; certainly this is
+attested for the Pythian games,(279) and the mode of calculating the
+Olympiads by alternate periods of fifty and forty-nine lunar months,(280)
+which added together make up eight solar years, seems to prove that the
+Olympic cycle of four years was really based on a cycle of eight years,
+from which it is natural to infer that in the beginning the Olympic, like
+the Pythian, games may have been octennial instead of quadriennial.(281)
+Now we know from the testimony of the ancients themselves that the Greeks
+instituted the eight-years' cycle for the purpose of harmonising solar and
+lunar time.(282) They regulated their calendar primarily by observation of
+the moon rather than of the sun; their months were lunar, and their
+ordinary year consisted of twelve lunar months. But the solar year of
+three hundred and sixty-five and a quarter days exceeds the lunar year of
+twelve lunar months or three hundred and fifty-four days by eleven and a
+quarter days, so that in eight solar years the excess amounts to ninety
+days or roughly three lunar months. Accordingly the Greeks equated eight
+solar years to eight lunar years of twelve months each by intercalating
+three lunar months of thirty days each in the octennial cycle; they
+intercalated one lunar month in the third year of the cycle, a second
+lunar month in the fifth year, and a third lunar month in the eighth
+year.(283) In this way they, so to say, made the sun and moon keep time
+together by reckoning ninety-nine lunar months as equivalent to eight
+solar years; so that if, for example, the full moon coincided with the
+summer solstice in one year, it coincided with it again after the
+revolution of the eight years' cycle, but not before. The equation was
+indeed not quite exact, and in order to render it so the Greeks afterwards
+found themselves obliged, first, to intercalate three days every sixteen
+years, and, next, to omit one intercalary month in every period of one
+hundred and sixty years.(284) But these corrections were doubtless
+refinements of a later age; they may have been due to the astronomer
+Eudoxus of Cnidus, or to Cleostratus of Tenedos, who were variously, but
+incorrectly, supposed to have instituted the octennial cycle.(285) There
+are strong grounds for holding that in its simplest form the octennial
+cycle of ninety-nine lunar months dates from an extremely remote antiquity
+in Greece; that it was in fact, as a well-informed Greek writer tell
+us,(286) the first systematic attempt to bring solar and the lunar time
+into harmony. Indeed, if the Olympiads were calculated, as they appear to
+have been, on the eight years' cycle, this of itself suffices to place the
+origin of the cycle not later than 776 B.C., the year with which the
+reckoning by Olympiads begins. And when we bear in mind the very remote
+period from which, judged by the wonderful remains of Mycenae, Tiryns,
+Cnossus and other cities, civilisation in Greek lands appears to date, it
+seems reasonable to suppose that the octennial cycle, based as it was on
+very simple observations, for which nothing but good eyes and almost no
+astronomical knowledge was necessary,(287) may have been handed down among
+the inhabitants of these countries from ages that preceded by many
+centuries, possibly by thousands of years, the great period of Greek
+literature and art. The supposition is confirmed by the traces which the
+octennial cycle has left of itself in certain ancient Greek customs and
+superstitions, particularly by the evidence which points to the conclusion
+that at two of the oldest seats of monarchy in Greece, namely Cnossus and
+Sparta, the king's tenure of office was formerly limited to eight
+years.(288)
+
+(M58) We are informed, and may readily believe, that the motive which led
+the Greeks to adopt the eight years' cycle was religious rather than
+practical or scientific: their aim was not so much to ensure the punctual
+despatch of business or to solve an abstract problem in astronomy, as to
+ascertain the exact days on which they ought to sacrifice to the gods. For
+the Greeks regularly employed lunar months in their reckonings,(289) and
+accordingly if they had dated their religious festivals simply by the
+number of the month and the day of the month, the excess of eleven and a
+quarter days of the solar over the lunar year would have had the effect of
+causing the festivals gradually to revolve throughout the whole circle of
+the seasons, so that in time ceremonies which properly belonged to winter
+would come to be held in summer, and on the contrary ceremonies which were
+only appropriate to summer would come to be held in winter. To avoid this
+anomaly, and to ensure that festivals dated by lunar months should fall at
+fixed or nearly fixed points in the solar year, the Greeks adopted the
+octennial cycle by the simple expedient of intercalating three lunar
+months in every period of eight years. In doing so they acted, as one of
+their writers justly pointed out, on a principle precisely the reverse of
+that followed by the ancient Egyptians, who deliberately regulated their
+religious festivals by a purely lunar calendar for the purpose of allowing
+them gradually to revolve throughout the whole circle of the seasons.(290)
+
+(M59) Thus at an early stage of culture the regulation of the calendar is
+largely an affair of religion: it is a means of maintaining the
+established relations between gods and men on a satisfactory footing; and
+in public opinion the great evil of a disordered calendar is not so much
+that it disturbs and disarranges the ordinary course of business and the
+various transactions of civil life, as that it endangers the welfare or
+even the existence both of individuals and of the community by
+interrupting their normal intercourse with those divine powers on whose
+favour men believe themselves to be absolutely dependent. Hence in states
+which take this view of the deep religious import of the calendar its
+superintendence is naturally entrusted to priests rather than to
+astronomers, because the science of astronomy is regarded merely as
+ancillary to the deeper mysteries of theology. For example, at Rome the
+method of determining the months and regulating the festivals was a secret
+which the pontiffs for ages jealously guarded from the profane vulgar; and
+in consequence of their ignorance and incapacity the calendar fell into
+confusion and the festivals were celebrated out of their natural seasons,
+until the greatest of all the Roman pontiffs, Julius Caesar, remedied the
+confusion and placed the calendar of the civilised world on the firm
+foundation on which, with little change, it stands to this day.(291)
+
+(M60) On the whole, then, it appears probable that the octennial cycle,
+based on considerations of religion and on elementary observations of the
+two great luminaries, dated from a very remote period among the ancient
+Greeks; if they did not bring it with them when they migrated southwards
+from the oakwoods and beechwoods of Central Europe, they may well have
+taken it over from their civilised predecessors of different blood and
+different language whom they found leading a settled agricultural life on
+the lands about the Aegean Sea. Now we have seen reasons to hold that the
+two most famous of the great Greek games, the Pythian and the Olympian,
+were both based on the ancient cycle of eight years, and that the
+quadriennial period at which they were regularly celebrated in historical
+times was arrived at by a subdivision of the older octennial cycle. It is
+hardly rash, therefore, to conjecture that the quadriennial period in
+general, regarded as the normal period for the celebration of great games
+and festivals, was originally founded on elementary religious and
+astronomical considerations of the same kind, that is, on a somewhat crude
+attempt to harmonise the discrepancies of solar and lunar time and thereby
+to ensure the continued favour of the gods. It is, indeed, certain or
+probable that some of these quadriennial festivals were celebrated in
+honour of the dead;(292) but there seems to be nothing in the beliefs or
+customs of the ancient Greeks concerning the dead which would suggest a
+quadriennial period as an appropriate one for propitiating the ghosts of
+the departed. At first sight it is different with the octennial period;
+for according to Pindar, the souls of the dead who had been purged of
+their guilt by an abode of eight years in the nether world were born again
+on earth in the ninth year as glorious kings, athletes, and sages.(293)
+Now if this belief in the reincarnation of the dead after eight years were
+primitive, it might certainly furnish an excellent reason for honouring
+the ghosts of great men at their graves every eight years in order to
+facilitate their rebirth into the world. Yet the period of eight years
+thus rigidly applied to the life of disembodied spirits appears too
+arbitrary and conventional to be really primitive, and we may suspect that
+in this application it was nothing but an inference drawn from the old
+octennial cycle, which had been instituted for the purpose of reconciling
+solar and lunar time. If that was so, it will follow that the quadriennial
+period of funeral games was, like the similar period of other religious
+festivals, obtained through the bisection of the octennial cycle, and
+hence that it was ultimately derived from astronomical considerations
+rather than from any beliefs touching a quadriennial revolution in the
+state of the dead. Yet in historical times it may well have happened that
+these considerations were forgotten, and that games and festivals were
+instituted at quadriennial intervals, for example at Plataea(294) in
+honour of the slain, at Actium to commemorate the great victory, and at
+Mantinea in honour of Antinous,(295) without any conscious reference to
+the sun and moon, and merely because that period had from time immemorial
+been regarded as the proper and normal one for the celebration of certain
+solemn religious rites.
+
+(M61) If we enquire why the Greeks so often bisected the old octennial
+period into two quadriennial periods for purposes of religion, the answer
+can only be conjectural, for no positive information appears to be given
+us on the subject by ancient writers. Perhaps they thought that eight
+years was too long a time to elapse between the solemn services, and that
+it was desirable to propitiate the deities at shorter intervals. But it is
+possible that political as well as religious motives may have operated to
+produce the change. We have seen reason to think that at two of the oldest
+seats of monarchy in Greece, namely Cnossus and Sparta, kings formerly
+held office for periods of eight years only, after which their sovereignty
+either terminated or had to be formally renewed. Now with the gradual
+growth of that democratic sentiment, which ultimately dominated Greek
+political life, men would become more and more jealous of the kingly power
+and would seek to restrict it within narrower limits, and one of the most
+obvious means of doing so was to shorten the king's tenure of office. We
+know that this was done at Athens, where the dynasty of the Medontids was
+reduced from the rank of monarchs for life to that of magistrates holding
+office for ten years only.(296) It is possible that elsewhere the king's
+reign was cut down from eight years to four years; and if I am right in my
+explanation of the origin of the Olympic games this political revolution
+actually took place at Olympia, where the victors in the chariot-race
+would seem at first to have personated the Sun-god and perhaps held office
+in the capacity of divine kings during the intervals between successive
+celebrations of the games.(297) If at Olympia and elsewhere the games were
+of old primarily contests in which the king had personally to take part
+for the purpose of attesting his bodily vigour and therefore his capacity
+for office, the repetition of the test at intervals of four instead of
+eight years might be regarded as furnishing a better guarantee of the
+maintenance of the king's efficiency and thereby of the general welfare,
+which in primitive society is often supposed to be sympathetically bound
+up with the health and strength of the king.
+
+(M62) But while many of the great Greek games were celebrated at intervals
+of four years, others, such as the Nemean and the Isthmian, were
+celebrated at intervals of two years only; and just as the quadriennial
+period seems to have been arrived at through a bisection of the octennial
+period, so we may surmise that the biennial period was produced by a
+bisection of the quadriennial period. This was the view which the
+admirable modern chronologer L. Ideler took of the origin of the
+quadriennial and biennial festivals respectively,(298) and it appears far
+more probable than the contrary opinion of the ancient chronologer
+Censorinus, that the quadriennial period was reached by doubling the
+biennial, and the octennial period by doubling the quadriennial.(299) The
+theory of Censorinus was that the Greeks started with a biennial cycle of
+twelve and thirteen lunar months alternately in successive years for the
+purpose of harmonising solar and lunar time.(300) But as the cycle so
+produced exceeds the true solar time by seven and a half days,(301) the
+discrepancy which it leaves between the two great celestial clocks, the
+sun and moon, was too glaring to escape the observation even of simple
+farmers, who would soon have been painfully sensible that the times were
+out of joint, if they had attempted to regulate the various operations of
+the agricultural year by reference to so very inaccurate an almanac. It is
+unlikely, therefore, that the Greeks ever made much use of a biennial
+cycle of this sort.
+
+(M63) Now to apply these conclusions to the Eleusinian games, which
+furnished the starting-point for the preceding discussion. Whatever the
+origin and meaning of these games may have been, we may surmise that the
+quadriennial and biennial periods at which they were held were originally
+derived from astronomical considerations, and that they had nothing to do
+directly either with the agricultural cycle, which is annual, nor with the
+worship of the dead, which can scarcely be said to have any cycle at all,
+unless indeed it be an annual one. In other words, neither the needs of
+husbandry nor the superstitions relating to ghosts furnish any natural
+explanation of the quadriennial and biennial periods of the Eleusinian
+games, and to discover such an explanation we are obliged to fall back on
+astronomy or, to be more exact, on that blend of astronomy with religion
+which appears to be mainly responsible for such Greek festivals as exceed
+a year in their period. To admit this is not to decide the question
+whether the Eleusinian games were agricultural or funereal in character;
+but it is implicitly to acknowledge that the games were of later origin
+than the annual ceremonies, including the Great Mysteries, which were
+designed to propitiate the deities of the corn for the very simple and
+practical purpose of ensuring good crops within the year. For it cannot
+but be that men observed and laid their account with the annual changes of
+the seasons, especially as manifested by the growth and maturity of the
+crops, long before they attempted to reconcile the discrepancies of solar
+and lunar time by a series of observations extending over several years.
+
+(M64) On the whole, then, if, ignoring theories, we adhere to the evidence
+of the ancients themselves in regard to the rites of Eleusis, including
+under that general term the Great Mysteries, the games, the Festival
+before Ploughing (_proerosia_), the Festival of the Threshing-floor, the
+Green Festival, the Festival of the Cornstalks, and the offerings of
+first-fruits, we shall probably incline to agree with the most learned of
+ancient antiquaries, the Roman Varro, who, to quote Augustine's report of
+his opinion, "interpreted the whole of the Eleusinian mysteries as
+relating to the corn which Ceres (Demeter) had discovered, and to
+Proserpine (Persephone), whom Pluto had carried off from her. And
+Proserpine herself, he said, signifies the fecundity of the seeds, the
+failure of which at a certain time had caused the earth to mourn for
+barrenness, and therefore had given rise to the opinion that the daughter
+of Ceres, that is, fecundity itself, had been ravished by Pluto and
+detained in the nether world; and when the dearth had been publicly
+mourned and fecundity had returned once more, there was gladness at the
+return of Proserpine and solemn rites were instituted accordingly. After
+that he says," continues Augustine, reporting Varro, "that many things
+were taught in her mysteries which had no reference but to the discovery
+of the corn."(302)
+
+(M65) Thus far I have for the most part assumed an identity of nature
+between Demeter and Persephone, the divine mother and daughter
+personifying the corn in its double aspect of the seed-corn of last year
+and the ripe ears of this, and I pointed out that this view of the
+substantial unity of mother and daughter is borne out by their portraits
+in Greek art, which are often so alike as to be indistinguishable. Such a
+close resemblance between the artistic types of Demeter and Persephone
+militates decidedly against the view that the two goddesses are mythical
+embodiments of two things so different and so easily distinguishable from
+each other as the earth and the vegetation which springs from it. Had
+Greek artists accepted that view of Demeter and Persephone, they could
+surely have devised types of them which would have brought out the deep
+distinction between the goddesses. That they were capable of doing so is
+proved by the simple fact that they regularly represented the Earth
+Goddess by a type which differed widely both from that of Demeter and from
+that of Persephone.(303) Not only so, but they sometimes set the two types
+of the Earth Goddess and the Corn Goddess (Demeter) side by side as if on
+purpose to demonstrate their difference. Thus at Patrae there was a
+sanctuary of Demeter, in which she and Persephone were portrayed standing,
+while Earth was represented by a seated image;(304) and on a vase-painting
+the Earth Goddess is seen appropriately emerging from the ground with a
+horn of plenty and an infant in her uplifted arms, while Demeter and
+Persephone, scarcely distinguishable from each other, stand at full height
+behind her, looking down at her half-buried figure, and Triptolemus in his
+wheeled car sits directly above her.(305) In this instructive picture,
+accordingly, we see grouped together the principal personages in the myth
+of the corn: the Earth Goddess, the two Goddesses of the old and the new
+corn, and the hero who is said to have been sent forth by the Corn Goddess
+to sow the seed broadcast over the earth. Such representations seem to
+prove that the artists clearly distinguished Demeter from the Earth
+Goddess.(306) And if Demeter did not personify the earth, can there be any
+reasonable doubt that, like her daughter, she personified the corn which
+was so commonly called by her name from the time of Homer downwards? The
+essential identity of mother and daughter is suggested, not only by the
+close resemblance of their artistic types, but also by the official title
+of "the Two Goddesses" which was regularly applied to them in the great
+sanctuary at Eleusis without any specification of their individual
+attributes and titles,(307) as if their separate individualities had
+almost merged in a single divine substance.(308)
+
+(M66) Surveying the evidence as a whole, we may say that from the myth of
+Demeter and Persephone, from their ritual, from their representations in
+art, from the titles which they bore, from the offerings of first-fruits
+which were presented to them, and from the names applied to the cereals,
+we are fairly entitled to conclude that in the mind of the ordinary Greek
+the two goddesses were essentially personifications of the corn, and that
+in this germ the whole efflorescence of their religion finds implicitly
+its explanation. But to maintain this is not to deny that in the long
+course of religious evolution high moral and spiritual conceptions were
+grafted on this simple original stock and blossomed out into fairer
+flowers than the bloom of the barley and the wheat. Above all, the thought
+of the seed buried in the earth in order to spring up to new and higher
+life readily suggested a comparison with human destiny, and strengthened
+the hope that for man too the grave may be but the beginning of a better
+and happier existence in some brighter world unknown. This simple and
+natural reflection seems perfectly sufficient to explain the association
+of the Corn Goddess at Eleusis with the mystery of death and the hope of a
+blissful immortality. For that the ancients regarded initiation in the
+Eleusinian mysteries as a key to unlock the gates of Paradise appears to
+be proved by the allusions which well-informed writers among them drop to
+the happiness in store for the initiated hereafter.(309) No doubt it is
+easy for us to discern the flimsiness of the logical foundation on which
+such high hopes were built.(310) But drowning men clutch at straws, and we
+need not wonder that the Greeks, like ourselves, with death before them
+and a great love of life in their hearts, should not have stopped to weigh
+with too nice a hand the arguments that told for and against the prospect
+of human immortality. The reasoning that satisfied Saint Paul(311) and has
+brought comfort to untold thousands of sorrowing Christians, standing by
+the deathbed or the open grave of their loved ones, was good enough to
+pass muster with ancient pagans, when they too bowed their heads under the
+burden of grief, and, with the taper of life burning low in the socket,
+looked forward into the darkness of the unknown. Therefore we do no
+indignity to the myth of Demeter and Persephone--one of the few myths in
+which the sunshine and clarity of the Greek genius are crossed by the
+shadow and mystery of death--when we trace its origin to some of the most
+familiar, yet eternally affecting aspects of nature, to the melancholy
+gloom and decay of autumn and to the freshness, the brightness, and the
+verdure of spring.
+
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III. MAGICAL SIGNIFICANCE OF GAMES IN PRIMITIVE AGRICULTURE.
+
+
+(M67) In the preceding chapter we saw that among the rites of Eleusis were
+comprised certain athletic sports, such as foot-races, horse-races,
+leaping, wrestling, and boxing, the victors in which were rewarded with
+measures of barley distributed among them by the priests.(312) These
+sports the ancients themselves associated with the worship of Demeter and
+Persephone, the goddesses of the corn, and strange as such an association
+may seem to us, it is not without its analogy among the harvest customs of
+modern European peasantry.(313) But to discover clear cases of games
+practised for the express purpose of promoting the growth of the crops, we
+must turn to more primitive agricultural communities than the Athenians of
+classical antiquity or the peoples of modern Europe. Such communities may
+be found at the present day among the savage tribes of Borneo and New
+Guinea, who subsist mainly by tilling the ground. Among them we take the
+Kayans or Bahaus of central Borneo as typical. They are essentially an
+agricultural people, and devote themselves mainly to the cultivation of
+rice, which furnishes their staple food; all other products of the ground
+are of subordinate importance. Hence agriculture, we are told, dominates
+the whole life of these tribes: their year is the year of the cultivation
+of the rice, and they divide it into various periods which are determined
+by the conditions necessary for the tilling of the fields and the
+manipulation of the rice. "In tribes whose thoughts are so much engrossed
+by agriculture it is no wonder that they associate with it their ideas of
+the powers which rule them for good or evil. The spirit-world stands in
+close connexion with the agriculture of the Bahaus; without the consent of
+the spirits no work in the fields may be undertaken. Moreover, all the
+great popular festivals coincide with the different periods of the
+cultivation of the rice. As the people are in an unusual state of
+affluence after harvest, all family festivals which require a large outlay
+are for practical reasons deferred till the New Year festival at the end
+of harvest. The two mighty spirits Amei Awi and his wife Buring Une, who,
+according to the belief of the Kayans, live in a world under ground,
+dominate the whole of the tillage and determine the issue of the harvest
+in great measure by the behaviour of the owner of the land, not so much by
+his moral conduct, as by the offerings he has made to the spirits and the
+attention he has paid to their warnings. An important part in agriculture
+falls to the chief: at the festivals he has, in the name of the whole
+tribe, to see to it that the prescribed conjurations are carried out by
+the priestesses. All religious ceremonies required for the cultivation of
+the ground take place in a small rice-field specially set apart for that
+purpose, called _luma lali_: here the chief's family ushers in every fresh
+operation in the cultivation of the rice, such as sowing, hoeing, and
+reaping: the solemn actions there performed have a symbolical
+significance."(314)
+
+(M68) Not only the chief's family among the Kayans has such a consecrated
+field; every family possesses one of its own. These little fields are
+never cultivated for the sake of their produce: they serve only as the
+scene of religious ceremonies and of those symbolical operations of
+agriculture which are afterwards performed in earnest on the real
+rice-fields.(315) For example, at the festival before sowing a priestess
+sows some rice on the consecrated field of the chief's family and then
+calls on a number of young men and girls to complete the work; the young
+men then dig holes in the ground with digging-sticks, and the girls come
+behind them and plant the rice-seed in the holes. Afterwards the
+priestesses lay offerings of food, wrapt in banana-leaves, here and there
+on the holy field, while they croon prayers to the spirits in soft tones,
+which are half drowned in the clashing music of the gongs. On another day
+women gather all kinds of edible leaves in their gardens and fields, boil
+them in water, and then sprinkle the water on the consecrated rice-field.
+But on that and other days of the festival the people attend also to their
+own wants, banqueting on a favourite species of rice and other dainties.
+The ceremonies connected with sowing last several weeks, and during this
+time certain taboos have to be observed by the people. Thus on the first
+day of the festival the whole population, except the very old and the very
+young, must refrain from bathing; after that there follows a period of
+rest for eight nights, during which the people may neither work nor hold
+intercourse with their neighbours. On the tenth day the prohibition to
+bathe is again enforced; and during the eight following days the great
+rice-field of the village, where the real crops are raised, is sowed.(316)
+The reason for excluding strangers from the village at these times is a
+religious one. It is a fear lest the presence of strangers might frighten
+the spirits or put them in a bad humour, and so defeat the object of the
+ceremony; for, while the religious ceremonies which accompany the
+cultivation of the rice differ somewhat from each other in different
+tribes, the ideas at the bottom of them, we are told, are everywhere the
+same: the aim always is to appease and propitiate the souls of the rice
+and the other spirits by sacrifices of all sorts.(317)
+
+(M69) However, during this obligatory period of seclusion and rest the
+Kayans employ themselves in various pursuits, which, though at first sight
+they might seem to serve no other purpose than that of recreation, have
+really in the minds of the people a much deeper significance. For example,
+at this time the men often play at spinning tops. The tops are smooth,
+flat pieces of wood weighing several pounds. Each man tries to spin his
+own top so that it knocks down those of his neighbours and continues
+itself to revolve triumphantly. New tops are commonly carved for the
+festival. The older men sometimes use heavy tops of iron-wood. Again,
+every evening the young men assemble in the open space before the chief's
+house and engage in contests of strength and agility, while the women
+watch them from the long gallery or verandah of the house. Another popular
+pastime during the festival of sowing is a masquerade. It takes place on
+the evening of the tenth day, the day on which, for the second time, the
+people are forbidden to bathe. The scene of the performance is again the
+open space in front of the chief's house. As the day draws towards
+evening, the villagers begin to assemble in the gallery or verandah of the
+house in order to secure good places for viewing the masquerade. All the
+maskers at these ceremonies represent evil spirits. The men wear ugly
+wooden masks on their faces, and their bodies are swathed in masses of
+slit banana leaves so as to imitate the hideous faces and hairy bodies of
+the demons. The young women wear on their heads cylindrical baskets, which
+conceal their real features, while they exhibit to the spectators
+grotesque human faces formed by stitches on pieces of white cotton, which
+are fastened to the baskets. On the occasion when Dr. Nieuwenhuis
+witnessed the ceremony, the first to appear on the scene were some men
+wearing wooden masks and helmets and so thickly wrapt in banana leaves
+that they looked like moving masses of green foliage. They danced
+silently, keeping time to the beat of the gongs. They were followed by
+other figures, some of whom executed war-dances; but the weight of their
+leafy envelope was such that they soon grew tired, and though they leaped
+high, they uttered none of the wild war-whoops which usually accompany
+these martial exercises. When darkness fell, the dances ceased and were
+replaced by a little drama representing a boar brought to bay by a pack of
+hounds. The part of the boar was played by an actor wearing a wooden
+boar's head mask, who ran about on all fours and grunted in a life-like
+manner, while the hounds, acted by young men, snarled, yelped, and made
+dashes at him. The play was watched with lively interest and peals of
+laughter by the spectators. Later in the evening eight disguised girls
+danced, one behind the other, with slow steps and waving arms, to the
+glimmering light of torches and the strains of a sort of jew's harp.(318)
+
+(M70) The rites which accompany the sowing of the fields are no sooner
+over than those which usher in the hoeing begin. Like the sowing
+ceremonies, they are inaugurated by a priestess, who hoes the sacred field
+round about a sacrificial stage and then calls upon other people to
+complete the work. After that the holy field is again sprinkled with a
+decoction of herbs.(319)
+
+(M71) But the crowning point of the Kayan year is the New Year festival.
+The harvest has then been fully housed: abundance reigns in every family,
+and for eight days the people, dressed out in all their finery, give
+themselves up to mirth and jollity. The festival was witnessed by the
+Dutch explorer Dr. Nieuwenhuis. To lure the good spirits from the spirit
+land baskets filled with precious objects were set out before the windows,
+and the priestesses made long speeches, in which they invited these
+beneficent beings to come to the chief's house and to stay there during
+the whole of the ceremonies. Two days afterwards one of the priestesses
+harangued the spirits for three-quarters of an hour, telling them who the
+Kayans were, from whom the chief's family was descended, what the tribe
+was doing, and what were its wishes, not forgetting to implore the
+vengeance of the spirits on the Batang-Lupars, the hereditary foes of the
+Kayans. The harangue was couched in rhyming verse and delivered in
+sing-song tones. Five days later eight priestesses ascended a sacrificial
+stage, on which food was daily set forth for the spirits. There they
+joined hands and crooned another long address to the spirits, marking the
+time with their hands. Then a basket containing offerings of food was
+handed up to them, and one of the priestesses opened it and invited the
+spirits to enter the basket. When they were supposed to have done so, the
+lid was shut down on them, and the basket with the spirits in it was
+conveyed into the chief's house. As the priestesses in the performance of
+the sacred ceremonies might not touch the ground, planks were cut from a
+fruit-tree and laid on the ground for them to step on. But the great
+feature of the New Year festival is the sacrifice of pigs, of which the
+spiritual essence is appropriately offered to the spirits, while their
+material substance is consumed by the worshippers. In carrying out this
+highly satisfactory arrangement, while the live pigs lay tethered in a row
+on the ground, the priestesses danced solemnly round a sacrificial stage,
+each of them arrayed in a war-mantle of panther-skin and wearing a war-cap
+on her head, and on either side two priests armed with swords executed war
+dances for the purpose of scaring away evil spirits. By their
+gesticulations the priestesses indicated to the powers above that the pigs
+were intended for their benefit. One of them, a fat but dignified lady,
+dancing composedly, seemed by her courteous gestures to invite the souls
+of the pigs to ascend up to heaven; but others, not content with this too
+ideal offering, rushed at the pigs, seized the smallest of them by the
+hind legs, and exerting all their strength danced with the squealing
+porker to and from the sacrificial stage. In the evening, before darkness
+fell, the animals were slaughtered and their livers examined for omens: if
+the under side of the liver was pale, the omen was good; but if it was
+dark, the omen was evil. On the last day of the festival one of the chief
+priestesses, in martial array, danced round the sacrificial stage, making
+passes with her old sword as if she would heave the whole structure
+heavenward; while others stabbed with spears at the foul fiends that might
+be hovering in the air, intent on disturbing the sacred ministers at their
+holy work.(320)
+
+(M72) "Thus," says Dr. Nieuwenhuis, reviewing the agricultural rites which
+he witnessed among the Kayans on the Mendalam river, "every fresh
+operation on the rice-field was ushered in by religious and culinary
+ceremonies, during which the community had always to observe taboos for
+several nights and to play certain definite games. As we saw, spinning-top
+games and masquerades were played during the sowing festival: at the first
+bringing in of the rice the people pelted each other with clay pellets
+discharged from small pea-shooters, but in former times sham fights took
+place with wooden swords; while during the New Year festival the men
+contend with each other in wrestling, high leaps, long leaps, and running.
+The women also fight each other with great glee, using bamboo vessels full
+of water for their principal weapons."(321)
+
+(M73) What is the meaning of the sports and pastimes which custom
+prescribes to the Kayans on these occasions? Are they mere diversions
+meant to while away the tedium of the holidays? or have they a serious,
+perhaps a religious or magical significance? To this question it will be
+well to let Dr. Nieuwenhuis give his answer. "The Kayans on the Mendalam
+river," he says, "enjoy tolerably regular harvests, and their agricultural
+festivals accordingly take place every year; whereas the Kayans on the
+Mahakam river, on account of the frequent failure of the harvests, can
+celebrate a New Year's festival only once in every two or three years. Yet
+although these festivities are celebrated more regularly on the Mendalam
+river, they are followed on the Mahakam river with livelier interest, and
+the meaning of all ceremonies and games can also be traced much better
+there. On the Mendalam river I came to the false conclusion that the
+popular games which take place at the festivals are undertaken quite
+arbitrarily at the seasons of sowing and harvest; but on the Mahakam
+river, on the contrary, I observed that even the masquerade at the sowing
+festival is invested with as deep a significance as any of the ceremonies
+performed by the priestesses."(322)
+
+"The influence of religious worship, which dominates the whole life of the
+Dyak tribes, manifests itself also in their games. This holds good chiefly
+of pastimes in which all adults take part together, mostly on definite
+occasions; it is less applicable to more individual pastimes which are not
+restricted to any special season. Pastimes of the former sort are very
+rarely indulged in at ordinary times, and properly speaking they attain
+their full significance only on the occasion of the agricultural festivals
+which bear a strictly religious stamp. Even then the recreations are not
+left to choice, but definite games belong to definite festivals; thus at
+the sowing festivals other amusements are in vogue than at the little
+harvest festival or the great harvest festival at the beginning of the
+reaping, and at the New Year festival.... Is this connexion between
+festivals and games merely an accidental one, or is it based on a real
+affinity? The latter seems to me the more probable view, for in the case
+of one of the most important games played by men I was able to prove
+directly a religious significance; and although I failed to do so in the
+case of the others, I conjecture, nevertheless, that a religious idea lies
+at the bottom of all other games which are connected with definite
+festivals."(323)
+
+(M74) If the reader should entertain any doubt on the subject, and should
+suspect that in arriving at this conclusion the Dutch traveller gave the
+reins to his fancy rather than followed the real opinion of the people,
+these doubts and suspicions will probably be dispelled by comparing the
+similar games which another primitive agricultural people avowedly play
+for the purpose of ensuring good crops. The people in question are the Kai
+of German New Guinea, who inhabit the rugged, densely wooded mountains
+inland from Finsch Harbour. They subsist mainly on the produce of the taro
+and yams which they cultivate in their fields, though the more inland
+people also make much use of sweet potatoes. All their crops are root
+crops. No patch of ground is cultivated for more than a year at a time. As
+soon as it has yielded a crop, it is deserted for another and is quickly
+overgrown with rank weeds, bamboos, and bushes. In six or eight years,
+when the undergrowth has died out under the shadow of the taller trees
+which have shot up, the land may again be cleared and brought under
+cultivation. Thus the area of cultivation shifts from year to year; and
+the villages are not much more permanent; for in the damp tropical climate
+the wooden houses soon rot and fall into ruins, and when this happens the
+site of the village is changed.(324) To procure good crops of the taro and
+yams, on which they depend for their subsistence, the Kai resort to many
+superstitious practices. For example, in order to make the yams strike
+deep roots, they touch the shoots with the bone of a wild animal that has
+been killed in the recesses of a cave, imagining that just as the creature
+penetrated deep into the earth, so the shoots that have been touched with
+its bone will descend deep into the ground. And in order that the taro may
+bear large and heavy fruit, they place the shoots, before planting them,
+on a large and heavy block of stone, believing that the stone will
+communicate its valuable properties of size and weight to the future
+fruit. Moreover, great use is made of spells and incantations to promote
+the growth of the crops, and all persons who utter such magical formulas
+for this purpose have to abstain from eating certain foods until the
+plants have sprouted and give promise of a good crop. For example, they
+may not eat young bamboo shoots, which are a favourite article of diet
+with the people. The reason is that the young shoots are covered with fine
+prickles, which cause itching and irritation of the skin; from which the
+Kai infer that if an enchanter of field fruits were to eat bamboo shoots,
+the contagion of their prickles would be conveyed through him to the
+fruits and would manifest itself in a pungent disagreeable flavour. For a
+similar reason no charmer of the crops who knows his business would dream
+of eating crabs, because he is well aware that if he were to do so the
+leaves and stalks of the plants would be dashed in pieces by a pelting
+rain, just like the long thin brittle legs of a dead crab. Again, were
+such an enchanter to eat any of the edible kinds of locusts, it seems
+obvious to the Kai that locusts would devour the crops over which the
+imprudent wizard had recited his spells. Above all, people who are
+concerned in planting fields must on no account eat pork; because pigs,
+whether wild or tame, are the most deadly enemies of the crops, which they
+grub up and destroy; from which it follows, as surely as the night does
+the day, that if you eat pork while you are at work on the farm, your
+fields will be devastated by inroads of pigs.(325)
+
+(M75) However, these precautions are not the only measures which the Kai
+people adopt for the benefit of the yams and the taro. "In the opinion of
+the natives various games are important for a proper growth of the
+field-fruits; hence these games may only be played in the time after the
+work on the fields has been done. Thus to swing on a long Spanish reed
+fastened to a branch of a tree is thought to have a good effect on the
+newly planted yams. Therefore swinging is practised by old and young, by
+men and women. No one who has an interest in the growth of his crop in the
+field leaves the swing idle. As they swing to and fro they sing
+swing-songs. These songs often contain only the names of the kinds of yams
+that have been planted, together with the joyous harvest-cry repeated with
+variations, 'I have found a fine fruit!' In leaping from the swing, they
+cry '_Kakulili_!' By calling out the name of the yams they think to draw
+their shoots upwards out of the ground. A small bow with a string, on
+which a wooden flag adorned with a feather is made to slide down (the Kai
+call the instrument _tawatawa_), may only be used when the yams are
+beginning to wind up about their props. The tender shoots are then touched
+with the bow, while a song is sung which is afterwards often repeated in
+the village. It runs thus: '_Mama gelo, gelowaineja, gelowaineja; kiki
+tambai, kiki tambai._' The meaning of the words is unknown. The intention
+is to cause a strong upward growth of the plants. In order that the
+foliage of the yams may sprout luxuriantly and grow green and spread, the
+Kai people play cat's cradle. Each of the intricate figures has a definite
+meaning and a name to match: for example 'the flock of pigeons' (_Hulua_),
+'the Star,' 'the Flying Fox,' 'the Sago-palm Fan,' 'the Araucaria,' 'the
+Lizard and the Dog,' 'the Pig,' 'the Sentinel-box in the Fields,' 'the
+Rat's Nest,' 'the Wasp's Nest in the Bamboo-thicket,' 'the Kangaroo,' 'the
+Spider's Web,' 'the Little Children,' 'the Canoe,' 'Rain and Sunshine,'
+'the Pig's Pitfall,' 'the Fish-spawn,' 'the Two Cousins, Kewa and Imbiawa,
+carrying their dead Mother to the Grave,' etc. By spinning large native
+acorns or a sort of wild fig they think that they foster the growth of the
+newly-planted taro; the plants will 'turn about and broaden.' The game
+must therefore only be played at the time when the taro is planted. The
+same holds good of spearing at the stalks of taro leaves with the ribs of
+sago leaves used as miniature spears. This is done when the taro leaves
+have unfolded themselves, but when the plants have not yet set any tubers.
+A single leaf is cut from a number of stems, and these leaves are brought
+into the village. The game is played by two partners, who sit down
+opposite to each other at a distance of three or four paces. A number of
+taro stalks lie beside each. He who has speared all his adversary's stalks
+first is victor; then they change stalks and the game begins again. By
+piercing the leaves they think that they incite the plants to set tubers.
+Almost more remarkable than the limitation of these games to the time when
+work on the fields is going forward is the custom of the Kai people which
+only permits the tales of the olden time or popular legends to be told at
+the time when the newly planted fruits are budding and sprouting."(326) At
+the end of every such tale the Kai story-teller mentions the names of the
+various kinds of yams and adds, "Shoots (for the new planting) and fruits
+(to eat) in abundance!" "From their concluding words we see that the Kai
+legends are only told for a quite definite purpose, namely, to promote the
+welfare of the yams planted in the field. By reviving the memory of the
+ancient beings, to whom the origin of the field-fruits is referred, they
+imagine that they influence the growth of the fruits for good. When the
+planting is over, and especially when the young plants begin to sprout,
+the telling of legends comes to an end. In the villages it is always only
+a few old men who as good story-tellers can hold the attention of their
+hearers."(327)
+
+(M76) Thus with these New Guinea people the playing of certain games and
+the recital of certain legends are alike magical in their intention; they
+are charms practised to ensure good crops. Both sets of charms appear to
+be based on the principles of sympathetic magic. In playing the games the
+players perform acts which are supposed to mimic or at all events to
+stimulate the corresponding processes in the plants: by swinging high in
+the air they make the plants grow high; by playing cat's cradle they cause
+the leaves of the yams to spread and the stalks to intertwine, even as the
+players spread their hands and twine the string about their fingers; by
+spinning fruits they make the taro plants to turn and broaden; and by
+spearing the taro leaves they induce the plants to set tubers.(328) In
+telling the legends the story-tellers mention the names of the powerful
+beings who first created the fruits of the earth, and the mere mention of
+their names avails, on the principle of the magical equivalence of names
+and persons or things, to reproduce the effect.(329) The recitation of
+tales as a charm to promote the growth of the crops is not peculiar to the
+Kai. It is practised also by the Bakaua, another tribe of German New
+Guinea, who inhabit the coast of Huon Gulf, not far from the Kai. These
+people tell stories in the evening at the time when the yams and taro are
+ripe, and the stories always end with a prayer to the ancestral spirits,
+invoked under various more or less figurative designations, such as "a
+man" or "a cricket," that they would be pleased to cause countless shoots
+to sprout, the great tubers to swell, the sugar-cane to thrive, and the
+bananas to hang in long clusters. "From this we see," says the missionary
+who reports the custom, "that the object of telling the stories is to
+prove to the ancestors, whose spirits are believed to be present at the
+recitation of the tales which they either invented or inherited, that
+people always remember them; for which reason they ought to be favourable
+to their descendants, and above all to bestow their blessings on the
+shoots which are ready to be planted or on the plants already in the
+ground." As the story-teller utters the prayer, he looks towards the house
+in which the young shoots ready for planting or the ripe fruits are
+deposited.(330)
+
+(M77) Similarly, the Yabim, a neighbouring tribe of German New Guinea, at
+the entrance to Huon Gulf, tell tales for the purpose of obtaining a
+plentiful harvest of yams, taro, sugar-cane, and bananas.(331) They
+subsist chiefly by the fruits of the earth which they cultivate, and among
+which taro, yams, and sugar-cane supply them with their staple food.(332)
+In their agricultural labours they believe themselves to be largely
+dependent on the spirits of their dead, the _balum_, as they call them.
+Before they plant the first taro in a newly cleared field they invoke the
+souls of the dead to make the plants grow and prosper; and to propitiate
+these powerful spirits they bring valuable objects, such as boar's tusks
+and dog's teeth, into the field, in order that the ghosts may deck
+themselves with the souls of these ornaments, while at the same time they
+minister to the grosser appetites of the disembodied spirits by offering
+them a savoury mess of taro porridge. Later in the season they whirl
+bull-roarers in the fields and call out the names of the dead, believing
+that this makes the crops to thrive.(333)
+
+(M78) But besides the prayers which they address to the spirits of the
+dead for the sake of procuring an abundant harvest, the Yabim utter spells
+for the same purpose, and these spells sometimes take the form, not of a
+command, but of a narrative. Here, for instance, is one of their spells:
+"Once upon a time a man laboured in his field and complained that he had
+no taro shoots. Then came two doves flying from Poum. They had devoured
+much taro, and they perched on a tree in the field, and during the night
+they vomited all the taro up. Thus the man got so many taro shoots that he
+was even able to sell some of them to other people." Or, again, if the
+taro will not bud, the Yabim will have recourse to the following spell: "A
+muraena lay at ebb-tide on the shore. It seemed to be at its last gasp.
+Then the tide flowed on, and the muraena came to life again and plunged
+into the deep water." This spell is pronounced over twigs of a certain
+tree (_kalelong_), while the enchanter smites the ground with them. After
+that the taro is sure to bud.(334) Apparently the mere recitation of such
+simple tales is thought to produce the same effect as a direct appeal,
+whether in the shape of a prayer or a command, addressed to the spirits.
+Such incantations may be called narrative spells to distinguish them from
+the more familiar imperative spells, in which the enchanter expresses his
+wishes in the form of direct commands. Much use seems to be made of such
+narrative spells among the natives of this part of German New Guinea. For
+example, among the Bukaua, who attribute practically boundless powers to
+sorcerers in every department of life and nature, the spells by which
+these wizards attempt to work their will assume one of two forms: either
+they are requests made to the ancestors, or they are short narratives,
+addressed to nobody in particular, which the sorcerer mutters while he is
+performing his magical rites.(335) It is true, that here the distinction
+is drawn between narratives and requests rather than between narratives
+and commands; but the difference of a request from a command, though great
+in theory, may be very slight in practice; so that prayer and spell, in
+the ordinary sense of the words, may melt into each other almost
+imperceptibly. Even the priest or the enchanter who utters the one may be
+hardly conscious of the hairbreadth that divides it from the other. In
+regard to narrative spells, it seems probable that they have been used
+much more extensively among mankind than the evidence at our disposal
+permits us positively to affirm; in particular we may conjecture that many
+ancient narratives, which we have been accustomed to treat as mere myths,
+used to be regularly recited in magical rites as spells for the purpose of
+actually producing events like those which they describe.
+
+(M79) The use of the bull-roarer to quicken the fruits of the earth is not
+peculiar to the Yabim. On the other side of New Guinea the instrument is
+employed for the same purpose by the natives of Kiwai, an island at the
+mouth of the Fly River. They think that by whirling bull-roarers they
+produce good crops of yams, sweet potatoes, and bananas; and in accordance
+with this belief they call the implement "the mother of yams."(336)
+Similarly in Mabuiag, an island in Torres Straits, the bull-roarer is
+looked upon as an instrument that can be used to promote the growth of
+garden produce, such as yams and sweet potatoes; certain spirits were
+supposed to march round the gardens at night swinging bull-roarers for
+this purpose.(337) Indeed a fertilising or prolific virtue appears to be
+attributed to the instrument by savages who are totally ignorant of
+agriculture. Thus among the Dieri of central Australia, when a young man
+had undergone the painful initiatory ceremony of having a number of gashes
+cut in his back, he used to be given a bull-roarer, whereupon it was
+believed that he became inspired by the spirits of the men of old, and
+that by whirling it, when he went in search of game before his wounds were
+healed, he had power to cause a good harvest of lizards, snakes, and other
+reptiles. On the other hand, the Dieri thought that if a woman were to see
+a bull-roarer that had been used at the initiatory ceremonies and to learn
+its secret, the tribe would ever afterwards be destitute of snakes,
+lizards, and other such food.(338) It may very well be that a similar
+power to fertilise or multiply edible plants and animals has been ascribed
+to the bull-roarer by many other peoples who employ the implement in their
+mysteries.
+
+(M80) Further, it is to be observed that just as the Kai of New Guinea
+swing to and fro on reeds suspended from the branches of trees in order to
+promote the growth of the crops, in like manner Lettish peasants in Russia
+devote their leisure to swinging in spring and early summer for the
+express purpose of making the flax grow as high as they swing in the
+air.(339) And we may suspect that wherever swinging is practised as a
+ceremony at certain times of the year, particularly in spring and at
+harvest, the pastime is not so much a mere popular recreation as a magical
+rite designed to promote the growth of the crops.(340)
+
+With these examples before us we need not hesitate to believe that Dr.
+Nieuwenhuis is right when he attributes a deep religious or magical
+significance to the games which the Kayans or Bahaus of central Borneo
+play at their various agricultural festivals.
+
+(M81) It remains to point out how far the religious or magical practices
+of these primitive agricultural peoples of Borneo and New Guinea appear to
+illustrate by analogy the original nature of the rites of Eleusis. So far
+as we can recompose, from the broken fragments of tradition, a picture of
+the religious and political condition of the Eleusinian people in the
+olden time, it appears to tally fairly well with the picture which Dr.
+Nieuwenhuis has drawn for us of the Kayans or Bahaus at the present day in
+the forests of central Borneo. Here as there we see a petty agricultural
+community ruled by hereditary chiefs who, while they unite religious to
+civil authority, being bound to preside over the numerous ceremonies
+performed for the good of the crops,(341) nevertheless lead simple
+patriarchal lives and are so little raised in outward dignity above their
+fellows that their daughters do not deem it beneath them to fetch water
+for the household from the village well.(342) Here as there we see a
+people whose whole religion is dominated and coloured by the main
+occupation of their lives; who believe that the growth of the crops, on
+which they depend for their subsistence, is at the mercy of two powerful
+spirits, a divine husband and his wife, dwelling in a subterranean world;
+and who accordingly offer sacrifices and perform ceremonies in order to
+ensure the favour of these mighty beings and so to obtain abundant
+harvests. If we knew more about the Rarian plain at Eleusis,(343) we might
+discover that it was the scene of many religious ceremonies like those
+which are performed on the little consecrated rice-fields (the _luma
+lali_) of the Kayans, where the various operations of the agricultural
+year are performed in miniature by members of the chief's family before
+the corresponding operations may be performed on a larger scale by common
+folk on their fields. Certainly we know that the Rarian plain witnessed
+one such ceremony in the year. It was a solemn ceremony of ploughing, one
+of the three Sacred Ploughings which took place annually in various parts
+of Attica.(344) Probably the rite formed part of the _Proerosia_ or
+Festival before Ploughing, which was intended to ensure a plentiful
+crop.(345) Further, it appears that the priests who guided the sacred
+slow-paced oxen as they dragged the plough down the furrows of the Rarian
+Plain, were drawn from the old priestly family of Bouzygai or "Ox-yokers,"
+whose eponymous ancestor is said to have been the first man to yoke oxen
+and to plough the fields. As they performed this time-honoured ceremony,
+the priests uttered many quaint curses against all churls who should
+refuse to lend fire or water to neighbours, or to shew the way to
+wanderers, or who should leave a corpse unburied.(346) If we had a
+complete list of the execrations fulminated by the holy ploughmen on these
+occasions, we might find that some of them were levelled at the impious
+wretches who failed to keep all the rules of the Sabbath, as we may call
+those periods of enforced rest and seclusion which the Kayans of Borneo
+and other primitive agricultural peoples observe for the good of the
+crops.(347)
+
+(M82) Further, when we see that many primitive peoples practise what we
+call games but what they regard in all seriousness as solemn rites for the
+good of the crops, we may be the more inclined to accept the view of the
+ancients, who associated the Eleusinian games directly with the worship of
+Demeter and Persephone, the Corn Goddesses.(348) One of the contests at
+the Eleusinian games was in leaping,(349) and we know that even in modern
+Europe to this day leaping or dancing high is practised as a charm to make
+the crops grow tall.(350) Again, the bull-roarer was swung so as to
+produce a humming sound at the Greek mysteries;(351) and when we find the
+same simple instrument whirled by savages in New Guinea for the sake of
+ensuring good crops, we may reasonably conjecture that it was whirled with
+a like intention by the rude forefathers of the Greeks among the
+cornfields of Eleusis. If that were so--though the conjecture is hardly
+susceptible of demonstration--it would go some way to confirm the theory
+that the Eleusinian mysteries were in their origin nothing more than
+simple rustic ceremonies designed to make the farmer's fields to wave with
+yellow corn. And in the practice of the Kayans, whose worship of the rice
+offers many analogies to the Eleusinian worship of the corn, may we not
+detect a hint of the origin of that rule of secrecy which always
+characterised the Eleusinian mysteries? May it not have been that, just as
+the Kayans exclude strangers from their villages while they are engaged in
+the celebration of religious rites, lest the presence of these intruders
+should frighten or annoy the shy and touchy spirits who are invoked at
+these times, so the old Eleusinians may have debarred foreigners from
+participation in their most solemn ceremonies, lest the coy goddesses of
+the corn should take fright or offence at the sight of strange faces and
+so refuse to bestow on men their annual blessing? The admission of
+foreigners to the privilege of initiation in the mysteries was probably a
+late innovation introduced at a time when the fame of their sanctity had
+spread far and wide, and when the old magical meaning of the ritual had
+long been obscured, if not forgotten.
+
+(M83) Lastly, it may be suggested that in the masked dances and dramatic
+performances, which form a conspicuous and popular feature of the Sowing
+Festival among the Kayans,(352) we have the savage counterpart of that
+drama of divine death and resurrection which appears to have figured so
+prominently in the mysteries of Eleusis.(353) If my interpretation of that
+solemn drama is correct, it represented in mythical guise the various
+stages in the growth of the corn for the purpose of magically fostering
+the natural processes which it simulated. In like manner among the Kaua
+and Kobeua Indians of North-western Brazil, who subsist chiefly by the
+cultivation of manioc, dances or rather pantomimes are performed by masked
+men, who represent spirits or demons of fertility, and by imitating the
+act of procreation are believed to stimulate the growth of plants as well
+as to quicken the wombs of women and to promote the multiplication of
+animals. Coarse and grotesque as these dramatic performances may seem to
+us, they convey no suggestion of indecency to the minds either of the
+actors or of the spectators, who regard them in all seriousness as rites
+destined to confer the blessing of fruitfulness on the inhabitants of the
+village, on their plantations, and on the whole realm of nature.(354)
+However, we possess so little exact information as to the rites of Eleusis
+that all attempts to elucidate them by the ritual of savages must
+necessarily be conjectural. Yet the candid reader may be willing to grant
+that conjectures supported by analogies like the foregoing do not exceed
+the limits of a reasonable hypothesis.
+
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV. WOMAN'S PART IN PRIMITIVE AGRICULTURE.
+
+
+(M84) If Demeter was indeed a personification of the corn, it is natural
+to ask, why did the Greeks personify the corn as a goddess rather than a
+god? why did they ascribe the origin of agriculture to a female rather
+than to a male power? They conceived the spirit of the vine as masculine;
+why did they conceive the spirit of the barley and wheat as feminine? To
+this it has been answered that the personification of the corn as
+feminine, or at all events the ascription of the discovery of agriculture
+to a goddess, was suggested by the prominent part which women take in
+primitive agriculture.(355) The theory illustrates a recent tendency of
+mythologists to explain many myths as reflections of primitive society
+rather than as personifications of nature. For that reason, apart from its
+intrinsic interest, the theory deserves to be briefly considered.
+
+(M85) Before the invention of the plough, which can hardly be worked
+without resort to the labour of men, it was and still is customary in many
+parts of the world to break up the soil for cultivation with hoes, and
+among not a few savage peoples to this day the task of hoeing the ground
+and sowing the seed devolves mainly or entirely upon the women, while the
+men take little or no part in cultivation beyond clearing the land by
+felling the forest trees and burning the fallen timber and brushwood which
+encumber the soil. Thus, for example, among the Zulus, "when a piece of
+land has been selected for cultivation, the task of clearing it belongs to
+the men. If the ground be much encumbered, this becomes a laborious
+undertaking, for their axe is very small, and when a large tree has to be
+encountered, they can only lop the branches; fire is employed when it is
+needful to remove the trunk. The reader will therefore not be surprised
+that the people usually avoid bush-land, though they seem to be aware of
+its superior fertility. As a general rule the men take no further share in
+the labour of cultivation; and, as the site chosen is seldom much
+encumbered and frequently bears nothing but grass, their part of the work
+is very slight. The women are the real labourers; for (except in some
+particular cases) the entire business of digging, planting, and weeding
+devolves on them; and, if we regard the assagai and shield as symbolical
+of the man, the hoe may be looked upon as emblematic of the woman.... With
+this rude and heavy instrument the woman digs, plants, and weeds her
+garden. Digging and sowing are generally one operation, which is thus
+performed; the seed is first scattered on the ground, when the soil is dug
+or picked up with the hoe, to the depth of three or four inches, the
+larger roots and tufts of grass being gathered out, but all the rest left
+in or on the ground."(356) A special term of contempt is applied to any
+Zulu man, who, deprived of the services of his wife and family, is
+compelled by hard necessity to handle the hoe himself.(357) Similarly
+among the Baronga of Delagoa Bay, "when the rains begin to fall, sometimes
+as early as September but generally later, they hasten to sow. With her
+hoe in her hands, the mistress of the field walks with little steps; every
+time she lifts a clod of earth well broken up, and in the hole thus made
+she plants three or four grains of maize and covers them up. If she has
+not finished clearing all the patch of the bush which she contemplated,
+she proceeds to turn up again the fields she tilled last year. The crop
+will be less abundant than in virgin soil, but they plant three or four
+years successively in the same field before it is exhausted. As for
+enriching the soil with manure, they never think of it."(358) Among the
+Barotse, who cultivate millet, maize, and peas to a small extent and in a
+rudimentary fashion, women alone are occupied with the field-work, and
+their only implement is a spade or hoe.(359) Of the Matabele we are told
+that "most of the hard work is performed by the women; the whole of the
+cultivation is done by them. They plough with short spades of native
+manufacture; they sow the fields, and they clear them of weeds."(360)
+Among the Awemba, to the west of Lake Tanganyika, the bulk of the work in
+the plantations falls on the women; in particular the men refuse to hoe
+the ground. They have a saying, "Is not each male child born for the axe
+and each female child for the hoe?"(361)
+
+(M86) The natives of the Tanganyika plateau "cultivate the banana, and
+have a curious custom connected with it. No man is permitted to sow; but
+when the hole is prepared a little girl is carried to the spot on a man's
+shoulders. She first throws into the hole a sherd of broken pottery, and
+then scatters the seed over it."(362) The reason of the latter practice
+has been explained by more recent observers of these natives. "Young
+children, it may here be noted, are often employed to administer drugs,
+remedies, even the Poison Ordeal, and to sow the first seeds. Such acts,
+the natives say, must be performed by chaste and innocent hands, lest a
+contaminated touch should destroy the potency of the medicine or of the
+seedlings planted. It used to be a very common sight upon the islands of
+Lake Bangweolo to watch how a Bisa woman would solve the problem of her
+own moral unfitness by carrying her baby-girl to the banana-plot, and
+inserting seedlings in the tiny hands for dropping into the holes already
+prepared."(363) Similarly among the people of the Lower Congo "women must
+remain chaste while planting pumpkin and calabash seeds, they are not
+allowed to touch any pig-meat, and they must wash their hands before
+touching the seeds. If a woman does not observe all these rules, she must
+not plant the seeds, or the crop will be bad; she may make the holes, and
+her baby girl, or another who has obeyed the restrictions, can drop in the
+seeds and cover them over."(364) We can now perhaps understand why Attic
+matrons had to observe strict chastity when they celebrated the festival
+of the Thesmophoria.(365) In Attica that festival was held in honour of
+Demeter in the month of Pyanepsion, corresponding to October,(366) the
+season of the autumn sowing; and the rites included certain ceremonies
+which bore directly on the quickening of the seed.(367) We may conjecture
+that the rule of chastity imposed on matrons at this festival was a relic
+of a time when they too, like many savage women down to the present time,
+discharged the important duty of sowing the seed and were bound for that
+reason to observe strict continence, lest any impurity on their part
+should defile the seed and prevent it from bearing fruit.
+
+(M87) Of the Caffres of South Africa in general we read that "agriculture
+is mainly the work of the women, for in olden days the men were occupied
+in hunting and fighting. The women do but scratch the land with hoes,
+sometimes using long-handled instruments, as in Zululand, and sometimes
+short-handled ones, as above the Zambesi. When the ground is thus
+prepared, the women scatter the seed, throwing it over the soil quite at
+random. They know the time to sow by the position of the constellations,
+chiefly by that of the Pleiades. They date their new year from the time
+they can see this constellation just before sunrise."(368) In Basutoland,
+where the women also till the fields, though the lands of chiefs are dug
+and sowed by men, an attempt is made to determine the time of sowing by
+observation of the moon, but the people generally find themselves out in
+their reckoning, and after much dispute are forced to fall back upon the
+state of the weather and of vegetation as better evidence of the season of
+sowing. Intelligent chiefs rectify the calendar at the summer solstice,
+which they call the summer-house of the sun.(369)
+
+(M88) Among the Nandi of British East Africa "the rough work of clearing
+the bush for plantations is performed by the men, after which nearly all
+work in connexion with them is done by the women. The men, however, assist
+in sowing the seed, and in harvesting some of the crops. As a rule trees
+are not felled, but the bark is stripped off for about four feet from the
+ground and the trees are then left to die. The planting is mostly, if not
+entirely, done during the first half of the _Kiptamo_ moon (February),
+which is the first month of the year, and when the _Iwat-kut_ moon rises
+(March) all seed should be in the ground. The chief medicine man is
+consulted before the planting operations begin, but the Nandi know by the
+arrival in the fields of the guinea-fowl, whose song is supposed to be,
+_O-kol, o-kol; mi-i tokoch_ (Plant, plant; there is luck in it), that the
+planting season is at hand. When the first seed is sown, salt is mixed
+with it, and the sower sings mournfully: _Ak o-siek-u o-chok-chi_ (And
+grow quickly), as he sows. After fresh ground has been cleared, eleusine
+grain is planted. This crop is generally repeated the second year, after
+which millet is sown, and finally sweet potatoes or some other product.
+Most fields are allowed to lie fallow every fourth or fifth year. The
+Nandi manure their plantations with turf ashes.... The eleusine crops are
+harvested by both men and women. All other crops are reaped by the women
+only, who are at times assisted by the children. The corn is pounded and
+winnowed by the women and girls."(370) Among the Suk and En-jemusi of
+British East Africa it is the women who cultivate the fields and milk the
+cows.(371) Among the Wadowe of German East Africa the men clear the forest
+and break up the hard ground, but the women sow and reap the crops.(372)
+So among the Wanyamwezi, who are an essentially agricultural people, to
+the south of Lake Victoria Nyanza, the men cut down the bush and hoe the
+hard ground, but leave the rest of the labour of weeding, sowing, and
+reaping to the women.(373) The Baganda of Central Africa subsist chiefly
+on bananas, and among them "the garden and its cultivation have always
+been the woman's department. Princesses and peasant women alike looked
+upon cultivation as their special work; the garden with its produce was
+essentially the wife's domain, and she would under no circumstances allow
+her husband to do any digging or sowing in it. No woman would remain with
+a man who did not give her a garden and a hoe to dig it with; if these
+were denied her, she would seek an early opportunity to escape from her
+husband and return to her relations to complain of her treatment, and to
+obtain justice or a divorce. When a man married he sought a plot of land
+for his wife in order that she might settle to work and provide food for
+the household.... In initial clearing of the land it was customary for the
+husband to take part; he cut down the tall grass and shrubs, and so left
+the ground ready for his wife to begin her digging. The grass and the
+trees she heaped up and burned, reserving only so much as she needed for
+firewood. A hoe was the only implement used in cultivation; the blade was
+heart-shaped with a prong at the base, by which it was fastened to the
+handle. The hoe-handle was never more than two feet long, so that a woman
+had to stoop when using it."(374) In Kiziba, a district immediately to the
+south of Uganda, the tilling of the soil is exclusively the work of the
+women. They turn up the soil with hoes, make holes in the ground with
+digging-sticks or their fingers, and drop a few seeds into each hole.(375)
+Among the Niam-Niam of Central Africa "the men most studiously devote
+themselves to their hunting, and leave the culture of the soil to be
+carried on exclusively by the women";(376) and among the Monbuttoo of the
+same region in like manner, "whilst the women attend to the tillage of the
+soil and the gathering of the harvest, the men, unless they are absent
+either for war or hunting, spend the entire day in idleness."(377) As to
+the Bangala of the Upper Congo we read that "large farms were made around
+the towns. The men did the clearing of the bush, felling the trees, and
+cutting down the undergrowth; the women worked with them, heaping up the
+grass and brushwood ready for burning, and helping generally. As a rule
+the women did the hoeing, planting, and weeding, but the men did not so
+despise this work as never to do it." In this tribe "the food belonged to
+the woman who cultivated the farm, and while she supplied her husband with
+the vegetable food, he had to supply the fish and meat and share them with
+his wife or wives."(378) Amongst the Tofoke, a tribe of the Congo State on
+the equator, all the field labour, except the clearing away of the forest,
+is performed by the women. They dig the soil with a hoe and plant maize
+and manioc. A field is used only once.(379) So with the Ba-Mbala, a Bantu
+tribe between the rivers Inzia and Kwilu, the men clear the ground for
+cultivation, but all the rest of the work of tillage falls to the women,
+whose only tool is an iron hoe. Fresh ground is cleared for cultivation
+every year.(380) The Mpongwe of the Gaboon, in West Africa, cultivate
+manioc (cassava), maize, yams, plantains, sweet potatoes, and ground nuts.
+When new clearings have to be made in the forest, the men cut down and
+burn the trees, and the women put in the crop. The only tool they use is a
+dibble, with which they turn up a sod, put in a seed, and cover it
+over.(381) Among the Ashira of the same region the cultivation of the soil
+is in the hands of the women.(382)
+
+(M89) A similar division of labour between men and women prevails among
+many primitive agricultural tribes of Indians in South America. "In the
+interior of the villages," says an eminent authority on aboriginal South
+America, "the man often absents himself to hunt or to go into the heart of
+the forest in search of the honey of the wild bees, and he always goes
+alone. He fells the trees in the places where he wishes to make a field
+for cultivation, he fashions his weapons, he digs out his canoe, while the
+woman rears the children, makes the garments, busies herself with the
+interior, cultivates the field, gathers the fruits, collects the roots,
+and prepares the food. Such is, generally at least, the respective
+condition of the two sexes among almost all the Americans. The Peruvians
+alone had already, in their semi-civilised state, partially modified these
+customs; for among them the man shared the toils of the other sex or took
+on himself the most laborious tasks."(383) Thus, to take examples, among
+the Caribs of the West Indies the men used to fell the trees and leave the
+fallen trunks to cumber the ground, burning off only the smaller boughs.
+Then the women came and planted manioc, potatoes, yams, and bananas
+wherever they found room among the tree-trunks. In digging the ground to
+receive the seed or the shoots they did not use hoes but simply pointed
+sticks. The men, we are told, would rather have died of hunger than
+undertake such agricultural labours.(384) Again, the staple vegetable food
+of the Indians of British Guiana is cassava bread, made from the roots of
+the manioc or cassava plant, which the Indians cultivate in clearings of
+the forest. The men fell the trees, cut down the undergrowth, and in dry
+weather set fire to the fallen lumber, thus creating open patches in the
+forest which are covered with white ashes. When the rains set in, the
+women repair to these clearings, heavily laden with baskets full of
+cassava sticks to be used as cuttings. These they insert at irregular
+intervals in the soil, and so the field is formed. While the cassava is
+growing, the women do just as much weeding as is necessary to prevent the
+cultivated plants from being choked by the rank growth of the tropical
+vegetation, and in doing so they plant bananas, pumpkin seeds, yams, sweet
+potatoes, sugar-cane, red and yellow peppers, and so forth, wherever there
+is room for them. At last in the ninth or tenth month, when the seeds
+appearing on the straggling branches of the cassava plants announce that
+the roots are ripe, the women cut down the plants and dig up the roots,
+not all at once, but as they are required. These roots they afterwards
+peel, scrape, and bake into cassava bread.(385)
+
+(M90) In like manner the cassava or manioc plant is cultivated generally
+among all the Indian tribes of tropical South America, wherever the plant
+will grow; and the cultivation of it is altogether in the hands of the
+women, who insert the sticks in the ground after the fashion already
+described.(386) For example, among the tribes of the Uaupes River, in the
+upper valley of the Amazon, who are an agricultural people with settled
+abodes, "the men cut down the trees and brushwood, which, after they have
+lain some months to dry, are burnt; and the mandiocca is then planted by
+the women, together with little patches of cane, sweet potatoes, and
+various fruits. The women also dig up the mandiocca, and prepare from it
+the bread which is their main subsistence.... The bread is made fresh
+every day, as when it gets cold and dry it is far less palatable. The
+women thus have plenty to do, for every other day at least they have to go
+to the field, often a mile or two distant, to fetch the root, and every
+day to grate, prepare, and bake the bread; as it forms by far the greater
+part of their food, and they often pass days without eating anything else,
+especially when the men are engaged in clearing the forest."(387) Among
+the Tupinambas, a tribe of Brazilian Indians, the wives "had something
+more than their due share of labour, but they were not treated with
+brutality, and their condition was on the whole happy. They set and dug
+the mandioc; they sowed and gathered the maize. An odd superstition
+prevailed, that if a sort of earth-almond, which the Portugueze call
+_amendoens_, was planted by the men, it would not grow."(388) Similar
+accounts appear to apply to the Brazilian Indians in general: the men
+occupy themselves with hunting, war, and the manufacture of their weapons,
+while the women plant and reap the crops, and search for fruits in the
+forest;(389) above all they cultivate the manioc, scraping the soil clear
+of weeds with pointed sticks and inserting the shoots in the earth.(390)
+Similarly among the Indians of Peru, who cultivate maize in clearings of
+the forest, the cultivation of the fields is left to the women, while the
+men hunt with bows and arrows and blowguns in the woods, often remaining
+away from home for weeks or even months together.(391)
+
+(M91) A similar distribution of labour between the sexes prevails among
+some savage tribes in other parts of the world. Thus among the Lhoosai of
+south-eastern India the men employ themselves chiefly in hunting or in
+making forays on their weaker neighbours, but they clear the ground and
+help to carry home the harvest. However, the main burden of the bodily
+labour by which life is supported falls on the women; they fetch water,
+hew wood, cultivate the ground, and help to reap the crops.(392) Among the
+Miris of Assam almost the whole of the field work is done by the women.
+They cultivate a patch of ground for two successive years, then suffer it
+to lie fallow for four or five. But they are deterred by superstitious
+fear from breaking new ground so long as the fallow suffices for their
+needs; they dread to offend the spirits of the woods by needlessly felling
+the trees. They raise crops of rice, maize, millet, yams, and sweet
+potatoes. But they seldom possess any implement adapted solely for
+tillage; they have never taken to the plough nor even to a hoe. They use
+their long straight swords to clear, cut, and dig with.(393) Among the
+Korwas, a savage hill tribe of Bengal, the men hunt with bows and arrows,
+while the women till the fields, dig for wild roots, or cull wild
+vegetables. Their principal crop is pulse (_Cajanus Indicus_).(394) Among
+the Papuans of Ayambori, near Doreh in Dutch New Guinea, it is the men who
+lay out the fields by felling and burning the trees and brushwood in the
+forest, and it is they who enclose the fields with fences, but it is the
+women who sow and reap them and carry home the produce in sacks on their
+backs. They cultivate rice, millet, and bananas.(395) So among the natives
+of Kaimani Bay in Dutch New Guinea the men occupy themselves only with
+fishing and hunting, while all the field work falls on the women.(396) In
+the Gazelle Peninsula of New Britain, when the natives have decided to
+convert a piece of grass-land into a plantation, the men cut down the long
+grass, burn it, dig up the soil with sharp-pointed sticks, and enclose the
+land with a fence of saplings. Then the women plant the banana shoots,
+weed the ground, and in the intervals between the bananas insert slips of
+yams, sweet potatoes, sugar-cane, or ginger. When the produce is ripe,
+they carry it to the village. Thus the bulk of the labour of cultivation
+devolves on the women.(397)
+
+(M92) Among some peoples of the Indian Archipelago, after the land has
+been cleared for cultivation by the men, the work of planting and sowing
+is divided between men and women, the men digging holes in the ground with
+pointed sticks, and the women following them, putting the seeds or shoots
+into the holes, and then huddling the earth over them; for savages seldom
+sow broadcast, they laboriously dig holes and insert the seed in them.
+This division of agricultural labour between the sexes is adopted by
+various tribes of Celebes, Ceram, Borneo, Nias, and New Guinea.(398)
+Sometimes the custom of entrusting the sowing of the seed to women appears
+to be influenced by superstitious as well as economic considerations. Thus
+among the Indians of the Orinoco, who with an infinitude of pains cleared
+the jungle for cultivation by cutting down the forest trees with their
+stone axes, burning the fallen lumber, and breaking up the ground with
+wooden instruments hardened in the fire, the task of sowing the maize and
+planting the roots was performed by the women alone; and when the Spanish
+missionaries expostulated with the men for not helping their wives in this
+toilsome duty, they received for answer that as women knew how to conceive
+seed and bear children, so the seeds and roots planted by them bore fruit
+far more abundantly than if they had been planted by male hands.(399)
+
+(M93) Even among savages who have not yet learned to cultivate any plants
+the task of collecting the edible seeds and digging up the edible roots of
+wild plants appears to devolve mainly on women, while the men contribute
+their share to the common food supply by hunting and fishing, for which
+their superior strength, agility, and courage especially qualify them. For
+example, among the Indians of California, who were entirely ignorant of
+agriculture, the general division of labour between the sexes in the
+search for food was that the men killed the game and caught the salmon,
+while the women dug the roots and brought in most of the vegetable food,
+though the men helped them to gather acorns, nuts, and berries.(400) Among
+the Indians of San Juan Capistrano in California, while the men passed
+their time in fowling, fishing, dancing, and lounging, "the women were
+obliged to gather seeds in the fields, prepare them for cooking, and to
+perform all the meanest offices, as well as the most laborious. It was
+painful in the extreme, to behold them, with their infants hanging upon
+their shoulders, groping about in search of herbs or seeds, and exposed as
+they frequently were to the inclemency of the weather."(401) Yet these
+rude savages possessed a calendar containing directions as to the seasons
+for collecting the different seeds and produce of the earth. The calendar
+consisted of lunar months corrected by observation of the solstices, "for
+at the conclusion of the moon in December, that is, at the conjunction,
+they calculated the return of the sun from the tropic of Capricorn; and
+another year commenced, the Indian saying 'the sun has arrived at his
+home.' ... They observed with greater attention and celebrated with more
+pomp, the sun's arrival at the tropic of Capricorn than they did his
+reaching the tropic of Cancer, for the reason, that, as they were situated
+ten degrees from the latter, they were pleased at the sun's approach
+towards them; for it returned to ripen their fruits and seeds, to give
+warmth to the atmosphere, and enliven again the fields with beauty and
+increase." However, the knowledge of the calendar was limited to the
+_puplem_ or general council of the tribe, who sent criers to make
+proclamation when the time had come to go forth and gather the seeds and
+other produce of the earth. In their calculations they were assisted by a
+_pul_ or astrologer, who observed the aspect of the moon.(402) When we
+consider that these rude Californian savages, destitute alike of
+agriculture and of the other arts of civilised life, yet succeeded in
+forming for themselves a calendar based on observation both of the moon
+and of the sun, we need not hesitate to ascribe to the immeasurably more
+advanced Greeks at the dawn of history the knowledge of a somewhat more
+elaborate calendar founded on a cycle of eight solar years.(403)
+
+(M94) Among the equally rude aborigines of Australia, to whom agriculture
+in every form was totally unknown, the division of labour between the
+sexes in regard to the collection of food appears to have been similar.
+While the men hunted game, the labour of gathering and preparing the
+vegetable food fell chiefly to the women. Thus with regard to the
+Encounter Bay tribe of South Australia we are told that while the men
+busied themselves, according to the season, either with fishing or with
+hunting emus, opossums, kangaroos, and so forth, the women and children
+searched for roots and plants.(404) Again, among the natives of Western
+Australia "it is generally considered the province of women to dig roots,
+and for this purpose they carry a long, pointed stick, which is held in
+the right hand, and driven firmly into the ground, where it is shaken, so
+as to loosen the earth, which is scooped up and thrown out with the
+fingers of the left hand, and in this manner they dig with great rapidity.
+But the labour, in proportion to the amount obtained, is great. To get a
+yam about half an inch in circumference and a foot in length, they have to
+dig a hole above a foot square and two feet in depth; a considerable
+portion of the time of the women and children is, therefore, passed in
+this employment. If the men are absent upon any expedition, the females
+are left in charge of one who is old or sick; and in traversing the bush
+you often stumble on a large party of them, scattered about in the forest,
+digging roots and collecting the different species of fungus."(405) In
+fertile districts, where the yams which the aborigines use as food grow
+abundantly, the ground may sometimes be seen riddled with holes made by
+the women in their search for these edible roots. Thus to quote Sir George
+Grey: "We now crossed the dry bed of a stream, and from that emerged upon
+a tract of light fertile soil, quite overrun with _warran_ [yam] plants,
+the root of which is a favourite article of food with the natives. This
+was the first time we had yet seen this plant on our journey, and now for
+three and a half consecutive miles we traversed a fertile piece of land,
+literally perforated with the holes the natives had made to dig this root;
+indeed we could with difficulty walk across it on that account, whilst
+this tract extended east and west as far as we could see."(406) Again, in
+the valley of the Lower Murray River a kind of yam (_Microseris Forsteri_)
+grew plentifully and was easily found in the spring and early summer, when
+the roots were dug up out of the earth by the women and children. The root
+is small and of a sweetish taste and grows throughout the greater part of
+Australia outside the tropics; on the alpine pastures of the high
+Australian mountains it attains to a much larger size and furnishes a not
+unpalatable food.(407) But the women gather edible herbs and seeds as well
+as roots; and at evening they may be seen trooping in to the camp, each
+with a great bundle of sow-thistles, dandelions, or trefoil on her
+head,(408) or carrying wooden vessels filled with seeds, which they
+afterwards grind up between stones and knead into a paste with water or
+bake into cakes.(409) Among the aborigines of central Victoria, while the
+men hunted, the women dug up edible roots and gathered succulent
+vegetables, such as the young tops of the _munya_, the sow-thistle, and
+several kinds of fig-marigold. The implement which they used to dig up
+roots with was a pole seven or eight feet long, hardened in the fire and
+pointed at the end, which also served them as a weapon both of defence and
+of offence.(410) Among the tribes of Central Australia the principal
+vegetable food is the seed of a species of Claytonia, called by white men
+_munyeru_, which the women gather in large quantities and winnow by
+pouring the little black seeds from one vessel to another so as to let the
+wind blow the loose husks away.(411)
+
+(M95) In these customs observed by savages who are totally ignorant of
+agriculture we may perhaps detect some of the steps by which mankind have
+advanced from the enjoyment of the wild fruits of the earth to the
+systematic cultivation of plants. For an effect of digging up the earth in
+the search for roots has probably been in many cases to enrich and
+fertilise the soil and so to increase the crop of roots or herbs; and such
+an increase would naturally attract the natives in larger numbers and
+enable them to subsist for longer periods on the spot without being
+compelled by the speedy exhaustion of the crop to shift their quarters and
+wander away in search of fresh supplies. Moreover, the winnowing of the
+seeds on ground which had thus been turned up by the digging-sticks of the
+women would naturally contribute to the same result. For though savages at
+the level of the Californian Indians and the aborigines of Australia have
+no idea of using seeds for any purpose but that of immediate consumption,
+and it has never occurred to them to incur a temporary loss for the sake
+of a future gain by sowing them in the ground, yet it is almost certain
+that in the process of winnowing the seeds as a preparation for eating
+them many of the grains must have escaped and, being wafted by the wind,
+have fallen on the upturned soil and borne fruit. Thus by the operations
+of turning up the ground and winnowing the seed, though neither operation
+aimed at anything beyond satisfying the immediate pangs of hunger, savage
+man or rather savage woman was unconsciously preparing for the whole
+community a future and more abundant store of food, which would enable
+them to multiply and to abandon the old migratory and wasteful manner of
+life for a more settled and economic mode of existence. So curiously
+sometimes does man, aiming his shafts at a near but petty mark, hit a
+greater and more distant target.
+
+(M96) On the whole, then, it appears highly probable that as a consequence
+of a certain natural division of labour between the sexes women have
+contributed more than men towards the greatest advance in economic
+history, namely, the transition from a nomadic to a settled life, from a
+natural to an artificial basis of subsistence.
+
+(M97) Among the Aryan peoples of Europe the old practice of hoeing the
+ground as a preparation for sowing appears to have been generally replaced
+at a very remote period by the far more effective process of
+ploughing;(412) and as the labour of ploughing practically necessitates
+the employment of masculine strength, it is hardly to be expected that in
+Europe many traces should remain of the important part formerly played by
+women in primitive agriculture. However, we are told that among the
+Iberians of Spain and the Athamanes of Epirus the women tilled the
+ground,(413) and that among the ancient Germans the care of the fields was
+left to the women and old men.(414) But these indications of an age when
+the cultivation of the ground was committed mainly to feminine hands are
+few and slight; and if the Greek conception of Demeter as a goddess of
+corn and agriculture really dates from such an age and was directly
+suggested by such a division of labour between the sexes, it seems clear
+that its origin must be sought at a period far back in the history of the
+Aryan race, perhaps long before the segregation of the Greeks from the
+common stock and their formation into a separate people. It may be so, but
+to me I confess that this derivation of the conception appears somewhat
+far-fetched and improbable; and I prefer to suppose that the idea of the
+corn as feminine was suggested to the Greek mind, not by the position of
+women in remote prehistoric ages, but by a direct observation of nature,
+the teeming head of corn appearing to the primitive fancy to resemble the
+teeming womb of a woman, and the ripe ear on the stalk being likened to a
+child borne in the arms or on the back of its mother. At least we know
+that similar sights suggest similar ideas to some of the agricultural
+negroes of West Africa. Thus the Hos of Togoland, who plant maize in
+February and reap it in July, say that the maize is an image of a mother;
+when the cobs are forming, the mother is binding the infant on her back,
+but in July she sinks her head and dies and the child is taken away from
+her, to be afterwards multiplied at the next sowing.(415) When the rude
+aborigines of Western Australia observe that a seed-bearing plant has
+flowered, they call it the Mother of So-and-so, naming the particular kind
+of plant, and they will not allow it to be dug up.(416) Apparently they
+think that respect and regard are due to the plant as to a mother and her
+child. Such simple and natural comparisons, which may occur to men in any
+age and country, suffice to explain the Greek personification of the corn
+as mother and daughter, and we need not cast about for more recondite
+theories. Be that as it may, the conception of the corn as a woman and a
+mother was certainly not peculiar to the ancient Greeks, but has been
+shared by them with many other races, as will appear abundantly from the
+instances which I shall cite in the following chapter.
+
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V. THE CORN-MOTHER AND THE CORN-MAIDEN IN NORTHERN EUROPE.
+
+
+(M98) It has been argued by W. Mannhardt that the first part of Demeter's
+name is derived from an alleged Cretan word _deai_, "barley," and that
+accordingly Demeter means neither more nor less than "Barley-mother" or
+"Corn-mother";(417) for the root of the word seems to have been applied to
+different kinds of grain by different branches of the Aryans.(418) As
+Crete appears to have been one of the most ancient seats of the worship of
+Demeter,(419) it would not be surprising if her name were of Cretan
+origin. But the etymology is open to serious objections,(420) and it is
+safer therefore to lay no stress on it. Be that as it may, we have found
+independent reasons for identifying Demeter as the Corn-mother, and of the
+two species of corn associated with her in Greek religion, namely barley
+and wheat, the barley has perhaps the better claim to be her original
+element; for not only would it seem to have been the staple food of the
+Greeks in the Homeric age, but there are grounds for believing that it is
+one of the oldest, if not the very oldest, cereal cultivated by the Aryan
+race. Certainly the use of barley in the religious ritual of the ancient
+Hindoos as well as of the ancient Greeks furnishes a strong argument in
+favour of the great antiquity of its cultivation, which is known to have
+been practised by the lake-dwellers of the Stone Age in Europe.(421)
+
+Analogies to the Corn-mother or Barley-mother of ancient Greece have been
+collected in great abundance by W. Mannhardt from the folk-lore of modern
+Europe. The following may serve as specimens.
+
+(M99) In Germany the corn is very commonly personified under the name of
+the Corn-mother. Thus in spring, when the corn waves in the wind, the
+peasants say, "There comes the Corn-mother," or "The Corn-mother is
+running over the field," or "The Corn-mother is going through the
+corn."(422) When children wish to go into the fields to pull the blue
+corn-flowers or the red poppies, they are told not to do so, because the
+Corn-mother is sitting in the corn and will catch them.(423) Or again she
+is called, according to the crop, the Rye-mother or the Pea-mother, and
+children are warned against straying in the rye or among the peas by
+threats of the Rye-mother or the Pea-mother. In Norway also the Pea-mother
+is said to sit among the peas.(424) Similar expressions are current among
+the Slavs. The Poles and Czechs warn children against the Corn-mother who
+sits in the corn. Or they call her the old Corn-woman, and say that she
+sits in the corn and strangles the children who tread it down.(425) The
+Lithuanians say, "The Old Rye-woman sits in the corn."(426) Again the
+Corn-mother is believed to make the crop grow. Thus in the neighbourhood
+of Magdeburg it is sometimes said, "It will be a good year for flax; the
+Flax-mother has been seen." At Dinkelsbuehl, in Bavaria, down to the latter
+part of the nineteenth century, people believed that when the crops on a
+particular farm compared unfavourably with those of the neighbourhood, the
+reason was that the Corn-mother had punished the farmer for his sins.(427)
+In a village of Styria it is said that the Corn-mother, in the shape of a
+female puppet made out of the last sheaf of corn and dressed in white, may
+be seen at midnight in the corn-fields, which she fertilises by passing
+through them; but if she is angry with a farmer, she withers up all his
+corn.(428)
+
+(M100) Further, the Corn-mother plays an important part in harvest
+customs. She is believed to be present in the handful of corn which is
+left standing last on the field; and with the cutting of this last handful
+she is caught, or driven away, or killed. In the first of these cases, the
+last sheaf is carried joyfully home and honoured as a divine being. It is
+placed in the barn, and at threshing the corn-spirit appears again.(429)
+In the Hanoverian district of Hadeln the reapers stand round the last
+sheaf and beat it with sticks in order to drive the Corn-mother out of it.
+They call to each other, "There she is! hit her! Take care she doesn't
+catch you!" The beating goes on till the grain is completely threshed out;
+then the Corn-mother is believed to be driven away.(430) In the
+neighbourhood of Danzig the person who cuts the last ears of corn makes
+them into a doll, which is called the Corn-mother or the Old Woman and is
+brought home on the last waggon.(431) In some parts of Holstein the last
+sheaf is dressed in woman's clothes and called the Corn-mother. It is
+carried home on the last waggon, and then thoroughly drenched with water.
+The drenching with water is doubtless a rain-charm.(432) In the district
+of Bruck in Styria the last sheaf, called the Corn-mother, is made up into
+the shape of a woman by the oldest married woman in the village, of an age
+from fifty to fifty-five years. The finest ears are plucked out of it and
+made into a wreath, which, twined with flowers, is carried on her head by
+the prettiest girl of the village to the farmer or squire, while the
+Corn-mother is laid down in the barn to keep off the mice.(433) In other
+villages of the same district the Corn-mother, at the close of harvest, is
+carried by two lads at the top of a pole. They march behind the girl who
+wears the wreath to the squire's house, and while he receives the wreath
+and hangs it up in the hall, the Corn-mother is placed on the top of a
+pile of wood, where she is the centre of the harvest supper and dance.
+Afterwards she is hung up in the barn and remains there till the threshing
+is over. The man who gives the last stroke at threshing is called the son
+of the Corn-mother; he is tied up in the Corn-mother, beaten, and carried
+through the village. The wreath is dedicated in church on the following
+Sunday; and on Easter Eve the grain is rubbed out of it by a
+seven-years-old girl and scattered amongst the young corn. At Christmas
+the straw of the wreath is placed in the manger to make the cattle
+thrive.(434) Here the fertilising power of the Corn-mother is plainly
+brought out by scattering the seed taken from her body (for the wreath is
+made out of the Corn-mother) among the new corn; and her influence over
+animal life is indicated by placing the straw in the manger. At
+Westerhuesen, in Saxony, the last corn cut is made in the shape of a woman
+decked with ribbons and cloth. It is fastened to a pole and brought home
+on the last waggon. One of the people in the waggon keeps waving the pole,
+so that the figure moves as if alive. It is placed on the threshing-floor,
+and stays there till the threshing is done.(435) Amongst the Slavs also
+the last sheaf is known as the Rye-mother, the Wheat-mother, the
+Oats-mother, the Barley-mother, and so on, according to the crop. In the
+district of Tarnow, Galicia, the wreath made out of the last stalks is
+called the Wheat-mother, Rye-mother, or Pea-mother. It is placed on a
+girl's head and kept till spring, when some of the grain is mixed with the
+seed-corn.(436) Here again the fertilising power of the Corn-mother is
+indicated. In France, also, in the neighbourhood of Auxerre, the last
+sheaf goes by the name of the Mother of the Wheat, Mother of the Barley,
+Mother of the Rye, or Mother of the Oats. They leave it standing in the
+field till the last waggon is about to wend homewards. Then they make a
+puppet out of it, dress it with clothes belonging to the farmer, and adorn
+it with a crown and a blue or white scarf. A branch of a tree is stuck in
+the breast of the puppet, which is now called the Ceres. At the dance in
+the evening the Ceres is set in the middle of the floor, and the reaper
+who reaped fastest dances round it with the prettiest girl for his
+partner. After the dance a pyre is made. All the girls, each wearing a
+wreath, strip the puppet, pull it to pieces, and place it on the pyre,
+along with the flowers with which it was adorned. Then the girl who was
+the first to finish reaping sets fire to the pile, and all pray that Ceres
+may give a fruitful year. Here, as Mannhardt observes, the old custom has
+remained intact, though the name Ceres is a bit of schoolmaster's
+learning.(437) In Upper Brittany the last sheaf is always made into human
+shape; but if the farmer is a married man, it is made double and consists
+of a little corn-puppet placed inside of a large one. This is called the
+Mother-sheaf. It is delivered to the farmer's wife, who unties it and
+gives drink-money in return.(438)
+
+(M101) Sometimes the last sheaf is called, not the Corn-mother, but the
+Harvest-mother or the Great Mother. In the province of Osnabrueck, Hanover,
+it is called the Harvest-mother; it is made up in female form, and then
+the reapers dance about with it. In some parts of Westphalia the last
+sheaf at the rye-harvest is made especially heavy by fastening stones in
+it. They bring it home on the last waggon and call it the Great Mother,
+though they do not fashion it into any special shape. In the district of
+Erfurt a very heavy sheaf, not necessarily the last, is called the Great
+Mother, and is carried on the last waggon to the barn, where all hands
+lift it down amid a fire of jokes.(439)
+
+(M102) Sometimes again the last sheaf is called the Grandmother, and is
+adorned with flowers, ribbons, and a woman's apron. In East Prussia, at
+the rye or wheat harvest, the reapers call out to the woman who binds the
+last sheaf, "You are getting the Old Grandmother." In the neighbourhood of
+Magdeburg the men and women servants strive who shall get the last sheaf,
+called the Grandmother. Whoever gets it will be married in the next year,
+but his or her spouse will be old; if a girl gets it, she will marry a
+widower; if a man gets it, he will marry an old crone. In Silesia the
+Grandmother--a huge bundle made up of three or four sheaves by the person
+who tied the last sheaf--was formerly fashioned into a rude likeness of the
+human form.(440) In the neighbourhood of Belfast the last sheaf sometimes
+goes by the name of the Granny. It is not cut in the usual way, but all
+the reapers throw their sickles at it and try to bring it down. It is
+plaited and kept till the (next?) autumn. Whoever gets it will marry in
+the course of the year.(441)
+
+(M103) Oftener the last sheaf is called the Old Woman or the Old Man. In
+Germany it is frequently shaped and dressed as a woman, and the person who
+cuts it or binds it is said to "get the Old Woman."(442) At Altisheim, in
+Swabia, when all the corn of a farm has been cut except a single strip,
+all the reapers stand in a row before the strip; each cuts his share
+rapidly, and he who gives the last cut "has the Old Woman."(443) When the
+sheaves are being set up in heaps, the person who gets hold of the Old
+Woman, which is the largest and thickest of all the sheaves, is jeered at
+by the rest, who call out to him, "He has the Old Woman and must keep
+her."(444) The woman who binds the last sheaf is sometimes herself called
+the Old Woman, and it is said that she will be married in the next
+year.(445) In Neusaass, West Prussia, both the last sheaf--which is dressed
+up in jacket, hat, and ribbons--and the woman who binds it are called the
+Old Woman. Together they are brought home on the last waggon and are
+drenched with water.(446) In various parts of North Germany the last sheaf
+at harvest is made up into a human effigy and called "the Old Man"; and
+the woman who bound it is said "to have the Old Man."(447) At Hornkampe,
+near Tiegenhof (West Prussia), when a man or woman lags behind the rest in
+binding the corn, the other reapers dress up the last sheaf in the form of
+a man or woman, and this figure goes by the laggard's name, as "the old
+Michael," "the idle Trine." It is brought home on the last waggon, and, as
+it nears the house, the bystanders call out to the laggard, "You have got
+the Old Woman and must keep her."(448) In Brandenburg the young folks on
+the harvest-field race towards a sheaf and jump over it. The last to jump
+over it has to carry a straw puppet, adorned with ribbons, to the farmer
+and deliver it to him while he recites some verses. Of the person who thus
+carries the puppet it is said that "he has the Old Man." Probably the
+puppet is or used to be made out of the last corn cut.(449) In many
+districts of Saxony the last sheaf used to be adorned with ribbons and set
+upright so as to look like a man. It was then known as "the Old Man," and
+the young women brought it back in procession to the farm, singing as they
+went, "Now we are bringing the Old Man."(450)
+
+(M104) In West Prussia, when the last rye is being raked together, the
+women and girls hurry with the work, for none of them likes to be the last
+and to get "the Old Man," that is, a puppet made out of the last sheaf,
+which must be carried before the other reapers by the person who was the
+last to finish.(451) In Silesia the last sheaf is called the Old Woman or
+the Old Man and is the theme of many jests; it is made unusually large and
+is sometimes weighted with a stone. At Girlachsdorf, near Reichenbach,
+when this heavy sheaf is lifted into the waggon, they say, "That is the
+Old Man whom we sought for so long."(452) Among the Germans of West
+Bohemia the man who cuts the last corn is said to "have the Old Man." In
+former times it used to be customary to put a wreath on his head and to
+play all kinds of pranks with him, and at the harvest supper he was given
+the largest portion.(453) At Wolletz in Westphalia the last sheaf at
+harvest is called the Old Man, and being made up into the likeness of a
+man and decorated with flowers it is presented to the farmer, who in
+return prepares a feast for the reapers. About Unna, in Westphalia, the
+last sheaf at harvest is made unusually large, and stones are inserted to
+increase its weight. It is called _de greaute meaur_ (the Grey Mother?),
+and when it is brought home on the waggon water is thrown on the
+harvesters who accompany it.(454) Among the Wends the man or woman who
+binds the last sheaf at wheat harvest is said to "have the Old Man." A
+puppet is made out of the wheaten straw and ears in the likeness of a man
+and decked with flowers. The person who bound the last sheaf must carry
+the Old Man home, while the rest laugh and jeer at him. The puppet is hung
+up in the farmhouse and remains till a new Old Man is made at the next
+harvest.(455) At the close of the harvest the Arabs of Moab bury the last
+sheaf in a grave in the cornfield, saying as they do so, "We are burying
+the Old Man," or "The Old Man is dead."(456)
+
+(M105) In some of these customs, as Mannhardt has remarked, the person who
+is called by the same name as the last sheaf and sits beside it on the
+last waggon is obviously identified with it; he or she represents the
+corn-spirit which has been caught in the last sheaf; in other words, the
+corn-spirit is represented in duplicate, by a human being and by a
+sheaf.(457) The identification of the person with the sheaf is made still
+clearer by the custom of wrapping up in the last sheaf the person who cuts
+or binds it. Thus at Hermsdorf in Silesia it used to be the regular
+practice to tie up in the last sheaf the woman who had bound it.(458) At
+Weiden, in Bavaria, it is the cutter, not the binder, of the last sheaf
+who is tied up in it.(459) Here the person wrapt up in the corn represents
+the corn-spirit, exactly as a person wrapt in branches or leaves
+represents the tree-spirit.(460)
+
+(M106) The last sheaf, designated as the Old Woman, is often distinguished
+from the other sheaves by its size and weight. Thus in some villages of
+West Prussia the Old Woman is made twice as long and thick as a common
+sheaf, and a stone is fastened in the middle of it. Sometimes it is made
+so heavy that a man can barely lift it.(461) At Alt-Pillau, in Samland,
+eight or nine sheaves are often tied together to make the Old Woman, and
+the man who sets it up grumbles at its weight.(462) At Itzgrund, in
+Saxe-Coburg, the last sheaf, called the Old Woman, is made large with the
+express intention of thereby securing a good crop next year.(463) Thus the
+custom of making the last sheaf unusually large or heavy is a charm,
+working by sympathetic magic, to ensure a large and heavy crop at the
+following harvest. In Denmark also the last sheaf is made larger than the
+others, and is called the Old Rye-woman or the Old Barley-woman. No one
+likes to bind it, because whoever does so will be sure, they think, to
+marry an old man or an old woman. Sometimes the last wheat-sheaf, called
+the Old Wheat-woman, is made up in human shape, with head, arms, and legs,
+and being dressed in clothes is carried home on the last waggon, while the
+harvesters sit beside it drinking and huzzaing.(464) Of the person who
+binds the last sheaf it is said, "She or he is the Old Rye-woman."(465)
+
+(M107) In Scotland, when the last corn was cut after Hallowmas, the female
+figure made out of it was sometimes called the Carlin or Carline, that is,
+the Old Woman. But if cut before Hallowmas, it was called the Maiden; if
+cut after sunset, it was called the Witch, being supposed to bring bad
+luck.(466) Among the Highlanders of Scotland the last corn cut at harvest
+is known either as the Old Wife (_Cailleach_) or as the Maiden; on the
+whole the former name seems to prevail in the western and the latter in
+the central and eastern districts. Of the Maiden we shall speak presently;
+here we are dealing with the Old Wife. The following general account of
+the custom is given by a careful and well-informed enquirer, the Rev. J.
+G. Campbell, minister of the remote Hebridean island of Tiree: "The
+Harvest Old Wife (_a Chailleach_).--In harvest, there was a struggle to
+escape from being the last done with the shearing,(467) and when tillage
+in common existed, instances were known of a ridge being left unshorn (no
+person would claim it) because of it being behind the rest. The fear
+entertained was that of having the 'famine of the farm' (_gort a bhaile_),
+in the shape of an imaginary old woman (_cailleach_), to feed till next
+harvest. Much emulation and amusement arose from the fear of this old
+woman.... The first done made a doll of some blades of corn, which was
+called the 'old wife,' and sent it to his nearest neighbour. He in turn,
+when ready, passed it to another still less expeditious, and the person it
+last remained with had 'the old woman' to keep for that year."(468)
+
+(M108) To illustrate the custom by examples, in Bernera, on the west of
+Lewis, the harvest rejoicing goes by the name of the Old Wife
+(_Cailleach_) from the last sheaf cut, whether in a township, farm, or
+croft. Where there are a number of crofts beside each other, there is
+always great rivalry as to who shall first finish reaping, and so have the
+Old Wife before his neighbours. Some people even go out on a clear night
+to reap their fields after their neighbours have retired to rest, in order
+that they may have the Old Wife first. More neighbourly habits, however,
+usually prevail, and as each finishes his own fields he goes to the help
+of another, till the whole crop is cut. The reaping is still done with the
+sickle. When the corn has been cut on all the crofts, the last sheaf is
+dressed up to look as like an old woman as possible. She wears a white
+cap, a dress, an apron, and a little shawl over the shoulders fastened
+with a sprig of heather. The apron is tucked up to form a pocket, which is
+stuffed with bread and cheese. A sickle, stuck in the string of the apron
+at the back, completes her equipment. This costume and outfit mean that
+the Old Wife is ready to bear a hand in the work of harvesting. At the
+feast which follows, the Old Wife is placed at the head of the table, and
+as the whisky goes round each of the company drinks to her, saying,
+"Here's to the one that has helped us with the harvest." When the table
+has been cleared away and dancing begins, one of the lads leads out the
+Old Wife and dances with her; and if the night is fine the party will
+sometimes go out and march in a body to a considerable distance, singing
+harvest-songs, while one of them carries the Old Wife on his back. When
+the Harvest-Home is over, the Old Wife is shorn of her gear and used for
+ordinary purposes.(469) In the island of Islay the last corn cut also goes
+by the name of the Old Wife (_Cailleach_), and when she has done her duty
+at harvest she is hung up on the wall and stays there till the time comes
+to plough the fields for the next year's crop. Then she is taken down, and
+on the first day when the men go to plough she is divided among them by
+the mistress of the house. They take her in their pockets and give her to
+the horses to eat when they reach the field. This is supposed to secure
+good luck for the next harvest, and is understood to be the proper end of
+the Old Wife.(470) In Kintyre also the name of the Old Wife is given to
+the last corn cut.(471) On the shores of the beautiful Loch Awe, a long
+sheet of water, winding among soft green hills, above which the giant Ben
+Cruachan towers bold and rugged on the north, the harvest custom is
+somewhat different. The name of the Old Wife (_Cailleach_) is here
+bestowed, not on the last corn cut, but on the reaper who is the last to
+finish. He bears it as a term of reproach, and is not privileged to reap
+the last ears left standing. On the contrary, these are cut by the reaper
+who was the first to finish his _spagh_ or strip (literally "claw"), and
+out of them is fashioned the Maiden, which is afterwards hung up,
+according to one statement, "for the purpose of preventing the death of
+horses in spring."(472) In the north-east of Scotland "the one who took
+the last of the grain from the field to the stackyard was called the
+'winter.' Each one did what could be done to avoid being the last on the
+field, and when there were several on the field there was a race to get
+off. The unfortunate 'winter' was the subject of a good deal of teasing,
+and was dressed up in all the old clothes that could be gathered about the
+farm, and placed on the 'bink' to eat his supper."(473) So in Caithness
+the person who cuts the last sheaf is called Winter and retains the name
+till the next harvest.(474)
+
+(M109) Usages of the same sort are reported from Wales. Thus in North
+Pembrokeshire a tuft of the last corn cut, from six to twelve inches long,
+is plaited and goes by the name of the Hag (_wrach_); and quaint old
+customs used to be practised with it within the memory of many persons
+still alive. Great was the excitement among the reapers when the last
+patch of standing corn was reached. All in turn threw their sickles at it,
+and the one who succeeded in cutting it received a jug of home-brewed ale.
+The Hag (_wrach_) was then hurriedly made and taken to a neighbouring
+farm, where the reapers were still busy at their work. This was generally
+done by the ploughman; but he had to be very careful not to be observed by
+his neighbours, for if they saw him coming and had the least suspicion of
+his errand they would soon make him retrace his steps. Creeping stealthily
+up behind a fence he waited till the foreman of his neighbour's reapers
+was just opposite him and within easy reach. Then he suddenly threw the
+Hag over the fence and, if possible, upon the foreman's sickle, crying out
+
+
+    "_Boreu y codais i,_
+    _Hwyr y dilynais i,_
+    _Ar ei gwar hi._"
+
+
+(M110) On that he took to his heels and made off as fast as he could run,
+and he was a lucky man if he escaped without being caught or cut by the
+flying sickles which the infuriated reapers hurled after him. In other
+cases the Hag was brought home to the farmhouse by one of the reapers. He
+did his best to bring it home dry and without being observed; but he was
+apt to be roughly handled by the people of the house, if they suspected
+his errand. Sometimes they stripped him of most of his clothes, sometimes
+they would drench him with water which had been carefully stored in
+buckets and pans for the purpose. If, however, he succeeded in bringing
+the Hag in dry and unobserved, the master of the house had to pay him a
+small fine; or sometimes a jug of beer "from the cask next to the wall,"
+which seems to have commonly held the best beer, would be demanded by the
+bearer. The Hag was then carefully hung on a nail in the hall or elsewhere
+and kept there all the year. The custom of bringing in the Hag (_wrach_)
+into the house and hanging it up still exists in some farms of North
+Pembrokeshire, but the ancient ceremonies which have just been described
+are now discontinued.(475)
+
+Similar customs at harvest were observed in South Pembrokeshire within
+living memory. In that part of the country there used to be a competition
+between neighbouring farms to see which would finish reaping first. The
+foreman of the reapers planned so as to finish the reaping in a corner of
+the field out of sight of the people on the next farm. There, with the
+last handful of corn cut, he would make two Old Women or Hags (_wrachs_).
+One of them he would send by a lad or other messenger to be laid secretly
+in the field where the neighbours were still at work cutting their corn.
+The messenger would disguise himself to look like a stranger, and jumping
+the fence and creeping through the corn he would lay the Hag (_wrach_) in
+a place where the reapers in reaping would be sure to find it. Having done
+so he fled for dear life, for were the reapers to catch him they would
+shut him up in a dark room and not let him out till he had cleaned all the
+muddy boots, shoes, and clogs in the house. The second Hag (_wrach_) was
+sent or taken by the foreman of the reapers to his master's farmhouse.
+Generally he tried to pop into the house unseen and lay the Hag on the
+kitchen table; but if the people of the farm caught him before he laid it
+down, they used to drench him with water. If a foreman succeeded in
+getting both the Hags (_wrachs_) laid safe in their proper quarters, one
+at home, the other on a neighbour's farm, without interruption, it was
+deemed a great honour.(476) In County Antrim, down to some years ago, when
+the sickle was finally expelled by the reaping machine, the few stalks of
+corn left standing last on the field were plaited together; then the
+reapers, blindfolded, threw their sickles at the plaited corn, and whoever
+happened to cut it through took it home with him and put it over his door.
+This bunch of corn was called the Carley(477)--probably the same word as
+Carlin.
+
+(M111) Similar customs are observed by Slavonic peoples. Thus in Poland
+the last sheaf is commonly called the Baba, that is, the Old Woman. "In
+the last sheaf," it is said, "sits the Baba." The sheaf itself is also
+called the Baba, and is sometimes composed of twelve smaller sheaves
+lashed together.(478) In some parts of Bohemia the Baba, made out of the
+last sheaf, has the figure of a woman with a great straw hat. It is
+carried home on the last harvest-waggon and delivered, along with a
+garland, to the farmer by two girls. In binding the sheaves the women
+strive not to be last, for she who binds the last sheaf will have a child
+next year.(479) The last sheaf is tied up with others into a large bundle,
+and a green branch is stuck on the top of it.(480) Sometimes the
+harvesters call out to the woman who binds the last sheaf, "She has the
+Baba," or "She is the Baba." She has then to make a puppet, sometimes in
+female, sometimes in male form, out of the corn; the puppet is
+occasionally dressed with clothes, often with flowers and ribbons only.
+The cutter of the last stalks, as well as the binder of the last sheaf,
+was also called Baba; and a doll, called the Harvest-woman, was made out
+of the last sheaf and adorned with ribbons. The oldest reaper had to
+dance, first with this doll, and then with the farmer's wife.(481) In the
+district of Cracow, when a man binds the last sheaf, they say, "The
+Grandfather is sitting in it"; when a woman binds it, they say, "The Baba
+is sitting in it," and the woman herself is wrapt up in the sheaf, so that
+only her head projects out of it. Thus encased in the sheaf, she is
+carried on the last harvest-waggon to the house, where she is drenched
+with water by the whole family. She remains in the sheaf till the dance is
+over, and for a year she retains the name of Baba.(482)
+
+(M112) In Lithuania the name for the last sheaf is Boba (Old Woman),
+answering to the Polish name Baba. The Boba is said to sit in the corn
+which is left standing last.(483) The person who binds the last sheaf or
+digs the last potato is the subject of much banter, and receives and long
+retains the name of the Old Rye-woman or the Old Potato-woman.(484) The
+last sheaf--the Boba--is made into the form of a woman, carried solemnly
+through the village on the last harvest-waggon, and drenched with water at
+the farmer's house; then every one dances with it.(485)
+
+(M113) In Russia also the last sheaf is often shaped and dressed as a
+woman, and carried with dance and song to the farmhouse. Out of the last
+sheaf the Bulgarians make a doll which they call the Corn-queen or
+Corn-mother; it is dressed in a woman's shirt, carried round the village,
+and then thrown into the river in order to secure plenty of rain and dew
+for the next year's crop. Or it is burned and the ashes strewn on the
+fields, doubtless to fertilise them.(486) The name Queen, as applied to
+the last sheaf, has its analogies in central and northern Europe. Thus, in
+the Salzburg district of Austria, at the end of the harvest a great
+procession takes place, in which a Queen of the Corn-ears (_Aehrenkoenigin_)
+is drawn along in a little carriage by young fellows.(487) The custom of
+the Harvest Queen appears to have been common in England. Brand quotes
+from Hutchinson's _History of Northumberland_ the following: "I have seen,
+in some places, an image apparelled in great finery, crowned with flowers,
+a sheaf of corn placed under her arm, and a scycle in her hand, carried
+out of the village in the morning of the conclusive reaping day, with
+music and much clamour of the reapers, into the field, where it stands
+fixed on a pole all day, and when the reaping is done, is brought home in
+like manner. This they call the Harvest Queen, and it represents the Roman
+Ceres."(488) Again, the traveller Dr. E. D. Clarke tells us that "even in
+the town of Cambridge, and centre of our University, such curious remains
+of antient customs may be noticed, in different seasons of the year, which
+pass without observation. The custom of blowing horns upon the first of
+May (Old Style) is derived from a festival in honour of Diana. At the
+_Hawkie_, as it is called, or Harvest Home, I have seen a clown dressed in
+woman's clothes, having his face painted, his head decorated with ears of
+corn, and bearing about him other symbols of Ceres, carried in a waggon,
+with great pomp and loud shouts, through the streets, the horses being
+covered with white sheets: and when I inquired the meaning of the
+ceremony, was answered by the people that they were drawing the Morgay
+({~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER RHO~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER ETA~}) or Harvest Queen."(489) Milton must have been familiar with the
+custom of the Harvest Queen, for in _Paradise Lost_(490) he says:--
+
+
+                      "_Adam the while_
+    _Waiting desirous her return, had wove_
+    _Of choicest flow'rs a garland to adorn_
+    _Her tresses, and her rural labours crown,_
+    _As reapers oft are wont their harvest-queen._"
+
+
+(M114) Often customs of this sort are practised, not on the harvest-field
+but on the threshing-floor. The spirit of the corn, fleeing before the
+reapers as they cut down the ripe grain, quits the reaped corn and takes
+refuge in the barn, where it appears in the last sheaf threshed, either to
+perish under the blows of the flail or to flee thence to the still
+unthreshed corn of a neighbouring farm.(491) Thus the last corn to be
+threshed is called the Mother-Corn or the Old Woman. Sometimes the person
+who gives the last stroke with the flail is called the Old Woman, and is
+wrapt in the straw of the last sheaf, or has a bundle of straw fastened on
+his back. Whether wrapt in the straw or carrying it on his back, he is
+carted through the village amid general laughter. In some districts of
+Bavaria, Thueringen, and elsewhere, the man who threshes the last sheaf is
+said to have the Old Woman or the Old Corn-woman; he is tied up in straw,
+carried or carted about the village, and set down at last on the dunghill,
+or taken to the threshing-floor of a neighbouring farmer who has not
+finished his threshing.(492) In Poland the man who gives the last stroke
+at threshing is called Baba (Old Woman); he is wrapt in corn and wheeled
+through the village.(493) Sometimes in Lithuania the last sheaf is not
+threshed, but is fashioned into female shape and carried to the barn of a
+neighbour who has not finished his threshing.(494)
+
+(M115) At Chorinchen, near Neustadt, the man who gives the last stroke at
+threshing is said to "get the Old Man."(495) In various parts of Austrian
+Silesia he is called the corn-fool, the oats-fool, and so forth according
+to the crop, and retains the name till the next kind of grain has been
+reaped. Sometimes he is called the _Kloeppel_ or mallet. He is much
+ridiculed and in the Bennisch district he is dressed out in the
+threshing-implements and obliged to carry them about the farmyard to the
+amusement of his fellows. In Dobischwald the man who gives the last stroke
+at threshing has to carry a log or puppet of wood wrapt in straw to a
+neighbour who has not yet finished his threshing. There he throws his
+burden into the barn, crying, "There you have the Mallet (_Kloeppel_)," and
+makes off as fast as he can. If they catch him, they tie the puppet on his
+back, and he is known as the Mallet (_Kloeppel_) for the whole of the year;
+he may be the Corn-mallet or the Wheat-mallet or so forth according to the
+particular crop.(496)
+
+(M116) About Berneck, in Upper Franken, the man who gives the last stroke
+at threshing runs away. If the others catch him, he gets "the Old Woman,"
+that is, the largest dumpling, which elsewhere is baked in human shape.
+The custom of setting a dumpling baked in the form of an old woman before
+the man who has given the last stroke at threshing is also observed in
+various parts of Middle Franken. Sometimes the excised genitals of a calf
+are served up to him at table.(497) At Langenbielau in Silesia the last
+sheaf, which is called "the Old Man," is threshed separately and the corn
+ground into meal and baked into a loaf. This loaf is believed to possess
+healing virtue and to bring a blessing; hence none but members of the
+family may partake of it. At Wittichenau, in the district of Hoyerswerda
+(Silesia), when the threshing is ended, some of the straw of "the Old Man"
+is carried to a neighbour who has not yet finished his threshing, and the
+bearer is rewarded with a gratuity.(498) Among the Germans of the
+Falkenauer district in West Bohemia the man who gives the last stroke at
+threshing gets "the Old Man," a hideous scarecrow, tied on his back. If
+threshing is still proceeding at another farm, he may go thither and rid
+himself of his burden, but must take care not to be caught. In this way a
+farmer who is behind-hand with his threshing may receive several such
+scarecrows, and so become the target for many gibes. Among the Germans of
+the Planer district in West Bohemia, the man who gives the last stroke at
+threshing is himself called "the Old Man." Similarly at flax-dressing in
+Silberberg (West Bohemia), the woman who is the last to finish her task is
+said to get the Old Man, and a cake baked in human form is served up to
+her at supper.(499) The Wends of Saxony say of the man who gives the last
+stroke at threshing that "he has struck the Old Man" (_won je stareho
+bil_), and he is obliged to carry a straw puppet to a neighbour, who has
+not yet finished his threshing, where he throws the puppet unobserved over
+the fence.(500) In some parts of Sweden, when a stranger woman appears on
+the threshing-floor, a flail is put round her body, stalks of corn are
+wound round her neck, a crown of ears is placed on her head, and the
+threshers call out, "Behold the Corn-woman." Here the stranger woman, thus
+suddenly appearing, is taken to be the corn-spirit who has just been
+expelled by the flails from the corn-stalks.(501) In other cases the
+farmer's wife represents the corn-spirit. Thus in the Commune of Saligne,
+Canton de Poiret (Vendee), the farmer's wife, along with the last sheaf,
+is tied up in a sheet, placed on a litter, and carried to the threshing
+machine, under which she is shoved. Then the woman is drawn out and the
+sheaf is threshed by itself, but the woman is tossed in the sheet, as if
+she were being winnowed.(502) It would be impossible to express more
+clearly the identification of the woman with the corn than by this graphic
+imitation of threshing and winnowing her. Mitigated forms of the custom
+are observed in various places. Thus among the Germans of Schuettarschen in
+West Bohemia it was customary at the close of the threshing to "throttle"
+the farmer's wife by squeezing her neck between the arms of a flail till
+she consented to bake a special kind of cake called a _drischala_ (from
+_dreschen_, "to thresh").(503) A similar custom of "throttling" the
+farmer's wife at the threshing is practised in some parts of Bavaria, only
+there the pressure is applied by means of a straw rope instead of a
+flail.(504)
+
+(M117) In these customs the spirit of the ripe corn is regarded as old, or
+at least as of mature age. Hence the names of Mother, Grandmother, Old
+Woman, and so forth. But in other cases the corn-spirit is conceived as
+young. Thus at Saldern, near Wolfenbuttel, when the rye has been reaped,
+three sheaves are tied together with a rope so as to make a puppet with
+the corn ears for a head. This puppet is called the Maiden or the
+Corn-maiden (_Kornjungfer_).(505) Sometimes the corn-spirit is conceived
+as a child who is separated from its mother by the stroke of the sickle.
+This last view appears in the Polish custom of calling out to the man who
+cuts the last handful of corn, "You have cut the navel-string."(506) In
+some districts of West Prussia the figure made out of the last sheaf is
+called the Bastard, and a boy is wrapt up in it. The woman who binds the
+last sheaf and represents the Corn-mother is told that she is about to be
+brought to bed; she cries like a woman in travail, and an old woman in the
+character of grandmother acts as midwife. At last a cry is raised that the
+child is born; whereupon the boy who is tied up in the sheaf whimpers and
+squalls like an infant. The grandmother wraps a sack, in imitation of
+swaddling bands, round the pretended baby, who is carried joyfully to the
+barn, lest he should catch cold in the open air.(507) In other parts of
+North Germany the last sheaf, or the puppet made out of it, is called the
+Child, the Harvest-Child, and so on, and they call out to the woman who
+binds the last sheaf, "you are getting the child."(508)
+
+(M118) In the north of England, particularly in the counties of
+Northumberland, Durham, and Yorkshire, the last corn cut on the field at
+harvest is or used to be variously known as the _mell_ or the _kirn_, of
+which _kern_ and _churn_ are merely local or dialectical variations. The
+corn so cut is either plaited or made up into a doll-like figure, which
+goes by the name of the mell-doll or the kirn-doll, or the kirn-baby, and
+is brought home with rejoicings at the end of the harvest.(509) In the
+North Riding of Yorkshire the last sheaf gathered in is called the
+Mell-sheaf, and the expression "We've gotten wer mell" is as much as to
+say "The Harvest is finished." Formerly a Mell-doll was made out of a
+sheaf of corn decked with flowers and wrapped in such of the reapers'
+garments as could be spared. It was carried with music and dancing to the
+scene of the harvest-supper, which was called the mell-supper.(510) In the
+north of Yorkshire the mell-sheaf "was frequently made of such dimensions
+as to be a heavy load for a man, and, within a few years comparatively,
+was proposed as the prize to be won in a race of old women. In other cases
+it was carefully preserved and set up in some conspicuous place in the
+farmhouse."(511) Where the last sheaf of corn cut was called the _kirn_ or
+_kern_ instead of the _mell_, the customs concerned with it seem to have
+been essentially similar. Thus we are told that in the north it was common
+for the reapers, on the last day of the reaping, "to have a contention for
+superiority in quickness of dispatch, groups of three or four taking each
+a ridge, and striving which should soonest get to its termination. In
+Scotland, this was called a _kemping_, which simply means a striving. In
+the north of England, it was a _mell_.... As the reapers went on during
+the last day, they took care to leave a good handful of the grain uncut,
+but laid down flat, and covered over; and, when the field was done, the
+'bonniest lass' was allowed to cut this final handful, which was presently
+dressed up with various sewings, tyings, and trimmings, like a doll, and
+hailed as a _Corn Baby_. It was brought home in triumph, with music of
+fiddles and bagpipes, was set up conspicuously that night at supper, and
+was usually preserved in the farmer's parlour for the remainder of the
+year. The bonny lass who cut this handful of grain was deemed the _Har'st
+Queen_".(512) To cut the last portion of standing corn in the harvest
+field was known as "to get the kirn" or "to win the kirn"; and as soon as
+this was done the reapers let the neighbours know that the harvest was
+finished by giving three cheers, which was called "to cry or shout the
+kirn."(513) Where the last handful of standing corn was called the
+_churn_, the stalks were roughly plaited together, and the reapers threw
+their sickles at it till some one cut it through, which was called
+"cutting the churn." The severed churn (that is, the plaited corn) was
+then placed over the kitchen door or over the hob in the chimney for good
+luck, and as a charm against witchcraft.(514) In Kent the Ivy Girl is, or
+used to be, "a figure composed of some of the best corn the field
+produces, and made as well as they can into a human shape; this is
+afterwards curiously dressed by the women, and adorned with paper
+trimmings, cut to resemble a cap, ruffles, handkerchief, etc., of the
+finest lace. It is brought home with the last load of corn from the field
+upon the waggon, and they suppose entitles them to a supper at the expense
+of the employer."(515)
+
+(M119) In some parts of Scotland, as well as in the north of England, the
+last handful of corn cut on the harvest-field was called the _kirn_, and
+the person who carried it off was said "to win the kirn." It was then
+dressed up like a child's doll and went by the name of the kirn-baby, the
+kirn-doll, or the Maiden.(516) In Berwickshire down to about the middle of
+the nineteenth century there was an eager competition among the reapers to
+cut the last bunch of standing corn. They gathered round it at a little
+distance and threw their sickles in turn at it, and the man who succeeded
+in cutting it through gave it to the girl he preferred. She made the corn
+so cut into a kirn-dolly and dressed it, and the doll was then taken to
+the farmhouse and hung up there till the next harvest, when its place was
+taken by the new kirn-dolly.(517) At Spottiswoode (Westruther Parish) in
+Berwickshire the reaping of the last corn at harvest was called "cutting
+the Queen" almost as often as "cutting the kirn." The mode of cutting it
+was not by throwing sickles. One of the reapers consented to be
+blindfolded, and having been given a sickle in his hand and turned twice
+or thrice about by his fellows, he was bidden to go and cut the kirn. His
+groping about and making wild strokes in the air with his sickle excited
+much hilarity. When he had tired himself out in vain and given up the task
+as hopeless, another reaper was blindfolded and pursued the quest, and so
+on, one after the other, till at last the kirn was cut. The successful
+reaper was tossed up in the air with three cheers by his brother
+harvesters. To decorate the room in which the kirn-supper was held at
+Spottiswoode as well as the granary, where the dancing took place, two
+women made kirn-dollies or Queens every year; and many of these rustic
+effigies of the corn-spirit might be seen hanging up together.(518) At
+Lanfine in Ayrshire, down to near the end of the nineteenth century, the
+last bunch of standing corn at harvest was, occasionally at least, plaited
+together, and the reapers tried to cut it by throwing their sickles at it;
+when they failed in the attempt, a woman has been known to run in and
+sever the stalks at a blow. In Dumfriesshire also, within living memory,
+it used to be customary to cut the last standing corn by throwing the
+sickles at it.(519)
+
+(M120) In the north of Ireland the harvest customs were similar, but
+there, as in some parts of England, the last patch of standing corn bore
+the name of the _churn_, a dialectical variation of _kirn_. "The custom of
+'Winning the Churn' was prevalent all through the counties of Down and
+Antrim fifty years ago. It was carried out at the end of the harvest, or
+reaping the grain, on each farm or holding, were it small or large. Oats
+are the main crop of the district, but the custom was the same for other
+kinds of grain. When the reapers had nearly finished the last field a
+handful of the best-grown stalks was selected, carefully plaited as it
+stood, and fastened at the top just under the ears to keep the plait in
+place. Then when all the corn was cut from about this, which was known as
+_The Churn_, and the sheaves about it had been removed to some distance,
+the reapers stood in a group about ten yards off it, and each whirled his
+sickle at the _Churn_ till one lucky one succeeded in cutting it down,
+when he was cheered on his achievement. This person had then the right of
+presenting it to the master or mistress of the farm, who gave the reaper a
+shilling." A supper and a dance of the reapers in the farmhouse often
+concluded the day. The _Churn_, trimmed and adorned with ribbons, was hung
+up on a wall in the farmhouse and carefully preserved. It was no uncommon
+sight to see six or even twelve or more such _Churns_ decorating the walls
+of a farmhouse in County Down or Antrim.(520)
+
+(M121) In some parts of the Highlands of Scotland the last handful of corn
+that is cut by the reapers on any particular farm is called the Maiden, or
+in Gaelic _Maidhdeanbuain_, literally "the shorn Maiden." Superstitions
+attach to the winning of the Maiden. If it is got by a young person, they
+think it an omen that he or she will be married before another harvest.
+For that or other reasons there is a strife between the reapers as to who
+shall get the Maiden, and they resort to various stratagems for the
+purpose of securing it. One of them, for example, will often leave a
+handful of corn uncut and cover it up with earth to hide it from the other
+reapers, till all the rest of the corn on the field is cut down. Several
+may try to play the same trick, and the one who is coolest and holds out
+longest obtains the coveted distinction. When it has been cut, the Maiden
+is dressed with ribbons into a sort of doll and affixed to a wall of the
+farmhouse. In the north of Scotland the Maiden is carefully preserved till
+Yule morning, when it is divided among the cattle "to make them thrive all
+the year round."(521) In the island of Mull and some parts of the mainland
+of Argyleshire the last handful of corn cut is called the Maiden
+(_Maighdean-Bhuana_). Near Ardrishaig, in Argyleshire, the Maiden is made
+up in a fanciful three-cornered shape, decorated with ribbons, and hung
+from a nail on the wall.(522)
+
+(M122) The following account of the Maiden was obtained in the summer of
+1897 from the manager of a farm near Kilmartin in Argyleshire: "The
+_Mhaighdean-Bhuana_, or _Reaping Maiden_, was the last sheaf of oats to be
+cut on a croft or farm. Before the reaping-machine and binder took the
+place of the sickle and the scythe, the young reapers of both sexes, when
+they neared the end of the last rig or field, used to manoeuvre to gain
+possession of the _Mhaighdean-Bhuana_. The individual who was fortunate
+enough to obtain it was _ex officio_ entitled to be the King or the Queen
+of the Harvest-Home festival. The sheaf so designated was carefully
+preserved and kept intact until the day they began leading home the corn.
+A tuft of it was then given to each of the horses, as they started from
+the corn-field with their first load. The rest of it was neatly made up,
+and hung in some conspicuous corner of the farmhouse, where it remained
+till it was replaced by a younger sister next season. On the first day of
+ploughing a tuft of it was given (as on the first day of leading home the
+corn) as a _Sainnseal_ or handsel for luck to the horses. The
+_Mhaighdean-Bhuana_ so preserved and used was a symbol that the harvest
+had been duly secured, and that the spring work had been properly
+inaugurated. It was also believed to be a protection against fairies and
+witchcraft."(523)
+
+(M123) In the parish of Longforgan, situated at the south-eastern corner
+of Perthshire, it used to be customary to give what was called the Maiden
+Feast at the end of the harvest. The last handful of corn reaped on the
+field was called the Maiden, and things were generally so arranged that it
+fell into the hands of a pretty girl. It was then decked out with ribbons
+and brought home in triumph to the music of bagpipes and fiddles. In the
+evening the reapers danced and made merry. Afterwards the Maiden was
+dressed out, generally in the form of a cross, and hung up, with the date
+attached to it, in a conspicuous part of the house.(524) In the
+neighbourhood of Balquhidder, Perthshire, the last handful of corn is cut
+by the youngest girl on the field, and is made into the rude form of a
+female doll, clad in a paper dress, and decked with ribbons. It is called
+the Maiden, and is kept in the farmhouse, generally above the chimney, for
+a good while, sometimes till the Maiden of the next year is brought in.
+The writer of this book witnessed the ceremony of cutting the Maiden at
+Balquhidder in September 1888.(525) A lady friend(526) informed me that as
+a young girl she cut the Maiden several times at the request of the
+reapers in the neighbourhood of Perth. The name of the Maiden was given to
+the last handful of standing corn; a reaper held the top of the bunch
+while she cut it. Afterwards the bunch was plaited, decked with ribbons,
+and hung up in a conspicuous place on the wall of the kitchen till the
+next Maiden was brought in. The harvest-supper in this neighbourhood was
+also called the Maiden; the reapers danced at it.
+
+(M124) In the Highland district of Lochaber dancing and merry-making on
+the last night of harvest used to be universal and are still generally
+observed. Here, we are told, the festivity without the Maiden would be
+like a wedding without the bride. The Maiden is carried home with
+tumultuous rejoicing, and after being suitably decorated is hung up in the
+barn, where the dancing usually takes place. When supper is over, one of
+the company, generally the oldest man present, drinks a glass of whisky,
+after turning to the suspended sheaf and saying, "Here's to the Maiden."
+The company follow his example, each in turn drinking to the Maiden. Then
+the dancing begins.(527) On some farms on the Gareloch, in Dumbartonshire,
+about the year 1830, the last handful of standing corn was called the
+Maiden. It was divided in two, plaited, and then cut with the sickle by a
+girl, who, it was thought, would be lucky and would soon be married. When
+it was cut the reapers gathered together and threw their sickles in the
+air. The Maiden was dressed with ribbons and hung in the kitchen near the
+roof, where it was kept for several years with the date attached.
+Sometimes five or six Maidens might be seen hanging at once on hooks. The
+harvest-supper was called the Kirn.(528) In other farms on the Gareloch
+the last handful of corn was called the Maidenhead or the Head; it was
+neatly plaited, sometimes decked with ribbons, and hung in the kitchen for
+a year, when the grain was given to the poultry.(529)
+
+(M125) In the north-east of Aberdeenshire the customs connected with the
+last corn cut at harvest have been carefully collected and recorded by the
+late Rev. Walter Gregor of Pitsligo. His account runs as follows: "The
+last sheaf cut is the object of much care: the manner of cutting it,
+binding it, and carrying it to the house varies a little in the different
+districts. The following customs have been reported to me by people who
+have seen them or who have practised them, and some of the customs have
+now disappeared. The information comes from the parishes of Pitsligo,
+Aberdour, and Tyrie, situated in the north-east corner of the county of
+Aberdeen, but the customs are not limited to these parishes.
+
+"Some particulars relating to the sheaf may be noted as always the same;
+thus (_a_) it is cut and gathered by the youngest person present in the
+field, the person who is supposed to be the purest; (_b_) the sheaf is not
+allowed to touch the ground; (_c_) it is made up and carried in triumph to
+the house; (_d_) it occupies a conspicuous place in the festivals which
+follow the end of the reaping; (_e_) it is kept till Christmas morning,
+and is then given to one or more of the horses or to the cattle of the
+farm.
+
+(M126) "Before the introduction of the scythe, the corn was cut by the
+sickle or _heuck_, a kind of curved sickle. The last sheaf was shorn or
+cut by the youngest girl present. As the corn might not touch the ground,
+the master or 'gueedman' sat down, placed the band on his knees, and
+received thereupon each handful as it was cut. The sheaf was bound,
+dressed as a woman, and when it had been brought to the house, it was
+placed in some part of the kitchen, where everybody could see it during
+the meal which followed the end of the reaping. This sheaf was called the
+_clyack_ sheaf.(530)
+
+"The manner of receiving and binding the last sheaf is not always the
+same. Here is another: three persons hold the band in their hands, one of
+them at each end, while the third holds the knot in the middle. Each
+handful of corn is placed so that the cut end is turned to the breast of
+those who support the ears on the opposite side. When all is cut, the
+youngest boy ties the knot. Two other bands are fastened to the sheaf, one
+near the cut end, the other near the ears. The sheaf is carried to the
+house by those who have helped to cut or bind it (Aberdour).
+
+"Since the introduction of the scythe, it is the youngest boy who cuts the
+last sheaf; my informant (a woman) told me that when he was not strong
+enough to wield the scythe, his hand was guided by another. The youngest
+girl gathers it. When it is bound with three bands, it is cut straight,
+and it is not allowed to touch the ground. The youngest girls carry it to
+the house. My informant (a woman) told me that she had seen it decked and
+placed at the head of the bed. Formerly, and still sometimes, there was
+always a bed in the kitchen (Tyrie).
+
+"The corn is not allowed to fall on the ground: the young girls who gather
+it take it by the ear and convey it handful by handful, till the whole
+sheaf is cut. A woman who 'has lost a feather of her wing,' as an old
+woman put it to me, may not touch it. Sometimes also they merely put the
+two hands round the sheaf (New Deer).
+
+(M127) "Generally a feast and dance follow when all the wheat is cut. This
+feast and dance bear the name of _clyack_ or 'meal and ale.' However, some
+people do not give 'meal and ale' till all the cut corn has been got in:
+then the feast is called 'the Winter' and they say that a farmer 'has the
+Winter' when all his sheaves have been carried home.
+
+"At this feast two things are indispensable: a cheese called the
+_clyack-kebback_ and 'meal and ale.'
+
+"The cheese _clyack-kebback_ must be cut by the master of the house. The
+first slice is larger than the rest; it is known by the name of 'the
+_kanave's faang_,'--the young man's big slice--and is generally the share of
+the herd boy (Tyrie).
+
+"The dish called 'meal and ale' is made as follows. You take a suitable
+vessel, whether an earthenware pot or a milk-bowl, if the crockery is
+scanty; but if on the contrary the family is well off, they use other
+special utensils. In each dish ale is poured and treacle is added to
+sweeten it. Then oatmeal is mixed with the sweetened ale till the whole is
+of a sufficient consistency. The cook adds whisky to the mixture in such
+proportion as she thinks fit. In each plate is put a ring. To allow the
+meal time to be completely absorbed, the dish is prepared on the morning
+of the feast. At the moment of the feast the dish or dishes containing the
+strong and savoury mixture are set on the middle of the table. But it is
+not served up till the end. Six or seven persons generally have a plate to
+themselves. Each of them plunges his spoon into the plate as fast as
+possible in the hope of getting the ring; for he who is lucky enough to
+get it will be married within the year. Meantime some of the stuff is
+swallowed, but often in the struggle some of it is spilt on the table or
+the floor.
+
+(M128) "In some districts there used to be and still is dancing in the
+evening of the feast. 'The sheaf' figured in the dances. It was dressed as
+a girl and carried on the back of the mistress of the house to the barn or
+granary which served as a ballroom. The mistress danced a reel with 'the
+sheaf' on her back.
+
+(M129) "The woman who gave me this account had been a witness of what she
+described when she was a girl. The sheaf was afterwards carefully stored
+till the first day of Christmas, when it was given to eat to a mare in
+foal, if there was one on the farm, or, if there was not, to the oldest
+cow in calf. Elsewhere the sheaf was divided between all the cows and
+their calves or between all the horses and the cattle of the farm.
+(Related by an eye-witness.)"(531)
+
+(M130) In these Aberdeenshire customs the sanctity attributed to the last
+corn cut at harvest is clearly manifested, not merely by the ceremony with
+which it is treated on the field, in the house, and in the barn, but also
+by the great care taken to prevent it from touching the ground or being
+handled by any unchaste person. The reason why the youngest person on the
+field, whether a girl or a boy, is chosen to cut the last standing corn
+and sometimes to carry it to the house is no doubt a calculation that the
+younger the person the more likely is he or she to be sexually pure. We
+have seen that for this reason some negroes entrust the sowing of the seed
+to very young girls,(532) and later on we shall meet with more evidence in
+Africa of the notion that the corn may be handled only by the pure.(533)
+And in the gruel of oat-meal and ale, which the harvesters sup with spoons
+as an indispensable part of the harvest supper, have we not the Scotch
+equivalent of the gruel of barley-meal and water, flavoured with
+pennyroyal, which the initiates at Eleusis drank as a solemn form of
+communion with the Barley Goddess Demeter?(534) May not that mystic
+sacrament have originated in a simple harvest supper held by Eleusinian
+farmers at the end of the reaping?
+
+According to a briefer account of the Aberdeenshire custom, "the last
+sheaf cut, or 'maiden,' is carried home in merry procession by the
+harvesters. It is then presented to the mistress of the house, who dresses
+it up to be preserved till the first mare foals. The maiden is then taken
+down and presented to the mare as its first food. The neglect of this
+would have untoward effects upon the foal, and disastrous consequences
+upon farm operations generally for the season."(535) In Fifeshire the last
+handful of corn, known as the Maiden, is cut by a young girl and made into
+the rude figure of a doll, tied with ribbons, by which it is hung on the
+wall of the farm-kitchen till the next spring.(536) The custom of cutting
+the Maiden at harvest was also observed in Inverness-shire and
+Sutherlandshire.(537)
+
+(M131) A somewhat maturer but still youthful age is assigned to the
+corn-spirit by the appellations of Bride, Oats-bride, and Wheat-bride,
+which in Germany are sometimes bestowed both on the last sheaf and on the
+woman who binds it.(538) At wheat-harvest near Mueglitz, in Moravia, a
+small portion of the wheat is left standing after all the rest has been
+reaped. This remnant is then cut, amid the rejoicing of the reapers, by a
+young girl who wears a wreath of wheaten ears on her head and goes by the
+name of the Wheat-bride. It is supposed that she will be a real bride that
+same year.(539) In the upland valley of Alpach, in North Tyrol, the person
+who brings the last sheaf into the granary is said to have the Wheat-bride
+or the Rye-bride according to the crop, and is received with great
+demonstrations of respect and rejoicing. The people of the farm go out to
+meet him, bells are rung, and refreshments offered to him on a tray.(540)
+In Austrian Silesia a girl is chosen to be the Wheat-bride, and much
+honour is paid to her at the harvest-festival.(541) Near Roslin and
+Stonehaven, in Scotland, the last handful of corn cut "got the name of
+'the bride,' and she was placed over the _bress_ or chimney-piece; she had
+a ribbon tied below her numerous _ears_, and another round her
+waist."(542)
+
+(M132) Sometimes the idea implied by the name of Bride is worked out more
+fully by representing the productive powers of vegetation as bride and
+bridegroom. Thus in the Vorharz an Oats-man and an Oats-woman, swathed in
+straw, dance at the harvest feast.(543) In South Saxony an Oats-bridegroom
+and an Oats-bride figure together at the harvest celebration. The
+Oats-bridegroom is a man completely wrapt in oats-straw; the Oats-bride is
+a man dressed in woman's clothes, but not wrapt in straw. They are drawn
+in a waggon to the ale-house, where the dance takes place. At the
+beginning of the dance the dancers pluck the bunches of oats one by one
+from the Oats-bridegroom, while he struggles to keep them, till at last he
+is completely stript of them and stands bare, exposed to the laughter and
+jests of the company.(544) In Austrian Silesia the ceremony of "the
+Wheat-bride" is celebrated by the young people at the end of the harvest.
+The woman who bound the last sheaf plays the part of the Wheat-bride,
+wearing the harvest-crown of wheat ears and flowers on her head. Thus
+adorned, standing beside her Bridegroom in a waggon and attended by
+bridesmaids, she is drawn by a pair of oxen, in full imitation of a
+marriage procession, to the tavern, where the dancing is kept up till
+morning. Somewhat later in the season the wedding of the Oats-bride is
+celebrated with the like rustic pomp. About Neisse, in Silesia, an
+Oats-king and an Oats-queen, dressed up quaintly as a bridal pair, are
+seated on a harrow and drawn by oxen into the village.(545)
+
+(M133) In these last instances the corn-spirit is personified in double
+form as male and female. But sometimes the spirit appears in a double
+female form as both old and young, corresponding exactly to the Greek
+Demeter and Persephone, if my interpretation of these goddesses is right.
+We have seen that in Scotland, especially among the Gaelic-speaking
+population, the last corn cut is sometimes called the Old Wife and
+sometimes the Maiden. Now there are parts of Scotland in which both an Old
+Wife (_Cailleach_) and a Maiden are cut at harvest. As the accounts of
+this custom are not quite clear and consistent, it may be well to give
+them first in the words of the original authorities. Thus the late Sheriff
+Alexander Nicolson tells us that there is a Gaelic proverb, "A balk
+(_leum-iochd_) in autumn is better than a sheaf the more"; and he explains
+it by saying that a _leum-iochd_ or balk "is a strip of a corn-field left
+fallow. The fear of being left with the last sheaf of the harvest, called
+the _cailleach_, or _gobhar bhacach_, always led to an exciting
+competition among the reapers in the last field. The reaper who came on a
+_leum-iochd_ would of course be glad to have so much the less to
+cut."(546) In further explanation of the proverb the writer adds:
+
+"The customs as to the _Cailleach_ and _Maighdean-bhuana_ seem to have
+varied somewhat. Two reapers were usually set to each rig, and according
+to one account, the man who was first done got the _Maighdean-bhuana_ or
+'Reaping-Maiden,' while the man who was last got the _Cailleach_ or 'old
+woman.' The latter term is used in Argyleshire; the term _Gobhar-bhacach_,
+the lame goat, is used in Skye.
+
+"According to what appears to be the better version, the competition to
+avoid the _Cailleach_ was not between reapers but between neighbouring
+crofters, and the man who got his harvest done first sent a handful of
+corn called the _Cailleach_ to his neighbour, who passed it on, till it
+landed with him who was latest. That man's penalty was to provide for the
+dearth of the township, _gort a' bhaile_, in the ensuing season.
+
+"The _Maighdean-bhuana_, again, was the last cut handful of oats, on a
+croft or farm, and was an object of lively competition among the reapers.
+It was tastefully tied up with ribbons, generally dressed like a doll, and
+then hung up on a nail till spring. On the first day of ploughing it was
+solemnly taken down, and given as a _Sainnseal_ (or handsel) to the horses
+for luck. It was meant as a symbol that the harvest had been secured, and
+to ward off the fairies, representatives of the ethereal and
+unsubstantial, till the time came to provide for a new crop."(547) Again,
+the Rev. Mr. Campbell of Kilchrenan, on Loch Awe, furnished Dr. R. C.
+Maclagan with the following account of the Highland customs at harvest.
+The recollections of Mrs. MacCorquodale, then resident at Kilchrenan,
+refer to the customs practised about the middle of the nineteenth century
+in the wild and gloomy valley of Glencoe, infamous in history for the
+treacherous massacre perpetrated there by the Government troops in 1692.
+"Mrs. MacCorquodale says that the rivalry was for the Maiden, and for the
+privilege she gave of sending the Cailleach to the next neighbour. The
+Maiden was represented by the last stalks reaped; the Cailleach by a
+handful taken at random from the field, perhaps the last rig of the reaper
+last to finish. The Cailleach was not dressed but carried after binding to
+the neighbour's field. The Maiden was cut in the following manner. All the
+reapers gathered round her and kept a short distance from her. They then
+threw their hooks [sickles] at her. The person successful in cutting her
+down in this manner was the man whose possession she became. Mrs.
+MacCorquodale understood that the man of a township who got the Cailleach
+finally was supposed to be doomed to poverty for his want of energy.
+(Gaelic: _treubhantas_--valour.)
+
+"A sample of the toast to the Cailleach at the harvest entertainment was
+as follows: 'The Cailleach is with ... and is now with (me) since I was
+the last. I drink to her health. Since she assisted me in harvest, it is
+likely that it is with me she will abide during the winter.' In explaining
+the above toast Mr. Campbell says that it signifies that the Cailleach is
+always with agriculturists. 'She has been with others before and is now
+with me (the proposer of the toast). Though I did my best to avoid her I
+welcome her as my assistant, and am prepared to entertain her during the
+winter.' Another form of the toast was as follows: 'To your health, good
+wife, who for harvest has come to help us, and if I live I'll try to
+support you when winter comes.'
+
+"John MacCorquodale, Kilchrenan, says that at Crianlarich in Strath
+Fillan, they make a Cailleach of sticks and a turnip, old clothes and a
+pipe. In this case the effigy passed in succession to seven farms, which
+he mentioned, and finally settled with an innkeeper. The list suggested
+that the upper farms stood a bad chance, and perhaps that a prosperous
+innkeeper could more easily bear up against the reproach and loss (?) of
+supporting the Cailleach.
+
+"Duncan MacIntyre, Kilchrenan, says that in one case where the last field
+to be reaped was the most fertile land on the farm, the corn first cut in
+it, which was taken near the edge, was reserved to make a Cailleach,
+should the owner be so happy as to be able to pass her on to his
+neighbour. The last blades cut were generally in the middle or best part
+of the field. These in any event became the Maiden." Lastly, Dr. Maclagan
+observes that "having directed the attention of Miss Kerr, Port Charlotte,
+Islay, to the practice of having two different bunches on the mainland of
+Argyle, she informs me that in Islay and Kintyre the last handful is the
+Cailleach, and they have no Maiden. The same is the custom in Bernara and
+other parts of the Western Isles, while in Mull the last handful is the
+Maiden, and they have no Cailleach. In North Uist the habit still prevails
+of putting the Cailleach over-night among the standing corn of lazy
+crofters."(548)
+
+(M134) The general rule to which these various accounts point seems to be
+that, where both a Maiden and an Old Wife (_Cailleach_) are fashioned out
+of the reaped corn at harvest, the Maiden is always made out of the last
+stalks left standing, and is kept by the farmer on whose land it was cut;
+while the Old Wife is made out of other stalks, sometimes out of the first
+stalks cut, and is regularly passed on to a laggard farmer who happens to
+be still reaping after his brisker neighbour has cut all his corn. Thus
+while each farmer keeps his own Maiden, as the embodiment of the young and
+fruitful spirit of the corn, he passes on the Old Wife as soon as he can
+to a neighbour, and so the old lady may make the round of all the farms in
+the district before she finds a place in which to lay her venerable head.
+The farmer with whom she finally takes up her abode is of course the one
+who has been the last of all the countryside to finish reaping his crops,
+and thus the distinction of entertaining her is rather an invidious one.
+Similarly we saw that in Pembrokeshire, where the last corn cut is called,
+not the Maiden, but the Hag, she is passed on hastily to a neighbour who
+is still at work in his fields and who receives his aged visitor with
+anything but a transport of joy. If the Old Wife represents the
+corn-spirit of the past year, as she probably does wherever she is
+contrasted with and opposed to a Maiden, it is natural enough that her
+faded charms should have less attractions for the husbandman than the
+buxom form of her daughter, who may be expected to become in her turn the
+mother of the golden grain when the revolving year has brought round
+another autumn. The same desire to get rid of the effete Mother of the
+Corn by palming her off on other people comes out clearly in some of the
+customs observed at the close of threshing, particularly in the practice
+of passing on a hideous straw puppet to a neighbour farmer who is still
+threshing his corn.(549)
+
+(M135) The harvest customs just described are strikingly analogous to the
+spring customs which we reviewed in the first part of this work. (1) As in
+the spring customs the tree-spirit is represented both by a tree and by a
+person,(550) so in the harvest customs the corn-spirit is represented both
+by the last sheaf and by the person who cuts or binds or threshes it. The
+equivalence of the person to the sheaf is shewn by giving him or her the
+same name as the sheaf; by wrapping him or her in it; and by the rule
+observed in some places, that when the sheaf is called the Mother, it must
+be made up into human shape by the oldest married woman, but that when it
+is called the Maiden, it must be cut by the youngest girl.(551) Here the
+age of the personal representative of the corn-spirit corresponds with
+that of the supposed age of the corn-spirit, just as the human victims
+offered by the Mexicans to promote the growth of the maize varied with the
+age of the maize.(552) For in the Mexican, as in the European, custom the
+human beings were probably representatives of the corn-spirit rather than
+victims offered to it. (2) Again, the same fertilising influence which the
+tree-spirit is supposed to exert over vegetation, cattle, and even
+women(553) is ascribed to the corn-spirit. Thus, its supposed influence on
+vegetation is shewn by the practice of taking some of the grain of the
+last sheaf (in which the corn-spirit is regularly supposed to be present),
+and scattering it among the young corn in spring or mixing it with the
+seed-corn.(554) Its influence on animals is shewn by giving the last sheaf
+to a mare in foal, to a cow in calf, and to horses at the first
+ploughing.(555) Lastly, its influence on women is indicated by the custom
+of delivering the Mother-sheaf, made into the likeness of a pregnant
+woman, to the farmer's wife;(556) by the belief that the woman who binds
+the last sheaf will have a child next year;(557) perhaps, too, by the idea
+that the person who gets it will soon be married.(558)
+
+(M136) Plainly, therefore, these spring and harvest customs are based on
+the same ancient modes of thought, and form parts of the same primitive
+heathendom, which was doubtless practised by our forefathers long before
+the dawn of history. Amongst the marks of a primitive ritual we may note
+the following:--
+
+(M137) 1. No special class of persons is set apart for the performance of
+the rites; in other words, there are no priests. The rites may be
+performed by any one, as occasion demands.
+
+2. No special places are set apart for the performance of the rites; in
+other words, there are no temples. The rites may be performed anywhere, as
+occasion demands.
+
+3. Spirits, not gods, are recognised. (_a_) As distinguished from gods,
+spirits are restricted in their operations to definite departments of
+nature. Their names are general, not proper. Their attributes are generic,
+rather than individual; in other words, there is an indefinite number of
+spirits of each class, and the individuals of a class are all much alike;
+they have no definitely marked individuality; no accepted traditions are
+current as to their origin, life, adventures, and character. (_b_) On the
+other hand gods, as distinguished from spirits, are not restricted to
+definite departments of nature. It is true that there is generally some
+one department over which they preside as their special province; but they
+are not rigorously confined to it; they can exert their power for good or
+evil in many other spheres of nature and life. Again, they bear individual
+or proper names, such as Demeter, Persephone, Dionysus; and their
+individual characters and histories are fixed by current myths and the
+representations of art.
+
+4. The rites are magical rather than propitiatory. In other words, the
+desired objects are attained, not by propitiating the favour of divine
+beings through sacrifice, prayer, and praise, but by ceremonies which, as
+I have already explained,(559) are believed to influence the course of
+nature directly through a physical sympathy or resemblance between the
+rite and the effect which it is the intention of the rite to produce.
+
+(M138) Judged by these tests, the spring and harvest customs of our
+European peasantry deserve to rank as primitive. For no special class of
+persons and no special places are set exclusively apart for their
+performance; they may be performed by any one, master or man, mistress or
+maid, boy or girl; they are practised, not in temples or churches, but in
+the woods and meadows, beside brooks, in barns, on harvest fields and
+cottage floors. The supernatural beings whose existence is taken for
+granted in them are spirits rather than deities: their functions are
+limited to certain well-defined departments of nature: their names are
+general, like the Barley-mother, the Old Woman, the Maiden, not proper
+names like Demeter, Persephone, Dionysus. Their generic attributes are
+known, but their individual histories and characters are not the subject
+of myths. For they exist in classes rather than as individuals, and the
+members of each class are indistinguishable. For example, every farm has
+its Corn-mother, or its Old Woman, or its Maiden; but every Corn-mother is
+much like every other Corn-mother, and so with the Old Women and Maidens.
+Lastly, in these harvest, as in the spring customs, the ritual is magical
+rather than propitiatory. This is shewn by throwing the Corn-mother into
+the river in order to secure rain and dew for the crops;(560) by making
+the Old Woman heavy in order to get a heavy crop next year;(561) by
+strewing grain from the last sheaf amongst the young crops in spring;(562)
+and by giving the last sheaf to the cattle to make them thrive.(563)
+
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI. THE CORN-MOTHER IN MANY LANDS.
+
+
+
+
+§ 1. The Corn-mother in America.
+
+
+(M139) European peoples, ancient and modern, have not been singular in
+personifying the corn as a mother goddess. The same simple idea has
+suggested itself to other agricultural races in distant parts of the
+world, and has been applied by them to other indigenous cereals than
+barley and wheat. If Europe has its Wheat-mother and its Barley-mother,
+America has its Maize-mother and the East Indies their Rice-mother. These
+personifications I will now illustrate, beginning with the American
+personification of the maize.
+
+(M140) We have seen that among European peoples it is a common custom to
+keep the plaited corn-stalks of the last sheaf, or the puppet which is
+formed out of them, in the farm-house from harvest to harvest.(564) The
+intention no doubt is, or rather originally was, by preserving the
+representative of the corn-spirit to maintain the spirit itself in life
+and activity throughout the year, in order that the corn may grow and the
+crops be good. This interpretation of the custom is at all events rendered
+highly probable by a similar custom observed by the ancient Peruvians, and
+thus described by the old Spanish historian Acosta:--"They take a certain
+portion of the most fruitful of the maize that grows in their farms, the
+which they put in a certain granary which they do call _Pirua_, with
+certain ceremonies, watching three nights; they put this maize in the
+richest garments they have, and being thus wrapped and dressed, they
+worship this _Pirua_, and hold it in great veneration, saying it is the
+mother of the maize of their inheritances, and that by this means the
+maize augments and is preserved. In this month [the sixth month, answering
+to May] they make a particular sacrifice, and the witches demand of this
+_Pirua_ if it hath strength sufficient to continue until the next year;
+and if it answers no, then they carry this maize to the farm to burn,
+whence they brought it, according to every man's power; then they make
+another _Pirua_, with the same ceremonies, saying that they renew it, to
+the end the seed of maize may not perish, and if it answers that it hath
+force sufficient to last longer, they leave it until the next year. This
+foolish vanity continueth to this day, and it is very common amongst the
+Indians to have these _Piruas_."(565)
+
+(M141) In this description of the custom there seems to be some error.
+Probably it was the dressed-up bunch of maize, not the granary (_Pirua_),
+which was worshipped by the Peruvians and regarded as the Mother of the
+Maize. This is confirmed by what we know of the Peruvian custom from
+another source. The Peruvians, we are told, believed all useful plants to
+be animated by a divine being who causes their growth. According to the
+particular plant, these divine beings were called the Maize-mother
+(_Zara-mama_), the Quinoa-mother (_Quinoa-mama_), the Coca-mother
+(_Coca-mama_), and the Potato-mother (_Axo-mama_). Figures of these divine
+mothers were made respectively of ears of maize and leaves of the quinoa
+and coca plants; they were dressed in women's clothes and worshipped. Thus
+the Maize-mother was represented by a puppet made of stalks of maize
+dressed in full female attire; and the Indians believed that "as mother,
+it had the power of producing and giving birth to much maize."(566)
+Probably, therefore, Acosta misunderstood his informant, and the Mother of
+the Maize which he describes was not the granary (_Pirua_), but the bunch
+of maize dressed in rich vestments. The Peruvian Mother of the Maize, like
+the harvest-Maiden at Balquhidder, was kept for a year in order that by
+her means the corn might grow and multiply. But lest her strength might
+not suffice to last till the next harvest, she was asked in the course of
+the year how she felt, and if she answered that she felt weak, she was
+burned and a fresh Mother of the Maize made, "to the end the seed of maize
+may not perish." Here, it may be observed, we have a strong confirmation
+of the explanation already given of the custom of killing the god, both
+periodically and occasionally. The Mother of the Maize was allowed, as a
+rule, to live through a year, that being the period during which her
+strength might reasonably be supposed to last unimpaired; but on any
+symptom of her strength failing she was put to death, and a fresh and
+vigorous Mother of the Maize took her place, lest the maize which depended
+on her for its existence should languish and decay.
+
+(M142) Hardly less clearly does the same train of thought come out in the
+harvest customs formerly observed by the Zapotecs of Mexico. At harvest
+the priests, attended by the nobles and people, went in procession to the
+maize fields, where they picked out the largest and finest sheaf. This
+they took with great ceremony to the town or village, and placed it in the
+temple upon an altar adorned with wild flowers. After sacrificing to the
+harvest god, the priests carefully wrapped up the sheaf in fine linen and
+kept it till seed-time. Then the priests and nobles met again at the
+temple, one of them bringing the skin of a wild beast, elaborately
+ornamented, in which the linen cloth containing the sheaf was enveloped.
+The sheaf was then carried once more in procession to the field from which
+it had been taken. Here a small cavity or subterranean chamber had been
+prepared, in which the precious sheaf was deposited, wrapt in its various
+envelopes. After sacrifice had been offered to the gods of the fields for
+an abundant crop the chamber was closed and covered over with earth.
+Immediately thereafter the sowing began. Finally, when the time of harvest
+drew near, the buried sheaf was solemnly disinterred by the priests, who
+distributed the grain to all who asked for it. The packets of grain so
+distributed were carefully preserved as talismans till the harvest.(567)
+In these ceremonies, which continued to be annually celebrated long after
+the Spanish conquest, the intention of keeping the finest sheaf buried in
+the maize field from seed-time to harvest was undoubtedly to quicken the
+growth of the maize.
+
+(M143) A fuller and to some extent different account of the ancient
+Mexican worship of the maize has been given us by the Franciscan monk
+Bernardino de Sahagun, who arrived in Mexico in 1529, only eight years
+after its conquest by the Spaniards, and devoted the remaining sixty-one
+years of his long life to labouring among the Indians for their moral and
+spiritual good. Uniting the curiosity of a scientific enquirer to the zeal
+of a missionary, and adorning both qualities with the humanity and
+benevolence of a good man, he obtained from the oldest and most learned of
+the Indians accounts of their ancient customs and beliefs, and embodied
+them in a work which, for combined interest of matter and fulness of
+detail, has perhaps never been equalled in the records of aboriginal
+peoples brought into contact with European civilisation. This great
+document, after lying neglected in the dust of Spanish archives for
+centuries, was discovered and published almost simultaneously in Mexico
+and England in the first half of the nineteenth century. It exists in the
+double form of an Aztec text and a Spanish translation, both due to
+Sahagun himself. Only the Spanish version has hitherto been published in
+full, but the original Aztec text, to judge by the few extracts of it
+which have been edited and translated, appears to furnish much more ample
+details on many points, and in the interest of learning it is greatly to
+be desired that a complete edition and translation of it should be given
+to the world.
+
+(M144) Fortunately, among the sections of this great work which have been
+edited and translated from the Aztec original into German by Professor
+Eduard Seler of Berlin is a long one describing the religious festivals of
+the ancient Mexican calendar.(568) From it we learn some valuable
+particulars as to the worship of the Maize-goddess and the ceremonies
+observed by the Mexicans for the purpose of ensuring a good crop of maize.
+The festival was the fourth of the Aztec year, and went by the name of the
+Great Vigil. It fell on a date which corresponds to the seventh of April.
+The name of the Maize-goddess was Chicome couatl, and the Mexicans
+conceived and represented her in the form of a woman, red in face and arms
+and legs, wearing a paper crown dyed vermilion, and clad in garments of
+the hue of ripe cherries. No doubt the red colour of the goddess and her
+garments referred to the deep orange hue of the ripe maize; it was like
+the yellow hair of the Greek corn-goddess Demeter. She was supposed to
+make all kinds of maize, beans, and vegetables to grow. On the day of the
+festival the Mexicans sent out to the maize-fields and fetched from every
+field a plant of maize, which they brought to their houses and greeted as
+their maize-gods, setting them up in their dwellings, clothing them in
+garments, and placing food before them. And after sunset they carried the
+maize-plants to the temple of the Maize-goddess, where they snatched them
+from one another and fought and struck each other with them. Further, at
+this festival they brought to the temple of the Maize-goddess the
+maize-cobs which were to be used in the sowing. The cobs were carried by
+three maidens in bundles of seven wrapt in red paper. One of the girls was
+small with short hair, another was older with long hair hanging down, and
+the third was full-grown with her hair wound round her head. Red feathers
+were gummed to the arms and legs of the three maidens and their faces were
+painted, probably to resemble the red Maize-goddess, whom they may be
+supposed to have personated at various stages of the growth of the corn.
+The maize-cobs which they brought to the temple of the Maize-goddess were
+called by the name of the Maize-god Cinteotl, and they were afterwards
+deposited in the granary and kept there as "the heart of the granary" till
+the sowing time came round, when they were used as seed.(569)
+
+(M145) The eastern Indians of North America, who subsisted to a large
+extent by the cultivation of maize, generally conceived the spirit of the
+maize as a woman, and supposed that the plant itself had sprung originally
+from the blood drops or the dead body of the Corn Woman. In the sacred
+formulas of the Cherokee the corn is sometimes invoked as "the Old Woman,"
+and one of their myths relates how a hunter saw a fair woman issue from a
+single green stalk of corn.(570) The Iroquois believe the Spirit of the
+Corn, the Spirit of Beans, and the Spirit of Squashes to be three sisters
+clad in the leaves of their respective plants, very fond of each other,
+and delighting to dwell together. This divine trinity is known by the name
+of _De-o-ha'-ko_, which means "Our Life" or "Our Supporters." The three
+persons of the trinity have no individual names, and are never mentioned
+separately except by means of description. The Indians have a legend that
+of old the corn was easily cultivated, yielded abundantly, and had a grain
+exceedingly rich in oil, till the Evil One, envious of this good gift of
+the Great Spirit to man, went forth into the fields and blighted them. And
+still, when the wind rustles in the corn, the pious Indian fancies he
+hears the Spirit of the Corn bemoaning her blighted fruitfulness.(571) The
+Huichol Indians of Mexico imagine maize to be a little girl, who may
+sometimes be heard weeping in the fields; so afraid is she of the wild
+beasts that eat the corn.(572)
+
+
+
+
+§ 2. The Mother-cotton in the Punjaub.
+
+
+(M146) In the Punjaub, to the east of the Jumna, when the cotton boles
+begin to burst, it is usual to select the largest plant in the field,
+sprinkle it with butter-milk and rice-water, and then bind to it pieces of
+cotton taken from the other plants of the field. This selected plant is
+called Sirdar or _Bhogaldai_, that is "mother-cotton," from _bhogla_, a
+name sometimes given to a large cotton-pod, and _dai_ (for _daiya_), "a
+mother," and after it has been saluted, prayers are offered that the other
+plants may resemble it in the richness of their produce.(573)
+
+
+
+
+§ 3. The Barley Bride among the Berbers.
+
+
+(M147) The conception of the corn-spirit as a bride seems to come out
+clearly in a ceremony still practised by the Berbers near Tangier, in
+Morocco. When the women assemble in the fields to weed the green barley or
+reap the crops, they take with them a straw figure dressed like a woman,
+and set it up among the corn. Suddenly a group of horsemen from a
+neighbouring village gallops up and carries off the straw puppet amid the
+screams and cries of the women. However, the ravished effigy is rescued by
+another band of mounted men, and after a struggle it remains, more or less
+dishevelled, in the hands of the women. That this pretended abduction is a
+mimic marriage appears from a Berber custom in accordance with which, at a
+real wedding, the bridegroom carries off his seemingly unwilling bride on
+horseback, while she screams and pretends to summon her friends to her
+rescue. No fixed date is appointed for the simulated abduction of the
+straw woman from the barley-field, the time depends upon the state of the
+crops, but the day and hour are made public before the event. Each village
+used to practise this mimic contest for possession of the straw woman, who
+probably represents the Barley Bride, but nowadays the custom is growing
+obsolete.(574)
+
+(M148) An earlier account of what seems to be the same practice runs as
+follows: "There is a curious custom which seems to be a relic of their
+pagan masters, who made this and the adjoining regions of North Africa the
+main granary of their Latin empire. When the young corn has sprung up,
+which it does about the middle of February, the women of the villages make
+up the figure of a female, the size of a very large doll, which they dress
+in the gaudiest fashion they can contrive, covering it with ornaments to
+which all in the village contribute something; and they give it a tall,
+peaked head-dress. This image they carry in procession round their fields,
+screaming and singing a peculiar ditty. The doll is borne by the foremost
+woman, who must yield it to any one who is quick enough to take the lead
+of her, which is the cause of much racing and squabbling. The men also
+have a similar custom, which they perform on horseback. They call the
+image Mata. These ceremonies are said by the people to bring good luck.
+Their efficacy ought to be great, for you frequently see crowds of men
+engaged in their performances running and galloping recklessly over the
+young crops of wheat and barley. Such customs are directly opposed to the
+faith of Islam, and I never met with a Moor who could in any way enlighten
+me as to their origin. The Berber tribes, the most ancient race now
+remaining in these regions, to which they give the name, are the only ones
+which retain this antique usage, and it is viewed by the Arabs and
+dwellers in the town as a remnant of idolatry."(575) We may conjecture
+that this gaudily dressed effigy of a female, which the Berber women carry
+about their fields when the corn is sprouting, represents the Corn-mother,
+and that the procession is designed to promote the growth of the crops by
+imparting to them the quickening influence of the goddess. We can
+therefore understand why there should be a competition among the women for
+the possession of the effigy; each woman probably hopes to secure for
+herself and her crops a larger measure of fertility by appropriating the
+image of the Corn-mother. The competition on horseback among the men is no
+doubt to be explained similarly; they, too, race with each other in their
+eagerness to possess themselves of an effigy, perhaps of a male power of
+the corn, by whose help they expect to procure a heavy crop. Such contests
+for possession of the corn-spirit embodied in the corn-stalks are common,
+as we have seen, among the reapers on the harvest fields of Europe.
+Perhaps they help to explain some of the contests in the Eleusinian games,
+among which horse-races as well as foot-races were included.(576)
+
+
+
+
+§ 4. The Rice-mother in the East Indies.
+
+
+(M149) If the reader still feels any doubts as to the meaning of the
+harvest customs which have been practised within living memory by European
+peasants, these doubts may perhaps be dispelled by comparing the customs
+observed at the rice-harvest by the Malays and Dyaks of the East Indies.
+For these Eastern peoples have not, like our peasantry, advanced beyond
+the intellectual stage at which the customs originated; their theory and
+their practice are still in unison; for them the quaint rites which in
+Europe have long dwindled into mere fossils, the pastime of clowns and the
+puzzle of the learned, are still living realities of which they can render
+an intelligible and truthful account. Hence a study of their beliefs and
+usages concerning the rice may throw some light on the true meaning of the
+ritual of the corn in ancient Greece and modern Europe.
+
+(M150) Now the whole of the ritual which the Malays and Dyaks observe in
+connexion with the rice is founded on the simple conception of the rice as
+animated by a soul like that which these people attribute to mankind. They
+explain the phenomena of reproduction, growth, decay and death in the rice
+on the same principles on which they explain the corresponding phenomena
+in human beings. They imagine that in the fibres of the plant, as in the
+body of a man, there is a certain vital element, which is so far
+independent of the plant that it may for a time be completely separated
+from it without fatal effects, though if its absence be prolonged beyond
+certain limits the plant will wither and die. This vital yet separable
+element is what, for the want of a better word, we must call the soul of a
+plant, just as a similar vital and separable element is commonly supposed
+to constitute the soul of man; and on this theory or myth of the
+plant-soul is built the whole worship of the cereals, just as on the
+theory or myth of the human soul is built the whole worship of the dead,--a
+towering superstructure reared on a slender and precarious foundation.
+
+(M151) The strict parallelism between the Indonesian ideas about the soul
+of man and the soul of rice is well brought out by Mr. R. J. Wilkinson in
+the following passage: "The spirit of life,--which, according to the
+ancient Indonesian belief, existed in all things, even in what we should
+now consider inanimate objects--is known as the _semangat_. It was not a
+'soul' in the modern English sense, since it was not the exclusive
+possession of mankind, its separation from the body did not necessarily
+mean death, and its nature may possibly not have been considered immortal.
+At the present day, if a Malay feels faint, he will describe his condition
+by saying that his 'spirit of life' is weak or is 'flying' from his body;
+he sometimes appeals to it to return: 'Hither, hither, bird of my soul.'
+Or again, if a Malay lover wishes to influence the mind of a girl, he may
+seek to obtain control of her _semangat_, for he believes that this spirit
+of active and vigorous life must quit the body when the body sleeps and so
+be liable to capture by the use of magic arts. It is, however, in the
+ceremonies connected with the so-called 'spirit of the rice-crops' that
+the peculiar characteristics of the _semangat_ come out most clearly. The
+Malay considers it essential that the spirit of life should not depart
+from the rice intended for next year's sowing as otherwise the dead seed
+would fail to produce any crop whatever. He, therefore, approaches the
+standing rice-crops at harvest-time in a deprecatory manner; he addresses
+them in endearing terms; he offers propitiatory sacrifices; he fears that
+he may scare away the timorous 'bird of life' by the sight of a weapon or
+the least sign of violence. He must reap the seed-rice, but he does it
+with a knife of peculiar shape, such that the cruel blade is hidden away
+beneath the reaper's fingers and does not alarm the 'soul of the rice.'
+When once the seed-rice has been harvested, more expeditious reaping-tools
+may be employed, since it is clearly unnecessary to retain the spirit of
+life in grain that is only intended for the cooking-pot. Similar rites
+attend all the processes of rice-cultivation--the sowing and the
+planting-out as well as the harvest,--for at each of these stages there is
+a risk that the vitality of the crop may be ruined if the bird of life is
+scared away. In the language used by the high-priests of these very
+ancient ceremonies we constantly find references to Sri (the Hindu Goddess
+of the Crops), to the fruit of the Tree of Knowledge, and to Adam who,
+according to Moslem tradition, was the first planter of cereals;--many of
+these references only represent the attempts of the conservative Malays to
+make their old religions harmonize with later beliefs. Beneath successive
+layers of religious veneer, we see the animism of the old Indonesians, the
+theory of a bird-spirit of life, and the characteristic view that the best
+protection against evil lies in gentleness and courtesy to all animate and
+inanimate things."(577)
+
+(M152) "It is a familiar fact," says another eminent authority on the East
+Indies, "that the Indonesian imagines rice to be animated, to be provided
+with 'soul-stuff.' Since rice is everywhere cultivated in the Indian
+Archipelago, and with some exceptions is the staple food, we need not
+wonder that the Indonesian conceives the rice to be not merely animated in
+the ordinary sense but to be possessed of a soul-stuff which in strength
+and dignity ranks with that of man. Thus the Bataks apply the same word
+_tondi_ to the soul-stuff of rice and the soul-stuff of human beings.
+Whereas the Dyaks of Poelopetak give the name of _gana_ to the soul-stuff
+of things, animals, and plants, they give the name of _hambaruan_ to the
+soul-stuff of rice as well as of man. So also the inhabitants of Halmahera
+call the soul-stuff of things and plants _giki_ and _duhutu_, but in men
+and food they recognise a _gurumi_. Of the Javanese, Malays, Macassars,
+Buginese, and the inhabitants of the island of Buru we know that they
+ascribe a _sumange_, _sumangat_, or _semangat_ to rice as well as to men.
+So it is with the Toradjas of Central Celebes; while they manifestly
+conceive all things and plants as animated, they attribute a _tanoana_ or
+soul-stuff only to men, animals, and rice. It need hardly be said that
+this custom originates in the very high value that is set on rice."(578)
+
+(M153) Believing the rice to be animated by a soul like that of a man, the
+Indonesians naturally treat it with the deference and the consideration
+which they shew to their fellows. Thus they behave towards the rice in
+bloom as they behave towards a pregnant woman; they abstain from firing
+guns or making loud noises in the field, lest they should so frighten the
+soul of the rice that it would miscarry and bear no grain; and for the
+same reason they will not talk of corpses or demons in the rice-fields.
+Moreover, they feed the blooming rice with foods of various kinds which
+are believed to be wholesome for women with child; but when the rice-ears
+are just beginning to form, they are looked upon as infants, and women go
+through the fields feeding them with rice-pap as if they were human
+babes.(579) In such natural and obvious comparisons of the breeding plant
+to a breeding woman, and of the young grain to a young child, is to be
+sought the origin of the kindred Greek conception of the Corn-mother and
+the Corn-daughter, Demeter and Persephone, and we need not go further
+afield to search for it in a primitive division of labour between the
+sexes.(580) But if the timorous feminine soul of the rice can be
+frightened into a miscarriage even by loud noises, it is easy to imagine
+what her feelings must be at harvest, when people are under the sad
+necessity of cutting down the rice with the knife. At so critical a season
+every precaution must be used to render the necessary surgical operation
+of reaping as inconspicuous and as painless as possible. For that reason,
+as we have seen,(581) the reaping of the seed-rice is done with knives of
+a peculiar pattern, such that the blades are hidden in the reapers' hands
+and do not frighten the rice-spirit till the very last moment, when her
+head is swept off almost before she is aware; and from a like delicate
+motive the reapers at work in the fields employ a special form of speech,
+which the rice-spirit cannot be expected to understand, so that she has no
+warning or inkling of what is going forward till the heads of rice are
+safely deposited in the basket.(582)
+
+(M154) Among the Indonesian peoples who thus personify the rice we may
+take the Kayans or Bahaus of Central Borneo as typical. As we have already
+seen, they are essentially an agricultural people devoted to the
+cultivation of rice, which furnishes their staple food; their religion is
+deeply coloured by this main occupation of their lives, and it presents
+many analogies to the Eleusinian worship of the corn-goddesses Demeter and
+Persephone.(583) And just as the Greeks regarded corn as a gift of the
+goddess Demeter, so the Kayans believe that rice, maize, sweet potatoes,
+tobacco, and all the other products of the earth which they cultivate,
+were originally created for their benefit by the spirits.(584)
+
+(M155) In order to secure and detain the volatile soul of the rice the
+Kayans resort to a number of devices. Among the instruments employed for
+this purpose are a miniature ladder, a spatula, and a basket containing
+hooks, thorns, and cords. With the spatula the priestess strokes the soul
+of the rice down the little ladder into the basket, where it is naturally
+held fast by the hooks, the thorn, and the cord; and having thus captured
+and imprisoned the soul she conveys it into the rice-granary. Sometimes a
+bamboo box and a net are used for the same purpose. And in order to ensure
+a good harvest for the following year it is necessary not only to detain
+the soul of all the grains of rice which are safely stored in the granary,
+but also to attract and recover the soul of all the rice that has been
+lost through falling to the earth or being eaten by deer, apes, and pigs.
+For this purpose instruments of various sorts have been invented by the
+priests. One, for example, is a bamboo vessel provided with four hooks
+made from the wood of a fruit-tree, by means of which the absent rice-soul
+may be hooked and drawn back into the vessel, which is then hung up in the
+house. Sometimes two hands carved out of the wood of a fruit-tree are used
+for the same purpose. And every time that a Kayan housewife fetches rice
+from the granary for the use of her household, she must propitiate the
+souls of the rice in the granary, lest they should be angry at being
+robbed of their substance. To keep them in good humour a bundle of
+shavings of a fruit-tree and a little basket are always hung in the
+granary. An egg and a small vessel containing the juice of sugar-cane are
+attached as offerings to the bundle of shavings, and the basket contains a
+sacred mat, which is used at fetching the rice. When the housewife comes
+to fetch rice from the granary, she pours juice of the sugar-cane on the
+egg, takes the sacred mat from the basket, spreads it on the ground, lays
+a stalk of rice on it, and explains to the souls of the rice the object of
+her coming. Then she kneels before the mat, mutters some prayers or
+spells, eats a single grain from the rice-stalk, and having restored the
+various objects to their proper place, departs from the granary with the
+requisite amount of rice, satisfied that she has discharged her religious
+duty to the spirits of the rice. At harvest the spirits of the rice are
+propitiated with offerings of food and water, which are carried by
+children to the rice-fields. At evening the first rice-stalks which have
+been cut are solemnly brought home in a consecrated basket to the beating
+of a gong, and all cats and dogs are driven from the house before the
+basket with its precious contents is brought in.(585)
+
+(M156) Among the Kayans of the Mahakam river in Central Borneo the sowing
+of the rice is immediately preceded by a performance of masked men, which
+is intended to attract the soul or rather souls of the rice and so to make
+sure that the harvest will be a good one. The performers represent
+spirits; for, believing that spirits are mightier than men, the Kayans
+imagine that they can acquire and exert superhuman power by imitating the
+form and actions of spirits.(586) To support their assumed character they
+wear grotesque masks with goggle eyes, great teeth, huge ears, and beards
+of white goat's hair, while their bodies are so thickly wrapt up in
+shredded banana-leaves that to the spectator they present the appearance
+of unwieldy masses of green foliage. The leader of the band carries a long
+wooden hook or rather crook, the shaft of which is partly whittled into
+loose fluttering shavings. These disguises they don at a little distance
+from the village, then dropping down the river in boats they land and
+march in procession to an open space among the houses, where the people,
+dressed out in all their finery, are waiting to witness the performance.
+Here the maskers range themselves in a circle and dance for some time
+under the burning rays of the midday sun, waving their arms, shaking and
+turning their heads, and executing a variety of steps to the sound of a
+gong, which is beaten according to a rigidly prescribed rhythm. After the
+dance they form a line, one behind the other, to fetch the vagrant soul of
+the rice from far countries. At the head of the procession marches the
+leader holding high his crook and behind him follow all the other masked
+men in their leafy costume, each holding his fellow by the hand. As he
+strides along, the leader makes a motion with his crook as if he were
+hooking something and drawing it to himself, and the gesture is imitated
+by all his followers. What he is thus catching are the souls of the rice,
+which sometimes wander far away, and by drawing them home to the village
+he is believed to ensure that the seed of the rice which is about to be
+sown will produce a plentiful harvest. As the spirits are thought not to
+possess the power of speech, the actors who personate them may not utter a
+word, else they would run the risk of falling down dead. The great field
+of the chief is sown by representatives of all the families, both free and
+slaves, on the day after the masquerade. On the same day the free families
+sacrifice on their fields and begin their sowing on one or other of the
+following days. Every family sets up in its field a sacrificial stage or
+altar, with which the sowers must remain in connexion during the time of
+sowing. Therefore no stranger may pass between them and the stage; indeed
+the Kayans are not allowed to have anything to do with strangers in the
+fields; above all they may not speak with them. If such a thing should
+accidentally happen, the sowing must cease for that day. At the sowing
+festival, but at no other time, Kayan men of the Mahakam river, like their
+brethren of the Mendalam river, amuse themselves with spinning tops. For
+nine days before the masquerade takes place the people are bound to
+observe certain taboos: no stranger may enter the village: no villager may
+pass the night out of his own house: they may not hunt, nor pluck fruits,
+nor fish with the casting-net or the drag-net.(587) In this tribe the
+proper day for sowing is officially determined by a priest from an
+observation of the sun setting behind the hills in a line with two stones
+which the priest has set up, one behind the other. However, the official
+day often does not coincide with the actual day of sowing.(588)
+
+(M157) The masquerade thus performed by the Kayans of the Mahakam river
+before sowing the rice is an instructive example of a religious or rather
+magical drama acted for the express purpose of ensuring a good crop. As
+such it may be compared to the drama of Demeter and Persephone, the
+Corn-mother and the Corn-maiden, which was annually played at the
+Eleusinian mysteries shortly before the autumnal sowing of the corn. If my
+interpretation of these mysteries is correct, the intention of the Greek
+and of the Kayan drama was one and the same.
+
+(M158) At harvest the Dyaks of Northern Borneo have a special feast, the
+object of which is "to secure the soul of the rice, which if not so
+detained, the produce of their farms would speedily rot and decay. At
+sowing time, a little of the principle of life of the rice, which at every
+harvest is secured by their priests, is planted with their other seeds,
+and is thus propagated and communicated." The mode of securing the soul of
+the rice varies in different tribes. In the Quop district the ceremony is
+performed by the chief priest alone, first in the long broad verandah of
+the common house and afterwards in each separate family apartment. As a
+preparation for the ceremony a bamboo altar, decorated with green boughs
+and red and white streamers, is erected in the verandah, and presents a
+very gay appearance. Here the people, old and young, assemble, the
+priestesses dressed in gorgeous array and the elder men wearing
+bright-coloured jackets and trousers of purple, yellow, or scarlet hue,
+while the young men and lads beat gongs and drums. When the priest, with a
+bundle of charms in either hand, is observed to be gazing earnestly in the
+air at something invisible to common eyes, the band strikes up with
+redoubled energy, and the elderly men in the gay breeches begin to shriek
+and revolve round the altar in the dance. Suddenly the priest starts up
+and makes a rush at the invisible object; men run to him with white
+cloths, and as he shakes his charms over the cloths a few grains of rice
+fall into them. These grains are the soul of the rice; they are carefully
+folded up in the cloths and laid at the foot of the altar. The same
+performance is afterwards repeated in every family apartment. In some
+tribes the soul of the rice is secured at midnight. Outside the village a
+lofty altar is erected in an open space surrounded by the stately forms of
+the tropical palms. Huge bonfires cast a ruddy glow over the scene and
+light up the dusky but picturesque forms of the Dyaks as they move in slow
+and solemn dance round the altar, some bearing lighted tapers in their
+hands, others brass salvers with offerings of rice, others covered
+baskets, of which the contents are hidden from all but the initiated. The
+corner-posts of the altar are lofty bamboos, whose leafy tops are yet
+green and rustle in the wind; and from one of them a long narrow streamer
+of white cloth hangs down. Suddenly elders and priests rush at this
+streamer, seize the end of it, and amid the crashing music of drums and
+gongs and the yells of the spectators begin dancing and swaying themselves
+backwards and forwards, and to and fro. A priest or elder mounts the altar
+amid the shouts of the bystanders and shakes the tall bamboos violently;
+and in the midst of all this excitement and hubbub small stones, bunches
+of hair, and grains of rice fall at the feet of the dancers, and are
+carefully picked up by watchful attendants. These grains are the soul of
+the rice. The ceremony ends with several of the oldest priestesses
+falling, or pretending to fall, senseless to the ground, where, till they
+come to themselves, their heads are supported and their faces fanned by
+their younger colleagues. At the end of the harvest, when the year's crop
+has been garnered, another feast is held. A pig and fowls are killed, and
+for four days gongs are beaten and dancing kept up. For eight days the
+village is tabooed and no stranger may enter it. At this festival the
+ceremony of catching the soul of the rice is repeated to prevent the crop
+from rotting; and the soul so obtained is mixed with the seed-rice of the
+next year.(589)
+
+(M159) The same need of securing the soul of the rice, if the crop is to
+thrive, is keenly felt by the Karens of Burma. When a rice-field does not
+flourish, they suppose that the soul (_kelah_) of the rice is in some way
+detained from the rice. If the soul cannot be called back, the crop will
+fail. The following formula is used in recalling the _kelah_ (soul) of the
+rice: "O come, rice-_kelah_, come! Come to the field. Come to the rice.
+With seed of each gender, come. Come from the river Kho, come from the
+river Kaw; from the place where they meet, come. Come from the West, come
+from the East. From the throat of the bird, from the maw of the ape, from
+the throat of the elephant. Come from the sources of rivers and their
+mouths. Come from the country of the Shan and Burman. From the distant
+kingdoms come. From all granaries come. O rice-_kelah_, come to the
+rice."(590)
+
+(M160) Among the Taungthu of Upper Burma it is customary, when all the
+rice-fields have been reaped, to make a trail of unhusked rice (paddy) and
+husks all the way from the fields to the farm-house in order to guide the
+spirit or butterfly, as they call it, of the rice home to the granary.
+Care is taken that there should be no break in the trail, and the
+butterfly of the rice is invited with loud cries to come to the house.
+Were the spirit of the rice not secured in this manner, next year's
+harvest would be bad.(591) Similarly among the Cherokee Indians of North
+America "care was always taken to keep a clean trail from the field to the
+house, so that the corn might be encouraged to stay at home and not go
+wandering elsewhere," and "seven ears from the last year's crop were
+always put carefully aside, in order to _attract the corn_, until the new
+crop was ripened."(592) In Hsa Moeng Hkam, a native state of Upper Burma,
+when two men work rice-fields in partnership, they take particular care as
+to the division of the grain between them. Each partner has a basket made,
+of which both top and bottom are carefully closed with wood to prevent the
+butterfly spirit of the rice from escaping; for if it were to flutter
+away, the next year's crop would be but poor.(593) Among the Talaings of
+Lower Burma "the last sheaf is larger than the rest; it is brought home
+separately, usually if not invariably on the morning after the remainder
+of the harvest has been carted to the threshing-floor. The cultivators
+drive out in their bullock-cart, taking with them a woman's comb, a
+looking-glass, and a woman's skirt. The sheaf is dressed in the skirt, and
+apparently the form is gone through of presenting it with the glass and
+comb. It is then brought home in triumph, the people decking the cart with
+their silk kerchiefs, and cheering and singing the whole way. On their
+arrival home they celebrate the occasion with a feast. Strictly speaking
+the sheaf should be kept apart from the rest of the harvest; owing,
+however, to the high price of paddy it often finds its way to the
+threshing-floor. Even when this is not the case it is rarely tended so
+carefully as it is said to have been in former days, and if not threshed
+with the remaining crop is apt to be eaten by the cattle. So far as I
+could ascertain it had never been the custom to keep it throughout the
+year; but on the first ploughing of the ensuing season there was some
+ceremony in connection with it. The name of the sheaf was _Bonmagyi_; at
+first I was inclined to fancy that this was a contraction of _thelinbon ma
+gyi_, 'the old woman of the threshing-floor.' There are, however, various
+reasons for discarding this derivation, and I am unable to suggest any
+other."(594) In this custom the personification of the last sheaf of rice
+as a woman comes out clearly in the practice of dressing it up in female
+attire.
+
+(M161) The Corn-mother of our European peasants has her match in the
+Rice-mother of the Minangkabauers of Sumatra. The Minangkabauers
+definitely attribute a soul to rice, and will sometimes assert that rice
+pounded in the usual way tastes better than rice ground in a mill, because
+in the mill the body of the rice was so bruised and battered that the soul
+has fled from it. Like the Javanese they think that the rice is under the
+special guardianship of a female spirit called Saning Sari, who is
+conceived as so closely knit up with the plant that the rice often goes by
+her name, as with the Romans the corn might be called Ceres. In particular
+Saning Sari is represented by certain stalks or grains called _indoea
+padi_, that is, literally, "Mother of Rice," a name that is often given to
+the guardian spirit herself. This so-called Mother of Rice is the occasion
+of a number of ceremonies observed at the planting and harvesting of the
+rice as well as during its preservation in the barn. When the seed of the
+rice is about to be sown in the nursery or bedding-out ground, where under
+the wet system of cultivation it is regularly allowed to sprout before
+being transplanted to the fields, the best grains are picked out to form
+the Rice-mother. These are then sown in the middle of the bed, and the
+common seed is planted round about them. The state of the Rice-mother is
+supposed to exert the greatest influence on the growth of the rice; if she
+droops or pines away, the harvest will be bad in consequence. The woman
+who sows the Rice-mother in the nursery lets her hair hang loose and
+afterwards bathes, as a means of ensuring an abundant harvest. When the
+time comes to transplant the rice from the nursery to the field, the
+Rice-mother receives a special place either in the middle or in a corner
+of the field, and a prayer or charm is uttered as follows: "Saning Sari,
+may a measure of rice come from a stalk of rice and a basketful from a
+root; may you be frightened neither by lightning nor by passers-by!
+Sunshine make you glad; with the storm may you be at peace; and may rain
+serve to wash your face!" While the rice is growing, the particular plant
+which was thus treated as the Rice-mother is lost sight of; but before
+harvest another Rice-mother is found. When the crop is ripe for cutting,
+the oldest woman of the family or a sorcerer goes out to look for her. The
+first stalks seen to bend under a passing breeze are the Rice-mother, and
+they are tied together but not cut until the first-fruits of the field
+have been carried home to serve as a festal meal for the family and their
+friends, nay even for the domestic animals; since it is Saning Sari's
+pleasure that the beasts also should partake of her good gifts. After the
+meal has been eaten, the Rice-mother is fetched home by persons in gay
+attire, who carry her very carefully under an umbrella in a neatly worked
+bag to the barn, where a place in the middle is assigned to her. Every one
+believes that she takes care of the rice in the barn and even multiplies
+it not uncommonly.(595)
+
+(M162) When the Tomori of Central Celebes are about to plant the rice,
+they bury in the field some betel as an offering to the spirits who cause
+the rice to grow. Over the spot where the offering is buried a small floor
+of wood is laid, and the family sits on it and consumes betel together as
+a sort of silent prayer or charm to ensure the growth of the crop. The
+rice that is planted round this spot is the last to be reaped at harvest.
+At the commencement of the reaping the stalks of this patch of rice are
+tied together into a sheaf, which is called "the Mother of the Rice"
+(_ineno pae_), and offerings in the shape of rice, fowl's liver, eggs, and
+other things are laid down before it. When all the rest of the rice in the
+field has been reaped, "the Mother of the Rice" is cut down and carried
+with due honour to the rice-barn, where it is laid on the floor, and all
+the other sheaves are piled upon it. The Tomori, we are told, regard the
+Mother of the Rice as a special offering made to the rice-spirit Omonga,
+who dwells in the moon. If that spirit is not treated with proper respect,
+for example if the people who fetch rice from the barn are not decently
+clad, he is angry and punishes the offenders by eating up twice as much
+rice in the barn as they have taken out of it; some people have heard him
+smacking his lips in the barn, as he devoured the rice. On the other hand
+the Toradjas of Central Celebes, who also practise the custom of the
+Rice-mother at harvest, regard her as the actual mother of the whole
+harvest, and therefore keep her carefully, lest in her absence the
+garnered store of rice should all melt away and disappear.(596) Among the
+Tomori, as among other Indonesian peoples, reapers at work in the field
+make use of special words which differ from the terms in ordinary use; the
+reason for adopting this peculiar form of speech at reaping appears to be,
+as I have already pointed out, a fear of alarming the timid soul of the
+rice by revealing the fate in store for it.(597) To the same motive is
+perhaps to be ascribed the practice observed by the Tomori of asking each
+other riddles at harvest.(598) Similarly among the Alfoors or Toradjas of
+Poso, in Central Celebes, while the people are watching the crops in the
+fields they amuse themselves with asking each other riddles and telling
+stories, and when any one guesses a riddle aright, the whole company cries
+out, "Let our rice come up, let fat ears come up both in the lowlands and
+on the heights." But all the time between harvest and the laying out of
+new fields the asking of riddles and the telling of stories is strictly
+forbidden.(599) Thus among these people it seems that the asking of
+riddles is for some reason regarded as a charm which may make or mar the
+crops.
+
+(M163) Among some of the Toradjas of Celebes the ceremony of cutting and
+bringing home the Mother of the Rice is observed as follows. When the crop
+is ripe in the fields, the Mother of the Rice (_anrong pare_) must be
+fetched before the rest of the harvest is reaped. The ceremony is
+performed on a lucky day by a woman, who knows the rites. For three days
+previously she observes certain precautions to prevent the soul
+(_soemangana ase_) of the rice from escaping out of the field, as it might
+be apt to do, if it got wind that the reapers with their cruel knives were
+so soon to crop the ripe ears. With this view she ties up a handful of
+standing stalks of the rice into a bunch in each corner of the field,
+while she recites an invocation to the spirits of the rice, bidding them
+gather in the field from the four quarters of the heaven. As a further
+precaution she stops the sluices, lest with the outrush of the water from
+the rice-field the sly soul of the rice should make good its escape. And
+she ties knots in the leaves of the rice-plants, all to hinder the soul of
+the rice from running away. This she does in the afternoon of three
+successive days. On the morning of the fourth day she comes again to the
+field, sits down in a corner of it, and kisses the rice three times, again
+inviting the souls of the rice to come thither and assuring them of her
+affection and care. Then she cuts the bunch of rice-stalks which she had
+tied together on one of the previous days. The stalks in the bunch must be
+nine in number, and their leaves must be cut with them, not thrown away.
+As she cuts, she may not look about her, nor cry out, nor speak to any
+one, nor be spoken to; but she says to the rice, "The prophet reaps you. I
+take you, but you diminish not; I hold you in my hand and you increase.
+You are the links of my soul, the support of my body, my blessing, my
+salvation. There is no God but God." Then she passes to another corner of
+the field to cut the bunch of standing rice in it with the same ceremony;
+but before coming to it she stops half way to pluck another bunch of five
+stalks in like manner. Thus from the four sides of the field she collects
+in all fifty-six stalks of rice, which together make up the Mother of the
+Rice (_anrong pare_). Then in a corner of the field she makes a little
+stage and lays the Mother of the Rice on it, with the ears turned towards
+the standing rice and the cut stalks towards the dyke which encloses the
+field. After that she binds the fifty-six stalks of the Rice-mother into a
+sheaf with the bark of a particular kind of tree. As she does so, she
+says, "The prophet binds you into a sheaf; the angel increases you; the
+_awalli_ cares for you. We loved and cared for each other." Then, after
+anointing the sheaf and fumigating it with incense, she lays it on the
+little stage. On this stage she had previously placed several kinds of
+rice, betel, one or more eggs, sweetmeats, and young coco-nuts, all as
+offerings to the Mother of the Rice, who, if she did not receive these
+attentions, would be offended and visit people with sickness or even
+vanish away altogether. Sometimes on large farms a fowl is killed and its
+blood deposited in the half of a coco-nut on the stage. The standing rice
+round about the stage is the last of the whole field to be reaped. When it
+has been cut, it is bound up with the Mother of the Rice into a single
+sheaf and carried home. Any body may carry the sheaf, but in doing so he
+or she must take care not to let it fall, or the Rice-mother would be
+angry and might disappear.(600)
+
+(M164) Among the Battas or Bataks of Sumatra the rice appears to be
+personified as a young unmarried woman rather than as a mother. On the
+first day of reaping the crop only a few ears of rice are plucked and made
+up into a little sheaf. After that the reaping may begin, and while it is
+going forward offerings of rice and betel are presented in the middle of
+the field to the spirit of the rice, who is personified under the name of
+Miss Dajang. The offering is accompanied by a common meal shared by the
+reapers. When all the rice has been reaped, threshed and garnered, the
+little sheaf which was first cut is brought in and laid on the top of the
+heap in the granary, together with an egg or a stone, which is supposed to
+watch over the rice.(601) Though we are not told, we may assume that the
+personified spirit of the rice is supposed to be present in the first
+sheaf cut and in that form to keep guard over the rice in the granary.
+Another writer, who has independently described the customs of the
+Karo-Bataks at the rice-harvest, tells us that the largest sheaf, which is
+usually the one first made up, is regarded as the seat of the rice-soul
+and is treated exactly like a person; at the trampling of the paddy to
+separate the grain from the husks the sheaf in question is specially
+entrusted to a girl who has a lucky name, and whose parents are both
+alive.(602)
+
+(M165) In Mandeling, a district of Sumatra, contrary to what seems to be
+the usual practice, the spirit of the rice is personified as a male
+instead of as a female and is called the Rajah or King of the Rice. He is
+supposed to be immanent in certain rice-plants, which are recognised by
+their peculiar formation, such as a concealment of the ears in the sheath,
+an unusual arrangement of the leaves, or a stunted growth. When one or
+more such plants have been discovered in the field, they are sprinkled
+with lime-juice, and the spirits are invoked by name and informed that
+they are expected at home and that all is ready for their reception. Then
+the King of the Rice is plucked with the hand and seven neighbouring
+rice-stalks cut with a knife. He and his seven companions are then
+carefully brought home; the bearer may not speak a word, and the children
+in the house may make no noise till the King of the Rice has been safely
+lodged in the granary and tethered, for greater security, with a grass
+rope to one of the posts. As soon as that is done, the doors are shut to
+prevent the spirits of the rice from escaping. The person who fetches the
+King of the Rice from the field should prepare himself for the important
+duty by eating a hearty meal, for it would be an omen of a bad harvest if
+he presented himself before the King of the Rice with an empty stomach.
+For the same reason the sower of rice should sow the seed on a full
+stomach, in order that the ears which spring from the seed may be full
+also.(603)
+
+(M166) Again, just as in Scotland the old and the young spirit of the corn
+are represented as an Old Wife (_Cailleach_) and a Maiden respectively, so
+in the Malay Peninsula we find both the Rice-mother and her child
+represented by different sheaves or bundles of ears on the harvest-field.
+The following directions for obtaining both are translated from a native
+Malay work on the cultivation of rice: "When the rice is ripe all over,
+one must first take the 'soul' out of all the plots of one's field. You
+choose the spot where the rice is best and where it is 'female' (that is
+to say, where the bunch of stalks is big) and where there are seven joints
+in the stalk. You begin with a bunch of this kind and clip seven stems to
+be the 'soul of the rice'; and then you clip yet another handful to be the
+'mother-seed' for the following year. The 'soul' is wrapped in a white
+cloth tied with a cord of _terap_ bark, and made into the shape of a
+little child in swaddling clothes, and put into the small basket. The
+'mother-seed' is put into another basket, and both are fumigated with
+benzoin, and then the two baskets are piled the one on the other and taken
+home, and put into the _kepuk_ (the receptacle in which rice is
+stored)."(604) The ceremony of cutting and bringing home the Soul of the
+Rice was witnessed by Mr. W. W. Skeat at Chodoi in Selangor on the
+twenty-eighth of January 1897. The particular bunch or sheaf which was to
+serve as the Mother of the Rice-soul had previously been sought and
+identified by means of the markings or shape of the ears. From this sheaf
+an aged sorceress, with much solemnity, cut a little bundle of seven ears,
+anointed them with oil, tied them round with parti-coloured thread,
+fumigated them with incense, and having wrapt them in a white cloth
+deposited them in a little oval-shaped basket. These seven ears were the
+infant Soul of the Rice and the little basket was its cradle. It was
+carried home to the farmer's house by another woman, who held up an
+umbrella to screen the tender infant from the hot rays of the sun. Arrived
+at the house the Rice-child was welcomed by the women of the family, and
+laid, cradle and all, on a new sleeping-mat with pillows at the head.
+After that the farmer's wife was instructed to observe certain rules of
+taboo for three days, the rules being in many respects identical with
+those which have to be observed for three days after the birth of a real
+child. For example, perfect quiet must be observed, as in a house where a
+baby has just been born; a light was placed near the head of the
+Rice-child's bed and might not go out at night, while the fire on the
+hearth had to be kept up both day and night till the three days were over;
+hair might not be cut; and money, rice, salt, oil, and so forth were
+forbidden to go out of the house, though of course these valuable articles
+were quite free to come in. Something of the same tender care which is
+thus bestowed on the newly-born Rice-child is naturally extended also to
+its parent, the sheaf from whose body it was taken. This sheaf, which
+remains standing in the field after the Rice-soul has been carried home
+and put to bed, is treated as a newly-made mother; that is to say, young
+shoots of trees are pounded together and scattered broadcast every evening
+for three successive days, and when the three days are up you take the
+pulp of a coco-nut and what are called "goat-flowers," mix them up, eat
+them with a little sugar, and spit some of the mixture out among the rice.
+So after a real birth the young shoots of the jack-fruit, the rose-apple,
+certain kinds of banana, and the thin pulp of young coco-nuts are mixed
+with dried fish, salt, acid, prawn-condiment, and the like dainties to
+form a sort of salad, which is administered to mother and child for three
+successive days. The last sheaf is reaped by the farmer's wife, who
+carries it back to the house, where it is threshed and mixed with the
+Rice-soul. The farmer then takes the Rice-soul and its basket and deposits
+it, together with the product of the last sheaf, in the big circular
+rice-bin used by the Malays. Some grains from the Rice-soul are mixed with
+the seed which is to be sown in the following year.(605) In this
+Rice-mother and Rice-child of the Malay Peninsula we may see the
+counterpart and in a sense the prototype of the Demeter and Persephone of
+ancient Greece.
+
+(M167) Once more, the European custom of representing the corn-spirit in
+the double form of bride and bridegroom(606) has its parallel in a
+ceremony observed at the rice-harvest in Java. Before the reapers begin to
+cut the rice, the priest or sorcerer picks out a number of ears of rice,
+which are tied together, smeared with ointment, and adorned with flowers.
+Thus decked out, the ears are called the _padi-penganten_, that is, the
+Rice-bride and the Rice-bridegroom; their wedding feast is celebrated, and
+the cutting of the rice begins immediately afterwards. Later on, when the
+rice is being got in, a bridal chamber is partitioned off in the barn, and
+furnished with a new mat, a lamp, and all kinds of toilet articles.
+Sheaves of rice, to represent the wedding guests, are placed beside the
+Rice-bride and the Rice-bridegroom. Not till this has been done may the
+whole harvest be housed in the barn. And for the first forty days after
+the rice has been housed, no one may enter the barn, for fear of
+disturbing the newly-wedded pair.(607)
+
+(M168) Another account of the Javanese custom runs as follows. When the
+rice at harvest is to be brought home, two handfuls of common unhusked
+rice (paddy) are tied together into a sheaf, and two handfuls of a special
+kind of rice (_kleefrijst_) are tied up into another sheaf; then the two
+sheaves are fastened together in a bundle which goes by the name of "the
+bridal pair" (_pen-gantenan_). The special rice is the bridegroom, the
+common rice is the bride. At the barn "the bridal pair" is received on a
+winnowing-fan by a wizard, who removes them from the fan and lays them on
+the floor with a couch of _kloewih_ leaves under them "in order that the
+rice may increase," and beside them he places a _kemiri_ nut, tamarind
+pips, and a top and string as playthings with which the young couple may
+divert themselves. The bride is called Emboq Sri and the bridegroom
+Sadana, and the wizard addresses them by name, saying: "Emboq Sri and
+Sadana, I have now brought you home and I have prepared a place for you.
+May you sleep agreeably in this agreeable place! Emboq Sri and Sadana, you
+have been received by So-and-So (the owner), let So-and-So lead a life
+free from care. May Emboq Sri's luck continue in this very agreeable
+place!"(608)
+
+(M169) The same idea of the rice-spirit as a husband and wife meets us
+also in the harvest customs of Bali and Lombok, two islands which lie
+immediately to the east of Java. "The inhabitants of Lombok," we are told,
+"think of the rice-plant as animated by a soul. They regard it as one with
+a divinity and treat it with the distinction and honour that are shewn to
+a very important person. But as it is impossible to treat all the
+rice-stalks in a field ceremoniously, the native, feeling the need of a
+visible and tangible representative of the rice-deity and taking a part
+for the whole, picks out some stalks and conceives them as the visible
+abode of the rice-soul, to which he can pay his homage and from which he
+hopes to derive advantage. These few stalks, the foremost among their many
+peers, form what is called the _ninin pantun_ by the people of Bali and
+the _inan pare_ by the Sassaks" of Lombok.(609) The name _ina pare_ is
+sometimes translated Rice-mother, but the more correct translation is said
+to be "the principal rice." The stalks of which this "principal rice"
+consists are the first nine shoots which the husbandman himself takes with
+his own hands from the nursery or bedding-out ground and plants at the
+upper end of the rice-field beside the inlet of the irrigation water. They
+are planted with great care in a definite order, one of them in the middle
+and the other eight in a circle about it. When the whole field has been
+planted, an offering, which usually consists of rice in many forms, is
+made to "the principal rice" (_inan pare_). When the rice-stalks begin to
+swell the rice is said to be pregnant, and the "principal rice" is treated
+with the delicate attentions which are paid to a woman with child. Thus
+rice-pap and eggs are laid down beside it, and sour fruits are often
+presented to it, because pregnant women are believed to long for sour
+fruit. Moreover the fertilisation of the rice by the irrigation water is
+compared to the union of the goddess Batari Sri with her husband Ida
+Batara (Vishnu), who is identified with the flowing water. Some people
+sprinkle the pregnant rice with water in which cooling drugs have been
+infused or with water which has stood on a holy grave, in order that the
+ears may fill out well. When the time of harvest has come, the owner of
+the field himself makes a beginning by cutting "the principal rice" (_inan
+pare_ or _ninin pantun_) with his own hands and binding it into two
+sheaves, each composed of one hundred and eight stalks with their leaves
+attached to them. One of the sheaves represents a man and the other a
+woman, and they are called "husband and wife" (_istri kakung_). The male
+sheaf is wound about with thread so that none of the leaves are visible,
+whereas the female sheaf has its leaves bent over and tied so as to
+resemble the roll of a woman's hair. Sometimes, for further distinction, a
+necklace of rice-straw is tied round the female sheaf. The two sheaves are
+then fastened together and tied to a branch of a tree, which is stuck in
+the ground at the inlet of the irrigation water. There they remain while
+all the rest of the rice is being reaped. Sometimes, instead of being tied
+to a bough, they are laid on a little bamboo altar. The reapers at their
+work take great care to let no grains of rice fall on the ground,
+otherwise the Rice-goddess would grieve and weep at being parted from her
+sisters, who are carried to the barn. If any portion of the field remains
+unreaped at nightfall, the reapers make loops in the leaves of some of the
+standing stalks to prevent the evil spirits from proceeding with the
+harvest during the hours of darkness, or, according to another account,
+lest the Rice-goddess should go astray. When the rice is brought home from
+the field, the two sheaves representing the husband and wife are carried
+by a woman on her head, and are the last of all to be deposited in the
+barn. There they are laid to rest on a small erection or on a cushion of
+rice-straw along with three lumps of _nasi_, which are regarded as the
+attendants or watchers of the bridal pair. The whole arrangement, we are
+informed, has for its object to induce the rice to increase and multiply
+in the granary, so that the owner may get more out of it than he put in.
+Hence when the people of Bali bring the two sheaves, the husband and wife,
+into the barn, they say "Increase ye and multiply without ceasing." When a
+woman fetches rice from the granary for the use of her household, she has
+to observe a number of rules, all of which are clearly dictated by respect
+for the spirit of the rice. She should not enter the barn in the dark or
+at noon perhaps because the spirit may then be supposed to be sleeping.
+She must enter with her right foot first. She must be decently clad with
+her breasts covered. She must not chew betel, and she would do well to
+rinse her mouth before repairing to the barn, just as she would do if she
+waited on a person of distinction or on a divinity. No sick or menstruous
+woman may enter the barn, and there must be no talking in it, just as
+there must be no talking when shelled rice is being scooped up. When all
+the rice in the barn has been used up, the two sheaves representing the
+husband and wife remain in the empty building till they have gradually
+disappeared or been devoured by mice. The pinch of hunger sometimes drives
+individuals to eat up the rice of these two sheaves, but the wretches who
+do so are viewed with disgust by their fellows and branded as pigs and
+dogs. Nobody would ever sell these holy sheaves with the rest of their
+profane brethren.(610)
+
+(M170) The same notion of the propagation of the rice by a male and female
+power finds expression amongst the Szis of Upper Burma. When the paddy,
+that is, the rice with the husks still on it, has been dried and piled in
+a heap for threshing, all the friends of the household are invited to the
+threshing-floor, and food and drink are brought out. The heap of paddy is
+divided and one half spread out for threshing, while the other half is
+left piled up. On the pile food and spirits are set, and one of the
+elders, addressing "the father and mother of the paddy-plant," prays for
+plenteous harvests in future, and begs that the seed may bear many fold.
+Then the whole party eat, drink, and make merry. This ceremony at the
+threshing-floor is the only occasion when these people invoke "the father
+and mother of the paddy."(611)
+
+
+
+
+§ 5. The Spirit of the Corn embodied in Human Beings.
+
+
+(M171) Thus the theory which recognises in the European Corn-mother,
+Corn-maiden, and so forth, the embodiment in vegetable form of the
+animating spirit of the crops is amply confirmed by the evidence of
+peoples in other parts of the world, who, because they have lagged behind
+the European races in mental development, retain for that very reason a
+keener sense of the original motives for observing those rustic rites
+which among ourselves have sunk to the level of meaningless survivals. The
+reader may, however, remember that according to Mannhardt, whose theory I
+am expounding, the spirit of the corn manifests itself not merely in
+vegetable but also in human form; the person who cuts the last sheaf or
+gives the last stroke at threshing passes for a temporary embodiment of
+the corn-spirit, just as much as the bunch of corn which he reaps or
+threshes. Now in the parallels which have been hitherto adduced from the
+customs of peoples outside Europe the spirit of the crops appears only in
+vegetable form. It remains, therefore, to prove that other races besides
+our European peasantry have conceived the spirit of the crops as
+incorporate in or represented by living men and women. Such a proof, I may
+remind the reader, is germane to the theme of this book; for the more
+instances we discover of human beings representing in themselves the life
+or animating spirit of plants, the less difficulty will be felt at
+classing amongst them the King of the Wood at Nemi.
+
+(M172) The Mandans and Minnitarees of North America used to hold a
+festival in spring which they called the corn-medicine festival of the
+women. They thought that a certain Old Woman who Never Dies made the crops
+to grow, and that, living somewhere in the south, she sent the migratory
+waterfowl in spring as her tokens and representatives. Each sort of bird
+represented a special kind of crop cultivated by the Indians: the wild
+goose stood for the maize, the wild swan for the gourds, and the wild duck
+for the beans. So when the feathered messengers of the Old Woman began to
+arrive in spring the Indians celebrated the corn-medicine festival of the
+women. Scaffolds were set up, on which the people hung dried meat and
+other things by way of offerings to the Old Woman; and on a certain day
+the old women of the tribe, as representatives of the Old Woman who Never
+Dies, assembled at the scaffolds each bearing in her hand an ear of maize
+fastened to a stick. They first planted these sticks in the ground, then
+danced round the scaffolds, and finally took up the sticks again in their
+arms. Meanwhile old men beat drums and shook rattles as a musical
+accompaniment to the performance of the old women. Further, young women
+came and put dried flesh into the mouths of the old women, for which they
+received in return a grain of the consecrated maize to eat. Three or four
+grains of the holy corn were also placed in the dishes of the young women,
+to be afterwards carefully mixed with the seed-corn, which they were
+supposed to fertilise. The dried flesh hung on the scaffold belonged to
+the old women, because they represented the Old Woman who Never Dies. A
+similar corn-medicine festival was held in autumn for the purpose of
+attracting the herds of buffaloes and securing a supply of meat. At that
+time every woman carried in her arms an uprooted plant of maize. They gave
+the name of the Old Woman who Never Dies both to the maize and to those
+birds which they regarded as symbols of the fruits of the earth, and they
+prayed to them in autumn saying, "Mother, have pity on us! send us not the
+bitter cold too soon, lest we have not meat enough! let not all the game
+depart, that we may have something for the winter!" In autumn, when the
+birds were flying south, the Indians thought that they were going home to
+the Old Woman and taking to her the offerings that had been hung up on the
+scaffolds, especially the dried meat, which she ate.(612) Here then we
+have the spirit or divinity of the corn conceived as an Old Woman and
+represented in bodily form by old women, who in their capacity of
+representatives receive some at least of the offerings which are intended
+for her.
+
+(M173) The Miamis, another tribe of North American Indians, tell a tale in
+which the spirit of the corn figures as a broken-down old man. They say
+that corn, that is, maize, first grew in heaven, and that the Good Spirit
+commanded it to go down and dwell with men on earth. At first it was
+reluctant to do so, but the Good Spirit prevailed on it to go by promising
+that men would treat it well in return for the benefit they derived from
+it. "So corn came down from heaven to benefit the Indian, and this is the
+reason why they esteem it, and are bound to take good care of it, and to
+nurture it, and not raise more than they actually require, for their own
+consumption." But once a whole town of the Miamis was severely punished
+for failing in respect for the corn. They had raised a great crop and
+stored much of it under ground, and much of it they packed for immediate
+use in bags. But the corn was so plentiful that much of it still remained
+on the stalks, and the young men grew reckless and played with the shelled
+cobs, throwing them at each other, and at last they even broke the cobs
+from the growing stalks and pelted each other with them too. But a
+judgment soon followed on such wicked conduct. For when the hunters went
+out to hunt, though the deer seemed to abound, they could kill nothing. So
+the corn was gone and they could get no meat, and the people were hungry.
+Well, one of the hunters, roaming by himself in the woods to find
+something to eat for his aged father, came upon a small lodge in the
+wilderness where a decrepit old man was lying with his back to the fire.
+Now the old man was no other than the Spirit of the Corn. He said to the
+young hunter, "My grandson, the Indians have afflicted me much, and
+reduced me to the sad state in which you see me. In the side of the lodge
+you will find a small kettle. Take it and eat, and when you have satisfied
+your hunger, I will speak to you." But the kettle was full of such fine
+sweet corn as the hunter had never in his life seen before. When he had
+eaten his fill, the old man resumed the thread of his discourse, saying,
+"Your people have wantonly abused and reduced me to the state you now see
+me in: my back-bone is broken in many places; it was the foolish young men
+of your town who did me this evil, for I am Mondamin, or corn, that came
+down from heaven. In their play they threw corn-cobs and corn-ears at one
+another, treating me with contempt. I am the corn-spirit whom they have
+injured. That is why you experience bad luck and famine. I am the cause;
+you feel my just resentment, therefore your people are punished. Other
+Indians do not treat me so. They respect me, and so it is well with them.
+Had you no elders to check the youths at their wanton sport? You are an
+eye-witness of my sufferings. They are the effect of what you did to my
+body." With that he groaned and covered himself up. So the young hunter
+returned and reported what he had seen and heard; and since then the
+Indians have been very careful not to play with corn in the ear.(613)
+
+(M174) In some parts of India the harvest-goddess Gauri is represented at
+once by an unmarried girl and by a bundle of wild balsam plants, which is
+made up into the figure of a woman and dressed as such with mask,
+garments, and ornaments. Both the human and the vegetable representative
+of the goddess are worshipped, and the intention of the whole ceremony
+appears to be to ensure a good crop of rice.(614)
+
+
+
+
+§ 6. The Double Personification of the Corn as Mother and Daughter.
+
+
+(M175) Compared with the Corn-mother of Germany and the Harvest-maiden of
+Scotland, the Demeter and Persephone of Greece are late products of
+religious growth. Yet as members of the Aryan family the Greeks must at
+one time or another have observed harvest customs like those which are
+still practised by Celts, Teutons, and Slavs, and which, far beyond the
+limits of the Aryan world, have been practised by the Indians of Peru, the
+Dyaks of Borneo, and many other natives of the East Indies--a sufficient
+proof that the ideas on which these customs rest are not confined to any
+one race, but naturally suggest themselves to all untutored peoples
+engaged in agriculture. It is probable, therefore, that Demeter and
+Persephone, those stately and beautiful figures of Greek mythology, grew
+out of the same simple beliefs and practices which still prevail among our
+modern peasantry, and that they were represented by rude dolls made out of
+the yellow sheaves on many a harvest-field long before their breathing
+images were wrought in bronze and marble by the master hands of Phidias
+and Praxiteles. A reminiscence of that olden time--a scent, so to say, of
+the harvest-field--lingered to the last in the title of the Maiden (_Kore_)
+by which Persephone was commonly known. Thus if the prototype of Demeter
+is the Corn-mother of Germany, the prototype of Persephone is the
+Harvest-maiden, which, autumn after autumn, is still made from the last
+sheaf on the Braes of Balquhidder. Indeed, if we knew more about the
+peasant-farmers of ancient Greece, we should probably find that even in
+classical times they continued annually to fashion their Corn-mothers
+(Demeters) and Maidens (Persephones) out of the ripe corn on the
+harvest-fields.(615) But unfortunately the Demeter and Persephone whom we
+know were the denizens of towns, the majestic inhabitants of lordly
+temples; it was for such divinities alone that the refined writers of
+antiquity had eyes; the uncouth rites performed by rustics amongst the
+corn were beneath their notice. Even if they noticed them, they probably
+never dreamed of any connexion between the puppet of corn-stalks on the
+sunny stubble-field and the marble divinity in the shady coolness of the
+temple. Still the writings even of these town-bred and cultured persons
+afford us an occasional glimpse of a Demeter as rude as the rudest that a
+remote German village can shew. Thus the story that Iasion begat a child
+Plutus ("wealth," "abundance") by Demeter on a thrice-ploughed field,(616)
+may be compared with the West Prussian custom of the mock birth of a child
+on the harvest-field.(617) In this Prussian custom the pretended mother
+represents the Corn-mother (_Zytniamatka_); the pretended child represents
+the Corn-baby, and the whole ceremony is a charm to ensure a crop next
+year.(618) The custom and the legend alike point to an older practice of
+performing, among the sprouting crops in spring or the stubble in autumn,
+one of those real or mimic acts of procreation by which, as we have seen,
+primitive man often seeks to infuse his own vigorous life into the languid
+or decaying energies of nature.(619) Another glimpse of the savage under
+the civilised Demeter will be afforded farther on, when we come to deal
+with another aspect of these agricultural divinities.
+
+(M176) The reader may have observed that in modern folk-customs the
+corn-spirit is generally represented either by a Corn-mother (Old Woman,
+etc.) or by a Maiden (Harvest-child, etc.), not both by a Corn-mother and
+by a Maiden. Why then did the Greeks represent the corn both as a mother
+and a daughter?
+
+(M177) In the Breton custom the mother-sheaf--a large figure made out of
+the last sheaf with a small corn-doll inside of it--clearly represents both
+the Corn-mother and the Corn-daughter, the latter still unborn.(620)
+Again, in the Prussian custom just referred to, the woman who plays the
+part of Corn-mother represents the ripe grain; the child appears to
+represent next year's corn, which may be regarded, naturally enough, as
+the child of this year's corn, since it is from the seed of this year's
+harvest that next year's crop will spring. Further, we have seen that
+among the Malays of the Peninsula and sometimes among the Highlanders of
+Scotland the spirit of the grain is represented in double female form,
+both as old and young, by means of ears taken alike from the ripe crop: in
+Scotland the old spirit of the corn appears as the Carline or _Cailleach_,
+the young spirit as the Maiden; while among the Malays of the Peninsula
+the two spirits of the rice are definitely related to each other as mother
+and child.(621) Judged by these analogies Demeter would be the ripe crop
+of this year; Persephone would be the seed-corn taken from it and sown in
+autumn, to reappear in spring.(622) The descent of Persephone into the
+lower world would thus be a mythical expression for the sowing of the
+seed; her reappearance in spring would signify the sprouting of the young
+corn. In this way the Persephone of one year becomes the Demeter of the
+next, and this may very well have been the original form of the myth. But
+when with the advance of religious thought the corn came to be
+personified, no longer as a being that went through the whole cycle of
+birth, growth, reproduction, and death within a year, but as an immortal
+goddess, consistency required that one of the two personifications, the
+mother or the daughter, should be sacrificed. However, the double
+conception of the corn as mother and daughter may have been too old and
+too deeply rooted in the popular mind to be eradicated by logic, and so
+room had to be found in the reformed myth both for mother and daughter.
+This was done by assigning to Persephone the character of the corn sown in
+autumn and sprouting in spring, while Demeter was left to play the
+somewhat vague part of the heavy mother of the corn, who laments its
+annual disappearance underground, and rejoices over its reappearance in
+spring. Thus instead of a regular succession of divine beings, each living
+a year and then giving birth to her successor, the reformed myth exhibits
+the conception of two divine and immortal beings, one of whom annually
+disappears into and reappears from the ground, while the other has little
+to do but to weep and rejoice at the appropriate seasons.(623)
+
+(M178) This theory of the double personification of the corn in Greek myth
+assumes that both personifications (Demeter and Persephone) are original.
+But if we suppose that the Greek myth started with a single
+personification, the after-growth of a second personification may perhaps
+be explained as follows. On looking over the harvest customs which have
+been passed under review, it may be noticed that they involve two distinct
+conceptions of the corn-spirit. For whereas in some of the customs the
+corn-spirit is treated as immanent in the corn, in others it is regarded
+as external to it. Thus when a particular sheaf is called by the name of
+the corn-spirit, and is dressed in clothes and handled with
+reverence,(624) the spirit is clearly regarded as immanent in the corn.
+But when the spirit is said to make the crops grow by passing through
+them, or to blight the grain of those against whom she has a grudge,(625)
+she is apparently conceived as distinct from, though exercising power
+over, the corn. Conceived in the latter way the corn-spirit is in a fair
+way to become a deity of the corn, if she has not become so already. Of
+these two conceptions, that of the corn-spirit as immanent in the corn is
+doubtless the older, since the view of nature as animated by indwelling
+spirits appears to have generally preceded the view of it as controlled by
+external deities; to put it shortly, animism precedes deism. In the
+harvest customs of our European peasantry the corn-spirit seems to be
+conceived now as immanent in the corn and now as external to it. In Greek
+mythology, on the other hand, Demeter is viewed rather as the deity of the
+corn than as the spirit immanent in it.(626) The process of thought which
+leads to the change from the one mode of conception to the other is
+anthropomorphism, or the gradual investment of the immanent spirits with
+more and more of the attributes of humanity. As men emerge from savagery
+the tendency to humanise their divinities gains strength; and the more
+human these become the wider is the breach which severs them from the
+natural objects of which they were at first merely the animating spirits
+or souls. But in the progress upwards from savagery men of the same
+generation do not march abreast; and though the new anthropomorphic gods
+may satisfy the religious wants of the more developed intelligences, the
+backward members of the community will cling by preference to the old
+animistic notions. Now when the spirit of any natural object such as the
+corn has been invested with human qualities, detached from the object, and
+converted into a deity controlling it, the object itself is, by the
+withdrawal of its spirit, left inanimate; it becomes, so to say, a
+spiritual vacuum. But the popular fancy, intolerant of such a vacuum, in
+other words, unable to conceive anything as inanimate, immediately creates
+a fresh mythical being, with which it peoples the vacant object. Thus the
+same natural object comes to be represented in mythology by two distinct
+beings: first by the old spirit now separated from it and raised to the
+rank of a deity; second, by the new spirit, freshly created by the popular
+fancy to supply the place vacated by the old spirit on its elevation to a
+higher sphere. For example, in Japanese religion the solar character of
+Ama-terasu, the great goddess of the Sun, has become obscured, and
+accordingly the people have personified the sun afresh under the name of
+_Nichi-rin sama_, "sun-wheeling personage," and _O tento sama_,
+"august-heaven-path-personage"; to the lower class of Japanese at the
+present day, especially to women and children, _O tento sama_ is the
+actual sun, sexless, mythless, and unencumbered by any formal worship, yet
+looked up to as a moral being who rewards the good, punishes the wicked,
+and enforces oaths made in his name.(627) In such cases the problem for
+mythology is, having got two distinct personifications of the same object,
+what to do with them? How are their relations to each other to be
+adjusted, and room found for both in the mythological system? When the old
+spirit or new deity is conceived as creating or producing the object in
+question, the problem is easily solved. Since the object is believed to be
+produced by the old spirit, and animated by the new one, the latter, as
+the soul of the object, must also owe its existence to the former; thus
+the old spirit will stand to the new one as producer to produced, that is,
+in mythology, as parent to child, and if both spirits are conceived as
+female, their relation will be that of mother and daughter. In this way,
+starting from a single personification of the corn as female, mythic fancy
+might in time reach a double personification of it as mother and daughter.
+It would be very rash to affirm that this was the way in which the myth of
+Demeter and Persephone actually took shape; but it seems a legitimate
+conjecture that the reduplication of deities, of which Demeter and
+Persephone furnish an example, may sometimes have arisen in the way
+indicated. For example, among the pairs of deities dealt with in a former
+part of this work, it has been shewn that there are grounds for regarding
+both Isis and her companion god Osiris as personifications of the
+corn.(628) On the hypothesis just suggested, Isis would be the old
+corn-spirit, and Osiris would be the newer one, whose relationship to the
+old spirit was variously explained as that of brother, husband, and
+son;(629) for of course mythology would always be free to account for the
+coexistence of the two divinities in more ways than one. It must not,
+however, be forgotten that this proposed explanation of such pairs of
+deities as Demeter and Persephone or Isis and Osiris is purely
+conjectural, and is only given for what it is worth.
+
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII. LITYERSES.
+
+
+
+
+§ 1. Songs of the Corn Reapers.
+
+
+(M179) In the preceding pages an attempt has been made to shew that in the
+Corn-mother and Harvest-maiden of Northern Europe we have the prototypes
+of Demeter and Persephone. But an essential feature is still wanting to
+complete the resemblance. A leading incident in the Greek myth is the
+death and resurrection of Persephone; it is this incident which, coupled
+with the nature of the goddess as a deity of vegetation, links the myth
+with the cults of Adonis, Attis, Osiris, and Dionysus; and it is in virtue
+of this incident that the myth finds a place in our discussion of the
+Dying God. It remains, therefore, to see whether the conception of the
+annual death and resurrection of a god, which figures so prominently in
+these great Greek and Oriental worships, has not also its origin or its
+analogy in the rustic rites observed by reapers and vine-dressers amongst
+the corn-shocks and the vines.
+
+(M180) Our general ignorance of the popular superstitions and customs of
+the ancients has already been confessed. But the obscurity which thus
+hangs over the first beginnings of ancient religion is fortunately
+dissipated to some extent in the present case. The worships of Osiris,
+Adonis, and Attis had their respective seats, as we have seen, in Egypt,
+Syria, and Phrygia; and in each of these countries certain harvest and
+vintage customs are known to have been observed, the resemblance of which
+to each other and to the national rites struck the ancients themselves,
+and, compared with the harvest customs of modern peasants and barbarians,
+seems to throw some light on the origin of the rites in question.
+
+(M181) It has been already mentioned, on the authority of Diodorus, that
+in ancient Egypt the reapers were wont to lament over the first sheaf cut,
+invoking Isis as the goddess to whom they owed the discovery of corn.(630)
+To the plaintive song or cry sung or uttered by Egyptian reapers the
+Greeks gave the name of Maneros, and explained the name by a story that
+Maneros, the only son of the first Egyptian king, invented agriculture,
+and, dying an untimely death, was thus lamented by the people.(631) It
+appears, however, that the name Maneros is due to a misunderstanding of
+the formula _maa-ne-hra_, "Come to the house," which has been discovered
+in various Egyptian writings, for example in the dirge of Isis in the Book
+of the Dead.(632) Hence we may suppose that the cry _maa-ne-hra_ was
+chanted by the reapers over the cut corn as a dirge for the death of the
+corn-spirit (Isis or Osiris) and a prayer for its return. As the cry was
+raised over the first ears reaped, it would seem that the corn-spirit was
+believed by the Egyptians to be present in the first corn cut and to die
+under the sickle. We have seen that in the Malay Peninsula and Java the
+first ears of rice are taken to represent either the Soul of the Rice or
+the Rice-bride and the Rice-bridegroom.(633) In parts of Russia the first
+sheaf is treated much in the same way that the last sheaf is treated
+elsewhere. It is reaped by the mistress herself, taken home and set in the
+place of honour near the holy pictures; afterwards it is threshed
+separately, and some of its grain is mixed with the next year's
+seed-corn.(634) In Aberdeenshire, while the last corn cut was generally
+used to make the _clyack_ sheaf,(635) it was sometimes, though rarely, the
+first corn cut that was dressed up as a woman and carried home with
+ceremony.(636)
+
+(M182) In Phoenicia and Western Asia a plaintive song, like that chanted
+by the Egyptian corn-reapers, was sung at the vintage and probably (to
+judge by analogy) also at harvest. This Phoenician song was called by the
+Greeks Linus or Ailinus and explained, like Maneros, as a lament for the
+death of a youth named Linus.(637) According to one story Linus was
+brought up by a shepherd, but torn to pieces by his dogs.(638) But, like
+Maneros, the name Linus or Ailinus appears to have originated in a verbal
+misunderstanding, and to be nothing more than the cry _ai lanu_, that is
+"Woe to us," which the Phoenicians probably uttered in mourning for
+Adonis;(639) at least Sappho seems to have regarded Adonis and Linus as
+equivalent.(640)
+
+(M183) In Bithynia a like mournful ditty, called Bormus or Borimus, was
+chanted by Mariandynian reapers. Bormus was said to have been a handsome
+youth, the son of King Upias or of a wealthy and distinguished man. One
+summer day, watching the reapers at work in his fields, he went to fetch
+them a drink of water and was never heard of more. So the reapers sought
+for him, calling him in plaintive strains, which they continued to chant
+at harvest ever afterwards.(641)
+
+
+
+
+§ 2. Killing the Corn-spirit.
+
+
+(M184) In Phrygia the corresponding song, sung by harvesters both at
+reaping and at threshing, was called Lityerses. According to one story,
+Lityerses was a bastard son of Midas, King of Phrygia, and dwelt at
+Celaenae. He used to reap the corn, and had an enormous appetite. When a
+stranger happened to enter the corn-field or to pass by it, Lityerses gave
+him plenty to eat and drink, then took him to the corn-fields on the banks
+of the Maeander and compelled him to reap along with him. Lastly, it was
+his custom to wrap the stranger in a sheaf, cut off his head with a
+sickle, and carry away his body, swathed in the corn stalks. But at last
+Hercules undertook to reap with him, cut off his head with the sickle, and
+threw his body into the river.(642) As Hercules is reported to have slain
+Lityerses in the same way that Lityerses slew others (as Theseus treated
+Sinis and Sciron), we may infer that Lityerses used to throw the bodies of
+his victims into the river. According to another version of the story,
+Lityerses, a son of Midas, was wont to challenge people to a reaping match
+with him, and if he vanquished them he used to thrash them; but one day he
+met with a stronger reaper, who slew him.(643)
+
+(M185) There are some grounds for supposing that in these stories of
+Lityerses we have the description of a Phrygian harvest custom in
+accordance with which certain persons, especially strangers passing the
+harvest field, were regularly regarded as embodiments of the corn-spirit,
+and as such were seized by the reapers, wrapt in sheaves, and beheaded,
+their bodies, bound up in the corn-stalks, being afterwards thrown into
+water as a rain-charm. The grounds for this supposition are, first, the
+resemblance of the Lityerses story to the harvest customs of European
+peasantry, and, second, the frequency of human sacrifices offered by
+savage races to promote the fertility of the fields. We will examine these
+grounds successively, beginning with the former.
+
+In comparing the story with the harvest customs of Europe,(644) three
+points deserve special attention, namely: I. the reaping match and the
+binding of persons in the sheaves; II. the killing of the corn-spirit or
+his representatives; III. the treatment of visitors to the harvest field
+or of strangers passing it.
+
+(M186) I. In regard to the first head, we have seen that in modern Europe
+the person who cuts or binds or threshes the last sheaf is often exposed
+to rough treatment at the hands of his fellow-labourers. For example, he
+is bound up in the last sheaf, and, thus encased, is carried or carted
+about, beaten, drenched with water, thrown on a dunghill, and so forth.
+Or, if he is spared this horseplay, he is at least the subject of ridicule
+or is thought to be destined to suffer some misfortune in the course of
+the year. Hence the harvesters are naturally reluctant to give the last
+cut at reaping or the last stroke at threshing or to bind the last sheaf,
+and towards the close of the work this reluctance produces an emulation
+among the labourers, each striving to finish his task as fast as possible,
+in order that he may escape the invidious distinction of being last.(645)
+For example, in the neighbourhood of Danzig, when the winter corn is cut
+and mostly bound up in sheaves, the portion which still remains to be
+bound is divided amongst the women binders, each of whom receives a swath
+of equal length to bind. A crowd of reapers, children, and idlers gather
+round to witness the contest, and at the word, "Seize the Old Man," the
+women fall to work, all binding their allotted swaths as hard as they can.
+The spectators watch them narrowly, and the woman who cannot keep pace
+with the rest and consequently binds the last sheaf has to carry the Old
+Man (that is, the last sheaf made up in the form of a man) to the
+farmhouse and deliver it to the farmer with the words, "Here I bring you
+the Old Man." At the supper which follows, the Old Man is placed at the
+table and receives an abundant portion of food, which, as he cannot eat
+it, falls to the share of the woman who carried him. Afterwards the Old
+Man is placed in the yard and all the people dance round him. Or the woman
+who bound the last sheaf dances for a good while with the Old Man, while
+the rest form a ring round them; afterwards they all, one after the other,
+dance a single round with him. Further, the woman who bound the last sheaf
+goes herself by the name of the Old Man till the next harvest, and is
+often mocked with the cry, "Here comes the Old Man."(646) In the
+Mittelmark district of Prussia, when the rye has been reaped, and the last
+sheaves are about to be tied up, the binders stand in two rows facing each
+other, every woman with her sheaf and her straw rope before her. At a
+given signal they all tie up their sheaves, and the one who is the last to
+finish is ridiculed by the rest. Not only so, but her sheaf is made up
+into human shape and called the Old Man, and she must carry it home to the
+farmyard, where the harvesters dance in a circle round her and it. Then
+they take the Old Man to the farmer and deliver it to him with the words,
+"We bring the Old Man to the Master. He may keep him till he gets a new
+one." After that the Old Man is set up against a tree, where he remains
+for a long time, the butt of many jests.(647) At Aschbach in Bavaria, when
+the reaping is nearly finished, the reapers say, "Now, we will drive out
+the Old Man." Each of them sets himself to reap a patch of corn as fast as
+he can; he who cuts the last handful or the last stalk is greeted by the
+rest with an exulting cry, "You have the Old Man." Sometimes a black mask
+is fastened on the reaper's face and he is dressed in woman's clothes; or
+if the reaper is a woman, she is dressed in man's clothes. A dance
+follows. At the supper the Old Man gets twice as large a portion of food
+as the others. The proceedings are similar at threshing; the person who
+gives the last stroke is said to have the Old Man. At the supper given to
+the threshers he has to eat out of the cream-ladle and to drink a great
+deal. Moreover, he is quizzed and teased in all sorts of ways till he
+frees himself from further annoyance by treating the others to brandy or
+beer.(648)
+
+(M187) These examples illustrate the contests in reaping, threshing, and
+binding which take place amongst the harvesters, from their unwillingness
+to suffer the ridicule and discomfort incurred by the one who happens to
+finish his work last. It will be remembered that the person who is last at
+reaping, binding, or threshing, is regarded as the representative of the
+corn-spirit,(649) and this idea is more fully expressed by binding him or
+her in corn-stalks. The latter custom has been already illustrated, but a
+few more instances may be added. At Kloxin, near Stettin, the harvesters
+call out to the woman who binds the last sheaf, "You have the Old Man, and
+must keep him." The Old Man is a great bundle of corn decked with flowers
+and ribbons, and fashioned into a rude semblance of the human form. It is
+fastened on a rake or strapped on a horse, and brought with music to the
+village. In delivering the Old Man to the farmer, the woman says:--
+
+
+    "_Here, dear Sir, is the Old Man._
+    _He can stay no longer on the field,_
+    _He can hide himself no longer,_
+    _He must come into the village._
+    _Ladies and gentlemen, pray be so kind_
+    _As to give the Old Man a present._"
+
+
+As late as the first half of the nineteenth century the custom was to tie
+up the woman herself in pease-straw, and bring her with music to the
+farmhouse, where the harvesters danced with her till the pease-straw fell
+off.(650) In other villages round Stettin, when the last harvest-waggon is
+being loaded, there is a regular race amongst the women, each striving not
+to be last. For she who places the last sheaf on the waggon is called the
+Old Man, and is completely swathed in corn-stalks; she is also decked with
+flowers, and flowers and a helmet of straw are placed on her head. In
+solemn procession she carries the harvest-crown to the squire, over whose
+head she holds it while she utters a string of good wishes. At the dance
+which follows, the Old Man has the right to choose his, or rather her,
+partner; it is an honour to dance with him.(651) At Blankenfelde, in the
+district of Potsdam, the woman who binds the last sheaf at the rye-harvest
+is saluted with the cry, "You have the Old Man." A woman is then tied up
+in the last sheaf in such a way that only her head is left free; her hair
+also is covered with a cap made of rye-stalks, adorned with ribbons and
+flowers. She is called the Harvest-man, and must keep dancing in front of
+the last harvest-waggon till it reaches the squire's house, where she
+receives a present and is released from her envelope of corn.(652) At
+Gommern, near Magdeburg, the reaper who cuts the last ears of corn is
+often wrapt up in corn-stalks so completely that it is hard to see whether
+there is a man in the bundle or not. Thus wrapt up he is taken by another
+stalwart reaper on his back, and carried round the field amidst the joyous
+cries of the harvesters.(653) At Neuhausen, near Merseburg, the person who
+binds the last sheaf is wrapt in ears of oats and saluted as the Oats-man,
+whereupon the others dance round him.(654) At Brie, Isle de France, the
+farmer himself is tied up in the _first_ sheaf.(655) At the harvest-home
+at Udvarhely, Transylvania, a person is encased in corn-stalks, and wears
+on his head a crown made out of the last ears cut. On reaching the village
+he is soused with water over and over.(656) At Dingelstedt, in the
+district of Erfurt, down to the first half of the nineteenth century it
+was the custom to tie up a man in the last sheaf. He was called the Old
+Man, and was brought home on the last waggon, amid huzzas and music. On
+reaching the farmyard he was rolled round the barn and drenched with
+water.(657) At Noerdlingen in Bavaria the man who gives the last stroke at
+threshing is wrapt in straw and rolled on the threshing-floor.(658) In
+some parts of Oberpfalz, Bavaria, he is said to "get the Old Man," is
+wrapt in straw, and carried to a neighbour who has not yet finished his
+threshing.(659) In Silesia the woman who binds the last sheaf has to
+submit to a good deal of horse-play. She is pushed, knocked down, and tied
+up in the sheaf, after which she is called the corn-puppet
+(_Kornpopel_).(660) In Thueringen a sausage is stuck in the last sheaf at
+threshing, and thrown, with the sheaf, on the threshing-floor. It is
+called the _Barrenwurst_ or _Bazenwurst_, and is eaten by all the
+threshers. After they have eaten it a man is encased in pease-straw, and
+thus attired is led through the village.(661)
+
+(M188) "In all these cases the idea is that the spirit of the corn--the Old
+Man of vegetation--is driven out of the corn last cut or last threshed, and
+lives in the barn during the winter. At sowing-time he goes out again to
+the fields to resume his activity as animating force among the sprouting
+corn."(662)
+
+(M189) Ideas of the same sort appear to attach to the last corn in India.
+At Hoshangabad, in Central India, when the reaping is nearly done, a patch
+of corn, about a rood in extent, is left standing in the cultivator's last
+field, and the reapers rest a little. Then they rush at this remnant, tear
+it up, and cast it into the air, shouting victory to one or other of the
+local gods, according to their religious persuasion. A sheaf is made out
+of this corn, tied to a bamboo, set up in the last harvest cart, and
+carried home in triumph. Here it is fastened up in the threshing-floor or
+attached to a tree or to the cattle-shed, where its services are held to
+be essential for the purpose of averting the evil-eye.(663) A like custom
+prevails in the eastern districts of the North-Western Provinces of India.
+Sometimes a little patch is left untilled as a refuge for the
+field-spirit; sometimes it is sown, and when the corn of this patch has
+been reaped with a rush and a shout, it is presented to the priest, who
+offers it to the local gods or bestows it on a beggar.(664)
+
+(M190) II. Passing to the second point of comparison between the Lityerses
+story and European harvest customs, we have now to see that in the latter
+the corn-spirit is often believed to be killed at reaping or threshing. In
+the Romsdal and other parts of Norway, when the haymaking is over, the
+people say that "the Old Hay-man has been killed." In some parts of
+Bavaria the man who gives the last stroke at threshing is said to have
+killed the Corn-man, the Oats-man, or the Wheat-man, according to the
+crop.(665) In the Canton of Tillot, in Lothringen, at threshing the last
+corn the men keep time with their flails, calling out as they thresh, "We
+are killing the Old Woman! We are killing the Old Woman!" If there is an
+old woman in the house she is warned to save herself, or she will be
+struck dead.(666) Near Ragnit, in Lithuania, the last handful of corn is
+left standing by itself, with the words, "The Old Woman (_Boba_) is
+sitting in there." Then a young reaper whets his scythe, and, with a
+strong sweep, cuts down the handful. It is now said of him that "he has
+cut off the Boba's head"; and he receives a gratuity from the farmer and a
+jugful of water over his head from the farmer's wife.(667) According to
+another account, every Lithuanian reaper makes haste to finish his task;
+for the Old Rye-woman lives in the last stalks, and whoever cuts the last
+stalks kills the Old Rye-woman, and by killing her he brings trouble on
+himself.(668) In Wilkischken, in the district of Tilsit, the man who cuts
+the last corn goes by the name of "the killer of the Rye-woman."(669) In
+Lithuania, again, the corn-spirit is believed to be killed at threshing as
+well as at reaping. When only a single pile of corn remains to be
+threshed, all the threshers suddenly step back a few paces, as if at the
+word of command. Then they fall to work, plying their flails with the
+utmost rapidity and vehemence, till they come to the last bundle. Upon
+this they fling themselves with almost frantic fury, straining every
+nerve, and raining blows on it till the word "Halt!" rings out sharply
+from the leader. The man whose flail is the last to fall after the command
+to stop has been given is immediately surrounded by all the rest, crying
+out that "he has struck the Old Rye-woman dead." He has to expiate the
+deed by treating them to brandy; and, like the man who cuts the last corn,
+he is known as "the killer of the Old Rye-woman."(670) Sometimes in
+Lithuania the slain corn-spirit was represented by a puppet. Thus a female
+figure was made out of corn-stalks, dressed in clothes, and placed on the
+threshing-floor, under the heap of corn which was to be threshed last.
+Whoever thereafter gave the last stroke at threshing "struck the Old Woman
+dead."(671) We have already met with examples of burning the figure which
+represents the corn-spirit.(672) In the East Riding of Yorkshire a custom
+called "burning the Old Witch" is observed on the last day of harvest. A
+small sheaf of corn is burnt on the field in a fire of stubble; peas are
+parched at the fire and eaten with a liberal allowance of ale; and the
+lads and lasses romp about the flames and amuse themselves by blackening
+each other's faces.(673) Sometimes, again, the corn-spirit is represented
+by a man, who lies down under the last corn; it is threshed upon his body,
+and the people say that "the Old Man is being beaten to death."(674) We
+saw that sometimes the farmer's wife is thrust, together with the last
+sheaf, under the threshing-machine, as if to thresh her, and that
+afterwards a pretence is made of winnowing her.(675) At Volders, in the
+Tyrol, husks of corn are stuck behind the neck of the man who gives the
+last stroke at threshing, and he is throttled with a straw garland. If he
+is tall, it is believed that the corn will be tall next year. Then he is
+tied on a bundle and flung into the river.(676) In Carinthia, the thresher
+who gave the last stroke, and the person who untied the last sheaf on the
+threshing-floor, are bound hand and foot with straw bands, and crowns of
+straw are placed on their heads. Then they are tied, face to face, on a
+sledge, dragged through the village, and flung into a brook.(677) The
+custom of throwing the representative of the corn-spirit into a stream,
+like that of drenching him with water, is, as usual, a rain-charm.(678)
+
+(M191) III. Thus far the representatives of the corn-spirit have generally
+been the man or woman who cuts, binds, or threshes the last corn. We now
+come to the cases in which the corn-spirit is represented either by a
+stranger passing the harvest-field (as in the Lityerses tale), or by a
+visitor entering it for the first time. All over Germany it is customary
+for the reapers or threshers to lay hold of passing strangers and bind
+them with a rope made of corn-stalks, till they pay a forfeit; and when
+the farmer himself or one of his guests enters the field or the
+threshing-floor for the first time, he is treated in the same way.
+Sometimes the rope is only tied round his arm or his feet or his
+neck.(679) But sometimes he is regularly swathed in corn. Thus at Soloer in
+Norway, whoever enters the field, be he the master or a stranger, is tied
+up in a sheaf and must pay a ransom. In the neighbourhood of Soest, when
+the farmer visits the flax-pullers for the first time, he is completely
+enveloped in flax. Passers-by are also surrounded by the women, tied up in
+flax, and compelled to stand brandy.(680) At Noerdlingen strangers are
+caught with straw ropes and tied up in a sheaf till they pay a
+forfeit.(681) Among the Germans of Haselberg, in West Bohemia, as soon as
+a farmer had given the last corn to be threshed on the threshing-floor, he
+was swathed in it and had to redeem himself by a present of cakes.(682) In
+Anhalt, when the proprietor or one of his family, the steward, or even a
+stranger enters the harvest-field for the first time after the reaping has
+begun, the wife of the chief reaper ties a rope twisted of corn-ears, or a
+nosegay made of corn-ears and flowers, to his arm, and he is obliged to
+ransom himself by the payment of a fine.(683) In the canton of Putanges,
+in Normandy, a pretence of tying up the owner of the land in the last
+sheaf of wheat is still practised, or at least was still practised some
+quarter of a century ago. The task falls to the women alone. They throw
+themselves on the proprietor, seize him by the arms, the legs, and the
+body, throw him to the ground, and stretch him on the last sheaf. Then a
+show is made of binding him, and the conditions to be observed at the
+harvest-supper are dictated to him. When he has accepted them, he is
+released and allowed to get up.(684) At Brie, Isle de France, when any one
+who does not belong to the farm passes by the harvest-field, the reapers
+give chase. If they catch him, they bind him in a sheaf and bite him, one
+after the other, in the forehead, crying, "You shall carry the key of the
+field."(685) "To have the key" is an expression used by harvesters
+elsewhere in the sense of to cut or bind or thresh the last sheaf;(686)
+hence, it is equivalent to the phrases "You have the Old Man," "You are
+the Old Man," which are addressed to the cutter, binder, or thresher of
+the last sheaf. Therefore, when a stranger, as at Brie, is tied up in a
+sheaf and told that he will "carry the key of the field," it is as much as
+to say that he is the Old Man, that is, an embodiment of the corn-spirit.
+In hop-picking, if a well-dressed stranger passes the hop-yard, he is
+seized by the women, tumbled into the bin, covered with leaves, and not
+released till he has paid a fine.(687) In some parts of Scotland,
+particularly in the counties of Fife and Kinross, down to recent times the
+reapers used to seize and dump, as it was called, any stranger who
+happened to visit or pass by the harvest field. The custom was to lay hold
+of the stranger by his ankles and armpits, lift him up, and bring the
+lower part of his person into violent contact with the ground. Women as
+well as men were liable to be thus treated. The practice of interposing a
+sheaf between the sufferer and the ground is said to be a modern
+refinement.(688) Comparing this custom with the one practised at Putanges
+in Normandy, which has just been described, we may conjecture that in
+Scotland the "dumping" of strangers on the harvest-field was originally a
+preliminary to wrapping them up in sheaves of corn.
+
+(M192) Ceremonies of a somewhat similar kind are performed by the
+Tarahumare Indians of Mexico not only at harvest but also at hoeing and
+ploughing. "When the work of hoeing and weeding is finished, the workers
+seize the master of the field, and, tying his arms crosswise behind him,
+load all the implements, that is to say, the hoes, upon his back,
+fastening them with ropes. Then they form two single columns, the landlord
+in the middle between them, and all facing the house. Thus they start
+homeward. Simultaneously the two men at the heads of the columns begin to
+run rapidly forward some thirty yards, cross each other, then turn back,
+run along the two columns, cross each other again at the rear and take
+their places each at the end of his row. As they pass each other ahead and
+in the rear of the columns they beat their mouths with the hollow of their
+hands and yell. As soon as they reach their places at the foot, the next
+pair in front of the columns starts off, running in the same way, and thus
+pair after pair performs the tour, the procession all the time advancing
+toward the house. A short distance in front of it they come to a halt, and
+are met by two young men who carry red handkerchiefs tied to sticks like
+flags. The father of the family, still tied up and loaded with the hoes,
+steps forward alone and kneels down in front of his house-door. The
+flag-bearers wave their banners over him, and the women of the household
+come out and kneel on their left knees, first toward the east, and after a
+little while toward each of the other cardinal points, west, south, and
+north. In conclusion the flags are waved in front of the house. The father
+then rises and the people untie him, whereupon he first salutes the women
+with the usual greeting, '_Kwira!_' or '_Kwireva!_' Now they all go into
+the house, and the man makes a short speech thanking them all for the
+assistance they have given him, for how could he have gotten through his
+work without them? They have provided him with a year's life (that is,
+with the wherewithal to sustain it), and now he is going to give them
+tesvino. He gives a drinking-gourd full to each one in the assembly, and
+appoints one man among them to distribute more to all. The same ceremony
+is performed after the ploughing and after the harvesting. On the first
+occasion the tied man may be made to carry the yoke of the oxen, on the
+second he does not carry anything."(689) The meaning of these Mexican
+ceremonies is not clear. Perhaps the custom of tying up the farmer at
+hoeing, ploughing, and reaping is a form of expiation or apology offered
+to the spirits of the earth, who are naturally disturbed by agricultural
+operations.(690) When the Yabim of Simbang in German New Guinea see that
+the taro plants in their fields are putting forth leaves, they offer
+sacrifice of sago-broth and pork to the spirits of the former owners of
+the land, in order that they may be kindly disposed and not do harm but
+let the fruits ripen.(691) Similarly when the Alfoors or Toradjas of
+Central Celebes are planting a new field, they offer rice, eggs, and so
+forth to the souls of the former owners of the land, hoping that,
+mollified by these offerings, the souls will make the crops to grow and
+thrive.(692) However, this explanation of the Mexican ceremonies at
+hoeing, ploughing, and reaping is purely conjectural. In these ceremonies
+there is no evidence that, as in the parallel European customs, the farmer
+is identified with the corn-spirit, since he is not wrapt up in the
+sheaves.
+
+(M193) Be that as it may, the evidence adduced above suffices to prove
+that, like the ancient Lityerses, modern European reapers have been wont
+to lay hold of a passing stranger and tie him up in a sheaf. It is not to
+be expected that they should complete the parallel by cutting off his
+head; but if they do not take such a strong step, their language and
+gestures are at least indicative of a desire to do so. For instance, in
+Mecklenburg on the first day of reaping, if the master or mistress or a
+stranger enters the field, or merely passes by it, all the mowers face
+towards him and sharpen their scythes, clashing their whet-stones against
+them in unison, as if they were making ready to mow. Then the woman who
+leads the mowers steps up to him and ties a band round his left arm. He
+must ransom himself by payment of a forfeit.(693) Near Ratzeburg, when the
+master or other person of mark enters the field or passes by it, all the
+harvesters stop work and march towards him in a body, the men with their
+scythes in front. On meeting him they form up in line, men and women. The
+men stick the poles of their scythes in the ground, as they do in whetting
+them; then they take off their caps and hang them on the scythes, while
+their leader stands forward and makes a speech. When he has done, they all
+whet their scythes in measured time very loudly, after which they put on
+their caps. Two of the women binders then come forward; one of them ties
+the master or stranger (as the case may be) with corn-ears or with a
+silken band; the other delivers a rhyming address. The following are
+specimens of the speeches made by the reaper on these occasions. In some
+parts of Pomerania every passer-by is stopped, his way being barred with a
+corn-rope. The reapers form a circle round him and sharpen their scythes,
+while their leader says:--
+
+
+    "_The men are ready,_
+    _The scythes are bent,_
+    _The corn is great and small,_
+    _The gentleman must be mowed._"
+
+
+Then the process of whetting the scythes is repeated.(694) At Ramin, in
+the district of Stettin, the stranger, standing encircled by the reapers,
+is thus addressed:--
+
+
+    "_We'll stroke the gentleman_
+    _With our naked sword,_
+    _Wherewith we shear meadows and fields._
+    _We shear princes and lords._
+    _Labourers are often athirst;_
+    _If the gentleman will stand beer and brandy_
+    _The joke will soon be over._
+    _But, if our prayer he does not like,_
+    _The sword has a right to strike._"(695)
+
+
+That in these customs the whetting of the scythes is really meant as a
+preliminary to mowing appears from the following variation of the
+preceding customs. In the district of Lueneburg, when any one enters the
+harvest-field, he is asked whether he will engage a good fellow. If he
+says yes, the harvesters mow some swaths, yelling and screaming, and then
+ask him for drink-money.(696)
+
+(M194) On the threshing-floor strangers are also regarded as embodiments
+of the corn-spirit, and are treated accordingly. At Wiedingharde in
+Schleswig when a stranger comes to the threshing-floor he is asked, "Shall
+I teach you the flail-dance?" If he says yes, they put the arms of the
+threshing-flail round his neck as if he were a sheaf of corn, and press
+them together so tight that he is nearly choked.(697) In some parishes of
+Wermland (Sweden), when a stranger enters the threshing-floor where the
+threshers are at work, they say that "they will teach him the
+threshing-song." Then they put a flail round his neck and a straw rope
+about his body. Also, as we have seen, if a stranger woman enters the
+threshing-floor, the threshers put a flail round her body and a wreath of
+corn-stalks round her neck, and call out, "See the Corn-woman! See! that
+is how the Corn-maiden looks!"(698)
+
+(M195) In these customs, observed both on the harvest-field and on the
+threshing-floor, a passing stranger is regarded as a personification of
+the corn, in other words, as the corn-spirit; and a show is made of
+treating him like the corn by mowing, binding, and threshing him. If the
+reader still doubts whether European peasants can really regard a passing
+stranger in this light, the following custom should set his doubts at
+rest. During the madder-harvest in the Dutch province of Zealand a
+stranger passing by a field, where the people are digging the
+madder-roots, will sometimes call out to them _Koortspillers_ (a term of
+reproach). Upon this, two of the fleetest runners make after him, and, if
+they catch him, they bring him back to the madder-field and bury him in
+the earth up to his middle at least, jeering at him the while; then they
+ease nature before his face.(699)
+
+(M196) This last act is to be explained as follows. The spirit of the corn
+and of other cultivated plants is sometimes conceived, not as immanent in
+the plant, but as its owner; hence the cutting of the corn at harvest, the
+digging of the roots, and the gathering of fruit from the fruit-trees are
+each and all of them acts of spoliation, which strip him of his property
+and reduce him to poverty. Hence he is often known as "the Poor Man" or
+"the Poor Woman." Thus in the neighbourhood of Eisenach a small sheaf is
+sometimes left standing on the field for "the Poor Old Woman."(700) At
+Marksuhl, near Eisenach, the puppet formed out of the last sheaf is itself
+called "the Poor Woman." At Alt Lest in Silesia the man who binds the last
+sheaf is called the Beggar-man.(701) In a village near Roeskilde, in
+Zealand (Denmark), old-fashioned peasants sometimes make up the last sheaf
+into a rude puppet, which is called the Rye-beggar.(702) In Southern
+Schonen the sheaf which is bound last is called the Beggar; it is made
+bigger than the rest and is sometimes dressed in clothes. In the district
+of Olmuetz the last sheaf is called the Beggar; it is given to an old
+woman, who must carry it home, limping on one foot.(703) Sometimes a
+little of the crop is left on the field for the spirit, under other names
+than "the Poor Old Woman." Thus at Szagmanten, a village of the Tilsit
+district, the last sheaf was left standing on the field "for the Old
+Rye-woman."(704) In Neftenbach (Canton of Zurich) the first three ears of
+corn reaped are thrown away on the field "to satisfy the Corn-mother and
+to make the next year's crop abundant."(705) At Kupferberg, in Bavaria,
+some corn is left standing on the field when the rest has been cut. Of
+this corn left standing they say that "it belongs to the Old Woman," to
+whom it is dedicated in the following words:--
+
+
+    "_We give it to the Old Woman;_
+    _She shall keep it._
+    _Next year may she be to us_
+    _As kind as this time she has been._"(706)
+
+
+These words clearly shew that the Old Woman for whom the corn is left on
+the field is not a real personage, poor and hungry, but the mythical Old
+Woman who makes the corn to grow. At Schuettarschen, in West Bohemia, after
+the crop has been reaped, a few stalks are left standing and a garland is
+attached to them. "That belongs to the Wood-woman," they say, and offer a
+prayer. In this way the Wood-woman, we are told, has enough to live on
+through the winter and the corn will thrive the better next year. The same
+thing is done for all the different kinds of corn-crop.(707) So in
+Thueringen, when the after-grass (_Grummet_) is being got in, a little heap
+is left lying on the field; it belongs to "the Little Wood-woman" in
+return for the blessing she has bestowed.(708) In the Frankenwald of
+Bavaria three handfuls of flax were left on the field "for the
+Wood-woman."(709) At Lindau in Anhalt the reapers used to leave some
+stalks standing in the last corner of the last field for "the Corn-woman
+to eat."(710) In some parts of Silesia it was till lately the custom to
+leave a few corn-stalks standing in the field, "in order that the next
+harvest should not fail."(711) In Russia it is customary to leave patches
+of unreaped corn in the fields and to place bread and salt on the ground
+near them. "These ears are eventually knotted together, and the ceremony
+is called 'the plaiting of the beard of Volos,' and it is supposed that
+after it has been performed no wizard or other evilly-disposed person will
+be able to hurt the produce of the fields. The unreaped patch is looked
+upon as tabooed; and it is believed that if any one meddles with it he
+will shrivel up, and become twisted like the interwoven ears. Similar
+customs are kept up in various parts of Russia. Near Kursk and Voroneje,
+for instance, a patch of rye is usually left in honour of the Prophet
+Elijah, and in another district one of oats is consecrated to St.
+Nicholas. As it is well known that both the Saint and the Prophet have
+succeeded to the place once held in the estimation of the Russian people
+by Perun, it seems probable that Volos really was, in ancient times, one
+of the names of the thunder-god."(712) In the north-east of Scotland a few
+stalks were sometimes left unreaped on the field for the benefit of "the
+aul' man."(713) Here "the aul' man" is probably the equivalent of the
+harvest Old Man of Germany.(714) Among the Mohammedans of Zanzibar it is
+customary at sowing a field to reserve a certain portion of it for the
+guardian spirits, who at harvest are invited, to the tuck of drum, to come
+and take their share; tiny huts are also built in which food is deposited
+for their use.(715) In the island of Nias, to prevent the depredations of
+wandering spirits among the rice at harvest, a miniature field is
+dedicated to them and in it are sown all the plants that grow in the real
+fields.(716) The Hos, a Ewe tribe of negroes in Togoland, observe a
+similar custom for a similar reason. At the entrance to their yam-fields
+the traveller may see on both sides of the path small mounds on which
+yams, stock-yams, beans, and maize are planted and appear to flourish with
+more than usual luxuriance. These little gardens, tended with peculiar
+care, are dedicated to the "guardian gods" of the owner of the land; there
+he cultivates for their benefit the same plants which he cultivates for
+his own use in the fields; and the notion is that the "guardian gods" will
+content themselves with eating the fruits which grow in their little
+private preserves and will not poach on the crops which are destined for
+human use.(717)
+
+(M197) These customs suggest that the little sacred rice-fields on which
+the Kayans of Borneo perform the various operations of husbandry in
+mimicry before they address themselves to the real labours of the
+field,(718) may be dedicated to the spirits of the rice to compensate them
+for the loss they sustain by allowing men to cultivate all the rest of the
+land for their own benefit. Perhaps the Rarian plain at Eleusis(719) was a
+spiritual preserve of the same kind set apart for the exclusive use of the
+corn-goddesses Demeter and Persephone. It may even be that the law which
+forbade the Hebrews to reap the corners and gather the gleanings of the
+harvest-fields and to strip the vines of their last grapes(720) was
+originally intended for the benefit, not of the human poor, but of the
+poor spirits of the corn and the vine, who had just been despoiled by the
+reapers and the vintagers, and who, if some provision were not made for
+their subsistence, would naturally die of hunger before another year came
+round. In providing for their wants the prudent husbandman was really
+consulting his own interests; for how could he expect to reap wheat and
+barley and to gather grapes next year if he suffered the spirits of the
+corn and of the vine to perish of famine in the meantime? This train of
+thought may possibly explain the wide-spread custom of offering the
+first-fruits of the crops to gods or spirits:(721) such offerings may have
+been originally not so much an expression of gratitude for benefits
+received as a means of enabling the benefactors to continue their
+benefactions in time to come. Primitive man has generally a shrewd eye to
+the main chance: he is more prone to provide for the future than to
+sentimentalise over the past.
+
+(M198) Thus when the spirit of vegetation is conceived as a being who is
+robbed of his store and impoverished by the harvesters, it is natural that
+his representative--the passing stranger--should upbraid them; and it is
+equally natural that they should seek to disable him from pursuing them
+and recapturing the stolen property. Now, it is an old superstition that
+by easing nature on the spot where a robbery is committed, the robbers
+secure themselves, for a certain time, against interruption.(722) Hence
+when madder-diggers resort to this proceeding in presence of the stranger
+whom they have caught and buried in the field, we may infer that they
+consider themselves robbers and him as the person robbed. Regarded as
+such, he must be the natural owner of the madder-roots, that is, their
+spirit or demon; and this conception is carried out by burying him, like
+the madder-roots, in the ground.(723) The Greeks, it may be observed, were
+quite familiar with the idea that a passing stranger may be a god. Homer
+says that the gods in the likeness of foreigners roam up and down
+cities.(724) Once in Poso, a district of Celebes, when a new missionary
+entered a house where a number of people were gathered round a sick man,
+one of them addressed the newcomer in these words: "Well, sir, as we had
+never seen you before, and you came suddenly in, while we sat here by
+ourselves, we thought it was a spirit."(725)
+
+(M199) Thus in these harvest-customs of modern Europe the person who cuts,
+binds, or threshes the last corn is treated as an embodiment of the
+corn-spirit by being wrapt up in sheaves, killed in mimicry by
+agricultural implements, and thrown into the water.(726) These
+coincidences with the Lityerses story seem to prove that the latter is a
+genuine description of an old Phrygian harvest-custom. But since in the
+modern parallels the killing of the personal representative of the
+corn-spirit is necessarily omitted or at most enacted only in mimicry, it
+is desirable to shew that in rude society human beings have been commonly
+killed as an agricultural ceremony to promote the fertility of the fields.
+The following examples will make this plain.
+
+
+
+
+§ 3. Human Sacrifices for the Crops.
+
+
+(M200) The Indians of Guayaquil, in Ecuador, used to sacrifice human blood
+and the hearts of men when they sowed their fields.(727) The people of
+Canar (now Cuenca in Ecuador) used to sacrifice a hundred children
+annually at harvest. The kings of Quito, the Incas of Peru, and for a long
+time the Spaniards were unable to suppress the bloody rite.(728) At a
+Mexican harvest-festival, when the first-fruits of the season were offered
+to the sun, a criminal was placed between two immense stones, balanced
+opposite each other, and was crushed by them as they fell together. His
+remains were buried, and a feast and dance followed. This sacrifice was
+known as "the meeting of the stones."(729) "Tlaloc was worshipped in
+Mexico as the god of the thunder and the storm which precedes the
+fertilising rain; elsewhere his wife Xochiquetzal, who at Tlaxcallan was
+called Matlalcueye or the Lady of the Blue Petticoats, shared these
+honours, and it was to her that many countries in Central America
+particularly paid their devotions. Every year, at the time when the cobs
+of the still green and milky maize are about to coagulate and ripen, they
+used to sacrifice to the goddess four young girls, chosen among the
+noblest families of the country; they were decked out in festal attire,
+crowned with flowers, and conveyed in rich palanquins to the brink of the
+hallowed waters, where the sacrifice was to be offered. The priests, clad
+in long floating robes, their heads encircled with feather crowns, marched
+in front of the litters carrying censers with burning incense. The town of
+Elopango, celebrated for its temple, was near the lake of the same name,
+the etymology of which refers to the sheaves of tender maize (_elotl_,
+'sheaf of tender maize'). It was dedicated to the goddess Xochiquetzal, to
+whom the young victims were offered by being hurled from the top of a rock
+into the abyss. At the moment of consummating this inhuman rite, the
+priests addressed themselves in turn to the four virgins in order to
+banish the fear of death from their minds. They drew for them a bright
+picture of the delights they were about to enjoy in the company of the
+gods, and advised them not to forget the earth which they had left behind,
+but to entreat the divinity, to whom they despatched them, to bless the
+forthcoming harvest."(730) We have seen that the ancient Mexicans also
+sacrificed human beings at all the various stages in the growth of the
+maize, the age of the victims corresponding to the age of the corn; for
+they sacrificed new-born babes at sowing, older children when the grain
+had sprouted, and so on till it was fully ripe, when they sacrificed old
+men.(731) No doubt the correspondence between the ages of the victims and
+the state of the corn was supposed to enhance the efficacy of the
+sacrifice.
+
+(M201) The Pawnees annually sacrificed a human victim in spring when they
+sowed their fields. The sacrifice was believed to have been enjoined on
+them by the Morning Star, or by a certain bird which the Morning Star had
+sent to them as its messenger. The bird was stuffed and preserved as a
+powerful talisman. They thought that an omission of this sacrifice would
+be followed by the total failure of the crops of maize, beans, and
+pumpkins. The victim was a captive of either sex. He was clad in the
+gayest and most costly attire, was fattened on the choicest food, and
+carefully kept in ignorance of his doom. When he was fat enough, they
+bound him to a cross in the presence of the multitude, danced a solemn
+dance, then cleft his head with a tomahawk and shot him with arrows.
+According to one trader, the squaws then cut pieces of flesh from the
+victim's body, with which they greased their hoes; but this was denied by
+another trader who had been present at the ceremony. Immediately after the
+sacrifice the people proceeded to plant their fields. A particular account
+has been preserved of the sacrifice of a Sioux girl by the Pawnees in
+April 1837 or 1838. The girl was fourteen or fifteen years old and had
+been kept for six months and well treated. Two days before the sacrifice
+she was led from wigwam to wigwam, accompanied by the whole council of
+chiefs and warriors. At each lodge she received a small billet of wood and
+a little paint, which she handed to the warrior next to her. In this way
+she called at every wigwam, receiving at each the same present of wood and
+paint. On the twenty-second of April she was taken out to be sacrificed,
+attended by the warriors, each of whom carried two pieces of wood which he
+had received from her hands. Her body having been painted half red and
+half black, she was attached to a sort of gibbet and roasted for some time
+over a slow fire, then shot to death with arrows. The chief sacrificer
+next tore out her heart and devoured it. While her flesh was still warm it
+was cut in small pieces from the bones, put in little baskets, and taken
+to a neighbouring corn-field. There the head chief took a piece of the
+flesh from a basket and squeezed a drop of blood upon the newly-deposited
+grains of corn. His example was followed by the rest, till all the seed
+had been sprinkled with the blood; it was then covered up with earth.
+According to one account the body of the victim was reduced to a kind of
+paste, which was rubbed or sprinkled not only on the maize but also on the
+potatoes, the beans, and other seeds to fertilise them. By this sacrifice
+they hoped to obtain plentiful crops.(732)
+
+(M202) A West African queen used to sacrifice a man and woman in the month
+of March. They were killed with spades and hoes, and their bodies buried
+in the middle of a field which had just been tilled.(733) At Lagos in
+Guinea it was the custom annually to impale a young girl alive soon after
+the spring equinox in order to secure good crops. Along with her were
+sacrificed sheep and goats, which, with yams, heads of maize, and
+plantains, were hung on stakes on each side of her. The victims were bred
+up for the purpose in the king's seraglio, and their minds had been so
+powerfully wrought upon by the fetish men that they went cheerfully to
+their fate.(734) A similar sacrifice used to be annually offered at Benin,
+in Guinea.(735) The Marimos, a Bechuana tribe, sacrifice a human being for
+the crops. The victim chosen is generally a short, stout man. He is seized
+by violence or intoxicated and taken to the fields, where he is killed
+amongst the wheat to serve as "seed" (so they phrase it). After his blood
+has coagulated in the sun, it is burned along with the frontal bone, the
+flesh attached to it, and the brain; the ashes are then scattered over the
+ground to fertilise it. The rest of the body is eaten.(736) The Wamegi of
+the Usagara hills in German East Africa used to offer human sacrifices of
+a peculiar kind once a year about the time of harvest, which was also the
+time of sowing; for the Wamegi have two crops annually, one in September
+and one in February. The festival was usually held in September or
+October. The victim was a girl who had attained the age of puberty. She
+was taken to a hill where the festival was to be celebrated, and there she
+was crushed to death between two branches.(737) The sacrifice was not
+performed in the fields, and my informant could not ascertain its object,
+but we may conjecture that it was to ensure good crops in the following
+year.
+
+(M203) The Bagobos of Mindanao, one of the Philippine Islands, offer a
+human sacrifice before they sow their rice. The victim is a slave, who is
+hewn to pieces in the forest.(738) The natives of Bontoc, a province in
+the interior of Luzon, one of the Philippine Islands, are passionate
+head-hunters. Their principal seasons for head-hunting are the times of
+planting and reaping the rice. In order that the crop may turn out well,
+every farm must get at least one human head at planting and one at sowing.
+The head-hunters go out in twos or threes, lie in wait for the victim,
+whether man or woman, cut off his or her head, hands, and feet, and bring
+them back in haste to the village, where they are received with great
+rejoicings. The skulls are at first exposed on the branches of two or
+three dead trees which stand in an open space of every village surrounded
+by large stones which serve as seats. The people then dance round them and
+feast and get drunk. When the flesh has decayed from the head, the man who
+cut it off takes it home and preserves it as a relic, while his companions
+do the same with the hands and the feet.(739) Similar customs are observed
+by the Apoyaos, another tribe in the interior of Luzon.(740)
+
+(M204) The Wild Wa, an agricultural tribe on the north-eastern frontier of
+Upper Burma, still hunt for human heads as a means of promoting the
+welfare of the crops. The Wa regards his skulls as a protection against
+the powers of evil. "Without a skull his crops would fail; without a skull
+his kine might die; without a skull the father and mother spirits would be
+shamed and might be enraged; if there were no protecting skull the other
+spirits who are all malignant, might gain entrance and kill the
+inhabitants, or drink all the liquor." The Wa country is a series of
+mountain ranges shelving rapidly down to narrow valleys from two to five
+thousand feet deep. The villages are all perched high on the slopes, some
+just under the crest of the ridge, some lower down on a small projecting
+spur of flat ground. Industrious cultivation has cleared away the jungle,
+and the villages stand out conspicuously in the landscape as
+yellowish-brown blotches on the hillsides. Each village is fortified by an
+earthen rampart so thickly overgrown with cactuses and other shrubs as to
+be impenetrable. The only entrance is through a narrow, low and winding
+tunnel, the floor of which, for additional security, is thickly studded
+with pegs to wound the feet of enemies who might attempt to force a way
+in. The Wa depend for their subsistence mainly on their crops of
+buckwheat, beans, and maize; rice they cultivate only to distil a strong
+spirituous liquor from it. They had need be industrious, for no field can
+be reached without a climb up or down the steep mountain-side. Sometimes
+the rice-fields lie three thousand feet or more below the village, and
+they require constant attention. But the chief crop raised by the Wa is
+the poppy, from which they make opium. In February and March the hill-tops
+for miles are white with the blossom, and you may travel for days through
+nothing but fields of poppies. Then, too, is the proper season for
+head-hunting. It opens in March and lasts through April. Parties of
+head-hunters at that time go forth to prowl for human prey. As a rule they
+will not behead people of a neighbouring village nor even of any village
+on the same range of hills. To find victims they go to the next range or
+at any rate to a distance, and the farther the better, for the heads of
+strangers are preferred. The reason is that the ghosts of strangers, being
+unfamiliar with the country, are much less likely to stray away from their
+skulls; hence they make more vigilant sentinels than the ghosts of people
+better acquainted with the neighbourhood, who are apt to go off duty
+without waiting for the tedious formality of relieving guard. When
+head-hunters return to a village with human heads, the rejoicing is
+uproarious. Then the great drum is beaten frantically, and its deep hollow
+boom resounding far and wide through the hills announces to the
+neighbourhood the glad tidings of murder successfully perpetrated. Then
+the barrels, or rather the bamboos, of rice-spirit are tapped, and while
+the genial stream flows and the women and children dance and sing for
+glee, the men drink themselves blind and mad drunk. The ghastly head,
+which forms the centre of all this rejoicing, is first taken to the
+spirit-house, a small shed which usually stands on the highest point of
+the village site. There, wrapt in grass or leaves, it is hung up in a
+basket to ripen and bleach. When all the flesh and sinews have mouldered
+away and nothing remains but the blanched and grinning skull, it is put to
+rest in the village Golgotha. This is an avenue of huge old trees, whose
+interlacing boughs form a verdant archway overhead and, with the dense
+undergrowth, cast a deep shadow on the ground below. Every village has
+such an avenue stretching along the hillside sometimes for a long
+distance, or even till it meets the avenue of the neighbouring village. In
+the solemn gloom of this verdurous canopy is the Place of Skulls. On one
+side of the avenue stands a row of wooden posts, usually mere trunks of
+trees with the bark peeled off, but sometimes rudely carved and painted
+with designs in red and black. A little below the top of each post is cut
+a niche, and in front of the niche is a ledge. On this ledge the skull is
+deposited, sometimes so that it is in full view of passers-by in the
+avenue, sometimes so that it only grins at them through a slit. Most
+villages count their skulls by tens or twenties, but some of them have
+hundreds of these trophies, especially when the avenue forms an unbroken
+continuity of shade between the villages. The old skulls ensure peace to
+the village, but at least one new one should be taken every year, that the
+rice may grow green far down in the depths of the valley, that the maize
+may tinge with its golden hue the steep mountain-sides, and that the
+hilltops may be white for miles and miles with the bloom of the
+poppy.(741)
+
+(M205) The Shans of Indo-China still believe in the efficacy of human
+sacrifice to procure a good harvest, though they act on the belief less
+than some other tribes of this region. Their practice now is to poison
+somebody at the state festival, which is generally held at some time
+between March and May.(742) Among the Lhota Naga, one of the many savage
+tribes who inhabit the deep rugged labyrinthine glens which wind into the
+mountains from the rich valley of Brahmapootra,(743) it used to be a
+common custom to chop off the heads, hands, and feet of people they met
+with, and then to stick up the severed extremities in their fields to
+ensure a good crop of grain. They bore no ill-will whatever to the persons
+upon whom they operated in this unceremonious fashion. Once they flayed a
+boy alive, carved him in pieces, and distributed the flesh among all the
+villagers, who put it into their corn-bins to avert bad luck and ensure
+plentiful crops of grain. The Angami, another tribe of the same region,
+used also to relieve casual passers-by of their heads, hands, and feet,
+with the same excellent intention.(744) The hill tribe Kudulu, near
+Vizagapatam in the Madras Presidency, offered human sacrifices to the god
+Jankari for the purpose of obtaining good crops. The ceremony was
+generally performed on the Sunday before or after the Pongal feast. For
+the most part the victim was purchased, and until the time for the
+sacrifice came he was free to wander about the village, to eat and drink
+what he liked, and even to lie with any woman he met. On the appointed day
+he was carried before the idol drunk; and when one of the villagers had
+cut a hole in his stomach and smeared the blood on the idol, the crowds
+from the neighbouring villages rushed upon him and hacked him to pieces.
+All who were fortunate enough to secure morsels of his flesh carried them
+away and presented them to their village idols.(745) The Gonds of India, a
+Dravidian race, kidnapped Brahman boys, and kept them as victims to be
+sacrificed on various occasions. At sowing and reaping, after a triumphal
+procession, one of the lads was slain by being punctured with a poisoned
+arrow. His blood was then sprinkled over the ploughed field or the ripe
+crop, and his flesh was devoured.(746) The Oraons or Uraons of Chota
+Nagpur worship a goddess called Anna Kuari, who can give good crops and
+make a man rich, but to induce her to do so it is necessary to offer human
+sacrifices. In spite of the vigilance of the British Government these
+sacrifices are said to be still secretly perpetrated. The victims are poor
+waifs and strays whose disappearance attracts no notice. April and May are
+the months when the catchpoles are out on the prowl. At that time
+strangers will not go about the country alone, and parents will not let
+their children enter the jungle or herd the cattle. When a catchpole has
+found a victim, he cuts his throat and carries away the upper part of the
+ring finger and the nose. The goddess takes up her abode in the house of
+any man who has offered her a sacrifice, and from that time his fields
+yield a double harvest. The form she assumes in the house is that of a
+small child. When the householder brings in his unhusked rice, he takes
+the goddess and rolls her over the heap to double its size. But she soon
+grows restless and can only be pacified with the blood of fresh human
+victims.(747)
+
+(M206) But the best known case of human sacrifices, systematically offered
+to ensure good crops, is supplied by the Khonds or Kandhs, another
+Dravidian race in Bengal. Our knowledge of them is derived from the
+accounts written by British officers who, about the middle of the
+nineteenth century, were engaged in putting them down.(748) The sacrifices
+were offered to the Earth Goddess, Tari Pennu or Bera Pennu, and were
+believed to ensure good crops and immunity from all disease and accidents.
+In particular, they were considered necessary in the cultivation of
+turmeric, the Khonds arguing that the turmeric could not have a deep red
+colour without the shedding of blood.(749) The victim or Meriah, as he was
+called, was acceptable to the goddess only if he had been purchased, or
+had been born a victim--that is, the son of a victim father, or had been
+devoted as a child by his father or guardian. Khonds in distress often
+sold their children for victims, "considering the beatification of their
+souls certain, and their death, for the benefit of mankind, the most
+honourable possible." A man of the Panua tribe was once seen to load a
+Khond with curses, and finally to spit in his face, because the Khond had
+sold for a victim his own child, whom the Panua had wished to marry. A
+party of Khonds, who saw this, immediately pressed forward to comfort the
+seller of his child, saying, "Your child has died that all the world may
+live, and the Earth Goddess herself will wipe that spittle from your
+face."(750) The victims were often kept for years before they were
+sacrificed. Being regarded as consecrated beings, they were treated with
+extreme affection, mingled with deference, and were welcomed wherever they
+went. A Meriah youth, on attaining maturity, was generally given a wife,
+who was herself usually a Meriah or victim; and with her he received a
+portion of land and farm-stock. Their offspring were also victims. Human
+sacrifices were offered to the Earth Goddess by tribes, branches of
+tribes, or villages, both at periodical festivals and on extraordinary
+occasions. The periodical sacrifices were generally so arranged by tribes
+and divisions of tribes that each head of a family was enabled, at least
+once a year, to procure a shred of flesh for his fields, generally about
+the time when his chief crop was laid down.(751)
+
+(M207) The mode of performing these tribal sacrifices was as follows. Ten
+or twelve days before the sacrifice, the victim was devoted by cutting off
+his hair, which, until then, had been kept unshorn. Crowds of men and
+women assembled to witness the sacrifice; none might be excluded, since
+the sacrifice was declared to be for all mankind. It was preceded by
+several days of wild revelry and gross debauchery.(752) On the day before
+the sacrifice the victim, dressed in a new garment, was led forth from the
+village in solemn procession, with music and dancing, to the Meriah grove,
+a clump of high forest trees standing a little way from the village and
+untouched by the axe. There they tied him to a post, which was sometimes
+placed between two plants of the sankissar shrub. He was then anointed
+with oil, ghee, and turmeric, and adorned with flowers; and "a species of
+reverence, which it is not easy to distinguish from adoration," was paid
+to him throughout the day. A great struggle now arose to obtain the
+smallest relic from his person; a particle of the turmeric paste with
+which he was smeared, or a drop of his spittle, was esteemed of sovereign
+virtue, especially by the women.(753) The crowd danced round the post to
+music, and, addressing the earth, said, "O God, we offer this sacrifice to
+you; give us good crops, seasons, and health"; then speaking to the victim
+they said, "We bought you with a price, and did not seize you; now we
+sacrifice you according to custom, and no sin rests with us."(754)
+
+(M208) On the last morning the orgies, which had been scarcely interrupted
+during the night, were resumed, and continued till noon, when they ceased,
+and the assembly proceeded to consummate the sacrifice. The victim was
+again anointed with oil, and each person touched the anointed part, and
+wiped the oil on his own head. In some places they took the victim in
+procession round the village, from door to door, where some plucked hair
+from his head, and others begged for a drop of his spittle, with which
+they anointed their heads.(755) As the victim might not be bound nor make
+any show of resistance, the bones of his arms and, if necessary, his legs
+were broken; but often this precaution was rendered unnecessary by
+stupefying him with opium.(756) The mode of putting him to death varied in
+different places. One of the commonest modes seems to have been
+strangulation, or squeezing to death. The branch of a green tree was cleft
+several feet down the middle; the victim's neck (in other places, his
+chest) was inserted in the cleft, which the priest, aided by his
+assistants, strove with all his force to close.(757) Then he wounded the
+victim slightly with his axe, whereupon the crowd rushed at the wretch and
+hewed the flesh from the bones, leaving the head and bowels untouched.
+Sometimes he was cut up alive.(758) In Chinna Kimedy he was dragged along
+the fields, surrounded by the crowd, who, avoiding his head and
+intestines, hacked the flesh from his body with their knives till he
+died.(759) Another very common mode of sacrifice in the same district was
+to fasten the victim to the proboscis of a wooden elephant, which revolved
+on a stout post, and, as it whirled round, the crowd cut the flesh from
+the victim while life remained. In some villages Major Campbell found as
+many as fourteen of these wooden elephants, which had been used at
+sacrifices.(760) In one district the victim was put to death slowly by
+fire. A low stage was formed, sloping on either side like a roof; upon it
+they laid the victim, his limbs wound round with cords to confine his
+struggles. Fires were then lighted and hot brands applied, to make him
+roll up and down the slopes of the stage as long as possible; for the more
+tears he shed the more abundant would be the supply of rain. Next day the
+body was cut to pieces.(761)
+
+(M209) The flesh cut from the victim was instantly taken home by the
+persons who had been deputed by each village to bring it. To secure its
+rapid arrival, it was sometimes forwarded by relays of men, and conveyed
+with postal fleetness fifty or sixty miles.(762) In each village all who
+stayed at home fasted rigidly until the flesh arrived. The bearer
+deposited it in the place of public assembly, where it was received by the
+priest and the heads of families. The priest divided it into two portions,
+one of which he offered to the Earth Goddess by burying it in a hole in
+the ground with his back turned, and without looking. Then each man added
+a little earth to bury it, and the priest poured water on the spot from a
+hill gourd. The other portion of flesh he divided into as many shares as
+there were heads of houses present. Each head of a house rolled his shred
+of flesh in leaves, and buried it in his favourite field, placing it in
+the earth behind his back without looking.(763) In some places each man
+carried his portion of flesh to the stream which watered his fields, and
+there hung it on a pole.(764) For three days thereafter no house was
+swept; and, in one district, strict silence was observed, no fire might be
+given out, no wood cut, and no strangers received. The remains of the
+human victim (namely, the head, bowels, and bones) were watched by strong
+parties the night after the sacrifice; and next morning they were burned,
+along with a whole sheep, on a funeral pile. The ashes were scattered over
+the fields, laid as paste over the houses and granaries, or mixed with the
+new corn to preserve it from insects.(765) Sometimes, however, the head
+and bones were buried, not burnt.(766) After the suppression of the human
+sacrifices, inferior victims were substituted in some places; for
+instance, in the capital of Chinna Kimedy a goat took the place of a human
+victim.(767) Others sacrifice a buffalo. They tie it to a wooden post in a
+sacred grove, dance wildly round it with brandished knives, then, falling
+on the living animal, hack it to shreds and tatters in a few minutes,
+fighting and struggling with each other for every particle of flesh. As
+soon as a man has secured a piece he makes off with it at full speed to
+bury it in his fields, according to ancient custom, before the sun has
+set, and as some of them have far to go they must run very fast. All the
+women throw clods of earth at the rapidly retreating figures of the men,
+some of them taking very good aim. Soon the sacred grove, so lately a
+scene of tumult, is silent and deserted except for a few people who remain
+to guard all that is left of the buffalo, to wit, the head, the bones, and
+the stomach, which are burned with ceremony at the foot of the stake.(768)
+
+(M210) In these Khond sacrifices the Meriahs are represented by our
+authorities as victims offered to propitiate the Earth Goddess. But from
+the treatment of the victims both before and after death it appears that
+the custom cannot be explained as merely a propitiatory sacrifice. A part
+of the flesh certainly was offered to the Earth Goddess, but the rest was
+buried by each householder in his fields, and the ashes of the other parts
+of the body were scattered over the fields, laid as paste on the
+granaries, or mixed with the new corn. These latter customs imply that to
+the body of the Meriah there was ascribed a direct or intrinsic power of
+making the crops to grow, quite independent of the indirect efficacy which
+it might have as an offering to secure the good-will of the deity. In
+other words, the flesh and ashes of the victim were believed to be endowed
+with a magical or physical power of fertilising the land. The same
+intrinsic power was ascribed to the blood and tears of the Meriah, his
+blood causing the redness of the turmeric and his tears producing rain;
+for it can hardly be doubted that, originally at least, the tears were
+supposed to bring down the rain, not merely to prognosticate it. Similarly
+the custom of pouring water on the buried flesh of the Meriah was no doubt
+a rain-charm. Again, magical power as an attribute of the Meriah appears
+in the sovereign virtue believed to reside in anything that came from his
+person, as his hair or spittle. The ascription of such power to the Meriah
+indicates that he was much more than a mere man sacrificed to propitiate a
+deity. Once more, the extreme reverence paid him points to the same
+conclusion. Major Campbell speaks of the Meriah as "being regarded as
+something more than mortal,"(769) and Major Macpherson says, "A species of
+reverence, which it is not easy to distinguish from adoration, is paid to
+him."(770) In short, the Meriah seems to have been regarded as divine. As
+such, he may originally have represented the Earth Goddess or, perhaps, a
+deity of vegetation; though in later times he came to be regarded rather
+as a victim offered to a deity than as himself an incarnate god. This
+later view of the Meriah as a victim rather than a divinity may perhaps
+have received undue emphasis from the European writers who have described
+the Khond religion. Habituated to the later idea of sacrifice as an
+offering made to a god for the purpose of conciliating his favour,
+European observers are apt to interpret all religious slaughter in this
+sense, and to suppose that wherever such slaughter takes place, there must
+necessarily be a deity to whom the carnage is believed by the slayers to
+be acceptable. Thus their preconceived ideas may unconsciously colour and
+warp their descriptions of savage rites.
+
+(M211) The same custom of killing the representative of a god, of which
+strong traces appear in the Khond sacrifices, may perhaps be detected in
+some of the other human sacrifices described above. Thus the ashes of the
+slaughtered Marimo were scattered over the fields; the blood of the
+Brahman lad was put on the crop and field; the flesh of the slain Naga was
+stowed in the corn-bin; and the blood of the Sioux girl was allowed to
+trickle on the seed.(771) Again, the identification of the victim with the
+corn, in other words, the view that he is an embodiment or spirit of the
+corn, is brought out in the pains which seem to be taken to secure a
+physical correspondence between him and the natural object which he
+embodies or represents. Thus the Mexicans killed young victims for the
+young corn and old ones for the ripe corn; the Marimos sacrifice, as
+"seed," a short, fat man, the shortness of his stature corresponding to
+that of the young corn, his fatness to the condition which it is desired
+that the crops may attain; and the Pawnees fattened their victims probably
+with the same view. Again, the identification of the victim with the corn
+comes out in the African custom of killing him with spades and hoes, and
+the Mexican custom of grinding him, like corn, between two stones.
+
+One more point in these savage customs deserves to be noted. The Pawnee
+chief devoured the heart of the Sioux girl, and the Marimos and Gonds ate
+the victim's flesh. If, as we suppose, the victim was regarded as divine,
+it follows that in eating his flesh his worshippers believed themselves to
+be partaking of the body of their god.
+
+
+
+
+§ 4. The Corn-spirit slain in his Human Representatives.
+
+
+(M212) The barbarous rites just described offer analogies to the harvest
+customs of Europe. Thus the fertilising virtue ascribed to the corn-spirit
+is shewn equally in the savage custom of mixing the victim's blood or
+ashes with the seed-corn and the European custom of mixing the grain from
+the last sheaf with the young corn in spring.(772) Again, the
+identification of the person with the corn appears alike in the savage
+custom of adapting the age and stature of the victim to the age and
+stature, whether actual or expected, of the crop; in the Scotch and
+Styrian rules that when the corn-spirit is conceived as the Maiden the
+last corn shall be cut by a young maiden, but when it is conceived as the
+Corn-mother it shall be cut by an old woman;(773) in the Lothringian
+warning given to old women to save themselves when the Old Woman is being
+killed, that is, when the last corn is being threshed;(774) and in the
+Tyrolese expectation that if the man who gives the last stroke at
+threshing is tall, the next year's corn will be tall also.(775) Further,
+the same identification is implied in the savage custom of killing the
+representative of the corn-spirit with hoes or spades or by grinding him
+between stones, and in the European custom of pretending to kill him with
+the scythe or the flail. Once more the Khond custom of pouring water on
+the buried flesh of the victim is parallel to the European customs of
+pouring water on the personal representative of the corn-spirit or
+plunging him into a stream.(776) Both the Khond and the European customs
+are rain-charms.
+
+(M213) To return now to the Lityerses story. It has been shewn that in
+rude society human beings have been commonly killed to promote the growth
+of the crops. There is therefore no improbability in the supposition that
+they may once have been killed for a like purpose in Phrygia and Europe;
+and when Phrygian legend and European folk-custom, closely agreeing with
+each other, point to the conclusion that men were so slain, we are bound,
+provisionally at least, to accept the conclusion. Further, both the
+Lityerses story and European harvest-customs agree in indicating that the
+victim was put to death as a representative of the corn-spirit, and this
+indication is in harmony with the view which some savages appear to take
+of the victim slain to make the crops flourish. On the whole, then, we may
+fairly suppose that both in Phrygia and in Europe the representative of
+the corn-spirit was annually killed upon the harvest-field. Grounds have
+been already shewn for believing that similarly in Europe the
+representative of the tree-spirit was annually slain. The proofs of these
+two remarkable and closely analogous customs are entirely independent of
+each other. Their coincidence seems to furnish fresh presumption in favour
+of both.
+
+(M214) To the question, How was the representative of the corn-spirit
+chosen? one answer has been already given. Both the Lityerses story and
+European folk-custom shew that passing strangers were regarded as
+manifestations of the corn-spirit escaping from the cut or threshed corn,
+and as such were seized and slain. But this is not the only answer which
+the evidence suggests. According to the Phrygian legend the victims of
+Lityerses were not simply passing strangers, but persons whom he had
+vanquished in a reaping contest and afterwards wrapt up in corn-sheaves
+and beheaded.(777) This suggests that the representative of the
+corn-spirit may have been selected by means of a competition on the
+harvest-field, in which the vanquished competitor was compelled to accept
+the fatal honour. The supposition is countenanced by European
+harvest-customs. We have seen that in Europe there is sometimes a contest
+amongst the reapers to avoid being last, and that the person who is
+vanquished in this competition, that is, who cuts the last corn, is often
+roughly handled. It is true we have not found that a pretence is made of
+killing him; but on the other hand we have found that a pretence is made
+of killing the man who gives the last stroke at threshing, that is, who is
+vanquished in the threshing contest.(778) Now, since it is in the
+character of representative of the corn-spirit that the thresher of the
+last corn is slain in mimicry, and since the same representative character
+attaches (as we have seen) to the cutter and binder as well as to the
+thresher of the last corn, and since the same repugnance is evinced by
+harvesters to be last in any one of these labours, we may conjecture that
+a pretence has been commonly made of killing the reaper and binder as well
+as the thresher of the last corn, and that in ancient times this killing
+was actually carried out. This conjecture is corroborated by the common
+superstition that whoever cuts the last corn must die soon.(779) Sometimes
+it is thought that the person who binds the last sheaf on the field will
+die in the course of next year.(780) The reason for fixing on the reaper,
+binder, or thresher of the last corn as the representative of the
+corn-spirit may be this. The corn-spirit is supposed to lurk as long as he
+can in the corn, retreating before the reapers, the binders, and the
+threshers at their work. But when he is forcibly expelled from his refuge
+in the last corn cut or the last sheaf bound or the last grain threshed,
+he necessarily assumes some other form than that of the corn-stalks which
+had hitherto been his garment or body. And what form can the expelled
+corn-spirit assume more naturally than that of the person who stands
+nearest to the corn from which he (the corn-spirit) has just been
+expelled? But the person in question is necessarily the reaper, binder, or
+thresher of the last corn. He or she, therefore, is seized and treated as
+the corn-spirit himself.
+
+(M215) Thus the person who was killed on the harvest-field as the
+representative of the corn-spirit may have been either a passing stranger
+or the harvester who was last at reaping, binding, or threshing. But there
+is a third possibility, to which ancient legend and modern folk-custom
+alike point. Lityerses not only put strangers to death; he was himself
+slain, and apparently in the same way as he had slain others, namely, by
+being wrapt in a corn-sheaf, beheaded, and cast into the river; and it is
+implied that this happened to Lityerses on his own land.(781) Similarly in
+modern harvest-customs the pretence of killing appears to be carried out
+quite as often on the person of the master (farmer or squire) as on that
+of strangers.(782) Now when we remember that Lityerses was said to have
+been a son of the King of Phrygia, and that in one account he is himself
+called a king, and when we combine with this the tradition that he was put
+to death, apparently as a representative of the corn-spirit, we are led to
+conjecture that we have here another trace of the custom of annually
+slaying one of those divine or priestly kings who are known to have held
+ghostly sway in many parts of Western Asia and particularly in Phrygia.
+The custom appears, as we have seen,(783) to have been so far modified in
+places that the king's son was slain in the king's stead. Of the custom
+thus modified the story of Lityerses would be, in one version at least, a
+reminiscence.
+
+(M216) Turning now to the relation of the Phrygian Lityerses to the
+Phrygian Attis, it may be remembered that at Pessinus--the seat of a
+priestly kingship--the high-priest appears to have been annually slain in
+the character of Attis, a god of vegetation, and that Attis was described
+by an ancient authority as "a reaped ear of corn."(784) Thus Attis, as an
+embodiment of the corn-spirit, annually slain in the person of his
+representative, might be thought to be ultimately identical with
+Lityerses, the latter being simply the rustic prototype out of which the
+state religion of Attis was developed. It may have been so; but, on the
+other hand, the analogy of European folk-custom warns us that amongst the
+same people two distinct deities of vegetation may have their separate
+personal representatives, both of whom are slain in the character of gods
+at different times of the year. For in Europe, as we have seen, it appears
+that one man was commonly slain in the character of the tree-spirit in
+spring, and another in the character of the corn-spirit in autumn. It may
+have been so in Phrygia also. Attis was especially a tree-god, and his
+connexion with corn may have been only such an extension of the power of a
+tree-spirit as is indicated in customs like the Harvest-May.(785) Again,
+the representative of Attis appears to have been slain in spring; whereas
+Lityerses must have been slain in summer or autumn, according to the time
+of the harvest in Phrygia.(786) On the whole, then, while we are not
+justified in regarding Lityerses as the prototype of Attis, the two may be
+regarded as parallel products of the same religious idea, and may have
+stood to each other as in Europe the Old Man of harvest stands to the Wild
+Man, the Leaf Man, and so forth, of spring. Both were spirits or deities
+of vegetation, and the personal representatives of both were annually
+slain. But whereas the Attis worship became elevated into the dignity of a
+State religion and spread to Italy, the rites of Lityerses seem never to
+have passed the limits of their native Phrygia, and always retained their
+character of rustic ceremonies performed by peasants on the harvest-field.
+At most a few villages may have clubbed together, as amongst the Khonds,
+to procure a human victim to be slain as representative of the corn-spirit
+for their common benefit. Such victims may have been drawn from the
+families of priestly kings or kinglets, which would account for the
+legendary character of Lityerses as the son of a Phrygian king or as
+himself a king. When villages did not so club together, each village or
+farm may have procured its own representative of the corn-spirit by
+dooming to death either a passing stranger or the harvester who cut,
+bound, or threshed the last sheaf. Perhaps in the olden time the practice
+of head-hunting as a means of promoting the growth of the corn may have
+been as common among the rude inhabitants of Europe and Western Asia as it
+still is, or was till lately, among the primitive agricultural tribes of
+Assam, Burma, the Philippine Islands, and the Indian Archipelago.(787) It
+is hardly necessary to add that in Phrygia, as in Europe, the old
+barbarous custom of killing a man on the harvest-field or the
+threshing-floor had doubtless passed into a mere pretence long before the
+classical era, and was probably regarded by the reapers and threshers
+themselves as no more than a rough jest which the license of a
+harvest-home permitted them to play off on a passing stranger, a comrade,
+or even on their master himself.(788)
+
+(M217) I have dwelt on the Lityerses song at length because it affords so
+many points of comparison with European and savage folk-custom. The other
+harvest songs of Western Asia and Egypt, to which attention has been
+called above,(789) may now be dismissed much more briefly. The similarity
+of the Bithynian Bormus(790) to the Phrygian Lityerses helps to bear out
+the interpretation which has been given of the latter. Bormus, whose death
+or rather disappearance was annually mourned by the reapers in a plaintive
+song, was, like Lityerses, a king's son or at least the son of a wealthy
+and distinguished man. The reapers whom he watched were at work on his own
+fields, and he disappeared in going to fetch water for them; according to
+one version of the story he was carried off by the nymphs, doubtless the
+nymphs of the spring or pool or river whither he went to draw water.(791)
+Viewed in the light of the Lityerses story and of European folk-custom,
+this disappearance of Bormus may be a reminiscence of the custom of
+binding the farmer himself in a corn-sheaf and throwing him into the
+water. The mournful strain which the reapers sang was probably a
+lamentation over the death of the corn-spirit, slain either in the cut
+corn or in the person of a human representative; and the call which they
+addressed to him may have been a prayer that he might return in fresh
+vigour next year.
+
+(M218) The Phoenician Linus song was sung at the vintage, at least in the
+west of Asia Minor, as we learn from Homer; and this, combined with the
+legend of Syleus, suggests that in ancient times passing strangers were
+handled by vintagers and vine-diggers in much the same way as they are
+said to have been handled by the reaper Lityerses. The Lydian Syleus, so
+ran the legend, compelled passers-by to dig for him in his vineyard, till
+Hercules came and killed him and dug up his vines by the roots.(792) This
+seems to be the outline of a legend like that of Lityerses; but neither
+ancient writers nor modern folk-custom enable us to fill in the
+details.(793) But, further, the Linus song was probably sung also by
+Phoenician reapers, for Herodotus compares it to the Maneros song, which,
+as we have seen, was a lament raised by Egyptian reapers over the cut
+corn. Further, Linus was identified with Adonis, and Adonis has some
+claims to be regarded as especially a corn-deity.(794) Thus the Linus
+lament, as sung at harvest, would be identical with the Adonis lament;
+each would be the lamentation raised by reapers over the dead spirit of
+the corn. But whereas Adonis, like Attis, grew into a stately figure of
+mythology, adored and mourned in splendid cities far beyond the limits of
+his Phoenician home, Linus appears to have remained a simple ditty sung by
+reapers and vintagers among the corn-sheaves and the vines. The analogy of
+Lityerses and of folk-custom, both European and savage, suggests that in
+Phoenicia the slain corn-spirit--the dead Adonis--may formerly have been
+represented by a human victim; and this suggestion is possibly supported
+by the Harran legend that Tammuz (Adonis) was slain by his cruel lord, who
+ground his bones in a mill and scattered them to the wind. For in Mexico,
+as we have seen, the human victim at harvest was crushed between two
+stones; and both in Africa and India the ashes or other remains of the
+victim were scattered over the fields.(795) But the Harran legend may be
+only a mythical way of expressing the grinding of corn in the mill and the
+scattering of the seed. It seems worth suggesting that the mock king who
+was annually killed at the Babylonian festival of the Sacaea on the
+sixteenth day of the month Lous may have represented Tammuz himself. For
+the historian Berosus, who records the festival and its date, probably
+used the Macedonian calendar, since he dedicated his history to Antiochus
+Soter; and in his day the Macedonian month Lous appears to have
+corresponded to the Babylonian month Tammuz.(796) If this conjecture is
+right, the view that the mock king at the Sacaea was slain in the
+character of a god would be established. But to this point we shall return
+later on.
+
+(M219) There is a good deal more evidence that in Egypt the slain
+corn-spirit--the dead Osiris--was represented by a human victim, whom the
+reapers slew on the harvest-field, mourning his death in a dirge, to which
+the Greeks, through a verbal misunderstanding, gave the name of
+Maneros.(797) For the legend of Busiris seems to preserve a reminiscence
+of human sacrifices once offered by the Egyptians in connexion with the
+worship of Osiris. Busiris was said to have been an Egyptian king who
+sacrificed all strangers on the altar of Zeus. The origin of the custom
+was traced to a dearth which afflicted the land of Egypt for nine years. A
+Cyprian seer informed Busiris that the dearth would cease if a man were
+annually sacrificed to Zeus. So Busiris instituted the sacrifice. But when
+Hercules came to Egypt, and was being dragged to the altar to be
+sacrificed, he burst his bonds and slew Busiris and his son.(798) Here
+then is a legend that in Egypt a human victim was annually sacrificed to
+prevent the failure of the crops, and a belief is implied that an omission
+of the sacrifice would have entailed a recurrence of that infertility
+which it was the object of the sacrifice to prevent. So the Pawnees, as we
+have seen, believed that an omission of the human sacrifice at planting
+would have been followed by a total failure of their crops. The name
+Busiris was in reality the name of a city, _pe-Asar_, "the house of
+Osiris,"(799) the city being so called because it contained the grave of
+Osiris. Indeed some high modern authorities believe that Busiris was the
+original home of Osiris, from which his worship spread to other parts of
+Egypt.(800) The human sacrifices were said to have been offered at his
+grave, and the victims were red-haired men, whose ashes were scattered
+abroad by means of winnowing-fans.(801) This tradition of human sacrifices
+offered at the tomb of Osiris is confirmed by the evidence of the
+monuments; for "we find in the temple of Dendereh a human figure with a
+hare's head and pierced with knives, tied to a stake before Osiris
+Khenti-Amentiu, and Horus is shown in a Ptolemaic sculpture at Karnak
+killing a bound hare-headed figure before the bier of Osiris, who is
+represented in the form of Harpocrates. That these figures are really
+human beings with the head of an animal fastened on is proved by another
+sculpture at Dendereh, where a kneeling man has the hawk's head and wings
+over his head and shoulders, and in another place a priest has the
+jackal's head on his shoulders, his own head appearing through the
+disguise. Besides, Diodorus tells us that the Egyptian kings in former
+times had worn on their heads the fore-part of a lion, or of a bull, or of
+a dragon, showing that this method of disguise or transformation was a
+well-known custom."(802)
+
+(M220) In the light of the foregoing discussion the Egyptian tradition of
+Busiris admits of a consistent and fairly probable explanation. Osiris,
+the corn-spirit, was annually represented at harvest by a stranger, whose
+red hair made him a suitable representative of the ripe corn. This man, in
+his representative character, was slain on the harvest-field, and mourned
+by the reapers, who prayed at the same time that the corn-spirit might
+revive and return (_maa-ne-rha_, Maneros) with renewed vigour in the
+following year. Finally, the victim, or some part of him, was burned, and
+the ashes scattered by winnowing-fans over the fields to fertilise them.
+Here the choice of the victim on the ground of his resemblance to the corn
+which he was to represent agrees with the Mexican and African customs
+already described.(803) Similarly the woman who died in the character of
+the Corn-mother at the Mexican midsummer sacrifice had her face painted
+red and yellow in token of the colours of the corn, and she wore a
+pasteboard mitre surmounted by waving plumes in imitation of the tassel of
+the maize.(804) On the other hand, at the festival of the Goddess of the
+White Maize the Mexicans sacrificed lepers.(805) The Romans sacrificed
+red-haired puppies in spring to avert the supposed blighting influence of
+the Dog-star, believing that the crops would thus grow ripe and
+ruddy.(806) The heathen of Harran offered to the sun, moon, and planets
+human victims who were chosen on the ground of their supposed resemblance
+to the heavenly bodies to which they were sacrificed; for example, the
+priests, clothed in red and smeared with blood, offered a red-haired,
+red-cheeked man to "the red planet Mars" in a temple which was painted red
+and draped with red hangings.(807) These and the like cases of
+assimilating the victim to the god, or to the natural phenomenon which he
+represents, are based ultimately on the principle of homoeopathic or
+imitative magic, the notion being that the object aimed at will be most
+readily attained by means of a sacrifice which resembles the effect that
+it is designed to bring about.
+
+(M221) Again, the scattering of the Egyptian victim's ashes over the
+fields resembles the Marimo and Khond custom,(808) and the use of
+winnowing-fans for the purpose is another hint of his identification with
+the corn. So in Vendee a pretence is made of threshing and winnowing the
+farmer's wife, regarded as an embodiment of the corn-spirit; in Mexico the
+victim was ground between stones; and in Africa he was slain with spades
+and hoes.(809) The story that the fragments of Osiris's body were
+scattered up and down the land, and buried by Isis on the spots where they
+lay,(810) may very well be a reminiscence of a custom, like that observed
+by the Khonds, of dividing the human victim in pieces and burying the
+pieces, often at intervals of many miles from each other, in the
+fields.(811) However, it is possible that the story of the dismemberment
+of Osiris, like the similar story told of Tammuz, may have been simply a
+mythical expression for the scattering of the seed. Once more, the legend
+that the body of Osiris enclosed in a coffer was thrown by Typhon into the
+Nile, perhaps points to a custom of casting the body of the victim, or at
+least a portion of it, into the Nile as a rain-charm, or rather to make
+the river rise. For a similar purpose Phrygian reapers seem to have flung
+the headless bodies of their victims, wrapt in corn-sheaves, into a river,
+and the Khonds poured water on the buried flesh of the human victim.
+Probably when Osiris ceased to be represented by a human victim, an image
+of him was annually thrown into the Nile, just as the effigy of his Syrian
+counterpart, Adonis, used to be cast into the sea at Alexandria. Or water
+may have been simply poured over it, as on the monument already
+mentioned(812) a priest is seen pouring water over the body of Osiris,
+from which corn-stalks are sprouting. The accompanying legend, "This is
+Osiris of the mysteries, who springs from the returning waters," bears out
+the view that at the mysteries of Osiris a charm to make rain fall or the
+river rise was regularly wrought by pouring water on his effigy or
+flinging it into the Nile.
+
+(M222) It may be objected that the red-haired victims were slain as
+representatives, not of Osiris, but of his enemy Typhon; for the victims
+were called Typhonian, and red was the colour of Typhon, black the colour
+of Osiris.(813) The answer to this objection must be reserved for the
+present. Meantime it may be pointed out that if Osiris is often
+represented on the monuments as black, he is still more commonly depicted
+as green,(814) appropriately enough for a corn-god, who may be conceived
+as black while the seed is under ground, but as green after it has
+sprouted. So the Greeks recognised both a Green and a Black Demeter,(815)
+and sacrificed to the Green Demeter in spring with mirth and
+gladness.(816)
+
+(M223) Thus, if I am right, the key to the mysteries of Osiris is
+furnished by the melancholy cry of the Egyptian reapers, which down to
+Roman times could be heard year after year sounding across the fields,
+announcing the death of the corn-spirit, the rustic prototype of Osiris.
+Similar cries, as we have seen, were also heard on all the harvest-fields
+of Western Asia. By the ancients they are spoken of as songs; but to judge
+from the analysis of the names Linus and Maneros, they probably consisted
+only of a few words uttered in a prolonged musical note which could be
+heard for a great distance. Such sonorous and long-drawn cries, raised by
+a number of strong voices in concert, must have had a striking effect, and
+could hardly fail to arrest the attention of any wayfarer who happened to
+be within hearing. The sounds, repeated again and again, could probably be
+distinguished with tolerable ease even at a distance; but to a Greek
+traveller in Asia or Egypt the foreign words would commonly convey no
+meaning, and he might take them, not unnaturally, for the name of some one
+(Maneros, Linus, Lityerses, Bormus) upon whom the reapers were calling.
+And if his journey led him through more countries than one, as Bithynia
+and Phrygia, or Phoenicia and Egypt, while the corn was being reaped, he
+would have an opportunity of comparing the various harvest cries of the
+different peoples. Thus we can readily understand why these harvest cries
+were so often noted and compared with each other by the Greeks. Whereas,
+if they had been regular songs, they could not have been heard at such
+distances, and therefore could not have attracted the attention of so many
+travellers; and, moreover, even if the wayfarer were within hearing of
+them, he could not so easily have picked out the words.
+
+(M224) Down to recent times Devonshire reapers uttered cries of the same
+sort, and performed on the field a ceremony exactly analogous to that in
+which, if I am not mistaken, the rites of Osiris originated. The cry and
+the ceremony are thus described by an observer who wrote in the first half
+of the nineteenth century. "After the wheat is all cut, on most farms in
+the north of Devon, the harvest people have a custom of 'crying the neck.'
+I believe that this practice is seldom omitted on any large farm in that
+part of the country. It is done in this way. An old man, or some one else
+well acquainted with the ceremonies used on the occasion (when the
+labourers are reaping the last field of wheat), goes round to the shocks
+and sheaves, and picks out a little bundle of all the best ears he can
+find; this bundle he ties up very neat and trim, and plats and arranges
+the straws very tastefully. This is called 'the neck' of wheat, or
+wheaten-ears. After the field is cut out, and the pitcher once more
+circulated, the reapers, binders, and the women stand round in a circle.
+The person with 'the neck' stands in the centre, grasping it with both his
+hands. He first stoops and holds it near the ground, and all the men
+forming the ring take off their hats, stooping and holding them with both
+hands towards the ground. They then all begin at once in a very prolonged
+and harmonious tone to cry 'The neck!' at the same time slowly raising
+themselves upright, and elevating their arms and hats above their heads;
+the person with 'the neck' also raising it on high. This is done three
+times. They then change their cry to 'Wee yen!'--'Way yen!'--which they
+sound in the same prolonged and slow manner as before, with singular
+harmony and effect, three times. This last cry is accompanied by the same
+movements of the body and arms as in crying 'the neck.'... After having
+thus repeated 'the neck' three times, and 'wee yen,' or 'way yen' as
+often, they all burst out into a kind of loud and joyous laugh, flinging
+up their hats and caps into the air, capering about and perhaps kissing
+the girls. One of them then gets 'the neck' and runs as hard as he can
+down to the farmhouse, where the dairymaid, or one of the young female
+domestics, stands at the door prepared with a pail of water. If he who
+holds 'the neck' can manage to get into the house, in any way unseen, or
+openly, by any other way than the door at which the girl stands with the
+pail of water, then he may lawfully kiss her; but, if otherwise, he is
+regularly soused with the contents of the bucket. On a fine still autumn
+evening the 'crying of the neck' has a wonderful effect at a distance, far
+finer than that of the Turkish muezzin, which Lord Byron eulogises so
+much, and which he says is preferable to all the bells in Christendom. I
+have once or twice heard upwards of twenty men cry it, and sometimes
+joined by an equal number of female voices. About three years back, on
+some high grounds, where our people were harvesting, I heard six or seven
+'necks' cried in one night, although I know that some of them were four
+miles off. They are heard through the quiet evening air at a considerable
+distance sometimes."(817) Again, Mrs. Bray tells how, travelling in
+Devonshire, "she saw a party of reapers standing in a circle on a rising
+ground, holding their sickles aloft. One in the middle held up some ears
+of corn tied together with flowers, and the party shouted three times
+(what she writes as) 'Arnack, arnack, arnack, we _haven_, we _haven_, we
+_haven_.' They went home, accompanied by women and children carrying
+boughs of flowers, shouting and singing. The manservant who attended Mrs.
+Bray said 'it was only the people making their games, as they always did,
+_to the spirit of harvest_.' "(818) Here, as Miss Burne remarks,
+" 'arnack, we haven!' is obviously in the Devon dialect, 'a neck (or
+nack)! we have un!' " "The neck" is generally hung up in the farmhouse,
+where it sometimes remains for two or three years.(819) A similar custom
+is still observed in some parts of Cornwall, as I was told by my lamented
+friend J. H. Middleton. "The last sheaf is decked with ribbons. Two
+strong-voiced men are chosen and placed (one with the sheaf) on opposite
+sides of a valley. One shouts, 'I've gotten it.' The other shouts, 'What
+hast gotten?' The first answers, 'I'se gotten the neck.' "(820)
+
+(M225) Another account of this old custom, written at Truro in 1839, runs
+thus: "Now, when all the corn was cut at Heligan, the farming men and
+maidens come in front of the house, and bring with them a small sheaf of
+corn, the last that has been cut, and this is adorned with ribbons and
+flowers, and one part is tied quite tight, so as to look like a neck. Then
+they cry out 'Our (my) side, my side,' as loud as they can; then the
+dairymaid gives the neck to the head farming-man. He takes it, and says,
+very loudly three times, 'I have him, I have him, I have him.' Then
+another farming-man shouts very loudly, 'What have ye? what have ye? what
+have ye?' Then the first says, 'A neck, a neck, a neck.' And when he has
+said this, all the people make a very great shouting. This they do three
+times, and after one famous shout go away and eat supper, and dance, and
+sing songs."(821) According to another account, "all went out to the field
+when the last corn was cut, the 'neck' was tied with ribbons and plaited,
+and they danced round it, and carried it to the great kitchen, where
+by-and-by the supper was. The words were as given in the previous account,
+and 'Hip, hip, hack, heck, I have 'ee, I have 'ee, I have 'ee.' It was
+hung up in the hall." Another account relates that one of the men rushed
+from the field with the last sheaf, while the rest pursued him with
+vessels of water, which they tried to throw over the sheaf before it could
+be brought into the barn.(822)
+
+(M226) Similar customs appear to have been formerly observed in
+Pembrokeshire, as appears from the following account, in which, however,
+nothing is said of the sonorous cries raised by the reapers when their
+work was done: "At harvest-time, in South Pembrokeshire, the last ears of
+corn left standing in the field were tied together, and the harvesters
+then tried to cut this neck by throwing their hatchets at it. What
+happened afterwards appears to have varied somewhat. I have been told by
+one old man that the one who got possession of the neck would carry it
+over into some neighbouring field, leave it there, and take to his heels
+as fast as he could; for, if caught, he had a rough time of it. The men
+who caught him would shut him up in a barn without food, or belabour him
+soundly, or perhaps shoe him, as it was called, beating the soles of his
+feet with rods--a very severe and much-dreaded punishment. On my
+grandfather's farm the man used to make for the house as fast as possible,
+and try to carry in the neck. The maids were on the look-out for him, and
+did their best to drench him with water. If they succeeded, they got the
+present of half-a-crown, which my grandfather always gave, and which was
+considered a very liberal present indeed. If the man was successful in
+dodging the maids, and getting the neck into the house without receiving
+the wetting, the half-crown became his. The neck was then hung up, and
+kept until the following year, at any rate, like the bunches of flowers or
+boughs gathered at the St. Jean, in the south of France. Sometimes the
+necks of many successive years were to be found hanging up together. In
+these two ways of disposing of the neck one sees the embodiment, no doubt,
+of the two ways of looking at the corn-spirit, as good (to be kept) or as
+bad (to be passed on to the neighbour)."(823)
+
+(M227) In the foregoing customs a particular bunch of ears, generally the
+last left standing,(824) is conceived as the neck of the corn-spirit, who
+is consequently beheaded when the bunch is cut down. Similarly in
+Shropshire the name "neck," or "the gander's neck," used to be commonly
+given to the last handful of ears left standing in the middle of the field
+when all the rest of the corn was cut. It was plaited together, and the
+reapers, standing ten or twenty paces off, threw their sickles at it.
+Whoever cut it through was said to have cut off the gander's neck. The
+"neck" was taken to the farmer's wife, who was supposed to keep it in the
+house for good luck till the next harvest came round.(825) Near Treves,
+the man who reaps the last standing corn "cuts the goat's neck off."(826)
+At Faslane, on the Gareloch (Dumbartonshire), the last handful of standing
+corn was sometimes called the "head."(827) At Aurich, in East Friesland,
+the man who reaps the last corn "cuts the hare's tail off."(828) In mowing
+down the last corner of a field French reapers sometimes call out, "We
+have the cat by the tail."(829) In Bresse (Bourgogne) the last sheaf
+represented the fox. Beside it a score of ears were left standing to form
+the tail, and each reaper, going back some paces, threw his sickle at it.
+He who succeeded in severing it "cut off the fox's tail," and a cry of
+"_You cou cou!_" was raised in his honour.(830) These examples leave no
+room to doubt the meaning of the Devonshire and Cornish expression "the
+neck," as applied to the last sheaf. The corn-spirit is conceived in human
+or animal form, and the last standing corn is part of its body--its neck,
+its head, or its tail. Sometimes, as we have seen, the last corn is
+regarded as the navel-string.(831) Lastly, the Devonshire custom of
+drenching with water the person who brings in "the neck" is a rain-charm,
+such as we have had many examples of. Its parallel in the mysteries of
+Osiris was the custom of pouring water on the image of Osiris or on the
+person who represented him.
+
+(M228) In Germany cries of _Waul!_ or _Wol!_ or _Wold!_ are sometimes
+raised by the reapers at cutting the last corn. Thus in some places the
+last patch of standing rye was called the _Waul_-rye; a stick decked with
+flowers was inserted in it, and the ears were fastened to the stick. Then
+all the reapers took off their hats and cried thrice, "_Waul!_ _Waul!_
+_Waul!_" Sometimes they accompanied the cry by clashing with their
+whetstones on their scythes.(832)
+
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII. THE CORN-SPIRIT AS AN ANIMAL.
+
+
+
+
+§ 1. Animal Embodiments of the Corn-spirit.
+
+
+(M229) In some of the examples which I have cited to establish the meaning
+of the term "neck" as applied to the last sheaf, the corn-spirit appears
+in animal form as a gander, a goat, a hare, a cat, and a fox. This
+introduces us to a new aspect of the corn-spirit, which we must now
+examine. By doing so we shall not only have fresh examples of killing the
+god, but may hope also to clear up some points which remain obscure in the
+myths and worship of Adonis, Attis, Osiris, Dionysus, Demeter, and
+Virbius.
+
+(M230) Amongst the many animals whose forms the corn-spirit is supposed to
+take are the wolf, dog, hare, fox, cock, goose, quail, cat, goat, cow (ox,
+bull), pig, and horse. In one or other of these shapes the corn-spirit is
+often believed to be present in the corn, and to be caught or killed in
+the last sheaf. As the corn is being cut the animal flees before the
+reapers, and if a reaper is taken ill on the field, he is supposed to have
+stumbled unwittingly on the corn-spirit, who has thus punished the profane
+intruder. It is said "the Rye-wolf has got hold of him," "the Harvest-goat
+has given him a push." The person who cuts the last corn or binds the last
+sheaf gets the name of the animal, as the Rye-wolf, the Rye-sow, the
+Oats-goat, and so forth, and retains the name sometimes for a year. Also
+the animal is frequently represented by a puppet made out of the last
+sheaf or of wood, flowers, and so on, which is carried home amid
+rejoicings on the last harvest-waggon. Even where the last sheaf is not
+made up in animal shape, it is often called the Rye-wolf, the Hare, Goat,
+and so forth. Generally each kind of crop is supposed to have its special
+animal, which is caught in the last sheaf, and called the Rye-wolf, the
+Barley-wolf, the Oats-wolf, the Pea-wolf, or the Potato-wolf, according to
+the crop; but sometimes the figure of the animal is only made up once for
+all at getting in the last crop of the whole harvest. Sometimes the
+creature is believed to be killed by the last stroke of the sickle or
+scythe. But oftener it is thought to live so long as there is corn still
+unthreshed, and to be caught in the last sheaf threshed. Hence the man who
+gives the last stroke with the flail is told that he has got the Corn-sow,
+the Threshing-dog, or the like. When the threshing is finished, a puppet
+is made in the form of the animal, and this is carried by the thresher of
+the last sheaf to a neighbouring farm, where the threshing is still going
+on. This again shews that the corn-spirit is believed to live wherever the
+corn is still being threshed. Sometimes the thresher of the last sheaf
+himself represents the animal; and if the people of the next farm, who are
+still threshing, catch him, they treat him like the animal he represents,
+by shutting him up in the pig-sty, calling him with the cries commonly
+addressed to pigs, and so forth.(833) These general statements will now be
+illustrated by examples.
+
+
+
+
+§ 2. The Corn-spirit as a Wolf or a Dog.
+
+
+(M231) We begin with the corn-spirit conceived as a wolf or a dog. This
+conception is common in France, Germany, and Slavonic countries. Thus,
+when the wind sets the corn in wave-like motion the peasants often say,
+"The Wolf is going over, or through, the corn," "the Rye-wolf is rushing
+over the field," "the Wolf is in the corn," "the mad Dog is in the corn,"
+"the big Dog is there."(834) When children wish to go into the corn-fields
+to pluck ears or gather the blue corn-flowers, they are warned not to do
+so, for "the big Dog sits in the corn," or "the Wolf sits in the corn, and
+will tear you in pieces," "the Wolf will eat you." The wolf against whom
+the children are warned is not a common wolf, for he is often spoken of as
+the Corn-wolf, Rye-wolf, or the like; thus they say, "The Rye-wolf will
+come and eat you up, children," "the Rye-wolf will carry you off," and so
+forth.(835) Still he has all the outward appearance of a wolf. For in the
+neighbourhood of Feilenhof (East Prussia), when a wolf was seen running
+through a field, the peasants used to watch whether he carried his tail in
+the air or dragged it on the ground. If he dragged it on the ground, they
+went after him, and thanked him for bringing them a blessing, and even set
+tit-bits before him. But if he carried his tail high, they cursed him and
+tried to kill him. Here the wolf is the corn-spirit whose fertilising
+power is in his tail.(836)
+
+(M232) Both dog and wolf appear as embodiments of the corn-spirit in
+harvest-customs. Thus in some parts of Silesia the person who cuts or
+binds the last sheaf is called the Wheat-dog or the Peas-pug.(837) But it
+is in the harvest-customs of the north-east of France that the idea of the
+Corn-dog comes out most clearly. Thus when a harvester, through sickness,
+weariness, or laziness, cannot or will not keep up with the reaper in
+front of him, they say, "The White Dog passed near him," "he has the White
+Bitch," or "the White Bitch has bitten him."(838) In the Vosges the
+Harvest-May is called the "Dog of the harvest,"(839) and the person who
+cuts the last handful of hay or wheat is said to "kill the Dog."(840)
+About Lons-le-Saulnier, in the Jura, the last sheaf is called the Bitch.
+In the neighbourhood of Verdun the regular expression for finishing the
+reaping is, "They are going to kill the Dog"; and at Epinal they say,
+according to the crop, "We will kill the Wheat-dog, or the Rye-dog, or the
+Potato-dog."(841) In Lorraine it is said of the man who cuts the last
+corn, "He is killing the Dog of the harvest."(842) At Dux, in the Tyrol,
+the man who gives the last stroke at threshing is said to "strike down the
+Dog";(843) and at Ahnebergen, near Stade, he is called, according to the
+crop, Corn-pug, Rye-pug, Wheat-pug.(844)
+
+(M233) So with the wolf. In Silesia, when the reapers gather round the
+last patch of standing corn to reap it they are said to be about "to catch
+the Wolf."(845) In various parts of Mecklenburg, where the belief in the
+Corn-wolf is particularly prevalent, every one fears to cut the last corn,
+because they say that the Wolf is sitting in it; hence every reaper exerts
+himself to the utmost in order not to be the last, and every woman
+similarly fears to bind the last sheaf because "the Wolf is in it." So
+both among the reapers and the binders there is a competition not to be
+the last to finish.(846) And in Germany generally it appears to be a
+common saying that "the Wolf sits in the last sheaf."(847) In some places
+they call out to the reaper, "Beware of the Wolf"; or they say, "He is
+chasing the Wolf out of the corn."(848) In Mecklenburg the last bunch of
+standing corn is itself commonly called the Wolf, and the man who reaps it
+"has the Wolf," the animal being described as the Rye-wolf, the
+Wheat-wolf, the Barley-wolf, and so on according to the particular crop.
+The reaper of the last corn is himself called Wolf or the Rye-wolf, if the
+crop is rye, and in many parts of Mecklenburg he has to support the
+character by pretending to bite the other harvesters or by howling like a
+wolf.(849) The last sheaf of corn is also called the Wolf or the Rye-wolf
+or the Oats-wolf according to the crop, and of the woman who binds it they
+say, "The Wolf is biting her," "She has the Wolf," "She must fetch the
+Wolf" (out of the corn). Moreover, she herself is called Wolf; they cry
+out to her, "Thou art the Wolf," and she has to bear the name for a whole
+year; sometimes, according to the crop, she is called the Rye-wolf or the
+Potato-wolf.(850) In the island of Ruegen not only is the woman who binds
+the last sheaf called Wolf, but when she comes home she bites the lady of
+the house and the stewardess, for which she receives a large piece of
+meat. Yet nobody likes to be the Wolf. The same woman may be Rye-wolf,
+Wheat-wolf, and Oats-wolf, if she happens to bind the last sheaf of rye,
+wheat, and oats.(851) At Buir, in the district of Cologne, it was formerly
+the custom to give to the last sheaf the shape of a wolf. It was kept in
+the barn till all the corn was threshed. Then it was brought to the farmer
+and he had to sprinkle it with beer or brandy.(852) At Brunshaupten in
+Mecklenburg the young woman who bound the last sheaf of wheat used to take
+a handful of stalks out of it and make "the Wheat-wolf" with them; it was
+the figure of a wolf about two feet long and half a foot high, the legs of
+the animal being represented by stiff stalks and its tail and mane by
+wheat-ears. This Wheat-wolf she carried back at the head of the harvesters
+to the village, where it was set up on a high place in the parlour of the
+farm and remained there for a long time.(853) In many places the sheaf
+called the Wolf is made up in human form and dressed in clothes. This
+indicates a confusion of ideas between the corn-spirit conceived in human
+and in animal form. Generally the Wolf is brought home on the last waggon
+with joyful cries. Hence the last waggon-load itself receives the name of
+the Wolf.(854)
+
+(M234) Again, the Wolf is supposed to hide himself amongst the cut corn in
+the granary, until he is driven out of the last bundle by the strokes of
+the flail. Hence at Wanzleben, near Magdeburg, after the threshing the
+peasants go in procession, leading by a chain a man who is enveloped in
+the threshed-out straw and is called the Wolf.(855) He represents the
+corn-spirit who has been caught escaping from the threshed corn. In the
+district of Treves it is believed that the Corn-wolf is killed at
+threshing. The men thresh the last sheaf till it is reduced to chopped
+straw. In this way they think that the Corn-wolf, who was lurking in the
+last sheaf, has been certainly killed.(856)
+
+(M235) In France also the Corn-wolf appears at harvest. Thus they call out
+to the reaper of the last corn, "You will catch the Wolf." Near Chambery
+they form a ring round the last standing corn, and cry, "The Wolf is in
+there." In Finisterre, when the reaping draws near an end, the harvesters
+cry, "There is the Wolf; we will catch him." Each takes a swath to reap,
+and he who finishes first calls out, "I've caught the Wolf."(857) In
+Guyenne, when the last corn has been reaped, they lead a wether all round
+the field. It is called "the Wolf of the field." Its horns are decked with
+a wreath of flowers and corn-ears, and its neck and body are also
+encircled with garlands and ribbons. All the reapers march, singing,
+behind it. Then it is killed on the field. In this part of France the last
+sheaf is called the _coujoulage_, which, in the patois, means a wether.
+Hence the killing of the wether represents the death of the corn-spirit,
+considered as present in the last sheaf; but two different conceptions of
+the corn-spirit--as a wolf and as a wether--are mixed up together.(858)
+
+(M236) Sometimes it appears to be thought that the Wolf, caught in the
+last corn, lives during the winter in the farmhouse, ready to renew his
+activity as corn-spirit in the spring. Hence at midwinter, when the
+lengthening days begin to herald the approach of spring, the Wolf makes
+his appearance once more. In Poland a man, with a wolf's skin thrown over
+his head, is led about at Christmas; or a stuffed wolf is carried about by
+persons who collect money.(859) There are facts which point to an old
+custom of leading about a man enveloped in leaves and called the Wolf,
+while his conductors collected money.(860)
+
+
+
+
+§ 3. The Corn-spirit as a Cock.
+
+
+(M237) Another form which the corn-spirit often assumes is that of a cock.
+In Austria children are warned against straying in the corn-fields,
+because the Corn-cock sits there, and will peck their eyes out.(861) In
+North Germany they say that "the Cock sits in the last sheaf"; and at
+cutting the last corn the reapers cry, "Now we will chase out the Cock."
+When it is cut they say, "We have caught the Cock."(862) At Braller, in
+Transylvania, when the reapers come to the last patch of corn, they cry,
+"Here we shall catch the Cock."(863) At Fuerstenwalde, when the last sheaf
+is about to be bound, the master releases a cock, which he has brought in
+a basket, and lets it run over the field. All the harvesters chase it till
+they catch it. Elsewhere the harvesters all try to seize the last corn
+cut; he who succeeds in grasping it must crow, and is called Cock.(864)
+Among the Wends it is or used to be customary for the farmer to hide a
+live cock under the last sheaf as it lay on the field; and when the corn
+was being gathered up, the harvester who lighted upon this sheaf had a
+right to keep the cock, provided he could catch it. This formed the close
+of the harvest-festival and was known as "the Cock-catching," and the beer
+which was served out to the reapers at this time went by the name of
+"Cock-beer."(865) The last sheaf is called Cock, Cock-sheaf, Harvest-cock,
+Harvest-hen, Autumn-hen. A distinction is made between a Wheat-cock,
+Bean-cock, and so on, according to the crop.(866) At Wuenschensuhl, in
+Thueringen, the last sheaf is made into the shape of a cock, and called the
+Harvest-cock.(867) A figure of a cock, made of wood, pasteboard, ears of
+corn, or flowers, is borne in front of the harvest-waggon, especially in
+Westphalia, where the cock carries in his beak fruits of the earth of all
+kinds. Sometimes the image of the cock is fastened to the top of a
+May-tree on the last harvest-waggon. Elsewhere a live cock, or a figure of
+one, is attached to a harvest-crown and carried on a pole. In Galicia and
+elsewhere this live cock is fastened to the garland of corn-ears or
+flowers, which the leader of the women-reapers carries on her head as she
+marches in front of the harvest procession.(868) In Silesia a live cock is
+presented to the master on a plate. The harvest-supper is called
+Harvest-cock, Stubble-cock, etc., and a chief dish at it, at least in some
+places, is a cock.(869) If a waggoner upsets a harvest-waggon, it is said
+that "he has spilt the Harvest cock," and he loses the cock, that is, the
+harvest-supper.(870) The harvest-waggon, with the figure of the cock on
+it, is driven round the farmhouse before it is taken to the barn. Then the
+cock is nailed over or at the side of the house-door, or on the gable, and
+remains there till next harvest.(871) In East Friesland the person who
+gives the last stroke at threshing is called the Clucking-hen, and grain
+is strewed before him as if he were a hen.(872)
+
+(M238) Again, the corn-spirit is killed in the form of a cock. In parts of
+Germany, Hungary, Poland, and Picardy the reapers place a live cock in the
+corn which is to be cut last, and chase it over the field, or bury it up
+to the neck in the ground; afterwards they strike off its head with a
+sickle or scythe.(873) In many parts of Westphalia, when the harvesters
+bring the wooden cock to the farmer, he gives them a live cock, which they
+kill with whips or sticks, or behead with an old sword, or throw into the
+barn to the girls, or give to the mistress to cook. If the harvest-cock
+has not been spilt--that is, if no waggon has been upset--the harvesters
+have the right to kill the farmyard cock by throwing stones at it or
+beheading it. Where this custom has fallen into disuse, it is still common
+for the farmer's wife to make cockie-leekie for the harvesters, and to
+shew them the head of the cock which has been killed for the soup.(874) In
+the neighbourhood of Klausenburg, Transylvania, a cock is buried on the
+harvest-field in the earth, so that only its head appears. A young man
+then takes a scythe and cuts off the cock's head at a single sweep. If he
+fails to do this, he is called the Red Cock for a whole year, and people
+fear that next year's crop will be bad.(875) Near Udvarhely, in
+Transylvania, a live cock is bound up in the last sheaf and killed with a
+spit. It is then skinned. The flesh is thrown away, but the skin and
+feathers are kept till next year; and in spring the grain from the last
+sheaf is mixed with the feathers of the cock and scattered on the field
+which is to be tilled.(876) Nothing could set in a clearer light the
+identification of the cock with the spirit of the corn. By being tied up
+in the last sheaf and killed, the cock is identified with the corn, and
+its death with the cutting of the corn. By keeping its feathers till
+spring, then mixing them with the seed-corn taken from the very sheaf in
+which the bird had been bound, and scattering the feathers together with
+the seed over the field, the identity of the bird with the corn is again
+emphasised, and its quickening and fertilising power, as an embodiment of
+the corn-spirit, is intimated in the plainest manner. Thus the
+corn-spirit, in the form of a cock, is killed at harvest, but rises to
+fresh life and activity in spring. Again, the equivalence of the cock to
+the corn is expressed, hardly less plainly, in the custom of burying the
+bird in the ground, and cutting off its head (like the ears of corn) with
+the scythe.
+
+
+
+
+§ 4. The Corn-spirit as a Hare.
+
+
+(M239) Another common embodiment of the corn-spirit is the hare.(877) In
+Galloway the reaping of the last standing corn is called "cutting the
+Hare." The mode of cutting it is as follows. When the rest of the corn has
+been reaped, a handful is left standing to form the Hare. It is divided
+into three parts and plaited, and the ears are tied in a knot. The reapers
+then retire a few yards and each throws his or her sickle in turn at the
+Hare to cut it down. It must be cut below the knot, and the reapers
+continue to throw their sickles at it, one after the other, until one of
+them succeeds in severing the stalks below the knot. The Hare is then
+carried home and given to a maidservant in the kitchen, who places it over
+the kitchen-door on the inside. Sometimes the Hare used to be thus kept
+till the next harvest. In the parish of Minnigaff, when the Hare was cut,
+the unmarried reapers ran home with all speed, and the one who arrived
+first was the first to be married.(878) In Southern Ayrshire the last corn
+cut is also called the Hare, and the mode of cutting it seems to be the
+same as in Galloway; at least in the neighbourhood of Kilmarnock the last
+corn left standing in the middle of the field is plaited, and the reapers
+used to try to cut it by throwing their sickles at it. When cut, it was
+carried home and hung up over the door.(879) In the Vosges Mountains the
+person who cuts the last handful of hay or wheat is sometimes said to have
+caught the Hare; he is congratulated by his comrades and has the honour of
+carrying the nosegay or the small fir-tree decorated with ribbons which
+marks the conclusion of the harvest.(880) In Germany also one of the names
+for the last sheaf is the Hare.(881) Thus in some parts of Anhalt, when
+the corn has been reaped and only a few stalks are left standing, they
+say, "The Hare will soon come," or the reapers cry to each other, "Look
+how the Hare comes jumping out."(882) In East Prussia they say that the
+Hare sits in the last patch of standing corn, and must be chased out by
+the last reaper. The reapers hurry with their work, each being anxious not
+to have "to chase out the Hare"; for the man who does so, that is, who
+cuts the last corn, is much laughed at.(883) At Birk, in Transylvania,
+when the reapers come to the last patch, they cry out, "We have the
+Hare."(884) At Aurich, as we have seen,(885) an expression for cutting the
+last corn is "to cut off the Hare's tail." "He is killing the Hare" is
+commonly said of the man who cuts the last corn in Germany, Sweden,
+Holland, France, and Italy.(886) In Norway the man who is thus said to
+"kill the Hare" must give "hare's blood" in the form of brandy, to his
+fellows to drink.(887) In Lesbos, when the reapers are at work in two
+neighbouring fields, each party tries to finish first in order to drive
+the Hare into their neighbour's field; the reapers who succeed in doing so
+believe that next year the crop will be better. A small sheaf of corn is
+made up and kept beside the holy picture till next harvest.(888)
+
+
+
+
+§ 5. The Corn-spirit as a Cat.
+
+
+(M240) Again, the corn-spirit sometimes takes the form of a cat. Near Kiel
+children are warned not to go into the corn-fields because "the Cat sits
+there." In the Eisenach Oberland they are told "the Corn-cat will come and
+fetch you," "the Corn-cat goes in the corn." In some parts of Silesia at
+mowing the last corn they say, "The Cat is caught"; and at threshing, the
+man who gives the last stroke is called the Cat. In the neighbourhood of
+Lyons the last sheaf and the harvest-supper are both called the Cat. About
+Vesoul when they cut the last corn they say, "We have the Cat by the
+tail." At Briancon, in Dauphine, at the beginning of reaping a cat is
+decked out with ribbons, flowers, and ears of corn. It is called the Cat
+of the ball-skin (_le chat de peau de balle_). If a reaper is wounded at
+his work, they make the cat lick the wound. At the close of the reaping
+the cat is again decked out with ribbons and ears of corn; then they dance
+and make merry. When the dance is over the girls solemnly strip the cat of
+its finery. At Grueneberg, in Silesia, the reaper who cuts the last corn
+goes by the name of the Tom-cat. He is enveloped in rye-stalks and green
+withes, and is furnished with a long plaited tail. Sometimes as a
+companion he has a man similarly dressed, who is called the (female) Cat.
+Their duty is to run after people whom they see and to beat them with a
+long stick. Near Amiens the expression for finishing the harvest is, "They
+are going to kill the Cat"; and when the last corn is cut they kill a cat
+in the farmyard. At threshing, in some parts of France, a live cat is
+placed under the last bundle of corn to be threshed, and is struck dead
+with the flails. Then on Sunday it is roasted and eaten as a holiday
+dish.(889) In the Vosges Mountains the close of haymaking or harvest is
+called "catching the cat," "killing the dog," or more rarely "catching the
+hare." The cat, the dog, or the hare is said to be fat or lean according
+as the crop is good or bad. The man who cuts the last handful of hay or of
+wheat is said to catch the cat or the hare or to kill the dog. He is
+congratulated by his comrades and has the honour of carrying the nosegay
+or rather the small fir-tree decked with ribbons which marks the end of
+the haymaking or of the harvest.(890) In Franche-Comte also the close of
+harvest is called "catching or killing the cat."(891)
+
+
+
+
+§ 6. The Corn-spirit as a Goat.
+
+
+(M241) Further, the corn-spirit often appears in the form of a goat. In
+some parts of Prussia, when the corn bends before the wind, they say, "The
+Goats are chasing each other," "the wind is driving the Goats through the
+corn," "the Goats are browsing there," and they expect a very good
+harvest. Again they say, "The Oats-goat is sitting in the oats-field,"
+"the Corn-goat is sitting in the rye-field."(892) Children are warned not
+to go into the corn-fields to pluck the blue corn-flowers, or amongst the
+beans to pluck pods, because the Rye-goat, the Corn-goat, the Oats-goat,
+or the Bean-goat is sitting or lying there, and will carry them away or
+kill them.(893) When a harvester is taken sick or lags behind his fellows
+at their work, they call out, "The Harvest-goat has pushed him," "he has
+been pushed by the Corn-goat."(894) In the neighbourhood of Braunsberg
+(East Prussia) at binding the oats every harvester makes haste "lest the
+Corn-goat push him." At Oefoten, in Norway, each reaper has his allotted
+patch to reap. When a reaper in the middle has not finished reaping his
+piece after his neighbours have finished theirs, they say of him, "He
+remains on the island." And if the laggard is a man, they imitate the cry
+with which they call a he-goat; if a woman, the cry with which they call a
+she-goat.(895) Near Straubing, in Lower Bavaria, it is said of the man who
+cuts the last corn that "he has the Corn-goat, or the Wheat-goat, or the
+Oats-goat," according to the crop. Moreover, two horns are set up on the
+last heap of corn, and it is called "the horned Goat." At Kreutzburg, East
+Prussia, they call out to the woman who is binding the last sheaf, "The
+Goat is sitting in the sheaf."(896) At Gablingen, in Swabia, when the last
+field of oats upon a farm is being reaped, the reapers carve a goat out of
+wood. Ears of oats are inserted in its nostrils and mouth, and it is
+adorned with garlands of flowers. It is set up on the field and called the
+Oats-goat. When the reaping approaches an end, each reaper hastens to
+finish his piece first; he who is the last to finish gets the
+Oats-goat.(897) Again, the last sheaf is itself called the Goat. Thus, in
+the valley of the Wiesent, Bavaria, the last sheaf bound on the field is
+called the Goat, and they have a proverb, "The field must bear a
+goat."(898) At Spachbruecken, in Hesse, the last handful of corn which is
+cut is called the Goat, and the man who cuts it is much ridiculed.(899) At
+Duerrenbuechig and about Mosbach in Baden the last sheaf is also called the
+Goat.(900) Sometimes the last sheaf is made up in the form of a goat, and
+they say, "The Goat is sitting in it."(901) Again, the person who cuts or
+binds the last sheaf is called the Goat. Thus, in parts of Mecklenburg
+they call out to the woman who binds the last sheaf, "You are the
+Harvest-goat." Near Uelzen, in Hanover, the harvest festival begins with
+"the bringing of the Harvest-goat"; that is, the woman who bound the last
+sheaf is wrapt in straw, crowned with a harvest-wreath, and brought in a
+wheelbarrow to the village, where a round dance takes place. About
+Luneburg, also, the woman who binds the last corn is decked with a crown
+of corn-ears and is called the Corn-goat.(902) At Muenzesheim in Baden the
+reaper who cuts the last handful of corn or oats is called the Corn-goat
+or the Oats-goat.(903) In the Canton St. Gall, Switzerland, the person who
+cuts the last handful of corn on the field, or drives the last
+harvest-waggon to the barn, is called the Corn-goat or the Rye-goat, or
+simply the Goat.(904) In the Canton Thurgau he is called Corn-goat; like a
+goat he has a bell hung round his neck, is led in triumph, and drenched
+with liquor. In parts of Styria, also, the man who cuts the last corn is
+called Corn-goat, Oats-goat, or the like. As a rule, the man who thus gets
+the name of Corn-goat has to bear it a whole year till the next
+harvest.(905)
+
+(M242) According to one view, the corn-spirit, who has been caught in the
+form of a goat or otherwise, lives in the farmhouse or barn over winter.
+Thus, each farm has its own embodiment of the corn-spirit. But, according
+to another view, the corn-spirit is the genius or deity, not of the corn
+of one farm only, but of all the corn. Hence when the corn on one farm is
+all cut, he flees to another where there is still corn left standing. This
+idea is brought out in a harvest-custom which was formerly observed in
+Skye. The farmer who first finished reaping sent a man or woman with a
+sheaf to a neighbouring farmer who had not finished; the latter in his
+turn, when he had finished, sent on the sheaf to his neighbour who was
+still reaping; and so the sheaf made the round of the farms till all the
+corn was cut. The sheaf was called the _goabbir bhacagh_, that is, the
+Cripple Goat.(906) The custom appears not to be extinct at the present
+day, for it was reported from Skye only a few years ago. We are told that
+when the crofters and small farmers are cutting down their corn, each
+tries his best to finish before his neighbour. The first to finish goes to
+his neighbour's field and makes up at one end of it a bundle of sheaves in
+a fanciful shape which goes by the name of the _gobhar bhacach_ or Lame
+Goat. As each man in succession finishes reaping his field, he proceeds to
+set up a lame goat of this sort in his neighbour's field where there is
+still corn standing. No one likes to have the Lame Goat put in his field,
+"not from any ill-luck it brings, but because it is humiliating to have it
+standing there visible to all neighbours and passers-by, and of course he
+cannot retaliate."(907) The corn-spirit was probably thus represented as
+lame because he had been crippled by the cutting of the corn. We have seen
+that sometimes the old woman who brings home the last sheaf must limp on
+one foot.(908) In the Boehmer Wald mountains, between Bohemia and Bavaria,
+when two peasants are driving home their corn together, they race against
+each other to see who shall get home first. The village boys mark the
+loser in the race, and at night they come and erect on the roof of his
+house the Oats-goat, which is a colossal figure of a goat made of
+straw.(909)
+
+(M243) But sometimes the corn-spirit, in the form of a goat, is believed
+to be slain on the harvest-field by the sickle or scythe. Thus, in the
+neighbourhood of Bernkastel, on the Moselle, the reapers determine by lot
+the order in which they shall follow each other. The first is called the
+fore-reaper, the last the tail-bearer. If a reaper overtakes the man in
+front he reaps past him, bending round so as to leave the slower reaper in
+a patch by himself. This patch is called the Goat; and the man for whom
+"the Goat is cut" in this way, is laughed and jeered at by his fellows for
+the rest of the day. When the tail-bearer cuts the last ears of corn, it
+is said, "He is cutting the Goat's neck off."(910) In the neighbourhood of
+Grenoble, before the end of the reaping, a live goat is adorned with
+flowers and ribbons and allowed to run about the field. The reapers chase
+it and try to catch it. When it is caught, the farmer's wife holds it fast
+while the farmer cuts off its head. The goat's flesh serves to furnish the
+harvest-supper. A piece of the flesh is pickled and kept till the next
+harvest, when another goat is killed. Then all the harvesters eat of the
+flesh. On the same day the skin of the goat is made into a cloak, which
+the farmer, who works with his men, must always wear at harvest-time if
+rain or bad weather sets in. But if a reaper gets pains in his back, the
+farmer gives him the goat-skin to wear.(911) The reason for this seems to
+be that the pains in the back, being inflicted by the corn-spirit, can
+also be healed by it. Similarly, we saw that elsewhere, when a reaper is
+wounded at reaping, a cat, as the representative of the corn-spirit, is
+made to lick the wound.(912) Esthonian reapers in the island of Mon think
+that the man who cuts the first ears of corn at harvest will get pains in
+his back,(913) probably because the corn-spirit is believed to resent
+especially the first wound; and, in order to escape pains in the back,
+Saxon reapers in Transylvania gird their loins with the first handful of
+ears which they cut.(914) Here, again, the corn-spirit is applied to for
+healing or protection, but in his original vegetable form, not in the form
+of a goat or a cat.
+
+(M244) Further, the corn-spirit under the form of a goat is sometimes
+conceived as lurking among the cut corn in the barn, till he is driven
+from it by the threshing-flail. Thus in Baden the last sheaf to be
+threshed is called the Corn-goat, the Spelt-goat, or the Oats-goat
+according to the kind of grain.(915) Again, near Marktl, in Upper Bavaria,
+the sheaves are called Straw-goats or simply Goats. They are laid in a
+great heap on the open field and threshed by two rows of men standing
+opposite each other, who, as they ply their flails, sing a song in which
+they say that they see the Straw-goat amongst the corn-stalks. The last
+Goat, that is, the last sheaf, is adorned with a wreath of violets and
+other flowers and with cakes strung together. It is placed right in the
+middle of the heap. Some of the threshers rush at it and tear the best of
+it out; others lay on with their flails so recklessly that heads are
+sometimes broken. In threshing this last sheaf, each man casts up to the
+man opposite him the misdeeds of which he has been guilty throughout the
+year.(916) At Oberinntal, in the Tyrol, the last thresher is called
+Goat.(917) So at Haselberg, in West Bohemia, the man who gives the last
+stroke at threshing oats is called the Oats-goat.(918) At Tettnang, in
+Wuertemburg, the thresher who gives the last stroke to the last bundle of
+corn before it is turned goes by the name of the He-goat, and it is said,
+"He has driven the He-goat away." The person who, after the bundle has
+been turned, gives the last stroke of all, is called the She-goat.(919) In
+this custom it is implied that the corn is inhabited by a pair of
+corn-spirits, male and female.
+
+(M245) Further, the corn-spirit, captured in the form of a goat at
+threshing, is passed on to a neighbour whose threshing is not yet
+finished. In Franche Comte, as soon as the threshing is over, the young
+people set up a straw figure of a goat on the farmyard of a neighbour who
+is still threshing. He must give them wine or money in return. At
+Ellwangen, in Wuertemburg, the effigy of a goat is made out of the last
+bundle of corn at threshing; four sticks form its legs, and two its horns.
+The man who gives the last stroke with the flail must carry the Goat to
+the barn of a neighbour who is still threshing and throw it down on the
+floor; if he is caught in the act, they tie the goat on his back.(920) A
+similar custom is observed at Indersdorf, in Upper Bavaria; the man who
+throws the straw Goat into the neighbour's barn imitates the bleating of a
+goat; if they catch him, they blacken his face and tie the Goat on his
+back.(921) At Zabern, in Elsace, when a farmer is a week or more behind
+his neighbours with his threshing, they set a real stuffed goat or fox
+before his door.(922)
+
+(M246) Sometimes the spirit of the corn in goat form is believed to be
+killed at threshing. In the district of Traunstein, Upper Bavaria, they
+think that the Oats-goat is in the last sheaf of oats. He is represented
+by an old rake set up on end, with an old pot for a head. The children are
+then told to kill the Oats-goat.(923) Elsewhere, however, the corn-spirit
+in the form of a goat is apparently thought to live in the field
+throughout the winter. Hence at Wannefeld near Gardelegen, and also
+between Calbe and Salzwedel, in the Altmark, the last stalks used to be
+left uncut on the harvest-field with the words, "That shall the He-goat
+keep!" Evidently the last corn was here left as a provision for the
+corn-spirit, lest, robbed of all his substance, he should die of hunger. A
+stranger passing a harvest-field is sometimes taken for the Corn-goat
+escaping in human shape from the cut or threshed grain. Thus, when a
+stranger passes a harvest-field, all the labourers stop and shout as with
+one voice, "He-goat! He-goat!" At rape-seed threshing in Schleswig, which
+is generally done on the field, the same cry is raised if the stranger
+does not take off his hat.(924)
+
+(M247) At sowing their winter corn the old Prussians used to kill a goat,
+consume its flesh with many superstitious ceremonies, and hang the skin on
+a high pole near an oak and a large stone. There it remained till harvest,
+when a great bunch of corn and herbs was fastened to the pole above the
+goat-skin. Then, after a prayer had been offered by a peasant who acted as
+priest (_Weidulut_), the young folks joined hands and danced round the oak
+and the pole. Afterwards they scrambled for the bunch of corn, and the
+priest distributed the herbs with a sparing hand. Then he placed the
+goat-skin on the large stone, sat down on it, and preached to the people
+about the history of their forefathers and their old heathen customs and
+beliefs.(925) The goat-skin thus suspended on the field from sowing time
+to harvest perhaps represents the corn-spirit superintending the growth of
+the corn. The Tomori of Central Celebes imagine that the spirits which
+cause rice to grow have the form of great goats with long hair and long
+lips.(926)
+
+
+
+
+§ 7. The Corn-spirit as a Bull, Cow, or Ox.
+
+
+(M248) Another form which the corn-spirit often assumes is that of a bull,
+cow, or ox. When the wind sweeps over the corn they say at Conitz, in West
+Prussia, "The Steer is running in the corn";(927) when the corn is thick
+and strong in one spot, they say in some parts of East Prussia, "The Bull
+is lying in the corn." When a harvester has overstrained and lamed
+himself, they say in the Graudenz district of West Prussia, "The Bull
+pushed him"; in Lothringen they say, "He has the Bull." The meaning of
+both expressions is that he has unwittingly lighted upon the divine
+corn-spirit, who has punished the profane intruder with lameness.(928) So
+near Chambery when a reaper wounds himself with his sickle, it is said
+that he has "the wound of the Ox."(929) In the district of Bunzlau
+(Silesia) the last sheaf is sometimes made into the shape of a horned ox,
+stuffed with tow and wrapt in corn-ears. This figure is called the Old
+Man. In some parts of Bohemia the last sheaf is made up in human form and
+called the Buffalo-bull.(930) These cases shew a confusion of the human
+with the animal shape of the corn-spirit. The confusion is like that of
+killing a wether under the name of a wolf.(931) In the Canton of Thurgau,
+Switzerland, the last sheaf, if it is a large one, is called the Cow.(932)
+All over Swabia the last bundle of corn on the field is called the Cow;
+the man who cuts the last ears "has the Cow," and is himself called Cow or
+Barley-cow or Oats-cow, according to the crop; at the harvest-supper he
+gets a nosegay of flowers and corn-ears and a more liberal allowance of
+drink than the rest. But he is teased and laughed at; so no one likes to
+be the Cow.(933) The Cow was sometimes represented by the figure of a
+woman made out of ears of corn and corn-flowers. It was carried to the
+farmhouse by the man who had cut the last handful of corn. The children
+ran after him and the neighbours turned out to laugh at him, till the
+farmer took the Cow from him.(934) Here again the confusion between the
+human and the animal form of the corn-spirit is apparent. In various parts
+of Switzerland the reaper who cuts the last ears of corn is called
+Wheat-cow, Corn-cow, Oats-cow, or Corn-steer, and is the butt of many a
+joke.(935) In some parts of East Prussia, when a few ears of corn have
+been left standing by inadvertence on the last swath, the foremost reaper
+seizes them and cries, "Bull! Bull!"(936) On the other hand, in the
+district of Rosenheim, Upper Bavaria, when a farmer is later of getting in
+his harvest than his neighbours, they set up on his land a Straw-bull, as
+it is called. This is a gigantic figure of a bull made of stubble on a
+framework of wood and adorned with flowers and leaves. Attached to it is a
+label on which are scrawled doggerel verses in ridicule of the man on
+whose land the Straw-bull is set up.(937)
+
+(M249) Again, the corn-spirit in the form of a bull or ox is killed on the
+harvest-field at the close of the reaping. At Pouilly, near Dijon, when
+the last ears of corn are about to be cut, an ox adorned with ribbons,
+flowers, and ears of corn is led all round the field, followed by the
+whole troop of reapers dancing. Then a man disguised as the Devil cuts the
+last ears of corn and immediately slaughters the ox. Part of the flesh of
+the animal is eaten at the harvest-supper; part is pickled and kept till
+the first day of sowing in spring. At Pont a Mousson and elsewhere on the
+evening of the last day of reaping, a calf adorned with flowers and ears
+of corn is led thrice round the farmyard, being allured by a bait or
+driven by men with sticks, or conducted by the farmer's wife with a rope.
+The calf chosen for this ceremony is the calf which was born first on the
+farm in the spring of the year. It is followed by all the reapers with
+their tools. Then it is allowed to run free; the reapers chase it, and
+whoever catches it is called King of the Calf. Lastly, it is solemnly
+killed; at Luneville the man who acts as butcher is the Jewish merchant of
+the village.(938)
+
+(M250) Sometimes again the corn-spirit hides himself amongst the cut corn
+in the barn to reappear in bull or cow form at threshing. Thus at
+Wurmlingen, in Thueringen, the man who gives the last stroke at threshing
+is called the Cow, or rather the Barley-cow, Oats-cow, Peas-cow, or the
+like, according to the crop. He is entirely enveloped in straw; his head
+is surmounted by sticks in imitation of horns, and two lads lead him by
+ropes to the well to drink. On the way thither he must low like a cow, and
+for a long time afterwards he goes by the name of the Cow.(939) At
+Obermedlingen, in Swabia, when the threshing draws near an end, each man
+is careful to avoid giving the last stroke. He who does give it "gets the
+Cow," which is a straw figure dressed in an old ragged petticoat, hood,
+and stockings. It is tied on his back with a straw-rope; his face is
+blackened, and being bound with straw-ropes to a wheelbarrow he is wheeled
+round the village.(940) Here, again, we meet with that confusion between
+the human and animal shape of the corn-spirit which we have noted in other
+customs. In Canton Schaffhausen the man who threshes the last corn is
+called the Cow; in Canton Thurgau, the Corn-bull; in Canton Zurich, the
+Thresher-cow. In the last-mentioned district he is wrapt in straw and
+bound to one of the trees in the orchard.(941) At Arad, in Hungary, the
+man who gives the last stroke at threshing is enveloped in straw and a
+cow's hide with the horns attached to it.(942) At Pessnitz, in the
+district of Dresden, the man who gives the last stroke with the flail is
+called Bull. He must make a straw-man and set it up before a neighbour's
+window.(943) Here, apparently, as in so many cases, the corn-spirit is
+passed on to a neighbour who has not finished threshing. So at
+Herbrechtingen, in Thueringen, the effigy of a ragged old woman is flung
+into the barn of the farmer who is last with his threshing. The man who
+throws it in cries, "There is the Cow for you." If the threshers catch him
+they detain him over night and punish him by keeping him from the
+harvest-supper.(944) In these latter customs the confusion between the
+human and the animal shape of the corn-spirit meets us again.
+
+(M251) Further, the corn-spirit in bull form is sometimes believed to be
+killed at threshing. At Auxerre, in threshing the last bundle of corn,
+they call out twelve times, "We are killing the Bull." In the
+neighbourhood of Bordeaux, where a butcher kills an ox on the field
+immediately after the close of the reaping, it is said of the man who
+gives the last stroke at threshing that "he has killed the Bull."(945) At
+Chambery the last sheaf is called the sheaf of the Young Ox, and a race
+takes place to it in which all the reapers join. When the last stroke is
+given at threshing they say that "the Ox is killed"; and immediately
+thereupon a real ox is slaughtered by the reaper who cut the last corn.
+The flesh of the ox is eaten by the threshers at supper.(946)
+
+(M252) We have seen that sometimes the young corn-spirit, whose task it is
+to quicken the corn of the coming year, is believed to be born as a
+Corn-baby on the harvest-field.(947) Similarly in Berry the young
+corn-spirit is sometimes supposed to be born on the field in calf form;
+for when a binder has not rope enough to bind all the corn in sheaves, he
+puts aside the wheat that remains over and imitates the lowing of a cow.
+The meaning is that "the sheaf has given birth to a calf."(948) In
+Puy-de-Dome when a binder cannot keep up with the reaper whom he or she
+follows, they say "He (or she) is giving birth to the Calf."(949) In some
+parts of Prussia, in similar circumstances, they call out to the woman,
+"The Bull is coming," and imitate the bellowing of a bull.(950) In these
+cases the woman is conceived as the Corn-cow or old corn-spirit, while the
+supposed calf is the Corn-calf or young corn-spirit. In some parts of
+Austria a mythical calf (_Muhkaelbchen_) is believed to be seen amongst the
+sprouting corn in spring and to push the children; when the corn waves in
+the wind they say, "The Calf is going about." Clearly, as Mannhardt
+observes, this calf of the spring-time is the same animal which is
+afterwards believed to be killed at reaping.(951)
+
+
+
+
+§ 8. The Corn-spirit as a Horse or Mare.
+
+
+(M253) Sometimes the corn-spirit appears in the shape of a horse or mare.
+Between Kalw and Stuttgart, when the corn bends before the wind, they say,
+"There runs the Horse."(952) At Bohlingen, near Radolfzell in Baden, the
+last sheaf of oats is called the Oats-stallion.(953) In Hertfordshire, at
+the end of the reaping, there is or used to be observed a ceremony called
+"crying the Mare." The last blades of corn left standing on the field are
+tied together and called the Mare. The reapers stand at a distance and
+throw their sickles at it; he who cuts it through "has the prize, with
+acclamations and good cheer." After it is cut the reapers cry thrice with
+a loud voice, "I have her!" Others answer thrice, "What have you?"--"A
+Mare! a Mare! a Mare!"--"Whose is she?" is next asked thrice. "A. B.'s,"
+naming the owner thrice. "Whither will you send her?"--"To C. D.," naming
+some neighbour who has not reaped all his corn.(954) In this custom the
+corn-spirit in the form of a mare is passed on from a farm where the corn
+is all cut to another farm where it is still standing, and where therefore
+the corn-spirit may be supposed naturally to take refuge. In Shropshire
+the custom is similar. "Crying, calling, or shouting the mare is a
+ceremony performed by the men of that farm which is the first in any
+parish or district to finish the harvest. The object of it is to make
+known their own prowess, and to taunt the laggards by a pretended offer of
+the 'owd mar'' [old mare] to help out their 'chem' [team]. All the men
+assemble (the wooden harvest-bottle being of course one of the company) in
+the stackyard, or, better, on the highest ground on the farm, and there
+shout the following dialogue, preceding it by a grand 'Hip, hip, hip,
+hurrah!'
+
+" 'I 'ave 'er, I 'ave 'er, I 'ave 'er!'
+
+" 'Whad 'ast thee, whad 'ast thee, whad 'ast thee?'
+
+" 'A mar'! a mar'! a mar'!'
+
+" 'Whose is 'er, whose is 'er, whose is 'er?'
+
+" 'Maister A.'s, Maister A.'s, Maister A.'s!' (naming the farmer whose
+harvest is finished).
+
+" 'W'eer sha't the' send 'er? w'eer sha't the' send 'er? w'eer sha't the'
+send 'er?'
+
+" 'To Maister B.'s, to Maister B.'s, to Maister B.'s' (naming one whose
+harvest is _not_ finished).
+
+" ''Uth a hip, hip, hip, hurrah!' (in chorus)."
+
+The farmer who finishes his harvest last, and who therefore cannot send
+the Mare to any one else, is said "to keep her all winter." The mocking
+offer of the Mare was sometimes responded to by a mocking acceptance of
+her help. Thus an old man told an enquirer, "While we wun at supper, a mon
+cumm'd wi' a autar [halter] to fatch her away." But at one place (Longnor,
+near Leebotwood), down to about 1850, the Mare used really to be sent.
+"The head man of the farmer who had finished harvest first was mounted on
+the best horse of the team--the leader--both horse and man being adorned
+with ribbons, streamers, etc. Thus arrayed, a boy on foot led the pair in
+triumph to the neighbouring farmhouses. Sometimes the man who took the
+'mare' received, as well as plenty of harvest-ale, some rather rough,
+though good-humoured, treatment, coming back minus his decorations, and so
+on."(955)
+
+(M254) In the neighbourhood of Lille the idea of the corn-spirit in horse
+form is clearly preserved. When a harvester grows weary at his work, it is
+said, "He has the fatigue of the Horse." The first sheaf, called the
+"Cross of the Horse," is placed on a cross of boxwood in the barn, and the
+youngest horse on the farm must tread on it. The reapers dance round the
+last blades of corn, crying, "See the remains of the Horse." The sheaf
+made out of these last blades is given to the youngest horse of the parish
+(_commune_) to eat. This youngest horse of the parish clearly represents,
+as Mannhardt says, the corn-spirit of the following year, the Corn-foal,
+which absorbs the spirit of the old Corn-horse by eating the last corn
+cut; for, as usual, the old corn-spirit takes his final refuge in the last
+sheaf. The thresher of the last sheaf is said to "beat the Horse."(956)
+Again, a trace of the horse-shaped corn-spirit is reported from Berry. The
+harvesters there are accustomed to take a noonday nap in the field. This
+is called "seeing the Horse." The leader or "King" of the harvesters gives
+the signal for going to sleep. If he delays giving the signal, one of the
+harvesters will begin to neigh like a horse, the rest imitate him, and
+then they all go "to see the Horse."(957)
+
+
+
+
+§ 9. The Corn-spirit as a Bird.
+
+
+(M255) Sometimes the corn-spirit assumes the form of a bird. Thus among
+the Saxons of the Bistritz district in Transylvania there is a saying that
+the quail is sitting in the last standing stalks on the harvest-field, and
+all the reapers rush at these stalks in order, as they say, to catch the
+quail.(958) Exactly the same expression is used by reapers in Austrian
+Silesia when they are about to cut the last standing corn, whatever the
+kind of grain may be.(959) In the Bocage of Normandy, when the reapers
+have come to the last ears of the last rig, they surround them for the
+purpose of catching the quail, which is supposed to have taken refuge
+there. They run about the corn crying, "Mind the Quail!" and make believe
+to grab at the bird amid shouts and laughter.(960) Connected with this
+identification of the corn-spirit with a quail is probably the belief that
+the cry of the bird in spring is prophetic of the price of corn in the
+autumn; in Germany they say that corn will sell at as many gulden a bushel
+as the quail uttered its cry over the fields in spring. Similar
+prognostications are drawn from the note of the bird in central and
+western France, in Switzerland and in Tuscany.(961) Perhaps one reason for
+identifying the quail with the corn-spirit is that the bird lays its eggs
+on the ground, without making much of a nest.(962) Similarly the Toradjas
+of Central Celebes think that the soul of the rice is embodied in a pretty
+little blue bird which builds its nest in the rice-field at the time when
+the rice is beginning to germinate, and which disappears again after the
+harvest. Thus both the place and the time of the appearance of the bird
+suggest to the natives the notion that the blue bird is the rice
+incarnate. And like the note of the quail in Europe the note of this
+little bird in Celebes is believed to prognosticate the state of the
+harvest, foretelling whether the rice will be abundant or scarce. Nobody
+may drive the bird away; to do so would not merely injure the rice, it
+would hurt the eyes of the sacrilegious person and might even strike him
+blind. In Minahassa, a district in the north of Celebes, a similar though
+less definite belief attaches to a sort of small quail which loves to
+haunt the rice-fields before the rice is reaped; and when the Galelareeze
+of Halmahera hear a certain kind of bird, which they call _toge_, croaking
+among the rice in ear, they say that the bird is putting the grain into
+the rice, so they will not kill it.(963)
+
+
+
+
+§ 10. The Corn-spirit as a Fox.
+
+
+(M256) Another animal whose shape the corn-spirit is sometimes thought to
+assume is the fox. The conception is recorded at various places in Germany
+and France. Thus at Noerdlingen in Bavaria, when the corn waves to and fro
+in the wind, they say, "The fox goes through the corn," and at Usingen in
+Nassau they say, "The foxes are marching through the corn." At Ravensberg,
+in Westphalia, and at Steinau, in Kurhessen, children are warned against
+straying in the corn, "because the Fox is there." At Campe, near Stade,
+when they are about to cut the last corn, they call out to the reaper,
+"The Fox is sitting there, hold him fast!" In the Department of the
+Moselle they say, "Watch whether the Fox comes out." In Bourbonnais the
+expression is, "You will catch the Fox." When a reaper wounds himself or
+is sick at reaping, they say in the Lower Loire that "He has the Fox." In
+Cote-d'or they say, "He has killed the Fox." At Louhans, in
+Saone-et-Loire, when the reapers are cutting the last corn they leave a
+handful standing and throw their sickles at it. He who hits it is called
+the Fox, and two girls deck his bonnet with flowers. In the evening there
+is a dance, at which the Fox dances with all the girls. The supper which
+follows is also called the Fox; they say, "We have eaten the Fox," meaning
+that they have partaken of the harvest-supper. In the Canton of Zurich the
+last sheaf is called the Fox. At Bourgogne, in Ain, they cry out, "The Fox
+is sitting in the last sheaf," and having made the figure of an animal out
+of white cloth and some ears of the last corn, they dub it the Fox and
+throw it into the house of a neighbour who has not yet got in all his
+harvest.(964) In Poitou, when the corn is being reaped in a district, all
+the reapers strive to finish as quickly as possible in order that they may
+send "the Fox" to the fields of a farmer who has not yet garnered his
+sheaves. The man who cuts the last handful of standing corn is said to
+"have the Fox." This last handful is carried to the farmer's house and
+occupies a place on the table during the harvest-supper; and the custom is
+to drench it with water. After that it is set up on the chimney-piece and
+remains there the whole year.(965) At threshing, also, in Saone-et-Loire,
+the last sheaf is called the Fox; in Lot they say, "We are going to beat
+the Fox"; and at Zabern in Alsace they set a stuffed fox before the door
+of the threshing-floor of a neighbour who has not finished his
+threshing.(966) With this conception of the fox as an embodiment of the
+corn-spirit may possibly be connected an old custom, observed in Holstein
+and Westphalia, of carrying a dead or living fox from house to house in
+spring; the intention of the custom was perhaps to diffuse the refreshing
+and invigorating influence of the reawakened spirit of vegetation.(967) In
+Japan the rice-god Inari is represented as an elderly man with a long
+beard riding on a white fox, and the fox is always associated with this
+deity. In front of his shrines may usually be seen a pair of foxes carved
+in wood or stone.(968)
+
+
+
+
+§ 11. The Corn-spirit as a Pig (Boar or Sow).
+
+
+(M257) The last animal embodiment of the corn-spirit which we shall notice
+is the pig (boar or sow). In Thueringen, when the wind sets the young corn
+in motion, they sometimes say, "The Boar is rushing through the
+corn."(969) Amongst the Esthonians of the island of Oesel the last sheaf
+is called the Rye-boar, and the man who gets it is saluted with a cry of
+"You have the Rye-boar on your back!" In reply he strikes up a song, in
+which he prays for plenty.(970) At Kohlerwinkel, near Augsburg, at the
+close of the harvest, the last bunch of standing corn is cut down, stalk
+by stalk, by all the reapers in turn. He who cuts the last stalk "gets the
+Sow," and is laughed at.(971) In other Swabian villages also the man who
+cuts the last corn "has the Sow," or "has the Rye-sow."(972) In the
+Traunstein district, Upper Bavaria, the man who cuts the last handful of
+rye or wheat "has the Sow," and is called Sow-driver.(973) At Bohlingen,
+near Radolfzell in Baden, the last sheaf is called the Rye-sow or the
+Wheat-sow, according to the crop; and at Roehrenbach in Baden the person
+who brings the last armful for the last sheaf is called the Corn-sow or
+the Oats-sow. And in the south-east of Baden the thresher who gives the
+last stroke at threshing, or is the last to hang up his flail on the wall,
+is called the Sow or the Rye-sow.(974) At Friedingen, in Swabia, the
+thresher who gives the last stroke is called Sow--Barley-sow, Corn-sow, or
+the like, according to the crop. At Onstmettingen the man who gives the
+last stroke at threshing "has the Sow"; he is often bound up in a sheaf
+and dragged by a rope along the ground.(975) And, generally, in Swabia the
+man who gives the last stroke with the flail is called Sow. He may,
+however, rid himself of this invidious distinction by passing on to a
+neighbour the straw-rope, which is the badge of his position as Sow. So he
+goes to a house and throws the straw-rope into it, crying, "There, I bring
+you the Sow." All the inmates give chase; and if they catch him they beat
+him, shut him up for several hours in the pig-sty, and oblige him to take
+the "Sow" away again.(976) In various parts of Upper Bavaria the man who
+gives the last stroke at threshing must "carry the Pig"--that is, either a
+straw effigy of a pig or merely a bundle of straw-ropes. This he carries
+to a neighbouring farm where the threshing is not finished, and throws it
+into the barn. If the threshers catch him they handle him roughly, beating
+him, blackening or dirtying his face, throwing him into filth, binding the
+Sow on his back, and so on; if the bearer of the Sow is a woman they cut
+off her hair. At the harvest supper or dinner the man who "carried the
+Pig" gets one or more dumplings made in the form of pigs; sometimes he
+gets a large dumpling and a number of small ones, all in pig form, the
+large one being called the sow and the small ones the sucking-pigs.
+Sometimes he has the right to be the first to put his hand into the dish
+and take out as many small dumplings ("sucking-pigs") as he can, while the
+other threshers strike at his hand with spoons or sticks. When the
+dumplings are served up by the maid-servant, all the people at table cry
+"Suez, suez, suez!" that being the cry used in calling pigs. Sometimes after
+dinner the man who "carried the Pig" has his face blackened, and is set on
+a cart and drawn round the village by his fellows, followed by a crowd
+crying "Suez, suez, suez!" as if they were calling swine. Sometimes, after
+being wheeled round the village, he is flung on the dunghill.(977)
+
+(M258) Again, the corn-spirit in the form of a pig plays his part at
+sowing-time as well as at harvest At Neuautz, in Courland, when barley is
+sown for the first time in the year, the farmer's wife boils the chine of
+a pig along with the tail, and brings it to the sower on the field. He
+eats of it, but cuts off the tail and sticks it in the field; it is
+believed that the ears of corn will then grow as long as the tail.(978)
+Here the pig is the corn-spirit, whose fertilising power is sometimes
+supposed to lie especially in his tail.(979) As a pig he is put in the
+ground at sowing-time, and as a pig he reappears amongst the ripe corn at
+harvest. For amongst the neighbouring Esthonians, as we have seen,(980)
+the last sheaf is called the Rye-boar. Somewhat similar customs are
+observed in Germany. In the Salza district, near Meiningen, a certain bone
+in the pig is called "the Jew on the winnowing-fan." The flesh of this
+bone is boiled on Shrove Tuesday, but the bone is put amongst the ashes
+which the neighbours exchange as presents on St. Peter's Day (the
+twenty-second of February), and then mix with the seed-corn.(981) In the
+whole of Hesse, Meiningen, and other districts, people eat pea-soup with
+dried pig-ribs on Ash Wednesday or Candlemas. The ribs are then collected
+and hung in the room till sowing-time, when they are inserted in the sown
+field or in the seed-bag amongst the flax seed. This is thought to be an
+infallible specific against earth-fleas and moles, and to cause the flax
+to grow well and tall.(982) In many parts of White Russia people eat a
+roast lamb or sucking-pig at Easter, and then throw the bones backwards
+upon the fields, to preserve the corn from hail.(983)
+
+(M259) But the idea of the corn-spirit as embodied in pig form is nowhere
+more clearly expressed than in the Scandinavian custom of the Yule Boar.
+In Sweden and Denmark at Yule (Christmas) it is the custom to bake a loaf
+in the form of a boar-pig. This is called the Yule Boar. The corn of the
+last sheaf is often used to make it. All through Yule the Yule Boar stands
+on the table. Often it is kept till the sowing-time in spring, when part
+of it is mixed with the seed-corn and part given to the ploughmen and
+plough-horses or plough-oxen to eat, in the expectation of a good
+harvest.(984) In this custom the corn-spirit, immanent in the last sheaf,
+appears at midwinter in the form of a boar made from the corn of the last
+sheaf; and his quickening influence on the corn is shewn by mixing part of
+the Yule Boar with the seed-corn, and giving part of it to the ploughman
+and his cattle to eat. Similarly we saw that the Corn-wolf makes his
+appearance at midwinter, the time when the year begins to verge towards
+spring.(985) We may conjecture that the Yule straw, which Swedish peasants
+turn to various superstitious uses, comes, in part at least, from the
+sheaf out of which the Yule Boar is made. The Yule straw is long
+rye-straw, a portion of which is always set apart for this season. It is
+strewn over the floor at Christmas, and the peasants attribute many
+virtues to it. For example, they think that some of it scattered on the
+ground will make a barren field productive. Again, the peasant at
+Christmas seats himself on a log; and his eldest son or daughter, or the
+mother herself, if the children are not old enough, places a wisp of the
+Yule straw on his knee. From this he draws out single straws, and throws
+them, one by one, up to the ceiling; and as many as lodge in the rafters,
+so many will be the sheaves of rye he will have to thresh at harvest.(986)
+Again, it is only the Yule straw which may be used in binding the
+fruit-trees as a charm to fertilise them.(987) These uses of the Yule
+straw shew that it is believed to possess fertilising virtues analogous to
+those ascribed to the Yule Boar; we may therefore fairly conjecture that
+the Yule straw is made from the same sheaf as the Yule Boar. Formerly a
+real boar was sacrificed at Christmas,(988) and apparently also a man in
+the character of the Yule Boar. This, at least, may perhaps be inferred
+from a Christmas custom still observed in Sweden. A man is wrapt up in a
+skin, and carries a wisp of straw in his mouth, so that the projecting
+straws look like the bristles of a boar. A knife is brought, and an old
+woman, with her face blackened, pretends to sacrifice him.(989)
+
+(M260) On Christmas Eve in some parts of the Esthonian island of Oesel
+they bake a long cake with the two ends turned up. It is called the
+Christmas Boar, and stands on the table till the morning of New Year's
+Day, when it is distributed among the cattle. In other parts of the island
+the Christmas Boar is not a cake but a little pig born in March, which the
+housewife fattens secretly, often without the knowledge of the other
+members of the family. On Christmas Eve the little pig is secretly killed,
+then roasted in the oven, and set on the table standing on all fours,
+where it remains in this posture for several days. In other parts of the
+island, again, though the Christmas cake has neither the name nor the
+shape of a boar, it is kept till the New Year, when half of it is divided
+among all the members and all the quadrupeds of the family. The other half
+of the cake is kept till sowing-time comes round, when it is similarly
+distributed in the morning among human beings and beasts.(990) In other
+parts of Esthonia, again, the Christmas Boar, as it is called, is baked of
+the first rye cut at harvest; it has a conical shape and a cross is
+impressed on it with a pig's bone or a key, or three dints are made in it
+with a buckle or a piece of charcoal. It stands with a light beside it on
+the table all through the festal season. On New Year's Day and Epiphany,
+before sunrise, a little of the cake is crumbled with salt and given to
+the cattle. The rest is kept till the day when the cattle are driven out
+to pasture for the first time in spring. It is then put in the herdsman's
+bag, and at evening is divided among the cattle to guard them from magic
+and harm. In some places the Christmas Boar is partaken of by
+farm-servants and cattle at the time of the barley sowing, for the purpose
+of thereby producing a heavier crop.(991)
+
+
+
+
+§ 12. On the Animal Embodiments of the Corn-spirit.
+
+
+(M261) So much for the animal embodiments of the corn-spirit as they are
+presented to us in the folk-customs of Northern Europe. These customs
+bring out clearly the sacramental character of the harvest-supper. The
+corn-spirit is conceived as embodied in an animal; this divine animal is
+slain, and its flesh and blood are partaken of by the harvesters. Thus,
+the cock, the goose, the hare, the cat, the goat, and the ox are eaten
+sacramentally by the harvesters, and the pig is eaten sacramentally by
+ploughmen in spring.(992) Again, as a substitute for the real flesh of the
+divine being, bread or dumplings are made in his image and eaten
+sacramentally; thus, pig-shaped dumplings are eaten by the harvesters, and
+loaves made in boar-shape (the Yule Boar) are eaten in spring by the
+ploughman and his cattle.
+
+(M262) The reader has probably remarked the complete parallelism between
+the conceptions of the corn-spirit in human and in animal form. The
+parallel may be here briefly resumed. When the corn waves in the wind it
+is said either that the Corn-mother or that the Corn-wolf, etc., is
+passing through the corn. Children are warned against straying in
+corn-fields either because the Corn-mother or because the Corn-wolf, etc.,
+is there. In the last corn cut or the last sheaf threshed either the
+Corn-mother or the Corn-wolf, etc., is supposed to be present. The last
+sheaf is itself called either the Corn-mother or the Corn-wolf, etc., and
+is made up in the shape either of a woman or of a wolf, etc. The person
+who cuts, binds, or threshes the last sheaf is called either the Old Woman
+or the Wolf, etc., according to the name bestowed on the sheaf itself. As
+in some places a sheaf made in human form and called the Maiden, the
+Mother of the Maize, etc., is kept from one harvest to the next in order
+to secure a continuance of the corn-spirit's blessing; so in some places
+the Harvest-cock and in others the flesh of the goat is kept for a similar
+purpose from one harvest to the next. As in some places the grain taken
+from the Corn-mother is mixed with the seed-corn in spring to make the
+crop abundant; so in some places the feathers of the cock, and in Sweden
+the Yule Boar, are kept till spring and mixed with the seed-corn for a
+like purpose. As part of the Corn-mother or Maiden is given to the cattle
+at Christmas or to the horses at the first ploughing, so part of the Yule
+Boar is given to the ploughing horses or oxen in spring. Lastly, the death
+of the corn-spirit is represented by killing or pretending to kill either
+his human or his animal representative; and the worshippers partake
+sacramentally either of the actual body and blood of the representative of
+the divinity, or of bread made in his likeness.
+
+(M263) Other animal forms assumed by the corn-spirit are the stag, roe,
+sheep, bear, ass, mouse, stork, swan, and kite.(993) If it is asked why
+the corn-spirit should be thought to appear in the form of an animal and
+of so many different animals, we may reply that to primitive man the
+simple appearance of an animal or bird among the corn is probably enough
+to suggest a mysterious link between the creature and the corn; and when
+we remember that in the old days, before fields were fenced in, all kinds
+of animals must have been free to roam over them, we need not wonder that
+the corn-spirit should have been identified even with large animals like
+the horse and cow, which nowadays could not, except by a rare accident, be
+found straying in an English corn-field. This explanation applies with
+peculiar force to the very common case in which the animal embodiment of
+the corn-spirit is believed to lurk in the last standing corn. For at
+harvest a number of wild animals, such as hares, rabbits, and partridges,
+are commonly driven by the progress of the reaping into the last patch of
+standing corn, and make their escape from it as it is being cut down. So
+regularly does this happen that reapers and others often stand round the
+last patch of corn armed with sticks or guns, with which they kill the
+animals as they dart out of their last refuge among the stalks. Now,
+primitive man, to whom magical changes of shape seem perfectly credible,
+finds it most natural that the spirit of the corn, driven from his home in
+the ripe grain, should make his escape in the form of the animal which is
+seen to rush out of the last patch of corn as it falls under the scythe of
+the reaper. Thus the identification of the corn-spirit with an animal is
+analogous to the identification of him with a passing stranger. As the
+sudden appearance of a stranger near the harvest-field or threshing-floor
+is, to the primitive mind, enough to identify him as the spirit of the
+corn escaping from the cut or threshed corn, so the sudden appearance of
+an animal issuing from the cut corn is enough to identify it with the
+corn-spirit escaping from his ruined home. The two identifications are so
+analogous that they can hardly be dissociated in any attempt to explain
+them. Those who look to some other principle than the one here suggested
+for the explanation of the latter identification are bound to shew that
+their theory covers the former identification also.
+
+
+
+
+
+NOTE. THE PLEIADES IN PRIMITIVE CALENDARS.
+
+
+(M264) The constellation of the Pleiades plays an important part in the
+calendar of primitive peoples, both in the northern and in the southern
+hemisphere; indeed for reasons which at first sight are not obvious
+savages appear to have paid more attention to this constellation than to
+any other group of stars in the sky, and in particular they have commonly
+timed the various operations of the agricultural year by observation of
+its heliacal rising or setting. Some evidence on the subject was adduced
+by the late Dr. Richard Andree,(994) but much more exists, and it may be
+worth while to put certain of the facts together.
+
+(M265) In the first place it deserves to be noticed that great attention
+has been paid to the Pleiades by savages in the southern hemisphere who do
+not till the ground, and who therefore lack that incentive to observe the
+stars which is possessed by peoples in the agricultural stage of society;
+for we can scarcely doubt that in early ages the practical need of
+ascertaining the proper seasons for sowing and planting has done more than
+mere speculative curiosity to foster a knowledge of astronomy by
+compelling savages to scrutinise the great celestial clock for indications
+of the time of year. Now amongst the rudest of savages known to us are the
+Australian aborigines, none of whom in their native state ever practised
+agriculture. Yet we are told that "they do, according to their manner,
+worship the hosts of heaven, and believe particular constellations rule
+natural causes. For such they have names, and sing and dance to gain the
+favour of the Pleiades (_Mormodellick_), the constellation worshipped by
+one body as the giver of rain; but if it should be deferred, instead of
+blessings curses are apt to be bestowed upon it."(995) According to a
+writer, whose evidence on other matters of Australian beliefs is open to
+grave doubt, some of the aborigines of New South Wales denied that the sun
+is the source of heat, because he shines also in winter when the weather
+is cold; the real cause of warm weather they held to be the Pleiades,
+because as the summer heat increases, that constellation rises higher and
+higher in the sky, reaching its greatest elevation in the height of
+summer, and gradually sinking again in autumn as the days grow cooler,
+till in winter it is either barely visible or lost to view
+altogether.(996) Another writer, who was well acquainted with the natives
+of Victoria in the early days of the colony and whose testimony can be
+relied upon, tells us that an old chief of the Spring Creek tribe "taught
+the young people the names of the favourite planets and constellations, as
+indications of the seasons. For example, when Canopus is a very little
+above the horizon in the east at daybreak, the season for emu eggs has
+come; when the Pleiades are visible in the east an hour before sunrise,
+the time for visiting friends and neighbouring tribes is at hand."(997)
+
+(M266) Again, the Abipones of Paraguay, who neither sowed nor reaped,(998)
+nevertheless regarded the Pleiades as an image of their ancestor. As that
+constellation is invisible in the sky of South America for several months
+every year, the Abipones believed that their ancestor was then sick, and
+they were dreadfully afraid that he would die. But when the constellation
+reappeared in the month of May, they saluted the return of their ancestor
+with joyous shouts and the glad music of flutes and horns, and they
+congratulated him on his recovery from sickness. Next day they all went
+out to collect wild honey, from which they brewed a favourite beverage.
+Then at sunset they feasted and kept up the revelry all night by the light
+of torches, while a sorceress, who presided at the festivity, shook her
+rattle and danced. But the proceedings were perfectly decorous; the sexes
+did not mix with each other.(999) The Mocobis of Paraguay also looked upon
+the Pleiades as their father and creator.(1000) The Guaycurus of the Gran
+Chaco used to rejoice greatly at the reappearance of the Pleiades. On this
+occasion they held a festival at which men and women, boys and girls all
+beat each other soundly, believing that this brought them health,
+abundance, and victory over their enemies.(1001) Amongst the Lengua
+Indians of Paraguay at the present day the rising of the Pleiades is
+connected with the beginning of spring, and feasts are held at this time,
+generally of a markedly immoral character.(1002) The Guaranis of Paraguay
+knew the time of sowing by observation of the Pleiades;(1003) they are
+said to have revered the constellation and to have dated the beginning of
+their year from the rising of the constellation in May.(1004) The
+Tapuiyas, formerly a numerous and warlike tribe of Brazil, hailed the
+rising of the Pleiades with great respect, and worshipped the
+constellation with songs and dances.(1005) The Indians of north-western
+Brazil, an agricultural people who subsist mainly by the cultivation of
+manioc, determine the time for their various field labours by the position
+of certain constellations, especially the Pleiades; when that
+constellation has sunk beneath the horizon, the regular, heavy rains set
+in.(1006) The Omagua Indians of Brazil ascribe to the Pleiades a special
+influence on human destiny.(1007) A Brazilian name for the Pleiades is
+_Cyiuce_, that is, "Mother of those who are thirsty." The constellation,
+we are told, "is known to the Indians of the whole of Brasil and appears
+to be even worshipped by some tribes in Matto Grosso. In the valley of the
+Amazon a number of popular sayings are current about it. Thus they say
+that in the first days of its appearance in the firmament, while it is
+still low, the birds and especially the fowls sleep on the lower branches
+or perches, and that just as it rises so do they; that it brings much cold
+and rain; that when the constellation vanishes, the serpents lose their
+venom; that the reeds used in making arrows must be cut before the
+appearance of the Pleiades, else they will be worm-eaten. According to the
+legend the Pleiades disappear in May and reappear in June. Their
+reappearance coincides with the renewal of vegetation and of animal life.
+Hence the legend relates that everything which appears before the
+constellation is renewed, that is, the appearance of the Pleiades, marks
+the beginning of spring."(1008) The Indians of the Orinoco called the
+Pleiades _Ucasu_ or _Cacasau_, according to their dialect, and they dated
+the beginning of their year from the time when these stars are visible in
+the east after sunset.(1009)
+
+(M267) By the Indians of Peru "the Pleiades were called _Collca_ (the
+maize-heap): in this constellation the Peruvians both of the sierra and
+the coast beheld the prototype of their cherished stores of corn. It made
+their maize to grow, and was worshipped accordingly."(1010) When the
+Pleiades appeared above the horizon on or about Corpus Christi Day, these
+Indians celebrated their chief festival of the year and adored the
+constellation "in order that the maize might not dry up."(1011) Adjoining
+the great temple of the Sun at Cuzco there was a cloister with halls
+opening off it. One of these halls was dedicated to the Moon, and another
+to the planet Venus, the Pleiades, and all the other stars. The Incas
+venerated the Pleiades because of their curious position and the symmetry
+of their shape.(1012) The tribes of Vera Cruz, on the coast of Mexico,
+dated the beginning of their year from the heliacal setting of the
+Pleiades, which in the latitude of Vera Cruz (19 deg. N.) in the year 1519
+fell on the first of May of the Gregorian calendar.(1013) The Aztecs
+appear to have attached great importance to the Pleiades, for they timed
+the most solemn and impressive of all their religious ceremonies so as to
+coincide with the moment when that constellation was in the middle of the
+sky at midnight. The ceremony consisted in kindling a sacred new fire on
+the breast of a human victim on the last night of a great period of
+fifty-two years. They expected that at the close of one of these periods
+the stars would cease to revolve and the world itself would come to an
+end. Hence, when the critical moment approached, the priests watched from
+the top of a mountain the movement of the stars, and especially of the
+Pleiades, with the utmost anxiety. When that constellation was seen to
+cross the meridian, great was the joy; for they knew that the world was
+respited for another fifty-two years. Immediately the bravest and
+handsomest of the captives was thrown down on his back; a board of dry
+wood was placed on his breast, and one of the priests made fire by
+twirling a stick between his hands on the board. As soon as the flame
+burst forth, the breast of the victim was cut open, his heart was torn
+out, and together with the rest of his body was thrown into the fire.
+Runners carried the new fire at full speed to all parts of the kingdom to
+rekindle the cold hearths; for every fire throughout the country had been
+extinguished as a preparation for this solemn rite.(1014)
+
+(M268) The Blackfeet Indians of North America "know and observe the
+Pleiades, and regulate their most important feast by those stars. About
+the first and the last days of the occultation of the Pleiades there is a
+sacred feast among the Blackfeet. The mode of observance is national, the
+whole of the tribe turning out for the celebration of its rites, which
+include two sacred vigils, the solemn blessing and planting of the seed.
+It is the opening of the agricultural season.... In all highly religious
+feasts the calumet, or pipe, is always presented towards the Pleiades,
+with invocation for life-giving goods. The women swear by the Pleiades as
+the men do by the sun or the morning star." At the general meeting of the
+nation there is a dance of warriors, which is supposed to represent the
+dance of the seven young men who are identified with the Pleiades. For the
+Indians say that the seven stars of the constellation were seven brothers,
+who guarded by night the field of sacred seed and danced round it to keep
+themselves awake during the long hours of darkness.(1015) According to
+another legend told by the Blackfeet, the Pleiades are six children, who
+were so ashamed because they had no little yellow hides of buffalo calves
+that they wandered away on the plains and were at last taken up into the
+sky. "They are not seen during the moon, when the buffalo calves are
+yellow (spring, the time of their shame), but, every year, when the calves
+turn brown (autumn), the lost children can be seen in the sky every
+night."(1016) This version of the myth, it will be observed, recognises
+only six stars in the constellation, and many savages apparently see no
+more, which speaks ill for the keenness of their vision; since among
+ourselves persons endowed with unusually good sight are able, I
+understand, to discern seven. Among the Pueblo Indians of Tusayan, an
+ancient province of Arizona, the culmination of the Pleiades is often used
+to determine the proper time for beginning a sacred nocturnal rite,
+especially an invocation addressed to the six deities who are believed to
+rule the six quarters of the world. The writer who records this fact adds:
+"I cannot explain its significance, and why of all stellar objects this
+minute cluster of stars of a low magnitude is more important than other
+stellar groups is not clear to me."(1017) If the Pueblo Indians see only
+six stars in the cluster, as to which I cannot speak, it might seem to
+them a reason for assigning one of the stars to each of the six quarters,
+namely, north, south, east, west, above, and below.
+
+(M269) The Society Islanders in the South Pacific divided the year into
+two seasons, which they determined by observation of the Pleiades. "The
+first they called _Matarii i nia_, Pleiades above. It commenced when, in
+the evening, these stars appeared on or near the horizon; and the half
+year, during which, immediately after sunset, they were seen above the
+horizon, was called _Matarii i nia_. The other season commenced when, at
+sunset, the stars were invisible, and continued until at that hour they
+appeared again above the horizon. This season was called _Matarii i raro_,
+Pleiades below."(1018) In the Hervey Islands of the South Pacific it is
+said that the constellation was originally a single star, which was
+shattered into six fragments by the god Tane. "This cluster of little
+stars is appropriately named Mata-riki or _little-eyes_, on account of
+their brightness. It is also designated Tau-ono, or _the-six_, on account
+of the apparent number of the fragments; the presence of the seventh star
+not having been detected by the unassisted native eye."(1019) Among these
+islanders the arrival of the new year was indicated by the appearance of
+the constellation on the eastern horizon just after sunset, that is, about
+the middle of December. "Hence the idolatrous worship paid to this
+beautiful cluster of stars in many of the South Sea Islands. The Pleiades
+were worshipped at Danger Island, and at the Penrhyns, down to the
+introduction of Christianity in 1857. In many islands extravagant joy is
+still manifested at the rising of this constellation out of the
+ocean."(1020) For example, in Manahiki or Humphrey's Island, South
+Pacific, "when the constellation Pleiades was seen there was unusual joy
+all over the month, and expressed by singing, dancing, and blowing-shell
+trumpets."(1021) So the Maoris of New Zealand, another Polynesian people
+of the South Pacific, divided the year into moons and determined the first
+moon by the rising of the Pleiades, which they called _Matariki_.(1022)
+Indeed throughout Polynesia the rising of the Pleiades (variously known as
+Matariki, Mataliki, Matalii, Makalii, etc.) seems to have marked the
+beginning of the year.(1023)
+
+(M270) Among some of the Melanesians also the Pleiades occupy an important
+position in the calendar. "The Banks' islanders and Northern New Hebrides
+people content themselves with distinguishing the Pleiades, by which the
+approach of yam harvest is marked."(1024) "Amongst the constellations, the
+Pleiades and Orion's belt seem to be those which are most familiar to the
+natives of Bougainville Straits. The former, which they speak of as
+possessing six stars, they name _Vuhu_; the latter _Matatala_. They have
+also names for a few other stars. As in the case of many other savage
+races, the Pleiades is a constellation of great significance with the
+inhabitants of these straits. The Treasury Islanders hold a great feast
+towards the end of October, to celebrate, as far as I could learn, the
+approaching appearance of the constellation above the eastern horizon soon
+after sunset. Probably, as in many of the Pacific Islands, this event
+marks the beginning of their year. I learned from Mr. Stephens that, in
+Ugi, where of all the constellations the Pleiades alone receives a name,
+the natives are guided by it in selecting the times for planting and
+taking up the yams."(1025)
+
+(M271) The natives of the Torres Straits islands observe the appearance of
+the Pleiades (_Usiam_) on the horizon at sunset; and when they see it,
+they say that the new yam time has come.(1026) The Kai and the Bukaua, two
+agricultural tribes of German New Guinea, also determine the season of
+their labour in the fields by observation of the Pleiades: the Kai say
+that the time for such labours is when the Pleiades are visible above the
+horizon at night.(1027) In some districts of northern Celebes the
+rice-fields are similarly prepared for cultivation when the Pleiades are
+seen at a certain height above the horizon.(1028) As to the Dyaks of
+Sarawak we read that "the Pleiades themselves tell them when to farm; and
+according to their position in the heavens, morning and evening, do they
+cut down the forest, burn, plant, and reap. The Malays are obliged to
+follow their example, or their lunar year would soon render their farming
+operations unprofitable."(1029) When the season for clearing fresh land in
+the forest approaches, a wise man is appointed to go out before dawn and
+watch for the Pleiades. As soon as the constellation is seen to rise while
+it is yet dark, they know that the time has come to begin. But not until
+the Pleiades are at the zenith before dawn do the Dyaks think it desirable
+to burn the fallen timber and to sow the rice.(1030) However, the Kenyahs
+and Kayans, two other tribes of Sarawak, determine the agricultural
+seasons by observation of the sun rather than of the stars; and for this
+purpose they have devised certain simple but ingenious mechanisms. The
+Kenyahs measure the length of the shadow cast by an upright pole at noon;
+and the Kayans let in a beam of light through a hole in the roof and
+measure the distance from the point immediately below the hole to the
+place where the light reaches the floor.(1031) But the Kayans of the
+Mahakam river, in Dutch Borneo, determine the time for sowing by observing
+when the sun sets in a line with two upright stones.(1032) In Bali, an
+island to the east of Java, the appearance of the Pleiades at sunset in
+March marks the end of the year.(1033) The Pleiades and Orion are the only
+constellations which the people of Bali observe for the purpose of
+correcting their lunar calendar by intercalation. For example, they bring
+the lunar year into harmony with the solar by prolonging the month Asada
+until the Pleiades are visible at sunset.(1034) The natives of Nias, an
+island to the south of Sumatra, pay little heed to the stars, but they
+have names for the Morning Star and for the Pleiades; and when the
+Pleiades appear in the sky, the people assemble to till their fields, for
+they think that to do so before the rising of the constellation would be
+useless.(1035) In some districts of Sumatra "much confusion in regard to
+the period of sowing is said to have arisen from a very extraordinary
+cause. Anciently, say the natives, it was regulated by the stars, and
+particularly by the appearance (heliacal rising) of the _bintang baniak_
+or Pleiades; but after the introduction of the Mahometan religion, they
+were induced to follow the returns of the _puasa_ or great annual fast,
+and forgot their old rules. The consequence of this was obvious; for the
+lunar year of the _hejrah_ being eleven days short of the sidereal or
+solar year, the order of the seasons was soon inverted; and it is only
+astonishing that its inaptness to the purposes of agriculture should not
+have been immediately discovered."(1036) The Battas or Bataks of central
+Sumatra date the various operations of the agricultural year by the
+positions of Orion and the Pleiades. When the Pleiades rise before the sun
+at the beginning of July, the Achinese of northern Sumatra know that the
+time has come to sow the rice.(1037)
+
+(M272) Scattered and fragmentary as these notices are, they suffice to
+shew that the Pleiades have received much attention from savages in the
+tropical regions of the world from Brasil in the east to Sumatra in the
+west. Far to the north of the tropics the rude Kamchatkans are said to
+know only three constellations, the Great Bear, the Pleiades, and three
+stars in Orion.(1038) When we pass to Africa we again find the Pleiades
+employed by tribes in various parts of the continent to mark the seasons
+of the agricultural year. We have seen that the Caffres of South Africa
+date their new year from the rising of the Pleiades just before sunrise
+and fix the time for sowing by observation of that constellation.(1039)
+"They calculate only twelve lunar months for the year, for which they have
+descriptive names, and this results in frequent confusion and difference
+of opinion as to which month it really is. The confusion is always
+rectified by the first appearance of Pleiades just before sunrise, and a
+fresh start is made and things go on smoothly till once more the moons get
+out of place, and reference has again to be made to the stars."(1040)
+According to another authority on the Bantu tribes of South Africa, "the
+rising of the Pleiades shortly after sunset was regarded as indicating the
+planting season. To this constellation, as well as to several of the
+prominent stars and planets, they gave expressive names. They formed no
+theories concerning the nature of the heavenly bodies and their motions,
+and were not given to thinking of such things."(1041) The Amazulu call the
+Pleiades _Isilimela_, which means "The digging-for (stars)," because when
+the Pleiades appear the people begin to dig. They say that "_Isilimela_
+(the Pleiades) dies, and is not seen. It is not seen in winter; and at
+last, when the winter is coming to an end, it begins to appear--one of its
+stars first, and then three, until going on increasing it becomes a
+cluster of stars, and is perfectly clear when the sun is about to rise.
+And we say _Isilimela_ is renewed, and the year is renewed, and so we
+begin to dig."(1042) The Bechuanas "are directed by the position of
+certain stars in the heavens, that the time has arrived, in the revolving
+year, when particular roots can be dug up for use, or when they may
+commence their labours of the field. This is their _likhakologo_ (turnings
+or revolvings), or what we should call the spring time of the year. The
+Pleiades they call _selemela_, which may be translated 'cultivator,' or
+the precursor of agriculture, from _lemela_, the relative verb to
+cultivate _for_; and _se_, a pronominal prefix, distinguishing them as the
+actors. Thus, when this constellation assumes a certain position in the
+heavens, it is the signal to commence cultivating their fields and
+gardens."(1043) Among some of these South African tribes the period of
+seclusion observed by lads after circumcision comes to an end with the
+appearance of the Pleiades, and accordingly the youths are said to long as
+ardently for the rising of the constellation as Mohammedans for the rising
+of the moon which will put an end to the fast of Ramadan.(1044) The
+Hottentots date the seasons of the year by the rising and setting of the
+Pleiades.(1045) An early Moravian missionary settled among the Hottentots,
+reports that "at the return of the Pleiades these natives celebrate an
+anniversary; as soon as these stars appear above the eastern horizon
+mothers will lift their little ones on their arms, and running up to
+elevated spots, will show to them those friendly stars, and teach them to
+stretch their little hands towards them. The people of a kraal will
+assemble to dance and to sing according to the old custom of their
+ancestors. The chorus always sings: 'O Tiqua, our Father above our heads,
+give rain to us, that the fruits (bulbs, etc.), _uientjes_, may ripen, and
+that we may have plenty of food, send us a good year.' "(1046) With some
+tribes of British Central Africa the rising of the Pleiades early in the
+evening is the signal for the hoeing to begin.(1047) To the Masai of East
+Africa the appearance of the Pleiades in the wrest is the sign of the
+beginning of the rainy season, which takes its name from the
+constellation.(1048) In Masailand the Pleiades are above the horizon from
+September till about the seventeenth of May; and the people, as they
+express it themselves, "know whether it will rain or not according to the
+appearance or non-appearance of the six stars, called The Pleiades, which
+follow after one another like cattle. When the month which the Masai call
+'Of the Pleiades'(1049) arrives, and the Pleiades are no longer visible,
+they know that the rains are over. For the Pleiades set in that month and
+are not seen again until the season of showers has come to an end:(1050)
+it is then that they reappear."(1051) The only other groups of stars for
+which the Masai appear to have names are Orion's sword and Orion's
+belt.(1052) The Nandi of British East Africa have a special name
+(_Koremerik_) for the Pleiades, "and it is by the appearance or
+non-appearance of these stars that the Nandi know whether they may expect
+a good or a bad harvest."(1053) The Kikuyu of the same region say that
+"the Pleiades is the mark in the heavens to show the people when to plant
+their crops; they plant when this constellation is in a certain position
+early in the night."(1054) In Sierra Leone "the proper time for preparing
+the plantations is shewn by the particular situation in which the
+Pleiades, called by the Bulloms _a-warrang_, the only stars which they
+observe or distinguish by peculiar names, are to be seen at sunset."(1055)
+We have seen that ancient Greek farmers reaped their corn when the
+Pleiades rose at sunrise in May, and that they ploughed their fields when
+the constellation set at sunrise in November.(1056) The interval between
+the two dates is about six months. Both the Greeks and the Romans dated
+the beginning of summer from the heliacal rising of the Pleiades and the
+beginning of winter from their heliacal setting.(1057) Pliny regarded the
+autumnal setting of the Pleiades as the proper season for sowing the corn,
+particularly the wheat and the barley, and he tells us that in Greece and
+Asia all the crops were sown at the setting of that constellation.(1058)
+
+(M273) So widespread over the world has been and is the association of the
+Pleiades with agriculture, especially with the sowing or planting of the
+crops. The reason for the association seems to be the coincidence of the
+rising or setting of the constellation with the commencement of the rainy
+season; since men must very soon have learned that the best, if not the
+only, season to sow and plant is the time of year when the newly-planted
+seeds or roots will be quickened by abundant showers. The same association
+of the Pleiades with rain seems sufficient to explain their importance
+even for savages who do not till the ground; for ignorant though such
+races are, they yet can hardly fail to observe that wild fruits grow more
+plentifully, and therefore that they themselves have more to eat after a
+heavy fall of rain than after a long drought. In point of fact we saw that
+some of the Australian aborigines, who are wholly ignorant of agriculture,
+look on the Pleiades as the givers of rain, and curse the constellation if
+its appearance is not followed by the expected showers.(1059) On the other
+side of the world, and at the opposite end of the scale of culture, the
+civilised Greeks similarly supposed that the autumnal setting of the
+Pleiades was the cause of the rains which followed it; and the
+astronomical writer Geminus thought it worth while to argue against the
+supposition, pointing out that the vicissitudes of the weather and of the
+seasons, though they may coincide with the risings and settings of the
+constellations, are not produced by them, the stars being too distant from
+the earth to exercise any appreciable influence on our atmosphere. Hence,
+he says, though the constellations serve as the signals, they must not be
+regarded as the causes, of atmospheric changes; and he aptly illustrates
+the distinction by a reference to beacon-fires, which are the signals, but
+not the causes, of war.(1060)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+FOOTNOTES
+
+
+   M1 Death and resurrection of Oriental gods of vegetation. The Dying and
+      Reviving god of vegetation in ancient Greece.
+   M2 Dionysus, the god of the vine, originally a Thracian deity.
+
+    1 On Dionysus in general, see L. Preller, _Griechische Mythologie_,4
+      i. 659 _sqq._; Fr. Lenormant, _s.v._ "Bacchus," in Daremberg and
+      Saglio's _Dictionnaire des Antiquites Grecques et Romaines_, i. 591
+      _sqq._; Voigt and Thraemer, _s.v._ "Dionysus," in W. H. Roscher's
+      _Lexikon der griech. u. roem. Mythologie_, i. 1029 _sqq._; E. Rohde,
+      _Psyche_3 (Tuebingen and Leipsic, 1903), ii. 1 _sqq._; Miss J. E.
+      Harrison, _Prolegomena to the Study of Greek Religion_, Second
+      Edition (Cambridge, 1908), pp. 363 _sqq._; Kern, _s.v._ "Dionysus,"
+      in Pauly-Wissowa's _Real-Encyclopaedie der classischen
+      Altertumswissenschaft_, v. 1010 _sqq._; M. P. Nilsson, _Griechische
+      Feste von religioeser Bedeutung_ (Leipsic, 1906), pp. 258 _sqq._; L.
+      R. Farnell, _The Cults of the Greek States_, v. (Oxford, 1909) pp.
+      85 _sqq._ The epithet _Bromios_ bestowed on Dionysus, and his
+      identification with the Thracian and Phrygian deity Sabazius, have
+      been adduced as evidence that Dionysus was a god of beer or of other
+      cereal intoxicants before he became a god of wine. See W. Headlam,
+      in _Classical Review_, xv. (1901) p. 23; Miss J. E. Harrison,
+      _Prolegomena to the Study of Greek Religion_, pp. 414-426.
+
+    2 Plato, _Laws_, i. p. 637 E; Theopompus, cited by Athenaeus, x. 60,
+      p. 442 E F; Suidas, _s.v._ {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ZETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}; compare Xenophon,
+      _Anabasis_, vii. 3. 32. For the evidence of the Thracian origin of
+      Dionysus, see the writers cited in the preceding note, especially
+      Dr. L. R. Farnell, _op. cit._ v. 85 _sqq._ Compare W. Ridgeway, _The
+      Origin of Tragedy_ (Cambridge, 1910), pp. 10 _sqq._
+
+    3 Herodotus, ii. 49; Diodorus Siculus, i. 97. 4; P. Foucart, _Le Culte
+      de Dionyse en Attique_ (Paris, 1904), pp. 9 _sqq._, 159 _sqq._
+      (_Memoires de l'Academie des Inscriptions et Belles-lettres_,
+      xxxvii.).
+
+   M3 Dionysus a god of trees, especially of fruit-trees.
+
+    4 Plutarch, _Quaest. Conviv._ v. 3: {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH YPOGEGRAMMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH YPOGEGRAMMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}
+      {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}, {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER EPSILON WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}.
+
+    5 Hesychius, _s.v._ {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}.
+
+    6 See the pictures of his images, drawn from ancient vases, in C.
+      Boetticher's _Baumkultus der Hellenen_ (Berlin, 1856), plates 42, 43,
+      43 A, 43 B, 44; Daremberg et Saglio, _Dictionnaire des Antiquites
+      Grecques et Romaines_, i. 361, 626 _sq._
+
+    7 Daremberg et Saglio, _op. cit._ i. 626.
+
+    8 P. Wendland und O. Kern, _Beitraege zur Geschichte der griechischen
+      Philosophie und Religion_ (Berlin, 1895), pp. 79 _sqq._; Ch. Michel,
+      _Recueil d' Inscriptions Grecques_ (Brussels, 1900), No. 856.
+
+    9 Cornutus, _Theologiae Graecae Compendium_, 30.
+
+   10 Pindar, quoted by Plutarch, _Isis et Osiris_, 35.
+
+   11 Maximus Tyrius, _Dissertat._ viii. 1.
+
+   12 Athenaeus, iii. chs. 14 and 23, pp. 78 C, 82 D.
+
+_   13 Orphica_, Hymn l. 4. liii. 8.
+
+   14 Aelian, _Var. Hist._ iii. 41; Hesychius, _s.v._ {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}[{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}]. Compare
+      Plutarch, _Quaest. Conviv._ v. 8. 3.
+
+   15 Pausanias, i. 31. 4; _id._ vii. 21. 6.
+
+   16 Dittenberger, _Sylloge Inscriptionum Graecarum_,2 No. 636, vol. ii.
+      p. 435, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI AND YPOGEGRAMMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH YPOGEGRAMMENI~}. However, the words may equally
+      well refer to the cereal crops.
+
+   17 Plutarch, _Quaest. Conviv._ v. 3.
+
+   18 Pausanias, ii. 2. 6 _sq._ Pausanias does not mention the kind of
+      tree; but from Euripides, _Bacchae_, 1064 _sqq._, and Philostratus,
+      _Imag._ i. 17 (18), we may infer that it was a pine, though
+      Theocritus (xxvi. 11) speaks of it as a mastich-tree.
+
+   19 Mueller-Wieseler, _Denkmaeler der alten Kunst_, ii. pll. xxxii.
+      _sqq._; A. Baumeister, _Denkmaeler des klassischen Altertums_, i.
+      figures 489, 491, 492, 495. Compare F. Lenormant, in Daremberg et
+      Saglio, _Dictionnaire des Antiquites Grecques et Romaines_, i. 623;
+      Ch. F. Lobeck, _Aglaophamus_ (Koenigsberg, 1829), p. 700.
+
+   20 Pausanias, i. 31. 6.
+
+   21 Athenaeus, iii. 14, p. 78 C.
+
+   M4 Dionysus as a god of agriculture and the corn. The winnowing-fan as
+      an emblem of Dionysus.
+
+   22 Himerius, _Orat._ i. 10, {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}.
+
+   23 Diodorus Siculus, iii. 64. 1-3, iv. 4. 1 _sq._ On the agricultural
+      aspect of Dionysus, see L. R. Farnell, _The Cults of the Greek
+      States_, v. (Oxford, 1909) pp. 123 _sq._
+
+   24 [Aristotle,] _Mirab. Auscult._ 122 (p. 842 A, ed. Im. Bekker, Berlin
+      edition).
+
+   25 Servius on Virgil, _Georg._ i. 166; Plutarch, _Isis et Osiris_, 35.
+      The literary and monumental evidence as to the winnowing-fan in the
+      myth and ritual of Dionysus has been collected and admirably
+      interpreted by Miss J. E. Harrison in her article "Mystica Vannus
+      Iacchi," _Journal of Hellenic Studies_, xxiii. (1903) pp. 292-324.
+      Compare her _Prolegomena to the Study of Greek Religion_2
+      (Cambridge, 1908), pp. 517 _sqq._ I must refer the reader to these
+      works for full details on the subject. In the passage of Servius
+      referred to the reading is somewhat uncertain; in his critical
+      edition G. Thilo reads {~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} and {~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} instead of the usual
+      {~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} and {~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}. But the variation does not affect the meaning.
+
+   M5 Use of the winnowing-fan to cradle infants. The winnowing-fan
+      sometimes intended to avert evil spirits from children.
+
+   26 {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ZETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}
+      {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ZETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}, Scholiast on Callimachus, i. 48 (_Callimachea_, edidit
+      O. Schneider, Leipsic, 1870-1873, vol. i. p. 109).
+
+   27 T. S. Raffles, _History of Java_ (London, 1817), i. 323; C. F.
+      Winter, "Instellingen, Gewoontenen Gebruiken der Javanen te
+      Soerakarta," _Tijdschrift voor Neerlands Indie_, Vijfde Jaargang,
+      Eerste Deel (1843), p. 695; P. J. Veth, _Java_ (Haarlem, 1875-1884),
+      i. 639.
+
+   28 C. Poensen, "Iets over de kleeding der Javanen," _Mededeelingen van
+      wege het Nederlandsche Zendelinggenootschap_, xx. (1876) pp. 279
+      _sq._
+
+   29 Rev. J. Doolittle, _Social Life of the Chinese_, edited and revised
+      by the Rev. Paxton Hood (London, 1868), pp. 90 _sq._
+
+   30 Rev. E. M. Gordon, "Some Notes concerning the People of Mungeli
+      Tahsil, Bilaspur District," _Journal of the Asiatic Society of
+      Bengal_, lxxi., Part iii. (Calcutta, 1903) p. 74; _id._, _Indian
+      Folk Tales_ (London, 1908), p. 41.
+
+   31 C. B. Klunzinger, _Bilder aus Oberaegypten_ (Stuttgart, 1877), pp.
+      181, 182; _id._, _Upper Egypt, its People and Products_ (London,
+      1878), pp. 185, 186.
+
+   32 R. C. Temple, "Opprobrious Names," _Indian Antiquary_, x. (1881) pp.
+      331 _sq._ Compare H. A. Rose, "Hindu Birth Observances in the
+      Punjab," _Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute_, xxxvii.
+      (1907) p. 234. See also _Panjab Notes and Queries_, vol. iii. August
+      1886, § 768, pp. 184 _sq._: "The winnowing fan in which a newly-born
+      child is laid, is used on the fifth day for the worship of Satwai.
+      This makes it impure, and it is henceforward used only for the
+      house-sweepings."
+
+   33 Lieut.-Colonel Gunthorpe, "On the Ghosi or Gaddi Gaolis of the
+      Deccan," _Journal of the Anthropological Society of Bombay_, i. 45.
+
+   34 C. Bock, _Temples and Elephants_ (London, 1884), pp. 258 _sq._
+
+   M6 Use of the winnowing-fan to avert evil from children in India,
+      Madagascar, and China. Karen ceremony of fanning away evils from
+      children.
+
+   35 S. Mateer, _Native Life in Travancore_ (London, 1883), p. 213.
+
+   36 J. Richardson, "Tanala Customs, Superstitions, and Beliefs,"
+      _Antananarivo Annual and Madagascar Magazine, Reprint of the First
+      Four Numbers_ (Antananarivo, 1885), pp. 226 _sq._
+
+   37 Pausanias, ii. 31. 8; K. F. Hermann, _Lehrbuch der
+      gottesdienstlichen Alterthuemer der Griechen_2 (Heidelberg, 1858),
+      pp. 132 _sq._, § 23, 25.
+
+   38 Rev. J. Doolittle, _Social Life of the Chinese_, edited and revised
+      by the Rev. Paxton Hood (London, 1868), pp. 114 _sq._ The beans used
+      in the ceremony had previously been placed before an image of the
+      goddess of small-pox.
+
+   39 Rev. F. Mason, D.D., "Physical Character of the Karens," _Journal of
+      the Asiatic Society of Bengal_, New Series, No. cxxxi. (Calcutta,
+      1866), pp. 9 _sq._
+
+   M7 Among the reasons for the use of the winnowing-fan in birth-rites
+      may have been the wish to avert evils and to promote fertility and
+      growth.
+
+   40 Servius on Virgil, _Georg._ i. 166: "_Et vannus Iacchi.... Mystica
+      autem Bacchi ideo ait, quod Liberi patris sacra ad purgationem
+      animae pertinebant: et sic homines ejus mysteriis purgabantur, sicut
+      vannis frumenta purgantur._"
+
+   41 W. Mannhardt, "Kind und Korn," _Mythologische Forschungen_
+      (Strasburg, 1884), pp. 351-374.
+
+   42 W. Mannhardt, _op. cit._ pp. 351 _sqq._
+
+   43 W. Mannhardt, _op. cit._ p. 372, citing A. Wuttke, _Der deutsche
+      Volks-aberglaube_2 (Berlin, 1869), p. 339, § 543; L. Strackerjan,
+      _Aberglaube und Sagen aus dem Herzogthum Oldenburg_ (Oldenburg,
+      1867), i. 81.
+
+   44 Boecler-Kreutzwald, _Der Ehsten aberglaeubische Gebraeuche_ (St.
+      Petersburg, 1854), p. 61. This custom is also cited by Mannhardt
+      (_l.c._).
+
+   M8 Use of the winnowing-fan in the rites of Dionysus.
+
+   45 Miss J. E. Harrison, "Mystica Vannus Iacchi," _Journal of Hellenic
+      Studies_, xxiii. (1903) pp. 296 _sqq._; _id._, _Prolegomena to the
+      Study of Greek Religion_,2 pp. 518 _sqq._; L. R. Farnell, _The Cults
+      of the Greek States_, v. (Oxford, 1909) p. 243.
+
+   46 Herodotus, ii. 48, 49; Clement of Alexandria, _Protrept._ ii. 34,
+      pp. 29-30, ed. Potter; Dittenberger, _Sylloge Inscriptionum
+      Graecarum_,2 No. 19, vol. i. p. 32; M. P. Nilsson, _Studia de
+      Dionysiis Atticis_ (Lund, 1900), pp. 90 _sqq._; L. R. Farnell, _The
+      Cults of the Greek States_, v. 125, 195, 205.
+
+   47 Augustine, _De civitate Dei_, vii. 21.
+
+   M9 Myth of the death and resurrection of Dionysus. Legend that the
+      infant Dionysus occupied for a short time the throne of his father
+      Zeus. Death and resurrection of Dionysus represented in his rites.
+
+   48 Nonnus, _Dionys._ vi. 155-205.
+
+   49 Firmicus Maternus, _De errore profanarum religionum_, 6.
+
+   50 Clement of Alexandria, _Protrept._ ii. 17. Compare Ch. A. Lobeck,
+      _Aglaophamus_, pp. 1111 _sqq._
+
+   51 Proclus on Plato, _Cratylus_, p. 59, quoted by E. Abel, _Orphica_,
+      p. 228. Compare Chr. A. Lobeck, _Aglaophamus_, pp. 552 _sq._
+
+   52 Clement of Alexandria, _Protrept._ ii. 19. Compare _id._ ii. 22;
+      Scholiast on Lucian, _Dial. Meretr._ vii. p. 280, ed. H. Rabe.
+
+   53 Clement of Alexandria, _Protrept._ ii. 18; Proclus on Plato's
+      _Timaeus_, iii. p. 200 D, quoted by Lobeck, _Aglaophamus_, p. 562,
+      and by Abel, _Orphica_, p. 234. Others said that the mangled body
+      was pieced together, not by Apollo but by Rhea (Cornutus,
+      _Theologiae Graecae Compendium_, 30).
+
+   54 Ch. A. Lobeck, _Aglaophamus_, pp. 572 _sqq._ See _The Dying God_, p.
+      3. For a conjectural restoration of the temple, based on ancient
+      authorities and an examination of the scanty remains, see an article
+      by J. H. Middleton, in _Journal of Hellenic Studies_, ix. (1888) pp.
+      282 _sqq._ The ruins of the temple have now been completely
+      excavated by the French.
+
+   55 S. Clemens Romanus, _Recognitiones_, x. 24 (Migne's _Patrologia
+      Graeca_, i. col. 1434).
+
+   56 Diodorus Siculus, iii. 62.
+
+   57 Macrobius, _Comment. in Somn. Scip._ i. 12. 12; _Scriptores rerum
+      mythicarum Latini tres Romae nuper reperti_ (commonly referred to as
+      _Mythographi Vaticani_), ed. G. H. Bode (Cellis, 1834), iii. 12. 5,
+      p. 246; Origen, _Contra Celsum_, iv. 17 (vol. i. p. 286, ed. P.
+      Koetschau).
+
+   58 Himerius, _Orat._ ix. 4.
+
+   59 Proclus, _Hymn to Minerva_, quoted by Ch. A. Lobeck, _Aglaophamus_,
+      p. 561; _Orphica_, ed. E. Abel, p. 235.
+
+   60 Hyginus, _Fabulae_, 167.
+
+   61 The festivals of Dionysus were biennial in many places. See G. F.
+      Schoemann, _Griechische Alterthuemer_,4 ii. 524 _sqq._ (The terms for
+      the festival were {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}, both terms of the series
+      being included in the numeration, in accordance with the ancient
+      mode of reckoning.) Perhaps the festivals were formerly annual and
+      the period was afterwards lengthened, as has happened with other
+      festivals. See W. Mannhardt, _Baumkultus_, pp. 172, 175, 491, 533
+      _sq._, 598. Some of the festivals of Dionysus, however, were annual.
+      Dr. Farnell has conjectured that the biennial period in many Greek
+      festivals is to be explained by "the original shifting of
+      land-cultivation which is frequent in early society owing to the
+      backwardness of the agricultural processes; and which would
+      certainly be consecrated by a special ritual attached to the god of
+      the soil." See L. R. Farnell, _The Cults of the Greek States_, v.
+      180 _sq._
+
+   62 Firmicus Maternus, _De errore profanarum religionum_, 6.
+
+_   63 Mythographi Vaticani_, ed. G. H. Bode, iii. 12. 5, p. 246.
+
+   64 Plutarch, _Consol. ad uxor._ 10. Compare _id._, _Isis et Osiris_,
+      35; _id._, _De E Delphico_, 9; _id._, _De esu carnium_, i. 7.
+
+   65 Pausanias, ii. 31. 2 and 37. 5; Apollodorus, _Bibliotheca_, iii. 5.
+      3.
+
+   66 Pausanias, ii. 37. 5 _sq._; Plutarch, _Isis et Osiris_, 35; _id._,
+      _Quaest. Conviv._ iv. 6. 2.
+
+   67 Himerius, _Orat._ iii. 6, xiv. 7.
+
+   68 For Dionysus in this capacity see F. Lenormant in Daremberg et
+      Saglio, _Dictionnaire des Antiquites Grecques et Romaines_, i. 632.
+      For Osiris, see _Adonis, Attis, Osiris_, Second Edition, pp. 344
+      _sq._
+
+  M10 Dionysus represented in the form of a bull.
+
+   69 Plutarch, _Isis et Osiris_, 35; _id._, _Quaest. Graec._ 36;
+      Athenaeus, xi. 51, p. 476 A; Clement of Alexandria, _Protrept._ ii.
+      16; _Orphica_, Hymn xxx. _vv._ 3, 4, xlv. 1, lii. 2, liii. 8;
+      Euripides, _Bacchae_, 99; Scholiast on Aristophanes, _Frogs_, 357;
+      Nicander, _Alexipharmaca_, 31; Lucian, _Bacchus_, 2. The title
+      {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} applied to Dionysus (_Homeric Hymns_, xxxiv. 2; Porphyry,
+      _De abstinentia_, iii. 17; Dionysius, _Perieg._ 576; _Etymologicum
+      Magnum_, p. 371. 57) is etymologically equivalent to the Sanscrit
+      _varsabha_, "a bull," as I was informed by my lamented friend the
+      late R. A. Neil of Pembroke College, Cambridge.
+
+   70 Euripides, _Bacchae_, 920 _sqq._, 1017; Nonnus, _Dionys._ vi. 197
+      _sqq._
+
+   71 Plutarch, _Isis et Osiris_, 35; Athenaeus, xi. 51, p. 476 A.
+
+   72 Diodorus Siculus, iii. 64. 2, iv. 4. 2; Cornutus, _Theologiae
+      Graecae Compendium_, 30.
+
+   73 Diodorus Siculus, iii. 64. 2; J. Tzetzes, _Schol. on Lycophron_,
+      209, 1236; Philostratus, _Imagines_, i. 14 (15).
+
+   74 Mueller-Wieseler, _Denkmaeler der alten Kunst_, ii. pl. xxxiii.;
+      Daremberg et Saglio, _Dictionnaire des Antiquites Grecques et
+      Romaines_, i. 619 _sq._, 631; W. H. Roscher, _Lexikon d. griech. u.
+      roem. Mythologie_, i. 1149 _sqq._; F. Imhoof-Blumer, "Coin-types of
+      some Kilikian Cities," _Journal of Hellenic Studies_, xviii. (1898)
+      p. 165.
+
+   75 F. G. Welcker, _Alte Denkmaeler_ (Goettingen, 1849-1864), v. taf. 2.
+
+_   76 Archaeologische Zeitung_, ix. (1851) pl. xxxiii., with Gerhard's
+      remarks, pp. 371-373.
+
+_   77 Gazette Archeologique_, v. (1879) pl. 3.
+
+   78 Pausanias, viii. 19. 2.
+
+   79 Plutarch, _Quaestiones Graecae_, 36; _id._, _Isis et Osiris_, 35.
+
+   80 J. Tzetzes, _Schol. on Lycophron_, 1236.
+
+   81 Nonnus, _Dionys._ vi. 205.
+
+   82 Firmicus Maternus, _De errore profanarum religionum_, 6.
+
+   83 Euripides, _Bacchae_, 735 _sqq._; Scholiast on Aristophanes,
+      _Frogs_, 357.
+
+  M11 Dionysus as a goat. Live goats rent and devoured by his worshippers.
+
+   84 Hesychius, _s.v._ {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}, on which there is a marginal
+      gloss {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER XI~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI AND YPOGEGRAMMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH DIALYTIKA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~};
+      Stephanus Byzantius, _s.v._ {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}.
+
+   85 Pausanias, ii. 35. 1; Scholiast on Aristophanes, _Acharn._ 146;
+      _Etymologicum Magnum_, _s.v._ {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}, p. 118. 54 _sqq._; Suidas,
+      _s.vv._ {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} and {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}; Nonnus, _Dionys._ xxvii.
+      302. Compare Conon, _Narrat._ 39, where for {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH YPOGEGRAMMENI~} we should
+      perhaps read {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}.
+
+   86 Pausanias, ii. 13. 6. On their return from Troy the Greeks are said
+      to have found goats and an image of Dionysus in a cave of Euboea
+      (Pausanias, i. 23. 1).
+
+   87 Apollodorus, _Bibliotheca_, iii. 4. 3.
+
+   88 Ovid, _Metam._ v. 329; Antoninus Liberalis, _Transform._ 28;
+      _Mythographi Vaticani_, ed. G. H. Bode, i. 86, p. 29.
+
+   89 Arnobius, _Adversus nationes_, v. 19. Compare Suidas, _s.v._
+      {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ZETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}. As fawns appear to have been also torn in pieces at the
+      rites of Dionysus (Photius, _Lexicon_, _s.v._ {~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ZETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~};
+      Harpocration, _s.v._ {~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ZETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}), it is probable that the fawn was
+      another of the god's embodiments. But of this there seems no direct
+      evidence. Fawn-skins were worn both by the god and his worshippers
+      (Cornutus, _Theologiae Graecae Compendium_, 30). Similarly the
+      female Bacchanals wore goat-skins (Hesychius, _s.v._ {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}).
+
+  M12 Custom of rending and devouring animals and men as a religious rite.
+      Ceremonial cannibalism among the Indians of British Columbia.
+
+   90 Mr. Duncan, quoted by Commander R. C. Mayne, _Four Years in British
+      Columbia and Vancouver Island_ (London, 1862), pp. 284-288. The
+      instrument which made the screeching sound was no doubt a
+      bull-roarer, a flat piece of stick whirled at the end of a string so
+      as to produce a droning or screaming note according to the speed of
+      revolution. Such instruments are used by the Koskimo Indians of the
+      same region at their cannibal and other rites. See Fr. Boas, "The
+      Social Organization and the Secret Societies of the Kwakiutl
+      Indians," _Report of the U.S. National Museum for 1895_ (Washington,
+      1897), pp. 610, 611.
+
+  M13 Religious societies of Cannibals and Dog-eaters among the Indians of
+      British Columbia. Live goats rent in pieces and devoured by fanatics
+      in Morocco.
+
+   91 Fr. Boas, _op. cit._ pp. 437-443, 527 _sq._, 536, 537 _sq._, 579,
+      664; _id._, in "Fifth Report on the North-western Tribes of Canada,"
+      _Report of the British Association for 1889_, pp. 54-56 (separate
+      reprint); _id._, in "Sixth Report on the North-western Tribes of
+      Canada," _Report of the British Association for 1890_, pp. 62, 65
+      _sq._ (separate reprint). As to the rules observed after the eating
+      of human flesh, see _Taboo and the Perils of the Soul_, pp. 188-190.
+
+   92 Fr. Boas, "The Social Organization and the Secret Societies of the
+      Kwakiutl Indians," _Report of the U.S. National Museum for 1895_
+      (Washington, 1897), pp. 649 _sq._, 658 _sq._; _id._, in "Sixth
+      Report on the North-western Tribes of Canada," _Report of the
+      British Association for 1890_, p. 51; (separate reprint); _id._,
+      "Seventh Report on the North-western Tribes of Canada," _Report of
+      the British Association for 1891_, pp. 10 _sq._ (separate reprint);
+      _id._, "Tenth Report on the North-western Tribes of Canada," _Report
+      of the British Association for 1895_, p. 58 (separate reprint).
+
+   93 G. M. Dawson, _Report on the Queen Charlotte Islands, 1878_
+      (Montreal, 1880), pp. 125 B, 128 B.
+
+   94 J. R. Swanton, _Contributions to the Ethnology of the Haida_ (Leyden
+      and New York, 1905), pp. 156, 160 _sq._, 170 _sq._, 181 (_The Jesup
+      North Pacific Expedition, Memoir of the American Museum of Natural
+      History_). For details as to the practice of these savage rites
+      among the Indian coast tribes of British Columbia, see my _Totemism
+      and Exogamy_ (London, 1910), iii. pp. 501, 511 _sq._, 515 _sq._,
+      519, 521, 526, 535 _sq._, 537, 539 _sq._, 542 _sq._, 544, 545.
+
+   95 A. Leared, _Morocco and the Moors_ (London, 1876), pp. 267-269.
+      Compare Budgett Meakin, _The Moors_ (London, 1902), pp. 331 _sq._
+      The same order of fanatics also exists and holds similar orgies in
+      Algeria, especially at the town of Tlemcen. See E. Doutte, _Les
+      Aissaoua a Tlemcen_ (Chalons-sur-Marne, 1900), p. 13.
+
+  M14 Later misinterpretations of the custom of killing a god in animal
+      form.
+
+   96 Varro, _Rerum rusticarum_, i. 2. 19; Virgil, _Georg._ ii. 376-381,
+      with the comments of Servius on the passage and on _Aen._ iii. 118;
+      Ovid, _Fasti_, i. 353 _sqq._; _id._, _Metamorph._ xv. 114 _sq._;
+      Cornutus, _Theologiae Graecae Compendium_, 30.
+
+   97 Euripides, _Bacchae_, 138 _sq._: {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH DASIA AND PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}
+      {~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}.
+
+   98 Schol. on Aristophanes, _Frogs_, 357.
+
+   99 Hera {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} at Sparta, Pausanias, iii. 15. 9; Hesychius, _s.v._
+      {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} (compare the representation of Hera clad in a goat's skin,
+      with the animal's head and horns over her head, Mueller-Wieseler,
+      _Denkmaeler der alten Kunst_, i. No. 229 B; and the similar
+      representation of the Lanuvinian Juno, W. H. Roscher, _Lexikon d.
+      griech. u. roem. Mythologie_, ii. 605 _sqq._); Zeus {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~},
+      _Etymologicum Magnum_, _s.v._ {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}, p. 27. 52 (compare
+      Scholiast on Oppianus, _Halieut._ iii. 10; L. Stephani, in
+      _Compte-Rendu de la Commission Imperiale Archeologique pour l'annee
+      1869_ (St. Petersburg, 1870), pp. 16-18); Apollo {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PSI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} at Elis,
+      Athenaeus, viii. 36, p. 346 B; Artemis {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} in Samos,
+      Hesychius, _s.v._ {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}; compare _id._, _s.v._ {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}.
+      Divine titles derived from killing animals are probably to be
+      similarly explained, as Dionysus {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} (Pausanias, ix. 8. 2);
+      Rhea or Hecate {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} (J. Tzetzes, _Scholia on Lycophron_, 77);
+      Apollo {~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} (Sophocles, _Electra_, 6); Apollo {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}
+      (Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ xxxiv. 70).
+
+  100 See below, vol. ii. pp. 184, 194, 196, 197 _sq._, 233.
+
+  M15 Human sacrifices in the worship of Dionysus.
+
+  101 Porphyry, _De abstinentia_, ii. 55.
+
+  102 Pausanias, ix. 8. 2.
+
+  103 See _The Dying God_, pp. 163 _sq._
+
+  M16 The legendary deaths of Pentheus and Lycurgus may be reminiscences
+      of a custom of sacrificing divine kings in the character of
+      Dionysus.
+
+_  104 Adonis, Attis, Osiris_, Second Edition, pp. 332 _sq._
+
+  105 Apollodorus, _Bibliotheca_, iii. 5. 1.
+
+_  106 The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, i. 344, 345, 346, 352,
+      354, 366 _sq._
+
+  107 Apollodorus, _Bibliotheca_, iii. 5. 1.
+
+  108 Herodotus, vii. 197; Apollodorus, _Bibliotheca_, i. 9. 1 _sq._;
+      Scholiast on Aristophanes, _Clouds_, 257; J. Tzetzes, _Schol. on
+      Lycophron_, 21; Hyginus, _Fabulae_, 1-5. See _The Dying God_, pp.
+      161-163.
+
+  109 Clemens Romanus, _Recognitiones_, x. 24 (Migne's _Patrologia
+      Graeca_, i. col. 1434).
+
+  110 Euripides, _Bacchae_, 43 _sqq._, 1043 _sqq._; Theocritus, _Idyl._
+      xxvi.; Pausanias, ii. 2. 7. Strictly speaking, the murder of
+      Pentheus is said to have been perpetrated not at Thebes, of which he
+      was king, but on Mount Cithaeron.
+
+  M17 Survival of Dionysiac rites among the modern Thracian peasantry.
+
+  111 See Mr. R. M. Dawkins, "The Modern Carnival in Thrace and the Cult
+      of Dionysus," _Journal of Hellenic Studies_, xxvi. (1906) pp.
+      191-206. Mr. Dawkins describes the ceremonies partly from his own
+      observation, partly from an account of them published by Mr. G. M.
+      Vizyenos in a Greek periodical {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}, of which only one
+      number was published at Athens in 1897. From his personal
+      observations Mr. Dawkins was able to confirm the accuracy of Mr.
+      Vizyenos's account.
+
+_  112 Adonis, Attis, Osiris_, Second Edition, pp. 333 _sq._
+
+  M18 Drama annually performed at the Carnival in the villages round Viza,
+      an old Thracian capital. The actors in the drama.
+
+  113 Strabo, vii. frag. 48; Stephanus Byzantius, _s.v._ {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ZETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}.
+
+  114 R. M. Dawkins, _op. cit._ p. 192.
+
+  M19 The ceremonies include the forging of a ploughshare, a mock
+      marriage, and a pretence of death and resurrection.
+  M20 The ceremonies also include a simulation of ploughing and sowing by
+      skin-clad men, accompanied by prayers for good crops.
+
+  115 R. M. Dawkins, "The Modern Carnival in Thrace and the Cult of
+      Dionysus," _Journal of Hellenic Studies_, xxvi. (1906) pp. 193-201.
+
+  M21 Kindred ceremony performed by a masked and skin-clad man who is
+      called a king.
+
+  116 R. M. Dawkins, _op. cit._ pp. 201 _sq._
+
+  M22 Analogy of these modern Thracian ceremonies to the ancient rites of
+      Dionysus.
+
+  117 They have been clearly indicated by Mr. R. M. Dawkins, _op. cit._
+      pp. 203 _sqq._ Compare W. Ridgeway, _The Origin of Tragedy_
+      (Cambridge, 1910), pp. 15 _sqq._, who fully recognises the connexion
+      of the modern Thracian ceremonies with the ancient rites of
+      Dionysus.
+
+  118 Lucian, _Dialogi Deorum_, ix. 2; Apollodorus, _Bibliotheca_, iii. 4.
+      4. According to the latter writer Dionysus was born in the sixth
+      month.
+
+  M23 The modern Thracian celebration seems to correspond most closely to
+      the ancient Athenian festival of the Anthesteria.
+
+  119 As to such festivals of All Souls see _Adonis, Attis, Osiris_,
+      Second Edition, pp. 301-318.
+
+  120 The passages of ancient authors which refer to the Anthesteria are
+      collected by Professor Martin P. Nilsson, _Studia de Dionysiis
+      Atticis_ (Lund, 1900), pp. 148 _sqq._ As to the festival, which has
+      been much discussed of late years, see August Mommsen, _Heortologie_
+      (Leipsic, 1864), pp. 345 _sqq._; _id._, _Feste der Stadt Athen im
+      Altertum_ (Leipsic, 1898), pp. 384 _sqq._; G. F. Schoemann,
+      _Griechische Alterthuemer_4 (Berlin, 1902), ii. 516 _sqq._; E. Rohde,
+      _Psyche_3 (Tuebingen and Leipsic, 1903), i. 236 _sqq._; Martin P.
+      Nilsson, _op. cit._ pp. 115 _sqq._; P. Foucart, _Le Culte de
+      Dionysos en Attique_ (Paris, 1904), pp. 107 _sqq._; Miss J. E.
+      Harrison, _Prolegomena to the Study of Greek Religion_2 (Cambridge,
+      1908), pp. 32 _sqq._; L. R. Farnell, _The Cults of the Greek
+      States_, v. (Oxford, 1909) pp. 214 _sqq._ As to the marriage of
+      Dionysus to the Queen of Athens, see _The Magic Art and the
+      Evolution of Kings_, i. 136 _sq._
+
+  121 By Professor U. von Wilamowitz-Moellendorff, _Aristoteles und Athen_
+      (Berlin, 1893), ii. 42; and afterwards by Miss J. E. Harrison,
+      _Prolegomena to the Study of Greek Religion_,2 p. 536.
+
+_  122 The Dying God_, p. 71.
+
+  123 Plutarch, _Conjugalia Praecepta_, 42.
+
+  124 Miss J. E. Harrison, _Mythology and Monuments of Ancient Athens_
+      (London, 1890), pp. 166 _sq._
+
+  125 Aristotle, _Constitution of Athens_, 3. As to the situation of the
+      Prytaneum see my note on Pausanias, i. 18. 3 (vol. ii. p. 172).
+
+  M24 Theory that the rites of the Anthesteria comprised a drama of the
+      violent death and resurrection of Dionysus.
+
+  126 August Mommsen, _Heortologie_, pp. 371 _sqq._; _id._, _Feste der
+      Stadt Athen im Altertum_, pp. 398 _sqq._; P. Foucart, _Le Culte de
+      Dionysos en Attique_, pp. 138 _sqq._
+
+  127 Demosthenes, _Contra Neaer_. 73, pp. 1369 _sq._; Julius Pollux,
+      viii. 108; _Etymologicum Magnum_, p. 227, _s.v._ {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~};
+      Hesychius, _s.v._ {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}.
+
+  128 Chr. A. Lobeck, _Aglaophamus_, p. 505.
+
+  129 Plutarch, _Isis et Osiris_, 18, 42.
+
+  130 The resurrection of Osiris is not described by Plutarch in his
+      treatise _Isis et Osiris_, which is still our principal source for
+      the myth of the god; but it is fortunately recorded in native
+      Egyptian writings. See _Adonis, Attis, Osiris_, Second Edition, p.
+      274. P. Foucart supposes that the resurrection of Dionysus was
+      enacted at the Anthesteria; August Mommsen prefers to suppose that
+      it was enacted in the following month at the Lesser Mysteries.
+
+  M25 Legends of human sacrifice in the worship of Dionysus may be mere
+      misinterpretations of ritual.
+
+  131 Aelian, _De Natura Animalium_, xii. 34. Compare W. Robertson Smith,
+      _Religion of the Semites_2 (London, 1894), pp. 300 _sqq._
+
+  132 Aulus Gellius, v. 12. 12.
+
+  133 See _The Dying God_, p. 166 note 1, and below, p. 249.
+
+  M26 Demeter and Persephone as Greek personifications of the decay and
+      revival of vegetation.
+  M27 The Homeric _Hymn to Demeter_. The rape of Persephone. The wrath of
+      Demeter. The return of Persephone.
+
+  134 R. Foerster, _Der Raub und die Rueckkehr der Persephone_ (Stuttgart,
+      1874), pp. 37-39; _The Homeric Hymns_, edited by T. W. Allen and E.
+      E. Sikes (London, 1904), pp. 10 _sq._ A later date--the age of the
+      Pisistratids--is assigned to the hymn by A. Baumeister (_Hymni
+      Homerici_, Leipsic, 1860, p. 280).
+
+_  135 Hymn to Demeter_, 1 _sqq._, 302 _sqq._, 330 _sqq._, 349 _sqq._, 414
+      _sqq._, 450 _sqq._
+
+_  136 Hymn to Demeter_, 310 _sqq._ With the myth as set forth in the
+      Homeric hymn may be compared the accounts of Apollodorus
+      (_Bibliotheca_, i. 5) and Ovid (_Fasti_, iv. 425-618;
+      _Metamorphoses_, v. 385 _sqq._).
+
+  M28 The aim of the Homeric _Hymn to Demeter_ is to explain the
+      traditional foundation of the Eleusinian mysteries by Demeter.
+
+_  137 Hymn to Demeter_, 47-50, 191-211, 292-295, with the notes of
+      Messrs. Allen and Sikes in their edition of the Homeric Hymns
+      (London, 1904). As to representations of the candidates for
+      initiation seated on stools draped with sheepskins, see L. R.
+      Farnell, _The Cults of the Greek States_, iii. (Oxford, 1907) pp.
+      237 _sqq._, with plate xv _a_. On a well-known marble vase there
+      figured the stool is covered with a lion's skin and one of the
+      candidate's feet rests on a ram's skull or horns; but in two other
+      examples of the same scene the ram's fleece is placed on the seat
+      (Farnell, _op. cit._ p. 240 note a), just as it is said to have been
+      placed on Demeter's stool in the Homeric hymn. As to the form of
+      communion in the Eleusinian mysteries, see Clement of Alexandria,
+      _Protrept._ 21, p. 18 ed. Potter; Arnobius, _Adversus nationes_, v.
+      26; L. R. Farnell, _op. cit._ iii. 185 _sq._, 195 _sq._ For
+      discussions of the ancient evidence bearing on the Eleusinian
+      mysteries it may suffice to refer to Chr. A. Lobeck, _Aglaophamus_
+      (Koenigsberg, 1829), pp. 3 _sqq._; G. F. Schoemann, _Griechische
+      Alterthuemer_,4 ii. 387 _sqq._; Aug. Mommsen, _Heortologie_ (Leipsic,
+      1864), pp. 222 _sqq._; _id._, _Feste der Stadt Athen im Altertum_
+      (Leipsic, 1898), pp. 204 _sqq._; P. Foucart, _Recherches sur
+      l'Origine et la Nature des Mysteres d'Eleusis_ (Paris, 1895)
+      (_Memoires de l'Academie des Inscriptions_, xxxv.); _id._, _Les
+      grands Mysteres d'Eleusis_ (Paris, 1900) (_Memoires de l'Academie
+      des Inscriptions_, xxxvii.); F. Lenormant and E. Pottier, _s.v._
+      "Eleusinia," in Daremberg et Saglio, _Dictionnaire des Antiquites
+      Grecques et Romaines_, ii. 544 _sqq._; L. R. Farnell, _The Cults of
+      the Greek States_, iii. 126 _sqq._
+
+  M29 Revelation of a reaped ear of corn the crowning act of the
+      mysteries.
+
+  138 Hippolytus, _Refutatio Omnium Haeresium_, v. 8, p. 162, ed. L.
+      Duncker et F. G. Schneidewin (Goettingen, 1859). The word which the
+      poet uses to express the revelation ({~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER XI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}, _Hymn to Demeter_, verse
+      474) is a technical one in the mysteries; the full phrase was
+      {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}. See Plutarch, _Alcibiades_, 22; Xenophon,
+      _Hellenica_, vi. 3. 6; Isocrates, _Panegyricus_, 6; Lysias, _Contra
+      Andocidem_, 51; Chr. A. Lobeck, _Aglaophamus_, p. 51.
+
+  139 Clement of Alexandria, _Protrept._ ii. 12, p. 12 ed. Potter: {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~}
+      {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}; {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}
+      {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH YPOGEGRAMMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}. Compare F. Lenormant,
+      _s.v._ "Eleusinia," in Daremberg et Saglio, _Dictionnaire des
+      Antiquites Grecques et Romaines_ iii. 578: "_Que le drame mystique
+      des aventures de Demeter et de Core constituat le spectacle
+      essentiel de l'initiation, c'est ce dont il nous semble impossible
+      de douter_." A similar view is expressed by G. F. Schoemann
+      (_Griechische Alterthuemer_,4 ii. 402); Preller-Robert (_Griechische
+      Mythologie_, i. 793); P. Foucart (_Recherches sur l'Origine et la
+      Nature des Mysteres d'Eleusis_, Paris, 1895, pp. 43 _sqq._; _id._,
+      _Les Grands Mysteres d'Eleusis_, Paris, 1900, p. 137); E. Rohde
+      (_Psyche_,3 i. 289); and L. R. Farnell (_The Cults of the Greek
+      States_, iii. 134, 173 _sqq._).
+
+  M30 Demeter and Persephone personifications of the corn. Persephone the
+      seed sown in autumn and sprouting in spring. Demeter the old corn of
+      last year. The view that Demeter was the Earth goddess is implicitly
+      rejected by the author of the Homeric _Hymn to Demeter_.
+
+  140 On Demeter and Proserpine as goddesses of the corn, see L. Preller,
+      _Demeter und Persephone_ (Hamburg, 1837), pp. 315 _sqq._; and
+      especially W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_ (Strasburg,
+      1884), pp. 202 _sqq._
+
+  141 According to the author of the Homeric Hymn to Demeter (verses 398
+      _sqq._, 445 _sqq._) and Apollodorus (_Bibliotheca_, i. 5. 3) the
+      time which Persephone had to spend under ground was one third of the
+      year; according to Ovid (_Fasti_, iv. 613 _sq._; _Metamorphoses_, v.
+      564 _sqq._) and Hyginus (_Fabulae_, 146) it was one half.
+
+  142 This view of the myth of Persephone is, for example, accepted and
+      clearly stated by L. Preller (_Demeter und Persephone_, pp. 128
+      _sq._).
+
+  143 See, for example, Firmicus Maternus, _De errore profanarum
+      religionum_, 17. 3: "_Frugum substantiam volunt Proserpinam dicere,
+      quia fruges hominibus cum seri coeperint prosunt. Terram ipsam
+      Cererem nominant, nomen hoc a gerendis fructibus mutuati_"; L.
+      Preller, _Demeter und Persephone_, p. 128, "_Der Erdboden wird
+      Demeter, die Vegetation Persephone_." Francois Lenormant, again,
+      held that Demeter was originally a personification of the earth
+      regarded as divine, but he admitted that from the time of the
+      Homeric poems downwards she was sharply distinguished from Ge, the
+      earth-goddess proper. See Daremberg et Saglio, _Dictionnaire des
+      Antiquites Grecques et Romaines_, _s.v._ "Ceres," ii. 1022 _sq._
+      Some light might be thrown on the question whether Demeter was an
+      Earth Goddess or a Corn Goddess, if we could be sure of the
+      etymology of her name, which has been variously explained as "Earth
+      Mother" ({~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~} equivalent to {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}) and as "Barley Mother"
+      (from an alleged Cretan word {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~} "barley": see _Etymologicum
+      Magnum_, _s.v._ {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH OXIA~}, pp. 263 _sq._). The former etymology has been
+      the most popular; the latter is maintained by W. Mannhardt. See L.
+      Preller, _Demeter und Persephone_, pp. 317, 366 _sqq._; F. G.
+      Welcker, _Griechische Goetterlehre_, i. 385 _sqq._; Preller-Robert,
+      _Griechische Mythologie_, i. 747 note 6; Kern, in Pauly-Wissowa's
+      _Real-Encyclopaedie der classischen Altertumswissenschaft_, iv. 2713;
+      W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_, pp. 281 _sqq._ But my
+      learned friend the Rev. Professor J. H. Moulton informs me that both
+      etymologies are open to serious philological objections, and that no
+      satisfactory derivation of the first syllable of Demeter's name has
+      yet been proposed. Accordingly I prefer to base no argument on an
+      analysis of the name, and to rest my interpretation of the goddess
+      entirely on her myth, ritual, and representations in art. Etymology
+      is at the best a very slippery ground on which to rear mythological
+      theories.
+
+_  144 Hymn to Demeter_, 8 _sqq._
+
+  M31 The Yellow Demeter, the goddess who sifts the ripe grain from the
+      chaff at the threshing-floor. The Green Demeter the goddess of the
+      green corn.
+
+_  145 Hymn to Demeter_, 279, 302.
+
+  146 Homer, _Iliad_, v. 499-504.
+
+_  147 Iliad_, xiii. 322, xxi. 76.
+
+  148 Hesiod, _Works and Days_, 31 _sq._
+
+  149 Quoted by Plutarch, _Isis et Osiris_, 66.
+
+  150 Pausanias, i. 22. 3 with my note; Dittenberger, _Sylloge
+      Inscriptionum Graecarum_,2 No. 615; J. de Prott et L. Ziehen, _Leges
+      Graecorum Sacrae_, Fasciculus I. (Leipsic, 1896) p. 49; Cornutus,
+      _Theologiae Graecae Compendium_, 28; Scholiast on Sophocles,
+      _Oedipus Colon._ 1600; L. R. Farnell, _The Cults of the Greek
+      States_, iii. 312 _sq._
+
+  M32 The cereals called "Demeter's fruits."
+
+  151 Herodotus, i. 193, iv. 198; Xenophon, _Hellenica_, vi. 3. 6; Aelian,
+      _Historia Animalium_, xvii. 16; Cornutus, _Theologiae Graecae
+      Compendium_, 28; _Geoponica_, i. 12. 36; _Paroemiographi Graeci_,
+      ed. Leutsch et Schneidewin, Appendix iv. 20 (vol. i. p. 439).
+
+_  152 Cerealia_ in Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ xxiii. 1; _Cerealia munera_ and
+      _Cerealia dona_ in Ovid, _Metamorphoses_, xi. 121 _sq._
+
+  153 Libanius, ed. J. J. Reiske, vol. iv. p. 367, _Corinth. Oratio_: {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}
+      {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI AND PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH DASIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}? {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}
+      {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI AND PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}? {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH DASIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PSILI AND PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}; {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~}
+      {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}; {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI AND PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}
+      {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH DASIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~}
+      {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}. {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK KORONIS~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK KORONIS~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}; {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH OXIA AND YPOGEGRAMMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~},
+      {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ZETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}. In this passage, which no doubt
+      represents the common Greek view on the subject, the earth is
+      plainly personified ({~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}), which points the
+      antithesis between her and the goddess of the corn. Diodorus Siculus
+      also says (v. 68) that corn grew wild with the other plants before
+      Demeter taught men to cultivate it and to sow the seed.
+
+  M33 Corn and poppies as symbols of Demeter.
+
+  154 Ovid, _Fasti_, iv. 616; Eusebius, _Praeparatio Evangelii_, iii. 11.
+      5; Cornutus, _Theologiae Graecae Compendium_, 28; _Anthologia
+      Palatina_, vi. 104. 8; W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_, p.
+      235; J. Overbeck, _Griechische Kunstmythologie_, iii. (Leipsic,
+      1873-1878) pp. 420, 421, 453, 479, 480, 502, 505, 507, 514, 522,
+      523, 524, 525 _sq._; L. R. Farnell, _The Cults of the Greek States_,
+      iii. 217 _sqq._, 220 _sq._, 222, 226, 232, 233, 237, 260, 265, 268,
+      269 _sq._, 271.
+
+  155 Theocritus, _Idyl._ vii. 155 _sqq._ That the sheaves which the
+      goddess grasped were of barley is proved by verses 31-34 of the
+      poem.
+
+  156 Eusebius, _Praeparatio Evangelii_, iii. 11. 5; Cornutus, _Theologiae
+      Graecae Compendium_, 28, p. 56, ed. C. Lang; Virgil, _Georg._ i.
+      212, with the comment of Servius.
+
+  157 See the references to the works of Overbeck and Farnell above. For
+      example, a fine statue at Copenhagen, in the style of the age of
+      Phidias, represents Demeter holding poppies and ears of corn in her
+      left hand. See Farnell, _op. cit._ iii. 268, with plate xxviii.
+
+  158 Cornutus, _Theologiae Graecae Compendium_, 28, p. 56 ed. C. Lang.
+
+  M34 Persephone portrayed as the young corn sprouting from the ground.
+
+  159 Percy Gardner, _Types of Greek Coins_ (Cambridge, 1883), p. 174,
+      with plate x. No. 25.
+
+  M35 Demeter invoked and propitiated by Greek farmers before the autumnal
+      sowing. Boeotian festival of mourning for the descent of Persephone
+      at the autumnal sowing.
+
+  160 Diodorus Siculus, v. 68. 1.
+
+  161 Hesiod, _Works and Days_, 448-474; Epictetus, _Dissertationes_, iii.
+      21. 12. For the autumnal migration and clangour of the cranes as the
+      signal for sowing, see Aristophanes, _Birds_, 711; compare Theognis,
+      1197 _sqq._ But the Greeks also ploughed in spring (Hesiod, _op.
+      cit._ 462; Xenophon, _Oeconom._ 16); indeed they ploughed thrice in
+      the year (Theophrastus, _Historia Plantarum_, vii. 13. 6). At the
+      approach of autumn the cranes of northern Europe collect about
+      rivers and lakes, and after much trumpeting set out in enormous
+      bands on their southward journey to the tropical regions of Africa
+      and India. In early spring they return northward, and their flocks
+      may be descried passing at a marvellous height overhead or halting
+      to rest in the meadows beside some broad river. The bird emits its
+      trumpet-like note both on the ground and on the wing. See Alfred
+      Newton, _Dictionary of Birds_ (London, 1893-1896), pp. 110 _sq._
+
+  162 Hesiod, _Works and Days_, 383 _sq._, 615-617; Aratus, _Phaenomena_,
+      254-267; L. Ideler, _Handbuch der mathematischen und technischen
+      Chronologie_ (Berlin, 1825-1826), i. 241 _sq._ According to Pliny
+      (_Nat. Hist._ xviii. 49) wheat, barley, and all other cereals were
+      sown in Greece and Asia from the time of the autumn setting of the
+      Pleiades. This date for ploughing and sowing is confirmed by
+      Hippocrates and other medical writers. See W. Smith's _Dictionary of
+      Greek and Roman Antiquities_,3 i. 234. Latin writers prescribe the
+      same date for the sowing of wheat. See Virgil, _Georg._ i. 219-226;
+      Columella, _De re rustica_, ii. 8; Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ xviii.
+      223-226. In Columella's time the Pleiades, he tells us (_l.c._), set
+      in the morning of October 24th of the Julian calendar, which would
+      correspond to the October 16th of our reckoning.
+
+  163 Plutarch, _Isis et Osiris_, 69.
+
+  164 Plutarch, _Isis et Osiris_, 70. Similarly Cornutus says that "Hades
+      is fabled to have carried off Demeter's daughter because the seed
+      vanishes for a time under the earth," and he mentions that a
+      festival of Demeter was celebrated at the time of sowing
+      (_Theologiae Graecae Compendium_, 28, pp. 54, 55 ed. C. Lang). In a
+      fragment of a Greek calendar which is preserved in the Louvre "the
+      ascent ({~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}) of the goddess" is dated the seventh day of the
+      month Dius, and "the descent or setting ({~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}) of the goddess" is
+      dated the fourth day of the month Hephaestius, a month which seems
+      to be otherwise unknown. See W. Froehner, _Musee Nationale du
+      Louvre, Les Inscriptions Grecques_ (Paris, 1880), pp. 50 _sq._ Greek
+      inscriptions found at Mantinea refer to a worship of Demeter and
+      Persephone, who are known to have had a sanctuary there (Pausanias,
+      viii. 9. 2). The people of Mantinea celebrated "mysteries of the
+      goddess" and a festival called the _koragia_, which seems to have
+      represented the return of Persephone from the lower world. See W.
+      Immerwahr, _Die Kulte und Mythen Arkadiens_ (Leipsic, 1891), pp. 100
+      _sq._; S. Reinach, _Traite d'Epigraphie Grecque_ (Paris, 1885), pp.
+      141 _sqq._; Hesychius, _s.v._ {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}.
+
+  M36 Thank-offerings of ripe grain presented by Greek farmers to Demeter
+      after the harvest. Theocritus's description of a harvest-home in
+      Cos.
+
+  165 Theocritus, _Idyl._ vii.
+
+  M37 The harvest-home described by Theocritus fell in autumn.
+
+  166 In ancient Greece the vintage seems to have fallen somewhat earlier;
+      for Hesiod bids the husbandman gather the ripe clusters at the time
+      when Arcturus is a morning star, which in the poet's age was on the
+      18th of September. See Hesiod, _Works and Days_, 609 _sqq._; L.
+      Ideler, _Handbuch der mathematischen und technischen Chronologie_,
+      i. 247.
+
+  167 See _Adonis, Attis, Osiris_, Second Edition, p. 190 note 2.
+
+  M38 The Greeks seem to have deferred the offering of first-fruits till
+      the autumn in order to propitiate the Corn Goddess at the moment of
+      ploughing and sowing, when her help was urgently needed.
+
+  168 See _Adonis, Attis, Osiris_, Second Edition, p. 190 note 2.
+
+  169 Hesiod, _Works and Days_, 383 _sq._
+
+  170 L. Ideler, _Handbuch der mathematischen und technischen
+      Chronologie_, i. 242.
+
+  171 Compare Xenophon, _Oeconomicus_, 17, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}
+      {~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH YPOGEGRAMMENI~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH DASIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~},
+      {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER XI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}.
+
+  172 August Mommsen, _Feste der Stadt Athen im Altertum_, p. 193.
+
+  173 See above, pp. 44 _sqq._
+
+  M39 The festival of the _Proerosia_ ("Before the Ploughing") held at
+      Eleusis in honour of Demeter.
+
+  174 See _Adonis, Attis, Osiris_, Second Edition, pp. 283 _sqq._
+
+  175 Scholiast on Aristophanes, _Knights_, 720; Suidas, _s.vv_. {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}
+      and {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}; _Etymologicum Magnum_, Hesychius, and Photius,
+      _Lexicon_, _s.v._ {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}; Plutarch, _Septem Sapientum Convivium_,
+      15; Dittenberger, _Sylloge Inscriptionum Graecarum_,2 No. 521, line
+      29, and No. 628; Aug. Mommsen, _Feste der Stadt Athen im Altertum_
+      (Leipsic, 1898), pp. 192 _sqq._ The inscriptions prove that the
+      Proerosia was held at Eleusis and that it was distinct from the
+      Great Mysteries, being mentioned separately from them. Some of the
+      ancients accounted for the origin of the festival by a universal
+      plague instead of a universal famine. But this version of the story
+      no doubt arose from the common confusion between the similar Greek
+      words for plague and famine ({~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} and {~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}). That in the original
+      version famine and not plague must have been alleged as the reason
+      for instituting the Proerosia, appears plainly from the reference of
+      the name to ploughing, from the dedication of the festival to
+      Demeter, and from the offerings of first-fruits; for these
+      circumstances, though quite appropriate to ceremonies designed to
+      stay or avert dearth and famine, would be quite inappropriate in the
+      case of a plague.
+
+  M40 The _Proerosia_ seems to have been held before the ploughing in
+      October but after the Great Mysteries in September. However, the
+      date of the Great Mysteries, being determined by the lunar calendar,
+      must have fluctuated in the solar year; whereas the date of the
+      _Proerosia_, being determined by observation of Arcturus, must have
+      been fixed.
+
+  176 Hesychius, _s.v._ {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}.
+
+  177 August Mommsen, _Feste der Stadt Athen im Altertum_, p. 194.
+
+  178 August Mommsen, _l.c._
+
+  179 Dittenberger, _Sylloge Inscriptionum Graecarum_,2 No. 521, lines 29
+      _sqq._
+
+  180 Dittenberger, _Sylloge Inscriptionum Graecarum_,2 No. 628.
+
+  181 The view that the Festival before Ploughing (_Proerosia_) fell in
+      Pyanepsion is accepted by W. Mannhardt and W. Dittenberger. See W.
+      Mannhardt, _Antike Wald- und Feldkulte_ (Berlin, 1877), pp. 238
+      _sq._; _id._, _Mythologische Forschungen_, p. 258; Dittenberger,
+      _Sylloge Inscriptionum Graecarum_,2 note 2 on Inscr. No. 628 (vol.
+      ii. pp. 423 _sq._). The view that the Festival before Ploughing fell
+      in Boedromion is maintained by August Mommsen. See his _Heortologie_
+      (Leipsic, 1864), pp. 218 _sqq._; _id._, _Feste der Stadt Athen im
+      Altertum_ (Leipsic, 1898), pp. 192 _sqq._
+
+  182 See below, p. 82.
+
+  183 L. Ideler, _Handbuch der mathematischen und technischen Chronologie_
+      (Berlin, 1825-1826), i. 292 _sq._; compare August Mommsen,
+      _Chronologie_ (Leipsic, 1883), pp. 58 _sq._
+
+  184 For example, Theophrastus notes that squills flowered thrice a year,
+      and that each flowering marked the time for one of the three
+      ploughings. See Theophrastus, _Historia Plantarum_, vii. 13. 6.
+
+  185 Hesiod, _Works and Days_, 383 _sqq._ The poet indeed refers (_vv._
+      765 _sqq._) to days of the month as proper times for engaging in
+      certain tasks; but such references are always simply to days of the
+      lunar month and apply equally to every month; they are never to days
+      as dates in the solar year.
+
+  M41 Offerings of the first-fruits of the barley and wheat to Demeter and
+      Persephone at Eleusis. Isocrates on the offerings of first-fruits at
+      Eleusis.
+
+  186 See below, p. 72.
+
+  187 Dionysius Halicarnasensis, _Antiquit. Rom._ i. 12. 2.
+
+  188 Xenophon, _Historia Graeca_, vi. 3. 6.
+
+  189 Isocrates, _Panegyric_, 6 _sq._
+
+  M42 Athenian decree concerning the offerings of first-fruits at Eleusis.
+
+  190 Dittenberger, _Sylloge Inscriptionum Graecarum_,2 No. 20 (vol. i.
+      pp. 33 _sqq._); E. S. Roberts and E. A. Gardner, _An Introduction to
+      Greek Epigraphy_, Part ii. (Cambridge, 1905) No. 9, pp. 22 _sqq._
+
+  191 Aristides, _Panathen._ and _Eleusin._, vol. i. pp. 167 _sq._, 417
+      ed. G. Dindorf (Leipsic, 1829).
+
+  M43 Even after foreign states ceased to send first-fruits of the corn to
+      Eleusis, they continued to acknowledge the benefit which the
+      Athenians had conferred on mankind by diffusing among them Demeter's
+      gift of the corn. Testimony of the Sicilian historian Diodorus.
+      Testimony of Cicero and Himerius.
+
+  192 Diodorus Siculus, v. 2 and 4; Cicero, _In C. Verrem_, act. ii. bk.
+      iv. chapters 48 _sq._ Both writers mention that the whole of Sicily
+      was deemed sacred to Demeter and Persephone, and that corn was said
+      to have grown in the island before it appeared anywhere else. In
+      support of the latter claim Diodorus Siculus (v. 2. 4) asserts that
+      wheat grew wild in many parts of Sicily.
+
+  193 Diodorus Siculus, v. 4.
+
+  194 This legend, which is mentioned also by Cicero (_In C. Verrem_, act.
+      ii. bk. iv. ch. 48), was no doubt told to explain the use of torches
+      in the mysteries of Demeter and Persephone. The author of the
+      Homeric _Hymn to Demeter_ tells us (verses 47 _sq._) that Demeter
+      searched for her lost daughter for nine days with burning torches in
+      her hands, but he does not say that the torches were kindled at the
+      flames of Etna. In art Demeter and Persephone and their attendants
+      were often represented with torches in their hands. See L. R.
+      Farnell, _The Cults of the Greek States_, iii. (Oxford, 1907) plates
+      xiii., xv. _a_, xvi., xvii., xviii., xix., xx., xxi. _a_, xxv.,
+      xxvii. _b_. Perhaps the legend of the torchlight search for
+      Persephone and the use of the torches in the mysteries may have
+      originated in a custom of carrying fire about the fields as a charm
+      to secure sunshine for the corn. See _The Golden Bough_,2 iii. 313.
+
+  195 The words which I have translated "the bringing home of the Maiden"
+      ({~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}) are explained with great probability by
+      Professor M. P. Nilsson as referring to the bringing of the ripe
+      corn to the barn or the threshing-floor (_Griechische Feste_,
+      Leipsic, 1906, pp. 356 _sq._). This interpretation accords perfectly
+      with a well-attested sense of {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH OXIA~} and its cognate verb
+      {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}, and is preferable to the other possible interpretation
+      "the bringing down," which would refer to the descent of Persephone
+      into the nether world; for such a descent is hardly appropriate to a
+      harvest festival.
+
+  196 Cicero, _Pro L. Flacco_, 26.
+
+  197 Himerius, _Orat._ ii. 5.
+
+  198 {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}, Aristides, _Panathen._ vol. i. p. 168 ed. G.
+      Dindorf (Leipzig, 1829).
+
+  M44 The Sicilians seem to have associated Demeter with the seed-corn and
+      Persephone with the ripe ears. Difficulty of distinguishing between
+      Demeter and Persephone as personifications of different aspects of
+      the corn.
+  M45 The time of the year when the first-fruits of the corn were offered
+      to Demeter and Persephone at Eleusis is not known.
+
+  199 Dittenberger, _Sylloge Inscriptionum Graecarum_,2 No. 20, lines 25
+      _sqq._; E. S. Roberts and E. A. Gardner, _Introduction to Greek
+      Epigraphy_, ii. (Cambridge, 1905) No. 9, lines 25 _sqq._, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}
+      {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH YPOGEGRAMMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}
+      {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}. By
+      coupling {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} with {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} instead of with {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}, Miss
+      J. E. Harrison understands the offering instead of the exhortation
+      to have been made at the mysteries (_Prolegomena to the Study of
+      Greek Religion_, Second Edition, p. 155, "Let the Hierophant and the
+      Torchbearer command that at the mysteries the Hellenes should offer
+      first-fruits of their crops," etc.). This interpretation is no doubt
+      grammatically permissible, but the context seems to plead strongly,
+      if not to be absolutely decisive, in favour of the other. It is to
+      be observed that the exhortation was addressed not to the Athenians
+      and their allies (who were compelled to make the offering) but only
+      to the other Greeks, who might make it or not as they pleased; and
+      the amount of such voluntary contributions was probably small
+      compared to that of the compulsory contributions, as to the date of
+      which nothing is said. That the proclamation to the Greeks in
+      general was an exhortation ({~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}), not a command, is clearly
+      shewn by the words of the decree a few lines lower down, where
+      commissioners are directed to go to all Greek states exhorting but
+      not commanding them to offer the first-fruits ({~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~}
+      {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}
+      {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}). The Athenians could not command free
+      and independent states to make such offerings, still less could they
+      prescribe the exact date when the offerings were to be made. All
+      that they could and did do was, taking advantage of the great
+      assembly of Greeks from all quarters at the mysteries, to invite or
+      exhort, by the mouth of the great priestly functionaries, the
+      foreigners to contribute.
+
+  200 August Mommsen, _Feste der Stadt Athen im Altertum_ (Leipsic, 1898),
+      pp. 192 _sqq._
+
+  M46 The Festival of the Threshing-floor (_Haloa_) at Eleusis.
+
+  201 Eustathius on Homer, _Iliad_, ix. 534, p. 772; Im. Bekker, _Anecdota
+      Graeca_, i. 384 _sq._, _s.v._ {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER ALPHA WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}. Compare O. Rubensohn, _Die
+      Mysterienheiligtuemer in Eleusis und Samothrake_ (Berlin, 1892), p.
+      116.
+
+  202 Eustathius on Homer, _Iliad_, ix. 534, p. 772; Im. Bekker, _Anecdota
+      Graeca_, i. 384 _sq._, _s.v._ {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER ALPHA WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}.
+
+_  203 Scholia in Lucianum_, ed. H. Rabe (Leipsic, 1906), pp. 279 _sq._
+      (scholium on _Dialog. Meretr._ vii. 4).
+
+  204 Dittenberger, _Sylloge Inscriptionum Graecarum_,2 Nos. 192, 246,
+      587, 640; {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH OXIA~}, 1884, coll. 135 _sq._ The passages
+      of inscriptions and of ancient authors which refer to the festival
+      are collected by Dr. L. R. Farnell, _The Cults of the Greek States_,
+      iii. (Oxford, 1907) pp. 315 _sq._ For a discussion of the evidence
+      see August Mommsen, _Feste der Stadt Athen im Altertum_ (Leipsic,
+      1898), pp. 359 _sqq._; Miss J. E. Harrison, _Prolegomena to the
+      Study of Greek Religion_, Second Edition (Cambridge, 1908), pp. 145
+      _sqq._
+
+  205 The threshing-floor of Triptolemus at Eleusis (Pausanias, i. 38. 6)
+      is no doubt identical with the Sacred Threshing-floor mentioned in
+      the great Eleusinian inscription of 329 B.C. (Dittenberger, _Sylloge
+      Inscriptionum Graecarum_,2 No. 587, line 234). We read of a
+      hierophant who, contrary to ancestral custom, sacrificed a victim on
+      the hearth in the Hall at Eleusis during the Festival of the
+      Threshing-floor, "it being unlawful to sacrifice victims on that
+      day" (Demosthenes, _Contra Neaeram_, 116, pp. 1384 _sq._), but from
+      such an unlawful act no inference can be drawn as to the place where
+      the festival was held. That the festival probably had special
+      reference to the threshing-floor of Triptolemus has already been
+      pointed out by O. Rubensohn (_Die Mysterienheiligtuemer in Eleusis
+      und Samothrake_, Berlin, 1892, p. 118).
+
+  206 See above, pp. 41 _sq._, 43. Maximus Tyrius observes (_Dissertat._
+      xxx. 5) that husbandmen were the first to celebrate sacred rites in
+      honour of Demeter at the threshing-floor.
+
+  207 See above, p. 61, note 4.
+
+  208 Harpocration, _s.v._ {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER ALPHA WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} (vol. i. p. 24, ed. G. Dindorf).
+
+  209 Dittenberger, _Sylloge Inscriptionum Graecarum_,2 No. 587, lines
+      124, 144, with the editor's notes; August Mommsen, _Feste der Stadt
+      Athen im Altertum_, p. 360.
+
+  210 So I am informed by my friend Professor J. L. Myres, who speaks from
+      personal observation.
+
+  211 This is recognised by Professor M. P. Nilsson. See his _Studia de
+      Dionysiis Atticis_ (Lund, 1900), pp. 95 _sqq._, and his _Griechische
+      Feste_, p. 329. To explain the lateness of the festival, Miss J. E.
+      Harrison suggests that "the shift of date is due to Dionysos. The
+      rival festivals of Dionysos were in mid-winter. He possessed himself
+      of the festivals of Demeter, took over her threshing-floor and
+      compelled the anomaly of a winter threshing festival" (_Prolegomena
+      to the Study of Greek Religion_, Second Edition, p. 147).
+
+  212 Scholiast on Lucian, _Dial. Meretr._ vii. 4 (_Scholia in Lucianum_,
+      ed. H. Rabe, Leipsic, 1906, pp. 279-281).
+
+  213 Clement of Alexandria, _Protrept._ ii. 15 and 20, pp. 13 and 17 ed.
+      Potter; Arnobius, _Adversus Nationes_, v. 25-27, 35, 39.
+
+  214 See below, p. 116; vol. ii. pp. 17 _sqq._
+
+  M47 The Green Festival and the Festival of the Cornstalks at Eleusis.
+      Epithets of Demeter referring to the corn.
+
+  215 Dittenberger, _Sylloge Inscriptionum Graecarum_,2 No. 640; Ch.
+      Michel, _Recueil d'Inscriptions Grecques_ (Brussels, 1900), No. 135,
+      p. 145. To be exact, while the inscription definitely mentions the
+      sacrifices to Demeter and Persephone at the Green Festival, it does
+      not record the deities to whom the sacrifice at the Festival of the
+      Cornstalks ({~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}) was offered. But mentioned as
+      it is in immediate connexion with the sacrifices to Demeter and
+      Persephone at the Green Festival, we may fairly suppose that the
+      sacrifice at the Festival of the Cornstalks was also offered to
+      these goddesses.
+
+  216 See above, p. 42.
+
+_  217 Anthologia Palatina_, vi. 36. 1 _sq._
+
+  218 Polemo, cited by Athenaeus, iii. 9, p. 416 B.
+
+  219 Nonnus, _Dionys._ xvii. 153. The Athenians sacrificed to her under
+      this title (Eustathius, on Homer, _Iliad_, xviii. 553, p. 1162).
+
+  220 Theocritus, _Idyl._ vii. 155; _Orphica_, xl. 5.
+
+_  221 Anthologia Palatina_, vi. 98. 1.
+
+_  222 Orphica_, xl. 3.
+
+_  223 Anthologia Palatina_, vi. 104. 8.
+
+_  224 Orphica_, xl. 5.
+
+_  225 Ibid._
+
+_  226 Orphica_, xl. 18.
+
+  227 This title she shared with Persephone at Tegea (Pausanias, viii. 53.
+      7), and under it she received annual sacrifices at Ephesus
+      (Dittenberger, _Sylloge Inscriptionum Graecarum_,2 No. 655). It was
+      applied to her also at Epidaurus ({~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}. {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}., 1883, col. 153) and at
+      Athens (Aristophanes, _Frogs_, 382), and appears to have been a
+      common title of the goddess. See L. R. Farnell, _The Cults of the
+      Greek States_, iii. 318 note 30.
+
+  228 Polemo, cited by Athenaeus, iii. 73, p. 109 A B, x. 9. p. 416 C.
+
+  M48 Belief in ancient and modern times that the corn-crops depend on
+      possession of an image of Demeter.
+
+  229 E. Dodwell, _A Classical and Topographical Tour through Greece_
+      (London, 1819), i. 583. E. D. Clarke found the image "on the side of
+      the road, immediately before entering the village, and in the midst
+      of a heap of dung, buried as high as the neck, a little beyond the
+      farther extremity of the pavement of the temple. Yet even this
+      degrading situation had not been assigned to it wholly independent
+      of its antient history. The inhabitants of the small village which
+      is now situated among the ruins of Eleusis still regarded this
+      statue with a very high degree of superstitious veneration. They
+      attributed to its presence the fertility of their land; and it was
+      for this reason that they heaped around it the manure intended for
+      their fields. They believed that the loss of it would be followed by
+      no less a calamity than the failure of their annual harvests; and
+      they pointed to the ears of bearded wheat, upon the sculptured
+      ornaments upon the head of the figure, as a never-failing indication
+      of the produce of the soil." When the statue was about to be
+      removed, a general murmur ran among the people, the women joining in
+      the clamour. "They had been always," they said, "famous for their
+      corn; and the fertility of the land would cease when the statue was
+      removed." See E. D. Clarke, _Travels in various Countries of Europe,
+      Asia, and Africa_, iii. (London, 1814) pp. 772-774, 787 _sq._
+      Compare J. C. Lawson, _Modern Greek Folklore and Ancient Greek
+      Religion_ (Cambridge, 1910), p. 80, who tells us that "the statue
+      was regularly crowned with flowers in the avowed hope of obtaining
+      good harvests."
+
+  230 Cicero, _In C. Verrem_, act. ii. lib. iv. 51.
+
+  M49 Sacred marriage of Zeus and Demeter at Eleusis. Homer on the love of
+      Zeus for Demeter. Zeus the Sky God may have been confused with
+      Subterranean Zeus, that is, Pluto. Demeter may have been confused
+      with Persephone; in art the types of the two goddesses are often
+      very similar.
+
+_  231 The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, ii. 138 _sq._
+
+  232 This view was expressed by my friend Professor Ridgeway in a paper
+      which I had the advantage of hearing him read at Cambridge in the
+      early part of 1911. Compare _The Athenaeum_, No. 4360, May 20th,
+      1911, p. 576.
+
+  233 Dittenberger, _Sylloge Inscriptionum Graecarum_,2 No. 20; E. S.
+      Roberts and E. A. Gardner, _Introduction to Greek Epigraphy_, ii.
+      (Cambridge, 1905) No. 9, pp. 22 _sq._ See above, pp. 55 _sq._
+
+  234 Homer, _Iliad_, xiv. 326.
+
+  235 Homer, _Odyssey_, v. 125 _sqq._
+
+  236 Diodorus Siculus, iii. 62. 6.
+
+  237 Clement of Alexandria, _Protrept._ 12, p. 12, ed. Potter.
+
+  238 Hesiod, _Works and Days_, 465 _sqq._
+
+  239 Dittenberger, _Sylloge Inscriptionum Graecarum_,2 No. 615, lines 25
+      _sq._; Ch. Michel, _Recueil d'Inscriptions Grecques_, No. 714; J. de
+      Prott et L. Ziehen, _Leges Graecorum Sacrae_, No. 4.
+
+  240 See L. R. Farnell, _The Cults of the Greek States_, iii. (Oxford,
+      1907), p. 259, "It was long before the mother could be distinguished
+      from the daughter by any organic difference of form or by any
+      expressive trait of countenance. On the more ancient vases and
+      terracottas they appear rather as twin-sisters, almost as if the
+      inarticulate artist were aware of their original identity of
+      substance. And even among the monuments of the transitional period
+      it is difficult to find any representation of the goddesses in
+      characters at once clear and impressive. We miss this even in the
+      beautiful vase of Hieron in the British Museum, where the divine
+      pair are seen with Triptolemos: the style is delicate and stately,
+      and there is a certain impression of inner tranquil life in the
+      group, but without the aid of the inscriptions the mother would not
+      be known from the daughter"; _id._, vol. iii. 274, "But it would be
+      wrong to give the impression that the numismatic artists of this
+      period were always careful to distinguish--in such a manner as the
+      above works indicate--between mother and daughter. The old idea of
+      their unity of substance still seemed to linger as an art-tradition:
+      the very type we have just been examining appears on a
+      fourth-century coin of Hermione, and must have been used here to
+      designate Demeter Chthonia who was there the only form that the
+      corn-goddess assumed. And even at Metapontum, where coin-engraving
+      was long a great art, a youthful head crowned with corn, which in
+      its own right and on account of its resemblance to the masterpiece
+      of Euainetos could claim the name of Kore [Persephone], is actually
+      inscribed 'Damater.' " Compare J. Overbeck, _Griechische
+      Kunstmythologie_, iii. (Leipsic, 1873-1878), p. 453. In regard, for
+      example, to the famous Eleusinian bas-relief, one of the most
+      beautiful monuments of ancient religious art, which seems to
+      represent Demeter giving the corn-stalks to Triptolemus, while
+      Persephone crowns his head, there has been much divergence of
+      opinion among the learned as to which of the goddesses is Demeter
+      and which Persephone. See J. Overbeck, _op. cit._ iii. 427 _sqq._;
+      L. R. Farnell, _op. cit._ iii. 263 _sq._ On the close resemblance of
+      the artistic types of Demeter and Persephone see further E. Gerhard,
+      _Gesammelte akademische Abhandlungen_ (Berlin, 1866-1868), ii. 357
+      _sqq._; F. Lenormant, in Daremberg et Saglio, _Dictionnaire des
+      Antiquites Grecques et Romaines_, i. 2, _s.v._ "Ceres," p. 1049.
+
+  M50 The date of the Eleusinian Mysteries in September would have been a
+      very appropriate time for a Sacred Marriage of the Sky God with the
+      Corn Goddess or the Earth Goddess.
+
+_  241 The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, ii. 97 _sqq._
+
+  242 Homer, _Odyssey_, v. 125 _sqq._
+
+  243 Proclus, on Plato, _Timaeus_, p. 293 c, quoted by L. F. Farnell,
+      _The Cults of the Greek States_, iii. 357, where Lobeck's emendation
+      of {~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~} for {~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI AND PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~} (_Aglaophamus_, p. 782) may be accepted
+      as certain, confirmed as it is by Hippolytus, _Refutatio Omnium
+      Haeresium_, v. 7, p. 146, ed. Duncker and Schneidewin (Goettingen,
+      1859), {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}.
+
+  M51 The Eleusinian games distinct from the Eleusinian Mysteries. The
+      Eleusinian games of later origin than the Eleusinian Mysteries. The
+      Eleusinian games sacred to Demeter and Persephone. Triptolemus, the
+      mythical hero of the corn.
+
+  244 As to the Eleusinian games see August Mommsen, _Feste der Stadt
+      Athen im Altertum_, pp. 179-204; P. Foucart, _Les Grands Mysteres
+      d'Eleusis_ (Paris, 1900), pp. 143-147; P. Stengel, in
+      Pauly-Wissowa's _Real-Encyclopaedie der classischen
+      Altertumswissenschaft_, v. coll. 2330 _sqq._ The quadriennial
+      celebration of the Eleusinian Games is mentioned by Aristotle
+      (_Constitution of Athens_, 54), and in the great Eleusinian
+      inscription of 329 B.C., which is also our only authority for the
+      biennial celebration of the games. See Dittenberger, _Sylloge
+      Inscriptionum Graecarum_,2 No. 587, lines 258 _sqq._ The regular and
+      official name of the games was simply Eleusinia ({~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}), a
+      name which late writers applied incorrectly to the Mysteries. See
+      August Mommsen, _op. cit._ pp. 179 _sqq._; Dittenberger, _op. cit._
+      No. 587, note 171.
+
+  245 Dittenberger, _Sylloge Inscriptionum Graecarum_,2 No. 246, lines 25
+      _sqq._; _id._ No. 587, lines 244 _sq._, 258 _sqq._
+
+_  246 Marmor Parium_, in _Fragmenta Historicorum Graecorum_, ed. C.
+      Mueller, i. 544 _sq._
+
+  247 Aristides, _Panathen._ and _Eleusin._ vol. i. pp. 168, 417, ed. G.
+      Dindorf.
+
+  248 Schol. on Pindar, _Olymp._ ix. 150, p. 228, ed. Aug. Boeckh.
+
+  249 Aristides, _ll.cc._
+
+  250 Dittenberger, _Sylloge Inscriptionum Graecarum_,2 No. 246, lines 25
+      _sqq._ The editor rightly points out that the Great Eleusinian Games
+      are identical with the games celebrated every fourth year, which are
+      mentioned in the decree of 329 B.C. (Dittenberger, _Sylloge
+      Inscriptionum Graecarum_,2 No. 587, lines 260 _sq._).
+
+  251 Dittenberger, _Sylloge Inscriptionum Graecarum_,2 No. 587, lines 259
+      _sqq._ From other Attic inscriptions we learn that the Eleusinian
+      games comprised a long foot-race, a race in armour, and a
+      pancratium. See Dittenberger, _op. cit._ No. 587 note 171 (vol. ii.
+      p. 313). The Great Eleusinian Games also included the pentathlum
+      (Dittenberger, _op. cit._ No. 678, line 2). The pancratium included
+      wrestling and boxing; the pentathlum included a foot-race, leaping,
+      throwing the quoit, throwing the spear, and wrestling. See W. Smith,
+      _Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities_, Third Edition, _s.vv._
+      "Pancratium" and "Pentathlon."
+
+  252 Dittenberger, _Sylloge Inscriptionum Graecarum_,2 No. 246, lines 46
+      _sqq._; Ch. Michel, _Recueil d'Inscriptions Grecques_, No. 609. See
+      above, p. 61. The identification lies all the nearer to hand because
+      the inscription records a decree in honour of a man who had
+      sacrificed to Demeter and Persephone at the Great Eleusinian Games,
+      and a provision is contained in the decree that the honour should be
+      proclaimed "at the Ancestral Contest of the Festival of the
+      Threshing-floor." The same Ancestral Contest at the Festival of the
+      Threshing-floor is mentioned in another Eleusinian inscription,
+      which records honours decreed to a man who had sacrificed to Demeter
+      and Persephone at the Festival of the Threshing-floor. See {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}
+      {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH OXIA~}, 1884, coll. 135 _sq._
+
+  253 See above, p. 61.
+
+  254 Diodorus Siculus, v. 68; Arrian, _Indic._ 7; Lucian, _Somnium_, 15;
+      _id._, _Philopseudes_, 3; Plato, _Laws_, vi. 22, p. 782;
+      Apollodorus, _Bibliotheca_, i. 5. 2; Cornutus, _Theologiae Graecae
+      Compendium_, 28, p. 53, ed. C. Lang; Pausanias, i. 14. 2, vii. 18.
+      2, viii. 4. 1; Aristides, _Eleusin._ vol. i. pp. 416 _sq._, ed. G.
+      Dindorf; Hyginus, _Fabulae_, 147, 259, 277; Ovid, _Fasti_, iv. 549
+      _sqq._; _id._, _Metamorph._ v. 645 _sqq._; Servius, on Virgil,
+      _Georg._ i. 19. See also above, p. 54. As to Triptolemus, see L.
+      Preller, _Demeter und Persephone_ (Hamburg, 1837), pp. 282 _sqq._;
+      _id._, _Griechische Mythologie_,4 i. 769 _sqq._
+
+  255 C. Strube, _Studien ueber den Bilderkreis von Eleusis_ (Leipsic,
+      1870), pp. 4 _sqq._; J. Overbeck, _Griechische Kunstmythologie_,
+      iii. (Leipsic, 1873-1880), pp. 530 _sqq._; A. Baumeister, _Denkmaeler
+      des classischen Altertums_, iii. 1855 _sqq._ That Triptolemus sowed
+      the earth with corn from his car is mentioned by Apollodorus,
+      _Bibliotheca_, i. 5. 2; Cornutus, _Theologiae Graecae Compendium_,
+      28, pp. 53 _sq._, ed. C. Lang; Hyginus, _Fabulae_, 147; and Servius,
+      on Virgil, _Georg._ i. 19.
+
+  256 Dittenberger, _Sylloge Inscriptionum Graecarum_,2 No. 20, lines 37
+      _sqq._; E. S. Roberts and E. A. Gardner, _Introduction to Greek
+      Epigraphy_, ii. (Cambridge, 1905), No. 9, p. 24.
+
+  257 Arrian, _Epicteti Dissertationes_, i. 4. 30.
+
+  258 Scholiast on Homer, _Iliad_, xviii. 483; L. Preller, _Demeter und
+      Persephone_, p. 286; F. A. Paley on Hesiod, _Works and Days_, 460.
+      The custom of ploughing the land thrice is alluded to by Homer
+      (_Iliad_, xviii. 542, _Odyssey_, v. 127) and Hesiod (_Theogony_,
+      971), and is expressly mentioned by Theophrastus (_Historia
+      Plantarum_, vii. 13. 6).
+
+  259 So I am informed by my learned friend the Rev. Professor J. H.
+      Moulton.
+
+  260 J. Toepffer, _Attische Genealogie_ (Berlin, 1889), pp. 138 _sq._
+      However, the Eleusinian Torchbearer Callias apparently claimed to be
+      descended from Triptolemus, for in a speech addressed to the
+      Lacedaemonians he is said by Xenophon (_Hellenica_, vi. 3. 6) to
+      have spoken of Triptolemus as "our ancestor" ({~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}).
+      See above, p. 54. But it is possible that Callias was here speaking,
+      not as a direct descendant of Triptolemus, but merely as an
+      Athenian, who naturally ranked Triptolemus among the most
+      illustrious of the ancestral heroes of his people. Even if he
+      intended to claim actual descent from the hero, this would prove
+      nothing as to the historical character of Triptolemus, for many
+      Greek families boasted of being descended from gods.
+
+  M52 Prizes of barley given to victors in the Eleusinian games.
+
+  261 The prize of barley is mentioned by the Scholiast on Pindar,
+      _Olymp._ ix. 150. The Scholiast on Aristides (vol. iii. pp. 55, 56,
+      ed. G. Dindorf) mentions ears of corn as the prize without
+      specifying the kind of corn. In the official Athenian inscription of
+      329 B.C., though the amount of corn distributed in prizes both at
+      the quadriennial and at the biennial games is stated, we are not
+      told whether the corn was barley or wheat. See Dittenberger,
+      _Sylloge Inscriptionum Graecarum_,2 No. 587, lines 259 _sqq._
+      According to Aristides (_Eleusin._ vol. i. p. 417, ed. G. Dindorf,
+      compare p. 168) the prize consisted of the corn which had first
+      appeared at Eleusis.
+
+_  262 Marmor Parium_, in _Fragmenta Historicorum Graecorum_, ed. C.
+      Mueller, i. 544. That the Rarian plain was the first to be sown and
+      the first to bear crops is affirmed by Pausanias (i. 38. 6).
+
+  263 Pausanias, i. 38. 6.
+
+  264 Dittenberger, _Sylloge Inscriptionum Graecarum_,2 No. 587, lines 119
+      _sq._ In the same inscription, a few lines lower down, mention is
+      made of two pigs which were used in purifying the sanctuary at
+      Eleusis. On the pig in Greek purificatory rites, see my notes on
+      Pausanias, ii. 31. 8 and v. 16. 8.
+
+  M53 The Eleusinian games primarily concerned with Demeter and
+      Persephone. The Ancestral Contest in the games may have been
+      originally a contest between the reapers to finish reaping.
+
+  265 See below, pp. 140 _sqq._, 155 _sqq._, 164 _sqq._, compare 218
+      _sqq._
+
+  266 See below, pp. 147 _sqq._, 221 _sq._, 223 _sq._
+
+  267 See above, p. 43.
+
+  M54 Games at harvest festivals in modern Europe.
+
+  268 A. Kuhn und W. Schwartz, _Norddeutsche Sagen, Maerchen und Gebraeuche_
+      (Leipsic, 1848), pp. 398, 399, 400.
+
+  269 P. Drechsler, _Sitte, Brauch und Volksglaube in Schlesien_ (Leipsic,
+      1903-1906), ii. 70 _sq._
+
+  270 A. Kuhn, _Maerkische Sagen und Maerchen_ (Berlin, 1843), pp. 341 _sq._
+
+  271 See below, pp. 133 _sqq._
+
+  M55 Date of the Eleusinian games uncertain.
+
+  272 Scholiast on Pindar, _Olymp._ ix. 150, p. 228, ed. Aug. Boeckh.
+
+  273 The games are assigned to Metageitnion by P. Stengel (Pauly-Wissowa,
+      _Real-Encyclopaedie der classischen Altertumswissenschaft_, v. 2.
+      coll. 2331 _sq._) and to Boedromion by August Mommsen and W.
+      Dittenberger. The last-mentioned scholar supposes that the games
+      immediately followed the Mysteries, and August Mommsen formerly
+      thought so too, but he afterwards changed his view and preferred to
+      suppose that the games preceded the Mysteries. See Aug. Mommsen,
+      _Heortologie_ (Leipsic, 1864), p. 263; _id._, _Feste der Stadt Athen
+      im Altertum_ (Leipsic, 1898), pp. 182 _sqq._; Dittenberger, _Sylloge
+      Inscriptionum Graecarum_,2 No. 587, note 171 (vol. ii. pp. 313
+      _sq._). The dating of the games in Metageitnion or in the early part
+      of Boedromion depends on little more than a series of conjectures,
+      particularly the conjectural restoration of an inscription and the
+      conjectural dating of a certain sacrifice to Democracy.
+
+  M56 Why should games intended to promote the annual growth of the crops
+      be held only every second or fourth year? The Eleusinian Mysteries
+      probably much older than the Eleusinian games.
+
+  274 A. de Candolle, _Origin of Cultivated Plants_ (London, 1884), pp.
+      354 _sq._, 367 _sqq._; R. Munro, _The Lake-dwellings of Europe_
+      (London, Paris, and Melbourne, 1890), pp. 497 _sqq._; O. Schrader,
+      _Reallexikon der indogermanischen Altertumskunde_ (Strasburg, 1901),
+      pp. 8 _sqq._; _id._, _Sprachvergleichung und Urgeschichte_ (Jena,
+      1906-1907), ii. 185 _sqq._; H. Hirt, _Die Indogermanen_ (Strasburg,
+      1905-1907), i. 254 _sqq._, 273 _sq._, 276 _sqq._, ii. 640 _sqq._; M.
+      Much, _Die Heimat der Indogermanen_ (Jena and Berlin, 1904), pp. 221
+      _sqq._; T. E. Peet, _The Stone and Bronze Ages in Italy and Sicily_
+      (Oxford, 1909), p. 362.
+
+  M57 Quadriennial period of many of the great games of Greece. Old
+      octennial period of the Pythian and probably of the Olympian games.
+      The octennial cycle was instituted by the Greeks at a very early era
+      for the purpose of harmonising solar and lunar time.
+
+  275 Aristotle, _Constitution of Athens_, 54, where the quadriennial
+      (penteteric) festival of the Eleusinian Games is mentioned along
+      with the quadriennial festivals of the Panathenaica, the Delia, the
+      Brauronia, and the Heraclea. The biennial (trieteric) festival of
+      the Eleusinian Games is mentioned only in the inscription of 329
+      B.C. (Dittenberger, _Sylloge Inscriptionum Graecarum_,2 No. 587,
+      lines 259 _sq._). As to the identity of the Great Eleusinian Games
+      with the quadriennial games see Dittenberger, _Sylloge Inscriptionum
+      Graecarum_, No. 246 note 9, No. 587 note 171.
+
+  276 As to the Plataean games see Plutarch, _Aristides_, 21; Pausanias,
+      ix. 2. 6.
+
+  277 Strabo, vii. 7. 6, p. 325; Suetonius, _Augustus_, 18; Dio Cassius,
+      li. 1; Daremberg et Saglio, _Dictionnaire des Antiquites Grecques et
+      Romaines_, _s.v._ "Actia."
+
+  278 Pausanias, viii. 9. 8.
+
+  279 Scholiast on Pindar, _Pyth._, Argument, p. 298, ed. Aug. Boeckh;
+      Censorinus, _De die natali_, xviii. 6. According to the scholiast on
+      Pindar (_l.c._) the change from the octennial to the quadriennial
+      period was occasioned by the nymphs of Parnassus bringing ripe
+      fruits in their hands to Apollo, after he had slain the dragon at
+      Delphi.
+
+  280 Scholiast on Pindar, _Olymp._ iii. 35 (20), p. 98, ed. Aug. Boeckh.
+      Compare Boeckh's commentary on Pindar (vol. iii. p. 138 of his
+      edition); L. Ideler, _Handbuch der mathematischen und technischen
+      Chronologie_, i. 366 _sq._, ii. 605 _sqq._
+
+  281 See _The Dying God_, chapter ii. § 4, "Octennial Tenure of the
+      Kingship," especially pp. 68 _sq._, 80, 89 _sq._
+
+  282 Geminus, _Elementa Astronomiae_, viii. 25 _sqq._, pp. 110 _sqq._,
+      ed. C. Manitius (Leipsic, 1898); Censorinus, _De die natali_, xviii.
+      2-6.
+
+  283 Geminus, _l.c._
+
+  284 Geminus, _Elementa Astronomiae_, viii. 36-41.
+
+  285 Censorinus, _De die natali_, xviii. 5. As Eudoxus flourished in the
+      fourth century B.C., some sixty or seventy years after Meton, who
+      introduced the nineteen years' cycle to remedy the defects of the
+      octennial cycle, the claim of Eudoxus to have instituted the latter
+      cycle may at once be put out of court. The claim of Cleostratus, who
+      seems to have lived in the sixth or fifth century B.C., cannot be
+      dismissed so summarily; but for the reasons given in the text he can
+      hardly have done more than suggest corrections or improvements of
+      the ancient octennial cycle.
+
+  286 Geminus, _Elementa Astronomiae_, viii. 27. With far less probability
+      Censorinus (_De die natali_, xviii. 2-4) supposes that the octennial
+      cycle was produced by the successive duplication of biennial and
+      quadriennial cycles. See below, pp. 86 _sq._
+
+  287 L. Ideler, _Handbuch der mathematischen und technischen
+      Chronologie_, ii. 605.
+
+_  288 The Dying God_, pp. 58 _sqq._ Speaking of the octennial cycle
+      Censorinus observes that "_Ob hoc in Graecia multae religiones hoc
+      intervallo temporis summa caerimonia coluntur_" (_De die natali_,
+      xviii. 6). Compare L. Ideler, _op. cit._ ii. 605 _sq._; G. F. Unger,
+      "Zeitrechnung der Griechen und Roemer," in Iwan Mueller's _Handbuch
+      der classischen Altertumswissenschaft_, i.2 732 _sq._ The great age
+      and the wide diffusion of the octennial cycle in Greece are rightly
+      maintained by A. Schmidt (_Handbuch der griechischen Chronologie_,
+      Jena, 1888, pp. 61 _sqq._), who suggests that the cycle may have
+      owed something to the astronomy of the Egyptians, with whom the
+      inhabitants of Greece are known to have had relations from a very
+      early time.
+
+  M58 The motive for instituting the eight years' cycle was religious, not
+      practical or scientific.
+
+  289 Aratus, _Phaenomena_, 733 _sqq._; L. Ideler, _Handbuch der
+      mathematischen und technischen Chronologie_, i. 255 _sq._
+
+  290 Geminus, _Elementa Astronomiae_, viii. 15-45.
+
+  M59 In early times the regulation of the calendar is largely an affair
+      of religion.
+
+  291 Macrobius, _Saturnalia_, i. 15. 9 _sqq._; Livy, ix. 46. 5; Valerius
+      Maximus, ii. 5. 2; Cicero, _Pro Muraena_, xi. 25; _id._, _De
+      legibus_, ii. 12. 29; Suetonius, _Divus Iulius_, 40; Plutarch,
+      _Caesar_, 59.
+
+  M60 The quadriennial period of games and festivals in Greece was
+      probably arrived at by bisecting an older octennial period.
+
+  292 See _The Dying God_, pp. 92 _sqq._
+
+  293 Plato, _Meno_, p. 81 A-C; Pindar, ed. Aug. Boeckh, vol. iii. pp. 623
+      _sq._, Frag. 98. See further _The Dying God_, pp. 69 _sq._
+
+  294 Plutarch, _Aristides_, 21; Pausanias, ix. 2. 6.
+
+  295 See above, p. 80.
+
+  M61 The reasons for bisecting the old octennial period into two
+      quadriennial periods may have been partly religious, partly
+      political.
+
+  296 Pausanias, iv. 5. 10; compare Aristotle, _Constitution of Athens_,
+      iii. 1; G. Gilbert, _Handbuch der griechischen Staatsalterthumer_,
+      i.2 (Leipsic, 1893) pp. 122 _sq._
+
+  297 See _The Dying God_, pp. 89-92.
+
+  M62 The biennial period of some Greek games may have been obtained by
+      bisecting the quadriennial period.
+
+  298 L. Ideler, _Handbuch der mathematischen und technischen
+      Chronologie_, ii. 606 _sq._
+
+  299 Censorinus, _De die natali_, xviii. 2-4.
+
+  300 Censorinus, _De die natali_, xviii. 2.
+
+  301 L. Ideler, _Handbuch der mathematischen und technischen
+      Chronologie_, i. 270.
+
+  M63 Application of the foregoing conclusion to the Eleusinian games.
+  M64 Varro on the rites of Eleusis.
+
+  302 Augustine, _De civitate Dei_, vii. 20. "_In Cereris autem sacris
+      praedicantur illa Eleusinia, quae apud Athenienses nobilissima
+      fuerunt. De quibus iste [Varro] nihil interpretatur, nisi quod
+      attinet ad frumentum, quod Ceres invenit, et ad Proserpinam, quam
+      rapiente Orco perdidit. Et hanc ipsam dicit significare
+      foecunditatem seminum.... Dicit deinde multa in mysteriis ejus
+      tradi, quae nisi ad frugum inventionem non pertineant._"
+
+  M65 The close resemblance between the artistic types of Demeter and
+      Persephone militates against the theory that the two goddesses
+      personified two things so different as the earth and the corn.
+
+  303 A. Baumeister, _Denkmaeler des classischen Altertums_, i. 577 _sq._;
+      Drexler, _s.v._ "Gaia," in W. H. Roscher's _Lexikon der griech. und
+      roem. Mythologie_, i. 1574 _sqq._; L. R. Farnell, _The Cults of the
+      Greek States_, iii. (Oxford, 1907) p. 27.
+
+  304 Pausanias, vii. 21. 11. At Athens there was a sanctuary of Earth the
+      Nursing-Mother and of Green Demeter (Pausanias, i. 22. 3), but we do
+      not know how the goddesses were represented.
+
+  305 L. R. Farnell, _The Cults of the Greek States_, iii. 256 with plate
+      xxi. b.
+
+  306 The distinction between Demeter (Ceres) and the Earth Goddess is
+      clearly marked by Ovid, _Fasti_, iv. 673 _sq._:
+
+      "_Officium commune Ceres et Terra tuentur;_
+      _ Haec praebet causam frugibus, illa locum._"
+
+  307 Dittenberger, _Sylloge Inscriptionum Graecarum_,2 Nos. 20, 408, 411,
+      587, 646, 647, 652, 720, 789. Compare the expression {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}
+      applied to them by Euripides, _Phoenissae_, 683, with the
+      Scholiast's note.
+
+  308 The substantial identity of Demeter and Persephone has been
+      recognised by some modern scholars, though their interpretations of
+      the myth do not altogether agree with the one adopted in the text.
+      See F. G. Welcker, _Griechische Goetterlehre_ (Goettingen, 1857-1862),
+      ii. 532; L. Preller, in Pauly's _Realencyclopaedie der classischen
+      Altertumswissenschaft_, vi. 106 _sq._; F. Lenormant, in Daremberg et
+      Saglio, _Dictionnaire des Antiquites Grecques et Romaines_, i. 2.
+      pp. 1047 _sqq._
+
+  M66 As goddesses of the corn Demeter and Persephone came to be
+      associated with the ideas of death and resurrection.
+
+_  309 Homeric Hymn to Demeter_, 480 _sqq._; Pindar, quoted by Clement of
+      Alexandria, _Strom._ iii. 3. 17, p. 518, ed. Potter; Sophocles,
+      quoted by Plutarch, _De audiendis poetis_, 4; Isocrates,
+      _Panegyricus_, 6; Cicero, _De legibus_, ii. 14. 36; Aristides,
+      _Eleusin._ vol. i. p. 421, ed. G. Dindorf.
+
+  310 A learned German professor has thought it worth while to break the
+      poor butterfly argument on the wheel of his inflexible logic. The
+      cruel act, while it proves the hardness of the professor's head,
+      says little for his knowledge of human nature, which does not always
+      act in strict accordance with the impulse of the syllogistic
+      machinery. See Erwin Rohde, _Psyche_3 (Tuebingen and Leipsic, 1903),
+      i. 290 _sqq._
+
+  311 1 Corinthians xv. 35 _sqq._
+
+  M67 Games played as magical ceremonies to promote the growth of the
+      crops. The Kayans of central Borneo, a primitive agricultural
+      people. The sacred rice-fields (_luma lali_) on which all religious
+      ceremonies requisite for agriculture are performed.
+
+  312 See above, p. 71, with the footnote 5.
+
+  313 See above, pp. 74 _sqq._
+
+  314 A. W. Nieuwenhuis, _Quer durch Borneo_ (Leyden, 1904-1907), i. 156
+      _sq._
+
+  M68 Ceremonies observed at the sowing festival. Taboos observed at the
+      sowing festival.
+
+  315 A. W. Nieuwenhuis, _op. cit._ i. 164.
+
+  316 A. W. Nieuwenhuis, _Quer durch Borneo_, i. 164-167.
+
+  317 A. W. Nieuwenhuis, _op. cit._ i. 163. The motive assigned for the
+      exclusion of strangers at the sowing festival applies equally to all
+      religious rites. "In all religious observances," says Dr.
+      Nieuwenhuis, "the Kayans fear the presence of strangers, because
+      these latter might frighten and annoy the spirits which are
+      invoked." On the periods of seclusion and quiet observed in
+      connexion with agriculture by the Kayans of Sarawak, see W. H.
+      Furness, _Home-life of Borneo Head-hunters_ (Philadelphia, 1902),
+      pp. 160 _sqq._
+
+  M69 Games played at the sowing festival. Masquerade at the sowing
+      festival.
+
+  318 A. W. Nieuwenhuis, _op. cit._ i. 167-169.
+
+  M70 Rites at hoeing.
+
+  319 A. W. Nieuwenhuis, _op. cit._ i. 169.
+
+  M71 The Kayan New Year festival. Offerings and addresses to the spirits.
+      Sacrifice of pigs.
+
+  320 A. W. Nieuwenhuis, _Quer durch Borneo_, i. 171-182.
+
+  M72 Dr. Nieuwenhuis on the games played by the Kayans in connexion with
+      agriculture.
+
+  321 A. W. Nieuwenhuis, _op. cit._ i. 169 _sq._
+
+  M73 Serious religious or magical significance of the games.
+
+  322 A. W. Nieuwenhuis, _op. cit._ i. 163 _sq._
+
+  323 A. W. Nieuwenhuis, _Quer durch Borneo_, ii. 130 _sq._ The game as to
+      the religious significance of which Dr. Nieuwenhuis has no doubt is
+      the masquerade performed by the Kayans of the Mahakam river, where
+      disguised men personate spirits and pretend to draw home the souls
+      of the rice from the far countries to which they may have wandered.
+      See below, pp. 186 _sq._
+
+  M74 The Kai, an agricultural people of German New Guinea. Superstitious
+      practices observed by the Kai for the good of the crops.
+
+  324 Ch. Keysser, "Aus dem Leben der Kaileute," in R. Neuhauss, _Deutsch
+      Neu-Guinea_, iii. (Berlin, 1911) pp. 3, 9 _sq._, 12 _sq._
+
+  325 Ch. Keysser, _op. cit._ pp. 123-125.
+
+  M75 Games played by the Kai people to promote the growth of the yams and
+      taro. Tales and legends told by the Kai to cause the fruits of the
+      earth to thrive.
+
+  326 Ch. Keysser, _op. cit._ iii. 125 _sq._
+
+  327 Ch. Keysser, _op. cit._ iii. 161.
+
+  M76 Thus among these New Guinea people games are played and stories told
+      as charms to ensure good crops.
+
+  328 On the principles of homoeopathic or imitative magic, see _The Magic
+      Art and the Evolution of Kings_, i. 52 _sqq._ The Esquimaux play
+      cat's cradle as a charm to catch the sun in the meshes of the string
+      and so prevent him from sinking below the horizon in winter. See
+      _The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, i. 316 _sq._ Cat's
+      cradle is played as a game by savages in many parts of the world,
+      including the Torres Straits Islands, the Andaman Islands, Africa,
+      and America. See A. C. Haddon, _The Study of Man_ (London and New
+      York, 1898), pp. 224-232; Miss Kathleen Haddon, _Cat's Cradles from
+      Many Lands_ (London, 1911). For example, the Indians of
+      North-western Brazil play many games of cat's cradle, each of which
+      has its special name, such as the Bow, the Moon, the Pleiades, the
+      Armadillo, the Spider, the Caterpillar, and the Guts of the Tapir.
+      See Th. Koch-Gruenberg, _Zwei Jahre unter den Indianern_ (Berlin,
+      1909-1910), i. 120, 123, 252, 253, ii. 127, 131. Finding the game
+      played as a magical rite to stay the sun or promote the growth of
+      the crops among peoples so distant from each other as the Esquimaux
+      and the natives of New Guinea, we may reasonably surmise that it has
+      been put to similar uses by many other peoples, though civilised
+      observers have commonly seen in it nothing more than a pastime.
+      Probably many games have thus originated in magical rites. When
+      their old serious meaning was forgotten, they continued to be
+      practised simply for the amusement they afforded the players.
+      Another such game seems to be the "Tug of War." See _The Golden
+      Bough_,2 iii. 95.
+
+  329 See _Taboo and the Perils of the Soul_, pp. 318 _sqq._
+
+  330 Stefan Lehner, "Bukaua," in R. Neuhauss, _Deutsch Neu-Guinea_, iii.
+      (Berlin, 1911) pp. 478 _sq._
+
+  M77 The Yabim of German New Guinea also tell tales on purpose to obtain
+      abundant crops.
+
+  331 See _Taboo and the Perils of the Soul_, p. 386.
+
+  332 H. Zahn, "Die Jabim," in R. Neuhauss, _Deutsch Neu-Guinea_, iii.
+      (Berlin, 1911) p. 290.
+
+  333 H. Zahn, _op. cit._ pp. 332 _sq._
+
+  M78 Specimens of Yabim tales told as charms to procure a good harvest.
+      Such tales may be called narrative spells.
+
+  334 H. Zahn, _op. cit._ p. 333.
+
+  335 Stefan Lehner, "Bukaua," in R. Neuhauss, _Deutsch Neu-Guinea_, iii.
+      (Berlin, 1911) p. 448.
+
+  M79 Use of the bull-roarer to quicken the fruits of the earth.
+
+  336 A. C. Haddon, in _Reports of the Cambridge Anthropological
+      Expedition to Torres Straits_, v. (Cambridge, 1904) pp. 218, 219.
+      Compare _id._, _Head-hunters, Black, White, and Brown_ (London,
+      1901) p. 104.
+
+  337 A. C. Haddon, in _Reports of the Cambridge Anthropological
+      Expedition to Torres Straits_, v. (Cambridge, 1904) pp. 346 _sq._
+
+  338 A. W. Howitt, "The Dieri and other kindred Tribes of Central
+      Australia," _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xx. (1891)
+      p. 83; _id._, _Native Tribes of South-East Australia_ (London,
+      1904), p. 660. The first, I believe, to point out the fertilising
+      power ascribed to the bull-roarer by some savages was Dr. A. C.
+      Haddon. See his essay, "The Bull-roarer," in _The Study of Man_
+      (London and New York, 1898), pp. 277-327. In this work Dr. Haddon
+      recognises the general principle of the possible derivation of many
+      games from magical rites. As to the bull-roarer compare my paper "On
+      some Ceremonies of the Central Australian Tribes," in the _Report of
+      the Australasian Association for the Advancement of Science for the
+      year 1900_ (Melbourne, 1901), pp. 313-322.
+
+  M80 Swinging as an agricultural charm.
+
+  339 J. G. Kohl, _Die deutsch-russischen Ostseeprovinzen_ (Dresden and
+      Leipsic, 1841), ii. 25.
+
+  340 For the evidence see _The Dying God_, pp. 277-285.
+
+  M81 Analogy of the Kayans of Borneo to the Greeks of Eleusis in the
+      early time. The Sacred Ploughing at Eleusis.
+
+  341 On the Kayan chiefs and their religious duties, see A. W.
+      Nieuwenhuis, _Quer durch Borneo_, i. 58-60.
+
+  342 See above, p. 36.
+
+  343 See above, p. 74.
+
+  344 Plutarch, _Praecepta Conjugalia_, 42. Another of these Sacred
+      Ploughings was performed at Scirum, and the third at the foot of the
+      Acropolis at Athens; for in this passage of Plutarch we must, with
+      the latest editor, read {~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} for the {~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} of the
+      manuscripts.
+
+  345 See above, pp. 50 _sqq._
+
+_  346 Etymologicum Magnum_, _s.v._ {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ZETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}, p. 206, lines 47 _sqq._; Im.
+      Bekker, _Anecdota Graeca_ (Berlin, 1814-1821), i. 221; Pliny, _Nat.
+      Hist._ vii. 199; Hesychius, _s.v._ {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ZETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}; {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK KORONIS~}
+      {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ZETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}; _Paroemiographi
+      Graeci_, ed. E. L. Leutsch und F. G. Schneidewin (Goettingen,
+      1839-1851), i. 388, {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ZETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}; {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}. {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ZETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}
+      {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} ... {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~}
+      {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PSILI AND VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PSILI AND VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}
+      {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}; Scholiast on Sophocles, _Antigone_, 255, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~}
+      {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ZETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}. The
+      Sacred Ploughing at the foot of the Acropolis was specially called
+      _bouzygios_ (Plutarch, _Praecepta Conjugalia_, 42). Compare J.
+      Toepffer, _Attische Genealogie_ (Berlin, 1889) pp. 136 _sqq._
+
+  347 Such Sabbaths are very commonly and very strictly observed in
+      connexion with the crops by the agricultural hill tribes of Assam.
+      The native name for such a Sabbath is _genna_. See T. C. Hodson,
+      "The _Genna_ amongst the Tribes of Assam," _Journal of the
+      Anthropological Institute_, xxxvi. (1906) pp. 94 _sq._: "Communal
+      tabus are observed by the whole village.... Those which are of
+      regular occurrence are for the most part connected with the crops.
+      Even where irrigated terraces are made, the rice plant is much
+      affected by deficiencies of rain and excess of sun. Before the crop
+      is sown, the village is tabu or _genna_. The gates are closed and
+      the friend without has to stay outside, while the stranger that is
+      within the gates remains till all is ended. The festival is marked
+      among some tribes by an outburst of licentiousness, for, so long as
+      the crops remain ungarnered, the slightest incontinence might ruin
+      all. An omen of the prosperity of the crops is taken by a mock
+      contest, the girls pulling against the men. In some villages the
+      _gennas_ last for ten days, but the tenth day is the crowning day of
+      all. The men cook, and eat apart from the women during this time,
+      and the food tabus are strictly enforced. From the conclusion of the
+      initial crop _genna_ to the commencement of the _genna_ which ushers
+      in the harvest-time, all trade, all fishing, all hunting, all
+      cutting grass and felling trees is forbidden. Those tribes which
+      specialise in cloth-weaving, salt-making or pottery-making are
+      forbidden the exercise of these minor but valuable industries. Drums
+      and bugles are silent all the while.... Between the initial crop
+      _genna_ and the harvest-home, some tribes interpose a _genna_ day
+      which depends on the appearance of the first blade of rice. All
+      celebrate the commencement of the gathering of the crops by a
+      _genna_, which lasts at least two days. It is mainly a repetition of
+      the initial _genna_ and, just as the first seed was sown by the
+      _gennabura_, the religious head of the village, so he is obliged to
+      cut the first ear of rice before any one else may begin." On such
+      occasions among the Kabuis, in spite of the licence accorded to the
+      people generally, the strictest chastity is required of the
+      religious head of the village who initiates the sowing and the
+      reaping, and his diet is extremely limited; for example, he may not
+      eat dogs or tomatoes. See T. C. Hodson, "The Native Tribes of
+      Manipur," _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxxi. (1901)
+      pp. 306 _sq._; and for more details, _id._, _The Naga Tribes of
+      Manipur_ (London, 1911), pp. 168 _sqq._ The resemblance of some of
+      these customs to those of the Kayans of Borneo is obvious. We may
+      conjecture that the "tug of war" which takes place between the sexes
+      on several of these Sabbaths was originally a magical ceremony to
+      ensure good crops rather than merely a mode of divination to
+      forecast the coming harvest. Magic regularly dwindles into
+      divination before it degenerates into a simple game. At one of these
+      taboo periods the men set up an effigy of a man and throw pointed
+      bamboos at it. He who hits the figure in the head will kill an
+      enemy; he who hits it in the belly will have plenty of food. See T.
+      C. Hodson, in _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxxvi.
+      (1906) p. 95; _id._, _The Naga Tribes of Manipur_, p. 171. Here also
+      we probably have an old magical ceremony passing through a phase of
+      divination before it reaches the last stage of decay. On Sabbaths
+      observed in connexion with agriculture in Borneo and Assam, see
+      further Hutton Webster, _Rest Days, a Sociological Study_, pp. 11
+      _sqq._ (_University Studies_, Lincoln, Nebraska, vol. xi. Nos. 1-2,
+      January-April, 1911).
+
+  M82 The connexion of the Eleusinian games with agriculture, attested by
+      the ancients, is confirmed by modern savage analogies.
+
+  348 See above, p. 71.
+
+  349 See above, p. 71 note 5.
+
+  350 See _The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, i. 137-139.
+
+  351 See the old Greek scholiast on Clement of Alexandria, quoted by Chr.
+      Aug. Lobeck, _Aglaophamus_ (Koenigsberg, 1829), p. 700; Andrew Lang,
+      _Custom and Myth_ (London, 1884), p. 39. It is true that the
+      bull-roarer seems to have been associated with the rites of Dionysus
+      rather than of Demeter; perhaps the sound of it was thought to
+      mimick the bellowing of the god in his character of a bull. But the
+      worship of Dionysus was from an early time associated with that of
+      Demeter in the Eleusinian mysteries; and the god himself, as we have
+      seen, had agricultural affinities. See above, p. 5. An annual
+      festival of swinging (which, as we have seen, is still practised
+      both in New Guinea and Russia for the good of the crops) was held by
+      the Athenians in antiquity and was believed to have originated in
+      the worship of Dionysus. See _The Dying God_, pp. 281 _sq._
+
+  M83 The sacred drama of the Eleusinian mysteries compared to the masked
+      dances of agricultural savages.
+
+  352 See above, pp. 95 _sq._, and below, pp. 186 _sq._
+
+  353 See above, p. 39.
+
+  354 Th. Koch-Gruenberg, _Zwei Jahre unter den Indianern_ (Berlin,
+      1909-1910), i. 137-140, ii. 193-196. As to the cultivation of manioc
+      among these Indians see _id._ ii. 202 _sqq._
+
+  M84 Theory that the personification of corn as feminine was suggested by
+      the part played by women in primitive agriculture.
+
+  355 F. B. Jevons, _Introduction to the History of Religion_ (London,
+      1896), p. 240; H. Hirt, _Die Indogermanen_ (Strasburg, 1905-1907),
+      i. 251 _sqq._
+
+  M85 Among many savage tribes the labour of hoeing the ground and sowing
+      the seed devolves on women. Agricultural work done by women among
+      the Zulus and other tribes of South Africa.
+
+  356 Rev. J. Shooter, _The Kafirs of Natal and the Zulu Country_ (London,
+      1857), pp. 17 _sq._ Speaking of the Zulus another writer observes:
+      "In gardening, the men clear the land, if need be, and sometimes
+      fence it in; the women plant, weed, and harvest" (Rev. L. Grout,
+      _Zulu-land_, Philadelphia, N.D., p. 110).
+
+  357 A. Delegorgue, _Voyage dans l'Afrique Australe_ (Paris, 1847), ii.
+      225.
+
+  358 H. A. Junod, _Les Ba-Ronga_ (Neuchatel, 1908), pp. 195 _sq._
+
+  359 L. Decle, _Three Years in Savage Africa_ (London, 1898), p. 85.
+
+  360 L. Decle, _op. cit._ p. 160.
+
+  361 C. Gouldsbury and H. Sheane, _The Great Plateau of Northern
+      Rhodesia_ (London, 1911), p. 302.
+
+  M86 Chastity required in the sowers of seed.
+
+  362 L. Decle, _op. cit._ p. 295.
+
+  363 C. Gouldsbury and H. Sheane, _The Great Plateau of Northern Nigeria_
+      (London, 1911), p. 179.
+
+  364 Rev. J. H. Weeks, "Notes on some Customs of the Lower Congo People,"
+      _Folk-lore_, xx. (1909) p. 311.
+
+  365 In order to guard against any breach of the rule they strewed _Agnus
+      castus_ and other plants, which were esteemed anaphrodisiacs, under
+      their beds. See Dioscorides, _De Materia Medica_, i. 134 (135), vol.
+      i. p. 130, ed. C. Sprengel (Leipsic, 1829-1830); Pliny, _Nat. Hist._
+      xxiv. 59; Aelian, _De Natura Animalium_, ix. 26; Hesychius, _s.v._
+      {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}; Scholiast on Theocritus, iv. 25; Scholiast on Nicander,
+      _Ther._ 70 _sq._
+
+  366 Scholiast on Aristophanes, _Thesmophor._ 80; Plutarch,
+      _Demosthenes_, 30; Aug. Mommsen, _Feste der Stadt Athen im Altertum_
+      (Leipsic, 1898), pp. 310 _sq._ That Pyanepsion was the month of
+      sowing is mentioned by Plutarch (_Isis et Osiris_, 69). See above,
+      pp. 45 _sq._
+
+  367 See below, vol. ii. p. 17 _sq._
+
+  M87 Woman's part in agriculture among the Caffres of South Africa in
+      general.
+
+  368 Dudley Kidd, _The Essential Kaffir_ (London, 1904), p. 323. Compare
+      B. Ankermann, "L'Ethnographie actuelle de l'Afrique meridionale,"
+      _Anthropos_, i. (1906) pp. 575 _sq._ As to the use of the Pleiades
+      to determine the time of sowing, see note at the end of the volume,
+      "The Pleiades in Primitive Calendars."
+
+  369 Rev. E. Casalis, _The Basutos_ (London, 1861), pp. 143 (with plate),
+      pp. 162-165.
+
+  M88 Agricultural work done by women among the Nandi, Baganda, the Congo,
+      and other tribes of Central and Western Africa.
+
+  370 A. C. Hollis, _The Nandi_ (Oxford, 1909), p. 19. However, among the
+      Bantu Kavirondo, an essentially agricultural people of British East
+      Africa, both men and women work in the fields with large iron hoes.
+      See Sir Harry Johnston, _The Uganda Protectorate_ (London, 1904),
+      ii. 738.
+
+  371 M. W. H. Beech, _The Suk_ (Oxford, 1911), p. 33.
+
+  372 F. Stuhlmann, _Mit Emin Pascha ins Herz von Afrika_ (Berlin, 1894),
+      p. 36.
+
+  373 F. Stuhlmann, _op. cit._ p. 75.
+
+  374 Rev. J. Roscoe, _The Baganda_ (London, 1911), pp. 426, 427; compare
+      pp. 5, 38, 91 _sq._, 93, 94, 95, 268.
+
+  375 H. Rehse, _Kiziba, Land und Leute_ (Stuttgart, 1910), p. 53.
+
+  376 G. Schweinfurth, _The Heart of Africa_3 (London, 1878), i. 281.
+
+  377 G. Schweinfurth, _op. cit._ ii. 40.
+
+  378 Rev. J. H. Weeks, "Anthropological Notes on the Bangala of the Upper
+      Congo River," _Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute_,
+      xxxix. (1909) pp. 117, 128.
+
+  379 E. Torday, "Der Tofoke," _Mitteilungen der Anthropologischen
+      Gesellschaft in Wien_, xli. (1911) p. 198.
+
+  380 E. Torday and T. A. Joyce, "Notes on the Ethnography of the
+      Ba-Mbala," _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxxv. (1905)
+      p. 405.
+
+  381 P. B. du Chaillu, _Explorations and Adventures in Equatorial Africa_
+      (London, 1861), p. 22.
+
+  382 P. B. du Chaillu, _op. cit._ p. 417.
+
+  M89 Agricultural work done by women among the Indian tribes of South
+      America.
+
+  383 A. D'Orbigny, _L'Homme Americain (de l'Amerique Meridionale)_
+      (Paris, 1839), i. 198 _sq._
+
+  384 Le Sieur de la Borde, "Relation de l'Origine, Moeurs, Coustumes,
+      Religion, Guerres et Voyages des Caraibes Sauvages des Isles
+      Antilles de l'Amerique," pp. 21-23, in _Recueil de divers Voyages
+      faits en Afrique et en l'Amerique_ (Paris, 1684).
+
+  385 E. F. im Thurn, _Among the Indians of Guiana_ (London, 1883), pp.
+      250 _sqq._, 260 _sqq._
+
+  M90 Cultivation of manioc by women among the Indian tribes of tropical
+      South America.
+
+  386 C. F. Phil. v. Martius, _Zur Ethnographie Amerika's, zumal
+      Brasiliens_ (Leipsic, 1867), pp. 486-489. On the economic importance
+      of the manioc or cassava plant in the life of the South American
+      Indians, see further E. J. Payne, _History of the New World called
+      America_, i. (Oxford, 1892) pp. 310 _sqq._, 312 _sq._
+
+  387 A. R. Wallace, _Narrative of Travels on the Amazon and Rio Negro_
+      (London, 1889), pp. 336, 337 (_The Minerva Library_). Mr. Wallace's
+      account of the agriculture of these tribes is entirely confirmed by
+      the observations of a recent explorer in north-western Brazil. See
+      Th. Koch-Gruenberg, _Zwei Jahre unter den Indianern_ (Berlin,
+      1909-1910), ii. 202-209; _id._, "Frauenarbeit bei den Indianern
+      Nordwest-Brasiliens," _Mitteilungen der Anthropologischen
+      Gesellschaft in Wien_, xxxviii. (1908) pp. 172-174. This writer
+      tells us (_Zwei Jahre unter den Indianern_, ii. 203) that these
+      Indians determine the time for planting by observing certain
+      constellations, especially the Pleiades. The rainy season begins
+      when the Pleiades have disappeared below the horizon. See Note at
+      end of the volume.
+
+  388 R. Southey, _History of Brazil_, vol. i. Second Edition (London,
+      1822), p. 253.
+
+  389 J. B. von Spix und C. F. Ph. von Martius, _Reise in Brasilien_
+      (Munich, 1823-1831), i. 381.
+
+  390 K. von den Steinen, _Unter den Naturvoelkern Zentral-Brasiliens_
+      (Berlin, 1894), p. 214.
+
+  391 J. J. von Tschudi, _Peru_ (St. Gallen, 1846), ii. 214.
+
+  M91 Agricultural work done by women among savage tribes in India, New
+      Guinea, and New Britain.
+
+  392 Captain T. H. Lewin, _Wild Races of South-Eastern India_ (London,
+      1870), p. 255.
+
+  393 E. T. Dalton, _Descriptive Ethnology of Bengal_ (Calcutta, 1872), p.
+      33.
+
+  394 E. T. Dalton, _op. cit._ pp. 226, 227.
+
+_  395 Nieuw Guinea, ethnographisch en natuurkundig onderzocht en
+      beschreven_ (Amsterdam, 1862), p. 159.
+
+_  396 Op. cit._ p. 119; H. von Rosenberg, _Der Malayische Archipel_
+      (Leipsic, 1878), p. 433.
+
+  397 P. A. Kleintitschen, _Die Kuestenbewohner der Gazellehalbinsel_
+      (Hiltrup bei Muenster, preface dated Christmas, 1906), pp. 60 _sq._;
+      G. Brown, D.D., _Melanesians and Polynesians_ (London, 1910), pp.
+      324 _sq._
+
+  M92 Division of agricultural work between men and women in the Indian
+      Archipelago.
+
+  398 A. C. Kruijt, "Een en ander aangaande het geestelijk en
+      maatschappelijk leven van den Poso-Alfoer," _Mededeelingen van wege
+      het Nederlandsche Zendelinggenootschap_, xxxix. (1895) pp. 132, 134;
+      J. Boot, "Korte schets der noordkust van Ceram," _Tijdschrift van
+      het Nederlandsch Aardrijkskundig Genootschap_, Tweede Serie, x.
+      (1893) p. 672; E. H. Gomes, _Seventeen Years among the Sea Dyaks of
+      Borneo_ (London, 1911), p. 46; E. Modigliani, _Un Viaggio a Nias_
+      (Milan, 1890), pp. 590 _sq._; K. Vetter, _Komm herueber und hilf
+      uns!_ Heft 2 (Barmen, 1898), pp. 6 _sq._; Ch. Keysser, "Aus dem
+      Leben der Kaileute," in R. Neuhauss, _Deutsch Neu-Guinea_, iii.
+      (Berlin, 1911) pp. 14, 85.
+
+  399 J. Gumilla, _Histoire Naturelle, Civile et Geographique de
+      l'Orenoque_ (Avignon, 1758), ii. 166 _sqq._, 183 _sqq._ Compare _The
+      Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, i. 139 _sqq._
+
+  M93 Among savages who have not learned to till the ground the task of
+      collecting the vegetable food in the form of wild seeds and roots
+      generally devolves on women. Examples furnished by the Californian
+      Indians.
+
+  400 S. Powers, _Tribes of California_ (Washington, 1877), p. 23.
+
+  401 Father Geronimo Boscana, "Chinigchinich," in [A. Robinson's] _Life
+      in California_ (New York, 1846), p. 287. Elsewhere the same
+      well-informed writer observes of these Indians that "they neither
+      cultivated the ground, nor planted any kind of grain; but lived upon
+      the wild seeds of the field, the fruits of the forest, and upon the
+      abundance of game" (_op. cit._ p. 285).
+
+  402 Father Geronimo Boscana, _op. cit._ pp. 302-305. As to the _puplem_,
+      see _id._ p. 264. The writer says that criers informed the people
+      "when to cultivate their fields" (p. 302). But taken along with his
+      express statement that they "neither cultivated the ground, nor
+      planted any kind of grain" (p. 285, see above, p. 125 note 2), this
+      expression "to cultivate their fields" must be understood loosely to
+      denote merely the gathering of the wild seeds and fruits.
+
+  403 See above, pp. 81 _sq._
+
+  M94 Among the aborigines of Australia the women provided the vegetable
+      food, while the men hunted.
+
+  404 H. E. A. Meyer, "Manners and Customs of the Encounter Bay Tribe," in
+      _Native Tribes of South Australia_ (Adelaide, 1879), pp. 191 _sq._
+
+  405 (Sir) George Grey, _Journals of Two Expeditions of Discovery in
+      North-West and Western Australia_ (London, 1841), ii. 292 _sq._ The
+      women also collect the nuts from the palms in the month of March
+      (_id._ ii. 296).
+
+  406 (Sir) George Grey, _op. cit._ ii. 12. The yam referred to is a
+      species of _Diascorea_, like the sweet potato.
+
+  407 R. Brough Smyth, _The Aborigines of Victoria_ (Melbourne, 1878), i.
+      209.
+
+  408 P. Beveridge, "Of the Aborigines inhabiting the Great Lacustrine and
+      Riverine Depression of the Lower Murray, Lower Murrumbidgee, Lower
+      Lachlan, and Lower Darling," _Journal and Proceedings of the Royal
+      Society of New South Wales for 1883_, vol. xvii. (Sydney, 1884) p.
+      36.
+
+  409 R. Brough Smyth, _The Aborigines of Victoria_, i. 214.
+
+  410 W. Stanbridge, "Some Particulars of the General Characteristics,
+      Astronomy, and Mythology of the Tribes in the Central Part of
+      Victoria, South Australia," _Transactions of the Ethnological
+      Society of London_, N.S., i. (1861) p. 291.
+
+  411 Baldwin Spencer and F. J. Gillen, _Native Tribes of Central
+      Australia_ (London, 1899), p. 22.
+
+  M95 The digging of the earth for wild fruits may have led to the origin
+      of agriculture.
+  M96 The discovery of agriculture due mainly to women.
+  M97 Women as agricultural labourers among the Aryans of Europe. The
+      Greek conception of the Corn Goddess probably originated in a simple
+      personification of the corn.
+
+  412 O. Schrader, _Reallexikon der indogermanischen Altertumskunde_
+      (Strasburg, 1901), pp. 6 _sqq._, 630 _sqq._; _id._,
+      _Sprachvergleichung und Urgeschichte_3 (Jena, 1905-1907), ii. 201
+      _sqq._; H. Hirt, _Die Indogermanen_, i. 251 _sqq._, 263, 274. The
+      use of oxen to draw the plough is very ancient in Europe. On the
+      rocks at Bohuslaen in Sweden there is carved a rude representation of
+      a plough drawn by oxen and guided by a ploughman: it is believed to
+      date from the Bronze Age. See H. Hirt, _op. cit._ i. 286.
+
+  413 Strabo, iii. 4. 17, p. 165; Heraclides Ponticus, "De rebus
+      publicis," 33, in _Fragmenta Historicorum Graecorum_, ed. C. Mueller,
+      ii. 219.
+
+  414 Tacitus, _Germania_, 15.
+
+  415 J. Spieth, _Die Ewe-Staemme_ (Berlin, 1906), p. 313.
+
+  416 (Sir) G. Grey, _Journals of Two Expeditions of Discovery in
+      North-west and Western Australia_ (London, 1841), ii. 292.
+
+  M98 Suggested derivation of the name Demeter.
+
+  417 W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_ (Strasburg, 1884), pp. 292
+      _sqq._ See above, p. 40, note 3.
+
+  418 O. Schrader, _Reallexikon der indogermanischen Altertumskunde_
+      (Strasburg, 1901), pp. 11, 289; _id._, _Sprachvergleichung und
+      Urgeschichte_2 (Jena, 1890), pp. 409, 422; _id._,
+      _Sprachvergleichung und Urgeschichte_3 (Jena, 1905-1907), ii. 188
+      _sq._ Compare V. Hehn, _Kulturpflanzen und Hausthiere in ihrem
+      Uebergang aus Asien_7 (Berlin, 1902), pp. 58 _sq._
+
+  419 Hesiod, _Theog._ 969 _sqq._; F. Lenormant, in Daremberg et Saglio,
+      _Dictionnaire des Antiquites Grecques et Romaines_, i. 2, p. 1029;
+      Kern, in Pauly-Wissowa's _Real-Encyclopaedie der classischen
+      Altertumswissenschaft_, iv. 2, coll. 2720 _sq._
+
+  420 My friend Professor J. H. Moulton tells me that there is great doubt
+      as to the existence of a word {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}, "barley" (_Etymologicum Magnum_,
+      p. 264, lines 12 _sq._), and that the common form of Demeter's name,
+      _Damater_ (except in Ionic and Attic) is inconsistent with {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~} in the
+      supposed Cretan form. "Finally if {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~} = {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ZETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}, you are bound to
+      regard her as a Cretan goddess, or as arising in some other area
+      where the dialect changed Indogermanic _y_ into {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~} and not {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ZETA~}: since
+      Ionic and Attic have {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ZETA~}, the two crucial letters of the name tell
+      different tales" (Professor J. H. Moulton, in a letter to me, dated
+      19 December 1903).
+
+  421 A. Kuhn, _Die Herabkunft des Feuers und des Goettertranks_2
+      (Guetersloh, 1886), pp. 68 _sq._; O. Schrader, _Reallexikon der
+      indogermanischen Altertumskunde_, pp. 11, 12, 289; _id._,
+      _Sprachvergleichung und Urgeschichte_,3 ii. 189, 191, 197 _sq._; H.
+      Hirt, _Die Indogermanen_ (Strasburg, 1905-1907), i. 276 _sqq._ In
+      the oldest Vedic ritual barley and not rice is the cereal chiefly
+      employed. See H. Oldenberg, _Die Religion des Veda_ (Berlin, 1894),
+      p. 353. For evidence that barley was cultivated in Europe by the
+      lake-dwellers of the Stone Age, see A. de Candolle, _Origin of
+      Cultivated Plants_ (London, 1884), pp. 368, 369; R. Munro, _The
+      Lake-dwellings of Europe_ (London, Paris, and Melbourne, 1890), pp.
+      497 _sq._ According to Pliny (_Nat. Hist._ xviii. 72) barley was the
+      oldest of all foods.
+
+  M99 The Corn-mother among the Germans and the Slavs.
+
+  422 W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_ (Strasburg, 1884), p. 296.
+      Compare O. Hartung, "Zur Volkskunde aus Anhalt," _Zeitschrift des
+      Vereins fuer Volkskunde_, vii. (1897) p. 150.
+
+  423 W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_ (Strasburg, 1884), p. 297.
+
+_  424 Ibid._ pp. 297 _sq._
+
+_  425 Ibid._ p. 299. Compare R. Andree, _Braunschweiger Volkskunde_
+      (Brunswick, 1896), p. 281.
+
+  426 W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_, p. 300.
+
+  427 W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_, p. 310.
+
+_  428 Ibid._ pp. 310 _sq._ Compare O. Hartung, _l.c._
+
+ M100 The Corn-mother in the last sheaf. Fertilising power of the
+      Corn-mother. The Corn-mother in the last sheaf among the Slavs and
+      in France.
+
+  429 W. Mannhardt, _op. cit._ p. 316.
+
+_  430 Ibid._ p. 316.
+
+_  431 Ibid._ pp. 316 _sq._
+
+_  432 Ibid._ p. 317. As to such rain-charms see _Adonis, Attis, Osiris_,
+      Second Edition, pp. 195-197.
+
+  433 W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_, p. 317.
+
+_  434 Ibid._ pp. 317 _sq._
+
+_  435 Ibid._ p. 318.
+
+_  436 Ibid._
+
+  437 W. Mannhardt, _op. cit._ pp. 318 _sq._
+
+  438 P. Sebillot, _Coutumes populaires de la Haute-Bretagne_ (Paris,
+      1886), p. 306.
+
+ M101 The Harvest-mother or the Great Mother in the last sheaf.
+
+  439 W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_, p. 319.
+
+ M102 The Grandmother in the last sheaf.
+
+  440 W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_, p. 320.
+
+_  441 Ibid._ p. 321.
+
+ M103 The Old Woman or the Old Man in the last sheaf.
+
+_  442 Ibid._ pp. 321, 323, 325 _sq._
+
+_  443 Ibid._ p. 323; F. Panzer, _Beitrag zur deutschen Mythologie_
+      (Munich, 1848-1855), ii. p. 219, § 403.
+
+  444 W. Mannhardt, _op. cit._ p. 325.
+
+_  445 Ibid._ p. 323.
+
+_  446 Ibid._
+
+  447 A. Kuhn and W. Schwartz, _Norddeutsche Sagen, Maerchen und Gebraeuche_
+      (Leipsic, 1848), pp. 396 _sq._, 399; K. Bartsch, _Sagen, Maerchen und
+      Gebraeuche aus Meklenburg_ (Vienna, 1879-1880), ii. 309, § 1494.
+
+  448 W. Mannhardt, _op. cit._ pp. 323 _sq._
+
+  449 H. Prahn, "Glaube und Brauch in der Mark Brandenburg," _Zeitschrift
+      des Vereins fuer Volkskunde_, i. (1891) pp. 186 _sq._
+
+  450 K. Haupt, _Sagenbuch der Lausitz_ (Leipsic, 1862-1863), i. p. 233,
+      No. 277 note.
+
+ M104 The Old Man or the Old Woman in the last sheaf.
+
+  451 R. Krause, _Sitten, Gebraeuche und Aberglauben in Westpreussen_
+      (Berlin, preface dated March 1904), p. 51.
+
+  452 P. Drechsler, _Sitte, Brauch und Volksglaube in Schlesien_ (Leipsic,
+      1903-1906), ii. 65 _sqq._
+
+  453 A. John, _Sitte, Brauch und Volksglaube im deutschen Westboehmen_
+      (Prague, 1905), p. 189.
+
+  454 A. Kuhn, _Sagen, Gebraeuche und Maerchen aus Westfalen_ (Leipsic,
+      1859), ii. 184, §§ 512 b, 514.
+
+  455 W. von Schulenburg, _Wendisches Volksthum_ (Berlin, 1882), p. 147.
+
+  456 A. Jaussen, _Coutumes des Arabes au pays de Moab_ (Paris, 1908), pp.
+      252 _sq._
+
+ M105 Identification of the harvester with the corn-spirit.
+
+  457 W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_, p. 324.
+
+_  458 Ibid._ p. 320.
+
+  459 W. Mannhardt, _op. cit._ p. 325.
+
+  460 See _The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, ii. 74 _sqq._
+
+ M106 The last sheaf made unusually large and heavy.
+
+  461 W. Mannhardt, _op. cit._ p. 324.
+
+_  462 Ibid._ pp. 324 _sq._
+
+_  463 Ibid._ p. 325. The author of _Die gestriegelte Rockenphilosophie_
+      (Chemnitz, 1759) mentions (p. 891) the German superstition that the
+      last sheaf should be made large in order that all the sheaves next
+      year may be of the same size; but he says nothing as to the shape or
+      name of the sheaf. Compare A. John, _Sitte, Brauch und Volksglaube
+      im deutschen Westboehmen_ (Prague, 1905), p. 188.
+
+  464 W. Mannhardt, _op. cit._ p. 327.
+
+_  465 Ibid._ p. 328.
+
+ M107 The Carlin and the Maiden in Scotland. The Old Wife (_Cailleach_) at
+      harvest in the Highlands of Scotland.
+
+  466 J. Jamieson, _Dictionary of the Scottish Language_, New Edition
+      (Paisley, 1879-1882), iii. 206, _s.v._ "Maiden"; W. Mannhardt,
+      _Mythologische Forschungen_, p. 326.
+
+  467 That is, with the reaping.
+
+  468 Rev. J. G. Campbell, _Superstitions of the Highlands and Islands of
+      Scotland_ (Glasgow, 1900), pp. 243 _sq._
+
+ M108 The Old Wife (_Cailleach_) in the last sheaf at harvest in the
+      islands of Lewis and Islay. The Old Wife at harvest in Argyleshire.
+      The reaper of the last sheaf called the Winter.
+
+  469 R. C. Maclagan, "Notes on folk-lore objects collected in
+      Argyleshire," _Folk-lore_, vi. (1895) pp. 149 _sq._
+
+  470 R. C. Maclagan, _op. cit._ p. 151.
+
+  471 R. C. Maclagan, _op. cit._ p. 149.
+
+_  472 Ibid._ pp. 151 _sq._
+
+  473 Rev. Walter Gregor, _Notes on the Folk-lore of the North-East of
+      Scotland_ (London, 1881), p. 182.
+
+  474 Rev. J. Macdonald, _Religion and Myth_ (London, 1893), p. 141.
+
+ M109 The Hag (_wrach_) at harvest in North Pembrokeshire.
+ M110 The Hag (_wrach_) at harvest in South Pembrokeshire. The Carley at
+      harvest in Antrim.
+
+  475 D. Jenkyn Evans, in an article entitled "The Harvest Customs of
+      Pembrokeshire," _Pembroke County Guardian_, 7th December 1895. In a
+      letter to me, dated 23 February 1901, Mr. E. S. Hartland was so good
+      as to correct the Welsh words in the text. He tells me that they
+      mean literally, "I rose early, I pursued late on her neck," and he
+      adds: "The idea seems to be that the man has pursued the Hag or
+      Corn-spirit to a later refuge, namely, his neighbour's field not yet
+      completely reaped, and now he leaves her for the other reapers to
+      catch. The proper form of the Welsh word for Hag is _Gwrach_. That
+      is the radical from _gwr_, man; _gwraig_, woman. _Wrach_ is the
+      'middle mutation.' "
+
+  476 M. S. Clark, "An old South Pembrokeshire Harvest Custom,"
+      _Folk-lore_, xv. (1904) pp. 194-196.
+
+  477 Communicated by my friend Professor W. Ridgeway.
+
+ M111 The Old Woman (the Baba) at harvest among Slavonic peoples.
+
+  478 W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_, p. 328.
+
+  479 W. Mannhardt, _op. cit._ p. 238.
+
+_  480 Ibid._ pp. 328 _sq._
+
+_  481 Ibid._ p. 329.
+
+_  482 Ibid._ p. 330.
+
+ M112 The Old Woman (the Baba) at harvest in Lithuania.
+
+_  483 Ibid._
+
+  484 W. Mannhardt, _op. cit._ p. 331.
+
+_  485 Ibid._
+
+ M113 The Corn-queen and the Harvest-queen.
+
+_  486 Ibid._ p. 332.
+
+  487 Th. Vernaleken, _Mythen und Braeuche des Volkes in Oesterreich_
+      (Vienna, 1859), p. 310.
+
+  488 Hutchinson, _History of Northumberland_, ii. _ad finem_, 17, quoted
+      by J. Brand, _Popular Antiquities of Great Britain_, ii. 20, Bohn's
+      edition.
+
+  489 E. D. Clarke, _Travels in Various Countries of Europe, Asia, and
+      Africa_, Part ii., Section First, Second Edition (London, 1813), p.
+      229. Perhaps _Morgay_ (which Clarke absurdly explains as {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~})
+      is a mistake for _Hawkie_ or _Hockey_. The waggon in which the last
+      corn was brought from the harvest field was called the _hockey_ cart
+      or _hock_ cart. In a poem called "The Hock-cart or Harvest Home"
+      Herrick has described the joyous return of the laden cart drawn by
+      horses swathed in white sheets and attended by a merry crowd, some
+      of whom kissed or stroked the sheaves, while others pranked them
+      with oak leaves. See further J. Brand, _Popular Antiquities_, ii. 22
+      _sq._, Bohn's edition. The name _Hockey_ or _Hawkie_ is no doubt the
+      same with the German _hokelmei_, _hoerkelmei_, or _harkelmei_, which
+      in Westphalia is applied to a green bush or tree set up in the field
+      at the end of harvest and brought home in the last waggon-load; the
+      man who carries it into the farmhouse is sometimes drenched with
+      water. See A. Kuhn, _Sagen, Gebraeuche und Maerchen aus Westfalen_
+      (Leipsic, 1859), ii. 178-180, §§ 494-497. The word is thought to be
+      derived from the Low German _hokk_ (plural _hokken_), "a heap of
+      sheaves." See Joseph Wright, _English Dialect Dictionary_, iii.
+      (London, 1902) p. 190, _s.v._ "Hockey," from which it appears that
+      in England the word has been in use in Yorkshire, Cambridgeshire,
+      and Suffolk.
+
+  490 Book ix. lines 838-842.
+
+ M114 The corn-spirit as the Old Woman or Old Man at threshing.
+
+  491 W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_, pp. 333 _sq._
+
+_  492 Ibid._ p. 334.
+
+  493 W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_, p. 334.
+
+_  494 Ibid._ p. 336.
+
+ M115 The man who gives the last stroke at threshing is called the
+      Corn-fool, the Oats-fool, etc.
+
+  495 A. Kuhn and W. Schwartz, _Norddeutsche Sagen, Maerchen und Gebraeuche_
+      (Leipsic, 1848), p. 397.
+
+  496 A. Peter, _Volksthuemliches aus Oesterreichisch-Schlesien_ (Troppau,
+      1865-1867), ii. 270.
+
+ M116 The man who gives the last stroke at threshing is said to get the
+      Old Woman or the Old Man. The Corn-woman at threshing.
+
+_  497 Bavaria Landes- und Volkskunde des Koenigreichs Bayern_, iii.
+      (Munich, 1865) pp. 344, 969.
+
+  498 P. Drechsler, _Sitte, Brauch und Volksglaube in Schlesien_ (Leipsic,
+      1903-1906), ii. 67.
+
+  499 A. John, _Sitte, Brauch und Volksglaube in deutschen Westboehmen_
+      (Prague, 1905), pp. 193, 194, 197.
+
+  500 R. Wuttke, _Saechsische Volkskunde_ (Dresden, 1901), p. 360.
+
+  501 W. Mannhardt. _Mythologische Forschungen_, p. 336.
+
+_  502 Ibid._ p. 336; W. Mannhardt, _Baumkultus_, p. 612.
+
+  503 A. John, _Sitte, Brauch und Volksglaube im deutschen Westboehmen_
+      (Prague, 1905), p. 194.
+
+  504 E. H. Meyer, _Badisches Volksleben_ (Strasburg, 1900), p. 437.
+
+ M117 The corn-spirit as a child at harvest.
+
+  505 A. Kuhn, _Sagen, Gebraeuche und Maerchen aus Westfalen_ (Leipsic,
+      1859), ii. 184 _sq._, § 515.
+
+  506 W. Mannhardt, _Die Korndaemonen_ (Berlin, 1868), p. 28.
+
+  507 W. Mannhardt, _l.c._
+
+  508 W. Mannhardt, _l.c._
+
+ M118 The last corn cut called the _mell_, the _kirn_, or the _churn_ in
+      various parts of England. The _churn_ cut by throwing sickles at it.
+
+  509 Joseph Wright, _English Dialect Dictionary_, vol. i. (London, 1898)
+      p. 605 _s.v._ "Churn"; _id._, vol. iii. (London, 1902) p. 453 _s.v._
+      "Kirn"; _id._ vol. iv. (London, 1903) pp. 82 _sq._ Sir James Murray,
+      editor of the _New English Dictionary_, kindly informs me that the
+      popular etymology which identifies _kern_ or _kirn_ in this sense
+      with _corn_ is entirely mistaken; and that "baby" or "babbie" in the
+      same phrase means only "doll," not "infant." He writes,
+      "_Kirn-babbie_ does not mean 'corn-baby,' but merely _kirn-doll_,
+      _harvest-home doll_. _Bab_, _babbie_ was even in my youth the
+      regular name for 'doll' in the district, as it was formerly in
+      England; the only woman who sold dolls in Hawick early in the
+      [nineteenth] century, and whose toy-shop all bairns knew, was known
+      as 'Betty o' the Babs,' Betty of the dolls."
+
+  510 W. Henderson, _Folk-lore of the Northern Counties of England_
+      (London, 1879), pp. 88 _sq._; M. C. F. Morris, _Yorkshire
+      Folk-talk_, pp. 212-214. Compare F. Grose, _Provincial Glossary_
+      (London, 1811), _s.v._ "Mell-supper"; J. Brand, _Popular
+      Antiquities_, ii. 27 _sqq._, Bohn's edition; _The Denham Tracts_,
+      edited by Dr. James Hardy (London, 1892-1895), ii. 2 _sq._ The sheaf
+      out of which the Mell-doll was made was no doubt the Mell-sheaf,
+      though this is not expressly said. Dr. Joseph Wright, editor of _The
+      English Dialect Dictionary_, kindly informs me that the word _mell_
+      is well known in these senses in all the northern counties of
+      England down to Cheshire. He tells me that the proposals to connect
+      _mell_ with "meal" or with "maiden" (through a form like the German
+      _Maedel_) are inadmissible.
+
+  511 Joseph Wright, _The English Dialect Dictionary_, vol. iv. (London,
+      1903) _s.v._ "Mell," p. 83.
+
+  512 R. Chambers, _The Book of Days_ (Edinburgh, 1886), ii. 377 _sq._ The
+      expression "Corn Baby" used by the writer is probably his
+      interpretation of the correct expression _kirn_ or _kern_ baby. See
+      above, p. 151, note 3. It is not clear whether the account refers to
+      England or Scotland. Compare F. Grose, _Provincial Glossary_ (London
+      1811), _s.v._ "Kern-baby," "an image dressed up with corn, carried
+      before the reapers to their mell-supper, or harvest-home"; J. Brand,
+      _Popular Antiquities_, ii. 20; W. Henderson, _Folk-lore of the
+      Northern Counties of England_, p. 87.
+
+  513 Joseph Wright, _The English Dialect Dictionary_, iii. (London, 1902)
+      _s.v._ "Kirn," p. 453.
+
+  514 Joseph Wright, _The English Dialect Dictionary_, i. (London, 1898)
+      p. 605.
+
+  515 J. Brand, _Popular Antiquities_, ii. 21 _sq._
+
+ M119 The last corn cut called the _kirn_ in some parts of Scotland. The
+      _kirn_ cut by reapers blindfold.
+
+  516 J. Jamieson, _Etymological Dictionary of the Scottish Language_, New
+      Edition (Paisley, 1879-1882), iii. 42 _sq._, _s.v._ "Kirn."
+
+  517 Mrs. A. B. Gomme, "A Berwickshire Kirn-dolly," _Folk-lore_, xii.
+      (1901) p. 215.
+
+  518 Mrs. A. B. Gomme, "Harvest Customs," _Folk-lore_, xiii. (1902) p.
+      178.
+
+  519 J. G. Frazer, "Notes on Harvest Customs," _Folk-lore_, vii. (1889)
+      p. 48.
+
+ M120 The _churn_ in Ireland cut by throwing the sickles at it.
+
+  520 (Rev.) H. W. Lett, "Winning the Churn (Ulster)," _Folk-lore_, xvi.
+      (1905) p. 185. My friend Miss Welsh, formerly Principal of Girton
+      College, Cambridge, told me (30th May 1901) that she remembers the
+      custom of the _churn_ being observed in the north of Ireland; the
+      reapers cut the last handful of standing corn (called the _churn_)
+      by throwing their sickles at it, and the corn so cut was taken home
+      and kept for some time.
+
+ M121 The last corn cut called the Maiden in the Highlands of Scotland.
+
+  521 J. Jamieson, _Dictionary of the Scottish Language_, New Edition
+      (Paisley, 1879-1882), iii. 206, _s.v._ "Maiden." An old Scottish
+      name for the Maiden (_autumnalis nymphula_) was _Rapegyrne_. See
+      Fordun, _Scotichren_. ii. 418, quoted by J. Jamieson, _op. cit._
+      iii. 624, _s.v._ "Rapegyrne."
+
+  522 R. C. Maclagan, in _Folk-lore_, vi. (1895) pp. 149, 151.
+
+ M122 The cutting of the Maiden at harvest in Argyleshire.
+
+  523 Rev. M. MacPhail (Free Church Manse, Kilmartin, Lochgilphead),
+      "Folk-lore from the Hebrides," _Folk-lore_, xi. (1900) p. 441. That
+      the Maiden, hung up in the house, is thought to keep out witches
+      till the next harvest is mentioned also by the Rev. J. G. Campbell,
+      _Superstitions of the Highlands and Islands of Scotland_ (Glasgow,
+      1900), p. 20. So with the _churn_ (above, p. 153).
+
+ M123 The cutting of the Maiden at harvest in Perthshire.
+
+  524 Sir John Sinclair, _Statistical Account of Scotland_, xix.
+      (Edinburgh, 1797), pp. 550 _sq._ Compare Miss E. J. Guthrie, _Old
+      Scottish Customs_ (London and Glasgow, 1885), pp. 130 _sq._
+
+_  525 Folk-lore Journal_, vi. (1888) pp. 268 _sq._
+
+  526 The late Mrs. Macalister, wife of Professor Alexander Macalister,
+      Cambridge. Her recollections referred especially to the
+      neighbourhood of Glen Farg, some ten or twelve miles to the south of
+      Perth.
+
+ M124 The Maiden at harvest in Lochaber. The cutting of the Maiden at
+      harvest on the Gareloch in Dumbartonshire.
+
+  527 Rev. James Macdonald, _Religion and Myth_ (London, 1893), pp. 141
+      _sq._
+
+  528 From information supplied by Archie Leitch, late gardener to my
+      father at Rowmore, Garelochhead. The Kirn was the name of the
+      harvest festivity in the south of Scotland also. See Lockhart's
+      _Life of Scott_, ii. 184 (first edition); _Early Letters of Thomas
+      Carlyle_, ed. Norton, ii. 325 _sq._
+
+  529 Communicated by the late Mr. Macfarlane of Faslane, Gareloch.
+
+ M125 The cutting of the _clyack_ sheaf at harvest in Aberdeenshire.
+ M126 The _clyack_ sheaf cut by the youngest girl and not allowed to touch
+      the ground.
+
+  530 A slightly different mode of making up the _clyack_ sheaf is
+      described by the Rev. Walter Gregor elsewhere (_Notes on the
+      Folk-lore of the North-east of Scotland_, London, 1881, pp. 181
+      sq.): "The _clyack_ sheaf was cut by the maidens on the harvest
+      field. On no account was it allowed to touch the ground. One of the
+      maidens seated herself on the ground, and over her knees was the
+      band of the sheaf laid. Each of the maidens cut a handful, or more
+      if necessary, and laid it on the band. The sheaf was then bound,
+      still lying over the maiden's knees, and dressed up in woman's
+      clothing."
+
+ M127 The _clyack_ feast or "meal and ale."
+ M128 The _clyack_ sheaf in the dance.
+ M129 The _clyack_ sheaf given to a mare in foal or to a cow in calf.
+
+  531 W. Gregor, "Quelques coutumes du Nord-est du Comte d'Aberdeen,"
+      _Revue des Traditions populaires_, iii. (October, 1888) pp. 484-487
+      (wrong pagination; should be 532-535). This account, translated into
+      French by M. Loys Brueyre from the author's English and translated
+      by me back from French into English, is fuller than the account
+      given by the same writer in his _Notes on the Folk-lore of the
+      North-east of Scotland_ (London, 1881), pp. 181-183. I have
+      translated "_une jument ayant son poulain_" by "a mare in foal," and
+      "_la plus ancienne vache ayant son veau_" by "the oldest cow in
+      calf," because in the author's _Notes on the Folk-lore of the
+      North-east of Scotland_ (p. 182) we read that the last sheaf was
+      "carefully preserved till Christmas or New Year morning. On that
+      morning it was given to a mare in foal," etc. Otherwise the French
+      words might naturally be understood of a mare with its foal and a
+      cow with its calf.
+
+ M130 Sanctity attributed to the _clyack_ sheaf. The sacrament of
+      barley-meal and water at Eleusis.
+
+  532 See above, pp. 115 _sq._
+
+  533 See below, vol. ii. p. 110.
+
+  534 The drinking of the draught (called the {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}) as a solemn rite in
+      the Eleusinian mysteries is mentioned by Clement of Alexandria
+      (_Protrept._ 21, p. 18, ed. Potter) and Arnobius (_Adversus
+      Nationes_, v. 26). The composition of the draught is revealed by the
+      author of the Homeric _Hymn to Demeter_ (verses 206-211), where he
+      represents Demeter herself partaking of the sacred cup. That the
+      compound was a kind of thick gruel, half-solid, half-liquid, is
+      mentioned by Eustathius (on Homer, _Iliad_, xi. 638, p. 870).
+      Compare Miss J. E. Harrison, _Prolegomena to the Study of Greek
+      Religion_, Second Edition (Cambridge, 1908), pp. 155 _sqq._
+
+  535 Rev. J. Macdonald, _Religion and Myth_ (London, 1893), pp. 140
+      _sq._, from MS. notes of Miss J. Ligertwood.
+
+_  536 Folk-lore Journal_, vii. (1889) p. 51; _The Quarterly Review_,
+      clxxii. (1891) p. 195.
+
+  537 As to Inverness-shire my old friend Mr. Hugh E. Cameron, formerly of
+      Glen Moriston, Inverness-shire, wrote to me many years ago: "As a
+      boy, I remember the last bit of corn cut was taken home, and neatly
+      tied up with a ribbon, and then stuck up on the wall above the
+      kitchen fire-place, and there it often remained till the 'maiden' of
+      the following year took its place. There was no ceremony about it,
+      beyond often a struggle as to who would get, or cut, the last sheaf
+      to select the 'maiden' from" (_The Folk-lore Journal_, vii. 1889,
+      pp. 50 _sq._). As to Sutherlandshire my mother was told by a
+      servant, Isabella Ross, that in that county "they hang up the
+      'maiden' generally over the mantel-piece (chimney-piece) till the
+      next harvest. They have always a kirn, whipped cream, with often a
+      ring in it, and sometimes meal sprinkled over it. The girls must all
+      be dressed in lilac prints, they all dance, and at twelve o'clock
+      they eat potatoes and herrings" (_op. cit._ pp. 53 _sq._).
+
+ M131 The corn-spirit as a bride.
+
+  538 W. Mannhardt, _Die Korndaemonen_ (Berlin, 1868), p. 30.
+
+  539 W. Mueller, _Beitraege zur Volkskunde der Deutschen in Maehren_ (Vienna
+      and Olmuetz, 1893), p. 327.
+
+  540 J. E. Waldfreund, "Volksgebraeuche und Aberglaube in Tirol und dem
+      Salzburger Gebirg," _Zeitschrift fuer deutsche Mythologie und
+      Sittenkunde_, iii. (1855) p. 340.
+
+  541 Th. Vernaleken, _Mythen und Braeuche des Volkes in Oesterreich_
+      (Vienna, 1859), p. 310.
+
+  542 Mr. R. Matheson, in _The Folk-lore Journal_, vii. (1889) pp. 49, 50.
+
+ M132 The corn-spirit as Bride and Bridegroom.
+
+  543 W. Mannhardt, _Die Korndaemonen_ (Berlin, 1868), p. 30.
+
+  544 E. Sommer, _Sagen, Maerchen und Gebraeuche aus Sachsen und Thueringen_
+      (Halle, 1846), pp. 160 _sq._; W. Mannhardt, _l.c._
+
+  545 W. Mannhardt, _l.c._; E. Peter, _Volksthuemliches aus
+      Oesterreichisch-Schlesien_ (Troppau, 1865-1867), ii. 269.
+
+ M133 The corn-spirit in the double form of the Old Wife and the Maiden
+      simultaneously at harvest in the Highlands of Scotland.
+
+  546 Alexander Nicolson, _A Collection of Gaelic Proverbs and Familiar
+      Phrases, based on Macintosh's Collection_ (Edinburgh and London,
+      1881), p. 248.
+
+  547 A. Nicolson, _op. cit._ pp. 415 _sq._
+
+  548 R. C. Maclagan, "Corn-maiden in Argyleshire," _Folk-lore_, vii.
+      (1896) pp. 78 _sq._
+
+ M134 In these customs the Old Wife represents the old corn of last year,
+      and the Maiden the new corn of this year.
+
+  549 See above, p. 149, where, however, the corn-spirit is conceived as
+      an Old Man.
+
+ M135 Analogy of the harvest customs to the spring customs of Europe.
+
+  550 See _The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, ii. 73 _sqq._
+
+  551 Above, pp. 134, 137, 138 _sq._, 142, 145, 147, 148, 149.
+
+  552 See below, pp. 237 _sq._
+
+_  553 The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, ii. 47 _sqq._
+
+  554 Above, pp. 134, 135.
+
+  555 Above, pp. 141, 155, 156, 158, 160 _sq._, 162, 165.
+
+  556 See above, p. 135.
+
+  557 Above, p. 145. Compare A. Kuhn, _Sagen, Gebraeuche und Maerchen aus
+      Westfalen_ (Leipsic, 1859), ii. p. 185, § 516.
+
+  558 Above, pp. 136, 139, 155, 157 _sq._, 162; compare p. 160.
+
+ M136 The spring and harvest customs of Europe are parts of a primitive
+      heathen ritual.
+ M137 Marks of a primitive ritual.
+
+_  559 The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, i. 220 _sqq._
+
+ M138 Reasons for regarding the spring and harvest customs of modern
+      Europe as a primitive ritual.
+
+  560 Above, p. 146. The common custom of wetting the last sheaf and its
+      bearer is no doubt also a rain-charm; indeed the intention to
+      procure rain or make the corn grow is sometimes avowed. See above,
+      pp. 134, 137, 143, 144, 145; _Adonis, Attis, Osiris_, Second
+      Edition, pp. 195-197.
+
+  561 Above, pp. 135 _sq._, 138, 139, 152.
+
+  562 Above, p. 134.
+
+  563 Above, pp. 134, 155, 158, 161.
+
+ M139 The Corn-mother in many lands.
+ M140 The Maize-mother among the Peruvian Indians.
+
+  564 Above, pp. 136, 138, 140, 143, 152, 153, 154, 155, 156, 157, 158: W.
+      Mannhardt, _Die Korndaemonen_, pp. 7, 26.
+
+  565 J. de Acosta, _Natural and Moral History of the Indies_, bk. v. ch.
+      28, vol. ii. p. 374 (Hakluyt Society, London, 1880). In quoting the
+      passage I have modernised the spelling. The original Spanish text of
+      Acosta's work was reprinted in a convenient form at Madrid in 1894.
+      See vol. ii. p. 117 of that edition.
+
+ M141 The Maize-mother, the Quinoa-mother, the Coca-mother, and the
+      Potato-mother among the Peruvian Indians.
+
+  566 W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_, pp. 342 _sq._ Mannhardt's
+      authority is a Spanish tract (_Carta pastorale de exortacion e
+      instruccion contra las idolatrias de los Indios del arcobispado de
+      Lima_) by Pedro de Villagomez, Archbishop of Lima, published at Lima
+      in 1649, and communicated to Mannhardt by J. J. v. Tschudi. The
+      _Carta Pastorale_ itself seems to be partly based on an earlier
+      work, the _Extirpacion de la Idolatria del Piru. Dirigido al Rey
+      N.S. en Su real conseio de Indias, por el Padre Pablo Joseph de
+      Arriaga de la Compania de Jesus_ (Lima, 1621). A copy of this work
+      is possessed by the British Museum, where I consulted it. The writer
+      explains (p. 16) that the Maize-mothers (_Zaramamas_) are of three
+      sorts, namely (1) those which are made of maize stalks, dressed up
+      like women, (2) those which are carved of stone in the likeness of
+      cobs of maize, and (3) those which consist simply of fruitful stalks
+      of maize or of two maize-cobs naturally joined together. These last,
+      the writer tells us, were the principal _Zaramamas_, and were
+      revered by the natives as Mothers of the Maize. Similarly, when two
+      potatoes were found growing together the Indians called them
+      Potato-mothers (_Axomamas_) and kept them in order to get a good
+      crop of potatoes. As Arriaga's work is rare, it may be well to give
+      his account of the Maize-mothers, Coca-mothers, and Potato-mothers
+      in his own words. He says (p. 16): "_Zaramamas, son de tres maneras,
+      y son las que se quentan entre las cosas halladas en los pueblos. La
+      primera es una como muneca hecha de canas de maiz, vestida como
+      muger con su anaco, y llicilla, y sus topos de plata, y entienden,
+      que como madre tiene virtud de engendrar, y parir mucho maiz. A este
+      modo tienen tambien Cocamamas para augmento de la coca. Otras son de
+      piedra labradas como choclos, o mazorcas de maiz, con sus granos
+      relevados, y de estas suelen tener muchas en lugar de Conopas_
+      [household gods]. _Otras son algunas canas fertiles de maiz, que con
+      la fertilidad de la tierra dieron muchas macorcas, y grandes, o
+      quando salen dos macorcas juntas, y estas son las principales,
+      Zaramamas, y assi las reverencian como a madres del maiz, a estas
+      llaman tambien Huantayzara, o Ayrihuayzara. A este tercer genero no
+      le dan la adoracion que a Huaca, ni Conopa, sino que le tienen
+      supersticiosamente como una cosa sagrada, y colgando estas canas con
+      muchos choclos de unos ramos de sauce bailen con ellas el bayle, que
+      llaman Ayrihua, y acabado el bayle, las queman, y sacrifican a
+      Libiac para que les de buena cosecha. Con la misma supersticion
+      guardan las mazorcas del maiz, que salen muy pintadas, que llaman
+      Micsazara, o Mantayzara, o Caullazara, y otros que llaman Piruazara,
+      que son otras macorcas en que van subiendo los granos no derechos
+      sino haziendo caracol. Estas Micsazara, o Piruazara, ponen
+      supersticiosamente en los montones de maiz, y en las Piruas (que son
+      donde guardan el maiz) paraque se las guarde, y el dia de las
+      exhibiciones se junta tanto de estas macorcas, que tienen bien que
+      comer las mulas. La misma supersticion tienen con las que llaman
+      Axomamas, que son quando salen algunas papas juntas, y las guardan
+      para tener buena cosecha de papas._" The _exhibiciones_ here
+      referred to are the occasions when the Indians brought forth their
+      idols and other relics of superstition and delivered them to the
+      ecclesiastical visitors. At Tarija in Bolivia, down to the present
+      time, a cross is set up at harvest in the maize-fields, and on it
+      all maize-spadices growing as twins are hung. They are called
+      Pachamamas (Earth-mothers) and are thought to bring good harvests.
+      See Baron E. Nordenskioeld, "Travels on the Boundaries of Bolivia and
+      Argentina," _The Geographical Journal_, xxi. (1903) pp. 517, 518.
+      Compare E. J. Payne, _History of the New World called America_
+      (Oxford, 1892), i. 414 _sq._
+
+ M142 Customs of the ancient Mexicans at the maize-harvest.
+
+  567 Brasseur de Bourbourg, _Histoire des Nations civilisees du Mexique
+      et de l'Amerique Centrale_ (Paris 1857-1859), iii. 40 _sqq._ Compare
+      _id._, iii. 505 _sq._; E. J. Payne, _History of the New World called
+      America_, i. 419 _sq._
+
+ M143 Sahagun's account of the ancient Mexican religion.
+ M144 Sahagun's description of the Mexican Maize-goddess and her festival.
+
+  568 E. Seler, "Altmexikanische Studien, ii.," _Veroeffentlichungen aus
+      dem koeniglichen Museum fuer Voelkerkunde_, vi. (Berlin, 1899) 2/4
+      Heft, pp. 67 _sqq._ Another chapter of Sahagun's work, describing
+      the costumes of the Mexican gods, has been edited and translated
+      into German by Professor E. Seler in the same series of publications
+      ("Altmexikanische Studien," _Veroeffentlichungen aus dem koeniglichen
+      Museum fuer Voelkerkunde_, i. 4 (Berlin, 1890) pp. 117 _sqq._).
+      Sahagun's work as a whole is known to me only in the excellent
+      French translation of Messrs. D. Jourdanet and R. Simeon (_Histoire
+      Generale des choses de la Nouvelle-Espagne par le R. P. Fray
+      Bernardino de Sahagun_, Paris, 1880). As to the life and character
+      of Sahagun see M. R. Simeon's introduction to the translation, pp.
+      vii. _sqq._
+
+  569 B. de Sahagun, Aztec text of book ii., translated by Professor E.
+      Seler, "Altmexikanische Studien, ii.," _Veroeffentlichungen aus dem
+      koeniglichen Museum fuer Voelkerkunde_, vi. 2/4 Heft (Berlin, 1899),
+      pp. 188-194. The account of the ceremonies given in the Spanish
+      version of Sahagun's work is a good deal more summary. See B. de
+      Sahagun, _Histoire Generale des choses de la Nouvelle Espagne_
+      (Paris, 1880), pp. 94-96.
+
+ M145 The Corn-mother among the North American Indians.
+
+  570 J. Mooney, "Myths of the Cherokee," _Nineteenth Annual Report of the
+      Bureau of American Ethnology_, Part I. (Washington, 1900) pp. 423,
+      432. See further _Adonis, Attis, Osiris_, Second Edition, pp. 296
+      _sq._
+
+  571 L. H. Morgan, _League of the Iroquois_ (Rochester, 1851), pp. 161
+      _sq._, 199. According to the Iroquois the corn plant sprang from the
+      bosom of the mother of the Great Spirit after her burial (L. H.
+      Morgan, _op. cit._ p. 199 note 1).
+
+  572 C. Lumholtz, _Unknown Mexico_ (London, 1903), ii. 280.
+
+ M146 The Mother-cotton in the Punjaub.
+
+  573 H. M. Elliot, _Supplemental Glossary of Terms used in the
+      North-Western Provinces_, edited by J. Beames (London, 1869), i.
+      254.
+
+ M147 The Barley Bride among the Berbers.
+
+  574 W. B. Harris, "The Berbers of Morocco," _Journal of the
+      Anthropological Institute_, xxvii. (1898) p. 68.
+
+ M148 Another account of the Barley Bride among the Berbers. Competitions
+      for the possession of the image that represents the Corn-mother.
+
+  575 Sir John Drummond Hay, _Western Barbary, its Wild Tribes and Savage
+      Animals_ (1844), p. 9, quoted in _Folk-lore_, vii. (1896) pp. 306
+      _sq._
+
+  576 See above, pp. 70 _sqq._
+
+ M149 Comparison of the European ritual of the corn with the Indonesian
+      ritual of the rice.
+ M150 The Indonesian ritual of the rice is based on the belief that the
+      rice is animated by a soul.
+ M151 Parallelism between the human soul and the rice-soul.
+
+  577 R. J. Wilkinson (of the Civil Service of the Federated Malay
+      States), _Malay Beliefs_ (London and Leyden, 1906), pp. 49-51. On
+      the conception of the soul as a bird, see _Taboo and the Perils of
+      the Soul_, pp. 33 _sqq._ The Toradjas of Central Celebes think that
+      the soul of the rice is embodied in a pretty little blue bird, which
+      builds its nest in the rice-field when the ears are forming and
+      vanishes after harvest. Hence no one may drive away, much less kill,
+      these birds; to do so would not only injure the crop, the
+      sacrilegious wretch himself would suffer from sickness, which might
+      end in blindness. See A. C. Kruyt, "De Rijstmoeder in den Indischen
+      Archipel," p. 374 (see the full reference in the next note).
+
+ M152 The soul-stuff of rice.
+
+  578 A. C. Kruyt, "De Rijstmoeder in den Indischen Archipel," _Verslagen
+      en Mededeelingen der koninklijke Akademie van Wetenschappen_,
+      Afdeeling Letterkunde, Vierde Reeks, v. part 4 (Amsterdam, 1903),
+      pp. 361 _sq._ This essay (pp. 361-411) contains a valuable
+      collection of facts relating to what the writer calls the
+      Rice-mother in the East Indies. But it is to be observed that while
+      all the Indonesian peoples seem to treat a certain portion of the
+      rice at harvest with superstitious respect and ceremony, only a part
+      of them actually call it "the Rice-mother." Mr. Kruyt prefers to
+      speak of "soul-stuff" rather than of "a soul," because, according to
+      him, in living beings the animating principle is conceived, not as a
+      tiny being confined to a single part of the body, but as a sort of
+      fluid or ether diffused through every part of the body. See his
+      work, _Het Animisme in den Indischen Archipel_ (The Hague, 1906),
+      pp. 1 _sqq._ In the latter work (pp. 145-150) the writer gives a
+      more summary account of the Indonesian theory of the rice-soul.
+
+ M153 Rice treated by the Indonesians as if it were a woman.
+
+  579 See _The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, ii. 28 _sq._; A. C.
+      Kruyt, "De Rijstmoeder," _op. cit._ pp. 363 _sq._, 370 _sqq._
+
+  580 See above, pp. 113 _sqq._
+
+  581 See above, p. 181.
+
+  582 See _Taboo and the Perils of the Soul_, pp. 411 _sq._; A. C. Kruyt,
+      "De Rijstmoeder," _op. cit._ p. 372.
+
+ M154 The Kayans of Borneo, their treatment of the soul of the rice.
+
+  583 See above, pp. 92 _sqq._
+
+  584 A. W. Nieuwenhuis, _Quer durch Borneo_ (Leyden, 1904-1907), i. 157
+      _sq._
+
+ M155 Instruments used by the Kayans for the purpose of catching and
+      detaining the soul of the rice. Ceremonies performed by Kayan
+      housewives at fetching rice from the barn.
+
+  585 A. W. Nieuwenhuis, _op. cit._ i. 118-121. Compare _id._, _In
+      Centraal Borneo_ (Leyden, 1900), i. 154 _sqq._
+
+ M156 Masquerade performed by the Kayans before sowing for the purpose of
+      attracting the soul of the rice.
+
+  586 A similar belief probably explains the masked dances and pantomimes
+      of many savage tribes. If that is so, it shews how deeply the
+      principle of imitative magic has influenced savage religion.
+
+  587 A. W. Nieuwenhuis, _Quer durch Borneo_, i. 322-330. Compare _id._,
+      _In Centraal Borneo_, i. 185 _sq._ As to the masquerades performed
+      and the taboos observed at the sowing season by the Kayans of the
+      Mendalam river, see above, pp. 94 _sqq._
+
+  588 A. W. Nieuwenhuis, _op. cit._ i. 317.
+
+ M157 Comparison of the Kayan masquerade with the Eleusinian drama.
+ M158 Securing the soul of the rice among the Dyaks of Northern Borneo.
+
+  589 Spenser St. John, _Life in the Forests of the Far East_2 (London,
+      1863), i. 187, 192 _sqq._; W. Chalmers, quoted in H. Ling Roth's
+      _Natives of Sarawak and British North Borneo_ (London, 1896), i.
+      412-414.
+
+ M159 Recalling the soul of the rice among the Karens of Burma.
+
+  590 Rev. E. B. Cross, "On the Karens," _Journal of the American Oriental
+      Society_, iv. (1854) p. 309.
+
+ M160 Securing the soul of the rice in various parts of Burma.
+
+  591 (Sir) J. G. Scott and J. P. Hardiman, _Gazetteer of Upper Burma and
+      of the Shan States_ (Rangoon, 1900-1901), Part i. vol. i. p. 559.
+
+  592 J. Mooney, "Myths of the Cherokee," _Nineteenth Annual Report of the
+      Bureau of American Ethnology_, Part i. (Washington, 1900) p. 423.
+      Compare _Adonis, Attis, Osiris_, Second Edition, pp. 296 _sq._
+
+  593 (Sir) J. G. Scott and J. P. Hardiman, _op. cit._ Part ii. vol. i. p.
+      172.
+
+  594 From a letter written to me by Mr. J. S. Furnivall and dated Pegu
+      Club, Rangoon, 6/6 (_sic_). Mr. Furnivall adds that in Upper Burma
+      the custom of the _Bonmagyi_ sheaf is unknown.
+
+ M161 The Rice-mother among the Minangkabauers of Sumatra.
+
+  595 J. L. van der Toorn, "Het animisme bij den Minangkabauer der
+      Padangsche Bovenlanden," _Bijdragen tot de Taal- Land- en
+      Volkenkunde van Nederlandsch Indie_, xxxix. (1890) pp. 63-65. In the
+      charm recited at sowing the Rice-mother in the bed, I have
+      translated the Dutch word _stoel_ as "root," but I am not sure of
+      its precise meaning in this connexion. It is doubtless identical
+      with the English agricultural term "to stool," which is said of a
+      number of stalks sprouting from a single seed, as I learn from my
+      friend Professor W. Somerville of Oxford.
+
+ M162 The Rice-mother among the Tomori of Celebes. Special words used at
+      reaping among the Tomori. Riddles and stories in connexion with the
+      rice.
+
+  596 A. C. Kruijt, "Eenige ethnografische aanteekeningen omtrent de
+      Toboengkoe en de Tomori," _Mededeelingen van wege het Nederlandsche
+      Zendelinggenootschap_, xliv. (1900) pp. 227, 230 _sq._
+
+  597 See _Taboo and the Perils of the Soul_, pp. 411 _sq._
+
+  598 A. C. Kruijt, _op. cit._ p. 228.
+
+  599 A. C. Kruijt, "Een en ander aangaande het geestelijk en
+      maatschapelijk leven van den Poso-Alfoer," _Mededeelingen van wege
+      het Nederlandsche Zendelinggenootschap_, xxxix. (1895) pp. 142 _sq._
+
+ M163 The Rice-mother among the Toradjas of Celebes.
+
+  600 G. Maan, "Eenige mededeelingen omtrent de zeden en gewoonten der
+      Toerateya ten opzichte van den rijstbouw," _Tijdschrift voor
+      Indische Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde_, xlvi. (1903) pp. 330-337. The
+      writer dates his article from Tanneteya (in Celebes?), but otherwise
+      gives no indication of the geographical position of the people he
+      describes. A similar omission is common with Dutch writers on the
+      geography and ethnology of the East Indies, who too often appear to
+      assume that the uncouth names of these barbarous tribes and obscure
+      hamlets are as familiar to European readers as Amsterdam or the
+      Hague. The Toerateyas whose customs Mr. Maan describes in this
+      article are the inland inhabitants of Celebes. Their name Toerateyas
+      or Toradjas signifies simply "inlanders" and is applied to them by
+      their neighbours who live nearer the sea; it is not a name used by
+      the people themselves. The Toradjas include many tribes and the
+      particular tribe whose usages in regard to the Rice-mother are
+      described in the text is probably not one of those whose customs and
+      beliefs have been described by Mr. A. C. Kruijt in many valuable
+      papers. See above, p. 183 note 1, and _The Magic Art and the
+      Evolution of Kings_, i. 109 note 1.
+
+ M164 The rice personified as a young woman among the Bataks of Sumatra.
+
+  601 M. Joustra, "Het leven, de zeden en gewoonten der Bataks,"
+      _Mededeelingen van wege het Nederlandsche Zendelinggenootschap_,
+      xlvi. (1902) pp. 425 _sq._
+
+  602 J. H. Neumann, "Iets over den landbouw bij de Karo-Bataks,"
+      _Mededeelingen van wege het Nederlandsche Zendelinggenootschap_,
+      xlvi. (1902) pp. 380 _sq._ As to the employment in ritual of young
+      people whose parents are both alive, see _Adonis, Attis, Osiris_,
+      Second Edition, pp. 413 _sqq._
+
+ M165 The King of the Rice in Mandeling.
+
+  603 A. L. van Hasselt, "Nota, betreffende de rijstcultuur in de
+      Residentie Tapanoeli," _Tijdschrift voor Indische Taal- Land- en
+      Volkenkunde_, xxxvi. (1893) pp. 526-529; Th. A. L. Heyting,
+      "Beschrijving der Onderafdeeling Groot- mandeling en Batangnatal,"
+      _Tijdschrift van het Nederlandsch Aardrijkskundig Genootschap_,
+      Tweede Serie, xiv. (1897) pp. 290 _sq._ As to the rule of sowing
+      seed on a full stomach, which is a simple case of homoeopathic or
+      imitative magic, see further _The Magic Art and the Evolution of
+      Kings_, i. 136.
+
+ M166 The Rice-mother and the Rice-child at harvest in the Malay
+      Peninsula.
+
+  604 W. W. Skeat, _Malay Magic_ (London, 1900), pp. 225 _sq._
+
+  605 W. W. Skeat, _Malay Magic_, pp. 235-249.
+
+ M167 The Rice-bride and the Rice-bridegroom at harvest in Java.
+
+  606 See above, pp. 163 _sq._
+
+  607 P. J. Veth, _Java_ (Haarlem, 1875-1884), i. 524-526. The ceremony
+      has also been described by Miss Augusta de Wit (_Facts and Fancies
+      about Java_, Singapore, 1898, pp. 229-241), who lays stress on the
+      extreme importance of the rice-harvest for the Javanese. The whole
+      island of Java, she tells us, "is one vast rice-field. Rice on the
+      swampy plains, rice on the rising ground, rice on the slopes, rice
+      on the very summits of the hills. From the sod under one's feet to
+      the verge of the horizon, everything has one and the same colour,
+      the bluish-green of the young, or the gold of the ripened rice. The
+      natives are all, without exception, tillers of the soil, who reckon
+      their lives by seasons of planting and reaping, whose happiness or
+      misery is synonymous with the abundance or the dearth of the
+      precious grain. And the great national feast is the harvest home,
+      with its crowning ceremony of the Wedding of the Rice" (_op. cit._
+      pp. 229 _sq._). I have to thank my friend Dr. A. C. Haddon for
+      directing my attention to Miss de Wit's book.
+
+ M168 Another account of the Javanese custom.
+
+  608 A. C. Kruijt, "Gebruiken bij den rijstoogst in enkele streken op
+      Oost-Java," _Mededeelingen van wege het Nederlandsche
+      Zendelinggenootschap_, xlvii. (1903) pp. 132-134. Compare _id._, "De
+      rijst-moeder in den Indischen Archipel," _Verslagen en Mededeelingen
+      der koninklijke Akademie van Wetenschappen_, Afdeeling Letterkunde,
+      Vierde Reeks, v. part 4 (Amsterdam, 1903), pp. 398 _sqq._
+
+ M169 The rice-spirit as husband and wife in Bali and Lombok.
+
+  609 J. C. van Eerde, "Gebruiken bij den rijstbouw en rijstoogst op
+      Lombok," _Tijdschrift voor Indische Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde_,
+      xlv. (1902) pp. 563-565 note.
+
+  610 J. C. van Eerde, "Gebruiken bij den rijstbouw en rijstoogst op
+      Lombok," _Tijdschrift voor Indische Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde_,
+      xlv. (1902) pp. 563-573.
+
+ M170 The Father and Mother of the Rice among the Szis of Burma.
+
+  611 (Sir) J. G. Scott and J. P. Hardiman, _Gazetteer of Upper Burma and
+      the Shan States_, Part i. vol. i. (Rangoon, 1900) p. 426.
+
+ M171 The spirit of the corn sometimes thought to be embodied in men or
+      women.
+ M172 The Old Woman who Never Dies, the goddess of the crops among the
+      Mandans and Minnitarees.
+
+  612 Maximilian, Prinz zu Wied, _Reise in das innere Nord-America_
+      (Coblenz, 1839-1841), ii. 182 _sq._
+
+ M173 Miami myth of the Corn-spirit in the form of a broken-down old man.
+
+  613 H. R. Schoolcraft, _Indian Tribes of the United States_, v.
+      (Philadelphia, 1856) pp. 193-195.
+
+ M174 The harvest-goddess Gauri represented by a girl and a bundle of
+      plants.
+
+  614 B. A. Gupte, "Harvest Festivals in honour of Gauri and Ganesh,"
+      _Indian Antiquary_, xxxv. (1906) p. 61. For details see _The Magic
+      Art and the Evolution of Kings_, ii. 77 _sq._
+
+ M175 Analogy of Demeter and Persephone to the Corn-mother, the
+      Harvest-maiden, and similar figures in the harvest customs of modern
+      European peasantry. The rustic analogues of Demeter and Persephone.
+
+  615 It is possible that the image of Demeter with corn and poppies in
+      her hands, which Theocritus (vii. 155 _sqq._) describes as standing
+      on a rustic threshing-floor (see above, p. 47), may have been a
+      Corn-mother or a Corn-maiden of the kind described in the text. The
+      suggestion was made to me by my learned and esteemed friend Dr. W.
+      H. D. Rouse.
+
+  616 Homer, _Odyssey_, v. 125 _sqq._; Hesiod, _Theog._ 969 _sqq._
+
+  617 See above, pp. 150 _sq._
+
+  618 It is possible that a ceremony performed in a Cyprian worship of
+      Ariadne may have been of this nature: at a certain annual sacrifice
+      a young man lay down and mimicked a woman in child-bed. See
+      Plutarch, _Theseus_, 20: {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI AND YPOGEGRAMMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH YPOGEGRAMMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}
+      {~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH YPOGEGRAMMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~}
+      {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}. We have already seen grounds for
+      regarding Ariadne as a goddess or spirit of vegetation. See _The
+      Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, ii. 138. Amongst the
+      Minnitarees in North America, the Prince of Neuwied saw a tall
+      strong woman pretend to bring up a stalk of maize out of her
+      stomach; the object of the ceremony was to secure a good crop of
+      maize in the following year. See Maximilian, Prinz zu Wied, _Reise
+      in das innere Nord-America_ (Coblenz, 1839-1841), ii. 269.
+
+  619 See _The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, ii. 97 _sqq._
+
+ M176 Why did the Greeks personify the corn as a mother and a daughter?
+ M177 Demeter was perhaps the ripe crop and Persephone the seed-corn.
+
+  620 See above, p. 135.
+
+  621 See above, pp. 140 _sqq._, 155 _sqq._, 164 _sqq._, 197 _sqq._
+
+  622 However, the Sicilians seem on the contrary to have regarded Demeter
+      as the seed-corn and Persephone as the ripe crop. See above, pp. 57,
+      58 _sq._
+
+  623 According to Augustine (_De civitate Dei_, iv. 8) the Romans
+      imagined a whole series of distinct deities, mostly goddesses, who
+      took charge of the corn at all its various stages from the time when
+      it was committed to the ground to the time when it was lodged in the
+      granary. Such a multiplication of mythical beings to account for the
+      process of growth is probably late rather than early.
+
+ M178 Or the Greeks may have started with the personification of the corn
+      as a single goddess, and the conception of a second goddess may have
+      been a later development. Duplication of deities as a consequence of
+      the anthropomorphic tendency. Example of such duplication in Japan,
+      where there are two distinct deities of the sun. Perhaps the Greek
+      personification of the corn as a mother and a daughter (Demeter and
+      Persephone) is a case of such a mythical duplication.
+
+  624 In some places it was customary to kneel down before the last sheaf,
+      in others to kiss it. See W. Mannhardt, _Korndaemonen_, p. 26; _id._,
+      _Mythologische Forschungen_, p. 339. The custom of kneeling and
+      bowing before the last corn is said to have been observed, at least
+      occasionally, in England. See _Folk-lore Journal_, vii. (1888) p.
+      270; and Herrick's evidence, above, p. 147, note 1. The Malay
+      sorceress who cut the seven ears of rice to form the Rice-child
+      kissed the ears after she had cut them (W. W. Skeat, _Malay Magic_,
+      p. 241).
+
+  625 Above, pp. 132 _sq._
+
+  626 Even in one of the oldest documents, the Homeric _Hymn to Demeter_,
+      Demeter is represented as the goddess who controls the growth of the
+      corn rather than as the spirit who is immanent in it. See above, pp.
+      36 _sq._
+
+  627 W. G. Aston, _Shinto_ (London, 1905), p. 127.
+
+  628 See _Adonis, Attis, Osiris_, Second Edition, pp. 323 _sqq._, 330
+      _sqq._, 346 _sqq._
+
+  629 A. Pauly, _Real-Encyclopaedie der classischen
+      Alterthumswissenschaft_, v. (Stuttgart, 1849) p. 1011.
+
+ M179 Death and resurrection a leading incident in the myth of Persephone,
+      as in the myths of Adonis, Attis, Osiris, and Dionysus.
+ M180 Popular harvest and vintage customs in ancient Egypt, Syria, and
+      Phrygia.
+ M181 Maneros, a plaintive song of Egyptian reapers.
+
+  630 Diodorus Siculus, i. 14, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}
+      {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~}
+      {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI AND PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}. For {~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} we should
+      perhaps read {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}, which is supported by the following
+      {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}.
+
+  631 Herodotus, ii. 79; Julius Pollux, iv. 54; Pausanias, ix. 29. 7;
+      Athenaeus, xiv. 11, p. 620 A.
+
+  632 H. Brugsch, _Die Adonisklage und das Linoslied_ (Berlin, 1852), p.
+      24. According to another interpretation, however, Maneros is the
+      Egyptian _manurosh_, "Let us be merry." See Lauth, "Ueber den
+      aegyptischen Maneros," _Sitzungsberichte der koenigl. bayer._
+      _Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Muenchen_, 1869, ii. 163-194.
+
+  633 Above, pp. 197 _sqq._
+
+  634 W. R. S. Ralston, _Songs of the Russian People_ (London, 1872), pp.
+      249 _sq._
+
+  635 See above, pp. 158 _sq._
+
+  636 W. Gregor, "Quelques coutumes du Nord-est du comte d'Aberdeen,"
+      _Revue des Traditions populaires_, iii. (1888) p. 487 (should be
+      535).
+
+ M182 Linus or Ailinus, a plaintive song sung at the vintage in Phoenicia.
+
+  637 Homer, _Iliad_, xviii. 570; Herodotus, ii. 79; Pausanias, ix. 29.
+      6-9; Conon, _Narrat_. 19. For the form Ailinus see Suidas, _s.v._;
+      Euripides, _Orestes_, 1395; Sophocles, _Ajax_, 627. Compare Moschus,
+      _Idyl._ iii. 1; Callimachus, _Hymn to Apollo_, 20. See Greve, _s.v._
+      "Linos," in W. H. Roscher's _Ausfuehrliches Lexikon der griech, und
+      roem. Mythologie_, ii. 2053 _sqq._
+
+  638 Conon, _Narrat._ 19.
+
+  639 F. C. Movers, _Die Phoenizier_, i. (Bonn, 1841), p. 246; W.
+      Mannhardt, _Antike Wald- und Feldkulte_ (Berlin, 1877), p. 281. In
+      Hebrew the expression would be _oi lanu_ ({~HEBREW LETTER ALEF~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~} {~HEBREW LETTER LAMED~}{~HEBREW LETTER NUN~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}), which occurs in
+      1 Samuel, iv. 7 and 8; Jeremiah, iv. 13, vi. 4. However, the
+      connexion of the Linus song with the lament for Adonis is regarded
+      by Baudissin as very doubtful. See W. W. Graf Baudissin, _Adonis und
+      Esmun_ (Leipsic, 1911), p. 360, note 3.
+
+  640 Pausanias, ix. 29. 8.
+
+ M183 Bormus, a plaintive song sung by Mariandynian reapers in Bithynia.
+
+  641 Julius Pollux, iv. 54; Athenaeus, xiv. 11, pp. 619 F-620 A;
+      Hesychius, _svv._ {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} and {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}.
+
+ M184 Lityerses, a song sung at reaping and threshing in Phrygia. Legend
+      of Lityerses.
+
+  642 The story was told by Sositheus in his play of _Daphnis_. His verses
+      have been preserved in the tract of an anonymous writer. See
+      _Scriptores rerum mirabilium Graeci_, ed. A. Westermann (Brunswick,
+      1839), pp. 220 _sq._; also Athenaeus, x. 8, p. 415 B; Scholiast on
+      Theocritus, x. 41; Photius, _Lexicon_, Suidas, and Hesychius, _s.v._
+      "Lityerses"; Apostolius, _Centur._ x. 74; Servius, on Virgil,
+      _Bucol._ viii. 68. Photius mentions the sickle with which Lityerses
+      beheaded his victims. Servius calls Lityerses a king and says that
+      Hercules cut off his head with the sickle that had been given him to
+      reap with. Lityerses is the subject of a special study by W.
+      Mannhardt (_Mythologische Forschungen_, pp. 1 _sqq._), whom I
+      follow. Compare O. Crusius, _s.v._ "Lityerses," in W. H. Roscher's
+      _Ausfuehrliches Lexikon der griech. und roem. Mythologie_, ii. 2065
+      _sqq._
+
+  643 Julius Pollux, iv. 54.
+
+ M185 The story of Lityerses seems to reflect an old Phrygian harvest
+      custom of killing strangers as embodiments of the corn-spirit.
+
+  644 In this comparison I closely follow W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische
+      Forschungen_, pp. 18 _sqq._
+
+ M186 Contests among reapers, binders, and threshers in order not to be
+      the last at their work.
+
+  645 Compare above, pp. 134, 136, 137 _sq._, 140, 142, 143, 144, 145, 147
+      _sq._, 149, 164 _sq._ On the other hand, the last sheaf is sometimes
+      an object of desire and emulation. See above, pp. 136, 141, 153, 154
+      _sq._, 156, 162 note 3, 165. It is so at Balquhidder also
+      (_Folk-lore Journal_, vi. 269); and it was formerly so on the
+      Gareloch, Dumbartonshire, where there was a competition for the
+      honour of cutting it, and handfuls of standing corn used to be
+      hidden under sheaves in order that the last to be uncovered should
+      form the Maiden.--(From the information of Archie Leitch. See pp. 157
+      _sq._)
+
+  646 W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_, pp. 19 _sq._
+
+  647 A. Kuhn, _Maerkische Sagen und Maerchen_ (Berlin, 1843), p. 342.
+
+  648 W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_, p. 20; F. Panzer,
+      _Beitrag zur deutschen Mythologie_ (Munich, 1848-1855), ii. p. 217,
+      § 397; A. Witzschel, _Sagen, Sitten und Gebraeuche aus Thueringen_
+      (Vienna, 1878), p. 222, § 69.
+
+ M187 Custom of wrapping up in corn-stalks the last reaper, binder, or
+      thresher.
+
+  649 Above, pp. 167 _sq._
+
+  650 W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_, p. 22.
+
+  651 W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_, p. 22.
+
+_  652 Ibid._ pp. 22 _sq._
+
+_  653 Ibid._ p. 23.
+
+_  654 Ibid._ pp. 23 _sq._
+
+_  655 Ibid._ p. 24.
+
+_  656 Ibid._ p. 24.
+
+_  657 Ibid._ p. 24.
+
+_  658 Ibid._ pp. 24 _sq._
+
+_  659 Ibid._ p. 25.
+
+  660 P. Drechsler, _Sitte, Brauch und Volksglaube in Schlesien_ (Leipsic,
+      1903-1906), ii. 65.
+
+  661 A. Witzschel, _Sagen, Sitten und Gebraeuche aus Thueringen_ (Vienna,
+      1878), p. 223, § 70.
+
+ M188 The corn-spirit, driven out of the last corn, lives in the barn
+      during the winter.
+
+  662 W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_, pp. 25 _sq._
+
+ M189 Similar ideas as to the last corn in India.
+
+  663 C. A. Elliot, _Hoshangabad Settlement Report_, p. 178, quoted in
+      _Panjab Notes and Queries_, iii. §§ 8, 168 (October and December,
+      1885); W. Crooke, _Popular Religion and Folklore of Northern India_
+      (Westminster, 1896), ii. 306.
+
+  664 W. Crooke, _op. cit._ ii. 306 _sq._
+
+ M190 The corn-spirit supposed to be killed at reaping or threshing.
+      Corn-spirit represented by a man, who is threshed.
+
+  665 W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_, p. 31.
+
+_  666 Ibid._ p. 334.
+
+_  667 Ibid._ p. 330.
+
+_  668 Ibid._
+
+_  669 Ibid._ p. 331.
+
+  670 W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_, p. 335.
+
+_  671 Ibid._ p. 335.
+
+  672 Above, pp. 135, 146.
+
+  673 J. Nicholson, _Folk-lore of East Yorkshire_ (London, Hull, and
+      Driffield, 1890), p. 28, supplemented by a letter of the author's
+      addressed to Mr. E. S. Hartland and dated 33 Leicester Street, Hull,
+      11th September, 1890. I have to thank Mr. E. S. Hartland for calling
+      my attention to the custom and allowing me to see Mr. Nicholson's
+      letter.
+
+  674 W. Mannhardt, _Die Korndaemonen_, p. 26.
+
+  675 Above, pp. 149 _sq._
+
+  676 W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_, p. 50.
+
+_  677 Ibid._ pp. 50 _sq._
+
+  678 See above, pp. 146, 170 note 1; _Adonis, Attis, Osiris_, Second
+      Edition, pp. 195 sqq.
+
+ M191 Corn-spirit represented by a stranger or a visitor to the
+      harvest-field, who is treated accordingly.
+
+  679 W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschunge_ pp. 32 _sqq._ Compare K.
+      Bartsch, _Sagen, Maerchen und Gebraeuche aus Meklenburg_ (Vienna,
+      1879-1880), ii. 296 _sq._; P. Drechsler, _Sitte, Brauch und
+      Volksglaube in Schlesien_ (Leipsic, 1903-1906), ii. 62 _sq._; A.
+      John, _Sitte, Brauch und Volksglaube im deutschen Westboehmen_
+      (Prague, 1905), p. 193; A. Witzschel, _Sagen, Sitten und Gebraeuche
+      aus Thueringen_ (Vienna, 1878), p. 221, § 61; R. Krause, _Sitten,
+      Gebraeuche und Aberglauben in Westpreussen_ (Berlin, preface dated
+      March, 1904), p. 51; _Revue des Traditions populaires_, iii. (1888)
+      p. 598.
+
+  680 W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_, pp. 35 _sq._
+
+_  681 Ibid._ p. 36.
+
+  682 A. John, _Sitte, Brauch, und Volksglaube im deutschen Westboehmen_,
+      (Prague, 1905), p. 194.
+
+  683 O. Hartung, "Zur Volkskunde aus Anhalt," _Zeitschrift des Vereins
+      fuer Volkskunde_, vii. (1897) p. 153.
+
+  684 J. Lecoeur, _Esquisses du Bocage Normand_ (Conde-sur-Noireau,
+      1883-1887), ii. 240 _sq._
+
+  685 W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_, p. 36.
+
+  686 For the evidence, see _ibid._ p. 36, note 2. The "key" in the
+      European custom is probably intended to serve the same purpose as
+      the "knot" in the Cingalese custom, as to which see _Taboo and the
+      Perils of the Soul_, pp. 308 _sq._
+
+  687 From a letter written to me by Colonel Henry Wilson, of Farnborough
+      Lodge, Farnborough, Kent. The letter is dated 21st March, 1901.
+
+  688 "Notes on Harvest Customs," _The Folk-lore Journal_, vii. (1889) pp.
+      52 _sq._
+
+ M192 Ceremonies of the Tarahumare Indians at hoeing, ploughing, and
+      harvest.
+
+  689 C. Lumholtz, _Unknown Mexico_ (London, 1903), i. 214 _sq._
+
+  690 Compare _Adonis, Attis, Osiris_, Second Edition, pp. 75 _sq._
+
+  691 K. Vetter, _Komm herueber und hilf uns!_ Heft 2 (Barmen, 1898), p. 7.
+
+  692 A. C. Kruijt, "Een en ander aangaande het geestelijk en
+      maatschappelijk leven van den Poso-Alfoer," _Mededeelingen van wege
+      het Nederlandsche Zendelinggenootschap_, xxxix. (1895) p. 137. As to
+      influence which the spirits of the dead are thought to exercise on
+      the growth of the crops, see above, pp. 103 _sq._, and below, vol.
+      ii. pp. 109 _sqq._
+
+ M193 Pretence made by the reapers of killing some one with their scythes.
+
+  693 W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_, p. 39.
+
+  694 W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_, pp. 39 _sq._
+
+_  695 Ibid._ p. 40. For the speeches made by the woman who binds the
+      stranger or the master, see _ibid._ p. 41; C. Lemke,
+      _Volksthuemliches in Ostpreussen_ (Mohrungen, 1884-1887), i. 23 _sq._
+
+  696 W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_, pp. 41 _sq._
+
+ M194 Pretence made by threshers of choking a person with their flails.
+
+  697 W. Mannhardt, _op. cit._ p. 42. See also above, p. 150.
+
+  698 W. Mannhardt, _op. cit._ p. 42. See above, p. 149. In Thueringen a
+      being called the Rush-cutter (_Binsenschneider_) used to be much
+      dreaded. On the morning of St. John's Day he was wont to walk
+      through the fields with sickles tied to his ankles cutting avenues
+      in the corn as he walked. To detect him, seven bundles of brushwood
+      were silently threshed with the flail on the threshing-floor, and
+      the stranger who appeared at the door of the barn during the
+      threshing was the Rush-cutter. See A. Witzschel, _Sagen, Sitten und
+      Gebraeuche aus Thueringen_ (Vienna, 1878), p. 221. With the
+      _Binsenschneider_ compare the _Bilschneider_ and _Biberschneider_
+      (F. Panzer, _Beitrag zur deutschen Mythologie_, Munich, 1848-1855,
+      ii. pp. 210 _sq._, §§ 372-378).
+
+ M195 Custom observed at the madder-harvest in Zealand.
+
+  699 W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_, pp. 47 _sq._
+
+ M196 The spirit of the corn conceived as poor and robbed by the reapers.
+      Some of the corn left on the harvest-field for the corn-spirit.
+      Little fields or gardens cultivated for spirits or gods.
+
+  700 W. Mannhardt, _op. cit._ p. 48.
+
+  701 W. Mannhardt, _l.c._
+
+_  702 Ibid._ pp. 48 _sq._
+
+  703 W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_, p. 49.
+
+_  704 Ibid._ p. 337.
+
+_  705 Ibid._
+
+  706 W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_, pp. 337 _sq._
+
+  707 A. John, _Sitte, Brauch und Volksglaube im deutschen Westboehmen_
+      (Prague, 1905), p. 189.
+
+  708 A. Witzschel, _Sagen, Sitten und Gebraeuche aus Thueringen_ (Vienna,
+      1878), p. 224, § 74.
+
+_  709 Bavaria, Landes- und Volkskunde des Koenigreichs Bayern_ (Munich,
+      1860-1867), iii. 343 _sq._
+
+_  710 Zeitschrift des Vereins fuer Volkskunde_, vii. (1897) p. 154.
+
+  711 P. Drechsler, _Sitte, Brauch, und Volksglaube in Schlesien_
+      (Leipsic, 1903-1906), ii. 64, § 419.
+
+  712 W. R. S. Ralston, _Songs of the Russian People_, Second Edition
+      (London, 1872), pp. 251 _sq._ As to Perun, the old Slavonic
+      thunder-god, see _The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, ii.
+      365.
+
+  713 Rev. Walter Gregor, _Notes on the Folk-lore of the North-east of
+      Scotland_ (London, 1881), p. 182.
+
+  714 See above, pp. 136 _sqq._
+
+  715 A. Germain, "Note zur Zanzibar et la Cote Orientale d'Afrique,"
+      _Bulletin de la Societe de Geographie_ (Paris), Veme Serie, xvi.
+      (1868) p. 555.
+
+  716 E. Modigliani, _Un Viaggio a Nias_ (Milan, 1890), p. 593.
+
+  717 J. Spieth, _Die Ewe-Staemme_ (Berlin, 1906), p. 303. In the Central
+      Provinces of India "sometimes the oldest man in the house cuts the
+      first five bundles of the crop and they are afterwards left in the
+      fields for the birds to eat. And at the end of harvest the last one
+      or two sheaves are left standing in the field and any one who likes
+      can cut and carry them away. In some localities the last sheaves are
+      left standing in the field and are known as _barhona_, or the giver
+      of increase. Then all the labourers rush together at this last patch
+      of corn and tear it up by the roots; everybody seizes as much as he
+      can [and] keeps it, the master having no share in this patch. After
+      the _barhona_ has been torn up all the labourers fall on their faces
+      to the ground and worship the field" (A. E. Nelson, _Central
+      Provinces Gazetteers, Bilaspur District_, vol. A, 1910, p. 75). This
+      quotation was kindly sent to me by Mr. W. Crooke; I have not seen
+      the original. It seems to shew that in the Central Provinces the
+      last corn is left standing on the field as a portion for the
+      corn-spirit, and that he is believed to be immanent in it; hence the
+      name of "the giver of increase" bestowed on it, and the eagerness
+      with which other people, though not the owner of the land, seek to
+      appropriate it.
+
+ M197 Hence perhaps we may explain the dedication of sacred fields and the
+      offering of first-fruits to gods and spirits.
+
+  718 See above, pp. 93 _sq._
+
+  719 See above, pp. 36, 74.
+
+  720 Leviticus, xix. 9 _sq._, xxiii. 22; Deuteronomy, xxiv. 19-21.
+
+  721 See above, pp. 46 _sq._, 53 _sqq._, and below, vol. ii. pp. 109
+      _sqq._
+
+ M198 Passing strangers treated as the spirit of the madder-roots.
+
+  722 W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_, pp. 49 _sq._; A. Wuttke,
+      _Der deutsche Volksaberglaube_2 (Berlin, 1869), p. 254, § 400; M.
+      Toeppen, _Aberglaube aus Masuren_2 (Danzig, 1867), p. 57. The same
+      belief is held and acted upon in Japan (L. Hearn, _Glimpses of
+      Unfamiliar Japan_, London, 1904, ii. 603).
+
+  723 The explanation of the custom is W. Mannhardt's (_Mythologische
+      Forschungen_, p. 49).
+
+_  724 Odyssey_, xvii. 485 _sqq._ Compare Plato, _Sophist_, p. 216 A.
+
+  725 A. C. Kruijt, "Mijne eerste ervaringen te Poso," _Mededeelingen van
+      wege het Nederlandsche Zendelinggenootschap_, xxxvi. (1892) p. 402.
+
+ M199 Killing of the personal representative of the corn-spirit.
+
+  726 For throwing him into the water, see p. 225.
+
+ M200 Human sacrifices for the crops in South and Central America.
+
+  727 Cieza de Leon, _Travels_, translated by C. R. Markham, p. 203
+      (Hakluyt Society, London, 1864).
+
+  728 Juan de Velasco, _Histoire du Royaume de Quito_, i. (Paris, 1840)
+      pp. 121 _sq._ (Ternaux-Compans, _Voyages, Relations et Memoires
+      Originaux pour servir a l'Histoire de la Decouverte de l'Amerique_,
+      vol. xviii.).
+
+  729 Brasseur de Bourbourg, _Histoire des Nations civilisees du Mexique
+      et de l'Amerique Centrale_ (Paris, 1857-1859), i. 274; H. H.
+      Bancroft, _Native Races of the Pacific States_ (London, 1875-1876),
+      ii. 340.
+
+  730 Brasseur de Bourbourg, "Apercus d'un voyage dans les Etats de
+      San-Salvador et de Guatemala," _Bulletin de la Societe de
+      Geographie_ (Paris), IVeme Serie, xiii. (1857) pp. 278 _sq._
+
+  731 Herrera, quoted by A. Bastian, _Die Culturlaender des alten Amerika_
+      (Berlin, 1878), ii. 379 _sq._ See _Adonis, Attis, Osiris_, Second
+      Edition, pp. 338 _sq._
+
+ M201 Human sacrifices for the crops among the Pawnees.
+
+  732 E. James, _Account of an Expedition from Pittsburgh to the Rocky
+      Mountains_ (London, 1823), ii. 80 _sq._; H. R. Schoolcraft, _Indian
+      Tribes of the United States_ (Philadelphia, 1853-1856), v. 77
+      _sqq._; J. De Smet, in _Annales de la Propagation de la Foi_, xi.
+      (1838) pp. 493 _sq._; _id._, in _Annales de la Propagation de la
+      Foi_, xv. (1843) pp. 277-279; _id._, _Voyages aux Montagnes
+      Rocheuses_, Nouvelle Edition (Paris and Brussels, 1873), pp. 121
+      _sqq._ The accounts by Schoolcraft and De Smet of the sacrifice of
+      the Sioux girl are independent and supplement each other. According
+      to De Smet, who wrote from the descriptions of four eye-witnesses,
+      the procession from hut to hut for the purpose of collecting wood
+      took place on the morning of the sacrifice. Another description of
+      the sacrifice is given by Mr. G. B. Grinnell from the recollection
+      of an eye-witness (_Pawnee Hero Stories and Folk-tales_, New York,
+      1889, pp. 362-369). According to this last account the victim was
+      shot with arrows and afterwards burnt. Before the body was consumed
+      in the fire a man pulled out the arrows, cut open the breast of the
+      victim, and having smeared his face with the blood ran away as fast
+      as he could.
+
+ M202 Human sacrifices for the crops in Africa.
+
+  733 J. B. Labat, _Relation historique de l'Ethiopie occidentale_ (Paris,
+      1732), i. 380.
+
+  734 John Adams, _Sketches taken during Ten Voyages in Africa between the
+      years 1786 and 1800_ (London, N.D.), p. 25.
+
+  735 P. Bouche, _La Cote des Esclaves_ (Paris, 1885), p. 132.
+
+  736 T. Arbousset et F. Daumas, _Voyage d'exploration au Nord-est de la
+      Colonie du Cap de Bonne-Esperance_ (Paris, 1842), pp. 117 _sq._ The
+      custom has probably long been obsolete.
+
+  737 From information given me by my friend the Rev. John Roscoe, who
+      resided for some time among the Wamegi and suppressed the sacrifice
+      in 1886.
+
+ M203 Human sacrifices for the crops in the Philippines.
+
+  738 F. Blumentritt, "Das Stromgebiet des Rio Grande de Mindanao,"
+      _Petermanns Mitteilungen_, xxxvii. (1891) p. 110.
+
+  739 A. Schadenberg, "Beitraege zur Kenntniss der im Innern Nordluzons
+      lebenden Staemme," _Verhandlungen der Berliner Gesellschaft fuer
+      Anthropologie, Ethnologie und Urgeschichte_, 1888, p. (39) (bound
+      with _Zeitschrift fuer Ethnologie_, xx. 1888).
+
+  740 Schadenberg, in _Verhandlungen der Berliner Gesellschaft fuer
+      Anthropologie, Ethnologie und Urgeschichte_, 1889, p. (681) (bound
+      with _Zeitschrift fuer Ethnologie_, xxi. 1889).
+
+ M204 Human sacrifices for the crops among the Wild Wa of Burma.
+
+  741 (Sir) J. G. Scott and J. P. Hardiman, _Gazetteer of Upper Burma and
+      the Shan States_ (Rangoon, 1900-1901), Part i. vol. i. pp. 493-509.
+
+ M205 Human sacrifices for the crops among the Shans of Indo-China and the
+      Nagas and other tribes of India.
+
+  742 Col. R. G. Woodthorpe, "Some Account of the Shans and Hill Tribes of
+      the States on the Mekong," _Journal of the Anthropological
+      Institute_, xxvi. (1897) p. 24.
+
+  743 For a general description of the country and the tribes see L. A.
+      Waddell, "The Tribes of the Brahmaputra Valley," _Journal of the
+      Asiatic Society of Bengal_, lxix. Part iii. (Calcutta, 1901), pp.
+      1-127.
+
+  744 Miss G. M. Godden, "Naga and other Frontier Tribes of North-Eastern
+      India," _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxvii. (1898)
+      pp. 9 _sq._, 38 _sq._
+
+_  745 North Indian Notes and Queries_, i. p. 4, § 15 (April 1891).
+
+_  746 Panjab Notes and Queries_, ii. pp. 127 _sq._, § 721 (May 1885).
+
+  747 Rev. P. Dehon, S.J., "Religion and Customs of the Uraons," _Memoirs
+      of the Asiatic Society of Bengal_, vol. i. No. 9 (Calcutta, 1906),
+      pp. 141 _sq._
+
+ M206 Human sacrifices for the crops among the Khonds.
+
+  748 Major S. C. Macpherson, _Memorials of Service in India_ (London,
+      1865), pp. 113-131; Major-General John Campbell, _Wild Tribes of
+      Khondistan_ (London, 1864), pp. 52-58, etc. Compare Mgr. Neyret,
+      Bishop of Vizagapatam, in _Annales de la Propagation de la Foi_,
+      xxiii. (1851) pp. 402-404; E. Thurston, _Ethnographic Notes on
+      Southern India_ (Madras, 1906), pp. 510-519; _id._, _Castes and
+      Tribes of Southern India_ (Madras, 1909), iii. 371-385.
+
+  749 J. Campbell, _op. cit._ p. 56.
+
+  750 S. C. Macpherson, _op. cit._ pp. 115 _sq._
+
+  751 S. C. Macpherson, _op. cit._ pp. 117 _sq._; J. Campbell, _op. cit._
+      p. 112.
+
+ M207 Ceremonies preliminary to the sacrifice.
+
+  752 S. C. Macpherson, _op. cit._ pp. 117 _sq._
+
+  753 S. C. Macpherson, _op. cit._ p. 118.
+
+  754 J. Campbell, _op. cit._ pp. 54 _sq._
+
+ M208 Consummation of the sacrifice.
+
+  755 J. Campbell, _op. cit._ pp. 55, 112.
+
+  756 S. C. Macpherson, _op. cit._ p. 119; J. Campbell, _op. cit._ p. 113.
+
+  757 S. C. Macpherson, _op. cit._ p. 127. Instead of the branch of a
+      green tree, Campbell mentions two strong planks or bamboos (p. 57)
+      or a slit bamboo (p. 182).
+
+  758 J. Campbell, _op. cit._ pp. 56, 58, 120.
+
+  759 E. T. Dalton, _Descriptive Ethnology of Bengal_ (Calcutta, 1872), p.
+      288, quoting Colonel Campbell's _Report_.
+
+  760 J. Campbell, _op. cit._ p. 126. The elephant represented the Earth
+      Goddess herself, who was here conceived in elephant-form (Campbell,
+      _op. cit._ pp. 51, 126). In the hill tracts of Goomsur she was
+      represented in peacock-form, and the post to which the victim was
+      bound bore the effigy of a peacock (Campbell, _op. cit._ p. 54).
+
+  761 S. C. Macpherson, _op. cit._ p. 130. In Mexico also the tears of the
+      human victims were sometimes regarded as an omen of rain (B. de
+      Sahagun, _Histoire generale des Choses de la Nouvelle Espagne_,
+      traduite par D. Jourdanet et R. Simeon, Paris, 1880, bk. ii. ch. 20,
+      p. 86).
+
+ M209 Flesh of the victim used to fertilise the fields.
+
+  762 E. T. Dalton, _Descriptive Ethnology of Bengal_, p. 288, referring
+      to Colonel Campbell's _Report_.
+
+  763 S. C. Macpherson, _op. cit._ p. 129. Compare J. Campbell, _op. cit._
+      pp. 55, 58, 113, 121, 187.
+
+  764 J. Campbell, _op. cit._ p. 182.
+
+  765 S. C. Macpherson, _op. cit._ p. 128; E. T. Dalton, _Descriptive
+      Ethnology of Bengal_, p. 288.
+
+  766 J. Campbell, _op. cit._ pp. 55, 182.
+
+  767 J. Campbell, _op. cit._ p. 187.
+
+  768 E. Thurston, _Castes and Tribes of Southern India_ (Madras, 1909),
+      iii. 381-385.
+
+ M210 In these Khond sacrifices the human victims appear to have been
+      regarded as divine.
+
+  769 J. Campbell, _op. cit._ p. 112.
+
+  770 S. C. Macpherson, _op. cit._ p. 118.
+
+ M211 Traces of an identification of the human victim with the god in
+      other sacrifices.
+
+  771 Above, pp. 239, 240, 244.
+
+ M212 Analogy of these barbarous rites to the harvest customs of Europe.
+
+  772 Above, p. 134.
+
+  773 Above, pp. 134, 157 _sqq._
+
+  774 Above, p. 223.
+
+  775 Above, p. 224.
+
+  776 Above, p. 170, with the references in note 1; _Adonis, Attis,
+      Osiris_, Second Edition, pp. 195-197.
+
+ M213 Human representative of the corn-spirit slain on the harvest-field.
+ M214 The victim who represented the corn-spirit may have been a passing
+      stranger or the reaper, binder, or thresher of the last corn.
+
+  777 See above, p. 217.
+
+  778 Above, p. 224.
+
+  779 W. Mannhardt, _Die Korndaemonen_, p. 5.
+
+  780 H. Pfannenschmid, _Germanische Erntefeste_ (Hanover, 1878), p. 98.
+
+ M215 Perhaps the victim annually sacrificed in the character of the
+      corn-spirit may have been the king himself.
+
+  781 Above, p. 217. It is not expressly said that he was wrapt in a
+      sheaf.
+
+  782 Above, pp. 225 _sq._, 229 _sq._
+
+  783 See _The Dying God_, pp. 160 _sqq._
+
+ M216 Relation of Lityerses to Attis: both may have been originally
+      corn-spirits, or the one a corn-spirit and the other a tree-spirit.
+      Human representatives both of Lityerses and Attis annually slain.
+
+  784 See _Adonis, Attis, Osiris_, Second Edition, pp. 231 _sqq._, 239
+      _sq._
+
+  785 See _The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, ii. 47 _sqq._
+
+  786 I do not know when the corn is reaped in Phrygia; but the high
+      upland character of the country makes it likely that harvest is
+      later there than on the coasts of the Mediterranean.
+
+  787 See above, pp. 240 _sqq._; and _Adonis, Attis, Osiris_, Second
+      Edition, pp. 247-249. As to head-hunting in British Borneo see H. L.
+      Roth, _The Natives of Sarawak and British North Borneo_ (London,
+      1896), ii. 140 _sqq._; in Central Celebes, see A. C. Kruijt, "Het
+      koppensnellen der Toradja's van Midden-Celebes, en zijne
+      Beteekenis," _Verslagen en Mededeelingen der koninklijke Akademie
+      van Wetenschappen_, Afdeelung Letterkunde, Vierde Reeks, iii. part 2
+      (Amsterdam, 1899), pp. 147-229; among the Igorot of Bontoc in Luzon,
+      see A. E. Jenks, _The Bontoc Igorot_ (Manilla, 1905), pp. 172
+      _sqq._; among the Naga tribes of Assam, see Miss G. M. Godden, "Naga
+      and other Frontier Tribes of North-East India", _Journal of the
+      Anthropological Institute_, xxvii. (1898) pp. 12-17. It must not,
+      however, be thought that among these tribes the custom of procuring
+      human heads is practised merely as a means to ensure the growth of
+      the crops; it is apparently supposed to exert a salutary influence
+      on the whole life of the people by providing them with guardian
+      spirits in the shape of the ghosts of the men to whom in their
+      lifetime the heads belonged. The Scythians of Central Europe in
+      antiquity set great store on the heads of the enemies whom they had
+      slain in war. See Herodotus, iv. 64 _sq._
+
+  788 There are traces in Greece itself of an old custom of sacrificing
+      human victims to promote the fertility of the earth. See Pausanias,
+      vii. 19. 3 _sq._ compared with vii. 20. 1; _id._, viii. 53. 3; L. R.
+      Farnell, _The Cults of the Greek States_, ii. (Oxford, 1896) p. 455;
+      and _The Dying God_, pp. 161 _sq._
+
+ M217 Similarity of the Bithynian Bormus to the Phrygian Attis.
+
+  789 Above, pp. 215 _sq._
+
+  790 Above, p. 216.
+
+  791 Hesychius, _s.v._ {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}.
+
+ M218 The Phoenician Linus song at the vintage. Linus identified with
+      Adonis, who may have been annually represented by a human victim.
+
+  792 Apollodorus, _Bibliotheca_, ii. 6. 3.
+
+  793 The scurrilities exchanged both in ancient and modern times between
+      vine-dressers, vintagers, and passers-by seem to belong to a
+      different category. See W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_,
+      pp. 53 _sq._
+
+  794 See _Adonis, Attis, Osiris_, Second Edition, pp. 188 _sqq._
+
+  795 Above, pp. 236 _sq._, 240, 243, 244, 248 _sq._
+
+  796 The probable correspondence of the months, which supplies so welcome
+      a confirmation of the conjecture in the text, was pointed out to me
+      by my friend W. Robertson Smith, who furnished me with the following
+      note: "In the Syro-Macedonian calendar Lous represents Ab, not
+      Tammuz. Was it different in Babylon? I think it was, and one month
+      different, at least in the early times of the Greek monarchy in
+      Asia. For we know from a Babylonian observation in the Almagest
+      (_Ideler_, i. 396) that in 229 B.C. Xanthicus began on February 26.
+      It was therefore the month before the equinoctial moon, not Nisan
+      but Adar, and consequently Lous answered to the lunar month Tammuz."
+
+ M219 The corn-spirit in Egypt (Osiris) annually represented by a human
+      victim.
+
+  797 Above, p. 215.
+
+  798 Apollodorus, _Bibliotheca_, ii. 5. 11; Scholiast on Apollonius
+      Rhodius, _Argon._ iv. 1396; Plutarch, _Parall._ 38. Herodotus (ii.
+      45) discredits the idea that the Egyptians ever offered human
+      sacrifices. But his authority is not to be weighed against that of
+      Manetho (Plutarch, _Isis et Osiris_, 73), who affirms that they did.
+      See further Dr. E. A. Wallis Budge, _Osiris and the Egyptian
+      Resurrection_ (London and New York, 1911), i. 210 _sqq._, who says
+      (pp. 210, 212): "There is abundant proof for the statement that the
+      Egyptians offered up sacrifices of human beings, and that, in common
+      with many African tribes at the present day, their customs in
+      dealing with vanquished enemies were bloodthirsty and savage.... The
+      passages from Egyptian works quoted earlier in this chapter prove
+      that human sacrifices were offered up at Heliopolis as well as at
+      Tetu, or Busiris, and the rumour of such sacrifices has found
+      expression in the works of Greek writers."
+
+  799 E. Meyer, _Geschichte des Altertums_, i. (Stuttgart, 1884), § 57, p.
+      68.
+
+  800 E. Meyer, _Geschichte des Altertums_,2 i. 2 (Stuttgart and Berlin,
+      1909), p. 97; G. Maspero, _Histoire Ancienne des Peuples de l'Orient
+      Classique, Les Origines_ (Paris, 1895), pp. 129 _sqq._ Both these
+      eminent historians have abandoned their former theory that Osiris
+      was the Sun-god. Professor E. Meyer now speaks of Osiris as "the
+      great vegetation god" and, on the same page, as "an earth-god" (_op.
+      cit._ i. 2. p. 70). I am happy to find the view of the nature of
+      Osiris, which I advocated many years ago, supported by the authority
+      of so distinguished an Oriental scholar. Dr. E. A. Wallis Budge
+      holds that Busiris was the oldest shrine of Osiris in the north of
+      Egypt, but that it was less ancient than his shrine at Abydos in the
+      south. See E. A. Wallis Budge, _Osiris and the Egyptian
+      Resurrection_ (London and New York, 1911), ii. 1.
+
+  801 Diodorus Siculus, i. 88; Plutarch, _Isis et Osiris_, 73, compare 30,
+      33.
+
+  802 Margaret A. Murray, _The Osireion at Abydos_ (London, 1904), p. 30,
+      referring to Mariette, _Dendereh_, iv. plates xxxi., lvi., and
+      lxxxi. The passage of Diodorus Siculus referred to is i. 62. 4. As
+      to masks of animals worn by Egyptian men and women in religious
+      rites see _The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, ii. 133; _The
+      Dying God_, p. 72.
+
+ M220 Assimilation of human victims to the corn which they represent.
+
+  803 Above, pp. 237 _sq._, 240, 251.
+
+  804 E. J. Payne, _History of the New World called America_, i. (Oxford,
+      1892) p. 422.
+
+  805 Brasseur de Bourbourg, _Histoire des Nations civilisees du Mexique
+      et de l'Amerique Centrale_ (Paris, 1857-1859), iii. 535.
+
+  806 Festus, _s.v._ _Catularia_, p. 45 ed. C. O. Mueller. Compare _id._,
+      _s.v._ _Rutilae canes_, p. 285; Columella, _De re rustica_, x. 342
+      _sq._; Ovid, _Fasti_, iv. 905 _sqq._; Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ xviii. 14.
+
+  807 D. Chwolsohn, _Die Ssabier und der Ssabismus_ (St. Petersburg,
+      1856), ii. 388 _sq._ Compare _ibid._, pp. 384 _sq._, 386 _sq._, 391,
+      393, 395, 397. For other instances of the assimilation of the victim
+      to the god, see H. Oldenberg, _Die Religion des Veda_ (Berlin,
+      1894), pp. 77 _sq._, 357-359.
+
+ M221 Remains of victims scattered over the fields to fertilise them.
+
+  808 Above, pp. 240, 249.
+
+  809 Above, pp. 149 _sq._, 237 _sq._, 239.
+
+  810 Plutarch, _Isis et Osiris_, 18.
+
+  811 See above, p. 248; and compare _Adonis, Attis, Osiris_, Second
+      Edition, pp. 331 _sqq._
+
+  812 See _Adonis, Attis, Osiris_, Second Edition, p. 323.
+
+ M222 The black and green Osiris like the black and green Demeter.
+
+  813 Plutarch, _Isis et Osiris_, 22, 30, 31, 33, 73.
+
+  814 Sir J. G. Wilkinson, _Manners and Customs of the Ancient Egyptians_
+      (ed. 1878), iii. 81.
+
+  815 Pausanias, i. 22. 3, viii. 5. 8, viii. 42. i.
+
+  816 Cornutus, _Theologiae Graecae Compendium_, 28. See above, p. 42.
+
+ M223 The key to the mysteries of Osiris furnished by the lamentations of
+      the reapers for the annual death of the corn-spirit.
+ M224 Crying "the neck" at harvest in Devonshire.
+
+  817 W. Hone, _Every-day Book_ (London, N.D.), ii. coll. 1170 _sq._
+
+  818 Miss C. S. Burne and Miss G. F. Jackson, _Shropshire Folk-lore_
+      (London, 1883), pp. 372 _sq._, referring to Mrs. Bray's _Traditions
+      of Devon_, i. 330.
+
+  819 W. Hone, _op. cit._ ii. 1172.
+
+  820 The Rev. Sydney Cooper, of 80 Gloucester Street, Cirencester, wrote
+      to me (4th February 1893) that his wife remembers the "neck" being
+      kept on the mantelpiece of the parlour in a Cornish farmhouse; it
+      generally stayed there throughout the year.
+
+ M225 Other accounts of cutting and crying "the neck" in Devonshire.
+
+  821 "Old Harvest Customs in Devon and Cornwall," _Folk-lore_, i. (1890)
+      p. 280.
+
+_  822 Ibid._
+
+ M226 Cutting "the neck" in Pembrokeshire.
+
+  823 Frances Hoggan, M.D., "The Neck Feast," _Folk-lore_, iv. (1893) p.
+      123. In Pembrokeshire the last sheaf of corn seems to have been
+      commonly known as "the Hag" (_wrach_) rather than as "the Neck." See
+      above, pp. 142-144.
+
+ M227 Cutting "the neck" in Shropshire. Why the last corn cut is called
+      "the neck."
+
+  824 J. Brand, _Popular Antiquities_, ii. 20 (Bohn's edition); Miss C. S.
+      Burne and Miss G. F. Jackson, _Shropshire Folk-lore_, p. 371.
+
+  825 Burne and Jackson, _l.c._
+
+  826 W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_, p. 185.
+
+  827 See above, p. 158.
+
+  828 W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_, p. 185.
+
+_  829 Ibid._
+
+_  830 Revue des Traditions populaires_, ii. (1887) p. 500.
+
+  831 Above, p. 150.
+
+ M228 Cries of the reapers in Germany.
+
+  832 E. Meier, in _Zeitschrift fuer deutsche Mythologie und Sittenkunde_,
+      i. (1853) pp. 170-173; U. Jahn, _Die deutschen Opfergebraeuche bei
+      Ackerbau und Viehzucht_ (Breslau, 1884), pp. 166-169; H.
+      Pfannenschmid, _Germanische Erntefeste_ (Hanover, 1878), pp. 104
+      _sq._; A. Kuhn, _Sagen, Gebraeuche und Maerchen aus Westfalen_
+      (Leipsic, 1859), ii. pp. 177 _sq._, §§ 491, 492; A. Kuhn und W.
+      Schwartz, _Norddeutsche Sagen, Maerchen und Gebraeuche_ (Leipsic,
+      1848), p. 395), § 97; K. Lynker, _Deutsche Sagen und Sitten in
+      hessischen Gauen_ (Cassel and Goettingen, 1860), p. 256, § 340.
+
+ M229 The corn-spirit as an animal.
+ M230 The corn-spirit in the form of an animal is supposed to be present
+      in the last corn cut or threshed, and to be caught or killed by the
+      reaper or thresher.
+
+  833 W. Mannhardt, _Die Korndaemonen_ (Berlin, 1868), pp. 1-6.
+
+ M231 The corn-spirit as a wolf or a dog, supposed to run through the
+      corn.
+
+  834 W. Mannhardt, _Roggenwolf und Roggenhund_2 (Danzig, 1866), pp. 6
+      _sqq._; _id._, _Antike Wald- und Feldkulte_ (Berlin, 1877), pp. 318
+      _sq._; _id._, _Mythologische Forschungen_, p. 103; A. Witzchel,
+      _Sagen, Sitten und Gebraeuche aus Thueringen_ (Vienna, 1878), p. 213;
+      O. Hartung, "Zur Volkskunde aus Anhalt," _Zeitschrift des Vereins
+      fuer Volkskunde_, vii. (1897) p. 150; W. Mueller, _Beitraege zur
+      Volkskunde der Deutschen in Maehren_ (Vienna and Olmuetz, 1893), p.
+      327; P. Drechsler, _Sitte, Brauch und Volksglaube in Schlesien_
+      (Leipsic, 1903-1906), ii, 60.
+
+  835 W. Mannhardt, _Roggenwolf und Roggenhund_,2 pp. 10 _sqq._; _id._,
+      _Antike Wald- und Feldkulte_, p. 319.
+
+  836 W. Mannhardt, _Roggenwolf und Roggenhund_,2 pp. 14 _sq._
+
+ M232 The corn-spirit as a dog at reaping and threshing.
+
+  837 W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_, p. 104; P. Drechsler,
+      _Sitte, Brauch und Volksglaube in Schlesien_, ii. 64.
+
+  838 W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_, p. 104.
+
+_  839 Ibid._ pp. 104 _sq._ On the Harvest-May, see _The Magic Art and the
+      Evolution of Kings_, ii. 47 _sq._
+
+  840 L. F. Sauve, _Folk-lore des Hautes-Vosges_ (Paris, 1889), p. 191.
+
+  841 W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_, p. 105.
+
+_  842 Ibid._ p. 30.
+
+_  843 Ibid._ pp. 30, 105.
+
+_  844 Ibid._ pp. 105 _sq._
+
+ M233 The corn-spirit as a wolf at reaping.
+
+  845 P. Drechsler, _Sitte, Brauch und Volksglaube in Schlesien_ (Leipsic,
+      1903-1906), ii. 64.
+
+  846 W. Mannhardt, _Roggenwolf und Roggenhund_,2 pp. 33, 39; K. Bartsch,
+      _Sagen, Maerchen und Gebraeuche aus Meklenburg_ (Vienna, 1879-1880),
+      ii. p. 309, § 1496, p. 310, §§ 1497, 1498.
+
+  847 W. Mannhardt, _Antike Wald- und Feldkulte_, p. 320.
+
+  848 W. Mannhardt, _Roggenwolf und Roggenhund_,2 p. 33.
+
+  849 W. Mannhardt, _Roggenwolf und Roggenhund_,2 pp. 33 _sq._; K.
+      Bartsch, _op. cit._ ii. p. 309, § 1496, p. 310, §§ 1497, 1500, 1501.
+
+  850 W. Mannhardt, _Roggenwolf und Roggenhund_,2 pp. 33, 34.
+
+  851 W. Mannhardt, _Roggenwolf und Roggenhund_,2 p. 38; _id._, _Antike
+      Wald- und Feldkulte_, p. 320.
+
+  852 W. Mannhardt, _Roggenwolf und Roggenhund_,2 pp. 34 _sq._
+
+  853 K. Bartsch, _op. cit._ ii. p. 311, § 1505.
+
+  854 W. Mannhardt, _Roggenwolf und Roggenhund_,2 pp. 35-37; K. Bartsch,
+      _op. cit._ ii. p. 309, § 1496, p. 310, §§ 1499, 1501, p. 311, §§
+      1506, 1507.
+
+ M234 The corn-spirit as a wolf killed at threshing.
+
+  855 W. Mannhardt, _Antike Wald- und Feldkulte_, p. 321.
+
+_  856 Ibid._ pp. 321 _sq._
+
+ M235 The corn-wolf at harvest in France. The corn-wolf killed on the
+      harvest-field.
+
+_  857 Ibid._ p. 320.
+
+_  858 Ibid._ pp. 320 _sq._
+
+ M236 The corn-wolf at midwinter.
+
+_  859 Ibid._ p. 322.
+
+_  860 Ibid._ p. 323.
+
+ M237 The corn-spirit as a cock at harvest.
+
+  861 W. Mannhardt, _Die Korndaemonen_, p. 13.
+
+  862 W. Mannhardt, _l.c._; J. H. Schmitz, _Sitten und Sagen, Lieder,
+      Spruechwoerter und Rathsel des Eifler Volkes_ (Treves, 1856-1858), i.
+      95; A. Kuhn und W. Schwartz, _Norddeutsche Sagen, Maerchen und
+      Gebraeuche_ (Leipsic, 1848), p. 398.
+
+  863 G. A. Heinrich, _Agrarische Sitten und Gebraeuche unter den Sachsen
+      Siebenbuergens_ (Hermannstadt, 1880), p. 21.
+
+  864 W. Mannhardt, _Die Korndaemonen_, p. 13. Compare A. Kuhn and W.
+      Schwartz, _l.c._
+
+  865 K. Haupt, _Sagenbuch der Lausitz_ (Leipsic, 1862-1863), i. p. 232,
+      No. 277 note.
+
+  866 W. Mannhardt, _Die Korndaemonen_, p. 13.
+
+  867 A. Witzschel, _Sagen, Sitten und Gebraeuche aus Thueringen_ (Vienna,
+      1878), p. 220.
+
+  868 W. Mannhardt, _Die Korndaemonen_, pp. 13 _sq._; J. H. Schmitz,
+      _Sitten und Sagen, Lieder, Spruechwoerter und Raethsel des Eifler
+      Volkes_ (Treves, 1856-1858), i. 95; A. Kuhn, _Sagen, Gebraeuche und
+      Maerchen aus Westfalen_ (Leipsic, 1859), ii. 180 _sq._; H.
+      Pfannenschmid, _Germanische Erntefeste_ (Hanover, 1878), p. 110.
+
+  869 W. Mannhardt, _Die Korndaemonen_, p. 14; H. Pfannenschmid, _op. cit._
+      pp. 111, 419 _sq._
+
+  870 W. Mannhardt, _Die Korndaemonen_, p. 15. So in Shropshire, where the
+      corn-spirit is conceived in the form of a gander (see above, p.
+      268), the expression for overthrowing a load at harvest is "to lose
+      the goose," and the penalty used to be the loss of the goose at the
+      harvest-supper (C. S. Burne and G. F. Jackson, _Shropshire
+      Folk-lore_, London, 1883, p. 375); and in some parts of England the
+      harvest-supper was called the Harvest Gosling, or the Inning Goose
+      (J. Brand, _Popular Antiquities_, ii. 23, 26, Bohn's edition).
+
+  871 W. Mannhardt, _Die Korndaemonen_, p. 14.
+
+_  872 Ibid._ p. 15.
+
+ M238 The corn-spirit killed in the form of a live cock.
+
+  873 W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_, p. 30.
+
+  874 W. Mannhardt, _Die Korndaemonen_, p. 15.
+
+_  875 Ibid._ pp. 15 _sq._
+
+  876 W. Mannhardt, _Die Korndaemonen_, p. 15; _id._, _Mythologische
+      Forschungen_, p. 30.
+
+ M239 The corn-spirit as a hare at harvest. The corn-spirit as a hare
+      killed in the last corn cut.
+
+  877 W. Mannhardt, _Die Korndaemonen_, p. 1.
+
+  878 W. Gregor, "Preliminary Report on Folklore in Galloway, Scotland,"
+      _Report of the British Association for 1896_, p. 623.
+
+_  879 Folk-lore Journal_, vii. (1889) pp. 47 _sq._
+
+  880 L. F. Sauve, _Folk-lore des Hautes-Vosges_ (Paris, 1889), p. 191.
+
+  881 W. Mannhardt, _Die Korndaemonen_, p. 3.
+
+  882 O. Hartung, "Zur Volkskunde aus Anhalt," _Zeitschrift des Vereins
+      fuer Volkskunde_, vii. (1897) p. 154.
+
+  883 C. Lemke, _Volksthuemliches in Ostpreussen_ (Mohrungen, 1884-1887),
+      i. 24.
+
+  884 G. A. Heinrich, _Agrarische Sitten und Gebraeuche unter den Sachsen
+      Siebenbuergens_ (Hermannstadt, 1880), p. 21.
+
+  885 Above, p. 268.
+
+  886 W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_, p. 29.
+
+  887 W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_, pp. 29 _sq._; _id._, _Die
+      Korndaemonen_, p. 5.
+
+  888 Georgeakis et Pineau, _Folk-lore de Lesbos_ (Paris, 1894), p. 310.
+
+ M240 The corn-spirit as a cat sitting in the corn. The corn-spirit as a
+      cat killed at reaping and threshing.
+
+  889 W. Mannhardt, _Antike Wald- und Feldkulte_, pp. 172-174; _id._,
+      _Mythologische Forschungen_, p. 30; P. Drechsler, _Sitte, Brauch und
+      Volksglaube in Schlesien_ (Leipsic, 1903-1906), ii. 64, 65.
+
+  890 L. F. Sauve, _Le Folk-lore des Hautes-Vosges_ (Paris, 1889), p. 191.
+
+  891 Ch. Beauquier, _Les Mois en Franche-Comte_ (Paris, 1900), p. 102.
+
+ M241 The corn-spirit as a goat running through the corn or sitting in it.
+      The corn-goat at reaping and binding the corn.
+
+  892 W. Mannhardt, _Antike Wald- und Feldkulte_, pp. 155 _sq._
+
+_  893 Ibid._ pp. 157 _sq._
+
+_  894 Ibid._ p. 159.
+
+_  895 Ibid._ pp. 161 _sq._
+
+_  896 Ibid._ p. 162.
+
+  897 F. Panzer, _Beitrag zur deutschen Mythologie_ (Munich, 1848-1855),
+      ii. pp. 232 _sq._, § 426; W. Mannhardt, _Antike Wald- und
+      Feldkulte_, p. 162.
+
+  898 F. Panzer, _op. cit._ ii. pp. 228 _sq._, § 422; W. Mannhardt,
+      _Antike Wald- und Feldkulte_, p. 163; _Bavaria, Landes- und
+      Volkskunde des Koenigreichs Bayern_, iii. (Munich, 1865) p. 344.
+
+  899 W. Mannhardt, _Antike Wald- und Feldkulte_, p. 163.
+
+  900 E. H. Meyer, _Badisches Volksleben_ (Strasburg, 1900), p. 428.
+
+  901 W. Mannhardt, _Antike Wald- und Feldkulte_, p. 164.
+
+_  902 Ibid._ p. 164.
+
+  903 E. H. Meyer, _Badisches Volksleben_ (Strasburg, 1900), p. 428.
+
+  904 W. Mannhardt, _Antike Wald- und Feldkulte_, pp. 164 _sq._
+
+_  905 Ibid._ p. 165.
+
+ M242 The corn-spirit as the Cripple Goat in Skye.
+
+  906 J. Brand, _Popular Antiquities_, ii. 24, Bohn's edition, quoting
+      _The Gentleman's Magazine_ for February, 1795, p. 124; W. Mannhardt,
+      _op. cit._ p. 165.
+
+  907 R. C. Maclagan, "Notes on folk-lore objects collected in
+      Argyleshire," _Folk-lore_, vi. (1895) p. 151, from information given
+      by Mrs. C. Nicholson.
+
+  908 Above, p. 232.
+
+  909 W. Mannhardt, _Antike Wald- und Feldkulte_, p. 165.
+
+ M243 The corn-spirit killed as a goat on the harvest-field.
+
+  910 W. Mannhardt, _op. cit._ p. 166; _id._, _Mythologische Forschungen_,
+      p. 185.
+
+  911 W. Mannhardt, _Antike Wald- und Feldkulte_, p. 166.
+
+  912 Above, p. 281.
+
+  913 J. B. Holzmayer, "Osiliana," _Verhandlungen der gelehrten Estnischen
+      Gesellschaft zu Dorpat_, vii. Heft 2 (Dorpat, 1872), p. 107.
+
+  914 G. A. Heinrich, _Agrarische Sitten und Gebraeuche unter den Sachsen
+      Siebenbuergens_ (Hermannstadt, 1880), p. 19. Compare W. Mannhardt,
+      _Baumkultus_, pp. 482 _sqq._
+
+ M244 The corn-spirit in the form of a goat supposed to lurk among the
+      corn in the barn, till he is expelled by the flail at threshing.
+
+  915 E. L. Meyer, _Badisches Volksleben_ (Strasburg, 1900), p. 436.
+
+  916 F. Panzer, _Beitrag zur deutschen Mythologie_, ii. pp. 225 _sqq._, §
+      421; W. Mannhardt, _Antike Wald- und Feldkulte_, pp. 167 _sq._
+
+  917 W. Mannhardt, _Antike Wald- und Feldkulte_, p. 168.
+
+  918 A. John, _Sitte, Brauch und Volksglaube im deutschen Westboehmen_
+      (Prague, 1905), p. 194.
+
+  919 E. Meier, _Deutsche Sagen, Sitten und Gebraeuche aus Schwaben_
+      (Stuttgart, 1852), p. 445, § 162; W. Mannhardt, _Antike Wald- und
+      Feldkulte_, p. 168.
+
+ M245 The corn-spirit in the form of a goat passed on to a neighbour who
+      has not finished his threshing.
+
+  920 W. Mannhardt, _op. cit._ p. 169.
+
+  921 F. Panzer, _Beitrag zur deutschen Mythologie_, ii. pp. 224 _sq._, §
+      420; W. Mannhardt, _Antike Wald- und Feldkulte_, p. 169.
+
+  922 W. Mannhardt, _op. cit._ p. 169.
+
+ M246 The corn-spirit in goat form killed at threshing.
+
+_  923 Ibid._ p. 170.
+
+_  924 Ibid._ p. 170. As to the custom of leaving a little corn on the
+      field for the subsistence of the corn-spirit, see above, pp. 231
+      _sqq._
+
+ M247 Old Prussian custom of killing a goat at sowing.
+
+  925 M. Praetorius, _Deliciae Prussicae_ (Berlin, 1871), pp. 23 _sq._; W.
+      Mannhardt, _Baumkultus_, pp. 394 _sq._
+
+  926 A. C. Kruijt, "Eenige ethnografische aanteekeningen omtrent de
+      Toboengkoe en de Tomori," _Mededeelingen van wege het Nederlandsche
+      Zendelinggenootschap_, xliv. (1900) p. 241.
+
+ M248 The corn-spirit in the form of a bull running through the corn or
+      lying in it. The corn-spirit as a bull, ox, or cow at harvest.
+
+  927 W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_, p. 58.
+
+_  928 Ibid._
+
+_  929 Ibid._ p. 62.
+
+  930 W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_, p. 59.
+
+  931 Above, p. 275.
+
+  932 W. Mannhardt, _op. cit._ p. 59.
+
+  933 E. Meier, _Deutsche Sagen, Sitten und Gebraeuche aus Schwaben_
+      (Stuttgart, 1852), pp. 440 _sq._, §§ 151, 152, 153; F. Panzer,
+      _Beitrag zur deutschen Mythologie_, ii. p. 234, § 428; W. Mannhardt,
+      _Mythologische Forschungen_, p. 59.
+
+  934 F. Panzer, _op. cit._ ii. p. 233, § 427; W. Mannhardt,
+      _Mythologische Forschungen_, p. 59.
+
+  935 W. Mannhardt, _op. cit._ pp. 59 _sq._
+
+_  936 Ibid._ p. 58.
+
+  937 W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_, pp. 58 _sq._
+
+ M249 The corn-spirit in the form of a bull or ox killed at the close of
+      the reaping.
+
+_  938 Ibid._ p. 60.
+
+ M250 The corn-spirit as a bull or cow at threshing.
+
+  939 E. Meier, _Deutsche Sagen, Sitten und Gebraeuche aus Schwaben_, pp.
+      444 _sq._, § 162; W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_, p. 61.
+
+  940 F. Panzer, _Beitrag zur deutschen Mythologie_, ii. p. 233, § 427.
+
+  941 W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_, pp. 61 _sq._
+
+_  942 Ibid._ p. 62.
+
+_  943 Ibid._ p. 62.
+
+  944 E. Meier, _Deutsche Sagen, Sitten und Gebraeuche aus Schwaben_, pp.
+      445 _sq._, § 163.
+
+ M251 The corn-spirit in the form of a bull supposed to be killed at
+      threshing.
+
+  945 W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_, p. 60.
+
+  946 W. Mannhardt, _op. cit._ p. 62.
+
+ M252 The corn-spirit as a calf at harvest or in spring.
+
+  947 Above, pp. 150 _sq._
+
+  948 Laisnel de la Salle, _Croyances et Legendes du Centre de la France_
+      (Paris, 1875), ii. 135.
+
+  949 W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_, p. 62: "_Il fait le
+      veau._"
+
+_  950 Ibid._
+
+_  951 Ibid._ p. 63.
+
+ M253 The corn-spirit as a horse or mare running through the corn. "Crying
+      the Mare" in Hertfordshire and Shropshire.
+
+_  952 Ibid._ p. 167.
+
+  953 E. H. Meyer, _Badisches Volksleben_ (Strasburg, 1900), p. 428.
+
+  954 J. Brand, _Popular Antiquities_, ii. 24, Bohn's edition.
+
+  955 C. F. Burne and G. F. Jackson, _Shropshire Folk-lore_ (London,
+      1883), pp. 373 _sq._
+
+ M254 The corn-spirit as a horse in France.
+
+  956 W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_, p. 167. We may compare
+      the Scotch custom of giving the last sheaf to a horse or mare to
+      eat. See above, pp. 141, 156, 158, 160 _sq._, 162.
+
+  957 Laisnel de la Salle, _Croyances et Legendes du Centre de la France_
+      (Paris, 1875), ii. 133; W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_,
+      pp. 167 _sq._ We have seen (above, p. 267) that in South
+      Pembrokeshire the man who cut the "Neck" used to be "shod," that is,
+      to have the soles of his feet severely beaten with sods. Perhaps he
+      was thus treated as representing the corn-spirit in the form of a
+      horse.
+
+ M255 The corn-spirit as a quail. The rice-spirit as a blue bird. The
+      rice-spirit as a quail.
+
+  958 G. A. Heinrich, _Agrarische Sitten und Gebraeuche unter den Sachsen
+      Siebenbuergens_ (Hermannstadt, 1880), p. 21.
+
+  959 A. Peter, _Voelksthumliches aus Oesterreichisch-Schlesien_ (Troppau,
+      1865-1867), ii. 268.
+
+  960 J. Lecoeur, _Esquisses du Bocage Normand_ (Conde-sur-Noireau,
+      1883-1887), ii. 240.
+
+  961 A. Wuttke, _Der deutsche Volks aberglaube_2 (Berlin, 1869), p. 189,
+      § 277; Chr. Schneller, _Maerchen und Sagen aus Waelschtirol_
+      (Innsbruck, 1867), p. 238; Rev. Ch. Swainson, _The Folk Lore and
+      Provincial Names of British Birds_ (London, 1886), p. 173.
+
+  962 Alfred Newton, _Dictionary of Birds_, New Edition (London,
+      1893-1896), p. 755.
+
+  963 A. C. Kruijt, "Eenige ethnografische aanteekeningen omtrent de
+      Toboengkoe en de Tomori," _Mededeelingen van wege het Nederlandsche
+      Zendelinggenootschap_, xliv. (1900) pp. 228, 229; _id._, "De
+      rijstmoeder in den Indischen Archipel," _Verslagen en Mededeelingen
+      van der koninklijke Akademie van Wetenschappen_, Afdeeling
+      Letterkunde, Vierde Reeks, v., part 3 (Amsterdam, 1903), pp. 374
+      _sq._
+
+ M256 The corn-spirit as a fox running through the corn or sitting in it.
+      The corn-spirit as a fox at reaping the last corn. The corn-spirit
+      as a fox at threshing. The Japanese rice-god associated with the
+      fox.
+
+  964 W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_, p. 109 note 2.
+
+  965 L. Pineau, _Folk-lore du Poitou_ (Paris, 1892), pp. 500 _sq._
+
+  966 W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_, pp. 109 _sq._, note 2.
+
+  967 J. F. L. Woeste, _Voelksueberlieferungen in der Grafschaft Mark_
+      (Iserlohn, 1848), p. 27; W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_,
+      p. 110 note.
+
+  968 Lafcadio Hearn, _Glimpses of Unfamiliar Japan_ (London, 1894), ii.
+      312 _sqq._; W. G. Aston, _Shinto_ (London, 1905), pp. 162 _sq._ At
+      the festival of the Roman corn-goddess Ceres, celebrated on the
+      nineteenth of April, foxes were allowed to run about with burning
+      torches tied to their tails, and the custom was explained as a
+      punishment inflicted on foxes because a fox had once in this way
+      burned down the crops (Ovid, _Fasti_, iv. 679 _sqq._). Samson is
+      said to have burned the crops of the Philistines in a similar
+      fashion (Judges xv. 4 _sq._). Whether the custom and the tradition
+      are connected with the idea of the fox as an embodiment of the
+      corn-spirit is doubtful. Compare W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische
+      Forschungen_, pp. 108 _sq._; W. Warde Fowler, _Roman Festivals of
+      the Period of the Republic_ (London, 1899), pp. 77-79.
+
+ M257 The corn-spirit as a boar rushing through the corn. The corn-spirit
+      as a boar or sow at reaping. The corn-spirit as a sow at threshing.
+
+  969 A. Witzschel, _Sagen, Sitten und Gebraeuche aus Thueringen_ (Vienna,
+      1878), p. 213, § 4. So at Klepzig, in Anhalt (_Zeitschrift des
+      Vereins fuer Volkskunde_, vii. (1897) p. 150).
+
+  970 J. B. Holzmayer, "Osiliana," _Verhandlungen der gelehrten Estnischen
+      Gesellschaft zu Dorpat_, vii. Heft 2 (Dorpat, 1872), p. 107; W.
+      Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_, p. 187.
+
+  971 A. Birlinger, _Aus Schwaben_ (Wiesbaden, 1874), ii. 328.
+
+  972 F. Panzer, _Beitrag zur deutschen Mythologie_ (Munich, 1848-1855),
+      ii. pp. 223, 224, §§ 417, 419.
+
+  973 W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_, p. 112.
+
+  974 E. L. Meyer, _Badisches Volksleben_ (Strasburg, 1900), pp. 428, 436.
+
+  975 E. Meier, _Deutsche Sagen, Sitten und Gebaueche aus Schwaben_
+      (Stuttgart, 1852), p. 445, § 162.
+
+  976 A. Birlinger, _Volksthuemliches aus Schwaben_ (Freiburg im Breisgau,
+      1861-1862), ii. p. 425, § 379.
+
+  977 F. Panzer, _Beitrag zur deutschen Mythologie_, ii. pp. 221-224, §§
+      409, 410, 411, 412, 413, 414, 415, 418.
+
+ M258 The corn-spirit as a pig at sowing.
+
+  978 W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_, pp. 186 _sq._
+
+  979 Above, p. 272; compare 268.
+
+  980 Above, p. 298.
+
+  981 W. Mannhardt, _op. cit._ p. 187.
+
+  982 W. Mannhardt, _op. cit._ pp. 187 _sq._; A. Witzschel, _Sagen, Sitten
+      und Gebraeuche aus Thueringen_, pp. 189, 218; W. Kolbe, _Hessische
+      Volks-Sitten und Gebraeuche_ (Marburg, 1888), p. 35.
+
+  983 W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_, p. 188; W. R. S. Ralston,
+      _Songs of the Russian People_ (London, 1872), p. 220.
+
+ M259 The corn-spirit embodied in the Yule Boar of Scandinavia. The Yule
+      straw in Sweden.
+
+  984 W. Mannhardt, _Antike Wald- und Feldkulte_, pp. 197 _sq._; F.
+      Panzer, _Beitrag zur deutschen Mythologie_, ii. 491; J. Jamieson,
+      _Etymological Dictionary of the Scottish Language_, New Edition
+      (Paisley, 1879-1882), vol. iii. pp. 206 _sq._, _s.v._ "Maiden"; Arv.
+      Aug. Afzelius, _Volkssagen und Volkslieder aus Schwedens aelterer und
+      neuerer Zeit_, uebersetzt von F. H. Ungewitter (Leipsic, 1842), i. 9.
+
+  985 Above, p. 275.
+
+  986 L. Lloyd, _Peasant Life in Sweden_ (London, 1870), pp. 169 _sq._,
+      182. On Christmas night children sleep on a bed of the Yule straw
+      (_ibid._ p. 177).
+
+  987 U. Jahn, _Die deutschen Opfergebraeuche_ (Breslau, 1884), p. 215.
+      Compare _The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, ii. 17, 27 _sq._
+
+  988 A. A. Afzelius, _op. cit._ i. 31.
+
+  989 A. A. Afzelius, _op. cit._ i. 9; L. Lloyd, _Peasant Life in Sweden_,
+      pp. 181, 185.
+
+ M260 The Christmas Boar among the Esthonians.
+
+  990 J. B. Holzmayer, "Osiliana," _Verhandlungen der gelehrten Estnischen
+      Gesellschaft zu Dorpat_, vii. Heft 2 (Dorpat, 1872), pp. 55 _sq._
+
+  991 F. J. Wiedemann, _Aus dem inneren und aeussern Leben der Ehsten_ (St.
+      Petersburg, 1876), pp. 344, 485.
+
+ M261 Sacramental character of the harvest-supper.
+
+  992 Above, pp. 277 _sq._, 280, 281, 285, 290, 300, 301. In regard to the
+      hare, the substitution of brandy for hare's blood is probably
+      modern.
+
+ M262 Parallelism between the conceptions of the corn-spirit in human and
+      animal forms.
+ M263 The reason why the corn-spirit is thought to take the forms of so
+      many animals may be that wild creatures are commonly penned by the
+      advance of the reapers into the last patch of standing corn, which
+      is usually regarded as the last refuge of the corn-spirit.
+
+  993 W. Mannhardt, _Die Korndaemonen_ (Berlin, 1868), p. 1.
+
+ M264 Importance of the Pleiades in primitive calendars.
+
+  994 R. Andree, "Die Pleiaden im Mythus und in ihrer Beziehung zum
+      Jahresbeginn und Landbau," _Globus_, lxiv. (1893) pp. 362-366.
+
+ M265 Attention paid to the Pleiades by the Australian aborigines.
+
+  995 Mr. McKellar, quoted by the Rev. W. Ridley, "Report on Australian
+      Languages and Traditions," _Journal of the Anthropological
+      Institute_, ii. (1873) p. 279; _id._, _Kamilaroi_ (Sydney, 1875), p.
+      138. Mr. McKellar's evidence was given before a Select Committee of
+      the Legislative Council of Victoria in 1858; from which we may
+      perhaps infer that his statement refers especially to the tribes of
+      Victoria or at all events of south-eastern Australia. It seems to be
+      a common belief among the aborigines of central and south-eastern
+      Australia that the Pleiades are women who once lived on earth but
+      afterwards went up into the sky. See W. E. Stanbridge, in
+      _Transactions of the Ethnological Society of London_, N.S. i. (1861)
+      p. 302; P. Beveridge, "Of the Aborigines inhabiting the great
+      Lacustrine and Riverine Depression of the Lower Murray," etc.,
+      _Journal and Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales_,
+      xvii. (Sydney, 1884) p. 61; Baldwin Spencer and F. J. Gillen,
+      _Native Tribes of Central Australia_ (London, 1899), p. 566; _id._,
+      _Northern Tribes of Central Australia_ (London, 1904), p. 628; A. W.
+      Howitt, _Native Tribes of South-East Australia_ (London, 1904), pp.
+      429 _sq._ Some tribes of Victoria believed that the Pleiades were
+      originally a queen and six of her attendants, but that the Crow
+      (Waa) fell in love with the queen and ran away with her, and that
+      since then the Pleiades have been only six in number. See James
+      Dawson, _Australian Aborigines_ (Melbourne, Sydney, and Adelaide,
+      1881), p. 100.
+
+  996 J. Manning, "Notes on the Aborigines of New Holland," _Journal and
+      Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales_, xvi. (Sydney,
+      1883) p. 168.
+
+  997 James Dawson, _Australian Aborigines_, p. 75.
+
+ M266 Attention paid to the Pleiades by the Indians of Paraguay and
+      Brazil.
+
+  998 M. Dobrizhoffer, _Historia de Abiponibus_ (Vienna, 1784), ii. 118.
+
+  999 M. Dobrizhoffer, _op. cit._ ii. 77 _sq._, 101-105.
+
+ 1000 Pedro de Angelis, _Coleccion de Obras y Documentes relativos a la
+      Historia antigua y moderna de las Provincias del Rio de la Plata_
+      (Buenos Ayres, 1836-1837), iv. 15.
+
+ 1001 P. Lozano, _Descripcion chorographico del terreno, rios, arboles, y
+      animales del Gran Chaco_ (Cordova, 1733). p. 67.
+
+ 1002 W. Barbrooke Grubb, _An Unknown People in an Unknown Land_ (London,
+      1911), p. 139.
+
+ 1003 Pedro de Angelis, _op. cit._ iv. 14.
+
+ 1004 Th. Waitz, _Anthropologie der Naturvoelker_, iii. (Leipsic, 1862) p.
+      418, referring to Marcgrav de Liebstadt, _Hist. rerum naturalium
+      Brasil_. (Amsterdam, 1648), viii. 5 and 12.
+
+ 1005 M. Dobrizhoffer, _Historia de Abiponibus_, ii. 104.
+
+ 1006 Th. Koch-Gruenberg, _Zwei Jahre unter den Indianern_ (Berlin,
+      1909-1910), ii. 203.
+
+ 1007 C. F. Phil. v. Martius, _Zur Ethnographie Amerika's, zumal
+      Brasiliens_ (Leipsic, 1867), p. 441.
+
+ 1008 Carl Teschauer, S.J., "Mythen und alte Volkssagen aus Brasilien,"
+      _Anthropos_, i. (1906) p. 736.
+
+ 1009 J. Gumilla, _Histoire Naturelle et Civile et Geographique de
+      l'Orenoque_ (Avignon, 1758), iii. 254 _sq._
+
+ M267 Attention paid to the Pleiades by the Indians of Peru and Mexico.
+
+ 1010 E. J. Payne, _History of the New World called America_, i. (Oxford,
+      1892) p. 492.
+
+ 1011 P. J. de Arriaga, _Extirpacion de la Idolatria del Piru_ (Lima,
+      1621), pp. 11, 29 _sq._ According to Arriaga, the Peruvian name for
+      the Pleiades is _Oncoy_.
+
+ 1012 Garcilasso de la Vega, _First Part of the Royal Commentaries of the
+      Yncas_, translated by (Sir) Clements R. Markham (London, 1869-1871,
+      Hakluyt Society), i. 275. Compare J. de Acosta, _Natural and Moral
+      History of the Indies_ (London, 1880, Hakluyt Society), ii. 304.
+
+ 1013 E. Seler, _Alt-Mexikanische Studien_, ii. (Berlin, 1899) pp. 166
+      _sq._, referring to Petrus Martyr, _De nuper sub D. Carolo repertis
+      insulis_ (Basileae, 1521), p. 15.
+
+ 1014 B. de Sahagun, _Histoire Generale des choses de la Nouvelle Espagne_
+      (Paris, 1880), pp. 288 _sq._, 489 _sqq._; A. de Herrera, _General
+      History of the Vast Continent and Islands of America_, translated by
+      Capt. J. Stevens (London, 1725-1726), iii. 222; F. S. Clavigero,
+      _History of Mexico_, translated by C. Cullen (London, 1807), i. 315
+      _sq._; J. G. Mueller, _Geschichte der amerikanischen Urreligionen_
+      (Bale, 1867), pp. 519 _sq._; H. H. Bancroft, _The Native Races of
+      the Pacific States of North America_ (London, 1875-1876), iii.
+      393-395.
+
+ M268 Attention paid to the Pleiades by the North American Indians.
+
+ 1015 Jean l'Heureux, "Ethnological Notes on the Astronomical Customs and
+      Religious Ideas of the Chokitapia or Blackfeet Indians," _Journal of
+      the Anthropological Institute_, xv. (1886) pp. 301-303.
+
+ 1016 Walter McClintock, _The Old North Trail_ (London, 1910), p. 490.
+
+ 1017 J. Walter Fewkes, "The Tusayan New Fire Ceremony," _Proceedings of
+      the Boston Society of Natural History_, xxvi. (1895) p. 453.
+
+ M269 Attention paid to the Pleiades by the Polynesians.
+
+ 1018 Rev. W. Ellis, _Polynesian Researches_, Second Edition (London,
+      1832-1836), i. 87.
+
+ 1019 Rev. W. W. Gill, _Myths and Songs from the South Pacific_ (London,
+      1876), p. 43.
+
+ 1020 Rev. W. W. Gill, _op. cit._ p. 317, compare p. 44.
+
+ 1021 G. Turner, _Samoa_ (London, 1884), p. 279.
+
+ 1022 E. Shortland, _Traditions and Superstitions of the New Zealanders_,
+      Second Edition (London, 1856), p. 219.
+
+_ 1023 The United States Exploring Expedition, Ethnography and Philology_,
+      by Horatio Hale (Philadelphia, 1846), p. 170; E. Tregear,
+      _Maori-Polynesian Comparative Dictionary_ (Wellington, N.Z., 1891),
+      p. 226.
+
+ M270 Attention paid to the Pleiades by the Melanesians.
+
+ 1024 Rev. R. H. Codrington, _The Melanesians_ (Oxford, 1891), p. 348. In
+      the island of Florida the Pleiades are called _togo ni samu_, "the
+      company of maidens" (_op. cit._ p. 349).
+
+ 1025 H. B. Guppy, _The Solomon Islands and their Natives_ (London, 1887),
+      p. 56.
+
+ M271 Attention paid to the Pleiades by the natives of New Guinea and the
+      Indian Archipelago.
+
+ 1026 A. C. Haddon, "Legends from Torres Straits," _Folk-lore_, i. (1890)
+      p. 195. We may conjecture that the "new yam time" means the time for
+      planting yams.
+
+ 1027 R. Neuhauss, _Deutsch Neu-Guinea_ (Berlin, 1911), pp. 159, 431 _sq._
+
+ 1028 A. F. van Spreeuwenberg, "Een blik op de Minahassa," _Tijdschrift
+      voor Neerlands Indie_, Vierde Deel (Batavia, 1845), p. 316; J. G. F.
+      Riedel, "De landschappen Holontalo, Limoeto, Bone, Boalemo, en
+      Kattinggola, of Andagile," _Tijdschrift voor Indische Taal- Land- en
+      Volkenkunde_, xix. (1869) p. 140; _id._, in _Zeitschrift fuer
+      Ethnologie_, iii. (1871) p. 404.
+
+ 1029 Spenser St. John, _Life in the Forests of the Far East_, Second
+      Edition (London, 1863), i. 214. Compare H. Low, _Sarawak_ (London,
+      1848), p. 251.
+
+ 1030 Dr. Charles Hose, "Various Modes of computing the Time for Planting
+      among the Races of Borneo," _Journal of the Straits Branch of the
+      Royal Asiatic Society_, No. 42 (Singapore, 1905), pp. 1 _sq._
+      Compare Charles Brooke, _Ten Years in Sarawak_ (London, 1866), i.
+      59; Rev. J. Perham, "Sea Dyak Religion," _Journal of the Straits
+      Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society_, No. 10 (Singapore, 1883), p.
+      229.
+
+ 1031 Dr. Charles Hose, _op. cit._ p. 4. Compare _id._, "The Natives of
+      Borneo," _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxiii. (1894)
+      pp. 168 _sq._, where the writer tells us that the Kayans and many
+      other races in Borneo sow the rice when the Pleiades appear just
+      above the horizon at daybreak, though the Kayans more usually
+      determine the time for sowing by observation of the sun. As to the
+      Kayan mode of determining the time for sowing by the length of
+      shadow cast by an upright pole, see also W. Kuekenthal,
+      _Forschungsreise in den Molukken und in Borneo_ (Frankfort, 1896),
+      pp. 292 _sq._ Some Dyaks employ a species of sun-dial for dating the
+      twelve months of the year. See H. E. D. Engelhaard, "Aanteekeningen
+      betreffende de Kindjin Dajaks in het Landschap Baloengan,"
+      _Tijdschrift voor Indische Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde_, xxxix.
+      (1897) pp. 484-486.
+
+ 1032 A. W. Nieuwenhuis, _Quer durch Borneo_ (Leyden, 1904-1907), i. 160.
+
+ 1033 F. K. Ginzel, _Handbuch der mathematischen und technischen
+      Chronologie_, i. (Leipsic, 1906) p. 424.
+
+ 1034 R. Friederich, "Voorloopig Verslag van het eiland Bali,"
+      _Verhandelingen van het Bataviaasch Genootschap van Kunsten en
+      Wetenschappen_, xxiii. (1849) p. 49.
+
+ 1035 J. T. Nieuwenhuisen en H. C. B. von Rosenberg, "Verslag omtrent het
+      eiland Nias en deszelfs Bewoners," _Verhandelingen van het
+      Bataviaasch Genootschap van Kunsten en Wetenschappen_, xxx.
+      (Batavia, 1863) p. 119.
+
+ 1036 W. Marsden, _History of Sumatra_, Third Edition (London, 1811), p.
+      71.
+
+ 1037 F. K. Ginzel, _Handbuch der mathematischen und technischen
+      Chronologie_, i. (Leipsic, 1906) p. 428.
+
+ M272 Attention paid to the Pleiades by the natives of Africa, Greeks, and
+      Romans.
+
+ 1038 S. Krascheninnikow, _Beschreibung des Landes Kamtschatka_ (Lemgo,
+      1766), p. 217. The three stars are probably the Belt.
+
+ 1039 See above, vol. i. p. 116.
+
+ 1040 Rev. J. Macdonald, _Light in Africa_, Second Edition (London, 1890),
+      pp. 194 _sq._ Compare J. Sechefo, "The Twelve Lunar Months among the
+      Basuto," _Anthropos_, iv. (1909) p. 931.
+
+ 1041 G. McCall Theal, _Records of South-Eastern Africa_, vii. (1901) p.
+      418. Compare G. Thompson, _Travels and Adventures in Southern
+      Africa_ (London, 1827), ii. 359.
+
+ 1042 Rev. H. Callaway, _The Religious System of the Amazulu_, Part iii.
+      (London, etc., 1870), p. 397.
+
+ 1043 R. Moffat, _Missionary Labours and Scenes in Southern Africa_
+      (London, 1842), pp. 337 _sq._
+
+ 1044 Stephen Kay, _Travels and Researches in Caffraria_ (London, 1833),
+      p. 273.
+
+ 1045 Gustav Fritsch, _Die Eingeborenen Sued-Afrika's_ (Breslau, 1872). p.
+      340.
+
+ 1046 Theophilus Hahn, _Tsuni-Goam, the Supreme Being of the Khoi-Khoi_
+      (London, 1881), p. 43, quoting the Moravian missionary George
+      Schmidt, who was sent out to the Cape of Good Hope in 1737.
+
+ 1047 H. S. Stannus, "Notes on some Tribes of British Central Africa,"
+      _Journal of the R. Anthropological Institute_, xl. (1910) p. 289.
+
+ 1048 M. Merker, _Die Masai_ (Berlin, 1894), pp. 155, 198.
+
+ 1049 May.
+
+ 1050 June-August.
+
+ 1051 A. C. Hollis, _The Masai_ (Oxford, 1905), p. 275, compare p. 333.
+      The "season of showers" seems to be a name for the dry season (June,
+      July, August), when rain falls only occasionally; it is thus
+      distinguished from the rainy season of winter, which begins after
+      the reappearance of the Pleiades in September.
+
+ 1052 A. C. Hollis, _The Masai_, pp. 275 _sq._
+
+ 1053 A. C. Hollis, _The Nandi_ (Oxford, 1909), p. 100.
+
+ 1054 C. W. Hobley, "Further Researches into Kikuyu and Kamba Religious
+      Beliefs and Customs," _Journal of the Royal Anthropological
+      Institute_, xli. (1911) p. 442.
+
+ 1055 Thomas Winterbottom, _An Account of the Native Africans in the
+      Neighbourhood of Sierra Leone_ (London, 1803), p. 48.
+
+ 1056 Hesiod, _Works and Days_, 383 _sq._, 615 _sqq._ See above, pp. 45,
+      48.
+
+ 1057 Aratus, _Phaenomena_, 264-267; Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ ii. 123, 125,
+      xviii. 280, "_Vergiliae privatim attinent ad fructus, ut quarum
+      exortu aestas incipiat, occasu hiems, semenstri spatio intra se
+      messes vindemiasque et omnium maturitatem conplexae._" Compare L.
+      Ideler, _Handbuch der mathematischen und technischen Chronologie_
+      (Berlin, 1825-1826), i. 241 _sq._ Pliny dated the rising of the
+      Pleiades on the 10th of May and their setting on the 11th of
+      November (_Nat. Hist._ ii. 123, 125).
+
+ 1058 Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ xviii. 49 and 223.
+
+ M273 The widespread association of the Pleiades with agriculture seems to
+      be based on the coincidence of their rising or setting with the
+      commencement of the rainy season.
+
+ 1059 See above, p. 307.
+
+ 1060 Geminus, _Elementa Astronomiae_, xvii. 10 _sqq._ If "the sweet
+      influences of the Pleiades" in the Authorised Version of the English
+      Bible were an exact translation of the corresponding Hebrew words in
+      Job xxxviii. 31, we should naturally explain the "sweet influences"
+      by the belief that the autumnal setting of the constellation is the
+      cause of rain. But the rendering of the words is doubtful; it is not
+      even certain that the constellation referred to is the Pleiades. See
+      the commentaries of A. B. Davidson and Professor A. S. Peak on the
+      passage. The Revised English Version translates the words in
+      question "the cluster of the Pleiades." Compare H. Grimme, _Das
+      israelitische Pfingstfest und der Plejadenkult_ (Paderborn, 1907),
+      pp. 61 _sqq._
+
+
+
+
+
+***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE GOLDEN BOUGH (THIRD EDITION, VOL. 7 OF 12)***
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