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diff --git a/42048.txt b/42048.txt deleted file mode 100644 index fb3ce17..0000000 --- a/42048.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,19054 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, -Volume 16, Slice 4, by Various - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org - - -Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 16, Slice 4 - "Lefebvre, Tanneguy" to "Letronne, Jean Antoine" - -Author: Various - -Release Date: February 8, 2013 [EBook #42048] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ASCII - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA *** - - - - -Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net - - - - - - - -Transcriber's notes: - -(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally - printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an - underscore, like C_n. - -(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript. - -(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective - paragraphs. - -(4) Macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not - inserted. - -(5) [root] stands for the root symbol; [alpha], [beta], etc. for greek - letters. - -(6) The following typographical errors have been corrected: - - ARTICLE LEGGE, HENRY: "Twelve months later he returned to his post - at the exchequer in the administration of Pitt and the 4th duke of - Devonshire, retaining office until April 1757 when he shared both - the dismissal and the ensuing popularity of Pitt." 'Twelve' amended - from 'Twleve'. - - ARTICLE LEGUMINOSAE: "... Wisteria sinensis, a native of China, is - a well-known climbing shrub; ..." 'Wisteria' amended from - 'Wistaria'. - - ARTICLE LEIBNITZ, GOTTFRIED WILHELM: "... R. Zimmermann, Leibnitz - und Herbart: eine Vergleichung ihrer Monadologien (Vienna, 1849); - ..." 'Monadologien' amended from 'Monadologieen'. - - ARTICLE LENS: "The question now arises as to how far this - assumption is justified for spherical lenses." 'as' amended from - 'so'. - - ARTICLE LEO: "Leo at another synod held in Rome in 810 admitted the - dogmatic correctness of the filioque, but deprecated its - introduction into the creed." 'filioque' amended from 'filoque'. - - ARTICLE LEONIDAS: "Our knowledge of the circumstances is too slight - to enable us to judge of Leonidas's strategy, but his heroism and - devotion secured him an almost unique place in the imagination not - only of his own but also of succeeding times." 'is' amended from - 'it'. - - ARTICLE LESSING, GOTTHOLD EPHRAIM: "The two men were mutually - attracted, and a warm affection sprang up between them." 'between' - amended from 'betweem'. - - - - - ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA - - A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE - AND GENERAL INFORMATION - - ELEVENTH EDITION - - - VOLUME XVI, SLICE IV - - Lefebvre, Tanneguy to Letronne, Jean Antoine - - - - -ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE: - - - LEFEBVRE, TANNEGUY LENS (town of France) - LEFEBVRE-DESNOETTES, CHARLES LENS (in optics) - LE FEVRE, JEAN LENT - LEG LENTHALL, WILLIAM - LEGACY LENTIL - LE GALLIENNE, RICHARD LENTULUS - LEGARE, HUGH SWINTON LENZ, JAKOB MICHAEL REINHOLD - LEGAS LEO (popes) - LEGATE, BARTHOLOMEW LEO (emperors of the East) - LEGATE LEO (disciple of St Francis) - LEGATION LEO, HEINRICH - LEGEND LEO, JOHANNES - LEGENDRE, ADRIEN MARIE LEO, LEONARDO - LEGENDRE, LOUIS LEO (sign of the zodiac) - LEGERDEMAIN LEOBEN - LEGGE, HENRY LEOBSCHUTZ - LEGGE, JAMES LEOCHARES - LEGHORN LEOFRIC - LEGION LEOMINSTER (Herefordshire, England) - LEGITIM LEOMINSTER (Massachusetts, U.S.A.) - LEGITIMACY, and LEGITIMATION LEON, LUIS PONCE DE - LEGITIMISTS LEON, MOSES DE - LEGNAGO (town of Venetia) LEON OF MODENA - LEGNANO (town of Lombardy) LEON (Mexico) - LEGOUVE, GABRIEL ERNEST WILFRID LEON (Nicaragua) - LEGROS, ALPHONSE LEON (Spanish province) - LEGUMINOSAE LEON (Spanish city) - LEGYA LEONARDO DA VINCI - LEH LEONARDO OF PISA - LEHMANN, JOHANN GOTTLOB LEONCAVALLO, RUGGIERO - LEHMANN, PETER MARTIN ORLA LEONIDAS - LEHNIN LEONTIASIS OSSEA - LEHRS, KARL LEONTINI - LEIBNITZ, GOTTFRIED WILHELM LEONTIUS - LEICESTER, EARLS OF LEOPARD - LEICESTER, ROBERT DUDLEY LEOPARDI, GIACOMO - LEICESTER, ROBERT SIDNEY LEOPARDO, ALESSANDRO - LEICESTER, THOMAS WILLIAM COKE LEOPOLD - LEICESTER LEOPOLD I. (Roman emperor) - LEICESTERSHIRE LEOPOLD II. (Roman emperor) - LEIDEN LEOPOLD I. (king of the Belgians) - LEIDY, JOSEPH LEOPOLD II. (king of the Belgians) - LEIF ERICSSON LEOPOLD II. (of Habsburg-Lorraine) - LEIGH, EDWARD LEOPOLD II. (lake) - LEIGH LEOTYCHIDES - LEIGHTON, FREDERICK LEIGHTON LEOVIGILD - LEIGHTON, ROBERT LEPANTO, BATTLE OF - LEIGHTON BUZZARD LE PAUTRE, JEAN - LEININGEN LEPCHA - LEINSTER LE PELETIER, LOUIS MICHE - LEIPZIG LEPIDOLITE - LEIRIA LEPIDOPTERA - LEISLER, JACOB LEPIDUS - LEISNIG LE PLAY, PIERRE GUILLAUME FREDERIC - LEITH LEPROSY - LEITMERITZ LEPSIUS, KARL RICHARD - LEITNER, GOTTLIEB WILHELM LEPTINES - LEITRIM LEPTIS - LEIXOES LE PUY - LEJEUNE, LOUIS FRANCOIS LERDO DE TEJADA, SEBASTIAN - LEKAIN LERICI - LELAND, CHARLES GODFREY LERIDA (province of Spain) - LELAND, JOHN (English antiquary) LERIDA (city of Spain) - LELAND, JOHN (English divine) LERMA, FRANCISCO DE SANDOVAL Y ROJAS - LELAND STANFORD JR. UNIVERSITY LERMONTOV, MIKHAIL YUREVICH - LELEGES LEROUX, PIERRE - LELEWEL, JOACHIM LEROY-BEAULIEU, BAPTISTE ANATOLE - LELONG, JACQUES LEROY-BEAULIEU, PIERRE PAUL - LELY, SIR PETER LERWICK - LE MACON, ROBERT LE SAGE, ALAIN RENE - LE MAIRE DE BELGES, JEAN LES ANDELYS - LEMAITRE, FRANCOIS ELIE JULES LES BAUX - LE MANS LESBONAX - LE MARCHANT, JOHN GASPARD LESBOS - LEMBERG LESCHES - LEMERCIER, LOUIS JEAN NEPOMUCENE LESCURE, LOUIS MARIE JOSEPH - LEMERY, NICOLAS LESDIGUIERES, FRANCOIS DE BONNE - LEMERY LESGHIANS - LEMGO LESINA - LEMIERRE, ANTOINE MARIN LESION - LEMIRE, JULES AUGUSTE LESKOVATS - LEMMING LESLEY, JOHN - LEMNISCATE LESLEY, J. PETER - LEMNOS LESLIE, CHARLES - LEMOINNE, JOHN EMILE LESLIE, CHARLES ROBERT - LEMON, MARK LESLIE, FRED - LEMON LESLIE, SIR JOHN - LEMONNIER, ANTOINE LOUIS CAMILLE LESLIE, THOMAS EDWARD CLIFFE - LEMONNIER, PIERRE CHARLES LESLIE (Scotland) - LEMOYNE, JEAN BAPTISTE LESPINASSE, JEANNE JULIE ELEONORE DE - LEMPRIERE, JOHN LES SABLES D'OLONNE - LEMUR LES SAINTES-MARIES - LENA LESSE - LE NAIN LESSEPS, FERDINAND DE - LENAU, NIKOLAUS LESSING, GOTTHOLD EPHRAIM - LENBACH, FRANZ VON LESSON - LENCLOS, NINON DE LESTE - LENFANT, JACQUES L'ESTRANGE, SIR ROGER - LENKORAN LESUEUR, DANIEL - LENNEP, JACOB VAN LE SUEUR, EUSTACHE - LENNEP LESUEUR, JEAN FRANCOIS - LENNOX LE TELLIER, MICHEL - LENNOX, CHARLOTTE LETHAL - LENNOX, MARGARET LETHARGY - LENO, DAN LETHE - LENORMANT, FRANCOIS LE TREPORT - LENOX LETRONNE, JEAN ANTOINE - - - - -LEFEBVRE, TANNEGUY (TANAQUILLUS FABER) (1615-1672), French classical -scholar, was born at Caen. After completing his studies in Paris, he was -appointed by Cardinal Richelieu inspector of the printing-press at the -Louvre. After Richelieu's death he left Paris, joined the Reformed -Church, and in 1651 obtained a professorship at the academy of Saumur, -which he filled with great success for nearly twenty years. His -increasing ill-health and a certain moral laxity (as shown in his -judgment on Sappho) led to a quarrel with the consistory, as a result of -which he resigned his professorship. Several universities were eager to -obtain his services, and he had accepted a post offered him by the -elector palatine at Heidelberg, when he died suddenly on the 12th of -September, 1672. One of his children was the famous Madame Dacier. -Lefebvre, who was by no means a typical student in dress or manners, was -a highly cultivated man and a thorough classical scholar. He brought out -editions of various Greek and Latin authors--Longinus, Anacreon and -Sappho, Virgil, Horace, Lucretius and many others. His most important -original works are: _Les Vies des poetes Grecs_ (1665); _Methode pour -commencer les humanites Grecques et Latines_ (2nd ed., 1731), of which -several English adaptations have appeared; _Epistolae Criticae_ (1659). - - In addition to the _Memoires pour ... la vie de Tanneguy Lefebvre_, by - F. Graverol (1686), see the article in the _Nouvelle biographie - generale_, based partly on the MS. registers of the Saumur Academie. - - - - -LEFEBVRE-DESNOETTES, CHARLES, COMTE (1773-1822), French cavalry general, -joined the army in 1792 and served with the armies of the North, of the -Sambre-and-Meuse and Rhine-and-Moselle in the various campaigns of the -Revolution. Six years later he had become captain and aide-de-camp to -General Bonaparte. At Marengo he won further promotion, and at -Austerlitz became colonel, serving also in the Prussian campaigns of -1806-1807. In 1808 he was made general of brigade and created a count of -the Empire. Sent with the army into Spain, he conducted the first and -unsuccessful siege of Saragossa. The battlefield of Tudela showed his -talents to better advantage, but towards the end of 1808 he was taken -prisoner in the action of Benavente by the British cavalry under Paget -(later Lord Uxbridge, and subsequently Marquis of Anglesey). For over -two years he remained a prisoner in England, living on parole at -Cheltenham. In 1811 he escaped, and in the invasion of Russia in 1812 -was again at the head of his cavalry. In 1813 and 1814 his men -distinguished themselves in most of the great battles, especially La -Rothiere and Montmirail. He joined Napoleon in the Hundred Days and was -wounded at Waterloo. For his part in these events he was condemned to -death, but he escaped to the United States, and spent the next few years -farming in Louisiana. His frequent appeals to Louis XVIII. eventually -obtained his permission to return, but the "Albion," the vessel on which -he was returning to France, went down off the coast of Ireland with all -on board on the 22nd of May 1822. - - - - -LE FEVRE, JEAN (c. 1395-1468), Burgundian chronicler and seigneur of -Saint Remy, is also known as Toison d'or from his long connexion with -the order of the Golden Fleece. Of noble birth, he adopted the -profession of arms and with other Burgundians fought in the English -ranks at Agincourt. In 1430, on the foundation of the order of the -Golden Fleece by Philip III. the Good, duke of Burgundy, Le Fevre was -appointed its king of arms and he soon became a very influential person -at the Burgundian court. He frequently assisted Philip in conducting -negotiations with foreign powers, and he was an arbiter in tournaments -and on all questions of chivalry, where his wide knowledge of heraldry -was highly useful. He died at Bruges on the 16th of June 1468. - - Le Fevre wrote a _Chronique_, or _Histoire de Charles VI., roy de - France_. The greater part of this chronicle is merely a copy of the - work of Enguerrand de Monstrelet, but Le Fevre is an original - authority for the years between 1428 and 1436 and makes some valuable - additions to our knowledge, especially about the chivalry of the - Burgundian court. He is more concise than Monstrelet, but is equally - partial to the dukes of Burgundy. The _Chronique_ has been edited by - F. Morand for the Societe de l'histoire de France (Paris, 1876). Le - Fevre is usually regarded as the author of the _Livre des faites de - Jacques de Lalaing_. - - - - -LEG (a word of Scandinavian origin, from the Old Norwegian _leggr_, cf. -Swed. _lagg_, Dan. _laeg_; the O. Eng. word was _sceanca_, shank), the -general name for those limbs in animals which support and move the body, -and in man for the lower limbs of the body (see ANATOMY, _Superficial -and Artistic_; Skeleton, _Appendicular_; MUSCULAR SYSTEM). The word is -in common use for many objects which resemble the leg in shape or -function. As a slang term, "leg," a shortened form of "blackleg," has -been in use since the end of the 18th century for a swindler, especially -in connexion with racing or gambling. The term "blackleg" is now also -applied by trade-unionists to a workman who, during a strike or lockout, -continues working or is brought to take the place of the withdrawn -workers. - - - - -LEGACY (Lat. _legatum_), in English law, some particular thing or things -given or left by a testator in his will, to be paid or performed by his -executor or administrator. The word is primarily applicable to gifts of -personalty or gifts charged upon real estate; but if there is nothing -else to which it can refer it may refer to realty; the proper word, -however, for gifts of realty is _devise_. - -Legacies may be either specific, general or demonstrative. A _specific -legacy_ is "something which a testator, identifying it by a sufficient -description and manifesting an intention that it should be enjoyed in -the state and condition indicated by that description, separates in -favour of a particular legatee from the general mass of his personal -estate," e.g. a gift of "my portrait by X," naming the artist. A -_general legacy_ is a gift not so distinguished from the general mass of -the personal estate, e.g. a gift of L100 or of a gold ring. A -_demonstrative legacy_ partakes of the nature of both the preceding -kinds of legacies, e.g. a gift of L100 payable out of a named fund is a -specific legacy so far as the fund named is available to pay the legacy; -after the fund is exhausted the balance of the legacy is a general -legacy and recourse must be had to the general estate to satisfy such -balance. Sometimes a testator bequeaths two or more legacies to the same -person; in such a case it is a question whether the later legacies are -in substitution for, or in addition to, the earlier ones. In the latter -case they are known as _cumulative_. In each case the intention of the -testator is the rule of construction; this can often be gathered from -the terms of the will or codicil, but in the absence of such evidence -the following rules are followed by the courts. Where the same specific -thing is bequeathed twice to the same legatee or where two legacies of -equal amount are bequeathed by the same instrument the second bequest is -mere repetition; but where legacies of equal amounts are bequeathed by -different instruments or of unequal amounts by the same instruments they -are considered to be cumulative. - -If the estate of the testator is insufficient to satisfy all the -legacies these must abate, i.e. be reduced rateably; as to this it -should be noticed that specific and demonstrative legacies have a prior -claim to be paid in full out of the specific fund before general -legacies, and that general legacies abate rateably _inter se_ in the -absence of any provision to the contrary by the testator. Specific -legacies are liable to ademption where the specific thing perishes or -ceases to belong to the testator, e.g. in the instance given above if -the testator sells the portrait the legatee will get nothing by virtue -of the legacy. As a general rule, legacies given to persons who -predecease the testator do not take effect; they are said to lapse. This -is so even if the gift be to A and his executors, administrators and -assigns, but this is not so if the testator has shown a contrary -intention, thus, a gift to A _or_ his personal representative will be -effective even though A predecease the testator; further, by the Wills -Act 1837, devises of estates tail and gifts to a child or other issue of -the testator will not lapse if any issue of the legatee survive the -testator. Lapsed legacies fall into and form part of the residuary -estate. In the absence of any indication to the contrary a legacy -becomes due on the day of the death of the testator, though for the -convenience of the executor it is not payable till a year after that -date; this delay does not prevent the legacy vesting on the testator's -death. It frequently happens, however, that a legacy is given payable at -a future date; in such a case, if the legatee dies after the testator -but prior to the date when the legacy is payable it is necessary to -discover whether the legacy was vested or contingent, as in the former -case it becomes payable to the legatee's representative; in the latter, -it lapses. In this, as in other cases, the test is the intention of the -testator as expressed in the will; generally it may be said that a gift -"payable" or "to be paid" at a certain fixed time confers a vested -interest on the legatee, while a gift to A "at" a fixed time, e.g. -twenty-one years of age, only confers on A an interest contingent on his -attaining the age of twenty-one. - -_Legacy Duty_ is a duty charged by the state upon personal property -devolving upon the legatees or next of kin of a dead person, either by -virtue of his will or upon his intestacy. The duty was first imposed in -England in 1780, but the principal act dealing with the subject is the -Legacy Duty Act 1796. The principal points as to the duty are these. The -duty is charged on personalty only. It is payable only where the person -on whose death the property passes was domiciled in the United Kingdom. -The rate of duty varies from 1 to 10% according to the relationship -between the testator and legatee. As between husband and wife no duty is -payable. The duty is payable by the executors and deducted from the -legacy unless the testator directs otherwise. Special provisions as to -valuation are in force where the gift is of an annuity or is settled on -various persons in succession, or the legacy is given in joint tenancy -and other cases. In some cases the duty is payable by instalments which -carry interest at 3%. In various cases legacies are exempt from -duty--the more important are gifts to a member of the royal family, -specific legacies under L20 (pecuniary legacies under L20 pay duty), -legacies of books, prints, &c., given to a body corporate for -preservation, not for sale, and legacies given out of an estate the -principal value of which is less than L100. Further, by the Finance Act -1894, payment of the estate duty thereby created absorbs the 1% duty -paid by lineal ancestors or descendants of the deceased[1] and the duty -on a settled legacy, and, lastly, in the event of estate duty being paid -on an estate the total value of which is under L1000, no legacy duty is -payable. The legacy duty payable in Ireland is now for all practical -purposes assimilated to that in Great Britain. The principal statute in -that country is an act of 1814. - - -FOOTNOTE: - - [1] The Finance Bill 1909-1910 re-imposed this duty, and extended it - to husbands and wives as well as descendants and ancestors. - - - - -LE GALLIENNE, RICHARD (1866- ), English poet and critic, was born in -Liverpool on the 20th of January 1866. He started life in a business -office in Liverpool, but abandoned this to turn author. _My Lady's -Sonnets_ appeared at Liverpool in 1887, and in 1889 he became for a -short time literary secretary to Wilson Barrett. In the same year he -published _Volumes in Folio_, _The Book Bills_ of Narcissus and _George -Meredith: some Characteristics_ (new ed., 1900). He joined the staff of -the _Star_ in 1891, and wrote for various papers over the signature of -"Logroller." _English Poems_ (1892), _R. L. Stevenson and other Poems_ -(1895), a paraphrase (1897) of the _Rubaiyat_ of Omar Khayyam, and _Odes -from the Divan of Hafiz_ (1903), contained some light, graceful verse, -but he is best known by the fantastic prose essays and sketches of -_Prose Fancies_ (2 series, 1894-1896), _Sleeping Beauty and other Prose -Fancies_ (1900), _The Religion of a Literary Man_ (1893), _The Quest of -the Golden Girl_ (1897), _The Life Romantic_ (1901), &c. His first wife, -Mildred Lee, died in 1894, and in 1897 he married Julie Norregard, -subsequently taking up his residence in the United States. In 1906 he -translated, from the Danish, Peter Nansen's _Love's Trilogy_. - - - - -LEGARE, HUGH SWINTON (1797-1843), American lawyer and statesman, was -born in Charleston, South Carolina, on the 2nd of January 1797, of -Huguenot and Scotch stock. Partly on account of his inability to share -in the amusements of his fellows by reason of a deformity due to vaccine -poisoning before he was five (the poison permanently arresting the -growth and development of his legs), he was an eager student, and in -1814 he graduated at the College of South Carolina with the highest rank -in his class and with a reputation throughout the state for scholarship -and eloquence. He studied law for three years in South Carolina, and -then spent two years abroad, studying French and Italian in Paris and -jurisprudence at Edinburgh. In 1820-1822 and in 1824-1830 he was a -member of the South Carolina legislature. In 1827, with Stephen Elliott -(1771-1830), the naturalist, he founded the _Southern Review_, of which -he was the sole editor after Elliott's death until 1834, when it was -discontinued, and to which he contributed articles on law, travel, and -modern and classical literature. In 1830-1832 he was attorney-general of -South Carolina, and, although a State's Rights man, he strongly opposed -nullification. During his term of office he appeared in a case before -the United States Supreme Court, where his knowledge of civil law so -strongly impressed Edward Livingston, the secretary of state, who was -himself an admirer of Roman Law, that he urged Legare to devote himself -to the study of this subject with the hope that he might influence -American law toward the spirit and philosophy and even the forms and -processes of Roman jurisprudence. Through Livingston, Legare was -appointed American _charge d'affaires_ at Brussels, where from 1833 to -1836 he perfected himself in civil law and in the German commentaries on -civil law. In 1837-1839, as a Union Democrat, he was a member of the -national House of Representatives, and there ably opposed Van Buren's -financial policy in spite of the enthusiasm in South Carolina for the -sub-treasury project. He supported Harrison in the presidential campaign -of 1840, and when the cabinet was reconstructed by Tyler in 1841, Legare -was appointed attorney-general of the United States. On the 9th of May -1843 he was appointed secretary of state _ad interim_, after the -resignation of Daniel Webster. On the 20th of June 1843 he died suddenly -at Boston. His great work, the forcing into common law of the principles -of civil law, was unaccomplished; but Story says "he seemed about to -accomplish [it]; for his arguments before the Supreme Court were crowded -with the principles of the Roman Law, wrought into the texture of the -Common Law with great success." As attorney-general he argued the famous -cases, the _United States_ v. _Miranda_, _Wood_ v. _the United States_, -and _Jewell_ v. _Jewell_. - - See _The Writings of Hugh Swinton Legare_ (2 vols., Charleston, S.C., - 1846), edited by his sister, Mrs Mary Bullen, who contributed a - biographical sketch; and two articles by B. J. Ramage in _The Sewanee - Review_, vol. x. (New York, 1902). - - - - -LEGAS, one of the Shangalla group of tribes, regarded as among the -purest types of the Galla race. They occupy the upper Yabus valley, S.W. -Abyssinia, near the Sudan frontier. The Legas are physically distinct -from the Negro Shangalla. They are of very light complexion, tall and -thin, with narrow hollow-cheeked faces, small heads and high foreheads. -The chiefs' families are of more mixed blood, with perceptible Negro -strain. The Legas are estimated to number upwards of a hundred thousand, -of whom some 20,000 are warriors. They are, however, a peaceful race, -kind to their women and slaves, and energetic agriculturists. Formerly -independent, they came about 1900 under the sway of Abyssinia. The Legas -are pagans, but Mahommedanism has gained many converts among them. - - - - -LEGATE, BARTHOLOMEW (c. 1575-1612), English fanatic, was born in Essex -and became a dealer in cloth. About the beginning of the 17th century he -became a preacher among a sect called the "Seekers," and appears to have -held unorthodox opinions about the divinity of Jesus Christ. Together -with his brother Thomas he was put in prison for heresy in 1611. Thomas -died in Newgate gaol, London, but Bartholomew's imprisonment was not a -rigorous one. James I. argued with him, and on several occasions he was -brought before the Consistory Court of London, but without any definite -result. Eventually, after having threatened to bring an action for -wrongful imprisonment, Legate was tried before a full Consistory Court -in February 1612, was found guilty of heresy, and was delivered to the -secular authorities for punishment. Refusing to retract his opinions he -was burned to death at Smithfield on the 18th of March 1612. Legate was -the last person burned in London for his religious opinions, and Edward -Wightman, who was burned at Lichfield in April 1612, was the last to -suffer in this way in England. - - See T. Fuller, _Church History of Britain_ (1655); and S. R. Gardiner, - _History of England_, vol. ii. (London, 1904). - - - - -LEGATE (Lat. _legatus_, past part. of _legare_, to send as deputy), a -title now generally confined to the highest class of diplomatic -representatives of the pope, though still occasionally used, in its -original Latin sense, of any ambassador or diplomatic agent. According -to the _Nova Compilatio Decretalium_ of Gregory IX., under the title "De -officio legati" the canon law recognizes two sorts of legate, the -_legatus natus_ and the _legatus datus_ or _missus_. The _legatus datus_ -(_missus_) may be either (1) _delegatus_, or (2) _nuncius apostolicus_, -or (3) _legatus a latere_ (_lateralis, collateralis_). The rights of the -_legatus natus_, which included concurrent jurisdiction with that of all -the bishops within his province, have been much curtailed since the 16th -century; they were altogether suspended in presence of the higher claims -of a _legatus a latere_, and the title is now almost quite honorary. It -was attached to the see of Canterbury till the Reformation and it still -attaches to the sees of Seville, Toledo, Aries, Reims, Lyons, Gran, -Prague, Gnesen-Posen, Cologne, Salzburg, among others. The commission of -the _legatus delegatus_ (generally a member of the local clergy) is of a -limited nature, and relates only to some definite piece of work. The -_nuncius apostolicus_ (who has the privilege of red apparel, a white -horse and golden spurs) possesses ordinary jurisdiction within the -province to which he has been sent, but his powers otherwise are -restricted by the terms of his mandate. The _legatus a latere_ (almost -invariably a cardinal, though the power can be conferred on other -prelates) is in the fullest sense the plenipotentiary representative of -the pope, and possesses the high prerogative implied in the words of -Gregory VII., "nostra vice quae corrigenda sunt corrigat, quae statuend -constituat." He has the power of suspending all the bishops in his -province, and no judicial cases are reserved from his judgment. Without -special mandate, however, he cannot depose bishops or unite or separate -bishoprics. At present _legati a latere_ are not sent by the holy see, -but diplomatic relations, where they exist, are maintained by means of -nuncios, internuncios and other agents. - -The history of the office of papal legate is closely involved with that -of the papacy itself. If it were proved that papal legates exercised the -prerogatives of the primacy in the early councils, it would be one of -the strongest points for the Roman Catholic view of the papal history. -Thus it is claimed that Hosius of Cordova presided over the council of -Nicaea (325) in the name of the pope. But the claim rests on slender -evidence, since the first source in which Hosius is referred to as -representative of the pope is Gelasius of Cyzicus in the Propontis, who -wrote toward the end of the 5th century. It is even open to dispute -whether Hosius was president at Nicaea, and though he certainly presided -over the council of Sardica in 343, it was probably as representative of -the emperors Constans and Constantius, who had summoned the council. -Pope Julius I. was represented at Sardica by two presbyters. Yet the -fifth canon, which provides for appeal by a bishop to Rome, sanctions -the use of embassies _a latere_. If the appellant wishes the pope to -send priests from his own household, the pope shall be free to do so, -and to furnish them with full authority from himself ("ut de latere suo -presbyteros mittat ... habentes ejus auctoritatem a quo destinati -sunt"). The decrees of Sardica, an obscure council, were later confused -with those of Nicaea and thus gained weight. In the synod of Ephesus in -431, Pope Celestine I. instructed his representatives to conduct -themselves not as disputants but as judges, and Cyril of Alexandria -presided not only in his own name but in that of the pope (and of the -bishop of Jerusalem). Instances of delegation of the papal authority in -various degrees become numerous in the 5th century, especially during -the pontificate of Leo I. Thus Leo writes in 444 (_Ep._ 6) to Anastasius -of Thessalonica, appointing him his vicar for the province of Illyria; -the same arrangement, he informs us, had been made by Pope Siricius in -favour of Anysius, the predecessor of Anastasius. Similar vicarial or -legatine powers had been conferred in 418 by Zosimus upon Patroclus, -bishop of Arles. In 449 Leo was represented at the "Robber Synod," from -which his legates hardly escaped with life; at Chalcedon, in 451, they -were treated with singular honour, though the imperial commissioners -presided. Again, in 453 the same pope writes to the empress Pulcheria, -naming Julianus of Cos as his representative in the defence of the -interests of orthodoxy and ecclesiastical discipline at Constantinople -(_Ep._ 112); the instructions to Julianus are given in _Ep._ 113 ("hanc -specialem curam vice mea functus assumas"). The designation of -Anastasius as vicar apostolic over Illyria may be said to mark the -beginning of the custom of conferring, _ex officio_, the title of -_legatus_ upon the holders of important sees, who ultimately came to be -known as _legati nati_, with the rank of primate; the appointment of -Julianus at Constantinople gradually developed into the long permanent -office of _apocrisiarius_ or _responsalis_. Another sort of delegation -is exemplified in Leo's letter to the African bishops (_Ep._ 12), in -which he sends Potentius, with instructions to inquire in his name, and -to report ("vicem curae nostrae fratri et consacerdoti nostro Potentio -delegantes qui de episcopis, quorum culpabilis ferebatur electio, quid -veritas haberet inquireret, nobisque omnia fideliter indicaret"). -Passing on to the time of Gregory the Great, we find him sending two -representatives to Gaul in 599, to suppress simony, and one to Spain in -603. Augustine of Canterbury is sometimes spoken of as legate, but it -does not appear that in his case this title was used in any strictly -technical sense, although the archbishop of Canterbury afterwards -attained the permanent dignity of a _legatus natus_. Boniface, the -apostle of Germany, was in like manner constituted, according to Hincmar -(_Ep._ 30), a legate of the apostolic see by Popes Gregory II. and -Gregory III. According to Hefele (_Conc._ iv. 239), Rodoald of Porto and -Zecharias of Anagni, who were sent by Pope Nicolas to Constantinople in -860, were the first actually called _legati a latere_. The policy of -Gregory VII. naturally led to a great development of the legatine as -distinguished from the ordinary episcopal function. From the creation of -the medieval papal monarchy until the close of the middle ages, the -papal legate played a most important role in national as well as church -history. The further definition of his powers proceeded throughout the -12th and 13th centuries. From the 16th century legates a latere give way -almost entirely to nuncios (q.v.). - - See P. Hinschius, _Kirchenrecht_, i. 498 ff.; G. Phillips, - _Kirchenrecht_, vol. vi. 680 ff. - - - - -LEGATION (Lat. _legatio_, a sending or mission), a diplomatic mission of -the second rank. The term is also applied to the building in which the -minister resides and to the area round it covered by his diplomatic -immunities. See DIPLOMACY. - - - - -LEGEND (through the French from the med. Lat. _legenda_, things to be -read, from _legere_, to read), in its primary meaning the history or -life-story of a saint, and so applied to portions of Scripture and -selections from the lives of the saints as read at divine service. The -statute of 3 and 4 Edward VI. dealing with the abolition of certain -books and images (1549), cap. 10, sect. 1, says that "all bookes ... -called processionalles, manuelles, _legends_ ... shall be ... -abolished." The "Golden Legend," or _Aurea Legenda_, was the name given -to a book containing lives of the saints and descriptions of festivals, -written by Jacobus de Voragine, archbishop of Genoa, in the 13th -century. From the original application of the word to stories of the -saints containing wonders and miracles, the word came to be applied to a -story handed down without any foundation in history, but popularly -believed to be true. "Legend" is also used of a writing, inscription, or -motto on coins or medals, and in connexion with coats of arms, shields, -monuments, &c. - - - - -LEGENDRE, ADRIEN MARIE (1752-1833), French mathematician, was born at -Paris (or, according to some accounts, at Toulouse) in 1752. He was -brought up at Paris, where he completed his studies at the _College -Mazarin_. His first published writings consist of articles forming part -of the _Traite de mecanique_ (1774) of the Abbe Marie, who was his -professor; Legendre's name, however, is not mentioned. Soon afterwards -he was appointed professor of mathematics in the _Ecole Militaire_ at -Paris, and he was afterwards professor in the _Ecole Normale_. In 1782 -he received the prize from the Berlin Academy for his "Dissertation sur -la question de balistique," a memoir relating to the paths of -projectiles in resisting media. He also, about this time, wrote his -"Recherches sur la figure des planetes," published in the _Memoires_ of -the French Academy, of which he was elected a member in succession to J. -le Rond d'Alembert in 1783. He was also appointed a commissioner for -connecting geodetically Paris and Greenwich, his colleagues being P. F. -A. Mechain and C. F. Cassini de Thury; General William Roy conducted the -operations on behalf of England. The French observations were published -in 1792 (_Expose des operations faites en France in 1787 pour la -jonction des observatoires de Paris et de Greenwich_). During the -Revolution, he was one of the three members of the council established -to introduce the decimal system, and he was also a member of the -commission appointed to determine the length of the metre, for which -purpose the calculations, &c., connected with the arc of the meridian -from Barcelona to Dunkirk were revised. He was also associated with G. -C. F. M. Prony (1755-1839) in the formation of the great French tables -of logarithms of numbers, sines, and tangents, and natural sines, called -the _Tables du Cadastre_, in which the quadrant was divided -centesimally; these tables have never been published (see LOGARITHMS). -He was examiner in the _Ecole Polytechnique_, but held few important -state offices. He died at Paris on the 10th of January 1833, and the -discourse at his grave was pronounced by S. D. Poisson. The last of the -three supplements to his _Traite des fonctions elliptiques_ was -published in 1832, and Poisson in his funeral oration remarked: "M. -Legendre a eu cela de commun avec la plupart des geometres qui l'ont -precede, que ses travaux n'ont fini qu'avec sa vie. Le dernier volume de -nos memoires renferme encore un memoire de lui, sur une question -difficile de la theorie des nombres; et peu de temps avant la maladie -qui l'a conduit au tombeau, il se procura les observations les plus -recentes des cometes a courtes periodes, dont il allait se servir pour -appliquer et perfectionner ses methodes." - - It will be convenient, in giving an account of his writings, to - consider them under the different subjects which are especially - associated with his name. - - _Elliptic Functions._--This is the subject with which Legendre's name - will always be most closely connected, and his researches upon it - extend over a period of more than forty years. His first published - writings upon the subject consist of two papers in the _Memoires de - l'Academie Francaise_ for 1786 upon elliptic arcs. In 1792 he - presented to the Academy a memoir on elliptic transcendents. The - contents of these memoirs are included in the first volume of his - _Exercices de calcul integral_ (1811). The third volume (1816) - contains the very elaborate and now well-known tables of the elliptic - integrals which were calculated by Legendre himself, with an account - of the mode of their construction. In 1827 appeared the _Traite des - fonctions elliptiques_ (2 vols., the first dated 1825, the second - 1826), a great part of the first volume agrees very closely with the - contents of the _Exercices_; the tables, &c., are given in the second - volume. Three supplements, relating to the researches of N. H. Abel - and C. G. J. Jacobi, were published in 1828-1832, and form a third - volume. Legendre had pursued the subject which would now be called - elliptic integrals alone from 1786 to 1827, the results of his labours - having been almost entirely neglected by his contemporaries, but his - work had scarcely appeared in 1827 when the discoveries which were - independently made by the two young and as yet unknown mathematicians - Abel and Jacobi placed the subject on a new basis, and revolutionized - it completely. The readiness with which Legendre, who was then - seventy-six years of age, welcomed these important researches, that - quite overshadowed his own, and included them in successive - supplements to his work, does the highest honour to him (see - FUNCTION). - - _Eulerian Integrals and Integral Calculus._--The _Exercices de calcul - integral_ consist of three volumes, a great portion of the first and - the whole of the third being devoted to elliptic functions. The - remainder of the first volume relates to the Eulerian integrals and to - quadratures. The second volume (1817) relates to the Eulerian - integrals, and to various integrals and series, developments, - mechanical problems, &c., connected with the integral calculus; this - volume contains also a numerical table of the values of the gamma - function. The latter portion of the second volume of the _Traite des - fonctions elliptiques_ (1826) is also devoted to the Eulerian - integrals, the table being reproduced. Legendre's researches connected - with the "gamma function" are of importance, and are well known; the - subject was also treated by K. F. Gauss in his memoir _Disquisitiones - generales circa series infinitas_ (1816), but in a very different - manner. The results given in the second volume of the _Exercices_ are - of too miscellaneous a character to admit of being briefly described. - In 1788 Legendre published a memoir on double integrals, and in 1809 - one on definite integrals. - - _Theory of Numbers._--Legendre's _Theorie des nombres_ and Gauss's - _Disquisitiones arithmeticae_ (1801) are still standard works upon - this subject. The first edition of the former appeared in 1798 under - the title _Essai sur la theorie des nombres_; there was a second - edition in 1808; a first supplement was published in 1816, and a - second in 1825. The third edition, under the title _Theorie des - nombres_, appeared in 1830 in two volumes. The fourth edition appeared - in 1900. To Legendre is due the theorem known as the law of quadratic - reciprocity, the most important general result in the science of - numbers which has been discovered since the time of P. de Fermat, and - which was called by Gauss the "gem of arithmetic." It was first given - by Legendre in the _Memoires_ of the Academy for 1785, but the - demonstration that accompanied it was incomplete. The symbol (a/p) - which is known as Legendre's symbol, and denotes the positive or - negative unit which is the remainder when a^[(1/2)p(-1)] is divided by - a prime number p, does not appear in this memoir, but was first used - in the _Essai sur la theorie des nombres_. Legendre's formula x: (log - x - 1.08366) for the approximate number of forms inferior to a given - number x was first given by him also in this work (2nd ed., p. 394) - (see NUMBER). - - _Attractions of Ellipsoids._--Legendre was the author of four - important memoirs on this subject. In the first of these, entitled - "Recherches sur l'attraction des spheroides homogenes," published in - the _Memoires_ of the Academy for 1785, but communicated to it at an - earlier period, Legendre introduces the celebrated expressions which, - though frequently called Laplace's coefficients, are more correctly - named after Legendre. The definition of the coefficients is that if (1 - - 2h cos [phi] + h^2)^(-1/2) be expanded in ascending powers of h, and - if the general term be denoted by P_n h^n, then P_n is of the - Legendrian coefficient of the nth order. In this memoir also the - function which is now called the potential was, at the suggestion of - Laplace, first introduced. Legendre shows that Maclaurin's theorem - with respect to confocal ellipsoids is true for any position of the - external point when the ellipsoids are solids of revolution. Of this - memoir Isaac Todhunter writes: "We may affirm that no single memoir in - the history of our subject can rival this in interest and importance. - During forty years the resources of analysis, even in the hands of - d'Alembert, Lagrange and Laplace, had not carried the theory of the - attraction of ellipsoids beyond the point which the geometry of - Maclaurin had reached. The introduction of the coefficients now called - Laplace's, and their application, commence a new era in mathematical - physics." Legendre's second memoir was communicated to the _Academie_ - in 1784, and relates to the conditions of equilibrium of a mass of - rotating fluid in the form of a figure of revolution which does not - deviate much from a sphere. The third memoir relates to Laplace's - theorem respecting confocal ellipsoids. Of the fourth memoir Todhunter - writes: "It occupies an important position in the history of our - subject. The most striking addition which is here made to previous - researches consists in the treatment of a planet supposed entirely - fluid; the general equation for the form of a stratum is given for the - first time and discussed. For the first time we have a correct and - convenient expression for Laplace's nth coefficient." (See Todhunter's - _History of the Mathematical Theories of Attraction and the Figure of - the Earth_ (1873), the twentieth, twenty-second, twenty-fourth, and - twenty-fifth chapters of which contain a full and complete account of - Legendre's four memoirs. See also SPHERICAL HARMONICS.) - - _Geodesy._--Besides the work upon the geodetical operations connecting - Paris and Greenwich, of which Legendre was one of the authors, he - published in the _Memoires de l'Academie_ for 1787 two papers on - trigonometrical operations depending upon the figure of the earth, - containing many theorems relating to this subject. The best known of - these, which is called Legendre's theorem, is usually given in - treatises on spherical trigonometry; by means of it a small spherical - triangle may be treated as a plane triangle, certain corrections being - applied to the angles. Legendre was also the author of a memoir upon - triangles drawn upon a spheroid. Legendre's theorem is a fundamental - one in geodesy, and his contributions to the subject are of the - greatest importance. - - _Method of Least Squares._--In 1806 appeared Legendre's _Nouvelles - Methodes pour la determination des orbites des cometes_, which is - memorable as containing the first published suggestion of the method - of least squares (see PROBABILITY). In the preface Legendre remarks: - "La methode qui me paroit la plus simple et la plus generale consiste - a rendre minimum la somme des quarres des erreurs, ... et que - j'appelle methode des moindres quarres"; and in an appendix in which - the application of the method is explained his words are: "De tous les - principes qu'on peut proposer pour cet objet, je pense qu'il n'en est - pas de plus general, de plus exact, ni d'une application plus facile - que celui dont nous avons fait usage dans les recherches precedentes, - et qui consiste a rendre minimum la somme des quarres des erreurs." - The method was proposed by Legendre only as a convenient process for - treating observations, without reference to the theory of probability. - It had, however, been applied by Gauss as early as 1795, and the - method was fully explained, and the law of facility for the first time - given by him in 1809. Laplace also justified the method by means of - the principles of the theory of probability; and this led Legendre to - republish the part of his _Nouvelles Methodes_ which related to it in - the _Memoires de l'Academie_ for 1810. Thus, although the method of - least squares was first formally proposed by Legendre, the theory and - algorithm and mathematical foundation of the process are due to Gauss - and Laplace. Legendre published two supplements to his _Nouvelles - Methodes_ in 1806 and 1820. - - _The Elements of Geometry._--Legendre's name is most widely known on - account of his _Elements de geometrie_, the most successful of the - numerous attempts that have been made to supersede Euclid as a - text-book on geometry. It first appeared in 1794, and went through - very many editions, and has been translated into almost all languages. - An English translation, by Sir David Brewster, from the eleventh - French edition, was published in 1823, and is well known in England. - The earlier editions did not contain the trigonometry. In one of the - notes Legendre gives a proof of the irrationality of [pi]. This had - been first proved by J. H. Lambert in the Berlin _Memoirs_ for 1768. - Legendre's proof is similar in principle to Lambert's, but much - simpler. On account of the objections urged against the treatment of - parallels in this work, Legendre was induced to publish in 1803 his - _Nouvelle Theorie des paralleles_. His _Geometrie_ gave rise in - England also to a lengthened discussion on the difficult question of - the treatment of the theory of parallels. - - It will thus be seen that Legendre's works have placed him in the very - foremost rank in the widely distinct subjects of elliptic functions, - theory of numbers, attractions, and geodesy, and have given him a - conspicuous position in connexion with the integral calculus and other - branches of mathematics. He published a memoir on the integration of - partial differential equations and a few others which have not been - noticed above, but they relate to subjects with which his name is not - especially associated. A good account of the principal works of - Legendre is given in the _Bibliotheque universelle de Geneve_ for - 1833, pp. 45-82. - - See Elie de Beaumont, "Memoir de Legendre," translated by C. A. - Alexander, _Smithsonian Report_ (1874). (J. W. L. G.) - - - - -LEGENDRE, LOUIS (1752-1797), French revolutionist, was born at -Versailles on the 22nd of May 1752. When the Revolution broke out, he -kept a butcher's shop in Paris, in the rue des Boucheries St Germain. He -was an ardent supporter of the ideas of the Revolution, a member of the -Jacobin Club, and one of the founders of the club of the Cordeliers. In -spite of the incorrectness of his diction, he was gifted with a genuine -eloquence, and well knew how to carry the populace with him. He was a -prominent actor in the taking of the Bastille (14th of July 1789), in -the massacre of the Champ de Mars (July 1791), and in the attack on the -Tuileries (10th of August 1792). Deputy from Paris to the Convention, he -voted for the death of Louis XVI., and was sent on mission to Lyons -(27th of February 1793) before the revolt of that town, and was on -mission from August to October 1793 in Seine-Inferieure. He was a member -of the _Comite de Surete Generale_, and contributed to the downfall of -the Girondists. When Danton was arrested, Legendre at first defended -him, but was soon cowed and withdrew his defence. After the fall of -Robespierre, Legendre took part in the reactionary movement, undertook -the closing of the Jacobin Club, was elected president of the -Convention, and helped to bring about the impeachment of J. B. Carrier, -the perpetrator of the _noyades_ of Nantes. He was subsequently elected -a member of the Council of Ancients, and died on the 13th of December -1797. - - See F. A. Aulard, _Les Orateurs de la Legislative et de la Convention_ - (2nd ed., Paris, 1906, 2 vols.); "Correspondance de Legendre" in the - _Revolution francaise_ (vol. xl., 1901). - - - - -LEGERDEMAIN (Fr. _leger-de-main_, i.e. light or sleight of hand), the -name given specifically to that form of conjuring in which the performer -relies on dexterity of manipulation rather than on mechanical apparatus. -See CONJURING. - - - - -LEGGE, afterwards BILSON-LEGGE, HENRY (1708-1764), English statesman, -fourth son of William Legge, 1st earl of Dartmouth (1672-1750), was born -on the 29th of May 1708. Educated at Christ Church, Oxford, he became -private secretary to Sir Robert Walpole, and in 1739 was appointed -secretary of Ireland by the lord-lieutenant, the 3rd duke of Devonshire; -being chosen member of parliament for the borough of East Looe in 1740, -and for Orford, Suffolk, at the general election in the succeeding year. -Legge only shared temporarily in the downfall of Walpole, and became in -quick succession surveyor-general of woods and forests, a lord of the -admiralty, and a lord of the treasury. In 1748 he was sent as envoy -extraordinary to Frederick the Great, and although his conduct in Berlin -was sharply censured by George II., he became treasurer of the navy soon -after his return to England. In April 1754 he joined the ministry of the -duke of Newcastle as chancellor of the exchequer, the king consenting to -this appointment although refusing to hold any intercourse with the -minister; but Legge shared the elder Pitt's dislike of the policy of -paying subsidies to the landgrave of Hesse, and was dismissed from -office in November 1755. Twelve months later he returned to his post at -the exchequer in the administration of Pitt and the 4th duke of -Devonshire, retaining office until April 1757 when he shared both the -dismissal and the ensuing popularity of Pitt. When in conjunction with -the duke of Newcastle Pitt returned to power in the following July, -Legge became chancellor of the exchequer for the third time. He imposed -new taxes upon houses and windows, and he appears to have lost to some -extent the friendship of Pitt, while the king refused to make him a -peer. In 1759 he obtained the sinecure position of surveyor of the petty -customs and subsidies in the port of London, and having in consequence -to resign his seat in parliament he was chosen one of the members for -Hampshire, a proceeding which greatly incensed the earl of Bute, who -desired this seat for one of his friends. Having thus incurred Bute's -displeasure Legge was again dismissed from the exchequer in March 1761, -but he continued to take part in parliamentary debates until his death -at Tunbridge Wells on the 23rd of August 1764. Legge appears to have -been a capable financier, but the position of chancellor of the -exchequer was not at that time a cabinet office. He took the additional -name of Bilson on succeeding to the estates of a relative, Thomas -Bettersworth Bilson, in 1754. Pitt called Legge, "the child, and -deservedly the favourite child, of the Whigs." Horace Walpole said he -was "of a creeping, underhand nature, and aspired to the lion's place by -the manoeuvre of the mole," but afterwards he spoke in high terms of his -talents. Legge married Mary, daughter and heiress of Edward, 4th and -last Baron Stawel (d. 1755). This lady, who in 1760 was created Baroness -Stawel of Somerton, bore him an only child, Henry Stawel Bilson-Legge -(1757-1820), who became Baron Stawel on his mother's death in 1780. When -Stawel died without sons his title became extinct. His only daughter, -Mary (d. 1864), married John Dutton, 2nd Baron Sherborne. - - See John Butier, bishop of Hereford, _Some Account of the Character of - the late Rt. Hon. H. Bilson-Legge_ (1765); Horace Walpole, _Memoirs of - the Reign of George II._ (London, 1847); and _Memoirs of the Reign of - George III._, edited by G. F. R. Barker (London, 1894); W. E. H. - Lecky, _History of England_, vol. ii. (London, 1892); and the memoirs - and collections of correspondence of the time. - - - - -LEGGE, JAMES (1815-1897), British Chinese scholar, was born at Huntly, -Aberdeenshire, in 1815, and educated at King's College, Aberdeen. After -studying at the Highbury Theological College, London, he went in 1839 as -a missionary to the Chinese, but, as China was not yet open to -Europeans, he remained at Malacca three years, in charge of the -Anglo-Chinese College there. The College was subsequently moved to -Hong-Kong, where Legge lived for thirty years. Impressed with the -necessity of missionaries being able to comprehend the ideas and culture -of the Chinese, he began in 1841 a translation in many volumes of the -Chinese classics, a monumental task admirably executed and completed a -few years before his death. In 1870 he was made an LL.D. of Aberdeen and -in 1884 of Edinburgh University. In 1875 several gentlemen connected -with the China trade suggested to the university of Oxford a Chair of -Chinese Language and Literature to be occupied by Dr Legge. The -university responded liberally, Corpus Christi College contributed the -emoluments of a fellowship, and the chair was constituted in 1876. In -addition to his other work Legge wrote _The Life and Teaching of -Confucius_ (1867); _The Life and Teaching of Mencius_ (1875); _The -Religions of China_ (1880); and other books on Chinese literature and -religion. He died at Oxford on the 29th of November 1897. - - - - -LEGHORN (Ital. _Livorno_, Fr. _Livourne_), a city of Tuscany, Italy, -chief town of the province of the same name, which consists of the -commune of Leghorn and the islands of Elba and Gorgona. The town is the -seat of a bishopric and of a large naval academy--the only one in -Italy--and the third largest commercial port in the kingdom, situated on -the west coast, 12 m. S.W. of Pisa by rail, 10 ft. above sea-level. Pop. -(1901) 78,308 (town), 96,528 (commune). It is built along the seashore -upon a healthy and fertile tract of land, which forms, as it were, an -oasis in a zone of Maremma. Behind is a range of hills, the most -conspicuous of which, the Monte Nero, is crowned by a frequented -pilgrimage church and also by villas and hotels, to which a funicular -railway runs. The town itself is almost entirely modern. The -16th-century Fortezza Vecchia, guarding the harbour, is picturesque, and -there is a good bronze statue of the grand duke Ferdinand I. by Pietro -Tacca (1577-1640), a pupil of Giovanni da Bologna. The lofty Torre del -Marzocco, erected in 1423 by the Florentines, is fine. The facade of the -cathedral was designed by Inigo Jones. The old Protestant cemetery -contains the tombs of Tobias Smollett (d. 1771) and Francis Horner (d. -1817). There is also a large synagogue founded in 1581. The exchange, -the chamber of commerce and the clearing-house (one of the oldest in the -world, dating from 1764) are united under one roof in the Palazzo del -Commercio, opened in 1907. Several improvements have been carried out in -the city and port, and the place is developing rapidly as an industrial -centre. The naval academy, formerly established partly at Naples and -partly at Genoa, has been transferred to Leghorn. Some of the navigable -canals which connected the harbour with the interior of the city have -been either modified or filled up. Several streets have been widened, -and a road along the shore has been transformed into a fine and shady -promenade. Leghorn is the principal sea-bathing resort in this part of -Italy, the season lasting from the end of June to the end of August. A -spa for the use of the Acque della Salute has been constructed. Leghorn -is on the main line from Pisa to Rome; another line runs to Colle -Salvetti. A considerable number of important steamship lines call here. -The new rectilinear mole, sanctioned in 1881, has been built out into -the sea for a distance of 600 yds. from the old Vegliaia lighthouse, and -the docking basin has been lengthened to 490 ft. Inside the breakwater -the depth varies from 10 to 26 ft. The total trade of the port increased -from L3,853,593 in 1897 to L5,675,285 in 1905 and L7,009,758 in 1906 -(the large increase being mainly due to a rise of over L1,000,000 in -imports--mainly of coal, building materials and machinery), the average -ratio of imports to exports being as three to two. The imports consist -principally of machinery, coal, grain, dried fish, tobacco and hides, -and the exports of hemp, hides, olive oil, soap, coral, candied fruit, -wine, straw hats, boracic acid, mercury, and marble and alabaster. In -1885 the total number of vessels that entered the port was 4281 of -1,434,000 tons; of these, 1251 of 750,000 tons were foreign; 688,000 -tons of merchandise were loaded and unloaded. In 1906, after -considerable fluctuations during the interval, the total number that -entered was 4623 vessels of 2,372,551 tons; of these, 935 of 1,002,119 -tons were foreign; British ships representing about half this tonnage. -In 1906 the total imports and exports amounted to 1,470,000 tons -including coasting trade. A great obstacle to the development of the -port is the absence of modern mechanical appliances for loading and -unloading vessels, and of quay space and dock accommodation. The older -shipyards have been considerably extended, and shipbuilding is actively -carried on, especially by the Orlando yard which builds large ships for -the Italian navy, while new industries--namely, glass-making and copper -and brass-founding, electric power works, a cement factory, porcelain -factories, flour-mills, oil-mills, a cotton yarn spinning factory, -electric plant works, a ship-breaking yard, a motor-boat yard, &c.--have -been established. Other important firms, Tuscan wine-growers, -oil-growers, timber traders, colour manufacturers, &c., have their head -offices and stores at Leghorn, with a view to export. The former British -"factory" here was of great importance for the trade with the Levant, -but was closed in 1825. The two villages of Ardenza and Antignano, which -form part of the commune, have acquired considerable importance, the -former in part for sea-bathing. - -The earliest mention of Leghorn occurs in a document of 891, relating to -the first church here; in 1017 it is called a castle. In the 13th -century the Pisans tried to attract a population to the spot, but it was -not till the 14th that Leghorn became a rival of Porto Pisano at the -mouth of the Arno, which it was destined ultimately to supplant. It was -at Leghorn that Urban V. and Gregory XI. landed on their return from -Avignon. When in 1405 the king of France sold Pisa to the Florentines he -kept possession of Leghorn; but he afterwards (1407) sold it for 26,000 -ducats to the Genoese, and from the Genoese the Florentines purchased it -in 1421. In 1496 the city showed its devotion to its new masters by a -successful defence against Maximilian and his allies, but it was still a -small place; in 1551 there were only 749 inhabitants. With the rise of -the Medici came a rapid increase of prosperity; Cosmo, Francis and -Ferdinand erected fortifications and harbour works, warehouses and -churches, with equal liberality, and the last especially gave a stimulus -to trade by inviting "men of the East and the West, Spanish and -Portuguese, Greeks, Germans, Italians, Hebrews, Turks, Moors, Armenians, -Persians and others," to settle and traffic in the city, as it became in -1606. Declared free and neutral in 1691, Leghorn was permanently -invested with these privileges by the Quadruple Alliance in 1718; but in -1796 Napoleon seized all the hostile vessels in its port. It ceased to -be a free city by the law of 1867. (T. As.) - - - - -LEGION (Lat. _legio_), in early Rome, the levy of citizens marching out -_en masse_ to war, like the citizen-army of any other primitive state. -As Rome came to need more than one army at once and warfare grew more -complex, _legio_ came to denote a unit of 4000-6000 heavy infantry -(including, however, at first some light infantry and at various times a -handful of cavalry) who were by political status Roman citizens and were -distinct from the "allies," _auxilia_, and other troops of the second -class. The legionaries were regarded as the best and most characteristic -Roman soldiers, the most trustworthy and truly Roman; they enjoyed -better pay and conditions of service than the "auxiliaries." In A.D. 14 -(death of Augustus) there were 25 such legions: later, the number was -slightly increased; finally about A.D. 290 Diocletian reduced the size -and greatly increased the number of the legions. Throughout, the -dominant features of the legions were heavy infantry and Roman -citizenship. They lost their importance when the Barbarian invasions -altered the character of ancient warfare and made cavalry a more -important arm than infantry, in the late 3rd and 4th centuries A.D. In -the middle ages the word "legion" seems not to have been used as a -technical term. In modern times it has been employed for organizations -of an unusual or exceptional character, such as a corps of foreign -volunteers or mercenaries. See further ROMAN ARMY. (F. J. H.) - - The term legion has been used to designate regiments or corps of all - arms in modern times, perhaps the earliest example of this being the - Provincial Legions formed in France by Francis I. (see INFANTRY). - Napoleon, in accordance with this precedent, employed the word to - designate the second-line formations which he maintained in France and - which supplied the Grande Armee with drafts. The term "Foreign Legion" - is often used for irregular volunteer corps of foreign sympathizers - raised by states at war, often by smaller states fighting for - independence. Unlike most foreign legions the "British Legion" which, - raised in Great Britain and commanded by Sir de Lacy Evans (q.v.), - fought in the Carlist wars, was a regularly enlisted and paid force. - The term "foreign legion" is colloquially but incorrectly applied - to-day to the _Regiments etrangers_ in the French service, which are - composed of adventurous spirits of all nationalities and have been - employed in many arduous colonial campaigns. - - The most famous of the corps that have borne the name of legion in - modern times was the King's German Legion (see Beamish's history of - the corps). The electorate of Hanover being in 1805 threatened by the - French, and no effective resistance being considered possible, the - British government wished to take the greater part of the Hanoverian - army into its service. But the acceptance by the Hanoverian government - of this offer was delayed until too late, and it was only after the - French had entered the country and the army as a unit had been - disbanded that the formation of the "King's German Regiment," as it - was at first called, was begun in England. This enlisted not only - ex-Hanoverian soldiers, but other Germans as well, as individuals. - Lieut.-Colonel von der Decken and Major Colin Halkett were the - officers entrusted with the formation of the new corps, which in - January 1805 had become a corps of all arms with the title of King's - German Legion. It then consisted of a dragoon and a hussar regiment, - five batteries, two light and four line battalions and an engineer - section, all these being afterwards increased. Its services included - the abortive German expedition of November 1805, the expedition to - Copenhagen in 1807, the minor sieges and combats in Sicily 1808-14, - the Walcheren expedition of 1809, the expedition to Sweden under Sir - John Moore in 1808, and the campaign of 1813 in north Germany. But its - title to fame is its part in the Peninsular War, in which from first - to last it was an acknowledged _corps d'elite_--its cavalry - especially, whose services both on reconnaissance and in battle were - of the highest value. The exploit of the two dragoon regiments of the - Legion at Garcia Hernandez after the battle of Salamanca, where they - charged and broke up two French infantry squares and captured some - 1400 prisoners, is one of the most notable incidents in the history of - the cavalry arm (see Sir E. Wood's _Achievements of Cavalry)_. A - general officer of the Legion, Charles Alten (q.v.), commanded the - British Light Division in the latter part of the war. It should be - said that the Legion was rarely engaged as a unit. It was considered - rather as a small army of the British type, most of which served - abroad by regiments and battalions while a small portion and depot - units were at home, the total numbers under arms being about 25,000. - In 1815 the period of service of the corps had almost expired when - Napoleon returned from Elba, but its members voluntarily offered to - prolong their service. It lost heavily at Waterloo, in which Baring's - battalion of the light infantry distinguished itself by its gallant - defence of La Haye Sainte. The strength of the Legion at the time of - its disbandment was 1100 officers and 23,500 men. A short-lived - "King's German Legion" was raised by the British government for - service in the Crimean War. Certain Hanoverian regiments of the German - army to-day represent the units of the Legion and carry Peninsular - battle-honours on their standards and colours. - - - - -LEGITIM, or BAIRN'S PART, in Scots law, the legal share of the movable -property of a father due on his death to his children. If a father dies -leaving a widow and children, the movable property is divided into three -equal parts; one-third part is divided equally among all the children -who survive, although they may be of different marriages (the issue of -predeceased children do not share); another third goes to the widow as -her _jus relictae_, and the remaining third, called "dead's part," may -be disposed of by the father by will as he pleases. If the father die -intestate the dead's part goes to the children as next of kin. Should -the father leave no widow, one-half of the movable estate is legitim and -one-half dead's part. In claiming legitim, however, credit must be given -for any advance made by the father out of his movable estate during his -lifetime. - - - - -LEGITIMACY, and LEGITIMATION, the status derived by individuals in -consequence of being born in legal wedlock, and the means by which the -same status is given to persons not so born. Under the Roman or civil -law a child born before the marriage of the parents was made legitimate -by their subsequent marriage. This method of legitimation was accepted -by the canon law, by the legal systems of the continent of Europe, of -Scotland and of some of the states of the United States. The early -Germanic codes, however, did not recognize such legitimation, nor among -the Anglo-Saxons had the natural-born child any rights of inheritance, -or possibly any right other than that of protection, even when -acknowledged by its father. The principle of the civil and canon law was -at one time advocated by the clergy of England, but was summarily -rejected by the barons at the parliament of Merton in 1236, when they -replied _Nolumus leges Angliae mutare_. - -English law takes account solely of the fact that marriage precedes the -birth of the child; at whatever period the birth happens after the -marriage, the offspring is prima facie legitimate. The presumption of -law is always in favour of the legitimacy of the child of a married -woman, and at one time it was so strong that Sir Edward Coke held that -"if the husband be within the four seas, i.e. within the jurisdiction of -the king of England, and the wife hath issue, no proof shall be admitted -to prove the child a bastard unless the husband hath an apparent -impossibility of procreation." It is now settled, however, that the -presumption of legitimacy may be rebutted by evidence showing non-access -on the part of the husband, or any other circumstance showing that the -husband could not in the course of nature have been the father of his -wife's child. If the husband had access, or the access be not clearly -negatived, even though others at the same time were carrying on an -illicit intercourse with the wife, a child born under such circumstances -is legitimate. If the husband had access intercourse must be presumed, -unless there is irresistible evidence to the contrary. Neither husband -or wife will be permitted to prove the non-access directly or -indirectly. Children born after a divorce _a mensa et thoro_ will, -however, be presumed to be bastards unless access be proved. A child -born so long after the death of a husband that he could not in the -ordinary course of nature have been the father is illegitimate. The -period of gestation is presumed to be _about_ nine calendar months; and -if there were any circumstances from which an unusually long or short -period of gestation could be inferred, special medical testimony would -be required. - -A marriage between persons within the prohibited degrees of affinity was -before 1835 not void, but only voidable, and the ecclesiastical courts -were restrained from bastardizing the issue after the death of either of -the parents. Lord Lyndhurst's act (1835) declared all such existing -marriages valid, but all subsequent marriages between persons within the -prohibited degrees of consanguinity or affinity were made null and void -and the issue illegitimate (see MARRIAGE). By the Legitimacy Declaration -Act 1858, application may be made to the Probate, Divorce and Admiralty -Court (in Scotland, to the Court of Session by action of declarator) for -a declaration of legitimacy and of the validity of a marriage. The -status of legitimacy in any country depending upon the fact of the child -having been born in wedlock, it may be concluded that any question as to -the legitimacy of a child turns either on the validity of the marriage -or on whether the child has been born in wedlock. - -_Legitimation_ effected by the subsequent marriage of the parents of the -illegitimate child is technically known as legitimation _per subsequens -matrimonium_. This adoption of the Roman law principle is followed by -most of the states of the continent of Europe (with distinctions, of -course, as to _certain_ illegitimate children, or as to the forms of -acknowledgment by the parent or parents), in the Isle of Man, Guernsey, -Jersey, Lower Canada, St Lucia, Trinidad, Demerara, Berbice, Cape -Colony, Ceylon, Mauritius; it has been adopted in New Zealand -(Legitimation Act 1894), South Australia (Legitimation Act 1898, amended -1902), Queensland (Legitimation Act 1899), New South Wales (Legitimation -Act 1902), and Victoria (Registration of Births, Deaths and Marriages -Act 1903). It is to be noted, however, that in these states the mere -fact of the parents marrying does not legitimate the child; indeed, the -parents may marry, yet the child remain illegitimate. In order to -legitimate the child it is necessary for the father to make application -for its registration; in South Australia, the application must be made -by both parents; so also in Victoria, if the mother is living, if not, -application by the father will suffice. In New Zealand, Queensland and -New South Wales, registration may be made at any time after the -marriage; in Victoria, within six months from the date of the marriage; -in South Australia, by the act of 1898, registration was permissible -only within thirty days before or after the marriage, but by the -amending act of 1902 it is allowed at any time more than thirty days -after the marriage, provided the applicants prove before a magistrate -that they are the parents of the child. In all cases the legitimation is -retrospective, taking effect from the birth of the child. Legitimation -by subsequent marriage exists also in the following states of the -American Union: Maine, Pennsylvania, Illinois, Michigan, Iowa, -Minnesota, California, Oregon, Nevada, Washington, N. and S. Dakota, -Idaho, Montana and New Mexico. In Massachusetts, Vermont, Illinois, -Indiana, Wisconsin, Nebraska, Maryland, Virginia, West Virginia, -Kentucky, Missouri, Arkansas, Texas, Colorado, Idaho, Wyoming, Georgia, -Alabama, Mississippi and Arizona, in addition to the marriage the father -must recognize or acknowledge the illegitimate child as his. In New -Hampshire, Connecticut and Louisiana both parents must acknowledge the -child, either by an authentic act before marriage or by the contract of -marriage. In some states (California, Nevada, N. and S. Dakota and -Idaho) if the father of an illegitimate child receives it into his house -(with the consent of his wife, if married), and treats it as if it were -legitimate, it becomes legitimate for all purposes. In other states (N. -Carolina, Tennessee, Georgia and New Mexico) the putative father can -legitimize the child by process in court. Those states of the United -States which have not been mentioned follow the English common law, -which also prevails in Ireland, some of the West Indies and part of -Canada. In Scotland, on the other hand, the principle of the civil law -is followed. In Scotland, bastards could be legitimized in two ways: -either by the subsequent intermarriage of the mother of the child with -the father, or by letters of legitimation from the sovereign. With -respect to the last, however, it is to be observed that letters of -legitimation, be their clauses ever so strong, could not enable the -bastard to succeed to his natural father; for the sovereign could not, -by any prerogative, cut off the private right of third parties. But by a -special clause in the letters of legitimation, the sovereign could -renounce his right to the bastard's succession, failing legitimate -descendants, in favour of him who would have been the bastard's heir had -he been born in lawful wedlock, such renunciation encroaching upon no -right competent to any third person. - -The question remains, how far, if at all, English law recognizes the -legitimacy of a person born out of wedlock. Strictly speaking, English -law does not recognize any such person as legitimate (though the supreme -power of an act of parliament can, of course, confer the rights of -legitimacy), but under certain circumstances it will recognize, for -purposes of succession to property, a legitimated person as legitimate. -The general maxim of law is that the status of legitimacy must be tried -by the law of the country where it originates, and where the law of the -father's domicile at the time of the child's birth, and of the father's -domicile at the time of the subsequent marriage, taken together, -legitimize the child, English law will recognize the legitimacy. For -purposes of succession to real property, however, legitimacy must be -determined by the _lex loci rei sitae_; so that, for example, a -legitimized Scotsman would be recognized as legitimate in England, but -not legitimate so far as to take lands as heir (_Birtwhistle_ v. -_Vardill_, 1840). The conflict of laws on the subject yields some -curious results. Thus, a domiciled Scotsman had a son born in Scotland -and then married the mother in Scotland. The son died possessed of land -in England, and it was held that the father could not inherit from the -son. On the other hand, where an unmarried woman, domiciled in England -died intestate there, it was held that her brother's daughter, born -before marriage, but whilst the father was domiciled in Holland, and -legitimized by the parents' marriage while they were still domiciled in -Holland, was entitled to succeed to the personal property of her aunt -(_In re Goodman's Trusts_, 1880). _In re Grey's Trusts_ (1892) decided -that, where _real estate_ was bequeathed to the children of a person -domiciled in a foreign country and these children were legitimized by -the subsequent marriage in that country of their father with their -mother, that they were entitled to share as legitimate children in a -devise of English realty. It is to be noted that this decision does not -clash with that of _Birtwhistle_ v. _Vardill_. - - See J. A. Foote, _Private International Law_; A. V. Dicey, _Conflict - of Laws_; L. von Bar, _Private International Law_; Story, _Conflict of - Laws_; J. Westlake, _International Law_. - - - - -LEGITIMISTS (Fr. _legitimistes_, from _legitime_, lawful, legitimate), -the name of the party in France which after the revolution of 1830 -continued to support the claims of the elder line of the house of -Bourbon as the legitimate sovereigns "by divine right." The death of the -comte de Chambord in 1883 dissolved the _parti legitimiste_, only an -insignificant remnant, known as the _Blancs d'Espagne_, repudiating the -act of renunciation of Philip V. of Spain and upholding the rights of -the Bourbons of the line of Anjou. The word _legitimiste_ was not -admitted by the French Academy until 1878; but meanwhile it had spread -beyond France, and the English word legitimist is now applied to any -supporter of monarchy by hereditary right as against a parliamentary or -other title. - - - - -LEGNAGO, a fortified town of Venetia, Italy, in the province of Verona, -on the Adige, 29 m. by rail E. of Mantua, 52 ft. above sea-level. Pop. -(1906) 2731 (town), 17,000 (commune). Legnago is one of the famous -Quadrilateral fortresses. The present fortifications were planned and -made in 1815, the older defences having been destroyed by Napoleon I. in -1801. The situation is low and unhealthy, but the territory is fertile, -rice, cereals and sugar being grown. Legnago is the birthplace of G. B. -Cavalcaselle, the art historian (1827-1897). A branch line runs hence to -Rovigo. - - - - -LEGNANO, a town of Lombardy, Italy, in the province of Milan, 17 m. N.W. -of that city by rail, 682 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1881) 7153, (1901) -18,285. The church of S. Magno, built in the style of Bramante by G. -Lampugnano (1504-1529), contains an altar-piece considered one of -Luini's best works. There are also remains of a castle of the Visconti. -Legnano is the seat of important cotton and silk industries, with -machine-shops, boiler-works, and dyeing and printing of woven goods, and -thread. Close by, the Lombard League defeated Frederick Barbarossa in -1176; a monument in commemoration of the battle was erected on the field -in 1876, while there is another by Butti erected in 1900 in the Piazza -Federico Barbarossa. - - - - -LEGOUVE, GABRIEL JEAN BAPTISTE ERNEST WILFRID (1807-1903), French -dramatist, son of the poet Gabriel Legouve (1764-1812), who wrote a -pastoral _La Mort d'Abel_ (1793) and a tragedy of _Epicharis et Neron_, -was born in Paris on the 5th of February 1807. His mother died in 1810, -and almost immediately afterwards his father was removed to a lunatic -asylum. The child, however, inherited a considerable fortune, and was -carefully educated. Jean Nicolas Bouilly (1763-1842) was his tutor, and -early instilled into the young Legouve a passion for literature, to -which the example of his father and of his grandfather, J. B. Legouve -(1729-1783), predisposed him. As early as 1829 he carried away a prize -of the French Academy for a poem on the discovery of printing; and in -1832 he published a curious little volume of verses, entitled _Les Morts -Bizarres_. In those early days Legouve brought out a succession of -novels, of which _Edith de Falsen_ enjoyed a considerable success. In -1847 he began the work by which he is best remembered, his contributions -to the development and education of the female mind, by lecturing at the -College of France on the moral history of women: these discourses were -collected into a volume in 1848, and enjoyed a great success. Legouve -wrote considerably for the stage, and in 1849 he collaborated with A. E. -Scribe in _Adrienne Lecouvreur_. In 1855 he brought out his tragedy of -_Medee_, the success of which had much to do with his election to the -French Academy. He succeeded to the fauteuil of J. A. Ancelot, and was -received by Flourens, who dwelt on the plays of Legouve as his principal -claim to consideration. As time passed on, however, he became less -prominent as a playwright, and more so as a lecturer and propagandist on -woman's rights and the advanced education of children, in both of which -directions he was a pioneer in French society. His _La Femme en France -au XIX^me siecle_ (1864), reissued, much enlarged, in 1878; his -_Messieurs les enfants_ (1868), his _Conferences Parisiennes_ (1872), -his _Nos filles et nos fils_ (1877), and his _Une Education de jeune -fille_ (1884) were works of wide-reaching influence in the moral order. -In 1886-1887 he published, in two volumes, his _Soixante ans de -souvenirs_, an excellent specimen of autobiography. He was raised in -1887 to the highest grade of the Legion of Honour, and held for many -years the post of inspector-general of female education in the national -schools. Legouve was always an advocate of physical training. He was -long accounted one of the best shots in France, and although, from a -conscientious objection, he never fought a duel, he made the art of -fencing his life-long hobby. After the death of Desire Nisard in 1888, -Legouve became the "father" of the French Academy. He died on the 14th -of March 1903. - - - - -LEGROS, ALPHONSE (1837- ), painter and etcher, was born at Dijon on the -8th of May 1837. His father was an accountant, and came from the -neighbouring village of Veronnes. Young Legros frequently visited the -farms of his relatives, and the peasants and landscapes of that part of -France are the subjects of many of his pictures and etchings. He was -sent to the art school at Dijon with a view to qualifying for a trade, -and was apprenticed to Maitre Nicolardo, house decorator and painter of -images. In 1851 Legros left for Paris to take another situation; but -passing through Lyons he worked for six months as journeyman -wall-painter under the decorator Beuchot, who was painting the chapel of -Cardinal Bonald in the cathedral. In Paris he studied with Cambon, -scene-painter and decorator of theatres, an experience which developed a -breadth of touch such as Stanfield and Cox picked up in similar -circumstances. At this time he attended the drawing-school of Lecoq de -Boisbaudran. In 1855 Legros attended the evening classes of the Ecole -des Beaux Arts, and perhaps gained there his love of drawing from the -antique, some of the results of which may be seen in the Print Room of -the British Museum. He sent two portraits to the Salon of 1857: one was -rejected, and formed part of the exhibition of protest organized by -Bonvin in his studio; the other, which was accepted, was a profile -portrait of his father. This work was presented to the museum at Tours -by the artist when his friend Cazin was curator. Champfleury saw the -work in the Salon, and sought out the artist to enlist him in the small -army of so-called "Realists," comprising (round the noisy glory of -Courbet) all those who raised protest against the academical trifles of -the degenerate Romantics. In 1859 Legros's "Angelus" was exhibited, the -first of those quiet church interiors, with kneeling figures of patient -women, by which he is best known as a painter. "Ex Voto," a work of -great power and insight, painted in 1861, now in the museum at Dijon, -was received by his friends with enthusiasm, but it only obtained a -mention at the Salon. Legros came to England in 1863, and in 1864 -married Miss Frances Rosetta Hodgson. At first he lived by his etching -and teaching. He then became teacher of etching at the South Kensington -School of Art, and in 1876 Slade Professor at University College, -London. He was naturalized as an Englishman in 1881, and remained at -University College seventeen years. His influence there was exerted to -encourage a certain distinction, severity and truth of character in the -work of his pupils, with a simple technique and a respect for the -traditions of the old masters, until then somewhat foreign to English -art. He would draw or paint a torso or a head before the students in an -hour or even less, so that the attention of the pupils might not be -dulled. As students had been known to take weeks and even months over a -single drawing, Legros ordered the positions of the casts in the Antique -School to be changed once every week. In the painting school he insisted -upon a good outline, preserved by a thin rub in of umber, and then the -work was to be finished in a single painting, "_premier coup_." -Experiments in all varieties of art work were practised; whenever the -professor saw a fine example in the museum, or when a process interested -him in a workshop, he never rested until he had mastered the technique -and his students were trying their 'prentice hands at it. As he had -casually picked up the art of etching by watching a comrade in Paris -working at a commercial engraving, so he began the making of medals -after a walk in the British Museum, studying the masterpieces of -Pisanello, and a visit to the Cabinet des Medailles in Paris. Legros -considered the traditional journey to Italy a very important part of -artistic training, and in order that his students should have the -benefit of such study he devoted a part of his salary to augment the -income available for a travelling studentship. His later works, after he -resigned his professorship in 1892, were more in the free and ardent -manner of his early days--imaginative landscapes, castles in Spain, and -farms in Burgundy, etchings like the series of "The Triumph of Death," -and the sculptured fountains for the gardens of the duke of Portland at -Welbeck. - - Pictures and drawings by Legros, besides those already mentioned, may - be seen in the following galleries and museums: "Amende Honorable," - "Dead Christ," bronzes, medals and twenty-two drawings, in the - Luxembourg, Paris; "Landscape," "Study of a Head," and portraits of - Browning, Burne-Jones, Cassel, Huxley and Marshall, at the Victoria - and Albert Museum, Kensington; "Femmes en priere," National Gallery of - British Art; "The Tinker," and six other works from the Ionides - Collection, bequeathed to South Kensington; "Christening," - "Barricade," "The Poor at Meat," two portraits and several drawings - and etchings, collection of Lord Carlisle; "Two Priests at the Organ," - "Landscape" and etchings, collection of Rev. Stopford Brooke; "Head of - a Priest," collection of Mr Vereker Hamilton; "The Weed-burner," some - sculpture and a large collection of etchings and drawings, Mr Guy - Knowles; "Psyche," collection of Mr L. W. Hodson; "Snow Scene," - collection of Mr G. F. Watts, R.A.; thirty-five drawings and etchings, - the Print Room, British Museum; "Jacob's Dream" and twelve drawings of - the antique, Cambridge; "Saint Jerome," two studies of heads and some - drawings, Manchester; "The Pilgrimage" and "Study made before the - Class," Liverpool Walker Art Gallery; "Study of Heads," Peel Park - Museum, Salford. - - See Dr Hans W. Singer, "Alphonse Legros," _Die graphischen Kunste_ - (1898); Leonce Benedite, "Alphonse Legros," _Revue de l'art_ (Paris, - 1900); Cosmo Monkhouse, "Professor Legros," _Magazine of Art_ (1882). - (C. H.*) - - - - -LEGUMINOSAE, the second largest family of seed-plants, containing about -430 genera with 7000 species. It belongs to the series Rosales of the -Dicotyledons, and contains three well-marked suborders, Papilionatae, -Mimosoideae and Caesalpinioideae. The plants are trees, shrubs or herbs -of very various habit. The British representatives, all of which belong -to the suborder Papilionatae, include a few shrubs, such as _Ulex_ -(gorse, furze), _Cytisus_ (broom) and _Genista_, but the majority, and -this applies to the suborder as a whole, are herbs, such as the clovers, -_Medicago_, _Melilotus_, &c., sometimes climbing by aid of tendrils -which are modified leaf-structures, as in _Lathyrus_ and the vetches -(_Vicia_). Scarlet runner (_Phaseolus multiflorus_) has a herbaceous -twining stem. Woody climbers (lianes) are represented by species of -_Bauhinia_ (Caesalpinioideae), which with their curiously flattened -twisted stems are characteristic features of tropical forests, and -_Entada scandens_ (Mimosoideae) also common in the tropics; these two -suborders, which are confined to the warmer parts of the earth, consist -chiefly of trees and shrubs such as _Acacia_ and _Mimosa_ belonging to -the Mimosoideae, and the Judas tree of southern Europe (_Cercis_) and -tamarind belonging to the Caesalpinioideae. The so-called acacia of -European gardens (_Robinia Pseudacacia_) and laburnum are examples of -the tree habit in the Papilionatae. Water plants are rare, but are -represented by _Aeschynomene_ and _Neptunia_, tropical genera. The roots -of many species bear nodular swellings (tubercles), the cells of which -contain bacterium-like bodies which have the power of fixing the -nitrogen of the atmosphere in such a form as to make it available for -plant food. Hence the value of these plants as a crop on poor soil or as -a member of a series of rotation of crops, since they enrich the soil by -the nitrogen liberated by the decay of their roots or of the whole plant -if ploughed in as green manure. - -[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Leaf of an Acacia (_A. heterophylla_) showing -flattened leaf-like petiole (phyllode), p, and bipinnate blade.] - -The leaves are alternate in arrangement and generally compound and -stipulate. A common form is illustrated by the trefoil or clovers, which -have three leaflets springing from a common point (digitately -trifoliate); pinnate leaves are also frequent as in laburnum and -_Robinia_. In Mimosoideae the leaves are generally bipinnate (figs. 1, -2, 3). Rarely are the leaves simple as in _Bauhinia_. Various departures -from the usual leaf-type occur in association with adaptations to -different functions or environments. In leaf-climbers, such as pea or -vetch, the end of the rachis and one or more pairs of leaflets are -changed into tendrils. In gorse the leaf is reduced to a slender -spine-like structure, though the leaves of the seedling have one to -three leaflets. In many Australian acacias the leaf surface in the adult -plant is much reduced, the petiole being at the same time flattened and -enlarged (fig. 1), frequently the leaf is reduced to a petiole flattened -in the vertical plane; by this means a minimum surface is exposed to the -intense sunlight. In the garden pea the stipules are large and -foliaceous, replacing the leaflets, which are tendrils; in _Robinia_ the -stipules are spiny and persist after leaf-fall. In some acacias (q.v.) -the thorns are hollow, and inhabited by ants as in _A. sphaerocephala_, -a central American plant (fig. 2) and others. In some species of -_Astragalus_, _Onobrychis_ and others, the leaf-stalk persists after the -fall of the leaf and becomes hard and spiny. - -[Illustration: From Strasburger's _Lehrbuch der Botanik_, by permission -of Gustav Fischer. - -FIG. 2.--_Acacia sphaerocephala._ - - I, Leaf and part of stem; D, hollow thorns in which the ants live; F, - food bodies at the apices of the lower pinnules; N, nectary on the - petiole. (Reduced.) - II, Single pinnule with food-body, F. (Somewhat enlarged.)] - - Leaf-movements occur in many of the genera. Such are the - sleep-movement in the clovers, runner bean (_Phaseolus_), _Robinia_ - and acacia, where the leaflets assume a vertical position at - nightfall. Spontaneous movements are exemplified in the - telegraph-plant (_Desmodium gyrans_), native of tropical Asia, where - the small lateral leaflets move up and down every few minutes. The - sensitive plant (_Mimosa pudica_) is an example of movement in - response to contact, the leaves assuming a sleep-position if touched. - The seat of the movement is the swollen base of the leaf-stalk, the - so-called pulvinus (fig. 3). - - [Illustration: FIG. 3.--Branch with two leaves of the Sensitive Plant - (_Mimosa pudica_), showing the petiole in its erect state, a, and in - its depressed state, b; also the leaflets closed, c, and the leaflets - expanded, d; p, pulvinus, the seat of the movement of the petiole.] - - The stem of the lianes shows some remarkable deviations from the - normal in form and structure. In Papilionatae anomalous secondary - thickening arises from the production of new cambium zones outside the - original ring (_Mucuna_, _Wistaria_) forming concentric rings or - transverse or broader strands; where, as in _Rhyncosia_ the successive - cambiums are active only at two opposite points, a flat ribbon-like - stem is produced. The climbing _Bauhinias_ (Caesalpinioideae) have a - flattened stem with basin-like undulations; in some growth in - thickness is normal, in others new cambium-zones are found - concentrically, while in others new and distinct growth-centres, each - with its cambium-zone, arise outside the primary zone. The climbing - Mimosoideae show no anomalous growth in thickness, but in some cases - the stem becomes strongly winged. Gum passages in the pith and - medullary rays occur, especially in species of acacia and - _Astragalus_; gum-arabic is an exudation from the branches of _Acacia - Senegal_, gum-tragacanth from _Astragalus gummifer_ and other species. - Logwood is the coloured heartwood of _Haematoxylon campechianum_; red - sandalwood of _Pterocarpus santalinus_. - -The flowers are arranged in racemose inflorescences, such as the simple -raceme (_Laburnum_, _Robinia_), which is condensed to a head in -_Trifolium_; in _Acacia_ and _Mimosa_ the flowers are densely crowded -(fig. 4). The flower is characterized by a hypogynous or slightly -perigynous arrangement of parts, the anterior position of the odd sepal, -the free petals, and the single median carpel with a terminal style, -simple stigma and two alternating rows of ovules on the ventral suture -of the ovary which faces the back of the flower. - -[Illustration: FIG. 4.--_Acacia obscura_, flowering branch about 1/3 -natural size. - - 1, Part of stem with leaf and its subtended inflorescence, about - natural size. - 2, Flower, much enlarged. - 3, Floral diagram of _Acacia latifolia_. (After Eichler.)] - - The arrangement of the petals and the number and cohesion of the - stamens vary in the three suborders. In Mimosoideae, the smallest of - the three, the flower is regular (fig. 4 [3]), and the sepals and - petals have a valvate aestivation, and are generally pentamerous, but - 3-6-merous flowers also occur. The sepals are more or less united into - a cup (fig. 4 [2]), and the petals sometimes cohere at the base. The - stamens vary widely in number and cohesion; in _Acacia_ (fig. 4) they - are indefinite and free, in the tribe _Ingeae_, indefinite and - monadelphous, in other tribes as many or twice as many as the petals. - Frequently, as in _Mimosa_, the long yellow stamens are the most - conspicuous feature of the flower. In Caesalpinioideae (fig. 5) the - flowers are zygomorphic in a median plane and generally pentamerous. - The sepals are free, or the two upper ones united as in tamarind, and - imbricate in aestivation, rarely as in the Judas-tree (fig. 5 [2]), - valvate. The corolla shows great variety in form; it is imbricate in - aestivation, the posterior petal being innermost. In _Cercis_ (fig. 5) - it clearly resembles the papilionaceous type; the odd petal stands - erect, the median pair are reflexed and wing-like, and the lower pair - enclose the essential organs. In _Cassia_ all five petals are subequal - and spreading; in _Amherstia_ the anterior pair are small or absent - while the three upper ones are large; in _Krameria_, the anterior pair - are represented by glandular scales, and in _Tamarindus_ are - suppressed. Apetalous flowers occur in _Copaifera_ and _Ceratonia_. - The stamens, generally ten in number, are free, as in _Cercis_ (fig. - 5) or more or less united as in _Amherstia_, where the posterior one - is free and the rest are united. In tamarind only three stamens are - fertile. The largest suborder, Papilionatae, has a flower zygomorphic - in the median plane (figs. 6, 7). The five sepals are generally united - (figs. 7, 9), and have an ascending imbricate arrangement (fig. 6); - the calyx is often two-lipped (fig. 9 [1]). The corolla has five - unequal petals with a descending imbricate arrangement; the upper and - largest, the standard (_vexillum_), stands erect, the lateral pair, - the wings or _alae_, are long-clawed, while the anterior pair cohere - to form the keel or _carina_, in which are enclosed the stamens and - pistil. The ten stamens are monadelphous as in gorse or broom (fig. - 9), or diadelphous as in sweet pea (fig. 8) (the posterior one being - free), or almost or quite free; these differences are associated with - differences in the methods of pollination. The ten stamens here, as in - the last suborder, though arranged in a single whorl, arise in two - series, the five opposite the sepals arising first. - - The carpel is sometimes stalked and often surrounded at the base by a - honey-secreting disk; the style is terminal and in the zygomorphic - flowers is often curved and somewhat flattened with a definite back - and front. Sometimes as in species of _Trifolium_ and _Medicago_ the - ovules are reduced to one. The pod or legume splits along both sutures - (fig. 10) into a pair of membranous, leathery or sometimes fleshy - valves, bearing the seeds on the ventral suture. Dehiscence is often - explosive, the valves separating elastically and twisting spirally, - thus shooting out the seeds, as in gorse, broom and others. In - _Desmodium_, _Entada_ and others the pod is constricted between each - seed, and breaks up into indehiscent one-seeded parts; it is then - called a lomentum (fig. 11); in _Astragalus_ it is divided by a - longitudinal septum. - - [Illustration: FIG. 5.--Flowering branch of Judas-tree (_Cercis - siliquastrum_) reduced. 1, Flower, natural size. 2, Floral diagram.] - - [Illustration: FIG. 6.--Diagram of Flower of Sweet Pea (_Lathyrus_), - showing five sepals, s, two are superior, one inferior, and two - lateral; five petals, p, one superior, two inferior, and two lateral; - ten stamens in two rows, a, and one carpel, c.] - - [Illustration: FIG. 7.--Flower of Pea (_Pisum sativum_), showing a - papilionaceous corolla, with one petal superior, st, the standard - (vexillum), two inferior, _car_, the keel (carina), and two lateral, - a, wings (alae). The calyx is marked c.] - - The pods show a very great variety in form and size. Thus in the - clovers they are a small fraction of an inch, while in the common - tropical climber _Entada scandens_ they are woody structures more than - a yard long and several inches wide. They are generally more or less - flattened, but sometimes round and rod-like, as in species of - _Cassia_, or are spirally coiled as in _Medicago_. Indehiscent - one-seeded pods occur in species of clover and in _Medicago_, also in - _Dalbergia_ and allied genera, where they are winged. In _Colutea_, - the bladder-senna of gardens, the pod forms an inflated bladder which - bursts under pressure; it often becomes detached and is blown some - distance before bursting. An arillar outgrowth is often developed on - the funicle, and is sometimes brightly coloured, rendering the seed - conspicuous and favouring dissemination by birds; in such cases the - seed-coat is hard. In other cases the hard seed-coat itself is - bright-coloured as in the scarlet seeds of _Abrus precatorius_, the - so-called weather-plant. Animals also act as the agents of - distribution in the case of fleshy edible pods containing seeds with a - hard smooth testa, which will pass uninjured through the body, as in - tamarind and the fruit of the carob-tree (_Ceratonia_). In the - ground-nut (_Arachis hypogaea_), _Trifolium subterraneum_ and others, - the flower-stalks grow downwards after fertilization of the ovules and - bury the fruit in the earth. In the suborders Mimosoideae and - Papilionatae the embryo fills the seed or a small quantity of - endosperm occurs, chiefly round the radicle. In Caesalpinioideae - endosperm is absent, or present forming a thin layer round the embryo - as in the tribe _Bauhinieae_, or copious and cartilaginous as in the - _Cassieae_. The embryo has generally flat leaf-like or fleshy - cotyledons with a short radicle. - -Insects play an important part in the pollination of the flowers. In the -two smaller suborders the stamens and stigma are freely exposed and the -conspicuous coloured stamens serve as well as the petals to attract -insects; in _Mimosa_ and _Acacia_ the flowers are crowded in conspicuous -heads or spikes. The relation of insects to the flower has been -carefully studied in the Papilionatae, chiefly in European species. -Where honey is present it is secreted on the inside of the base of the -stamens and accumulated in the base of the tube formed by the united -filaments round the ovary. It is accessible only to insects with long -probosces, such as bees. In these cases the posterior stamen is free, -allowing access to the honey. The flowers stand more or less -horizontally; the large erect white or coloured standard renders them -conspicuous, the wings form a platform on which the insect rests and the -keel encloses the stamens and pistil, protecting them from rain and the -attacks of unbidden pollen-eating insects. In his book on the -fertilization of flowers, Hermann Muller distinguishes four types of -papilionaceous flowers according to the way in which the pollen is -applied to the bee: - -[Illustration: FIG. 8.--Stamens and Pistil of Sweet Pea (_Lathyrus_). -The stamens are diadelphous, nine of them being united by their -filaments f, while the uppermost one (e) is free; st, stigma, c, calyx.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 9.--Broom (_Cytisus scoparius_). (2-7 slightly -reduced.) - - 1, Calyx. - 2, Standard. - 3, Wing. - 4, Keel. - 5, Monadelphous stamens and style. - 6, Pistil. - 7, Pod.] - - (1) Those in which the stamens and stigma return within the carina and - thus admit of repeated visits, such are the clovers, _Melilotus_ and - laburnum. (2) Explosive flowers where stamens and style are confined - within the keel under tension and the pressure of the insect causes - their sudden release and the scattering of the pollen, as in broom and - _Genista_; these contain no honey but are visited for the sake of the - pollen. (3) The piston-mechanism as in bird's-foot trefoil (_Lotus - corniculatus_), _Anthyllis_, _Ononis_ and _Lupinus_, where the - pressure of the bee upon the carina while probing for honey squeezes a - narrow ribbon of pollen through the opening at the tip. The pollen has - been shed into the cone-like tip of the carina, and the heads of the - five outer stamens form a piston beneath it, pushing it out at the tip - when pressure is exerted on the keel; a further pressure causes the - protrusion of the stigma, which is thus brought in contact with the - insect's belly. (4) The style bears a brush of hairs which sweeps - small quantities of pollen out of the tip of the carina, as in - _Lathyrus_, _Pisum_, _Vicia_ and _Phaseolus_. - -[Illustration: From Vines's _Students' Text-Book of Botany_, by -permission of Swan, Sonnenschein & Co. - -FIG. 10.--Dry dehiscent Fruit. The pod (legume) of the Pea. r, The -dorsal suture; b, the ventral; c, calyx; s, seeds.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 11.--Lomentum or lomentaceous legume of a species of -_Desmodium_. Each seed is contained in a separate cavity by the folding -inwards of the walls of the legume at equal intervals; the legume, when -ripe, separates transversely into single-seeded portions or mericarps.] - -Leguminosae is a cosmopolitan order, and often affords a characteristic -feature of the vegetation. Mimosoideae and Caesalpinioideae are richly -developed in the tropical rain forests, where Papilionatae are less -conspicuous and mostly herbaceous; in subtropical forests arborescent -forms of all three suborders occur. In the temperate regions, tree-forms -are rare--thus Mimosoideae are unrepresented in Europe; Caesalpinioideae -are represented by species of _Cercis_, _Gymnocladus_ and _Gleditschia_; -Papilionatae by _Robinia_; but herbaceous Papilionatae abound and -penetrate to the limit of growth of seed-plants in arctic and high -alpine regions. Shrubs and undershrubs, such as _Ulex_, _Genista_, -_Cytisus_ are a characteristic feature in Europe and the Mediterranean -area. Acacias are an important component of the evergreen -bush-vegetation of Australia, together with genera of the tribe -_Podalyrieae_ of Papilionatae (_Chorizema_, _Oxylobium_, &c.). -_Astragalus_, _Oxytropis_, _Hedysarum_, _Onobrychis_, and others are -characteristic of the steppe-formations of eastern Europe and western -Asia. - - The order is a most important one economically. The seeds, which are - rich in starch and proteids, form valuable foods, as in pea, the - various beans, vetch, lentil, ground-nut (_Arachis_) and others; seeds - of _Arachis_ and others yield oils; those of _Physostigma venenosum_, - the Calabar ordeal bean, contain a strong poison. Many are useful - fodder-plants, as the clovers (_Trifolium_) (q.v.), Medicago (e.g. _M. - sativa_, lucerne (q.v.), or alfalfa); _Melilotus_, _Vicia_, - _Onobrychis_ (_O. sativa_ is sainfoin, q.v.); species of _Trifolium_, - lupine and others are used as green manure. Many of the tropical trees - afford useful timber; _Crotalaria_, _Sesbania_, _Aeschynomene_ and - others yield fibre; species of _Acacia_ and _Astragalus_ yield gum; - _Copaifera_, _Hymenaea_ and others balsams and resins; dyes are - obtained from _Genista_ (yellow), _Indigofera_ (blue) and others; - _Haematoxylon campechianum_ is logwood; of medicinal value are species - of _Cassia_ (senna leaves) and _Astragalus_; _Tamarindus indica_ is - tamarind, _Glycyrrhiza glabra_ yields liquorice root. Well-known - ornamental trees and shrubs are _Cercis_ (_C. siliquastrum_ is the - Judas-tree), _Gleditschia_, _Genista_, _Cytisus_ (broom), _Colutea_ - (_C. arborescens_ is bladder-senna), _Robinia_ and _Acacia_; _Wisteria - sinensis_, a native of China, is a well-known climbing shrub; - _Phaseolus multiflorus_ is the scarlet runner; _Lathyrus_ (sweet and - everlasting peas), _Lupinus_, _Galega_ (goat's-rue) and others are - herbaceous garden plants. _Ceratonia Siliqua_ is the carob-tree of the - Mediterranean, the pods of which (algaroba or St John's bread) contain - a sweet juicy pulp and are largely used for feeding stock. - - The order is well represented in Britain. Thus _Genista tinctoria_ is - dyers' greenweed, yielding a yellow dye; _G. anglica_ is needle furze; - other shrubs are _Ulex_ (_U. europaeus_, gorse, furze or whin, _U. - nanus_, a dwarf species) and _Cytisus scoparius_, broom. Herbaceous - plants are _Ononis spinosa_ (rest-harrow), _Medicago_ (medick), - _Melilotus_ (melilot), _Trifolium_ (the clovers), _Anthyllis - Vulneraria_ (kidney-vetch), _Lotus corniculatus_ (bird's-foot - trefoil), _Astragalus_ (milk-vetch), _Vicia_ (vetch, tare) and - _Lathyrus_. - - - - -LEGYA, called by the Shans LAI-HKA, a state in the central division of -the southern Shan States of Burma, lying approximately between 20 deg. -15' and 21 deg. 30' N. and 97 deg. 50' and 98 deg. 30' E., with an area -of 1433 sq. m. The population was estimated at 30,000 in 1881. On the -downfall of King Thibaw civil war broke out, and reduced the population -to a few hundreds. In 1901 it had risen again to 25,811. About -seven-ninths of the land under cultivation consists of wet rice -cultivation. A certain amount of upland rice is also cultivated, and -cotton, sugar-cane and garden produce make up the rest; recently large -orange groves have been planted in the west of the state. Laihka, the -capital, is noted for its iron-work, both the iron and the implements -made being produced at Pang Long in the west of the state. This and -lacquer-ware are the chief exports, as also a considerable amount of -pottery. The imports are chiefly cotton piece-goods and salt. The -general character of the state is that of an undulating plateau, with a -broad plain near the capital and along the Nam Teng, which is the chief -river, with a general altitude of a little under 3000 ft. - - - - -LEH, the capital of Ladakh, India, situated 4 m. from the right bank of -the upper Indus 11,500 ft. above the sea, 243 m. from Srinagar and 482 -m. from Yarkand. It is the great emporium of the trade which passes -between India, Chinese Turkestan and Tibet. Here meet the routes leading -from the central Asian khanates, Kashgar, Yarkand, Khotan and Lhasa. The -two chief roads from Leh to India pass via Srinagar and through the Kulu -valley respectively. Under a commercial treaty with the maharaja of -Kashmir, a British officer is deputed to Leh to regulate and control the -traders and the traffic, conjointly with the governor appointed by the -Kashmir state. Lying upon the western border of Tibet, Leh has formed -the starting-point of many an adventurous journey into that country, the -best-known route being that called the Janglam, the great trade route to -Lhasa and China, passing by the Manasarowar lakes and the Mariam La pass -into the valley of the Tsanpo. Pop. (1901) 2079. A Moravian mission has -long been established here, with an efficient little hospital. There is -also a meteorological observatory, the most elevated in Asia, where the -average mean temperature ranges from 19.3 deg. in January to 64.4 deg. -in July. The annual rainfall is only 3 in. - - - - -LEHMANN, JOHANN GOTTLOB (?-1767), German mineralogist and geologist, was -educated at Berlin where he took his degree of doctor of medicine. He -became a teacher of mineralogy and mining in that city, and was -afterwards (1761) appointed professor of chemistry and director of the -imperial museum at St Petersburg. While distinguished for his chemical -and mineralogical researches, he may also be regarded as one of the -pioneers in geological investigation. Although he accepted the view of a -universal deluge, he gave in 1756 careful descriptions of the rocks and -stratified formations in Prussia, and introduced the now familiar terms -Zechstein and Rothes Todtliegendes (Rothliegende) for subdivisions of -the strata since grouped as Permian. His chief observations were -published in _Versuch einer Geschichte von Flotz-Geburgen, betreffend -deren Entstehung, Lage, darinne befindliche Metallen, Mineralien und -Fossilien_ (1756). He died at St Petersburg on the 22nd of January 1767. - - - - -LEHMANN, PETER MARTIN ORLA (1810-1870), Danish statesman, was born at -Copenhagen on the 15th of May 1810. Although of German extraction his -sympathies were with the Danish national party and he contributed to the -liberal journal the _Kjobenhavnsposten_ while he was a student of law at -the university of Copenhagen, and from 1839 to 1842 edited, with -Christian N. David, the _Fadrelandet_. In 1842 he was condemned to three -months' imprisonment for a radical speech. He took a considerable part -in the demonstrations of 1848, and was regarded as the leader of the -"Eiderdanen," that is, of the party which regarded the Eider as the -boundary of Denmark, and the duchy of Schleswig as an integral part of -the kingdom. He entered the cabinet of Count A. W. Moltke in March 1848, -and was employed on diplomatic missions to London and Berlin in -connexion with the Schleswig-Holstein question. He was for some months -in 1849 a prisoner of the Schleswig-Holsteiners at Gottorp. A member of -the Folkething from 1851 to 1853, of the Landsthing from 1854 to 1870, -and from 1856 to 1866 of the Reichsrat, he became minister of the -interior in 1861 in the cabinet of K. C. Hall, retiring with him in -1863. He died at Copenhagen on the 13th of September 1870. His book _On -the Causes of the Misfortunes of Denmark_ (1864) went through many -editions, and his posthumous works were published in 4 vols., 1872-1874. - - See Reinhardt, _Orla Lehmann og hans samtid_ (Copenhagen, 1871); J. - Clausen, _Af O. Lehmanns Papirer_ (Copenhagen, 1903). - - - - -LEHNIN, a village and health resort of Germany, in the Prussian province -of Brandenburg, situated between two lakes, which are connected by the -navigable Emster with the Havel, 12 m. S.W. from Potsdam, and with a -station on the main line Berlin-Magdeburg, and a branch line to -Grosskreuz. Pop. (1900) 2379. It contains the ruins of a Cistercian -monastery called Himmelpfort am See, founded in 1180 and dissolved in -1542; a handsome parish church, formerly the monasterial chapel, -restored in 1872-1877; and a fine statue of the emperor Frederick III. -Boat-building and saw-milling are the chief industries. - - See Heffter, _Geschichte des Klosters Lehnin_ (Brandenburg, 1851); and - Sello, _Lehnin, Beitrage zur Geschichte von Kloster und Amt_ (Berlin, - 1881). - -The LEHNIN PROPHECY (_Lehninsche Weissagung, Vaticinium Lehninense_), a -poem in 100 Leonine verses, reputed to be from the pen of a monk, -Hermann of Lehnin, who lived about the year 1300, made its appearance -about 1690 and caused much controversy. This so-called prophecy bewails -the extinction of the Ascanian rulers of Brandenburg and the rise of the -Hohenzollern dynasty to power; each successive ruler of the latter house -down to the eleventh generation is described, the date of the extinction -of the race fixed, and the restoration of the Roman Catholic Church -foretold. But as the narrative is only exact in details down to the -death of Frederick William, the great elector, in 1688, and as all -prophecies of the period subsequent to that time were falsified by -events, the poem came to be regarded as a compilation and the date of -its authorship placed about the year 1684. Andreas Fromm (d. 1685), -rector of St Peter's church in Berlin, an ardent Lutheran, is commonly -believed to have been the forger. This cleric, resisting certain -measures taken by the great elector against the Lutheran pastors, fled -the country in 1668 to avoid prosecution, and having been received at -Prague into the Roman Catholic Church was appointed canon of Leitmeritz -in Bohemia, where he died. During the earlier part of the 19th century -the poem was eagerly scanned by the enemies of the Hohenzollerns, some -of whom believed that the race would end with King Frederick William -III., the representative of the eleventh generation of the family. - - The "Vaticinium" was first published in Lilienthal's _Gelehrtes - Preussen_ (Konigsberg, 1723), and has been many times reprinted. See - Boost, _Die Weissagungen des Monchs Hermann zu Lehnin_ (Augsburg, - 1848); Hilgenfeld, _Die Lehninische Weissagung_ (Leipzig, 1875); - Sabell, _Literatur der sogenannten Lehninschen Weissagung_ (Heilbronn, - 1879) and Kampers, _Die Lehninsche Weissagung uber das Haus - Hohenzollern_ (Munster, 1897). - - - - -LEHRS, KARL (1802-1878), German classical scholar, was born at -Konigsberg on the 2nd of June 1802. He was of Jewish extraction, but in -1822 he embraced Christianity. In 1845 he was appointed professor of -ancient Greek philology in Konigsberg University, which post he held -till his death on the 9th of June 1878. His most important works are: -_De Aristarchi Studiis Homericis_ (1833, 2nd ed. by A. Ludwich, 1882), -which laid a new foundation for Homeric exegesis (on the Aristarchean -lines of explaining Homer from the text itself) and textual criticism; -_Quaestiones Epicae_ (1837); _De Asclepiade Myrleano_ (1845); _Herodiani -Scripta Tria emendatiora_ (1848); _Populare Aufsatze aus dem Altertum_ -(1856, 2nd much enlarged ed., 1875), his best-known work; _Horatius -Flaccus_ (1869), in which, on aesthetic grounds, he rejected many of the -odes as spurious; _Die Pindarscholien_ (1873). Lehrs was a man of very -decided opinions, "one of the most masculine of German scholars"; his -enthusiasm for everything Greek led him to adhere firmly to the -undivided authorship of the _Iliad_; comparative mythology and the -symbolical interpretation of myths he regarded as a species of -sacrilege. - - See the exhaustive article by L. Friedlander in _Allgemeine Deutsche - Biographie_, xviii.; E. Kammer in C. Bursian's _Jahresbericht_ (1879); - A. Jung, _Zur Erinnerung an Karl Lehrs_ (progr. Meseritz, 1880); A. - Ludwich edited Lehrs' select correspondence (1894) and his _Kleine - Schriften_ (1902). - - - - -LEIBNITZ (LEIBNIZ), GOTTFRIED WILHELM (1646-1716), German philosopher, -mathematician and man of affairs, was born on the 1st of July 1646 at -Leipzig, where his father was professor of moral philosophy. Though the -name Leibniz, Leibnitz or Lubeniecz was originally Slavonic, his -ancestors were German, and for three generations had been in the -employment of the Saxon government. Young Leibnitz was sent to the -Nicolai school at Leipzig, but, from 1652 when his father died, seems to -have been for the most part his own teacher. From his father he had -acquired a love of historical study. The German books at his command -were soon read through, and with the help of two Latin books--the -_Thesaurus Chronologicus_ of Calvisius and an illustrated edition of -Livy--he learned Latin at the age of eight. His father's library was now -thrown open to him, to his great joy, with the permission, "Tolle, -lege." Before he was twelve he could read Latin easily and had begun -Greek; he had also remarkable facility in writing Latin verse. He next -turned to the study of logic, attempting already to reform its -doctrines, and zealously reading the scholastics and some of the -Protestant theologians. - -At the age of fifteen, he entered the university of Leipzig as a law -student. His first two years were devoted to philosophy under Jakob -Thomasius, a Neo-Aristotelian, who is looked upon as having founded the -scientific study of the history of philosophy in Germany. It was at this -time probably that he first made acquaintance with the modern thinkers -who had already revolutionized science and philosophy, Francis Bacon, -Cardan and Campanella, Kepler, Galileo and Descartes; and he began to -consider the difference between the old and new ways of regarding -nature. He resolved to study mathematics. It was not, however, till the -summer of 1663, which he spent at Jena under E. Weigel, that he obtained -the instructions of a mathematician of repute; nor was the deeper study -of mathematics entered upon till his visit to Paris and acquaintance -with Huygens many years later. - -The next three years he devoted to legal studies, and in 1666 applied -for the degree of doctor of law, with a view to obtaining the post of -assessor. Being refused on the ground of his youth he left his native -town for ever. The doctor's degree refused him there was at once -(November 5, 1666) conferred on him at Altdorf--the university town of -the free city of Nuremberg--where his brilliant dissertation procured -him the immediate offer of a professor's chair. This, however, he -declined, having, as he said, "very different things in view." - -Leibnitz, not yet twenty-one years of age, was already the author of -several remarkable essays. In his bachelor's dissertation _De principio -individui_ (1663), he defended the nominalistic doctrine that -individuality is constituted by the whole entity or essence of a thing; -his arithmetical tract _De complexionibus_, published in an extended -form under the title _De arte combinatoria_ (1666), is an essay towards -his life-long project of a re-formed symbolism and method of thought; -and besides these there are our juridical essays, including the _Nova -methodus docendi discendique juris_, written in the intervals of his -journey from Leipzig to Altdorf. This last essay is remarkable, not only -for the reconstruction it attempted of the _Corpus Juris_, but as -containing the first clear recognition of the importance of the -historical method in law. Nuremberg was a centre of the Rosicrucians, -and Leibnitz, busying himself with writings of the alchemists, soon -gained such a knowledge of their tenets that he was supposed to be one -of the secret brotherhood, and was even elected their secretary. A more -important result of his visit to Nuremberg was his acquaintance with -Johann Christian von Boyneburg (1622-1672), formerly first minister to -the elector of Mainz, and one of the most distinguished German statesmen -of the day. By his advice Leibnitz printed his _Nova methodus_ in 1667, -dedicated it to the elector, and, going to Mainz, presented it to him in -person. It was thus that Leibnitz entered the service of the elector of -Mainz, at first as an assistant in the revision of the statute-book, -afterwards on more important work. - -The policy of the elector, which the pen of Leibnitz was now called upon -to promote, was to maintain the security of the German empire, -threatened on the west by the aggressive power of France, on the east by -Turkey and Russia. Thus when in 1669 the crown of Poland became vacant, -it fell to Leibnitz to support the claims of the German candidate, which -he did in his first political writing, _Specimen demonstrationum -politicarum pro rege Polonorum eligendo_, attempting, under the guise of -a Catholic Polish nobleman, to show by mathematical demonstration that -it was necessary in the interest of Poland that it should have the count -palatine of Neuburg as its king. But neither the diplomatic skill of -Boyneburg, who had been sent as plenipotentiary to the election at -Warsaw, nor the arguments of Leibnitz were successful, and a Polish -prince was elected to fill the vacant throne. - -A greater danger threatened Germany in the aggressions of Louis XIV. -(see FRANCE: _History_). Though Holland was in most immediate danger, -the seizure of Lorraine in 1670 showed that Germany too was threatened. -It was in this year that Leibnitz wrote his _Thoughts on Public -Safety_,[1] in which he urged the formation of a new "Rheinbund" for the -protection of Germany, and contended that the states of Europe should -employ their power, not against one another, but in the conquest of the -non-Christian world, in which Egypt, "one of the best situated lands in -the world," would fall to France. The plan thus proposed of averting the -threatened attack on Germany by a French expedition to Egypt was -discussed with Boyneburg, and obtained the approval of the elector. -French relations with Turkey were at the time so strained as to make a -breach imminent, and at the close of 1671, about the time when the war -with Holland broke out, Louis himself was approached by a letter from -Boyneburg and a short memorial from the pen of Leibnitz, who attempted -to show that Holland itself, as a mercantile power trading with the -East, might be best attacked through Egypt, while nothing would be -easier for France or would more largely increase her power than the -conquest of Egypt. On February 12, 1672, a request came from the French -secretary of state, Simon Arnauld de Pomponne (1618-1699), that Leibnitz -should go to Paris. Louis seems still to have kept the matter in view, -but never granted Leibnitz the personal interview he desired, while -Pomponne wrote, "I have nothing against the plan of a holy war, but such -plans, you know, since the days of St Louis, have ceased to be the -fashion." Not yet discouraged, Leibnitz wrote a full account of his -project for the king,[2] and a summary of the same[3] evidently intended -for Boyneburg. But Boyneburg died in December 1672, before the latter -could be sent to him. Nor did the former ever reach its destination. The -French quarrel with the Porte was made up, and the plan of a French -expedition to Egypt disappeared from practical politics till the time of -Napoleon. The history of this scheme, and the reason of Leibnitz's -journey to Paris, long remained hidden in the archives of the Hanoverian -library. It was on his taking possession of Hanover in 1803 that -Napoleon learned, through the _Consilium Aegyptiacum_, that the idea of -a French conquest of Egypt had been first put forward by a German -philosopher. In the same year there was published in London an account -of the _Justa dissertatio_[4] of which the British Government had -procured a copy in 1799. But it was only with the appearance of the -edition of Leibnitz's works begun by Onno Klopp in 1864 that the full -history of the scheme was made known. - -Leibnitz had other than political ends in view in his visit to France. -It was as the centre of literature and science that Paris chiefly -attracted him. Political duties never made him lose sight of his -philosophical and scientific interests. At Mainz he was still busied -with the question of the relation between the old and new methods in -philosophy. In a letter to Jakob Thomasius (1669) he contends that the -mechanical explanation of nature by magnitude, figure and motion alone -is not inconsistent with the doctrines of Aristotle's _Physics_, in -which he finds more truth than in the _Meditations_ of Descartes. Yet -these qualities of bodies, he argues in 1668 (in an essay published -without his knowledge under the title _Confessio naturae contra -atheistas_), require an incorporeal principle, or God, for their -ultimate explanation. He also wrote at this time a defence of the -doctrine of the Trinity against Wissowatius (1669), and an essay on -philosophic style, introductory to an edition of the _Anti-barbarus_ of -Nizolius (1670). Clearness and distinctness alone, he says, are what -makes a philosophic style, and no language is better suited for this -popular exposition than the German. In 1671 he issued a _Hypothesis -physica nova_, in which, agreeing with Descartes that corporeal -phenomena should be explained from motion, he carried out the mechanical -explanation of nature by contending that the original of this motion is -a fine aether, similar to light, or rather constituting it, which, -penetrating all bodies in the direction of the earth's axis, produces -the phenomena of gravity, elasticity, &c. The first part of the essay, -on concrete motion, was dedicated to the Royal Society of London, the -second, on abstract motion, to the French Academy. - -At Paris Leibnitz met with Arnauld, Malebranche and, more important -still, with Christian Huygens. This was pre-eminently the period of his -mathematical and physical activity. Before leaving Mainz he was able to -announce[5] an imposing list of discoveries, and plans for discoveries, -arrived at by means of his new logical art, in natural philosophy, -mathematics, mechanics, optics, hydrostatics, pneumatics and nautical -science, not to speak of new ideas in law, theology and politics. Chief -among these discoveries was that of a calculating machine for performing -more complicated operations than that of Pascal--multiplying, dividing -and extracting roots, as well as adding and subtracting. This machine -was exhibited to the Academy of Paris and to the Royal Society of -London, and Leibnitz was elected a fellow of the latter society in April -1673.[6] In January of this year he had gone to London as an attache on -a political mission from the elector of Mainz, returning in March to -Paris, and while in London had become personally acquainted with -Oldenburg, the secretary of the Royal Society, with whom he had already -corresponded, with Boyle the chemist and Pell the mathematician. It is -from this period that we must date the impulse that directed him anew to -mathematics. By Pell he had been referred to Mercator's -_Logarithmotechnica_ as already containing some numerical observations -which Leibnitz had thought original on his own part; and, on his return -to Paris, he devoted himself to the study of higher geometry under -Huygens, entering almost at once upon the series of investigations which -culminated in his discovery of the differential and integral calculus -(see INFINITESIMAL CALCULUS). - -Shortly after his return to Paris in 1673, Leibnitz ceased to be in the -Mainz service any more than in name, but in the same year entered the -employment of Duke John Frederick of Brunswick-Luneburg, with whom he -had corresponded for some time. In 1676 he removed at the duke's request -to Hanover, travelling thither by way of London and Amsterdam. At -Amsterdam he saw and conversed with Spinoza, and carried away with him -extracts from the latter's unpublished _Ethica_. - -For the next forty years, and under three successive princes, Leibnitz -was in the service of the Brunswick family, and his headquarters were at -Hanover, where he had charge of the ducal library. Leibnitz thus passed -into a political atmosphere formed by the dynastic aims of the typical -German state (see HANOVER; BRUNSWICK). He supported the claim of Hanover -to appoint an ambassador at the congress of Nimeguen (1676)[7] to defend -the establishment of primogeniture in the Luneburg branch of the -Brunswick family; and, when the proposal was made to raise the duke of -Hanover to the electorate, he had to show that this did not interfere -with the rights of the duke of Wurttemberg. In 1692 the duke of Hanover -was made elector. Before, and with a view to this, Leibnitz had been -employed by him to write the history of the Brunswick-Luneburg family, -and, to collect material for his history, had undertaken a journey -through Germany and Italy in 1687-1690, visiting and examining the -records in Marburg, Frankfort-on-the-Main, Munich, Vienna (where he -remained nine months), Venice, Modena and Rome. At Rome he was offered -the custodianship of the Vatican library on condition of his joining the -Catholic Church. - -About this time, too, his thoughts and energies were partly taken up -with the scheme for the reunion of the Catholic and Protestant Churches. -At Mainz he had joined in an attempt made by the elector and Boyneburg -to bring about a reconciliation, and now, chiefly through the energy and -skill of the Catholic Royas de Spinola, and from the spirit of -moderation which prevailed among the theologians he met with at Hanover -in 1683, it almost seemed as if some agreement might be arrived at. In -1686 Leibnitz wrote his _Systema theologicum_,[8] in which he strove to -find common ground for Protestants and Catholics in the details of their -creeds. But the English revolution of 1688 interfered with the scheme in -Hanover, and it was soon found that the religious difficulties were -greater than had at one time appeared. In the letters to Leibnitz from -Bossuet, the landgrave of Hessen-Rheinfels, and Madame de Brinon, the -aim is obviously to make converts to Catholicism, not to arrive at a -compromise with Protestantism, and when it was found that Leibnitz -refused to be converted the correspondence ceased. A further scheme of -church union in which Leibnitz was engaged, that between the Reformed -and Lutheran Churches, met with no better success. - -Returning from Italy in 1690, Leibnitz was appointed librarian at -Wolfenbuttel by Duke Anton of Brunswick-Wolfenbuttel. Some years -afterwards began his connexion with Berlin through his friendship with -the electress Sophie Charlotte of Brandenburg and her mother the -princess Sophie of Hanover. He was invited to Berlin in 1700, and on the -11th July of that year the academy (Akademie der Wissenschaften) he had -planned was founded, with himself as its president for life. In the same -year he was made a privy councillor of justice by the elector of -Brandenburg. Four years before he had received a like honour from the -elector of Hanover, and twelve years afterwards the same distinction was -conferred upon him by Peter the Great, to whom he gave a plan for an -academy at St Petersburg, carried out after the czar's death. After the -death of his royal pupil in 1705 his visits to Berlin became less -frequent and less welcome, and in 1711 he was there for the last time. -In the following year he undertook his fifth and last journey to Vienna, -where he stayed till 1714. An attempt to found an academy of science -there was defeated by the opposition of the Jesuits, but he now attained -the honour he had coveted of an imperial privy councillorship (1712), -and, either at this time or on a previous occasion (1709), was made a -baron of the empire (_Reichsfreiherr_). Leibnitz returned to Hanover in -September 1714, but found the elector George Louis had already gone to -assume the crown of England. Leibnitz would gladly have followed him to -London, but was bidden to remain at Hanover and finish his history of -Brunswick. - -During the last thirty years Leibnitz had been busy with many matters. -Mathematics, natural science,[9] philosophy, theology, history -jurisprudence, politics (particularly the French wars with Germany, and -the question of the Spanish succession), economics and philology, all -gained a share of his attention; almost all of them he enriched with -original observations. - -His genealogical researches in Italy--through which he established the -common origin of the families of Brunswick and Este--were not only -preceded by an immense collection of historical sources, but enabled him -to publish materials for a code of international law.[10] The history of -Brunswick itself was the last work of his life, and had covered the -period from 768 to 1005 when death ended his labours. But the -government, in whose service and at whose order the work had been -carried out, left it in the archives of the Hanover library till it was -published by Pertz in 1843. - -It was in the years between 1690 and 1716 that Leibnitz's chief -philosophical works were composed, and during the first ten of these -years the accounts of his system were, for the most part, preliminary -sketches. Indeed, he never gave a full and systematic account of his -doctrines. His views have to be gathered from letters to friends, from -occasional articles in the _Acta Eruditorum_, the _Journal des Savants_, -and other journals, and from one or two more extensive works. It is -evident, however, that philosophy had not been entirely neglected in the -years in which his pen was almost solely occupied with other matters. A -letter to the duke of Brunswick, and another to Arnauld, in 1671, show -that he had already reached his new notion of substance; but it is in -the correspondence with Antoine Arnauld, between 1686 and 1690, that his -fundamental ideas and the reasons for them are for the first time made -clear. The appearance of Locke's _Essay_ in 1690 induced him (1696) to -note down his objections to it, and his own ideas on the same subjects. -In 1703-1704 these were worked out in detail and ready for publication, -when the death of the author whom they criticized prevented their -appearance (first published by Raspe, 1765). In 1710 appeared the only -complete and systematic philosophical work of his lifetime, _Essais de -Theodicee sur la bonte de Dieu, la liberte de l'homme, et l'origine du -mal_, originally undertaken at the request of the late queen of Prussia, -who had wished a reply to Bayle's opposition of faith and reason. In -1714 he wrote, for Prince Eugene of Savoy, a sketch of his system under -the title of _La Monadologie_, and in the same year appeared his -_Principes de la nature et de la grace_. The last few years of his life -were perhaps more occupied with correspondence than any others, and, in -a philosophical regard, were chiefly notable for the letters, which, -through the desire of the new queen of England, he interchanged with -Clarke, _sur Dieu, l'ame, l'espace, la duree_. - -Leibnitz died on the 14th of November 1716, his closing years enfeebled -by disease, harassed by controversy, embittered by neglect; but to the -last he preserved the indomitable energy and power of work to which is -largely due the position he holds as, more perhaps than any one in -modern times, a man of almost universal attainments and almost universal -genius. Neither at Berlin, in the academy which he had founded, nor in -London, whither his sovereign had gone to rule, was any notice taken of -his death. At Hanover, Eckhart, his secretary, was his only mourner; "he -was buried," says an eyewitness, "more like a robber than what he really -was, the ornament of his country."[11] Only in the French Academy was -the loss recognized, and a worthy eulogium devoted to his memory -(November 13, 1717). The 200th anniversary of his birth was celebrated -in 1846, and in the same year were opened the Koniglichsachsische -Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften and the Kaiserliche Akademie der -Wissenschaften in Leipzig and Vienna respectively. In 1883, a statue was -erected to him at Leipzig. - -Leibnitz possessed a wonderful power of rapid and continuous work. Even -in travelling his time was employed in solving mathematical problems. He -is described as moderate in his habits, quick of temper but easily -appeased, charitable in his judgments of others, and tolerant of -differences of opinion, though impatient of contradiction on small -matters. He is also said to have been fond of money to the point of -covetousness; he was certainly desirous of honour, and felt keenly the -neglect in which his last years were passed. - - _Philosophy._--The central point in the philosophy of Leibnitz was - only arrived at after many advances and corrections in his opinions. - This point is his new doctrine of substance (p. 702),[12] and it is - through it that unity is given to the succession of occasional - writings, scattered over fifty years, in which he explained his views. - More inclined to agree than to differ with what he read (p. 425), and - borrowing from almost every philosophical system, his own standpoint - is yet most closely related to that of Descartes, partly as - consequence, partly by way of opposition. Cartesianism, Leibnitz often - asserted, is the ante-room of truth, but the ante-room only. - Descartes's separation of things into two heterogeneous substances - only connected by the omnipotence of God, and the more logical - absorption of both by Spinoza into the one divine substance, followed - from an erroneous conception of what the true nature of substance is. - Substance, the ultimate reality, can only be conceived as force. Hence - Leibnitz's metaphysical view of the monads as simple, percipient, - self-active beings, the constituent elements of all things, his - physical doctrines of the reality and constancy of force at the same - time that space, matter and motion are merely phenomenal, and his - psychological conception of the continuity and development of - consciousness. In the closest connexion with the same stand his - logical principles of consistency and sufficient reason, and the - method he developed from them, his ethical end of perfection, and his - crowning theological conception of the universe as the best possible - world, and of God both as its efficient cause and its final harmony. - - The ultimate elements of the universe are, according to Leibnitz, - individual centres of force or monads. Why they should be individual, - and not manifestations of one world-force, he never clearly - proves.[13] His doctrine of individuality seems to have been arrived - at, not by strict deduction from the nature of force, but rather from - the empirical observation that it is by the manifestation of its - activity that the separate existence of the individual becomes - evident; for his system individuality is as fundamental as activity. - "The monads," he says, "are the very atoms of nature--in a word, the - elements of things," but, as centres of force, they have neither - parts, extension nor figure (p. 705). Hence their distinction from the - atoms of Democritus and the materialists. They are metaphysical points - or rather spiritual beings whose very nature it is to act. As the bent - bow springs back of itself, so the monads naturally pass and are - always passing into action without any aid but the absence of - opposition (p. 122). Nor do they, like the atoms, act upon one another - (p. 680); the action of each excludes that of every other. The - activity of each is the result of its own past state, the determinator - of its own future (pp. 706, 722). "The monads have no windows by which - anything may go in or out" (p. 705). - - Further, since all substances are of the nature of force, it follows - that--"in imitation of the notion which we have of souls"--they must - contain something analogous to feeling and appetite. It is the nature - of the monad to represent the many in one, and this is perception, by - which external events are mirrored internally (p. 438). Through their - own activity the monads mirror the universe (p. 725), but each in its - own way and from its own point of view, that is, with a more or less - perfect perception (p. 127); for the Cartesians were wrong in ignoring - the infinite grades of perception, and identifying it with the reflex - cognizance of it which may be called apperception. Every monad is thus - a microcosm, the universe in little,[14] and according to the degree - of its activity is the distinctness of its representation of the - universe (p. 709). Thus Leibnitz, borrowing the Aristotelian term, - calls the monads _entelechies_, because they have a certain perfection - ([Greek: to enteles]) and sufficiency ([Greek: autarkeia]) which make - them sources of their internal actions and, so to speak, incorporeal - automata (p. 706). That the monads are not pure entelechies is shown - by the differences amongst them. Excluding all external limitation, - they are yet limited by their own nature. All created monads contain a - passive element or _materia prima_ (pp. 440, 687, 725), in virtue of - which their perceptions are more or less confused. As the activity of - the monad consists in perception, this is inhibited by the passive - principle, so that there arises in the monad an appetite or tendency - to overcome the inhibition and become more perceptive, whence follows - the change from one perception to another (pp. 706, 714). By the - proportion of activity to passivity in it one monad is differentiated - from another. The greater the amount of activity or of distinct - perceptions the more perfect is the monad; the stronger the element of - passivity, the more confused its perceptions, the less perfect is it - (p. 709). The soul would be a divinity had it nothing but distinct - perceptions (p. 520). - - The monad is never without a perception; but, when it has a number of - little perceptions with no means of distinction, a state similar to - that of being stunned ensues, the _monade nue_ being perpetually in - this state (p. 707). Between this and the most distinct perception - there is room for an infinite diversity of nature among the monads - themselves. Thus no one monad is exactly the same as another; for, - were it possible that there should be two identical, there would be no - sufficient reason why God, who brings them into actual existence, - should put one of them at one definite time and place, the other at a - different time and place. This is Leibnitz's principle of the - _identity of indiscernibles_ (pp. 277, 755); by it his early problem - as to the principle of individuation is solved by the distinction - between genus and individual being abolished, and every individual - made _sui generis_. The principle thus established is formulated in - Leibnitz's law of continuity, founded, he says, on the doctrine of the - mathematical infinite, essential to geometry, and of importance in - physics (pp. 104, 105), in accordance with which there is neither - vacuum nor break in nature, but "everything takes place by degrees" - (p. 392), the different species of creatures rising by insensible - steps from the lowest to the most perfect form (p. 312). - - As in every monad each succeeding state is the consequence of the - preceding, and as it is of the nature of every monad to mirror or - represent the universe, it follows (p. 774) that the perceptive - content of each monad is in "accord" or correspondence with that of - every other (cf. p. 127), though this content is represented with - infinitely varying degrees of perfection. This is Leibnitz's famous - doctrine of pre-established harmony, in virtue of which the infinitely - numerous independent substances of which the world is composed are - related to each other and form one universe. It is essential to notice - that it proceeds from the very nature of the monads as percipient, - self-acting beings, and not from an arbitrary determination of the - Deity. - - From this harmony of self-determining percipient units Leibnitz has to - explain the world of nature and mind. As everything that really exists - is of the nature of spiritual or metaphysical points (p. 126), it - follows that space and matter in the ordinary sense can only have a - phenomenal existence (p. 745), being dependent not on the nature of - the monads themselves but on the way in which they are perceived. - Considering that several things exist at the same time and in a - certain order of co-existence, and mistaking this constant relation - for something that exists outside of them, the mind forms the confused - perception of space (p. 768). But space and time are merely relative, - the former an order of coexistences, the latter of successions (pp. - 682, 752). Hence not only the secondary qualities of Descartes and - Locke, but their so-called primary qualities as well, are merely - phenomenal (p. 445). The monads are really without position or - distance from each other; but, as we perceive several simple - substances, there is for us an aggregate or extended mass. Body is - thus active extension (pp. 110, 111). The unity of the aggregate - depends entirely on our perceiving the monads composing it together. - There is no such thing as an absolute vacuum or empty space, any more - than there are indivisible material units or atoms from which all - things are built up (pp. 126, 186, 277). Body, corporeal mass, or, as - Leibnitz calls it, to distinguish it from the _materia prima_ of which - every monad partakes (p. 440), _materia secunda_, is thus only a - "phenomenon bene fundatum" (p. 436). It is not a _substantia_ but - _substantiae_ or _substantiatum_ (p. 745). While this, however, is the - only view consistent with Leibnitz's fundamental principles, and is - often clearly stated by himself, he also speaks at other times of the - _materia secunda_ as itself a composite substance, and of a real - metaphysical bond between soul and body. But these expressions occur - chiefly in the letters to des Bosses, in which Leibnitz is trying to - reconcile his views with the doctrines of the Roman Catholic Church, - especially with that of the real presence in the Eucharist, and are - usually referred to by him as doctrines of faith or as hypothetical - (see especially p. 680). The true vinculum _substantiale_ is not the - _materia secunda_, which a consistent development of Leibnitz's - principles can only regard as phenomenal, but the _materia prima_, - through which the monads are individualized and distinguished and - their connexion rendered possible. And Leibnitz seems to recognize - that the opposite assumption is inconsistent with his cardinal - metaphysical view of the monads as the only realities. - - From Leibnitz's doctrine of force as the ultimate reality it follows - that his view of nature must be throughout dynamical. And though his - project of a _dynamic_, or theory of natural philosophy, was never - carried out, the outlines of his own theory and his criticism of the - mechanical physics of Descartes are known to us. The whole distinction - between the two lies in the difference between the mechanical and the - dynamical views of nature. Descartes started from the reality of - extension as constituting the nature of material substance, and found - in magnitude, figure and motion the explanation of the material - universe. Leibnitz, too, admitted the mechanical view of nature as - giving the laws of corporeal phenomena (p. 438), applying also to - everything that takes place in animal organisms,[15] even the human - body (p. 777). But, as phenomenal, these laws must find their - explanation in metaphysics, and thus in final causes (p. 155). All - things, he says (in his _Specimen Dynamicum_), can be explained either - by efficient or by final causes. But the latter method is not - appropriate to individual occurrences,[16] though it must be applied - when the laws of mechanism themselves need explanation (p. 678). For - Descartes's doctrine of the constancy of the quantity of motion (i.e. - momentum) in the world Leibnitz substitutes the principle of the - conservation of _vis viva_, and contends that the Cartesian position - that motion is measured by velocity should be superseded by the law - that moving force (_vis motrix_) is measured by the square of the - velocity (pp. 192, 193). The long controversy raised by this criticism - was really caused by the ambiguity of the terms employed. The - principles held by Descartes and Leibnitz were both correct, though - different, and their conflict only apparent. Descartes's principle is - now enunciated as the conservation of momentum, that of Leibnitz as - the conservation of energy. Leibnitz further criticizes the Cartesian - view that the mind can alter the direction of motion though it cannot - initiate it, and contends that the quantity of "_vis directiva_," - estimated between the same parts, is constant (p. 108)--a position - developed in his statical theorem for determining geometrically the - resultant of any number of forces acting at a point. - - Like the monad, body, which is its analogue, has a passive and an - active element. The former is the capacity of resistance, and includes - impenetrability and inertia; the latter is active force (pp. 250, - 687). Bodies, too, like the monads, are self-contained activities, - receiving no impulse from without--it is only by an accommodation to - ordinary language that we speak of them as doing so--but moving - themselves in harmony with each other (p. 250). - - The psychology of Leibnitz is chiefly developed in the _Nouveaux - essais sur l'entendement humain_, written in answer to Locke's famous - _Essay_, and criticizing it chapter by chapter. In these essays he - worked out a theory of the origin and development of knowledge in - harmony with his metaphysical views, and thus without Locke's implied - assumption of the mutual influence of soul and body. When one monad in - an aggregate perceives the others so clearly that they are in - comparison with it bare monads (_monades nues_), it is said to be the - ruling monad of the aggregate, not because it actually does exert an - influence over the rest, but because, being in close correspondence - with them, and yet having so much clearer perception, it seems to do - so (p. 683). This monad is called the entelechy or soul of the - aggregate or body, and as such mirrors the aggregate in the first - place and the universe through it (p. 710). Each soul or entelechy is - surrounded by an infinite number of monads forming its body (p. 714); - soul and body together make a living being, and, as their laws are in - perfect harmony--a harmony established between the whole realm of - final causes and that of efficient causes (p. 714)--we have the same - result as if one influenced the other. This is further explained by - Leibnitz in his well-known illustration of the different ways in which - two clocks may keep exactly the same time. The machinery of the one - may actually move that of the other, or whenever one moves the - mechanician may make a similar alteration in the other, or they may - have been so perfectly constructed at first as to continue to - correspond at every instant without any further influence (pp. 133, - 134). The first way represents the common (Locke's) theory of mutual - influence, the second the method of the occasionalists, the third that - of pre-established harmony. Thus the body does not act on the soul in - the production of cognition, nor the soul on the body in the - production of motion. The body acts just as if it had no soul, the - soul as if it had no body (p. 711). Instead, therefore, of all - knowledge coming to us directly or indirectly through the bodily - senses, it is all developed by the soul's own activity, and sensuous - perception is itself but a confused kind of cognition. Not a certain - select class of our ideas only (as Descartes held), but all our ideas, - are innate, though only worked up into actual cognition in the - development of knowledge (p. 212). To the aphorism made use of by - Locke, "Nihil est in intellectu quod non prius fuerit in sensu," must - be added the clause, "nisi intellectus ipse" (p. 223). The soul at - birth is not comparable to a _tabula rasa_, but rather to an unworked - block of marble, the hidden veins of which already determine the form - it is to assume in the hands of the sculptor (p. 196). Nor, again, can - the soul ever be without perception; for it has no other nature than - that of a percipient active being (p. 246). Apparently dreamless sleep - is to be accounted for by unconscious perception (p. 223); and it is - by such insensible perceptions that Leibnitz explains his doctrine of - pre-established harmony (p. 197). - - In the human soul perception is developed into thought, and there is - thus an infinite though gradual difference between it and the mere - monad (p. 464). As all knowledge is implicit in the soul, it follows - that its perfection depends on the efficiency of the instrument by - which it is developed. Hence the importance, in Leibnitz's system, of - the logical principles and method, the consideration of which occupied - him at intervals throughout his whole career. - - There are two kinds of truths--(1) truths of reasoning, and (2) truths - of fact (pp. 83, 99, 707). The former rest on the principle of - identity (or contradiction) or of possibility, in virtue of which that - is false which contains a contradiction, and that true which is - contradictory to the false. The latter rest on the principle of - sufficient reason or of reality (_compossibilite_), according to which - no fact is true unless there be a sufficient reason why it should be - so and not otherwise (agreeing thus with the _principium melioris_ or - final cause). God alone, the purely active monad, has an _a priori_ - knowledge of the latter class of truths; they have their source in the - human mind only in so far as it mirrors the outer world, i.e. in its - passivity, whereas the truths of reason have their source in our mind - in itself or in its activity. - - Both kinds of truths fall into two classes, primitive and derivative. - The primitive truths of fact are, as Descartes held, those of internal - experience, and the derivative truths are inferred from them in - accordance with the principle of sufficient reason, by their agreement - with our perception of the world as a whole. They are thus reached by - probable arguments--a department of logic which Leibnitz was the first - to bring into prominence (pp. 84, 164, 168, 169, 343). The primitive - truths of reasoning are identical (in later terminology, analytical) - propositions, the derivative truths being deduced from them by the - principle of contradiction. The part of his logic on which Leibnitz - laid the greatest stress was the separation of these rational - cognitions into their simplest elements--for he held that the - root-notions (_cogitationes primae_) would be found to be few in - number (pp. 92, 93)--and the designation of them by universal - characters or symbols,[17] composite notions being denoted by the - formulae formed by the union of several definite characters, and - judgments by the relation of aequipollence among these formulae, so as - to reduce the syllogism to a calculus. This is the main idea of - Leibnitz's "universal characteristic," never fully worked out by him, - which he regarded as one of the greatest discoveries of the age. An - incidental result of its adoption would be the introduction of a - universal symbolism of thought comparable to the symbolism of - mathematics and intelligible in all languages (cf. p. 356). But the - great revolution it would effect would chiefly consist in this, that - truth and falsehood would be no longer matters of opinion but of - correctness or error in calculation,[18] (pp. 83, 84, 89, 93). The old - Aristotelian analytic is not to be superseded; but it is to be - supplemented by this new method, for of itself it is but the ABC of - logic. - - But the logic of Leibnitz is an art of discovery (p. 85) as well as of - proof, and, as such, applies both to the sphere of reasoning and to - that of fact. In the former it has by attention to render explicit - what is otherwise only implicit, and by the intellect to introduce - order into the _a priori_ truths of reason, so that one may follow - from another and they may constitute together a _monde intellectuel_. - To this art of orderly combination Leibnitz attached the greatest - importance, and to it one of his earliest writings was devoted. - Similarly, in the sphere of experience, it is the business of the art - of discovery to find out and classify the primitive facts or data, - referring every other fact to them as its sufficient reason, so that - new truths of experience may be brought to light. - - As the perception of the monad when clarified becomes thought, so the - appetite of which all monads partake is raised to will, their - spontaneity to freedom, in man (p. 669). The will is an effort or - tendency to that which one finds good (p. 251), and is free only in - the sense of being exempt from external control[19] (pp. 262, 513, - 521), for it must always have a sufficient reason for its action - determined by what seems good to it. The end determining the will is - pleasure (p. 269), and pleasure is the sense of an increase of - perfection (p. 670). A will guided by reason will sacrifice transitory - and pursue constant pleasures or happiness, and in this weighing of - pleasures consists true wisdom. Leibnitz, like Spinoza, says that - freedom consists in following reason, servitude in following the - passions (p. 669), and that the passions proceed from confused - perceptions (pp. 188, 269). In love one finds joy in the happiness of - another; and from love follow justice and law. "Our reason," says - Leibnitz,[20] "illumined by the spirit of God, reveals the law of - nature," and with it positive law must not conflict. Natural law rises - from the strict command to avoid offence, through the maxim of equity - which gives to each his due, to that of probity or piety (_honeste - vivere_),--the highest ethical perfection,--which presupposes a belief - in God, providence and a future life.[21] Moral immortality--not - merely the simple continuity which belongs to every monad--comes from - God having provided that the changes of matter will not make man lose - his individuality (pp. 126, 466). - - Leibnitz thus makes the existence of God a postulate of morality as - well as necessary for the realization of the monads. It is in the - _Theodicee_ that his theology is worked out and his view of the - universe as the best possible world defended. In it he contends that - faith and reason are essentially harmonious (pp. 402, 479), and that - nothing can be received as an article of faith which contradicts an - eternal truth, though the ordinary physical order may be superseded by - a higher.[22] - - The ordinary arguments for the being of God are retained by Leibnitz - in a modified form (p. 375). Descartes's ontological proof is - supplemented by the clause that God as the _ens a se_ must either - exist or be impossible (pp. 80, 177, 708); in the cosmological proof - he passes from the infinite series of finite causes to their - sufficient reason which contains all changes in the series necessarily - in itself (pp. 147, 708); and he argues teleologically from the - existence of harmony among the monads without any mutual influence to - God as the author of this harmony (p. 430). - - In these proofs Leibnitz seems to have in view an extramundane power - to whom the monads owe their reality, though such a conception - evidently breaks the continuity and harmony of his system, and can - only be externally connected with it. But he also speaks in one place - at any rate[23] of God as the "universal harmony"; and the historians - Erdmann and Zeller are of opinion that this is the only sense in which - his system can be consistently theistic. Yet it would seem that to - assume a purely active and therefore perfect monad as the source of - all things is in accordance with the principle of continuity and with - Leibnitz's conception of the gradation of existences. In this sense he - sometimes speaks of God as the first or highest of the monads (p. - 678), and of created substances proceeding from Him continually by - "fulgurations" (p. 708) or by "a sort of emanation as we produce our - thoughts."[24] - - The positive properties or perfections of the monads, Leibnitz holds, - exist _eminenter_, i.e. without the limitation that attaches to - created monads (p. 716), in God--their perception as His wisdom or - intellect, and their appetite as His absolute will or goodness (p. - 654); while the absence of all limitation is the divine independence - or power, which again consists in this, that the possibility of things - depends on His intellect, their reality on His will (p. 506). The - universe in its harmonious order is thus the realization of the divine - end, and as such must be the best possible (p. 506). The teleology of - Leibnitz becomes necessarily a _Theodicee_. God created a world to - manifest and communicate His perfection (p. 524), and, in choosing - this world out of the infinite number that exist in the region of - ideas (p. 515), was guided by the _principium melioris_ (p. 506). With - this thorough-going optimism Leibnitz has to reconcile the existence - of evil in the best of all possible worlds.[25] With this end in view - he distinguishes (p. 655) between (1) metaphysical evil or - imperfection, which is unconditionally willed by God as essential to - created beings; (2) physical evil, such as pain, which is - conditionally willed by God as punishment or as a means to greater - good (cf. p. 510); and (3) moral evil, in which the great difficulty - lies, and which Leibnitz makes various attempts to explain. He says - that it was merely permitted not willed by God (p. 655), and, that - being obviously no explanation, adds that it was permitted because it - was foreseen that the world with evil would nevertheless be better - than any other possible world (p. 350). He also speaks of the evil as - a mere set-off to the good in the world, which it increases by - contrast (p. 149), and at other times reduces moral to metaphysical - evil by giving it a merely negative existence, or says that their evil - actions are to be referred to men alone, while it is only the power of - action that comes from God, and the power of action is good (p. 658). - - The great problem of Leibnitz's _Theodicee_ thus remains unsolved. The - suggestion that evil consists in a mere imperfection, like his idea of - the monads proceeding from God by a continual emanation, was too bold - and too inconsistent with his immediate apologetic aim to be carried - out by him. Had he done so his theory would have transcended the - independence of the monads with which it started, and found a deeper - unity in the world than that resulting from the somewhat arbitrary - assertion that the monads reflect the universe. - - The philosophy of Leibnitz, in the more systematic and abstract form - it received at the hands of Wolf, ruled the schools of Germany for - nearly a century, and largely determined the character of the critical - philosophy by which it was superseded. On it Baumgarten laid the - foundations of a science of aesthetic. Its treatment of theological - questions heralded the German _Aufklarung_. And on many special - points--in its physical doctrine of the conservation of force, its - psychological hypothesis of unconscious perception, its attempt at a - logical symbolism--it has suggested ideas fruitful for the progress of - science. - - BIBLIOGRAPHY.--(1) Editions: Up to 1900 no attempt had been made to - publish the complete works. Several editions existed, but a vast mass - of MSS. (letters, &c.) remained only roughly classified in the Hanover - library. The chief editions were: (1) L. Dutens (Geneva, 1768), called - _Opera Omnia_, but far from complete; (2) G. H. Pertz, _Leibnizens - gesammelte Werke_ (Berlin, 1843-1863) (1st ser. History, 4 vols.; 2nd - ser. Philosophy, vol. i. correspondence with Arnauld, &c., ed. C. L. - Grotefend; 3rd ser. Mathematics, 7 vols., ed. C. J. Gerhardt); (3) - Foucher de Careil (planned in 20 vols., 7 published, Paris, - 1859-1875), the same editor having previously published _Lettres et - opuscules inedits de Leibniz_ (Paris, 1854-1857); (4) Onno Klopp, _Die - Werke von Leibniz gemass seinem Handschriftlichen Nachlasse in der - Koniglichen Bibliothek zu Hannover_ (1st series, Historico-Political - and Political, 10 vols., 1864-1877). The _Oeuvres de Leibnitz_, by A. - Jacques (2 vols., Paris, 1846) also deserves mention. The - philosophical writings had been published by Raspe (Amsterdam and - Leipzig, 1765), by J. E. Erdmann, _Leibnitii opera philos. quae extant - Latina, Gallica, Germanica, omnia_ (Berlin, 1840), by P. Janet (2 - vols., Paris, 1866, 2nd ed. 1900), and the fullest by C. J. Gerhardt, - _Die Philosophischen Schriften von G. W. Leibniz_ (7 vols., - 1875-1890); cf. also _Die kleineren philos. wichtigeren Schriften_ - (trans. with commentary, J. H. von Kirchmann, 1879). The German works - had also been partly published separately; G. E. Guhrauer (Berlin, - 1838-1840). Of the letters various collections had been published up - to 1900, e.g.: C. J. Gerhardt (Halle, 1860) and _Der Briefwechsel von - G. W. Leibnitz mit Mathematikern_ (1899); _Corrispondenza tra L. A. - Muratori e G. Leibnitz_ (1899); and cf. _Neue Beitrage zum - Briefwechsel zwischen D. E. Jablonsky und G. W. Leibnitz_ (1899). - - In 1900 it was decided by scholars in Berlin and Paris that a really - complete edition should be published, and with this object four German - and four French critics were entrusted with the preliminary task of - correlating the MSS. in the royal library at Hanover. This process - resulted in the preparation of the _Kritischer Katalog der - Leibnitz-Handschriften zur Vorbereitung der interakademischen - Leibnitz-Ausgabe unternommen_ (1908), and also in certain other - preliminary publications, e.g. L. Couturat, _Opuscules et fragments - inedits_ (1903); E. Gerland, _Leibnizens nachgelassene Schriften - physikalischen, mechanischen und technischen Inhalts_ (1906); Jean - Baruzi, _Leibniz_ (1909), containing unedited MSS. and a - sketch-biography; cf. the same author's _Leibniz et l'organisation - religieuse de la terre_ (1907). - - _Translations._--Of the _Systema Theologicum_ (1850, C. W. Russell), - of the correspondence with Clarke (1717); _Works_, by G. M. Duncan - (New Haven, 1890); of the _Nouveaux Essais_, by A. G. Langley (London, - 1894); the _Monadology and other Writings_, by R. Latta (Oxford, - 1898). - - _Biographical._--The materials for the life of Leibnitz, in addition - to his own works, are the notes of Eckhart (not published till 1779), - the _Eloge_ by Fontenelle (read to the French Academy in 1717), the - "Eulogium," by Wolf, in the _Acta Eruditorium_ for July 1717, and the - "Supplementum" to the same by Feller, published in his _Otium - Hannoveranum_ (Leipzig, 1718). The best biography is that of G. E. - Guhrauer, _G. W. Freiherr von Leibnitz_ (2 vols., Breslau, 1842; - _Nachtrage_, Breslau, 1846). A shorter _Life of G. W. von Leibnitz, on - the Basis of the German Work of Guhrauer_, has been published by J. M. - Mackie (Boston, 1845). More recent works are those of L. Grote, - _Leibniz und seine Zeit_ (Hanover, 1869); E. Pfleiderer, _Leibniz als - Patriot, Staatsmann, und Bildungstrager_ (Leipzig, 1870); the slighter - volume of F. Kirchner, _G. W. Leibniz: sein Leben und Denken_ (Kothen, - 1876); Kuno Fischer, vol. iii. in _Gesch. der neuern Philosophie_ (4th - ed., 1902). - - _Critical._--The monographs and essays on Leibnitz are too numerous to - mention, but reference may be made to Feuerbach, _Darstellung, - Entwicklung, und Kritik der Leibnitz'schen Phil._ (2nd ed., Leipzig, - 1844); Nourrisson, _La Philosophie de Leibniz_ (Paris, 1860); R. - Zimmermann, _Leibnitz und Herbart: eine Vergleichung ihrer - Monadologien_ (Vienna, 1849); O. Caspari, _Leibniz' Philosophie - beleuchtet vom Gesichtspunkt der physikalischen Grundbegriffe von - Kraft und Stoff_ (Leipzig, 1870); G. Hartenstein, "Locke's Lehre von - der menschl. Erk. in Vergl. mit Leibniz's Kritik derselben - dargestellt," in the _Abhandl. d. philol.-hist. Cl. d. K. Sachs. - Gesells. d. Wiss._, vol. iv. (Leipzig, 1865); G. Class, _Die metaph. - Voraussetzungen des Leibnitzischen Determinismus_ (Tubingen, 1874); F. - B. Kvet, _Leibnitzens Logik_ (Prague, 1857); the essays on Leibnitz in - Trendelenburg's _Beitrage_, vols. ii. and iii. (Berlin, 1855, 1867); - L. Neff, _Leibniz als Sprachforscher_ (Heidelberg, 1870-1871); J. - Schmidt, _Leibniz und Baumgarten_ (Halle, 1875); D. Nolen, _La - Critique de Kant et la Metaphysique de Leibniz_ (Paris, 1875); and the - exhaustive work of A. Pichler, _Die Theologie des Leibniz_ (Munich, - 1869-1870). Among the more recent works are: C. Braig, _Leibniz: sein - Leben und die Bedeutung seiner Lehre_ (1907); E. Cassirer, _Leibniz' - System in seinem wissenschaftlichen Grundlagen_ (1902); L. Couturat, - _La Logique de Leibniz d'apres des documents inedits_ (1901); L. - Daville, _Leibniz historien_ (1909); Kuno Fischer, _G. W. Leibniz_ - (1889); R. B. Frenzel, _Der Associationsbegriff bei Leibniz_ (1898); - R. Herbertz, _Die Lehre vom Unbewussten im System des Leibniz_ (1905); - H. Hoffmann, _Die Leibniz'sche Religions-philosophie in ihrer - geschichtlichen Stellung_ (1903); W. Kabitz, _Die Philosophie des - jungen Leibniz_ (1909), a study of the development of the Leibnitzian - system; H. L. Koch, _Materie und Organismus bei Leibniz_ (1908); G. - Niel, _L'Optimisme de Leibniz_ (1888); Bertrand A. W. Russell, _A - Critical Exposition of the Philosophy of Leibniz_ (1900); F. Schmoger, - _Leibniz in seiner Stellung zur tellurischen Physik_ (1901); A. - Silberstein, _Leibnizens Apriorismus in Verhaltnis zu seiner - Metaphysik_ (1904); Stein, _Leibniz und Spinoza_ (1890); F. Thilly, - _Leibnizens Streit gegen Locke in Ansehung der angeborenen Ideen_ - (1891); R. Urbach, _Leibnizens Rechtfertigung des Uebels in der besten - Welt_ (1901); W. Werckmeister, _Der Leibnizsche Substanzbegriff_ - (1899); F. G. F. Wernicke, _Leibniz' Lehre von der Freiheit des - menschlichen Willens_ (1890). (W. R. So.) - - -FOOTNOTES: - - [1] _Bedenken, welchergestalt securitas publica interna et externa - und status praesens jetzigen Umstanden nach im Reich auf festen Fuss - zu stellen._ - - [2] _De expeditione Aegyptiaca regi Franciae proponenda justa - dissertatio._ - - [3] _Consilium Aegyptiacum._ - - [4] _A Summary Account of Leibnitz's Memoir addressed to Lewis the - Fourteenth_, &c. [edited by Granville Penn], (London, 1803). - - [5] In a letter to the duke of Brunswick-Luneburg (autumn 1671), - _Werke_, ed. Klopp, iii. 253 sq. - - [6] He was made a foreign member of the French Academy in 1700. - - [7] _Caesarini Furstenerii tractatus de jure suprematus ac legationis - principum Germaniae_ (Amsterdam, 1677); _Entretiens de Philarete et - d'Eugene sur le droit d'ambassade_ (Duisb., 1677). - - [8] Not published till 1819. It is on this work that the assertion - has been founded that Leibnitz was at heart a Catholic--a supposition - clearly disproved by his correspondence. - - [9] In his _Protogaea_ (1691) he developed the notion of the - historical genesis of the present condition of the earth's surface. - Cf. O. Peschel, _Gesch. d. Erdkunde_ (Munich, 1865), pp. 615 sq. - - [10] _Codex juris gentium diplomaticus_ (1693); _Mantissa codicis - juri gentium diplomatici_ (1700). - - [11] _Memoirs of John Ker of Kersland_, by himself (1726), i. 118. - - [12] When not otherwise stated, the references are to Erdmann's - edition of the _Opera philosophica_. - - [13] See _Considerations sur la doctrine d'un esprit universel_ - (1702). - - [14] Cf. _Opera_, ed. Dutens, II. ii. 20. - - [15] The difference between an organic and an inorganic body - consists, he says, in this, that the former is a machine even in its - smallest parts. - - [16] _Opera_, ed. Dutens, iii. 321. - - [17] Different symbolic systems were proposed by Leibnitz at - different periods; cf. Kvet, _Leibnitzens Logik_ (1857), p. 37. - - [18] The places at which Leibnitz anticipated the modern theory of - logic mainly due to Boole are pointed out in Mr Venn's _Symbolic - Logic_ (1881). - - [19] Hence the difference of his determinism from that of Spinoza, - though Leibnitz too says in one place that "it is difficult enough to - distinguish the actions of God from those of the creatures" (_Werke_, - ed. Pertz, 2nd ser. vol. i. p. 160). - - [20] _Opera omnia_, ed. Dutens, IV. iii. 282. - - [21] Ibid. IV. iii. 295. Cf. Bluntschli, _Gesch. d. allg. - Staatsrechts u. Politik_ (1864), pp. 143 sqq. - - [22] P. 480; cf. _Werke_, ed. Pertz, 2nd ser. vol. i. pp. 158, 159. - - [23] Werke, ed. Klopp, iii. 259; cf. Op. phil., p. 716. - - [24] Werke, ed. Pertz, 2nd ser. vol. i. p. 167. - - [25] "Si c'est ici le meilleur des mondes possibles, que sont donc - les autres?"--Voltaire, _Candide_, ch. vi. - - - - -LEICESTER, EARLS OF. The first holder of this English earldom belonged -to the family of Beaumont, although a certain Saxon named Edgar has been -described as the 1st earl of Leicester. Robert de Beaumont (d. 1118) is -frequently but erroneously considered to have received the earldom from -Henry I., about 1107; he had, however, some authority in the county of -Leicester and his son Robert was undoubtedly earl of Leicester in 1131. -The 3rd Beaumont earl, another Robert, was also steward of England, a -dignity which was attached to the earldom of Leicester from this time -until 1399. The earldom reverted to the crown when Robert de Beaumont, -the 4th earl, died in January 1204. - -In 1207 Simon IV., count of Montfort (q.v.), nephew and heir of Earl -Robert, was confirmed in the possession of the earldom by King John, but -it was forfeited when his son, the famous Simon de Montfort, was -attainted and was killed at Evesham in August 1265. Henry III.'s son -Edmund, earl of Lancaster, was also earl of Leicester and steward of -England, obtaining these offices a few months after Earl Simon's death. -Edmund's sons, Thomas and Henry, both earls of Lancaster, and his -grandson Henry, duke of Lancaster, in turn held the earldom, which then -passed to a son-in-law of Duke Henry, William V., count of Holland (c. -1327-1389), and then to another and more celebrated son-in-law, John of -Gaunt, duke of Lancaster. When in 1399 Gaunt's son became king as Henry -IV. the earldom was merged in the crown. - -In 1564 Queen Elizabeth created her favourite, Lord Robert Dudley, earl -of Leicester. The new earl was a son of John Dudley, duke of -Northumberland; he left no children, or rather none of undoubted -legitimacy, and when he died in September 1588 the title became extinct. - -In 1618 the earldom of Leicester was revived in favour of Robert Sidney, -Viscount Lisle, a nephew of the late earl and a brother of Sir Philip -Sidney; it remained in this family until the death of Jocelyn -(1682-1743), the 7th earl of this line, in July 1743. Jocelyn left no -legitimate children, but a certain John Sidney claimed to be his son and -consequently to be 8th earl of Leicester. - -In 1744, the year after Jocelyn's death, Thomas Coke, Baron Lovel (c. -1695-1759), was made earl of Leicester, but the title became extinct on -his death in April 1759. The next family to hold the earldom was that of -Townshend, George Townshend (1755-1811) being created earl of Leicester -in 1784. In 1807 George succeeded his father as 2nd marquess Townshend, -and when his son George Ferrars Townshend, the 3rd marquess (1778-1855), -died in December 1855 the earldom again became extinct. Before this -date, however, another earldom of Leicester was in existence. This was -created in 1837 in favour of Thomas William Coke, who had inherited the -estates of his relative Thomas Coke, earl of Leicester. To distinguish -his earldom from that held by the Townshends Coke was ennobled as earl -of Leicester of Holkham; his son Thomas William Coke (1822-1909) became -2nd earl of Leicester in 1842, and the latter's son Thomas William (b. -1848) became 3rd earl. - - See G. E. C(okayne), _Complete Peerage_, vol. v. (1893). - - - - -LEICESTER, ROBERT DUDLEY, EARL OF (c. 1531-1588). This favourite of -Queen Elizabeth came of an ambitious family. They were not, indeed, such -mere upstarts as their enemies loved to represent them; for Leicester's -grandfather--the notorious Edmund Dudley who was one of the chief -instruments of Henry VII.'s extortions--was descended from a younger -branch of the barons of Dudley. But the love of power was a passion -which seems to have increased in them with each succeeding generation, -and though the grandfather was beheaded by Henry VIII. for his too -devoted services in the preceding reign, the father grew powerful enough -in the days of Edward VI. to trouble the succession to the crown. This -was that John Dudley, duke of Northumberland, who contrived the marriage -of Lady Jane Grey with his own son Guildford Dudley, and involved both -her and her husband in a common ruin with himself. Robert Dudley, the -subject of this article, was an elder brother of Guildford, and shared -at that time in the misfortunes of the whole family. Having taken up -arms with them against Queen Mary, he was sent to the Tower, and was -sentenced to death; but the queen not only pardoned and restored him to -liberty, but appointed him master of the ordnance. On the accession of -Elizabeth he was also made master of the horse. He was then, perhaps, -about seven-and-twenty, and was evidently rising rapidly in the queen's -favour. At an early age he had been married to Amy, daughter of Sir John -Robsart. The match had been arranged by his father, who was very -studious to provide in this way for the future fortunes of his children, -and the wedding was graced by the presence of King Edward. But if it was -not a love match, there seems to have been no positive estrangement -between the couple. Amy visited her husband in the Tower during his -imprisonment; but afterwards when, under the new queen, he was much at -court, she lived a good deal apart from him. He visited her, however, at -times, in different parts of the country, and his expenses show that he -treated her liberally. In September 1560 she was staying at Cumnor Hall -in Berkshire, the house of one Anthony Forster, when she met her death -under circumstances which certainly aroused suspicions of foul play. It -is quite clear that her death had been surmised some time before as a -thing that would remove an obstacle to Dudley's marriage with the queen, -with whom he stood in so high favour. We may take it, perhaps, from -Venetian sources, that she was then in delicate health, while Spanish -state papers show further that there were scandalous rumours of a design -to poison her; which were all the more propagated by malice after the -event. The occurrence, however, was explained as owing to a fall down -stairs in which she broke her neck; and the explanation seems perfectly -adequate to account for all we know about it. Certain it is that Dudley -continued to rise in the queen's favour. She made him a Knight of the -Garter, and bestowed on him the castle of Kenilworth, the lordship of -Denbigh and other lands of very great value in Warwickshire and in -Wales. In September 1564 she created him baron of Denbigh, and -immediately afterwards earl of Leicester. In the preceding month, when -she visited Cambridge, she at his request addressed the university in -Latin. The honours shown him excited jealousy, especially as it was well -known that he entertained still more ambitious hopes, which the queen -apparently did not altogether discourage. The earl of Sussex, in -opposition to him, strongly favoured a match with the archduke Charles -of Austria. The court was divided, and, while arguments were set forth -on the one side against the queen's marrying a subject, the other party -insisted strongly on the disadvantages of a foreign alliance. The queen, -however, was so far from being foolishly in love with him that in 1564 -she recommended him as a husband for Mary Queen of Scots. But this, it -was believed, was only a blind, and it may be doubted how far the -proposal was serious. After his creation as earl of Leicester great -attention was paid to him both at home and abroad. The university of -Oxford made him their chancellor, and Charles IX. of France sent him the -order of St Michael. A few years later he formed an ambiguous connexion -with the baroness dowager of Sheffield, which was maintained by the -lady, if not with truth at least with great plausibility, to have been a -valid marriage, though it was concealed from the queen. Her own -subsequent conduct, however, went far to discredit her statements; for -she married again during Leicester's life, when he, too, had found a new -conjugal partner. Long afterwards, in the days of James I., her son, Sir -Robert Dudley, a man of extraordinary talents, sought to establish his -legitimacy; but his suit was suddenly brought to a stop, the witnesses -discredited and the documents connected with it sealed up by an order of -the Star Chamber. - -In 1575 Queen Elizabeth visited the earl at Kenilworth, where she was -entertained for some days with great magnificence. The picturesque -account of the event given by Sir Walter Scott has made every one -familiar with the general character of the scene. Next year Walter, earl -of Essex, died in Ireland, and Leicester's subsequent marriage with his -widow again gave rise to very serious imputations against him. For -report said that he had had two children by her during her husband's -absence in Ireland, and, as the feud between the two earls was -notorious, Leicester's many enemies easily suggested that he had -poisoned his rival. This marriage, at all events, tended to Leicester's -discredit and was kept secret at first; but it was revealed to the queen -in 1579 by Simier, an emissary of the duke of Alencon, to whose -projected match with Elizabeth the earl seemed to be the principal -obstacle. The queen showed great displeasure at the news, and had some -thought, it is said, of committing Leicester to the Tower, but was -dissuaded from doing so by his rival the earl of Sussex. He had not, -indeed, favoured the Alencon marriage, but otherwise he had sought to -promote a league with France against Spain. He and Burleigh had listened -to proposals from France for the conquest and division of Flanders, and -they were in the secret about the capture of Brill. When Alencon -actually arrived, indeed, in August 1579, Dudley being in disgrace, -showed himself for a time anti-French; but he soon returned to his -former policy. He encouraged Drake's piratical expeditions against the -Spaniards and had a share in the booty brought home. In February 1582 -he, with a number of other noblemen and gentlemen, escorted the duke of -Alencon on his return to Antwerp to be invested with the government of -the Low Countries. In 1584 he inaugurated an association for the -protection of Queen Elizabeth against conspirators. About this time -there issued from the press the famous pamphlet, supposed to have been -the work of Parsons the Jesuit, entitled _Leicester's Commonwealth_, -which was intended to suggest that the English constitution was -subverted and the government handed over to one who was at heart an -atheist and a traitor, besides being a man of infamous life and morals. -The book was ordered to be suppressed by letters from the privy council, -in which it was declared that the charges against the earl were to the -queen's certain knowledge untrue; nevertheless they produced a very -strong impression, and were believed in by some who had no sympathy with -Jesuits long after Leicester's death. In 1585 he was appointed commander -of an expedition to the Low Countries in aid of the revolted provinces, -and sailed with a fleet of fifty ships to Flushing, where he was -received with great enthusiasm. In January following he was invested -with the government of the provinces, but immediately received a strong -reprimand from the queen for taking upon himself a function which she -had not authorized. Both he and the states general were obliged to -apologize; but the latter protested that they had no intention of giving -him absolute control of their affairs, and that it would be extremely -dangerous to them to revoke the appointment. Leicester accordingly was -allowed to retain his dignity; but the incident was inauspicious, nor -did affairs prosper greatly under his management. The most brilliant -achievement of the war was the action at Zutphen, in which his nephew -Sir Philip Sidney was slain. But complaints were made by the states -general of the conduct of the whole campaign. He returned to England for -a time, and went back in 1587, when he made an abortive effort to raise -the siege of Sluys. Disagreements increasing between him and the states, -he was recalled by the queen, from whom he met with a very good -reception; and he continued in such favour that in the following summer -(the year being that of the Armada, 1588) he was appointed -lieutenant-general of the army mustered at Tilbury to resist Spanish -invasion. After the crisis was past he was returning homewards from the -court to Kenilworth, when he was attacked by a sudden illness and died -at his house at Cornbury in Oxfordshire, on the 4th September. - -Such are the main facts of Leicester's life. Of his character it is more -difficult to speak with confidence, but some features of it are -indisputable. Being in person tall and remarkably handsome, he improved -these advantages by a very ingratiating manner. A man of no small -ability and still more ambition, he was nevertheless vain, and presumed -at times upon his influence with the queen to a degree that brought upon -him a sharp rebuff. Yet Elizabeth stood by him. That she was ever really -in love with him, as modern writers have supposed, is extremely -questionable; but she saw in him some valuable qualities which marked -him as the fitting recipient of high favours. He was a man of princely -tastes, especially in architecture. At court he became latterly the -leader of the Puritan party. and his letters were pervaded by -expressions of religious feeling which it is hard to believe were -insincere. Of the darker suspicions against him it is enough to say that -much was certainly reported beyond the truth; but there remain some -facts sufficiently disagreeable, and others, perhaps, sufficiently -mysterious, to make a just estimate of the man a rather perplexing -problem. - - No special biography of Leicester has yet been written except in - biographical dictionaries and encyclopaedias. A general account of him - will be found in the Memoirs of the Sidneys prefixed to Collins's - _Letters and Memorials of State_; but the fullest yet published is Mr - Sidney Lee's article in the _Dictionary of National Biography_ - (London, 1888) where the sources are given. Leicester's career has to - be made out from documents and state papers, especially from the - Hatfield MSS. and Major Hume's _Calendar_ of documents from the - Spanish archives bearing on the history of Queen Elizabeth. This last - is the most recent source. Of others the principal are Digges's - _Compleat Ambassador_ (1655), John Nichols's _Progresses of Queen - Elizabeth_ and the _Leycester Correspondence_ edited by J. Bruce for - the Camden Society. The death of Dudley's first wife has been a - fruitful source of literary controversy. The most recent addition to - the evidences, which considerably alters their complexion, will be - found in the _English Historical Review_, xiii. 83, giving the full - text (in English) of De Quadra's letter of Sept. 11, 1560, on which so - much has been built. (J. Ga.) - - - - -LEICESTER, ROBERT SIDNEY, EARL OF (1563-1626), second son of Sir Henry -Sidney (q.v.), was born on the 19th of November 1563, and was educated -at Christ Church, Oxford, afterwards travelling on the Continent for -some years between 1578 and 1583. In 1585 he was elected member of -parliament for Glamorganshire; and in the same year he went with his -elder brother Sir Philip Sidney (q.v.) to the Netherlands, where he -served in the war against Spain under his uncle Robert Dudley, earl of -Leicester. He was present at the engagement where Sir Philip Sidney was -mortally wounded, and remained with his brother till the latter's death -in October 1586. After visiting Scotland on a diplomatic mission in -1588, and France on a similar errand in 1593, he returned to the -Netherlands in 1596, where he rendered distinguished service in the war -for the next two years. He had been appointed governor of Flushing in -1588, and he spent much time there till 1603, when, on the accession of -James I., he returned to England. James raised him at once to the -peerage as Baron Sidney of Penshurst, and he was appointed chamberlain -to the queen consort. In 1605 he was created Viscount Lisle, and in 1618 -earl of Leicester, the latter title having become extinct in 1588 on the -death of his uncle, whose property he had inherited (see LEICESTER, -EARLS OF). Leicester was a man of taste and a patron of literature, -whose cultured mode of life at his country seat, Penshurst, was -celebrated in verse by Ben Jonson. The earl died at Penshurst on the -13th of July 1626. He was twice married; first to Barbara, daughter of -John Gamage, a Glamorganshire gentleman; and secondly to Sarah, daughter -of William Blount, and widow of Sir Thomas Smythe. By his first wife he -had a large family. His eldest son having died unmarried in 1613, -Robert, the second son (see below), succeeded to the earldom; one of his -daughters married Sir John Hobart, ancestor of the earls of -Buckinghamshire. - -ROBERT SIDNEY, 2nd earl of Leicester of the 1618 creation (1595-1677), -was born on the 1st of December 1595, and was educated at Christ Church, -Oxford; he was called to the bar in in 1618, having already served in -the army in the Netherlands during his father's governorship of -Flushing, and having entered parliament as member for Wilton in 1614. In -1616 he was given command of an English regiment in the Dutch service; -and having succeeded his father as earl of Leicester in 1626, he was -employed on diplomatic business in Denmark in 1632, and in France from -1636 to 1641. He was then appointed lord-lieutenant of Ireland in place -of the earl of Strafford, but he waited in vain for instructions from -the king, and in 1643 he was compelled to resign the office without -having set foot in Ireland. He shared the literary and cultivated tastes -of his family, without possessing the statesmanship of his uncle Sir -Philip Sidney; his character was lacking in decision, and, as commonly -befalls men of moderate views in times of acute party strife, he failed -to win the confidence of either of the opposing parties. His sincere -protestantism offended Laud, without being sufficiently extreme to -please the puritans of the parliamentary faction; his fidelity to the -king restrained him from any act tainted with rebellion, while his -dislike for arbitrary government prevented him giving whole-hearted -support to Charles I. When, therefore, the king summoned him to Oxford -in November 1642, Leicester's conduct bore the appearance of -vacillation, and his loyalty of uncertainty. Accordingly, after his -resignation of the lord-lieutenancy of Ireland at the end of 1643, he -retired into private life. In 1649 the younger children of the king were -for a time committed to his care at Penshurst. He took no part in public -affairs during the Commonwealth; and although at the Restoration he took -his seat in the House of Lords and was sworn of the privy council, he -continued to live for the most part in retirement at Penshurst, where he -died on the 2nd of November 1677. Leicester married, in 1616, Dorothy, -daughter of Henry Percy, 9th earl of Northumberland, by whom he had -fifteen children. Of his nine daughters, the eldest, Dorothy, the -"Sacharissa" of the poet Waller, married Robert Spencer, 2nd earl of -Sunderland; and Lucy married John Pelham, by whom she was the ancestress -of the 18th-century statesmen, Henry Pelham, and Thomas Pelham, duke of -Newcastle. Algernon Sidney (q.v.), and Henry Sidney, earl of Romney -(q.v.), were younger sons of the earl. - -Leicester's eldest son, Philip, 3rd earl (1619-1698), known for most of -his life as Lord Lisle, took a somewhat prominent part during the civil -war. Being sent to Ireland in 1642 in command of a regiment of horse, he -became lieutenant-general under Ormonde; he strongly favoured the -parliamentary cause, and in 1647 he was appointed lord-lieutenant of -Ireland by the parliament. Named one of Charles I.'s judges, he refused -to take part in the trial; but he afterwards served in Cromwell's -Council of State, and sat in the Protector's House of Lords. Lisle stood -high in Cromwell's favour, but nevertheless obtained a pardon at the -Restoration. He carried on the Sidney family tradition by his patronage -of men of letters; and, having succeeded to the earldom on his father's -death in 1677, he died in 1698, and was succeeded in the peerage by his -son Robert, 4th earl of Leicester (1649-1702), whose mother was -Catherine, daughter of William Cecil, 2nd earl of Salisbury. - - See _Sydney Papers_, edited by A. Collins (2 vols., London, 1746); - _Sydney Papers_, edited by R. W. Blencowe (London, 1825) containing - the 2nd earl of Leicester's journal; Lord Clarendon _History of the - Rebellion and Civil Wars in England_ (8 vols, Oxford, 1826); S. R. - Gardiner, _History of the Great Civil War_ (3 vols., London, - 1886-1891). (R. J. M.) - - - - -LEICESTER, THOMAS WILLIAM COKE, EARL OF (1754-1842), English -agriculturist, known as Coke of Norfolk, was the eldest son of Wenman -Roberts, who assumed the name of Coke in 1750. In 1759 Wenman Coke's -maternal uncle Thomas Coke, earl of Leicester, died leaving him his -estates, subject, however, to the life-interest of his widow, Margaret, -Baroness de Clifford in her own right. This lady's death in 1775 was -followed by that of Wenman Coke in 1776, when the latter's son, Thomas -William, born on the 6th of May 1754, succeeded to his father's estates -at Holkham and elsewhere. From 1776 to 1784, from 1790 to 1806, and -again from 1807 to 1832 Coke was member of parliament for Norfolk; he -was a friend and supporter of Charles James Fox and a sturdy and -aggressive Whig, acting upon the maxim taught him by his father "never -to trust a Tory." Coke's chief interests, however, were in the country, -and his fame is that of an agriculturist. His land around Holkham in -Norfolk was poor and neglected, but he introduced many improvements, -obtained the best expert advice, and in a few years wheat was grown upon -his farms, and the breed of cattle, sheep and pigs greatly improved. It -has been said that "his practice is really the basis of every treatise -on modern agriculture." Under his direction the rental of the Holkham -estate is said to have increased from L2200 to over L20,000 a year. In -1837 Coke was created earl of Leicester of Holkham. Leicester, who was a -strong and handsome man and a fine sportsman, died at Longford Hall in -Derbyshire on the 30th of June 1842. He was twice married, and Thomas -William, his son by his second marriage, succeeded to his earldom. - - See A. M. W. Stirling, _Coke of Norfolk and his Friends_ (1907). - - - - -LEICESTER, a municipal county and parliamentary borough, and the county -town of Leicestershire, England; on the river Soar, a southern tributary -of the Trent. Pop. (1891) 174,624, (1901) 211,579. It is 99 m. N.N.W. -from London by the Midland railway, and is served by the Great Central -and branches of the Great Northern and London and North-Western -railways, and by the Leicester canal. - -This was the Roman _Ratae_ (_Ratae Coritanorum_), and Roman remains of -high interest are preserved. They include a portion of Roman masonry -known as the Jewry Wall; several pavements have been unearthed; and in -the museum, among other remains, is a milestone from the Fosse Way, -marking a distance of 2 m. from Ratae. St Nicholas church is a good -example of early Norman work, in the building of which Roman bricks are -used. St Mary de Castro church, with Norman remains, including sedilia, -shows rich Early English work in the tower and elsewhere, and has a -Decorated spire and later additions. All Saints church has Norman -remains. St Martin's is mainly Early English, a fine cruciform -structure. St Margaret's, with Early English nave, has extensive -additions of beautiful Perpendicular workmanship. North of the town are -slight remains of an abbey of Black Canons founded in 1143. There are a -number of modern churches. Of the Castle there are parts of the Norman -hall, modernized, two gateways and other remains, together with the -artificial Mount on which the keep stood. The following public buildings -and institutions may be mentioned--municipal buildings (1876), old town -hall, formerly the gild-hall of Corpus Christi; market house, free -library, opera house and other theatres and museum. The free library has -several branches; there are also a valuable old library founded in the -17th century, a permanent library and a literary and philosophical -society. Among several hospitals are Trinity hospital, founded in 1331 -by Henry Plantagenet, earl of Lancaster and of Leicester, and -Wyggeston's hospital (1513). The Wyggeston schools and Queen Elizabeth's -grammar school are amalgamated, and include high schools for boys and -girls; there are also Newton's greencoat school for boys, and municipal -technical and art schools. A memorial clock tower was erected in 1868 to -Simon de Montfort and other historical figures connected with the town. -The Abbey Park is a beautiful pleasure ground; there are also Victoria -Park, St Margaret's Pasture and other grounds. The staple trade is -hosiery, an old-established industry; there are also manufactures of -elastic webbing, cotton and lace, iron-works, makings and brick-works. -Leicester became a county borough in 1888, and the bounds were extended -and constituted one civil parish in 1892. It is a suffragan bishopric in -the diocese of Peterborough. The parliamentary borough returns two -members. Area, 8586 acres. - -The Romano-British town of _Ratae Coritanorum_, on the Fosse Way, was a -municipality in A.D. 120-121. Its importance, both commercial and -military, was considerable, as is attested by the many remains found -here. Leicester (_Ledecestre_, _Legecestria_, _Leyrcestria_) was called -a "burh" in 918, and a city in Domesday. Until 874 it was the seat of a -bishopric. In 1086 both the king and Hugh de Grantmesnil had much land -in Leicester; by 1101 the latter's share had passed to Robert of Meulan, -to whom the rest of the town belonged before his death. Leicester thus -became the largest mesne borough. Between 1103 and 1118 Robert granted -his first charter to the burgesses, confirming their merchant gild. The -portmanmote was confirmed by his son. In the 13th century the town -developed its own form of government by a mayor and 24 jurats. In 1464 -Edward IV. made the mayor and 4 of the council justices of the peace. In -1489 Henry VII. added 48 burgesses to the council for certain purposes, -and made it a close body; he granted another charter in 1505. In 1589 -Elizabeth incorporated the town, and gave another charter in 1599. James -I. granted charters in 1605 and 1610; and Charles I. in 1630. In 1684 -the charters were surrendered; a new one granted by James II. was -rescinded by proclamation in 1688. - -Leicester has been represented in parliament by two members since 1295. -It has had a prescriptive market since the 13th century, now held on -Wednesday and Saturday. Before 1228-1229 the burgesses had a fair from -July 31 to August 14; changes were made in its date, which was fixed in -1360 at September 26 to October 2. It is now held on the second Thursday -in October and three following days. In 1473 another fair was granted on -April 27 to May 4. It is now held on the second Thursday in May and the -three following days. Henry VIII. granted two three-day fairs beginning -on December 8 and June 26; the first is now held on the second Friday in -December; the second was held in 1888 on the last Tuesday in June. In -1307 Edward III. granted a fair for seventeen days after the feast of -the Holy Trinity. This would fall in May or June, and may have merged in -other fairs. In 1794 the corporation sanctioned fairs on January 4, June -1, August 1, September 13 and November 2. Other fairs are now held on -the second Fridays in March and July and the Saturdays next before -Easter and in Easter week. Leicester has been a centre for brewing and -the manufacture of woollen goods since the 13th century. Knitting frames -for hosiery were introduced about 1680. Boot manufacture became -important in the 19th century. - - See _Victoria County History_, Leicester; M. Bateson, _Records of - Borough of Leicester_ (Cambridge, 1899). - - - - -LEICESTERSHIRE, a midland county of England, bounded N. by -Nottinghamshire, E. by Lincolnshire and Rutland, S.E. by -Northamptonshire, S.W. by Warwickshire, and N.W. by Derbyshire, also -touching Staffordshire on the W. The area is 823.6 sq. m. The surface of -the county is an undulating tableland, the highest eminences being the -rugged hills of Charnwood Forest (q.v.) in the north-west, one of which, -Bardon Hill, has an elevation of 912 ft. The county belongs chiefly to -the basin of the Trent, which forms for a short distance its boundary -with Derbyshire. The principal tributary of the Trent in Leicestershire -is the Soar, from whose old designation the _Leire_ the county is said -to derive its name, and which rises near Hinckley in the S.E., and forms -the boundary with Nottinghamshire for some distance above its junction -with the Trent. The Wreak, which, under the name of the Eye, rises on -the borders of Rutland, flows S.W. to the Soar. Besides the Soar the -other tributaries of the Trent are the Anker, touching the boundary with -Warwickshire, the Devon and the Mease. A portion of the county in the S. -drains to the Avon, which forms part of the boundary with -Northamptonshire, and receives the Swift. The Welland forms for some -distance the boundary with Northamptonshire. - - _Geology._--The oldest rocks in the county belong to the Charnian - System, a Pre-Cambrian series of volcanic ashes, grits and slates, - into which porphyroid and syenite were afterwards intruded. These - rocks emerge from the plain formed by the Keuper Marls of the Triassic - System as a group of isolated hills and peaks (known as Charnwood - Forest); these are the tops of an old mountain-range, the lower slopes - of which are still buried under the surrounding Keuper Marls. West of - this district lies the Leicestershire coalfield, where the poor state - of development of the Carboniferous Limestone shows that the Charnian - rocks formed shoals or islands in the Carboniferous Limestone sea. The - Millstone Grit just enters the county to the north of the same region, - while the Coal Measures occupy a considerable area round - Ashby-de-la-Zouch and contain valuable coal-seams. The rest of the - county is almost equally divided between the red Keuper Marls of the - Trias on the west and the grey limestones and shales of the Lias on - the east. The former were deposited in lagoons into which the land was - gradually lowered after a prolonged period of desert conditions. The - Rhaetic beds which follow the Keuper mark the incoming of the sea and - introduce the fossiliferous Liassic deposits. On the eastern margin of - the county a few small outliers of the Inferior Oolite sands and - limestones are present. The Glacial Period has left boulder-clay, - gravel and erratic blocks scattered over the surface, while later - gravels, with remains of mammoth, reindeer, &c., border some of the - present streams. - - Slates, honestones, setts and roadstone from the Charnian rocks, - limestone and cement from the Carboniferous and Lias, and coal from - the Coal Measures are the chief mineral products. - - _Agriculture._--The climate is mild, and, on account of the inland - position of the county, and the absence of any very high elevations, - the rainfall is very moderate. The soil is of a loamy character, the - richest district being that east of the Soar, which is occupied by - pasture, while the corn crops are grown chiefly on a lighter soil - resting above the Red Sandstone formation. About nine-tenths of the - total area is under cultivation. The proportion of pasture land is - large and increasing. It is especially rich along the river-banks. - Dairy-farming is extensively carried on, the famous Stilton cheese - being produced near Melton Mowbray. Cattle are reared in large - numbers, while of sheep the New Leicester breed is well known. It was - introduced by Robert Bakewell the agriculturist, who was born near - Loughborough in 1725. He also improved the breed of horses by the - importation of mares from Flanders. - - The county is especially famed for fox-hunting, Leicester and Melton - Mowbray being favourite centres, while the kennels of the Quorn hunt - are located at Quorndon near Mount Sorrel. For this reason - Leicestershire is rich in good riding horses. - - _Other Industries._--Coal is worked in the districts about Moira, - Coleorton and Coalville. Limestone is worked in various parts, - freestone is plentiful, gypsum is found, and a kind of granite, - extensively used for paving, is obtained in the Charnwood district, as - at Bardon and Mount Sorrel, and at Sapcote and Stoney Stanton in the - south-west. Apart from the mining industries, the staple manufacture - of Leicestershire is hosiery, for which the wool is obtained - principally from home-bred sheep. Its principal seats are Leicester, - Loughborough, Hinckley and Castle Donington. Cotton hose are likewise - made, and other industries include the manufacture of boots and shoes, - as at Market Harborough, elastic webbing, and bricks, also iron - founding. Melton Mowbray gives name to a well-known manufacture of - pork pies. - - _Communications._--The main line of the Midland railway serves Market - Harborough, Leicester, and Loughborough, having an important junction - at Trent (on that river) for Derby and Nottingham. Branches radiate - from Leicester to Melton Mowbray, to Coalville, Ashby-de-la-Zouch, - Moira and Burton-upon-Trent, with others through the mining district - of the N.W., which is also served by the branch of the London & - North-Western railway from Nuneaton to Market Bosworth, Coalville and - Loughborough. This company serves Market Harborough from Rugby, and - branches of the Great Northern serve Market Harborough, Leicester and - Melton Mowbray. The main line of the Great Central railway passes - through Lutterworth, Leicester and Loughborough. The principal canals - are the Union and Grand Union, with which various branches are - connected with the Grand Junction, and the Ashby-de-la-Zouch canal, - which joins the Coventry canal at Nuneaton. The Loughborough canal - serves that town, connecting with the river Soar. - - _Population and Administration._--The area of the ancient county is - 527,123 acres; pop. (1891) 373,584, (1901) 434,019. The area of the - administrative county is 532,788 acres. The county contains six - hundreds. The municipal boroughs are: Leicester, the county town and a - county borough (pop. 211,579), Loughborough (21,508). The urban - districts are: Ashby-de-la-Zouch (4726), Ashby Woulds (2799), - Coalville (15,281), Hinckley (11,304), Market Harborough (7735), - Melton Mowbray (7454), Quorndon (2173), Shepshed (5293). Thurmaston - (1732), Wigston Magna (8404). The county is in the Midland circuit, - has one court of quarter sessions, and is divided into 9 petty - sessional divisions. The county borough of Leicester has a separate - court of quarter sessions and a separate commission of the peace. - There are 327 civil parishes. The county is divided into four - parliamentary divisions (Eastern or Melton, Mid or Loughborough, - Western or Bosworth, Southern or Harborough), each returning one - member; and the parliamentary borough of Leicester returns 2 members. - The county is in the diocese of Peterborough, with the exception of - small parts in those of Southwell and Worcester; and contains 255 - ecclesiastical parishes or districts, wholly or in part. - -_History._--The district which is now Leicestershire was reached in the -6th century by Anglian invaders who, making their way across the Trent, -penetrated Charnwood Forest as far as Leicester, the fall of which may -be dated at about 556. In 679 the district formed the kingdom of the -Middle Angles within the kingdom of Mercia, and on the subdivision of -the Mercian see in that year was formed into a separate bishopric having -its see at Leicester. In the 9th century the district was subjugated by -the Danes, and Leicester became one of the five Danish boroughs. It was -recovered by Aethelflaed in 918, but the Northmen regained their -supremacy shortly after, and the prevalence of Scandinavian place-names -in the county bears evidence of the extent of their settlement. - -Leicestershire probably originated as a shire in the 10th century, and -at the time of the Domesday Survey was divided into the four wapentakes -of Guthlaxton, Framland, Goscote and Gartree. The Leicestershire Survey -of the 12th century shows an additional grouping of the vills into small -local hundreds, manorial rather than administrative divisions, which -have completely disappeared. In the reign of Edward I. the divisions -appear as hundreds, and in the reign of Edward III. the additional -hundred of Sparkenhoe was formed out of Guthlaxton. Before the 17th -century Goscote was divided into East and West Goscote, and since then -the hundreds have undergone little change. Until 1566 Leicestershire and -Warwickshire had a common sheriff, the shire-court for the former being -held at Leicester. - -Leicestershire constituted an archdeaconry within the diocese of Lincoln -from 1092 until its transference to Peterborough in 1837. In 1291 it -comprised the deaneries of Akeley, Leicester (now Christianity), -Framland, Gartree, Goscote, Guthlaxton and Sparkenhoe. The deaneries -remained unaltered until 1865. Since 1894 they have been as follows: -East, South and West Akeley, Christianity, Framland (3 portions), -Sparkenhoe (2 portions), Gartree (3 portions), Goscote (2 portions), -Guthlaxton (3 portions). - -Among the earliest historical events connected with the county were the -siege and capture of Leicester by Henry II. in 1173 on the rebellion of -the earl of Leicester; the surrender of Leicester to Prince Edward in -1264; and the parliament held at Leicester in 1414. During the Wars of -the Roses Leicester was a great Lancastrian stronghold. In 1485 the -battle of Bosworth was fought in the county. In the Civil War of the -17th century the greater part of the county favoured the parliament, -though the mayor and some members of the corporation of Leicester sided -with the king, and in 1642 the citizens of Leicester on a summons from -Prince Rupert lent Charles L500. In 1645 Leicester was twice captured by -the Royalist forces. - -Before the Conquest large estates in Leicestershire were held by Earls -Ralf, Morcar, Waltheof and Harold, but the Domesday Survey of 1086 -reveals an almost total displacement of English by Norman landholders, -only a few estates being retained by Englishmen as under-tenants. The -first lay-tenant mentioned in the survey is Robert, count of Meulan, -ancestor of the Beaumont family and afterwards earl of Leicester, to -whose fief was afterwards annexed the vast holding of Hugh de -Grantmesnil, lord high steward of England. Robert de Toeni, another -Domesday tenant, founded Belvoir Castle and Priory. The fief of Robert -de Buci was bestowed on Richard Basset, founder of Laund Abbey, in the -reign of Henry I. Loughborough was an ancient seat of the Despenser -family, and Brookesby was the seat of the Villiers and the birthplace of -George Villiers, the famous duke of Buckingham. Melton Mowbray was named -from its former lords, the Mowbrays, descendants of Nigel de Albini, the -founder of Axholme Priory. Lady Jane Grey was born at Bradgate near -Leicester, and Bishop Latimer was born at Thurcaston. - -The woollen industry flourished in Leicestershire in Norman times, and -in 1343 Leicestershire wool was rated at a higher value than that of -most other counties. Coal was worked at Coleorton in the early 15th -century and at Measham in the 17th century. The famous blue slate of -Swithland has been quarried from time immemorial, and the limestone -quarry at Barrow-on-Soar is also of very ancient repute, the monks of -the abbey of St Mary de Pre formerly enjoying the tithe of its produce. -The staple manufacture of the county, that of hosiery, originated in the -17th century, the chief centres being Leicester, Hinckley and -Loughborough, and before the development of steam-driven frames in the -19th century hand framework knitting of hose and gloves was carried on -in about a hundred villages. Wool-carding was also an extensive industry -before 1840. - -In 1290 Leicestershire returned two members to parliament, and in 1295 -Leicester was also represented by two members. Under the Reform Act of -1832 the county returned four members in two divisions until the -Redistribution of Seats Act of 1885, under which it returned four -members in four divisions. - - _Antiquities._--Remains of monastic foundations are slight, though - there were a considerable number of these. There are traces of - Leicester Abbey and of Gracedieu near Coalville, while at Ulverscroft - in Charnwood, where there was an Augustinian priory of the 12th - century, there are fine Decorated remains, including a tower. The most - noteworthy churches are found in the towns, as at Ashby-de-la-Zouch, - Hinckley, Leicester, Loughborough, Lutterworth, Market Bosworth, - Market Harborough, and Melton Mowbray (qq.v.). The principal old - castle is that of Ashby-de-la-Zouch, while at Kirby Muxloe there is a - picturesque fortified mansion of Tudor date. There are several good - Elizabethan mansions, as that at Laund in the E. of the county. Among - modern mansions that of the dukes of Rutland, Belvoir Castle in the - extreme N.E., is a massive mansion of the early 19th century, finely - placed on the summit of a hill. - - See _Victoria County History, Leicestershire_; W. Burton, _Description - of Leicestershire_ (London, 1622; 2nd ed., Lynn, 1777); John Nicholls, - _History and Antiquities of The County of Leicester_ (4 vols., London, - 1795-1815); John Curtis, _A Topographical History of the County of - Leicester_ (Ashby-de-la-Zouch, 1831). - - - - -LEIDEN or LEYDEN, a city in the province of South Holland, the kingdom -of the Netherlands, on the Old Rhine, and a junction station 18 m. by -rail S.S.W. of Haarlem. It is connected by steam tramway with Haarlem -and The Hague respectively, and with the seaside resorts of Katwyk and -Noordwyk. There is also regular steamboat connexion with Katwyk, -Noordwyk, Amsterdam and Gouda. The population of Leiden which, it is -estimated, reached 100,000 in 1640, had sunk to 30,000 between 1796 and -1811, and in 1904 was 56,044. The two branches of the Rhine which enter -Leiden on the east unite in the centre of the town, which is further -intersected by numerous small and sombre canals, with tree-bordered -quays and old houses. On the south side of the town pleasant gardens -extend along the old Singel, or outer canal, and there is a large open -space, the Van der Werf Park, named after the burgomaster, Pieter -Andriaanszoon van der Werf, who defended the town against the Spaniards -in 1574. This open space was formed by the accidental explosion of a -powdership in 1807, hundreds of houses being demolished, including that -of the Elzevir family of printers. At the junction of the two arms of -the Rhine stands the old castle (De Burcht), a circular tower built on -an earthen mound. Its origin is unknown, but some connect it with Roman -days and others with the Saxon Hengist. Of Leiden's old gateways only -two--both dating from the end of the 17th century--are standing. Of the -numerous churches the chief are the Hooglandsche Kerk, or the church of -St Pancras, built in the 15th century and restored in 1885-1902, -containing the monument of Pieter Andriaanszoon van der Werf, and the -Pieterskerk (1315) with monuments to Scaliger, Boerhaave and other -famous scholars. The most interesting buildings are the town hall -(Stadhuis), a fine example of 16th-century Dutch building; the -Gemeenlandshuis van Rynland (1596, restored 1878); the weight-house -built by Pieter Post (1658); the former court-house, now a military -storehouse; and the ancient gymnasium (1599) and the so-called city -timber-house (Stads Timmerhuis) (1612), both built by Lieven de Key (c. -1560-1627). - -In spite of a certain industrial activity and the periodical bustle of -its cattle and dairy markets, Leiden remains essentially an academic -city. The university is a flourishing institution. It was founded by -William of Orange in 1575 as a reward for the heroic defence of the -previous year, the tradition being that the citizens were offered the -choice between a university and a certain exemption from taxes. -Originally located in the convent of St Barbara, the university was -removed in 1581 to the convent of the White Nuns, the site of which it -still occupies, though that building was destroyed in 1616. The presence -within half a century of the date of its foundation of such scholars as -Justus Lipsius, Joseph Scaliger, Francis Gomarus, Hugo Grotius, Jacobus -Arminius, Daniel Heinsius and Guardas Johannes Vossius at once raised -Leiden university to the highest European fame, a position which the -learning and reputation of Jacobus Gronovius, Hermann Boerhaave, -Tiberius Hemsterhuis and David Ruhnken, among others, enabled it to -maintain down to the end of the 18th century. The portraits of many -famous professors since the earliest days hang in the university _aula_, -one of the most memorable places, as Niebuhr called it, in the history -of science. The university library contains upwards of 190,000 volumes -and 6000 MSS. and pamphlet portfolios, and is very rich in Oriental and -Greek MSS. and old Dutch travels. Among the institutions connected with -the university are the national institution for East Indian languages, -ethnology and geography; the fine botanical gardens, founded in 1587; -the observatory (1860); the natural history museum, with a very complete -anatomical cabinet; the museum of antiquities (Museum van Oudheden), -with specially valuable Egyptian and Indian departments; a museum of -Dutch antiquities from the earliest times; and three ethnographical -museums, of which the nucleus was P. F. von Siebold's Japanese -collections. The anatomical and pathological laboratories of the -university are modern, and the museums of geology and mineralogy have -been restored. The university has now five faculties, of which those of -law and medicine are the most celebrated, and is attended by about 1200 -students. - -The municipal museum, founded in 1869 and located in the old cloth-hall -(Laeckenhalle) (1640), contains a varied collection of antiquities -connected with Leiden, as well as some paintings including works by the -elder van Swanenburgh, Cornelius Engelbrechtszoon, Lucas van Leiden and -Jan Steen, who were all natives of Leiden. Jan van Goyen, Gabriel Metsu, -Gerard Dou and Rembrandt were also natives of this town. There is also a -small collection of paintings in the Meermansburg. The Thysian library -occupies an old Renaissance building of the year 1655, and is especially -rich in legal works and native chronicles. Noteworthy also are the -collection of the Society of Dutch Literature (1766); the collections of -casts and of engravings; the seamen's training school; the Remonstrant -seminary, transferred hither from Amsterdam in 1873; the two hospitals -(one of which is private); the house of correction; and the court-house. - - Leiden is an ancient town, although it is not the _Lugdunum Batavorum_ - of the Romans. Its early name was Leithen, and it was governed until - 1420 by burgraves, the representatives of the courts of Holland. The - most celebrated event in its history is its siege by the Spaniards in - 1574. Besieged from May until October, it was at length relieved by - the cutting of the dikes, thus enabling ships to carry provisions to - the inhabitants of the flooded town. The weaving establishments - (mainly broadcloth) of Leiden at the close of the 15th century were - very important, and after the expulsion of the Spaniards Leiden cloth, - Leiden baize and Leiden camlet were familiar terms. These industries - afterwards declined, and in the beginning of the 19th century the - baize manufacture was altogether given up. Linen and woollen - manufactures are now the most important industries, while there is a - considerable transit trade in butter and cheese. - - Katwyk, or Katwijk, 6 m. N.W. of Leiden, is a popular seaside resort - and fishing village. Close by are the great locks constructed in 1807 - by the engineer, F. W. Conrad (d. 1808), through which the Rhine (here - called the Katwyk canal) is admitted into the sea at low tide. The - shore and the entrance to the canal are strengthened by huge dikes. In - 1520 an ancient Roman camp known as the Brittenburg was discovered - here. It was square in shape, each side measuring 82 yds., and the - remains stood about 10 ft. high. By the middle of the 18th century it - had been destroyed and covered by the sea. - - See P. J. Blok, _Eine hollandsche stad in de middeleeuwen_ (The Hague, - 1883); and for the siege see J. L. Motley, _The Rise of the Dutch - Republic_ (1896). - - - - -LEIDY, JOSEPH (1823-1891), American naturalist and palaeontologist, was -born in Philadelphia on the 9th of September 1823. He studied mineralogy -and botany without an instructor, and graduated in medicine at the -university of Pennsylvania in 1844. Continuing his work in anatomy and -physiology, he visited Europe in 1848, but both before and after this -period of foreign study lectured and taught in American medical -colleges. In 1853 he was appointed professor of anatomy in the -university of Pennsylvania, paying special attention to comparative -anatomy. In 1884 he promoted the establishment in the same institution -of the department of biology, of which he became director, and meanwhile -taught natural history in Swarthmore College, near Philadelphia. His -papers on biology and palaeontology were very numerous, covering both -fauna and flora, and ranging from microscopic forms of animal life to -the higher vertebrates. He wrote also occasional papers on minerals. He -was an active member of the Boston Society of Natural History and of the -American Philosophical Society; and was the recipient of various -American and foreign degrees and honours. His _Cretaceous Reptiles of -the United States_ (1865) and _Contributions to the Extinct Vertebrate -Fauna of the Western Territories_ (1873) were the most important of his -larger works; the best known and most widely circulated was an -_Elementary Treatise on Human Anatomy_ (1860, afterwards revised in -new editions). He died in Philadelphia on the 30th of April 1891. - - See Memoir and portrait in _Amer. Geologist_, vol. ix. (Jan. 1892) and - Bibliography in vol. viii. (Nov. 1891) and Memoir by H. C. Chapman in - _Proc. Acad. Nat. Sc._ (Philadelphia, 1891), p. 342. - - - - -LEIF ERICSSON [LEIFR EIRIKSSON] (fl. 999-1000), Scandinavian explorer, -of Icelandic family, the first known European discoverer of "Vinland," -"Vineland" or "Wineland, the Good," in North America. He was a son of -Eric the Red (Eirikr hinn raudi Thorvaldsson), the founder of the -earliest Scandinavian settlements--from Iceland--in Greenland (985). In -999 he went from Greenland to the court of King Olaf Tryggvason in -Norway, stopping in the Hebrides on the way. On his departure from -Norway in 1000, the king commissioned him to proclaim Christianity in -Greenland. As on his outward voyage, Leif was again driven far out of -his course by contrary weather--this time to lands (in America) "of -which he had previously had no knowledge," where "self-sown" wheat grew, -and vines, and "mosur" (maple?) wood. Leif took specimens of all these, -and sailing away came home safely to his father's home in Brattahlid on -Ericsfiord in Greenland. On his voyage from this Vineland to Greenland, -Leif rescued some shipwrecked men, and from this, and his discoveries, -gained his name of "The Lucky" (_hinn heppni_). On the subsequent -expedition of Thorfinn Karlsefni for the further exploration and -settlement of the Far Western vine-country, it is recorded that certain -Gaels, incredibly fleet of foot, who had been given to Leif by Olaf -Tryggvason, and whom Leif had offered to Thorfinn, were put on shore to -scout. - -Such is the account of the _Saga of Eric the Red_, supported by a number -of briefer references in early Icelandic and other literature. The less -trustworthy history of the _Flatey Book_ makes Biarni Heriulfsson in 985 -discover Helluland (Labrador?) as well as other western lands which he -does not explore, not even permitting his men to land; while Leif -Ericsson follows up Biarni's discoveries, begins the exploration of -Helluland, Markland and Vinland, and realizes some of the charms of the -last named, where he winters. But this secondary authority (the _Flatey -Book_ narrative), which till lately formed the basis of all general -knowledge as to Vinland, abounds in contradictions and difficulties from -which _Eric the Red Saga_ is comparatively free. Thus (in _Flatey_) the -grapes of Vinland are found in winter and gathered in spring; the man -who first finds them, Leif's foster-father Tyrker the German, gets drunk -from eating the fruit; and the vines themselves are spoken of as big -trees affording timber. Looking at the record in _Eric the Red Saga_, it -would seem probable that Leif's Vinland answers to some part of southern -Nova Scotia. See VINLAND. (As to Helluland and Markland see THORFINN -KARLSEFNI.) - - The MSS. of _Eric the Red's Saga_ are Nos. 544 and 557 of the - Arne-Magnaean collection in Copenhagen; the MS. of the _Flatey Book_, - so called because it was long the property of a family living on Flat - Island in Broad Firth (Flatey in Breiethafjord [B-eidafj-d]), on the - north-west coast of Iceland, was presented in 1662 to the Royal - Library of Denmark, of which it is still one of the chief treasures. - These leading narratives are supplemented by Adam of Bremen, _Gesta - Hammaburgensis ecclesiae pontificum_, chap. 38 (247 Lappenberg) of - book iv. (often separately entitled _Descriptio Insularum Aquilonis_; - Adam's is the earliest extant reference to Vinland, c. 1070): we have - also notices of Vinland in the _Libellus Islandorum_ of Ari Frodi (c. - 1120), the oldest Icelandic historian; in the _Kristni Saga_ (repeated - in Snorri Sturlason's _Heimskringla_); in _Eyrbyggia Saga_ (c. 1250); - in _Gretti Saga_ (c. 1290); and in an Icelandic chorography of the - 14th century, or earlier, partly derived from the famous traveller - Abbot Nicolas of Thing-eyrar ([+]1159). - - See Gustav Storm, "Studies on the Vineland Voyages," in the _Memoires - de la Societe royale des Antiquaires du Nord_ (Copenhagen, 1888); and - _Eiriks Saga Raudha_ (Copenhagen, 1891); A. M. Reeves, _Finding of - Wineland the Good: the History of the Icelandic Discovery of America_ - (London, 1890); in this work the original authorities are given in - full, with photographic facsimiles, English translations and adequate - commentary; Rafn's _Antiquitates Americanae_ (Copenhagen, 1837) - contains all the sources, but the editor's personal views have in many - cases failed to satisfy criticism; the _Flatey_ text is printed also - by Vigfusson and Unger in _Flateyjar-bok_, vol. i. (Christiania, - 1860). There are also translations of _Flatey_ and _Red Eric Saga_ in - Beamish, _Discovery of North America, by the Northmen_ (Lond., 1841); - E. F. Slafter, _Voyages of the Northmen_ (Boston, 1877); B. F. de - Costa, _Pre-Columbian Discovery of America by the Northmen_ (Albany, - 1901); and _Original Narratives of Early American History; The - Northmen, Columbus and Cabot_, pp. 1-66 (New York, 1906). See also C. - Raymond Beazley, _Dawn of Modern Geography_ ii. 48-83 (London, 1901); - Josef Fischer, _Die Entdeckungen der Normannen in Amerika_ (Freiburg - i. B., 1902); John Fiske, _Discovery of America_, vol. i.; Juul - Dieserud, "Norse Discoveries in America," in the _Bulletin of the - American Geographical Society_ (February, 1901); G. Vigfusson, - _Origines Islandicae_ (1905), which strangely expresses a preference - for the _Flatey Book_ "account of the first sighting of the American - continent" by the Norsemen. (C. R. B.) - - - - -LEIGH, EDWARD (1602-1671), English Puritan and theologian, was born at -Shawell, Leicestershire. He was educated at Magdalen Hall, Oxford, from -1616, and subsequently became a member of the Middle Temple. In 1636 he -entered parliament as member for Stafford, and during the Civil War held -a colonelcy in the parliamentary army. He has sometimes been confounded -with John Ley (1583-1662), and so represented as having sat in the -Westminster Assembly. The public career of Leigh terminated with his -expulsion from parliament with the rest of the Presbyterian party in -1648. From an early age he had studied theology and produced numerous -compilations, the most important being the _Critica Sacra, containing -Observations on all the Radices of the Hebrew Words of the Old and the -Greek of the New Testament_ (1639-1644; new ed., with supplement, 1662), -for which the author received the thanks of the Westminster Assembly, to -whom it was dedicated. His other works include _Select and Choice -Observations concerning the First Twelve Caesars_ (1635); _A Treatise of -Divinity_ (1646-1651); _Annotations upon the New Testament_ (1650), of -which a Latin translation by Arnold was published at Leipzig in 1732; _A -Body of Divinity_ (1654); _A Treatise of Religion and Learning_ (1656); -_Annotations of the Five Poetical Books of the Old Testament_ (1657). -Leigh died in Staffordshire in June 1671. - - - - -LEIGH, a market town and municipal borough in the Leigh parliamentary -division of Lancashire, England, 11 m. W. by N. from Manchester by the -London & North-Western railway. Pop. (1891) 30,882, (1901) 40,001. The -ancient parish church of St Mary the Virgin was, with the exception of -the tower, rebuilt in 1873 in the Perpendicular style. The grammar -school, the date of whose foundation is unknown, received its principal -endowments in 1655, 1662 and 1681. The staple manufactures are silk and -cotton; there are also glass works, foundries, breweries, and flour -mills, with extensive collieries. Though the neighbourhood is -principally an industrial district, several fine old houses are left -near Leigh. The town was incorporated in 1899, and the corporation -consists of a mayor, 8 aldermen and 24 councillors. Area, 6358 acres. - - - - -LEIGHTON, FREDERICK LEIGHTON, BARON (1830-1896), English painter and -sculptor, the son of a physician, was born at Scarborough on the 3rd of -December 1830. His grandfather, Sir James Leighton, also a physician, was -long resident at the court of St Petersburg. Frederick Leighton was taken -abroad at a very early age. In 1840 he learnt drawing at Rome under -Signor Meli. The family moved to Dresden and Berlin, where he attended -classes at the Academy. In 1843 he was sent to school at Frankfort, and -in the winter of 1844 accompanied his family to Florence, where his -future career as an artist was decided. There he studied under Bezzuoli -and Segnolini at the Accademia delle Belle Arti, and attended anatomy -classes under Zanetti; but he soon returned to complete his general -education at Frankfort, receiving no further direct instruction in art -for five years. He went to Brussels in 1848, where he met Wiertz and -Gallait, and painted some pictures, including "Cimabue finding Giotto," -and a portrait of himself. In 1849 he studied for a few months in Paris, -where he copied Titian and Correggio in the Louvre, and then returned to -Frankfort, where he settled down to serious art work under Edward -Steinle, whose pupil he declared he was "in the fullest sense of the -term." Though his artistic training was mainly German, and his master -belonged to the same school as Cornelius and Overbeck, he loved Italian -art and Italy and the first picture by which he became known to the -British public was "Cimabue's Madonna carried in Procession through the -Streets of Florence," which appeared at the Royal Academy in 1855. At -this time the works of the Pre-Raphaelites almost absorbed public -interest in art--it was the year of Holman Hunt's "Light of the World," -and the "Rescue," by Millais. Yet Leighton's picture, painted in quite a -different style, created a sensation, and was purchased by Queen -Victoria. Although, since his infancy, he had only visited England once -(in 1851, when he came to see the Great Exhibition), he was not quite -unknown in the cultured and artistic world of London, as he had made many -friends during a residence in Rome of some two years or more after he -left Frankfort in 1852. Amongst these were Giovanni Costa, Robert -Browning, James Knowles, George Mason and Sir Edward Poynter, then a -youth, whom he allowed to work in his studio. He also met Thackeray, who -wrote from Rome to the young Millais: "Here is a versatile young dog, who -will run you close for the presidentship one of these days." During these -years he painted several Florentine subjects--"Tybalt and Romeo," "The -Death of Brunelleschi," a cartoon of "The Pest in Florence according to -Boccaccio," and "The Reconciliation of the Montagues and the Capulets." -He now turned his attention to themes of classic legend, which at first -he treated in a "Romantic spirit." His next picture, exhibited in 1856, -was "The Triumph of Music: Orpheus by the Power of his Art redeems his -Wife from Hades." It was not a success, and he did not again exhibit till -1858, when he sent a little picture of "The Fisherman and the Syren" to -the Royal Academy, and "Samson and Delilah" to the Society of British -Artists in Suffolk Street. In 1858 he visited London and made the -acquaintance of the leading Pre-Raphaelites--Rossetti, Holman Hunt and -Millais. In the spring of 1859 he was at Capri, always a favourite resort -of his, and made many studies from nature, including a very famous -drawing of a lemon tree. It was not till 1860 that he settled in London, -when he took up his quarters at 2 Orme Square, Bayswater, where he stayed -till, in 1860, he moved to his celebrated house in Holland Park Road, -with its Arab hall decorated with Damascus tiles. There he lived till his -death. He now began to fulfil the promise of his "Cimabue," and by such -pictures as "Paolo e Francesca," "The Star of Bethlehem," "Jezebel and -Ahab taking Possession of Naboth's Vineyard," "Michael Angelo musing over -his Dying Servant," "A Girl feeding Peacocks," and "The Odalisque," all -exhibited in 1861-1863, rose rapidly to the head of his profession. The -two latter pictures were marked by the rhythm of line and luxury of -colour which are among the most constant attributes of his art, and may -be regarded as his first dreams of Oriental beauty, with which he -afterwards showed so great a sympathy. In 1864 he exhibited "Dante in -Exile" (the greatest of his Italian pictures), "Orpheus and Eurydice" and -"Golden Hours." In the winter of the same year he was elected an -Associate of the Royal Academy. After this the main effort of his life -was to realize visions of beauty suggested by classic myth and history. -If we add to pictures of this class a few Scriptural subjects, a few -Oriental dreams, one or two of tender sentiment like "Wedded" (one of the -most popular of his pictures, and well known by not only an engraving, -but a statuette modelled by an Italian sculptor), a number of studies of -very various types of female beauty, "Teresina," "Biondina," "Bianca," -"Moretta," &c., and an occasional portrait, we shall nearly exhaust the -two classes into which Lord Leighton's work (as a painter) can be -divided. - -Amongst the finest of his classical pictures were--"Syracusan Bride -leading Wild Beasts in Procession to the Temple of Diana" (1866), "Venus -disrobing for the Bath" (1867), "Electra at the Tomb of Agamemnon," and -"Helios and Rhodos" (1869), "Hercules wrestling with Death for the Body -of Alcestis" (1871), "Clytemnestra" (1874), "The Daphnephoria" (1876), -"Nausicaa" (1878), "An Idyll" (1881), two lovers under a spreading oak -listening to the piping of a shepherd and gazing on the rich plain -below; "Phryne" (1882), a nude figure standing in the sun; "Cymon and -Iphigenia" (1884), "Captive Andromache" (1888), now in the Manchester -Art Gallery; with the "Last Watch of Hero" (1887), "The Bath of Psyche" -(1890), now in the Chantrey Bequest collection; "The Garden of the -Hesperides" (1892), "Perseus and Andromeda" and "The Return of -Persephone," now in the Leeds Gallery (1891); and "Clytie," his last -work (1896). All these pictures are characterized by nobility of -conception, by almost perfect draughtsmanship, by colour which, if not -of the highest quality, is always original, choice and effective. They -often reach distinction and dignity of attitude and gesture, and -occasionally, as in the "Hercules and Death," the "Electra" and the -"Clytemnestra," a noble intensity of feeling. Perhaps, amidst the great -variety of qualities which they possess, none is more universal and more -characteristic than a rich elegance, combined with an almost fastidious -selection of beautiful forms. It is the super-eminence of these -qualities, associated with great decorative skill, that make the -splendid pageant of the "Daphnephoria" the most perfect expression of -his individual genius. Here we have his composition, his colour, his -sense of the joy and movement of life, his love of art and nature at -their purest and most spontaneous, and the result is a work without a -rival of its kind in the British School. - -Leighton was one of the most thorough draughtsmen of his day. His -sketches and studies for his pictures are numerous and very highly -esteemed. They contain the essence of his conceptions, and much of their -spiritual beauty and subtlety of expression was often lost in the -elaboration of the finished picture. He seldom succeeded in retaining -the freshness of his first idea more completely than in his last -picture--"Clytie"--which was left unfinished on his easel. He rarely -painted sacred subjects. The most beautiful of his few pictures of this -kind was the "David musing on the Housetop" (1865). Others were "Elijah -in the Wilderness" (1879), "Elisha raising the Son of the Shunammite" -(1881) and a design intended for the decoration of the dome of St Paul's -Cathedral, "And the Sea gave up the Dead which were in it" (1892), now -in the Tate Gallery, and the terrible "Rizpah" of 1893. His diploma -picture was "St Jerome," exhibited in 1869. Besides these pictures of -sacred subjects, he made some designs for Dalziel's Bible, which for -force of imagination excel the paintings. The finest of these are "Cain -and Abel," and "Samson with the Gates of Gaza." - -Not so easily to be classed, but among the most individual and beautiful -of his pictures, are a few of which the motive was purely aesthetic. -Amongst these may specially be noted "The Summer Moon," two Greek girls -sleeping on a marble bench, and "The Music Lesson," in which a lovely -little girl is seated on her lovely young mother's lap learning to play -the lute. With these, as a work produced without any literary -suggestion, though very different in feeling, may be associated the -"Eastern Slinger scaring Birds in the Harvest-time: Moon-rise" (1875), a -nude figure standing on a raised platform in a field of wheat. - -Leighton also painted a few portraits, including those of Signor Costa, -the Italian landscape painter, Mr F. P. Cockerell, Mrs Sutherland Orr -(his sister), Amy, Lady Coleridge, Mrs Stephen Ralli and (the finest of -all) Sir Richard Burton, the traveller and Eastern scholar, which was -exhibited in 1876 and is now in the National Portrait Gallery. - -Like other painters of the day, notably G. F. Watts, Lord Leighton -executed a few pieces of sculpture. His "Athlete struggling with a -Python" was exhibited at the Royal Academy in 1877, and was purchased -for the Chantrey Bequest collection. Another statue, "The Sluggard," of -equal merit, was exhibited in 1886; and a charming statuette of a nude -figure of a girl looking over her shoulder at a frog, called "Needless -Alarms," was completed in the same year, and presented by the artist to -Sir John Millais in acknowledgment of the gift by the latter of his -picture, "Shelling Peas." He made the beautiful design for the reverse -of the Jubilee Medal of 1887. It was also his habit to make sketch -models in wax for the figures in his pictures, many of which are in the -possession of the Royal Academy. As an illustrator in black and white he -also deserves to be remembered, especially for the cuts to Dalziel's -Bible, already mentioned, and his illustrations to George Eliot's -_Romola_, which appeared in the _Cornhill Magazine_. The latter are full -of the spirit of Florence and the Florentines, and show a keen sense of -humour, elsewhere excluded from his work. Of his decorative paintings, -the best known are the elegant compositions (in spirit fresco) on the -walls of the Victoria and Albert Museum, representing "The Industrial -Arts of War and Peace." There, also, is the refined and spirited figure -of "Cimabue" in mosaic. In Lyndhurst church are mural decorations to the -memory of Mr Pepys Cockerell, illustrating "The Parable of the Wise and -Foolish Virgins." - -Leighton's life was throughout marked by distinction, artistic and -social. Though not tall, he had a fine presence and manners, at once -genial and courtly. He was welcomed in all societies, from the palace to -the studio. He spoke German, Italian and French, as well as English. He -had much taste and love for music, and considerable gifts as an orator -of a florid type. His Presidential Discourses (published, London, 1896) -were full of elegance and culture. For seven years (1876-1883) he -commanded the 20th Middlesex (Artists) Rifle Volunteers, retiring with -the rank of honorary colonel, and subsequently receiving the Volunteer -Decoration. Yet no social attractions or successes diverted him from his -devotion to his profession, the welfare of his brethren in art or of the -Royal Academy. As president he was punctilious in the discharge of his -duties, ready to give help and encouragement to artists young and old, -and his tenure of the office was marked by some wise and liberal -reforms. He frequently went abroad, generally to Italy, where he was -well known and appreciated. He visited Spain in 1866, Egypt in 1868, -when he went up the Nile with Ferdinand de Lesseps in a steamer lent by -the Khedive. He was at Damascus for a short time in 1873. It was his -custom on all these trips to make little lively sketches of landscape -and buildings. These fresh little flowers of his leisure used to -decorate the walls of his studio, and at the sale of its contents after -his death realized considerable prices. It was when he was in the full -tide of his popularity and success, and apparently in the full tide of -his personal vigour also, that he was struck with _angina pectoris_. For -a long time he struggled bravely with this cruel disease, never omitting -except from absolute necessity any of his official duties except during -a brief period of rest abroad, which failed to produce the desired -effect. His death occurred on the 25th of January 1896. - -Leighton was elected an Academician in 1868, and succeeded Sir Francis -Grant as President in 1878, when he was knighted. He was created a -baronet in 1886, and was raised to the peerage in 1896, a few days -before his death. He held honorary degrees at the universities of -Oxford, Cambridge, Dublin, Edinburgh and Durham, was an Associate of the -Institute of France; a Commander of the Legion of Honour, and of the -Order of Leopold. He was a Knight of the Coburg Order, "Dem Verdienste," -and of the Prussian Order, "Pour le Merite," and a member of at least -ten foreign Academies. In 1859 he won a medal of the second class at the -Paris Salon, and at the Exposition Universelle of 1889 a gold medal. As -a sculptor he was awarded a medal of the first class in 1878 and the -Grand Prix in 1889. - - See _Art Annual_ (Mrs A. Lang), 1884; Royal Academy Catalogue, Winter - Exhibition, 1897; National Gallery of British Art Catalogue; C. - Monkhouse, _British Contemporary Artists_ (London, 1899); Ernest Rhys, - _Frederick, Lord Leighton_ (London, 1898, 1900). (C. Mo.) - - - - -LEIGHTON, ROBERT (1611-1684), archbishop of Glasgow, was born, probably -in London (others say at Ulishaven, Forfarshire), in 1611, the eldest -son of Dr Alexander Leighton, the author of _Zion's Plea against the -Prelacie_, whose terrible sufferings for having dared to question the -divine right of Episcopacy, under the persecution of Laud, form one of -the most disgraceful incidents of the reign of Charles I. Dr Leighton is -said to have been of the old family of Ulishaven in Forfarshire. From -his earliest childhood, according to Burnet, Robert Leighton was -distinguished for his saintly disposition. In his sixteenth year (1627) -he was sent to the university of Edinburgh, where, after studying with -distinguished success for four years, he took the degree of M.A. in -1631. His father then sent him to travel abroad, and he is understood to -have spent several years in France, where he acquired a complete mastery -of the French language. While there he passed a good deal of time with -relatives at Douai who had become Roman Catholics, and with whom he kept -up a correspondence for many years afterwards. Either at this time or on -some subsequent visit he had also a good deal of intercourse with -members of the Jansenist party. This intercourse contributed to the -charity towards those who differed from him in religious opinion, which -ever afterwards formed a feature in his character. The exact period of -his return to Scotland has not been ascertained; but in 1641 he was -ordained Presbyterian minister of Newbattle in Midlothian. In 1652 he -resigned his charge and went to reside in Edinburgh. What led him to -take this step does not distinctly appear. The account given is that he -had little sympathy with the fiery zeal of his brother clergymen on -certain political questions, and that this led to severe censures on -their part. - -Early in 1653 he was appointed principal of the university of Edinburgh, -and primarius professor of divinity. In this post he continued for seven -or eight years. A considerable number of his Latin prelections and other -addresses (published after his death) are remarkable for the purity and -elegance of their Latinity, and their subdued and meditative eloquence. -They are valuable instructions in the art of living a holy life rather -than a body of scientific divinity. Throughout, however, they bear the -marks of a deeply learned and accomplished mind, saturated with both -classical and patristic reading, and like all his works they breathe the -spirit of one who lived very much above the world. His mental temper was -too unlike the temper of his time to secure success as a teacher. - -In 1661, when Charles II. had resolved to force Episcopacy once more -upon Scotland, he fixed upon Leighton for one of his bishops (see -SCOTLAND, CHURCH OF). Leighton, living very much out of the world, and -being somewhat deficient in what may be called the political sense, was -too open to the persuasions used to induce him to enter a sphere for -which he instinctively felt he was ill qualified. The Episcopacy which -he contemplated was that modified form which had been suggested by -Archbishop Ussher, and to which Baxter and many of the best of the -English Nonconformists would have readily given their adherence. It is -significant that he always refused to be addressed as "my lord," and it -is stated that when dining with his clergy on one occasion he wished to -seat himself at the foot of the table. - -Leighton soon began to discover the sort of men with whom he was to be -associated in the episcopate. He travelled with them in the same coach -from London towards Scotland, but having become, as he told Burnet, very -weary of their company (as he doubted not they were of his), and having -found that they intended to make a kind of triumphal entrance into -Edinburgh, he left them at Morpeth and retired to the earl of Lothian's -at Newbattle. He very soon lost all hope of being able to build up the -church by the means which the government had set on foot, and his work, -as he confessed to Burnet, "seemed to him a fighting against God." He -did, however, what he could, governing his diocese (that of Dunblane) -with the utmost mildness, as far as he could, preventing the persecuting -measures in active operation elsewhere, and endeavouring to persuade the -Presbyterian clergy to come to an accommodation with their Episcopal -brethren. After a hopeless struggle of three or four years to induce the -government to put a stop to their fierce persecution of the Covenanters, -he determined to resign his bishopric, and went up to London in 1665 for -this purpose. He so far worked upon the mind of Charles that he promised -to enforce the adoption of milder measures, but it does not appear that -any material improvement took place. In 1669 Leighton again went to -London and made fresh representations on the subject, but little result -followed. The slight disposition, however, shown by the government to -accommodate matters appears to have inspired Leighton with so much hope -that in the following year he agreed, though with a good deal of -hesitation, to accept the archbishopric of Glasgow. In this higher -sphere he redoubled his efforts with the Presbyterians to bring about -some degree of conciliation with Episcopacy, but the only result was to -embroil himself with the hot-headed Episcopal party as well as with the -Presbyterians. In utter despair, therefore, of being able to be of any -further service to the cause of religion, he resigned the archbishopric -in 1674 and retired to the house of his widowed sister, Mrs Lightmaker, -at Broadhurst in Sussex. Here he spent the remaining ten years, probably -the happiest of his life, and died suddenly on a visit to London in -1684. - - It is difficult to form a just or at least a full estimate of - Leighton's character. He stands almost alone in his age. In some - respects he was immeasurably superior both in intellect and in piety - to most of the Scottish ecclesiastics of his time; and yet he seems to - have had almost no influence in moulding the characters or conduct of - his contemporaries. So intense was his absorption in the love of God - that little room seems to have been left in his heart for human - sympathy or affection. Can it be that there was after all something to - repel in his outward manner? Burnet tells us that he had never seen - him laugh, and very seldom even smile. In other respects, too, he - gives the impression of standing aloof from human interests and ties. - It may go for little that he never married, but it was surely a - curious idiosyncrasy that he habitually cherished the wish (which was - granted him) that he might die in an inn. In fact, holy meditation - seems to have been the one absorbing interest of his life. At Dunblane - tradition preserved the memory of "the good bishop," silent and - companionless, pacing up and down the sloping walk by the river's bank - under the beautiful west window of his cathedral. And from a letter of - the earl of Lothian to his countess it appears that, whatever other - reasons Leighton might have had for resigning his charge at Newbattle, - the main object which he had in view was to be left to his own - thoughts. It is therefore not very wonderful that he was completely - misjudged and even disliked both by the Presbyterian and by the - Episcopal party. - - It was characteristic of him that he could never be made to understand - that anything which he wrote possessed the smallest value. None of his - works were published by himself, and it is stated that he left orders - that all his MSS. should be destroyed after his death. But fortunately - for the world this charge was disregarded. Like all the best writing, - it seems to flow without effort; it is the easy unaffected outcome of - his saintly nature. Throughout, however, it is the language of a - scholar and a man of perfect literary taste; and with all its - spirituality of thought there are no mystical raptures, such as are - often found mingled with the Scottish practical theology of the 17th - century. It was a common reproach against Leighton that he had - leanings towards Roman Catholicism, and perhaps this is so far true - that he had formed himself in some degree upon the model of some of - the saintly persons of that faith, such as Pascal and Thomas a Kempis. - - The best account of Leighton's character is that of Bishop Burnet in - _Hist. of his Own Times_ (1723-1734). No perfectly satisfactory - edition of Leighton's works exists. After his death his _Commentary on - Peter_ and several of his other works were published under the - editorship of his friend Dr Fall, and those early editions may be said - to be, with some drawbacks, by far the best. His later editors have - been possessed by the mania of reducing his good archaic and nervous - language to the bald feebleness of modern phraseology. It is - unfortunately impossible to exempt from this criticism even the - edition, in other respects very valuable and meritorious, published - under the superintendence of the Rev. W. West (7 vols., London, - 1869-1875); see also volume of selections (with biography) by Dr Blair - of Dunblane (1883), who also contributed "Bibliography of Archbishop - Leighton" to the _British and Foreign Evangelical Review_ (July 1883); - Andrew Lang, _History of Scotland_ (1902). (J. T. Br.; D. Mn.) - - - - -LEIGHTON BUZZARD, a market town in the southern parliamentary division -of Bedfordshire, England, 40 m. N.W. of London by the London & -North-Western railway. Pop. of urban district (1901) 6331. It lies in -the flat valley of the Ouzel, a tributary of the Ouse, sheltered to east -and west by low hills. The river here forms the county boundary with -Buckinghamshire. The Grand Junction canal follows its course, and gives -the town extensive water-communications. The church of All Saints is -cruciform, with central tower and spire. It is mainly Early English, and -a fine example of the style; but some of the windows including the nave -clerestory, and the beautiful carved wooden roof, are Perpendicular. The -west door has good early iron-work; and on one of the tower-arch pillars -are some remarkable early carvings of jocular character, one of which -represents a man assaulted by a woman with a ladle. The market cross is -of the 14th century, much restored, having an open arcade supporting a -pinnacle, with flying buttresses. The statues in its niches are modern, -but the originals are placed on the exterior of the town hall. Leighton -has a considerable agricultural trade, and some industry in -straw-plaiting. Across the Ouzel in Buckinghamshire, where Leighton -railway station is situated, is the urban district of Linslade (pop. -2157). - - - - -LEININGEN, the name of an old German family, whose lands lay principally -in Alsace and Lorraine. The first count of Leiningen about whom anything -certain is known was a certain Emicho (d. 1117), whose family became -extinct in the male line when Count Frederick, a Minnesinger, died about -1220. Frederick's sister, Liutgarde, married Simon, count of -Saarbrucken, and Frederick, one of their sons, inheriting the lands of -the counts of Leiningen, took their arms and their name. Having -increased its possessions the Leiningen family was divided about 1317 -into two branches; the elder of these, whose head was a landgrave, died -out in 1467. On this event its lands fell to a female, the last -landgrave's sister Margaret, wife of Reinhard, lord of Westerburg, and -their descendants were known as the family of Leiningen-Westerburg. -Later this family was divided into two branches, those of -Alt-Leiningen-Westerburg and Neu-Leiningen-Westerburg, both of which are -represented to-day. - -Meanwhile the younger branch of the Leiningens, known as the family of -Leiningen-Dagsburg, was flourishing, and in 1560 this was divided into -the lines of Leiningen-Dagsburg-Hartenburg, founded by Count John Philip -(d. 1562), and Leiningen-Dagsburg-Heidesheim or Falkenburg, founded by -Count Emicho (d. 1593). In 1779 the head of the former line was raised -to the rank of a prince of the Empire. In 1801 this family was deprived -of its lands on the left bank of the Rhine by France, but in 1803 it -received ample compensation for these losses. A few years later its -possessions were mediatized, and they are now included mainly in Baden, -but partly in Bavaria and in Hesse. A former head of this family, Prince -Emich Charles, married Maria Louisa Victoria, princess of Saxe-Coburg; -after his death in 1814 the princess married George III.'s son, the duke -of Kent, by whom she became the mother of Queen Victoria. In 1910 the -head of the family was Prince Emich (b. 1866). - -The family of Leiningen-Dagsburg-Heidesheim was divided into three -branches, the two senior of which became extinct during the 18th century. -At present it is represented by the counts of Leiningen-Guntersblum and -Leiningen-Heidesheim, called also Leiningen-Billigheim and -Leiningen-Neidenau. - - See Brinckmeier, _Genealogische Geschichte des Hauses Leiningen_ - (Brunswick, 1890-1891). - - - - -LEINSTER, a province of Ireland, occupying the middle and south-eastern -portion of the island, and extending to the left bank of the Shannon. It -includes counties Longford, Westmeath, Meath, Louth, King's County, -Kildare, Dublin, Queen's County, Carlow, Wicklow, Kilkenny and Wexford -(q.v. for topography, &c.). Leinster (_Laighen_) was one of the early -Milesian provinces of Ireland. Meath, the modern county of which is -included in Leinster, was the name of a separate province created in the -2nd century A.D. The kings of Leinster retained their position until -1171, and their descendants maintained independence within a -circumscribed territory as late as the 16th century. In 1170 Richard -Strongbow married Aoife, daughter of the last king Diarmid, and thus -acquired the nominal right to the kingdom of Leinster. Henry II. -confirmed him in powers of jurisdiction equivalent to those of a -palatinate. His daughter Isabel married William Marshal, earl of -Pembroke. Their five daughters shared the territory of Leinster, which -was now divided into five liberties carrying the same extensive -privileges as the undivided territory, namely, Carlow, Kilkenny, -Wexford, Kildare and Leix. The history of Leinster thereafter passes to -the several divisions which were gradually organized into the present -counties. - - - - -LEIPZIG, a city of Germany, the second town of the kingdom of Saxony in -size and the first in commercial importance, 70 m. N.W. of Dresden and -111 m. S.W. of Berlin by rail, and 6 m. from the Prussian frontier. It -lies 350 ft. above the sea-level, In a broad and fertile plain, just -above the junction of three small rivers, the Pleisse, the Parthe and -the Elster, which flow in various branches through or round the town and -afterwards under the name of the Elster, discharge themselves into the -Saale. The climate, though not generally unhealthy, may be inclement in -winter and hot in summer. - -Leipzig is one of the most enterprising and prosperous of German towns, -and in point of trade and industries ranks among German cities -immediately after Berlin and Hamburg. It possesses the third largest -German university, is the seat of the supreme tribunal of the German -empire and the headquarters of the XIX. (Saxon) army corps, and forms -one of the most prominent literary and musical centres in Europe. Its -general aspect is imposing, owing to the number of new public buildings -erected during the last 20 years of the 19th century. It consists of the -old, or inner city, surrounded by a wide and pleasant promenade laid out -on the site of the old fortifications, and of the very much more -extensive inner and outer suburbs. Many thriving suburban villages, such -as Reudnitz, Volkmarsdorf, Gohlis, Eutritzsch, Plagwitz and Lindenau, -have been incorporated with the city, and with these accretions the -population in 1905 amounted to 502,570. On the north-west the town is -bordered by the fine public park and woods of the Rosenthal, and on the -west by the Johanna Park and by pleasant groves leading along the banks -of the Pleisse. - -The old town, with its narrow streets and numerous houses of the 16th -and 17th centuries, with their high-pitched roofs, preserves much of its -quaint medieval aspect. The market square, lying almost in its centre, -is of great interest. Upon it the four main business streets, the -Grimmaische-, the Peters-, the Hain- and the Katharinen-strassen, -converge, and its north side is occupied by the beautiful old Rathaus, a -Gothic edifice built by the burgomaster Hieronymus Lotter in 1556, and -containing life-size portraits of the Saxon rulers. Superseded by the -new Rathaus, it has been restored and accommodates a municipal museum. -Behind the market square and the main street lie a labyrinth of narrow -streets interconnected by covered courtyards and alleys, with extensive -warehouses and cellars. The whole, in the time of the great fairs, when -every available place is packed with merchandise and thronged with a -motley crowd, presents the semblance of an oriental bazaar. Close to the -old Rathaus is Auerbach's _Hof_, built about 1530 and interesting as -being immortalized in Goethe's _Faust_. It has a curious old wine vault -(Keller) which contains a series of mural paintings of the 16th century, -representing the legend on which the play is based. Near by is the -picturesque Konigshaus, for several centuries the palace of the Saxon -monarchs in Leipzig and in which King Frederick Augustus I. was made -prisoner by the Allies after the battle of Leipzig in October 1813. At -the end of the Petersstrasse, in the south-west corner of the inner town -and on the promenade, lay the Pleissenburg, or citadel, modelled, -according to tradition, on that of Milan, and built early in the 13th -century. Here Luther in 1519 held his momentous disputation. The round -tower was long used as an observatory and the building as a barrack. -With the exception of the tower, which has been encased and raised to -double its former height--to 300 ft.--the citadel has been removed and -its site is occupied by the majestic pile of the new Rathaus in -Renaissance style, with the tower as its central feature. The business -of Leipzig is chiefly concentrated in the inner city, but the -headquarters of the book trade lie in the eastern suburb. Between the -inner town and the latter lies the magnificent Augustusplatz, one of the -most spacious squares in Europe. Upon it, on the side of the inner town -and included within it, is the Augusteum, or main building of the -university, a handsome edifice containing a splendid hall (1900), -lecture rooms and archaeological collections; adjoining it is the -Paulinerkirche, the university church. The other sides of the square are -occupied by the new theatre, an imposing Renaissance structure, designed -by C. F. Langhans, the post office and the museum of sculpture and -painting, the latter faced by the Mende fountain. The churches of -Leipzig are comparatively uninteresting. The oldest, in its present -form, is the Paulinerkirche, built in 1229-1240, and restored in 1900, -with a curiously grooved cloister; the largest in the inner town is the -Thomaskirche, with a high-pitched roof dating from 1496, and memorable -for its association with J. Sebastian Bach, who was organist here. Among -others may be mentioned the new Gothic Petrikirche, with a lofty spire, -in the south suburb. On the east is the Johanniskirche, round which -raged the last conflict in the battle of 1813, when it suffered severely -from cannon shot. In it is the tomb of Bach, and outside that of the -poet Gellert. Opposite its main entrance is the Reformation monument, -with bronze statues of Luther and Melanchthon, by Johann Schilling, -unveiled in 1883. In the Johanna Park is the Lutherkirche (1886), and -close at hand the Roman Catholic and English churches. To the south-west -of the new Rathaus, lying beyond the Pleisse and between it and the -Johanna Park, is the new academic quarter. Along the fine thoroughfares, -noticeable among which is the Karl Tauchnitz Strasse, are closely -grouped many striking buildings. Here is the new Gewandhaus, or -Konzerthaus, built in 1880-1884, in which the famous concerts called -after its name are given, the old Gewandhaus, or Drapers' Hall, in the -inner town having again been devoted to commercial use as a market hall -during the fairs. Immediately opposite to it is the new university -library, built in 1891, removed hither from the old monasterial -buildings behind the Augusteum, and containing some 500,000 volumes and -5000 MSS. Behind that again is the academy of art, one wing of which -accommodates the industrial art school; and close beside it are the -school of technical arts and the conservatoire of music. Between the -university library and the new Gewandhaus stands a monument of -Mendelssohn (1892). Immediately to the east of the school of arts rises -the grand pile of the supreme tribunal of the German empire, the -Reichsgericht, which compares with the Reichstag building in Berlin. It -was built in 1888-1895 from plans by Ludwig Hoffmann, and is -distinguished for the symmetry and harmony of its proportions. It bears -an imposing dome, 225 ft. high, crowned by a bronze figure of Truth by -O. Lessing, 18 ft. high. Opposite, on the outer side of the Pleisse, are -the district law-courts, large and substantial, though not specially -imposing edifices. In the same quarter stands the Grassi Museum -(1893-1896) for industrial art and ethnology, and a short distance away -are the palatial buildings of the Reichs and Deutsche Banks. Farther -east and lying in the centre of the book-trade quarter stand close -together the Buchhandlerhaus (booksellers' exchange), the great hall -decorated with allegorical pictures by Sascha Schneider, and the -Buchgewerbehaus, a museum of the book trade, both handsome red brick -edifices in the German Renaissance style, erected in 1886-1890. -South-west of these buildings, on the other side of the Johannisthal -Park, are clustered the medical institutes and hospitals of the -university--the infirmary, clinical and other hospitals, the -physico-chemical institute, pathological institute, physiological -institute, ophthalmic hospital, pharmacological institute, the schools -of anatomy, the chemical laboratory, the zoological institute, the -physico-mineralogical institute, the botanical garden and also the -veterinary schools, deaf and dumb asylum, agricultural college and -astronomical observatory. Among other noteworthy buildings in this -quarter must be noted the Johannisstift, an asylum for the relief of the -aged poor, with a handsome front and slender spire. On the north side of -the inner town and on the promenade are the handsome exchange with -library, and the reformed church, a pleasing edifice in late Gothic. - -Leipzig has some interesting monuments; the Siegesdenkmal, commemorative -of the wars of 1866 and 1870, on the market square, statues of Goethe, -Leibnitz, Gellert, J. Sebastian Bach, Robert Schumann, Hahnemann, the -homeopathist, and Bismarck. There are also many memorials of the battle -of Leipzig, including an obelisk on the Randstadter-Steinweg, on the -site of the bridge which was prematurely blown up, when Prince -Poniatowski was drowned; a monument of cannon balls collected after the -battle; a "relief" to Major Friccius, who stormed the outer Grimma gate; -while on the battle plain itself and close to "Napoleonstein," which -commemorates Napoleon's position on the last day of the battle, a -gigantic obelisk surrounded by a garden has been planned for dedication -on the hundredth anniversary of the battle (October 19, 1913). - -_The University and Education._--The university of Leipzig, founded in -1409 by a secession of four hundred German students from Prague, is one -of the most influential universities in the world. It was a few years -since the most numerously attended of any university in Germany, but it -has since been outstripped by those of Berlin and of Munich. Its large -revenues, derived to a great extent from house property in Leipzig and -estates in Saxony, enable it, in conjunction with a handsome state -subvention, to provide rich endowments for the professorial chairs. To -the several faculties also belong various collegiate buildings, notably, -to the legal, that of the _Collegium beatae Virginis_ in the -Petersstrasse, and to the philosophical the _Rothe Haus_ on the -promenade facing the theatre. The other educational institutions of -Leipzig include the Nicolai and Thomas gymnasia, several "Realschulen," -a commercial academy (_Handelsschule_), high schools for girls, and a -large number of public and private schools of all grades. - -_Art and Literature._--The city has a large number of literary, -scientific and artistic institutions. One of the most important is the -museum, which contains about four hundred modern paintings, a large -number of casts, a few pieces of original sculpture and a well-arranged -collection of drawings and engravings. The collection of the historical -society and the ethnographical and art-industrial collections in the -Grassi Museum are also of considerable interest. The museum was erected -with part of the munificent bequest made to the city by Dominic Grassi -in 1881. As a musical centre Leipzig is known all over the world for its -excellent conservatorium, founded in 1843 by Mendelssohn. The series of -concerts given annually in the Gewandhaus is also of world-wide -reputation, and the operatic stage of Leipzig is deservedly ranked among -the finest in Germany. There are numerous vocal and orchestral -societies, some of which have brought their art to a very high pitch of -perfection. The prominence of the publishing interest has attracted to -Leipzig a large number of gifted authors, and made it a literary centre -of considerable importance. Over five hundred newspapers and periodicals -are published here, including several of the most widely circulated in -Germany. Intellectual interests of a high order have always -characterized Leipzig, and what Karl von Holtei once said of it is true -to-day: "There is only one city in Germany that represents Germany; only -a single city where one can forget that he is a Hessian, a Bavarian, a -Swabian, a Prussian or a Saxon; only one city where, amid the opulence -of the commercial world with which science is so gloriously allied, even -the man who possesses nothing but his personality is honoured and -esteemed; only one city, in which, despite a few narrownesses, all the -advantages of a great, I may say a world-metropolis, are conspicuous! -This city is, in my opinion, and in my experience, Leipzig." - -_Commerce, Fairs._--The outstanding importance of Leipzig as a -commercial town is mainly derived from its three great fairs, which -annually attract an enormous concourse of merchants from all parts of -Europe, and from Persia, Armenia and other Asiatic countries. The most -important fairs are held at Easter and Michaelmas, and are said to have -been founded as markets about 1170. The smaller New Year's fair was -established in 1458. Under the fostering care of the margraves of -Meissen, and then of the electors of Saxony they attained great -popularity. In 1268 the margrave of Meissen granted a safe-conduct to -all frequenters of the fairs, and in 1497 and 1507 the emperor -Maximilian I. greatly increased their importance by prohibiting the -holding of annual markets at any town within a wide radius of Leipzig. -During the Thirty Years' War, the Seven Years' War and the troubles -consequent upon the French Revolution, the trade of the Leipzig fairs -considerably decreased, but it recovered after the accession of Saxony -to the German Customs Union (_Zollverein_) in 1834, and for the next -twenty years rapidly and steadily increased. Since then, owing to the -greater facilities of communication, the transactions at the fairs have -diminished in relative, though they have increased in actual, value. -Wares that can be safely purchased by sample appear at the fairs in -steadily diminishing quantities, while others, such as hides, furs and -leather, which require to be actually examined, show as marked an -increase. The value of the sales considerably exceeds L10,000,000 -sterling per annum. The principal commodity is furs (chiefly American -and Russian), of which about one and a quarter million pounds worth are -sold annually; other articles disposed of are leather, hides, wool, -cloth, linen and glass. The Leipzig wool-market, held for two days in -June, is also important. - -In the trades of bookselling and publishing Leipzig occupies a unique -position, not only taking the first place in Germany, but even surpassing -London and Paris in the number and total value of its sales. There are -upwards of nine hundred publishers and booksellers in the town, and about -eleven thousand firms in other parts of Europe are represented here. -Several hundred booksellers assemble in Leipzig every year, and settle -their accounts at their own exchange (_Buchhandler-Borse_). Leipzig also -contains about two hundred printing-works, some of great extent, and a -corresponding number of type-foundries, binding-shops and other kindred -industries. - -The book trades give employment to over 15,000 persons, and since 1878 -Leipzig has grown into an industrial town of the first rank. The iron -and machinery trades employ 4500 persons; the textile industries, cotton -and yarn spinning and hosiery, 6000; and the making of scientific and -musical instruments, including pianos, 2650. Other industries include -the manufacture of artificial flowers, wax-cloth, chemicals, ethereal -oils and essences, beer, mineral waters, tobacco and cigars, lace, -india-rubber wares, rush-work and paper, the preparation of furs and -numerous other branches. These industries are mostly carried on in the -suburbs of Plagwitz, Reudnitz, Lindenau, Gohlis, Eutritzsch, Konnewitz -and the neighbouring town of Markranstadt. - -_Communications._--Leipzig lies at the centre of a network of railways -giving it direct communication with all the more important cities of -Germany. There are six main line railway stations, of which the Dresden -and the Magdeburg lie side by side in the north-east corner of the -promenade, the Thuringian and Berlin stations further away in the -northern suburb; in the eastern is the Eilenburg station (for Breslau -and the east) and in the south the Bavarian station. The whole traffic -of these stations is to be directed into a vast central station (the -largest in the world), lying on the sites of the Dresden, Magdeburg and -Thuringian stations. The estimated cost, borne by Prussia, Saxony and -the city of Leipzig, is estimated at 6 million pounds sterling. The city -has an extensive electric tramway system, bringing all the outlying -suburbs into close connexion with the business quarters of the town. - -_Population._--The population of Leipzig was quintupled within the 19th -century, rising from 31,887 in 1801 to 153,988 in 1881, to 455,089 in -1900 and to 502,570 in 1905. - - _History._--Leipzig owes its origin to a Slav settlement between the - Elster and the Pleisse, which was in existence before the year 1000, - and its name to the Slav word _lipa_, a lime tree. There was also a - German settlement near this spot, probably round a castle erected - early in the 10th century by the German king, Henry the Fowler. The - district was part of the mark of Merseburg, and the bishops of - Merseburg were the lords of extensive areas around the settlements. In - the 11th century Leipzig is mentioned as a fortified place and in the - 12th it came into the possession of the margrave of Meissen, being - granted some municipal privileges by the margrave, Otto the Rich, - before 1190. Its favourable situation in the midst of a plain - intersected by the principal highways of central Europe, together with - the fostering care of its rulers, now began the work of raising - Leipzig to the position of a very important commercial town. Its - earliest trade was in the salt produced at Halle, and its enterprising - inhabitants constructed roads and bridges to lighten the journey of - the traders and travellers whose way led to the town. Soon Leipzig was - largely used as a depot by the merchants of Nuremberg, who carried on - a considerable trade with Poland. Powers of self-government were - acquired by the council (_Rat_) of the town, the importance of which - was enhanced during the 15th century by several grants of privileges - from the emperors. When Saxony was divided in 1485 Leipzig fell to the - Albertine, or ducal branch of the family, whose head Duke George gave - new rights to the burghers. This duke, however, at whose instigation - the famous discussion between Luther and Johann von Eck took place in - the Pleissenburg of Leipzig, inflicted some injury upon the town's - trade and also upon its university by the harsh treatment which he - meted out to the adherents of the new doctrines; but under the rule of - his successor, Henry, Leipzig accepted the teaching of the reformers. - In 1547 during the war of the league of Schmalkalden the town was - besieged by the elector of Saxony, John Frederick I. It was not - captured, although its suburbs were destroyed. These and the - Pleissenburg were rebuilt by the elector Maurice, who also - strengthened the fortifications. Under the elector Augustus I. - emigrants from the Netherlands were encouraged to settle in Leipzig - and its trade with Hamburg and with England was greatly extended. - - During the Thirty Years' War Leipzig suffered six sieges and on four - occasions was occupied by hostile troops, being retained by the Swedes - as security for the payment of an indemnity from 1648 to 1650. After - 1650 its fortifications were strengthened; its finances were put on a - better footing; and its trade, especially with England, began again to - prosper; important steps being taken with regard to its organization. - Towards the end of the 17th century the publishing trade began to - increase very rapidly, partly because the severity of the censorship - at Frankfort-on-the-Main caused many booksellers to remove to Leipzig. - During the Seven Years' War Frederick the Great exacted a heavy - contribution from Leipzig, but this did not seriously interfere with - its prosperity. In 1784 the fortifications were pulled down. The wars - in the first decade of the 19th century were not on the whole - unfavourable to the commerce of Leipzig, but in 1813 and 1814, owing - to the presence of enormous armies in the neighbourhood, it suffered - greatly. Another revival, however, set in after the peace of 1815, and - this was aided by the accession of Saxony to the German Zollverein in - 1834, and by the opening of the first railway a little later. In 1831 - the town was provided with a new constitution, and in 1837 a scheme - for the reform of the university was completed. A riot in 1845, the - revolutionary movement of 1848 and the Prussian occupation of 1866 - were merely passing shadows. In 1879 Leipzig acquired a new importance - by becoming the seat of the supreme court of the German empire. - - The immediate neighbourhood of Leipzig has been the scene of several - battles, two of which are of more than ordinary importance. These are - the battles of Breitenfeld, fought on the 17th of September 1631, - between the Swedes under Gustavus Adolphus and the imperialists, and - the great battle of Leipzig, known in Germany as the Volkerschlacht, - fought in October 1813 between Napoleon and the allied forces of - Russia, Prussia and Austria. - - Towards the middle of the 18th century Leipzig was the seat of the - most influential body of literary men in Germany, over whom Johann - Christoph Gottsched, like his contemporary, Samuel Johnson, in - England, exercised a kind of literary dictatorship. Then, if ever, - Leipzig deserved the epithet of a "Paris in miniature" (_Klein Paris_) - assigned to it by Goethe in his _Faust_. The young Lessing produced - his first play in the Leipzig theatre, and the university counts - Goethe, Klopstock, Jean Paul Richter, Fichte and Schelling among its - alumni. Schiller and Gellert also resided for a time in Leipzig, and - Sebastian Bach and Mendelssohn filled musical posts here. Among the - celebrated natives of the town are the philosopher Leibnitz and the - composer Wagner. - - AUTHORITIES.--For the history of Leipzig see E. Hasse, _Die Stadt - Leipzig und ihre Umgebung, geographisch und statistisch beschrieben_ - (Leipzig, 1878); K. Grosse, _Geschichte der Stadt Leipzig_ (Leipzig, - 1897-1898); Rachel, _Verwaltungsorganisation und Amterwesen der Stadt - Leipzig bis 1627_ (Leipzig, 1902); G. Wustmann, _Aus Leipzigs - Vergangenheit_ (Leipzig, 1898); _Bilderbuch aus der Geschichte der - Stadt Leipzig_ (Leipzig, 1897); _Leipzig durch drei Jahrhunderte, - Atlas zur Geschichte des Leipziger Stadtbildes_ (Leipzig, 1891); - _Quellen zur Geschichte Leipzigs_ (Leipzig, 1889-1895); and - _Geschichte der Stadt Leipzig_ (Leipzig, 1905); F. Seifert, _Die - Reformation in Leipzig_ (Leipzig, 1883); G. Buchwald, - _Reformationsgeschichte der Stadt Leipzig_ (Leipzig, 1900); Geffcken - and Tykocinski, _Stiftungsbuch der Stadt Leipzig_ (Leipzig, 1905); the - _Urkundenbuch der Stadt Leipzig_, edited by C. F. Posern-Klett and - Forstemann (Leipzig, 1870-1895); and the _Schriften des Vereins fur - die Geschichte Leipzigs_ (Leipzig, 1872-1904). For other aspects of - the town's life see Hirschfeld, _Leipzigs Grossindustrie und - Grosshandel_ (Leipzig, 1887); Hassert, _Die geographische Lage und - Entwickelung Leipzigs_ (Leipzig, 1899); Helm, _Heimatkunde von - Leipzig_ (Leipzig, 1903); E. Friedberg, _Die Universitat Leipzig in - Vergangenheit und Gegenwart_ (Leipzig, 1897); F. Zarncke, _Die - Statutenbucher der Universitat Leipzig_ (Leipzig, 1861); E. Hasse, - _Geschichte der Leipziger Messen_ (Leipzig, 1885); Tille, _Die Anfange - der hohen Landstrasse_ (Gotha, 1906); Biedermann, _Geschichte der - Leipziger Kramerinnung_ (Leipzig, 1881); and Moltke, _Die Leipziger - Kramerinnung im 15 und 16 Jahrhundert_ (Leipzig, 1901). - - - - -LEIRIA, an episcopal city and the capital of the district of Leiria, -formerly included in Estremadura, Portugal; on the river Liz and on the -Lisbon-Figueria da Foz railway. Pop. (1900) 4459. The principal -buildings of Leiria are the ruined citadel, which dates from 1135, and -the cathedral, a small Renaissance building erected in 1571 but -modernized in the 18th century. The main square of the city is named -after the poet Francisco Rodrigues Lobo, who was born here about 1500. -Between Leiria and the Atlantic there are extensive pine woods known as -the Pinhal de Leiria, which were planted by King Diniz (1279-1325) with -trees imported from the Landes in France, in order to give firmness to -the sandy soil. In the neighbourhood there are glass and iron foundries, -oil wells and mineral springs. Leiria, the Roman Calippo, was taken from -the Moors in 1135 by Alphonso I. (Affonso Henriques). King Diniz made it -his capital. In 1466 the first Portuguese printing-press was established -here; in 1545 the city was made an episcopal see. The administrative -district of Leiria coincides with the north and north-west of the -ancient province of Estremadura (q.v.); pop. (1900) 238,755; area 1317 -sq. m. - - - - -LEISLER, JACOB (c. 1635-1691), American political agitator, was born -probably at Frankfort-on-Main, Germany, about 1635. He went to New -Netherland (New York) in 1660, married a wealthy widow, engaged in -trade, and soon accumulated a fortune. The English Revolution of 1688 -divided the people of New York into two well-defined factions. In -general the small shop-keepers, small farmers, sailors, poor traders and -artisans were arrayed against the patroons, rich fur-traders, merchants, -lawyers and crown officers. The former were led by Leisler, the latter -by Peter Schuyler (1657-1724), Nicholas Bayard (c. 1644-1707), Stephen -van Cortlandt (1643-1700), William Nicolls (1657-1723) and other -representatives of the aristocratic Hudson Valley families. The -"Leislerians" pretended greater loyalty to the Protestant succession. -When news of the imprisonment of Gov. Andros in Massachusetts was -received, they took possession on the 31st of May 1689 of Fort James (at -the southern end of Manhattan Island), renamed it Fort William and -announced their determination to hold it until the arrival of a governor -commissioned by the new sovereigns. The aristocrats also favoured the -Revolution, but preferred to continue the government under authority -from James II. rather than risk the danger of an interregnum. -Lieutenant-Governor Francis Nicholson sailed for England on the 24th of -June, a committee of safety was organized by the popular party, and -Leisler was appointed commander-in-chief. Under authority of a letter -from the home government addressed to Nicholson, "or in his absence, to -such as for the time being takes care for preserving the peace and -administering the laws in His Majesty's province of New York," he -assumed the title of lieutenant-governor in December 1689, appointed a -council and took charge of the government of the entire province. He -summoned the first Intercolonial Congress in America, which met in New -York on the 1st of May 1690 to plan concerted action against the French -and Indians. Colonel Henry Sloughter was commissioned governor of the -province on the 2nd of September 1689 but did not reach New York until -the 19th of March 1691. In the meantime Major Richard Ingoldsby and two -companies of soldiers had landed (January 28, 1691) and demanded -possession of the fort. Leisler refused to surrender it, and after some -controversy an attack was made on the 17th of March in which two -soldiers were killed and several wounded. When Sloughter arrived two -days later Leisler hastened to give over to him the fort and other -evidences of authority. He and his son-in-law, Jacob Milborne, were -charged with treason for refusing to submit to Ingoldsby, were -convicted, and on the 16th of May 1691 were executed. There has been -much controversy among historians with regard both to the facts and to -the significance of Leisler's brief career as ruler in New York. - - See J. R. Brodhead, _History of the State of New York_ (vol. 2, New - York, 1871). For the documents connected with the controversy see E. - B. O'Callaghan, _Documentary History of the State of New York_ (vol. - 2, Albany, 1850). - - - - -LEISNIG, a town in the kingdom of Saxony, prettily situated on the -Freiberger Mulde, 7 m. S. of Grimma by the railway from Leipzig to -Dresden via Dobeln. Pop. (1905) 8147. On a high rock above the town lies -the old castle of Mildenstein, now utilized as administrative offices. -The industries include the manufacture of cloth, furniture, boots, -buttons, cigars, beer, machinery and chemicals. Leisnig is a place of -considerable antiquity. About 1080 it passed into the possession of the -counts of Groitzsch, but was purchased in 1157 by the emperor Frederick -I., who committed it to the charge of counts. It fell to Meissen in -1365, and later to Saxony. - - - - -LEITH, a municipal and police burgh, and seaport, county of Midlothian, -Scotland. Pop. (1901) 77,439. It is situated on the south shore of the -Firth of Forth, 1(1/2) m. N.N.E. of Edinburgh, of which it is the port -and with which it is connected by Leith Walk, practically a continuous -street. It has stations on the North British and Caledonian railways, -and a branch line (N.B.R.) to Portobello. Lying at the mouth of the -Water of Leith, which is crossed by several bridges and divides it into -the parishes of North and South Leith, it stretches for 3(1/4) m. along -the shore of the Firth from Seafield in the east to near Granton in the -west. There is tramway communication with Edinburgh and Newhaven. - -The town is a thriving centre of trade and commerce. St Mary's in -Kirkgate, the parish church of South Leith, was founded in 1483, and was -originally cruciform but, as restored in 1852, consists of an aisled -nave and north-western tower. Here David Lindsay (1531-1613), its -minister, James VI.'s chaplain and afterwards bishop of Ross, preached -before the king the thanksgiving sermon on the Gowrie conspiracy (1600). -John Logan, the hymn-writer and reputed author of "The Ode to the -Cuckoo," was minister for thirteen years; and in its graveyard lies the -Rev. John Home, author of _Douglas_, a native of Leith. Near it in -Constitution Street is St James's Episcopal church (1862-1869), in the -Early English style by Sir Gilbert Scott, with an apsidal chancel and a -spire 160 ft. high. The parish church of North Leith, in Madeira Street, -with a spire 158 ft. high, is one of the best livings in the Established -Church of Scotland. St Thomas's, at the head of Shirra Brae, in the -Gothic style, was built in 1843 by Sir John Gladstone of Fasque, -who--prior to his removal to Liverpool, where his son, W. E. Gladstone, -was born--had been a merchant in Leith. The public buildings are wholly -modern, the principal being of classic design. They include the custom -house (1812) in the Grecian style; Trinity House (1817), also Grecian, -containing Sir Henry Raeburn's portrait of Admiral Lord Duncan, David -Scott's "Vasco da Gama Rounding the Cape" and other paintings; the -markets (1818); the town hall (1828), with an Ionic facade on -Constitution Street and a Doric porch on Charlotte Street; the corn -exchange (1862) in the Roman style; the assembly rooms; exchange -buildings; the public institute (1867) and Victoria public baths (1899). -Trinity House was founded in 1555 as a home for old and disabled -sailors, but on the decline of its revenues it became the licensing -authority for pilots, its humane office being partly fulfilled by the -sailors' home, established about 1840 in a building adjoining the Signal -Tower, and rehoused in a handsome structure in the Scottish Baronial -style in 1883-1884. Other charitable institutions include the hospital, -John Watt's hospital and the smallpox hospital. The high school, built -in 1806, for many years a familiar object on the west margin of the -Links, gave way to the academy, a handsome and commodious structure, to -which are drafted senior pupils from the numerous board schools for free -education in the higher branches. Here also is accommodated the -technical college. Secondary instruction is given also in Craighall Road -school. A bronze statue of Robert Burns was unveiled in 1898. Leith -Links, one of the homes of golf in Scotland, is a popular resort, on -Lochend Road are situated Hawkhill recreation grounds, and Lochend Loch -is used for skating and curling. There are small links at Newhaven, and -in Trinity are Starbank Park and Cargilfield playing ground. The east -pier (1177 yds. long) and the west pier (1041 yds.) are favourite -promenades. The waterway between them is the entrance to the harbour. -Leith cemetery is situated at Seafield and the Eastern cemetery in -Easter Road. - -The oldest industry is shipbuilding, which dates from 1313. Here in 1511 -James IV. built the "St Michael," "ane verrie monstruous great ship, -whilk tuik sae meikle timber that schee waisted all the woodis in Fyfe, -except Falkland wood, besides the timber that cam out of Norroway." -Other important industries are engineering, sugar-refining (established -1757), meat-preserving, flour-milling, sailcloth-making, soap-boiling, -rope and twine-making, tanning, chemical manures-making, wood-sawing, -hosiery, biscuit-baking, brewing, distilling and lime-juice making. Of -the old trade of glass-making, which began in 1682, scarcely a trace -survives. As a distributing centre, Leith occupies a prominent place. It -is the headquarters of the whisky business in Great Britain, and stores -also large quantities of wine from Spain, Portugal and France. This -pre-eminence is due to its excellent dock and harbour accommodation and -capacious warehouses. The two old docks (1801-1807) cover 10(1/2) acres; -Victoria Dock (1852) 5 acres; Albert Dock (1863-1869) 10(3/4) acres; -Edinburgh Dock (1874-1881) 16(2/3) acres; and the New Dock (1892-1901) -60 acres. There are several dry docks, of which the Prince of Wales -Graving Dock (1858), the largest, measures 370 ft. by 60 ft. Space can -always be had for more dock room by reclaiming the east sands, where in -the 17th and 18th centuries Leith Races were held, the theme of a -humorous descriptive poem by Robert Fergusson. Apart from coasting trade -there are constant sailings to the leading European ports, the United -States and the British colonies. In 1908 the tonnage of ships entering -the harbour was (including coastwise trade) 1,975,457; that of ships -clearing the harbour 1,993,227. The number of vessels registered at the -port was 213 (net tonnage 146,799). The value of imports was -L12,883,890, of exports L5,377,188. In summer there are frequent -excursions to the Bass Rock and the Isle of May, North Berwick, Elie, -Aberdour, Alloa and Stirling. Leith Fort, built in North Leith in 1779 -for the defence of the harbour, is now the headquarters of the Royal -Artillery in Scotland. Leith is the head of a fishery district. The -town, which is governed by a provost, bailies and council, unites with -Musselburgh and Portobello to send one member to parliament. - - Leith figures as Inverleith in the foundation charter of Holyrood - Abbey (1128). In 1329 Robert I. granted the harbour to the magistrates - of Edinburgh, who did not always use their power wisely. They forbade, - for example, the building of streets wide enough to admit a cart, a - regulation that accounted for the number of narrow wynds and alleys in - the town. Had the overlords been more considerate incorporation with - Edinburgh would not have been so bitterly resisted. Several of the - quaint bits of ancient Leith yet remain, and the appearance of the - shore as it was in the 17th and 18th centuries, and even at a later - date, was picturesque in the extreme. During the centuries of strife - between Scotland and England its situation exposed the port to attack - both by sea and land. At least twice (in 1313 and 1410) its shipping - was burned by the English, who also sacked the town in 1544--when the - 1st earl of Hertford destroyed the first wooden pier--and 1547. In the - troublous times that followed the death of James V., Leith became the - stronghold of the Roman Catholic and French party from 1548 to 1560, - Mary of Guise, queen regent, not deeming herself secure in Edinburgh. - In 1549 the town was walled and fortified by Montalembert, sicur - d'Esse, the commander of the French troops, and endured an ineffectual - siege in 1560 by the Scots and their English allies. A house in - Coalhill is thought to be the "handsome and spacious edifice" erected - for her privy council by Mary of Guise. D'Esse's wall, pierced by six - gates, was partly dismantled on the death of the queen regent, but - although rebuilt in 1571, not a trace of it exists. The old tolbooth, - in which William Maitland of Lethington, Queen Mary's secretary, - poisoned himself in 1573, to avoid execution for adhering to Mary's - cause, was demolished in 1819. Charles I. is said to have received the - first tidings of the Irish rebellion while playing golf on the links - in 1641. Cromwell in his Scottish campaign built the Citadel in 1650 - and the mounds on the links, known as "Giant's Brae" and "Lady Fife's - Brae," were thrown up by the Protector as batteries. In 1698 the - sailing of the first Darien expedition created great excitement. In - 1715 William Mackintosh of Borlum (1662-1743) and his force of - Jacobite Highlanders captured the Citadel, of which only the name of - Citadel Street and the archway in Couper Street have preserved the - memory. - - A mile S.E. of the links lies the ancient village of RESTALRIG, the - home of the Logans, from whom the superiority of Leith was purchased - in 1553 by the queen regent. Sir Robert Logan (d. 1606) was alleged to - have been one of the Gowrie conspirators and to have arranged to - imprison the king in Fast Castle. This charge, however, was not made - until three years after his death, when his bones were exhumed for - trial. He was then found guilty of high treason and sentence of - forfeiture pronounced; but there is reason to suspect that the whole - case was trumped up. The old church escaped demolition at the - Reformation and even the fine east window was saved. In the vaults - repose Sir Robert and other Logans, besides several of the lords - Balmerino, and Lord Brougham's father lies in the kirkyard. The well - of St Triduana, which was reputed to possess wonderful curative - powers, vanished when the North British railway was constructed. - - - - -LEITMERITZ (Czech, _Litomerice_), a town and episcopal see of Bohemia, -45 m. N. of Prague by rail. Pop. (1900) 13,075, mostly German. It lies -on the right bank of the Elbe, which becomes here navigable for steamers -and is spanned by an iron bridge 1700 ft. in length. The fine cathedral, -founded in 1057, was built in 1671 and contains some valuable paintings. -The library of the episcopal palace, built between 1694 and 1701, -possesses the oldest maps of Bohemia made in 1518 by Nicolaus Claudianus -of Jung-Bunzlau. Of the other churches that of All Saints dates from the -13th century. The town-hall, with its remarkable bell tower, dates from -the 15th century. Leitmeritz is situated in the midst of a very fertile -country, called the "Bohemian Paradise," which produces great quantities -of corn, fruit, hops and wines. The beer brewed here enjoys a high -reputation. On the opposite bank of the river, where the Eger discharges -itself into the Elbe, lies Theresienstadt (pop. 7046), an important -garrison town. It was formerly an important fortress, erected in 1780 by -the emperor Joseph II. and named after his mother Maria Theresa, but the -fortress was dismantled in 1882. - - Leitmeritz was originally the castle of a royal count and is first - mentioned, in 993, in the foundation charter of the convent of St - Margaret near Prague. In 1248 it received a town charter, and was - governed by the laws of Magdeburg until the time of Ferdinand I., - having a special court of jurisdiction over all the royal towns where - this law obtained. The town reached its highest degree of prosperity - under Charles IV., who bestowed upon it large tracts of forest, - agricultural land and vineyards. In the Hussite wars, after its - capture by the utraquist, Leitmeritz remained true to "the Chalice," - shared also in the revolt against Ferdinand I., and suffered in - consequence. It was still more unfortunate during the Thirty Years' - War, in the course of which most of the Protestant inhabitants left - it; the property of the Bohemian refugees being given to German - immigrants. The present bishopric was established in 1655. - - - - -LEITNER, GOTTLIEB WILHELM (1840-1899), Anglo-Hungarian orientalist, was -born at Budapest in 1840. He was the son of a physician, and was -educated at Malta Protestant college. At the age of fifteen he acted as -an interpreter in the Crimean War. He entered King's College, London, in -1858, and in 1861 was appointed professor of Arabic and Mahommedan law. -He became principal of the government college at Lahore in 1864, and -there originated the term "Dardistan" for a portion of the mountains on -the north-west frontier, which was subsequently recognized to be a -purely artificial distinction. He collected much valuable information on -Graeco-Buddhist art and the origins of Indian art. He spoke, read and -wrote twenty-five languages. He founded an oriental institute at Woking, -and for some years edited the _Asiatic Quarterly Review_. He died at -Bonn in 1899. - - See J. H. Stocqueler, _Life and Labours of Dr Leitner_ (1875). - - - - -LEITRIM, a county of Ireland in the province of Connaught, bounded N.W. -by Donegal Bay, N.E. by Fermanagh, E. by Cavan, S.E. by Longford, S.W. -by Roscommon and W. by Sligo. The area is 392,381 acres, or about 613 -sq. m. The northern portion of the county consists of an elevated -tableland, of which the highest summits belong to the Truskmore Hills, -reaching 1712 ft.; with Benbo, 1365 ft. and Lackagh, 1446 ft. In the -southern part the country is comparatively level, and is generally -richly wooded. The county touches the south coast of Donegal Bay, but -the coast-line is only about 3 m. The principal river is the Shannon, -which, issuing from Lough Allen, forms the south-western boundary of the -county with Roscommon. The Bonnet rises in the north-west and flows to -Lough Gill, and the streams of Drones and Duff separate Leitrim from -Donegal and Sligo. Besides Lough Allen, which has an area of 8900 acres, -the other principal lakes in the county are Lough Macnean, Lough Scur, -Lough Garadice and Lough Melvin. The scenery of the north is wild and -attractive, while in the neighbourhood of the Shannon it is of great -beauty. Lough Melvin and the coast rivers afford rod fishing, the lough -being noted for its gillaroo trout. - -This varied county has in general a floor of Carboniferous Limestone, -which forms finely scarped hills as it reaches the sea in Donegal Bay. -The underlying sandstone appears at Lough Melvin, and again on the -margin of a Silurian area in the extreme south. The Upper Carboniferous -series, dipping gently southward, form mountainous country round Lough -Allen, where the name of Slieve Anierin records the abundance of -clay-ironstone beneath the coal seams. The sandstones and shales of this -series scarp boldly towards the valley of the Bonnet, across which -rises, in picturesque contrast, the heather-clad ridge of ancient gneiss -which forms, in Benbo, the north-east end of the Ox Mountains. The -ironstone was smelted in the upland at Creevelea down to 1859, and the -coal is worked in a few thin seams. - -The climate is moist and unsuitable for grain crops. On the higher -districts the soil is stiff and cold, and, though abounding in stones, -retentive of moisture, but in the valleys there are some fertile -districts. Lime, marl and similar manures are abundant, and on the coast -seaweed is plentiful. The proportion of tillage to pasture is roughly as -1 to 3. Potatoes are grown, but oats, the principal grain crop, are -scanty. The live stock consists chiefly of cattle, pigs and poultry. -Coarse linens for domestic purposes are manufactured and coarse pottery -is also made. The Sligo, Leitrim and Northern Counties railway, -connecting Sligo with Enniskillen, crosses the northern part of the -county, by way of Manor Hamilton; the Mullingar and Sligo line of the -Midland Great Western touches the south-western boundary of the county, -with a station at Carrick-on-Shannon; while connecting with this line at -Dromod is the Cavan and Leitrim railway to Ballinamore and Arigna, and -to Belturbet in county Cavan. - -The population (78,618 in 1891; 69,343 in 1901) decreases owing to -emigration, the decrease being one of the most serious shown by any -Irish county. It includes nearly 90% of Roman Catholics. The only towns -are Carrick-on-Shannon (pop. 1118) and Manor Hamilton (993). The county -is divided into five baronies. It is within the Connaught circuit, and -assizes are held at Carrick-on-Shannon, and quarter sessions at -Ballinamore, Carrick-on-Shannon and Manor Hamilton. It is in the -Protestant diocese of Kilmore, and the Roman Catholic dioceses of Ardagh -and Kilmore. In the Irish House of Commons two members were returned for -the county and two for the boroughs of Carrick-on-Shannon and Jamestown, -but at the Union the boroughs were disfranchised. The county divisions -are termed the North and South, each returning one member. - -With the territory which afterwards became the county Cavan, Leitrim -formed part of Brenny or Breffny, which was divided into two -principalities, of which Leitrim, under the name of Hy Bruin-Brenny, -formed the western. Being for a long time in the possession of the -O'Rourkes, descendants of Roderick, king of Ireland, it was also called -Brenny O'Rourke. This family long maintained its independence; even in -1579, when the other existing counties of Connaught were created, the -creation of Leitrim was deferred, and did not take place until 1583. -Large confiscations were made in the reigns of Elizabeth and James I., -in the Cromwellian period, and after the Revolution of 1688. - -There are "druidical" remains near Fenagh and at Letterfyan, and -important monastic ruins at Creevelea near the Bonnet, with several -antique monuments, and in the parish of Fenagh. There was a flourishing -Franciscan friary at Jamestown. The abbeys of Mohill, Annaduff and -Drumlease are converted into parish churches. Among the more notable old -castles are Manor Hamilton Castle, originally very extensive, but now in -ruins, and Castle John on an island in Lough Scur. There is a small -village named Leitrim about 4 m. N. of Carrick-on-Shannon, which was -once of enough importance to give its name to a barony and to the -county, and is said to have been the seat of an early bishopric. - - - - -LEIXOES, a seaport and harbour of refuge of northern Portugal; in 41 deg. -9' 10" N., 8 deg. 40' 35" W., 3 m. N. of the mouth of the Douro. Leixoes -is included in the parish of Matozinhos (pop. 1900, 7690) and -constitutes the main port of the city of Oporto (q.v.), with which it -is connected by an electric tramway. The harbour, of artificial -construction, has an area of over 220 acres, and admits vessels of any -size, the depth at the entrance being nearly 50 ft. The transference of -cargo to and from ships lying in the Leixoes basin is effected entirely -by means of lighters from Oporto. In addition to wine, &c., from Oporto, -large numbers of emigrants to South America are taken on board here. The -trade of the port is mainly in British hands, and large numbers of -British ships call at Leixoes on the voyage between Lisbon and -Liverpool, London or Southampton. - - - - -LEJEUNE, LOUIS FRANCOIS, BARON (1776-1848), French general, painter, and -lithographer, was born at Versailles. As aide-de-camp to General -Berthier he took an active part in many of the Napoleonic campaigns, -which he made the subjects of an important series of battle-pictures. -The vogue he enjoyed is due to the truth and vigour of his work, which -was generally executed from sketches and studies made on the -battlefield. When his battle-pictures were shown at the Egyptian Hall in -London, a rail had to be put up to protect them from the eager crowds of -sightseers. Among his chief works are "The Entry of Charles X. into -Paris, 6 June 1825" at Versailles; "Episode of the Prussian War, October -1807" at Douai Museum; "Marengo" (1801); "Lodi," "Thabor," "Aboukir" -(1804); "The Pyramids" (1806); "Passage of the Rhine in 1795" (1824), -and "Moskawa" (1812). The German campaign of 1806 brought him to Munich, -where he visited the workshop of Senefelder, the inventor of -lithography. Lejeune was so fascinated by the possibilities of the new -method that he then and there made the drawing on stone of his famous -"Cossack" (printed by C. and T. Senefelder, 1806). Whilst he was taking -his dinner, and with his horses harnessed and waiting to take him back -to Paris, one hundred proofs were printed, one of which he subsequently -submitted to Napoleon. The introduction of lithography into France was -greatly due to the efforts of Lejeune. Many of his battle-pictures were -engraved by Coiny and Bovinet. - - See Fournier-Sarloveze, _Le General Lejeune_ (Paris, _Libraire de - l'art_). - - - - -LEKAIN, the stage name of Henri Louis Cain (1728-1778), French actor, -who was born in Paris on the 14th of April 1728, the son of a -silversmith. He was educated at the College Mazarin, and joined an -amateur company of players against which the Comedie Francaise obtained -an injunction. Voltaire supported him for a time and enabled him to act -in his private theatre and also before the duchess of Maine. Owing to -the hostility of the actors it was only after a struggle of seventeen -months that, by the command of Louis XV., he was received at the Comedie -Francaise. His success was immediate. Among his best parts were Herod in -_Mariamne_, Nero in _Britannicus_ and similar tragic roles, in spite of -the fact that he was short and stout, with irregular and rather common -features. His name is connected with a number of important scenic -reforms. It was he who had the benches removed on which privileged -spectators formerly sat encumbering the stage, Count Lauragais paying -for him an excessive indemnity demanded. Lekain also protested against -the method of sing-song declamation prevalent, and endeavoured to -correct the costuming of the plays, although unable to obtain the -historic accuracy at which Talma aimed. He died in Paris on the 8th of -February 1778. - - His eldest son published his _Memoires_ (1801) with his correspondence - with Voltaire, Garrick and others. They were reprinted with a preface - by Talma in _Memoires sur l'art dramatique_ (1825). - - - - -LELAND, CHARLES GODFREY (1824-1903), American author, son of a merchant, -was born at Philadelphia on the 15th of August 1824, and graduated at -Princeton in 1845. He afterwards studied at Heidelberg, Munich and -Paris. He was in Paris during the revolution of 1848, and took an active -part in it. He then returned to Philadelphia, and after being admitted -to the bar in 1851, devoted himself to contributing to periodicals, -editing various magazines and writing books. At the opening of the Civil -War he started at Boston the _Continental Magazine_, which advocated -emancipation. In 1868 he became known as the humorous author of _Hans -Breitmann's Party and Ballads_, which was followed by other volumes of -the same kind, collected in 1871 with the title of _Hans Breitmann's -Ballads_. These dialect poems, burlesquing the German American, at once -became popular. In 1869 he went to Europe, and till 1880 was occupied, -chiefly in London, with literary work; after returning to Philadelphia -for six years, he again made his home in Europe, generally at Florence, -where he died on the 20th of March 1903. Though his humorous verses were -most attractive to the public, Leland was a serious student of -folk-lore, particularly of the gipsies, his writings on the latter (_The -English Gypsies and their Language_, 1872; _The Gypsies_, 1882; _Gypsy -Sorcery and Fortune-telling_ ..., 1891, &c.) being recognized as -valuable contributions to the literature of the subject. He was -president of the first European folk-lore congress, held in Paris in -1889. - -His other publications include _Poetry and Mystery of Dreams_ (1855), -_Meister Karl's Sketch-book_ (1855), _Pictures of Travel_ (1856), -_Sunshine in Thought_ (1862), _Heine's Book of Songs_ (1862), _The Music -Lesson of Confucius_ (1870), _Egyptian Sketch-book_ (1873), _Abraham -Lincoln_ (1879), _The Minor Arts_ (1880), _Algonquin Legends of New -England_ (1884), _Songs of the Sea and Lays of the Land_ (1895), _Hans -Breitmann in Tyrol_ (1895), _One Hundred Profitable Acts_ (1897), -_Unpublished Legends of Vergil_ (1899), _Kuloskap the Master, and other -Algonquin Poems_ (1903, with J. Dyneley Prince). - - See his _Memoirs_ (2 vols., 1893), and E. R. Pennell, _C. G. Leland_ - (1906). - - - - -LELAND (LEYLAND or LAYLONDE), JOHN (c. 1506-1552), English antiquary, -was born in London on the 13th of September, probably in 1506. He owed -his education at St Paul's school under William Lilly, and at Christ's -College, Cambridge, to the kindness of a patron, Thomas Myles. He -graduated at Cambridge in 1521, and subsequently studied at All Souls -College, Oxford, and in Paris under Francois Dubois (Sylvius). On his -return to England he took holy orders. He had been tutor to Lord Thomas -Howard, son of the 3rd duke of Norfolk, and to Francis Hastings, -afterwards earl of Huntingdon. Meanwhile his learning had recommended -him to Henry VIII., who presented him to the rectory of Peuplingues in -the marches of Calais in 1530. He was already librarian and chaplain to -the king, and in 1533 he received a novel commission under the great -seal as king's antiquary, with power to search for records, manuscripts -and relics of antiquity in all the cathedrals, colleges and religious -houses of England. Probably from 1534, and definitely from 1536 onwards -to 1542, he was engaged on an antiquarian tour through England and -Wales. He sought to preserve the MSS. scattered at the dissolution of -the monasteries, but his powers did not extend to the actual collection -of MSS. Some valuable additions, however, he did procure for the king's -library, chiefly from the abbey of St Augustine at Canterbury. He had -received a special dispensation permitting him to absent himself from -his rectory of Peuplingues in 1536, and on his return from his itinerary -he received the rectory of Haseley in Oxfordshire; his support of the -church policy of Henry and Cranmer being further rewarded by a canonry -and prebend of King's College (now Christ Church), Oxford, and a prebend -of Salisbury. In a _Strena Henrico_[1] (pr. 1546), addressed to Henry -VIII. in 1545, he proposed to execute from the materials which he had -collected in his journeys a topography of England, an account of the -adjacent islands, an account of the British nobility, and a great -history of the antiquities of the British Isles. He toiled over his -papers at his house in the parish of St Michael le Querne, Cheapside, -London, but he was not destined to complete these great undertakings, -for he was certified insane in March 1550, and died on the 18th of April -1552. - - Leland was an exact observer, and a diligent student of local - chronicles. The bulk of his work remained in MS. at the time of his - death, and various copies were made, one by John Stowe in 1576. After - passing through various hands the greater part of Leland's MSS. were - deposited by William Burton, the historian of Leicestershire, in the - Bodleian at Oxford. They had in the meantime been freely used by other - antiquaries, notably by John Bale, William Camden and Sir William - Dugdale. The account of his journey in England and Wales in eight MS. - quarto volumes received its name _The Itinerary of John Leland_ from - Thomas Burton and was edited by Thomas Hearne (9 vols., Oxford, - 1710-1712; other editions in 1745 and 1770). The scattered portions - dealing with Wales were re-edited by Miss L. Toulmin Smith in 1907. - His other most important work, the _Collectanea_, in four folio MS. - volumes, was also published by Hearne (6 vols., Oxford, 1715). His - _Commentarii de scriptoribus Britannicis_, which had been used and - distorted by his friend John Bale, was edited by Anthony Hall (2 - vols., Oxford, 1709). Some of Leland's MSS., which formerly belonged - to Sir Robert Cotton, passed into the possession of the British - Museum. He was a Latin poet of some merit, his most famous piece being - the _Cygneo Cantio_ (1545) in honour of Henry VIII. Many of his minor - works are included in Hearne's editions of the _Itinerary_ and the - _Collectanea_. - - For accounts of Leland see John Bale, _Catalogus_ (1557); Anthony a - Wood, _Athenae Oxonienses_; W. Huddesford, _Lives of those eminent - Antiquaries John Leland, Thomas Hearne and Anthony a Wood_ (Oxford, - 1772). A life of Leland, attributed to Edward Burton (c. 1750), from - the library of Sir Thomas Phillipps, printed in 1896 contains a - bibliography. See also the biography by Sidney Lee, in the _Dict. Nat. - Biog._ - - -FOOTNOTE: - - [1] Re-edited in 1549 by John Bale as _The laboryeuse Journey and - Serche of J. Leylande for Englandes Antiquitees geven of him for a - Neu Yeares Gifte, &c._, modern edition by W. A. Copinger (Manchester, - 1895). - - - - -LELAND, JOHN (1691-1766), English Nonconformist divine, was born at -Wigan, Lancashire, and educated in Dublin, where he made such progress -that in 1716, without having attended any college or hall, he was -appointed first assistant and afterwards sole pastor of a congregation -of Presbyterians in New Row. This office he continued to fill until his -death on the 16th of January 1766. He received the degree of D.D. from -Aberdeen in 1739. His first publication was _A Defence of Christianity_ -(1733), in reply to Matthew Tindal's _Christianity as old as the -Creation_; it was succeeded by his _Divine Authority of the Old and New -Testaments asserted_ (1738), in answer to _The Moral Philosopher_ of -Thomas Morgan; in 1741 he published two volumes, in the form of two -letters, being _Remarks on_ [H. Dodwell's] _Christianity not founded on -Argument_; and in 1753 _Reflexions on the late Lord Bolingbroke's -Letters on the Study and Use of History_. His _View of the Principal -Deistical Writers that have appeared in England_ was published in -1754-1756. This is the chief work of Leland--"most worthy, painstaking -and commonplace of divines," as Sir Leslie Stephen called him--and in -spite of many defects and inconsistencies is indispensable to every -student of the deistic movement of the 18th century. - - His _Discourses on various Subjects_, with a _Life_ prefixed, was - published posthumously (4 vols., 1768-1789). - - - - -LELAND STANFORD JR. UNIVERSITY, near Palo Alto, California, U.S.A., in -the beautiful Santa Clara valley, was founded in 1885 by Leland -Stanford[1] (1824-1893), and by his wife Jane Lathrop Stanford -(1825-1905), as a memorial to their only child, Leland Stanford, Jr., -who died in 1884 in his seventeenth year. The doors were opened in 1891 -to 559 students. The university campus consists of Stanford's former -Palo Alto farm, which comprises about 9000 acres. From the campus there -are charming views of San Francisco Bay, of the Coast Range, -particularly of Mount Hamilton some 30 m. E. with the Lick Observatory -on its summit, of mountain foothills, and of the magnificent redwood -forests toward Santa Cruz. - -The buildings, designed originally by H. H. Richardson and completed by -his successors, Shepley, Rutan and Coolidge, are of soft buff sandstone -in a style adapted from the old California mission (Moorish-Romanesque) -architecture, being long and low with wide colonnades, open arches and -red tiled roofs. An outer surrounds an inner quadrangle of buildings. -The inner quadrangle, about a court which is 586 by 246 ft. and is -faced by a continuous open arcade and adorned with large circular beds -of tropical plants and flowers, consists of twelve one-storey buildings -and a beautiful memorial church. Of the fourteen buildings of the outer -quadrangle some are two storeys high. A magnificent memorial arch (100 -ft. high), adorned with a frieze designed by John Evans, representing -the "Progress of Civilization in America," and forming the main gateway, -was destroyed by the earthquake of 1906. Outside the quadrangles are -other buildings--a museum of art and archaeology, based on collections -made by Leland Stanford, Jr., chemical laboratories, engineering -work-shops, dormitories, a mausoleum of the founders, &c. There is a -fine arboretum (300 acres) and a cactus garden. The charming views, the -grace and harmonious colours of the buildings, and the tropic vegetation -make a campus of wonderful beauty. The students in 1907-1908 numbered -1738, of whom 126 were graduates, 99 special students, and 500 women.[2] -The university library (with the library of the law department) -contained in 1908 about 107,000 volumes. A marine biological laboratory, -founded by Timothy Hopkins, is maintained at Pacific Grove on the Bay of -Monterey. The university has an endowment from its founders estimated at -$30,000,000, including three great estates with 85,000 acres of farm and -vineyard lands, and several smaller tracts; but the endowment was very -largely in interest-bearing securities, income from which was -temporarily cut off in the early years of the university's life by -litigation. The founders wished the university "to qualify students for -personal success and direct usefulness in life; to promote the public -welfare by exercising an influence in behalf of humanity and -civilization, teaching the blessings of liberty regulated by law, and -inculcating love and reverence for the great principles of government as -derived from the inalienable rights of man to life, liberty and the -pursuit of happiness." There are no inflexible entrance requirements as -to particular studies except English composition to ensure a degree of -mental maturity, the minimum amount of preparation is fixed as that -which should be given by four years in a secondary school, leaving to -the applicants a wide choice of subjects (35 in 1906) ranging from -ancient history to woodworking and machine shop. In the curriculum, -liberty perhaps even greater than at Harvard is allowed as to -"electives." Work on some one major subject occupies about one-third of -the undergraduate course; the remaining two-thirds (or more) is purely -elective. The influence of sectarianism and politics is barred from the -university by its charter, and by its private origin and private -support. At the same time in its policy it is practically a state -university of the most liberal type. Instruction is entirely free. The -president of the university has the initiative in all appointments and -in all matters of general policy. Within the university faculty power -lies in an academic council, and, more particularly, in an advisory -board of nine professors, elected by the academic council, to which all -propositions of the president are submitted. The growth of the -university has been steady, and its conduct careful. David Starr -Jordan[3] was its first president. - - See O. H. Elliot and O. V. Eaton, _Stanford University and - thereabouts_ (San Francisco, 1896), and the official publications of - the university. - - -FOOTNOTES: - - [1] Stanford was born in Watervliet, New York; studied law in Albany; - removed to California in 1852 and went into business at Michigan - Bluff, Placer county, whence he removed to Sacramento in 1856; was - made president in 1861 of the Central Pacific railroad company, which - built the first trans-continental railway line over the Sierra - Nevada; was governor of California in 1862-1863, and United States - senator in 1885-1893; and was owner of the great Vina farm (55,000 - acres) in Tehama county, containing the largest vineyard in the world - (13,400 acres), the Gridley tract (22,000 acres) in Butte county, and - the Palo Alto breeding farm, which was the home of his famous - thoroughbred racers, Electioneer, Arion, Sunol, Palo Alto and - Advertiser. - - [2] The number of women attending the university as students in any - semester is limited by the founding grant to 500. - - [3] President Jordan was born in 1851 at Gainesville, New York; was - educated at Cornell, where he taught botany for a time; became an - assistant to the United States fish commission in 1872; in 1885-1891 - was president of the university of Indiana, where from 1879 he had - been professor of zoology; and in 1891 was elected president of - Leland Stanford Jr. University. An eminent ichthyologist, he wrote, - with Barton Warren Evermann (b. 1853), of the United States Bureau of - Fisheries, _Fishes of North and Middle America_ (4 vols., 1896-1900), - and _Food and Game Fishes of North America_ (1902); and prepared _A - Guide to the Study of Fishes_ (1905). - - - - -LELEGES, the name applied by Greek writers to an early people or peoples -of which traces were believed to remain in Greek lands. - -1. _In Asia Minor._--In Homer the Leleges are allies of the Trojans, but -they do not occur in the formal catalogue in _Iliad_, bk. ii., and -their habitat is not specified. They are distinguished from the Carians, -with whom some later writers confused them; they have a king Altes, and -a town Pedasus which was sacked by Achilles. The name Pedasus occurs -(i.) near Cyzicus, (ii.) in the Troad on the Satnioeis river, (iii.) in -Caria, as well as (iv.) in Messenia. Alcaeus (7th-6th centuries B.C.) -calls Antandrus in the Troad Lelegian, but Herodotus (5th century) -substitutes Pelasgian (q.v.). Gargara in the Troad also counted as -Lelegian. Pherecydes (5th century) attributed to Leleges the coast land -of Caria from Ephesus to Phocaea, with the islands of Samos and Chios, -placing the "true Carians" farther south from Ephesus to Miletus. If -this statement be from Pherecydes of Leros (c. 480) it has great weight. -In the 4th century, however, Philippus of Theangela in south Caria -describes Leleges still surviving as serfs of the true Carians, and -Strabo, in the 1st century B.C., attributes to the Leleges a well-marked -group of deserted forts, tombs and dwellings which ranged (and can still -be traced) from the neighbourhood of Theangela and Halicarnassus as far -north as Miletus, the southern limit of the "true Carians" of -Pherecydes. Plutarch also implies the historic existence of Lelegian -serfs at Tralles in the interior. - -2. _In Greece and the Aegean._--A single passage in the Hesiodic -catalogue (fr. 136 Kinkel) places Leleges "in Deucalion's time," i.e. as -a primitive people, in Locris in central Greece. Not until the 4th -century B.C. does any other writer place them anywhere west of the -Aegean. But the confusion of the Leleges with the Carians (immigrant -conquerors akin to Lydians and Mysians, and probably to Phrygians) which -first appears in a Cretan legend (quoted by Herodotus, but repudiated, -as he says, by the Carians themselves) and is repeated by Callisthenes, -Apollodorus and other later writers, led easily to the suggestion of -Callisthenes, that Leleges joined the Carians in their (half legendary) -raids on the coasts of Greece. Meanwhile other writers from the 4th -century onwards claimed to discover them in Boeotia, west Acarnania -(Leucas), and later again in Thessaly, Euboea, Megara, Lacedaemon and -Messenia. In Messenia they were reputed immigrant founders of Pylos, and -were connected with the seafaring Taphians and Teleboans of Homer, and -distinguished from the Pelasgians; in Lacedaemon and in Leucas they were -believed to be aboriginal. These European Leleges must be interpreted in -connexion with the recurrence of place names like Pedasus, Physcus, -Larymna and Abae, (a) in Caria, and (b) in the "Lelegian" parts of -Greece; perhaps this is the result of some early migration; perhaps it -is also the cause of these Lelegian theories. - - Modern speculations (mainly corollaries of Indo-Germanic theory) add - little of value to the Greek accounts quoted above. H. Kiepert ("Uber - den Volksstamm der Leleges," in _Monatsber. Berl. Akad._, 1861, p. - 114) makes the Leleges an aboriginal people akin to Albanians and - Illyrians; K. W. Deimling, _Die Leleger_ (Leipzig, 1862), starts them - in south-west Asia Minor, and brings them thence to Greece - (practically the Greek view); G. F. Unger, "Hellas in Thessalien," in - _Philologus_, Suppl. ii. (1863), makes them Phoenician, and derives - their name from [Greek: lalazein] (cf. the names [Greek: barbaros], - _Walsche_). E. Curtius (_History of Greece_, i.) distinguished a - "Lelegian" phase of nascent Aegean culture. Most later writers follow - Deimling. For Strabo's "Lelegian" monuments, cf. Paton and Myres, - _Journal of Hellenic Studies_, xvi. 188-270. (J. L. M.) - - - - -LELEWEL, JOACHIM (1786-1861), Polish historian, geographer and -numismatist, was born at Warsaw on the 22nd of March 1786. His family -came from Prussia in the early part of the 18th century; his grandfather -was appointed physician to the reigning king of Poland, and his father -caused himself to be naturalized as a Polish citizen. The original form -of the name appears to have been Lolhoffel. Joachim was educated at the -university of Vilna, and became in 1807 a teacher in a school at -Krzemieniec in Volhynia, in 1814 teacher of history at Vilna, and in -1818 professor and librarian at the university of Warsaw. He returned to -Vilna in 1821. His lectures enjoyed great popularity, and enthusiasm -felt for him by the students is shown in the beautiful lines addressed -to him by Mickiewicz. But this very circumstance made him obnoxious to -the Russian government, and at Vilna Novosiltsev was then all-powerful. -Lelewel was removed from his professorship in 1824, and returned to -Warsaw, where he was elected a deputy to the diet in 1829. He joined the -revolutionary movement with more enthusiasm than energy, and though the -emperor Nicholas I. distinguished him as one of the most dangerous -rebels, did not appear to advantage as a man of action. On the -suppression of the rebellion he made his way in disguise to Germany, and -subsequently reached Paris in 1831. The government of Louis Philippe -ordered him to quit French territory in 1833 at the request of the -Russian ambassador. The cause of this expulsion is said to have been his -activity in writing revolutionary proclamations. He went to Brussels, -where for nearly thirty years he earned a scanty livelihood by his -writings. He died on the 29th of May 1861 in Paris, whither he had -removed a few days previously. - -Lelewel, a man of austere character, simple tastes and the loftiest -conception of honour, was a lover of learning for its own sake. His -literary activity was enormous, extending from his _Edda Skandinawska_ -(1807) to his _Geographie des Arabes_ (2 vols., Paris, 1851). One of his -most important publications was _La Geographie du moyen age_ (5 vols., -Brussels, 1852-1857), with an atlas (1849) of plates entirely engraved -by himself, for he rightly attached such importance to the accuracy of -his maps that he would not allow them to be executed by any one else. -His works on Polish history are based on minute and critical study of -the documents; they were collected under the title _Polska, dzieje i -rzeczy jej rozpatrzywane_ (_Poland, her History and Affairs surveyed_), -in 20 vols. (Posen, 1853-1876). He intended to write a complete history -of Poland on an extensive scale, but never accomplished the task. His -method is shown in the little history of Poland, first published at -Warsaw in Polish in 1823, under the title _Dzieje Polski_, and -afterwards almost rewritten in the _Histoire de Pologne_ (2 vols., -Paris, 1844). Other works on Polish history which may be especially -mentioned are _La Pologne au moyen age_ (3 vols., Posen, 1846-1851), an -edition of the _Chronicle of Matthew Cholewa_[1] (1811) and _Ancient -Memorials of Polish Legislation_ (_Ksiegi ustaw polskich i -mazowieckich_). He also wrote on the trade of Carthage, on Pytheas of -Marseilles, the geographer, and two important works on numismatics (_La -Numismatique du moyen age_, Paris, 2 vols., 1835; _Etudes -numismatiques_, Brussels, 1840). While employed in the university -library of Warsaw he studied bibliography, and the fruits of his labours -may be seen in his _Bibliograficznych Ksiag dwoje_ (_A Couple of Books -on Bibliography_) (2 vols., Vilna, 1823-1826). The characteristics of -Lelewel as an historian are great research and power to draw inferences -from his facts; his style is too often careless, and his narrative is -not picturesque, but his expressions are frequently terse and incisive. - - He left valuable materials for a just comprehension of his career in - the autobiography (_Adventures while Prosecuting Researches and - Inquiries on Polish Matters_) printed in his _Polska_. - - -FOOTNOTE: - - [1] I.e. the three first books of the _Historia Polonica_ of - Vincentius (Kadlbek), bishop of Cracow (d. 1223), wrongly ascribed by - Lelewel to Matthaeus Cholewa, bishop of Cracow. See Potthast, - _Bibliotheca hist, med. aev., s.v._ "Vincentius." - - - - -LELONG, JACQUES (1665-1721), French bibliographer, was born at Paris on -the 19th of April 1665. He was a priest of the Oratory, and was -librarian to the establishment of the Order in Paris, where he spent his -life in seclusion. He died at Paris on the 13th of August 1721. He first -published a _Bibliotheca sacra_ (1709), an index of all the editions of -the Bible, then a _Bibliotheque historique de la France_ (1719), a -volume of considerable size, containing 17,487 items to which Lelong -sometimes appends useful notes. His work is far from complete. He vainly -hoped that his friend and successor Father Desmolets, would continue it; -but it was resumed by Charles-Marie Fevret de Fontette, a councillor of -the parlement of Dijon, who spent fifteen years of his life and a great -deal of money in rewriting the _Bibliotheque historique_. The first two -volumes (1768 and 1769) contained as many as 29,143 items. Fevret de -Fontette died on the 16th of February 1772, leaving the third volume -almost finished. It appeared in 1772, thanks to Barbaud de La Bruyere, -who later brought out the 4th and 5th volumes (1775 and 1778). In this -new edition the _Bibliotheque historique_ is a work of reference of the -highest order; it is still of great value. - - - - -LELY, SIR PETER (1617-1680) English painter, was born at Soest, -Westphalia, in 1617. His father, a military captain and a native of -Holland, was originally called van der Vaes; the nickname of Le Lys or -Lely, by which he was generally known, was adopted by his son as a -surname. After studying for two years under Peter de Grebber, an artist -of some note at Haarlem, Lely, induced by the patronage of Charles I. -for the fine arts, removed to England in 1641. There he at first painted -historical subjects and landscape; he soon became so eminent in his -profession as to be employed by Charles to paint his portrait shortly -after the death of Vandyck. He afterwards portrayed Cromwell. At the -Restoration his genius and agreeable manners won the favour of Charles -II., who made him his state-painter, and afterwards knighted him. He -formed a famous collection, the best of his time, containing drawings, -prints and paintings by the best masters; it sold by auction for no less -than L26,000. His great example, however, was Vandyck, whom, in some of -his most successful pieces, he almost rivals. Lely's paintings are -carefully finished, warm and clear in colouring, and animated in design. -The graceful posture of the heads, the delicate rounding of the hands, -and the broad folds of the draperies are admired in many of his -portraits. The eyes of the ladies are drowsy with languid sentiment, and -allegory of a commonplace sort is too freely introduced. His most famous -work is a collection of portraits of the ladies of the court of Charles -II., known as "the Beauties," formerly at Windsor Castle, and now -preserved at Hampton Court Palace. Of his few historical pictures, the -best is "Susannah and the Elders," at Burleigh House. His "Jupiter and -Europa," in the duke of Devonshire's collection, is also worthy of note. -Lely was nearly as famous for crayon work as for oil-painting. Towards -the close of his life he often retired to an estate which he had bought -at Kew. He died of apoplexy in the Piazza, Covent Garden, London, and -was buried in Covent Garden church, where a monument was afterwards -erected to his memory. Pepys characterized Lely as "a mighty proud man -and full of state." The painter married an English lady of family, and -left a son and daughter, who died young. His only disciples were J. -Greenhill and J. Buckshorn; he did not, however, allow them to obtain an -insight into his special modes of work. (W. M. R.) - - - - -LE MACON (or LE MASSON), ROBERT (c. 1365-1443), chancellor of France, -was born at Chateau du Loir, Sarthe. He was ennobled in March 1401, and -became six years later a councillor of Louis II., duke of Anjou and king -of Sicily. A partisan of the house of Orleans, he was appointed -chancellor to Isabella of Bavaria on the 29th of January 1414, on the -20th of July commissary of the mint, and in June 1416 chancellor to the -count of Ponthieu, afterwards Charles VII. On the 16th of August he -bought the barony of Treves in Anjou, and henceforward bore the title of -seigneur of Treves. When Paris was surprised by the Burgundians on the -night of the 29th of May 1418 he assisted Tanguy Duchatel in saving the -dauphin. His devotion to the cause of the latter having brought down on -him the wrath of John the Fearless, duke of Burgundy, he was excluded -from the political amnesty known as the peace of Saint Maur des Fosses, -though he retained his seat on the king's council. He was by the -dauphin's side when John the Fearless was murdered at the bridge of -Montereau on the 10th of September 1419. He resigned the seals at the -beginning of 1422; but he continued to exercise great influence, and in -1426 he effected a reconciliation between the king and the duke of -Brittany. Having been captured by Jean de Langeac, seneschal of -Auvergne, in August of the same year, he was shut up for three months in -the chateau of Usson. When set at liberty he returned to court, where he -staunchly supported Joan of Arc against all the cabals that menaced her. -It was he who signed the patent of nobility for the Arc family in -December 1429. In 1430 he was once more entrusted with an embassy to -Brittany. Having retired from political life in 1436, he died on the -28th of January 1443, and was interred at Treves, where his epitaph may -still be seen. - - See C. Bourcier, "Robert le Masson," in the _Revue historique de - l'Anjou_ (1873); and the _Nouvelle biographie generale_, vol. xxx. - (J. V.*) - - - - -LE MAIRE DE BELGES, JEAN (1473-c. 1525), French poet and -historiographer, was born at Bavai in Hainault. He was a nephew of Jean -Molinet, and spent some time with him at Valenciennes, where the elder -writer held a kind of academy of poetry. Le Maire in his first poems -calls himself a disciple of Molinet. In certain aspects he does belong -to the school of the _grands rhetoriqueurs_, but his great merit as a -poet is that he emancipated himself from the affectations and -puerilities of his masters. This independence of the Flemish school he -owed in part perhaps to his studies at the university of Paris and to -the study of the Italian poets at Lyons, a centre of the French -renascence. In 1503 he was attached to the court of Margaret of Austria, -duchess of Savoy, afterwards regent of the Netherlands. For this -princess he undertook more than one mission to Rome; he became her -librarian and a canon of Valenciennes. To her were addressed his most -original poems, _Epistres de l'amand verd_, the _amant vert_ being a -green parrot belonging to his patroness. Le Maire gradually became more -French in his sympathies, eventually entering the service of Anne of -Brittany. His prose _Illustrations des Gaules et singularitez de Troye_ -(1510-1512), largely adapted from Benoit de Sainte More, connects the -Burgundian royal house with Hector. Le Maire probably died before 1525. -Etienne Pasquier, Ronsard and Du Bellay all acknowledged their -indebtedness to him. In his love for antiquity, his sense of rhythm, and -even the peculiarities of his vocabulary he anticipated the _Pleiade_. - - His works were edited in 1882-1885 by J. Stecher, who wrote the - article on him in the _Biographie nationale de Belgique_. - - - - -LEMAITRE, FRANCOIS ELIE JULES (1853- ), French critic and dramatist, -was born at Vennecy (Loiret) on the 27th of April 1853. He became a -professor at the university of Grenoble, but he had already become known -by his literary criticisms, and in 1884 he resigned his position to -devote himself entirely to literature. He succeeded J. J. Weiss as -dramatic critic of the _Journal des Debats_, and subsequently filled the -same office on the _Revue des Deux Mondes_. His literary studies were -collected under the title of _Les Contemporains_ (7 series, 1886-1899), -and his dramatic _feuilletons as Impressions de theatre_ (10 series, -1888-1898). His sketches of modern authors are interesting for the -insight displayed in them, the unexpectedness of the judgments and the -gaiety and originality of their expression. He published two volumes of -poetry: _Les Medaillons_ (1880) and _Petites orientales_ (1883); also -some volumes of _contes_, among them _En marge des vieux livres_ (1905). -His plays are: _Revoltee_ (1889), _Le depute Leveau_, and _Le Mariage -blanc_ (1891), _Les Rois_ (1893), _Le Pardon_ and _L'Age difficile_ -(1895), _La Massiere_ (1905) and _Bertrade_ (1906). He was admitted to -the French Academy on the 16th of January 1896. His political views were -defined in _La Campagne nationaliste_ (1902), lectures delivered in the -provinces by him and by G. Cavaignac. He conducted a nationalist -campaign in the _Echo de Paris_, and was for some time president of the -Ligue de la Patrie Francaise, but resigned in 1904, and again devoted -himself to literature. - - - - -LE MANS, a town of north-western France, capital of the department of -Sarthe, 77 m. S.W. of Chartres on the railway from Paris to Brest. Pop. -(1906) town, 54,907, commune, 65,467. It is situated just above the -confluence of the Sarthe and the Huisne, on an elevation rising from the -left bank of the Sarthe. Several bridges connect the old town and the -new quarters which have sprung up round it with the more extensive -quarter of Pre on the right bank. Modern thoroughfares are gradually -superseding the winding and narrow streets of old houses; a tunnel -connects the Place des Jacobins with the river side. The cathedral, -built in the highest part of the town, was originally founded by St -Julian, to whom it is dedicated. The nave dates from the 11th and 12th -centuries. In the 13th century the choir was enlarged in the grandest -and boldest style of that period. The transepts, which are higher than -the nave, were rebuilt in the 15th century, and the bell-tower of the -south transept, the lower part of which is Romanesque, was rebuilt in -the 15th and 16th centuries. Some of the stained glass in the nave, -dating from the first half of the 12th century, is the oldest in France; -the west window, representing the legend of St Julian, is especially -interesting. The south lateral portal (12th century) is richly -decorated, and its statuettes exhibit many costumes of the period. The -austere simplicity of the older part of the building is in striking -contrast with the lavish richness of the ornamentation in the choir, -where the stained glass is especially fine. The rose-window (15th -century) of the north transept, representing the Last Judgment, contains -many historical figures. The cathedral also has curious tapestries and -some remarkable tombs, including that of Berengaria, queen of Richard -Coeur de Lion. Close to the western wall is a megalithic monument nearly -15 ft. in height. The church of La Couture, which belonged to an old -abbey founded in the 7th century by St Bertrand, has a porch of the 13th -century with fine statuary; the rest of the building is older. The -church of Notre-Dame du Pre, on the right bank of the Sarthe, is -Romanesque in style. The hotel de ville was built in 1756 on the site of -the former castle of the counts of Maine; the prefecture (1760) occupies -the site of the monastery of La Couture, and contains the library, the -communal archives, and natural history and art collections; there is -also an archaeological museum. Among the old houses may be mentioned the -Hotel du Grabatoire of the Renaissance, once a hospital for the canons -and the so-called house of Queen Berengaria (16th century), meeting -place of the historical and archaeological society of Maine. A monument -to General Chanzy commemorates the battle of Le Mans (1871). Le Mans is -the seat of a bishopric dating from the 3rd century, of a prefect, and -of a court of assizes, and headquarters of the IV. army corps. It has -also tribunals of first instance and of commerce, a council of -trade-arbitrators, a chamber of commerce, a branch of the Bank of -France, an exchange, a lycee for boys, training colleges, a higher -ecclesiastical seminary and a school of music. The town has a great -variety of industries, carried on chiefly in the southern suburb of -Pontlieue. The more important are the state manufacture of tobacco, the -preparation of preserved vegetables, fish, &c., tanning, hemp-spinning, -bell-founding, flour-milling, the founding of copper and other metals, -and the manufacture of railway wagons, machinery and engineering -material, agricultural implements, rope, cloth and stained glass. The -fattening of poultry is an important local industry, and there is trade -in cattle, wine, cloth, farm-produce, &c. The town is an important -railway centre. - -As the capital of the Aulerci Cenomanni, Le Mans was called Suindinum or -Vindinum. The Romans built walls round it in the 3rd century, and traces -of them are still to be seen close to the left bank of the river near -the cathedral. In the same century the town was evangelized by St -Julian, who became its first bishop. Ruled at first by his -successors--notably St Aldric--Le Mans passed in the middle ages to the -counts of Maine (q.v.), whose capital and residence it became. About the -middle of the 11th century the citizens secured a communal charter, but -in 1063 the town was seized by William the Conqueror, who deprived them -of their liberties, which were recovered when the countship of Maine had -passed to the Plantagenet kings of England. Le Mans was taken by Philip -Augustus in 1189, recaptured by John, subsequently confiscated and later -ceded to Queen Berengaria, who did much for its prosperity. It was -several times besieged in the 15th and 16th centuries. In 1793 it was -seized by the Vendeans, who were expelled by the Republican generals -Marceau and Westermann after a stubborn battle in the streets. In 1799 -it was again occupied by the Chouans. - -The battle of Le Mans (10th-12th January 1871) was the culminating point -of General Chanzy's fighting retreat into western France after the -winter campaign in Beauce and Perche (see FRANCO-GERMAN WAR). The -numerous, but ill-trained and ill-equipped, levies of the French were -followed up by Prince Frederick Charles with the German II. Army, now -very much weakened but consisting of soldiers who had in six months' -active warfare acquired the self-confidence of veterans. The Germans -advanced with three army corps in first line and one in reserve. On the -9th of January the centre corps (III.) drove an advanced division of the -French from Ardenay (13 m. E. of Le Mans). On the 10th of January -Chanzy's main defensive position was approached. Its right wing was east -of the Sarthe and 3-5 m. from Le Mans, its centre on the heights of -Anvours with the river Huisne behind it, and its left scattered along -the western bank of the same river as far as Montfort (12 m. E.N.E. of -Le Mans) and thence northward for some miles. On the 10th there was a -severe struggle for the villages along the front of the French centre. -On the 11th Chanzy attempted a counter-offensive from many points, but -owing to the misbehaviour of certain of his rawest levies, the Germans -were able to drive him back, and as their cavalry now began to appear -beyond his extreme left flank, he retreated in the night of the 11th on -Laval, the Germans occupying Le Mans after a brief rearguard fight on -the 12th. - - - - -LE MARCHANT, JOHN GASPARD (1766-1812), English major-general, was the -son of an officer of dragoons, John Le Marchant, a member of an old -Guernsey family. After a somewhat wild youth, Le Marchant, who entered -the army in 1781, attained the rank of lieutenant-colonel in 1797. Two -years before this he had designed a new cavalry sword; and in 1801 his -scheme for establishing at High Wycombe and Great Marlow schools for the -military instruction of officers was sanctioned by Parliament, and a -grant of L30,000 was voted for the "royal military college," the two -original departments being afterwards combined and removed to Sandhurst. -Le Marchant was the first lieutenant-governor, and during the nine years -that he held this appointment he trained many officers who served with -distinction under Wellington in the Peninsula. Le Marchant himself was -given the command of a cavalry brigade in 1810, and greatly -distinguished himself in several actions, being killed at the battle of -Salamanca on the 22nd of July 1812, after the charge of his brigade had -had an important share in the English victory. He wrote several -treatises on cavalry tactics and other military subjects, but few of -them were published. By his wife, Mary, daughter of John Carey of -Guernsey, Le Marchant had four sons and six daughters. - -His second son, SIR DENIS LE MARCHANT, Bart. (1795-1874), was educated -at Eton and Trinity College, Cambridge, and was called to the bar in -1823. In 1830 he became secretary to Lord Chancellor Brougham, and in -the Reform Bill debates made himself exceedingly useful to the -ministers. Having been secretary to the board of trade from 1836 to -1841, he was created a baronet in 1841. He entered the House of Commons -in 1846, and was under secretary for the home department in the -government of Lord John Russell. He was chief clerk of the House of -Commons from 1850 to 1871. He published a _Life_ of his father in 1841, -and began a _Life_ of Lord Althorpe which was completed after his death -by his son; he also edited Horace Walpole's _Memoirs of the Reign of -George III._ (1845). Sir Denis Le Marchant died in London on the 30th of -October 1874. - -The third son of General Le Marchant, SIR JOHN GASPARD LE MARCHANT -(1803-1874), entered the English army, and saw service in Spain in the -Carlist War of 1835-37. He was afterwards lieutenant-governor of -Newfoundland (1847-1852) and of Nova Scotia (1852-1857); governor of -Malta (1859-1864); commander-in-chief at Madras (1865-1868). He was made -K.C.B. in 1865, and died on the 6th of February 1874. - - See Sir Denis Le Marchant, _Memoirs of General Le Marchant_ (1841); - Sir William Napier, _History of the War in the Peninsula_ (6 vols., - 1828-1840). - - - - -LEMBERG (Pol. _Lwow_, Lat. _Leopolis_), the capital of the crownland of -Galicia, Austria, 468 m. N.W. of Vienna by rail. Pop. (1900) 159,618, of -whom over 80% were Poles, 10% Germans, and 8% Ruthenians; nearly 30% of -the population were Jews. According to population Lemberg is the fourth -city in the Austrian empire, coming after Vienna, Prague and Trieste. -Lemberg is situated on the small river Peltew, an affluent of the Bug, -in a valley in the Sarmatian plateau, and is surrounded by hills. It is -composed of the inner town and of four suburbs. The inner town was -formerly fortified, but the fortifications were transformed into -pleasure grounds in 1811. Lemberg is the residence of Roman Catholic, -Greek Catholic and Armenian archbishops, and contains three cathedrals. -The Roman Catholic cathedral was finished by Casimir IV. in 1480 in -Gothic style; near it is a chapel (1609) remarkable for its architecture -and sculpture. The Greek cathedral, built in 1740-1779 in the Basilica -style, is situated on a height which dominates the town. The Armenian -cathedral was built in 1437 in the Armenian-Byzantine style. The -Dominican church, built in 1749 after the model of St Peter's at Rome, -contains a monument by Thorvaldsen to the Countess Dunin-Borkowska; the -Greek St Nicholas church was built in 1292; and the Roman Catholic St -Mary church was built in 1363 by the first German settlers. The town -hall (1828-1837) with a tower 250 ft. high is situated in the middle of -a square. Also notable are the hall of the estates (1877-1881), the -industrial museum, the theatre, the palace of the Roman Catholic -archbishop and several educational establishments. There are many -beautiful private buildings, broad and well-paved streets, numerous -squares and public gardens. At the head of the educational institutions -stands the university, founded in 1784 by Joseph II., transformed into a -lycee in 1803, and restored and reorganized in 1817. Since 1871 the -language of instruction has been Polish, and in 1901 the university had -110 lecturers, and was attended by 2060 students. There are also a -polytechnic, gymnasia--for Poles, Ruthenians and Germans -respectively--seminaries for priests, training colleges for teachers, -and other special and technical schools. In Lemberg is the National -Institute founded by Count Ossolinski, which contains a library of books -and manuscripts relating chiefly to the history and literature of -Poland, valuable antiquarian and scientific collections, and a printing -establishment; also the Dzieduszycki museum with collections of natural -history and ethnography relating chiefly to Galicia. Industrially and -commercially Lemberg is the most important city in Galicia, its -industries including the manufacture of machinery and iron wares, -matches, stearin candles and naphtha, arrack and liqueurs, chocolate, -chicory, leather and plaster of Paris, as well as brewing, corn-milling -and brick and tile making. It has important commerce in linen, flax, -hemp, wool and seeds, and a considerable transit trade. Of the -well-wooded hills which surround Lemberg, the most important is the -Franz-Josef-Berg to the N.E., with an altitude of 1310 ft. Several -beautiful parks have been laid out on this hill. - -Leopolis was founded about 1259 by the Ruthenian prince Leo Danilowicz, -who moved here his residence from Halicz in 1270. From Casimir the -Great, who captured it in 1340, it received the Magdeburg rights, and -for almost two hundred years the public records were kept in German. In -1412 it became the see of a Roman Catholic archbishopric, and from 1432 -until 1772 it was the capital of the Polish province of Reussen (_Terra -Russia_). During the whole period of Polish supremacy it was a most -important city, and after the fall of Constantinople it greatly -developed its trade with the East. In 1648 and 1655 it was besieged by -the Cossacks, and in 1672 by the Turks. Charles XII. of Sweden captured -it in 1704. In 1848 it was bombarded. - - - - -LEMERCIER, LOUIS JEAN NEPOMUCENE (1771-1840), French poet and dramatist, -was born in Paris on the 21st of April 1771. His father had been -intendant successively to the duc de Penthievre, the comte de Toulouse -and the unfortunate princesse de Lamballe, who was the boy's godmother. -Lemercier showed great precocity; before he was sixteen his tragedy of -_Meleagre_ was produced at the _Theatre Francais_. _Clarissa Harlowe_ -(1792) provoked the criticism that the author was not _assez roue pour -peindre les roueries_. _Le Tartufe revolutionnaire_, a parody full of -the most audacious political allusions, was suppressed after the fifth -representation. In 1795 appeared Lemercier's masterpiece _Agamemnon_, -called by Charles Labitte the last great antique tragedy in French -literature. It was a great success, but was violently attacked later by -Geoffroy, who stigmatized it as a bad caricature of Crebillon. _Quatre -metamorphoses_ (1799) was written to prove that the most indecent -subjects might be treated without offence. The _Pinto_ (1800) was the -result of a wager that no further dramatic innovations were possible -after the comedies of Beaumarchais. It is a historical comedy on the -subject of the Portuguese revolution of 1640. This play was construed as -casting reflections on the first consul, who had hitherto been a firm -friend of Lemercier. His extreme freedom of speech finally offended -Napoleon, and the quarrel proved disastrous to Lemercier's fortune for -the time. None of his subsequent work fulfilled the expectations raised -by _Agamemnon_, with the exception perhaps of _Fredegonde et Brunehaut_ -(1821). In 1810 he was elected to the Academy, where he consistently -opposed the romanticists, refusing to give his vote to Victor Hugo. In -spite of this, he has some pretensions to be considered the earliest of -the romantic school. His _Christophe Colomb_ (1809), advertised on the -playbill as a _comedie shakespirienne_ (sic), represented the interior -of a ship, and showed no respect for the unities. Its numerous -innovations provoked such violent disturbances in the audience that one -person was killed and future representations had to be guarded by the -police. Lemercier wrote four long and ambitious epic poems: _Homere_, -_Alexandre_ (1801), _L'Atlantiade, ou la theogonie newtonienne_ (1812) -and _Moise_ (1823), as well as an extraordinary _Panhypocrisiade_ -(1819-1832), a distinctly romantic production in twenty cantos, which -has the sub-title _Spectacle infernal du XVI^e siecle_. In it -16th-century history, with Charles V. and Francis I. as principal -personages, is played out on an imaginary stage by demons in the -intervals of their sufferings. Lemercier died on the 7th of June 1840 in -Paris. - - - - -LEMERY, NICOLAS (1645-1715), French chemist, was born at Rouen on the -17th of November 1645. After learning pharmacy in his native town he -became a pupil of C. Glaser's in Paris, and then went to Montpellier, -where he began to lecture on chemistry. He next established a pharmacy -in Paris, still continuing his lectures, but in 1683, being a Calvinist, -he was obliged to retire to England. In the following year he returned -to France, and turning Catholic in 1686 was able to reopen his shop and -resume his lectures. He died in Paris on the 19th of June 1715. Lemery -did not concern himself much with theoretical speculations, but holding -chemistry to be a demonstrative science, confined himself to the -straightforward exposition of facts and experiments. In consequence, his -lecture-room was thronged with people of all sorts, anxious to hear a -man who shunned the barren obscurities of the alchemists, and did not -regard the quest of the philosopher's stone and the elixir of life as -the sole end of his science. Of his _Cours de chymie_ (1675) he lived to -see 13 editions, and for a century it maintained its reputation as a -standard work. His other publications included _Pharmacopee universelle_ -(1697), _Traite universel des drogues simples_ (1698), _Traite de -l'antimoine_ (1707), together with a number of papers contributed to the -French Academy, one of which offered a chemical and physical explanation -of underground fires, earthquakes, lightning and thunder. He discovered -that heat is evolved when iron filings and sulphur are rubbed together -to a paste with water, and the artificial _volcan de Lemery_ was -produced by burying underground a considerable quantity of this mixture, -which he regarded as a potent agent in the causation of volcanic action. - -His son LOUIS (1677-1743) was appointed physician at the Hotel Dieu in -1710, and became demonstrator of chemistry at the Jardin du Roi in 1731. -He was the author of a _Traite des aliments_ (1702), and of a -_Dissertation sur la nature des os_ (1704), as well as of a number of -papers on chemical topics. - - - - -LEMERY, a town of the province of Batangas, Luzon, Philippine Islands, -on the Gulf of Balayan and the Pansipit river, opposite Taal (with which -it is connected by a bridge), and about 50 m. S. of Manila. Pop. of the -municipality (1903) 11,150. It has a fine church and convent. Lemery is -situated on a plain in a rich agricultural district, which produces -rice, Indian corn, sugar and cotton, and in which horses and cattle are -bred. It is also a port for coasting vessels, and has an important trade -with various parts of the archipelago. The language is Tagalog. - - - - -LEMGO, a town of Germany, in the principality of Lippe, in a broad and -fertile plain, 9 m. N. from Detmold and on the railway Hameln-Lage. Pop. -(1900) 8840. Its somewhat gloomy aspect, enhanced by the tortuous narrow -lanes flanked by gabled houses of the 15th century, has gained for it -among countryfolk the sobriquet of the "Witches' nest" (_Hexen-Nest_). -It is replete with interest for the antiquarian. It has four Evangelical -churches, two with curiously leaning, lead-covered spires; an old -town-hall; a gymnasium; and several philanthropic and religious -institutions. Among the latter is the Jungfrauenstift, of which a -princess of the reigning house of Lippe-Detmold has always been lady -superior since 1306. The chief industry of Lemgo is the manufacture of -meerschaum pipes, which has attained here a high pitch of excellence; -other industries are weaving, brewing and the manufacture of leather and -cigars. The town was a member of the Hanseatic league. - - - - -LEMIERRE, ANTOINE MARIN (1733-1793), French dramatist and poet, was born -in Paris on the 12th of January 1733. His parents were poor, but -Lemierre found a patron in the collector-general of taxes, Dupin, whose -secretary he became. Lemierre gained his first success on the stage with -_Hypermnestre_ (1758); _Teree_ (1761) and _Idomenee_ (1764) failed on -account of the subjects. _Artaxerce_, modelled on Metastasio, and -_Guillaume Tell_ were produced in 1766; other successful tragedies were -_La Veuve de Malabar_ (1770) and _Barnavelt_ (1784). Lemierre revived -_Guillaume Tell_ in 1786 with enormous success. After the Revolution he -professed great remorse for the production of a play inculcating -revolutionary principles, and there is no doubt that the horror of the -excesses he witnessed hastened his death, which took place on the 4th of -July 1793. He had been admitted to the Academy in 1781. Lemierre -published _La Peinture_ (1769), based on a Latin poem by the abbe de -Marsy, and a poem in six cantos, _Les Fastes, ou les usages de l'annee_ -(1779), an unsatisfactory imitation of Ovid's _Fasti_. - - His _Oeuvres_ (1810) contain a notice of Lemierre by R. Perrin and his - _Oeuvres choisies_ (1811) one by F. Fayolle. - - - - -LEMIRE, JULES AUGUSTE (1853- ), French priest and social reformer, was -born at Vieux-Berquin (Nord) on the 23rd of April 1853. He was educated -at the college of St Francis of Assisi, Hazebrouck, where he -subsequently taught philosophy and rhetoric. In 1897 he was elected -deputy for Hazebrouck and was returned unopposed at the elections of -1898, 1902 and 1906. He organized a society called _La Ligue du coin de -terre et du foyer_, the object of which was to secure, at the expense of -the state, a piece of land for every French family desirous of -possessing one. The abbe Lemire sat in the chamber of deputies as a -conservative republican and Christian Socialist. He protested in 1893 -against the action of the Dupuy cabinet in closing the Bourse du -Travail, characterizing it as the expression of "a policy of disdain of -the workers." In December 1893 he was seriously injured by the bomb -thrown by the anarchist Vaillant from the gallery of the chamber. - - - - -LEMMING, the native name of a small Scandinavian rodent mammal _Lemmus -norvegicus_ (or _L. lemmus_), belonging to the mouse tribe, or -_Muridae_, and nearly related, especially in the structure of its -cheek-teeth, to the voles. Specimens vary considerably in size and -colour, but the usual length is about 5 in., and the soft fur -yellowish-brown, marked with spots of dark brown and black. It has a -short, rounded head, obtuse muzzle, small bead-like eyes, and short -rounded ears, nearly concealed by the fur. The tail is very short. The -feet are small, each with five claws, those of the fore feet strongest, -and fitted for scratching and digging. The usual habitat of lemmings is -the high lands or fells of the great central mountain chain of Norway -and Sweden, from the southern branches of the Langfjeldene in -Christiansand _stift_ to the North Cape and the Varangerfjord. South of -the Arctic circle they are, under ordinary circumstances, confined to -the plateaus covered with dwarf birch and juniper above the -conifer-region, though in Tromso _amt_ and in Finmarken they occur in -all suitable localities down to the level of the sea. The nest, under a -tussock of grass or a stone, is constructed of short dry straws, and -usually lined with hair. The number of young in each nest is generally -five, sometimes only three occasionally seven or eight, and at least two -broods are produced annually. Their food is entirely vegetable, -especially grass roots and stalks, shoots of dwarf birch, reindeer -lichens and mosses, in search of which they form, in winter, long -galleries through the turf or under the snow. They are restless, -courageous and pugnacious little animals. When suddenly disturbed, -instead of trying to escape they sit upright, with their back against a -stone, hissing and showing fight in a determined manner. - -[Illustration: The Norwegian Lemming (_Lemmus Norvegicus_).] - -The circumstance which has given popular interest to the lemming is that -certain districts of the cultivated lands of Norway and Sweden, where in -ordinary circumstances they are unknown, are, at uncertain intervals -varying from five to twenty or more years, overrun by an army of these -little creatures, which steadily and slowly advance, always in the same -direction, and regardless of all obstacles, swimming streams and even -lakes of several miles in breadth, and committing considerable -devastation on their line of march by the quantity of food they consume. -In their turn they are pursued and harassed by crowds of beasts and -birds of prey, as bears, wolves, foxes, dogs, wild cats, stoats, -weasels, eagles, hawks and owls, and never spared by man; even domestic -animals, as cattle, goats and reindeer, join in the destruction, -stamping them to the ground with their feet, and even eating their -bodies. Numbers also die from diseases produced apparently from -overcrowding. None returns, and the onward march of the survivors never -ceases until they reach the sea, into which they plunge, and swimming -onwards in the same direction perish in the waves. These sudden -appearances of vast bodies of lemmings, and their singular habit of -persistently pursuing the same onward course of migration, have given -rise to various speculations, from the ancient belief of the Norwegian -peasants, shared by Olaus Magnus, that they fall down from the clouds, -to the hypothesis that they are acting in obedience to an instinct -inherited from ancient times, and still seeking the congenial home in -the submerged Atlantis, to which their ancestors of the Miocene period -were wont to resort when driven from their ordinary dwelling-places by -crowding or scarcity of food. The principal facts regarding these -migrations seem to be as follows. When any combination of circumstances -has occasioned an increase of the numbers of the lemmings in their -ordinary dwelling-places, impelled by the restless or migratory instinct -possessed in a less developed degree by so many of their congeners, a -movement takes place at the edge of the elevated plateau, and a -migration towards the lower-lying land begins. The whole body moves -forward slowly, always advancing in the same general direction in which -they originally started, but following more or less the course of the -great valleys. They only travel by night; and, staying in congenial -places for considerable periods, with unaccustomed abundance of -provender, notwithstanding the destructive influences to which they are -exposed, they multiply excessively during their journey, having families -more numerous and frequent than in their usual homes. The progress may -last from one to three years, according to the route taken, and the -distance to be traversed until the sea-coast is reached, which in a -country so surrounded by water as the Scandinavian peninsula must be the -ultimate goal of such a journey. This may be either the Atlantic or the -Gulf of Bothnia, according as the migration has commenced from the west -or the east side of the central elevated plateau. Those that finally -perish in the sea, committing what appears to be a voluntary suicide, -are only acting under the same blind impulse which has led them -previously to cross shallower pieces of water with safety. In Eastern -Europe, Northern Asia and North America the group is represented by the -allied _L. obensis_, and in Alaska, by _L. nigripes_; while the -circumpolar banded lemming, _Dicrostonyx torquatus_, which turns white -in winter, represents a second genus taking its name from the double -claws on one of the toes of the forefeet. - - For habits of lemmings, see R. Collett, _Myodes lemmus, its habits and - migrations in Norway_ (Christiania Videnskabs-Selskabs Forhandlinger, - 1895). (W. H. F.; R. L.*) - - - - -LEMNISCATE (from Gr. [Greek: lemniskos], ribbon), a quartic curve -invented by Jacques Bernoulli (_Acta Eruditorum_, 1694) and afterwards -investigated by Giulio Carlo Fagnano, who gave its principal properties -and applied it to effect the division of a quadrant into 2.2^m, 3.2^m -and 5.2^m equal parts. Following Archimedes, Fagnano desired the curve -to be engraved on his tombstone. The complete analytical treatment was -first given by Leonhard Euler. The lemniscate of Bernoulli may be -defined as the locus of a point which moves so that the product of its -distances from two fixed points is constant and is equal to the square -of half the distance between these points. It is therefore a particular -form of Cassini's oval (see OVAL). Its cartesian equation, when the line -joining the two fixed points is the axis of x and the middle point of -this line is the origin, is (x^2 + y^2)^2 = 2a^2(x^2 - y^2) and the polar -equation is r^2 = 2a^2 cos 2[theta]. The curve (fig. 1) consists of two -loops symmetrically placed about the coordinate axes. The pedal equation -is r^3 = a^2p, which shows that it is the first positive pedal of a -rectangular hyperbola with regard to the centre. It is also the inverse -of the same curve for the same point. It is the envelope of circles -described on the central radii of an ellipse as diameters. The area of -the complete curve is 2a^2, and the length of any arc may be expressed in -the form [int](1 - x^4)^(-1/2)dx, an elliptic integral sometimes termed -the _lemniscatic integral_. - -[Illustration: FIG. 1.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 2.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 3.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 4.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 5.] - - The name lemniscate is sometimes given to any crunodal quartic curve - having only one real finite branch which is symmetric about the axis. - Such curves are given by the equation x^2 - y^2 = ax^4 + bx^2y^2 + - cy^4. If a be greater than b the curve resembles fig. 2 and is - sometimes termed the _fishtail-lemniscate_; if a be less than b, the - curve resembles fig. 3. The same name is also given to the first - positive pedal of any central conic. When the conic is a rectangular - hyperbola, the curve is the lemniscate of Bernoulli previously - described. The _elliptic lemniscate_ has for its equation (x^2 + - y^2)^2 = a^2x^2 + b^2y^2 or r^2 = a^2 cos^2[theta] + b^2 sin^2[theta] - (a > b). The centre is a conjugate point (or acnode) and the curve - resembles fig. 4. The _hyperbolic lemniscate_ has for its equation - (x^2 + y^2)^2 = a^2x^2 - b^2y^2 or r^2 = a^2 cos^2[theta] - b^2 - sin^2[theta]. In this case the centre is a crunode and the curve - resembles fig. 5. These curves are instances of unicursal bicircular - quartics. - - - - -LEMNOS (mod. _Limnos_), an island in the northern part of the Aegean -Sea. The Italian form of the name, Stalimene, i.e. [Greek: es ten -Lemnon], is not used in the island itself, but is commonly employed in -geographical works. The island, which belongs to Turkey, is of -considerable size: Pliny says that the coast-line measured 112(1/2) -Roman miles, and the area has been estimated at 150 sq. m. Great part is -mountainous, but some very fertile valleys exist, to cultivate which -2000 yoke of oxen are employed. The hill-sides afford pasture for 20,000 -sheep. No forests exist on the island; all wood is brought from the -coast of Rumelia or from Thasos. A few mulberry and fruit trees grow, -but no olives. The population is estimated by some as high as 27,000, of -whom 2000 are Turks and the rest Greeks, but other authorities doubt -whether it reaches more than half this number. The chief towns are -Kastro on the western coast, with a population of 4000 Greeks and 800 -Turks, and Mudros on the southern coast. Kastro possesses an excellent -harbour, and is the seat of all the trade carried on with the island. -Greek, English and Dutch consuls or consular agents were formerly -stationed there; but the whole trade is now in Greek hands. The -archbishops of Lemnos and Ai Strati, a small neighbouring island with -2000 inhabitants, resides in Kastro. In ancient times the island was -sacred to Hephaestus, who as the legend tells fell on Lemnos when his -father Zeus hurled him headlong out of Olympus. This tale, as well as -the name Aethaleia, sometimes applied to it, points to its volcanic -character. It is said that fire occasionally blazed forth from -Mosychlos, one of its mountains; and Pausanias (viii. 33) relates that a -small island called Chryse, off the Lemnian coast, was swallowed up by -the sea. All volcanic action is now extinct. - - The most famous product of Lemnos is the medicinal earth, which is - still used by the natives. At one time it was popular over western - Europe under the name _terra sigillata_. This name, like the Gr. - [Greek: Lemnia sphragis], is derived from the stamp impressed on each - piece of the earth; in ancient times the stamp was the head of - Artemis. The Turks now believe that a vase of this earth destroys the - effect of any poison drunk from it--a belief which the ancients - attached rather to the earth from Cape Kolias in Attica. Galen went to - see the digging up of this earth (see Kuhn, _Medic. Gr. Opera_, xii. - 172 sq.); on one day in each year a priestess performed the due - ceremonies, and a waggon-load of earth was dug out. At the present - time the day selected is the 6th of August, the feast of Christ the - Saviour. Both the Turkish _hodja_ and the Greek priest are present to - perform the necessary ceremonies; the whole process takes place before - daybreak. The earth is sold by apothecaries in stamped cubical blocks. - The hill from which the earth is dug is a dry mound, void of - vegetation, beside the village of Kotschinos, and about two hours from - the site of Hephaestia. The earth was considered in ancient times a - cure for old festering wounds, and for the bite of poisonous snakes. - -The name Lemnos is said by Hecataeus (ap. Steph. Byz.) to have been a -title of Cybele among the Thracians, and the earliest inhabitants are -said to have been a Thracian tribe, called by the Greeks Sinties, i.e. -"the robbers." According to a famous legend the women were all deserted -by their husbands, and in revenge murdered every man on the island. From -this barbarous act, the expression Lemnian deeds, [Greek: Lemnia erga], -became proverbial. The Argonauts landing soon after found only women in -the island, ruled over by Hypsipyle, daughter of the old king Thoas. -From the Argonauts and the Lemnian women were descended the race called -Minyae, whose king Euneus, son of Jason and Hypsipyle, sent wine and -provisions to the Greeks at Troy. The Minyae were expelled by a -Pelasgian tribe who came from Attica. The historical element underlying -these traditions is probably that the original Thracian people were -gradually brought into communication with the Greeks as navigation began -to unite the scattered islands of the Aegean (see JASON); the Thracian -inhabitants were barbarians in comparison with the Greek mariners. The -worship of Cybele was characteristic of Thrace, whither it spread from -Asia Minor at a very early period, and it deserves notice that Hypsipyle -and Myrina (the name of one of the chief towns) are Amazon names, which -are always connected with Asiatic Cybele-worship. Coming down to a -better authenticated period, we find that Lemnos was conquered by -Otanes, one of the generals of Darius Hystaspis; but was soon -reconquered by Miltiades, the tyrant of the Thracian Chersonese. -Miltiades afterwards returned to Athens, and Lemnos continued an -Athenian possession till the Macedonian empire absorbed it. On the -vicissitudes of its history in the 3rd century B.C. see Kohler in -_Mittheil. Inst. Athen._ i. 261. The Romans declared it free in 197 -B.C., but gave it over in 166 to Athens, which retained nominal -possession of it till the whole of Greece was made a Roman province. A -colony of Attic cleruchs was established by Pericles, and many -inscriptions on the island relate to Athenians. After the division of -the empire, Lemnos passed under the Byzantine emperors; it shared in the -vicissitudes of the eastern provinces, being alternately in the power of -Greeks, Italians and Turks, till finally the Turkish sultans became -supreme in the Aegean. In 1476 the Venetians successfully defended -Kotschinos against a Turkish siege; but in 1657 Kastro was captured by -the Turks from the Venetians after a siege of sixty-three days. Kastro -was again besieged by the Russians in 1770. - -Homer speaks as if there were one town in the island called Lemnos, but -in historical times there was no such place. There were two towns, -Myrina, now Kastro, and Hephaestia. The latter was the chief town; its -coins are found in considerable number, the types being sometimes the -Athenian goddess and her owl, sometimes native religious symbols, the -caps of the Dioscuri, Apollo, &c. Few coins of Myrina are known. They -belong to the period of Attic occupation, and bear Athenian types. A few -coins are also known which bear the name, not of either city, but of the -whole island. Conze was the first to discover the site of Hephaestia, at -a deserted place named Palaeokastro on the east coast. It had once a -splendid harbour, which is now filled up. Its situation on the east -explains why Miltiades attacked it first when he came from the -Chersonese. It surrendered at once, whereas Myrina, with its very strong -citadel built on a perpendicular rock, sustained a siege. It is said -that the shadow of Mount Athos fell at sunset on a bronze cow in the -agora of Myrina. Pliny says that Athos was 87 m. to the north-west; but -the real distance is about 40 English miles. One legend localized in -Lemnos still requires notice. Philoctetes was left there by the Greeks -on their way to Troy; and there he suffered ten years' agony from his -wounded foot, until Ulysses and Neoptolemus induced him to accompany -them to Troy. He is said by Sophocles to have lived beside Mount -Hermaeus, which Aeschylus (_Agam._ 262) makes one of the beacon points -to flash the news of Troy's downfall home to Argos. - - See Rhode, _Res Lemnicae_; Conze, _Reise auf den Inseln des - Thrakischen Meeres_ (from which the above-mentioned facts about the - present state of the island are taken); also Hunt in Walpole's - _Travels_; Belon du Mans, _Observations de plusieurs singularitez_, - &c.; Finlay, _Greece under the Romans_; von Hammer, _Gesch. des Osman. - Reiches; Gott. Gel. Anz._ (1837). The chief references in ancicnt - writers are _Iliad_ i. 593, v. 138, xiv. 229, &c.; Herod. iv. 145; - Str. pp. 124, 330; Plin. iv. 23, xxxvi. 13. - - - - -LEMOINNE, JOHN EMILE (1815-1892), French journalist, was born of French -parents, in London, on the 17th of October 1815. He was educated first -at an English school and then in France. In 1840 he began writing for -the _Journal des debats_, on English and other foreign questions, and -under the empire he held up to admiration the free institutions of -England by contrast with imperial methods. After 1871 he supported -Thiers, but his sympathies rather tended towards a liberalized monarchy, -until the comte de Chambord's policy made such a development an -impossibility, and he then ranged himself with the moderate Republicans. -In 1875 Lemoinne was elected to the French Academy, and in 1880 he was -nominated a life senator. Distinguished though he was for a real -knowledge of England among the French journalists who wrote on foreign -affairs, his tone towards English policy greatly changed in later days, -and though he never shared the extreme French bitterness against England -as regards Egypt, he maintained a critical attitude which served to -stimulate French Anglophobia. He was a frequent contributor to the -_Revue des deux mondes_, and published several books, the best known of -which is his _Etudes critiques et biographiques_ (1862). He died in -Paris on the 14th of December 1892. - - - - -LEMON, MARK (1809-1870), editor of _Punch_, was born in London on the -30th of November 1809. He had a natural talent for journalism and the -stage, and, at twenty-six, retired from less congenial business to -devote himself to the writing of plays. More than sixty of his -melodramas, operettas and comedies were produced in London. At the same -time he contributed to a variety of magazines and newspapers, and -founded and edited the _Field_. In 1841 Lemon and Henry Mayhew conceived -the idea of a humorous weekly paper to be called _Punch_, and when the -first number was issued, in July 1841, were joint-editors and, with the -printer and engraver, equal owners. The paper was for some time -unsuccessful, Lemon keeping it alive out of the profits of his plays. On -the sale of _Punch_ Lemon became sole editor for the new proprietors, -and it remained under his control until his death, achieving remarkable -popularity and influence. Lemon was an actor of ability, a pleasing -lecturer and a successful impersonator of Shakespearian characters. He -also wrote a host of novelettes and lyrics, over a hundred songs, a few -three-volume novels, several Christmas fairy tales and a volume of -jests. He died at Crawley, Sussex, on the 23rd of May 1870. - - - - -LEMON, the fruit of _Citrus Limonum_, which is regarded by some -botanists as a variety of _Citrus medica_. The wild stock of the lemon -tree is said to be a native of the valleys of Kumaon and Sikkim in the -North-West provinces of India, ascending to a height of 4000 ft., and -occurring under several forms. Sir George Watt (_Dictionary of Economic -Products of India_, ii. 352) regards the wild plants as wild forms of -the lime or citron and considers it highly probable that the wild form -of the lemon has not yet been discovered. - -[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Lemon--_Citrus Limonum_. - - 1, Flowering shoot. - 2, Flower with two petals and two bundles of stamens removed; slightly - enlarged. - 3, Fruit. - 4, Same cut across. - 5, Seed. - 6, Same cut lengthwise.] - -The lemon seems to have been unknown to the ancient Greeks and Romans, -and to have been introduced by the Arabs into Spain between the 12th and -13th centuries. In 1494 the fruit was cultivated in the Azores, and -largely shipped to England, but since 1838 the exportation has ceased. -As a cultivated plant the lemon is now met with throughout the -Mediterranean region, in Spain and Portugal, in California and Florida, -and in almost all tropical and subtropical countries. Like the apple and -pear, it varies exceedingly under cultivation. Risso and Poiteau -enumerate forty-seven varieties of this fruit, although they maintain as -distinct the sweet lime, _C. Limetta_, with eight varieties, and the -sweet lemon, _C. Lumia_, with twelve varieties, which differ only in the -fruit possessing an insipid instead of an acid juice. - - The lemon is more delicate than the orange, although, according to - Humboldt, both require an annual mean temperature of 62 deg. Fahr. - Unlike the orange, which presents a fine close head of deep green - foliage, it forms a straggling bush, or small tree, 10 to 12 ft. high, - with paler, more scattered leaves, and short angular branches with - sharp spines in the axils. The flowers, which possess a sweet odour - quite distinct from that of the orange, are in part hermaphrodite and - in part unisexual, the outside of the corolla having a purplish hue. - The fruit, which is usually crowned with a nipple, consists of an - outer rind or peel, the surface of which is more or less rough from - the convex oil receptacles imbedded in it, and of a white inner rind, - which is spongy and nearly tasteless, the whole of the interior of the - fruit being filled with soft parenchymatous tissue, divided into about - ten to twelve compartments, each generally containing two or three - seeds. The white inner rind varies much in thickness in different - kinds, but is never so thick as in the citron. As lemons are much more - profitable to grow than oranges, on account of their keeping - properties, and from their being less liable to injury during voyages, - the cultivation of the lemon is preferred in Italy wherever it will - succeed. In damp valleys it is liable like the orange (q.v.) to be - attacked by a fungus sooty mould, the stem, leaves, and fruit becoming - covered with a blackish dust. This is coincident with or subsequent to - the attacks of a small oval brown insect, _Chermes hesperidum_. Trees - not properly exposed to sunlight and air suffer most severely from - these pests. Syringing with resin-wash or milk of lime when the young - insects are hatched, and before they have fixed themselves to the - plant, is a preventive. Since 1875 this fungoid disease has made great - ravages in Sicily among the lemon and citron trees, especially around - Catania and Messina. Heritte attributes the prevalence of the disease - to the fact that the growers have induced an unnatural degree of - fertility in the trees, permitting them to bear enormous crops year - after year. This loss of vitality is in some measure met by grafting - healthy scions of the lemon on the bitter orange, but trees so grafted - do not bear fruit until they are eight or ten years old. - -The lemon tree is exceedingly fruitful, a large one in Spain or Sicily -ripening as many as three thousand fruits in favourable seasons. In the -south of Europe lemons are collected more or less during every month of -the year, but in Sicily the chief harvest takes place from the end of -October to the end of December, those gathered during the last two -months of the year being considered the best for keeping purposes. The -fruit is gathered while still green. After collection the finest -specimens are picked out and packed in cases, each containing about four -hundred and twenty fruits, and also in boxes, three of which are equal -to two cases, each lemon being separately packed in paper. The -remainder, consisting of ill-shaped or unsound fruits, are reserved for -the manufacture of essential oil and juice. The whole of the sound -lemons are usually packed in boxes, but those which are not exported -immediately are carefully picked over and the unsound ones removed -before shipment. The exportation is continued as required until April -and May. The large lemons with a rougher rind, which appear in the -London market in July and August, are grown at Sorrento near Naples, and -are allowed to remain on the trees until ripe. - -Candied lemon peel is usually made in England from a larger variety of -the lemon cultivated in Sicily on higher ground than the common kind, -from which it is distinguished by its thicker rind and larger size. This -kind, known as the Spadaforese lemon, is also allowed to remain on the -trees until ripe, and when gathered the fruit is cut in half -longitudinally and pickled in brine, before being exported in casks. -Before candying the lemons are soaked in fresh water to remove the salt. -Citrons are also exported from Sicily in the same way, but these are -about six times as expensive as lemons, and a comparatively small -quantity is shipped. Besides those exported from Messina and Palermo, -lemons are also imported into England to a less extent from the Riviera -of Genoa, and from Malaga in Spain, the latter being the most esteemed. -Of the numerous varieties the wax lemon, the imperial lemon and the -Gaeta lemon are considered to be the best. Lemons are also extensively -grown in California and Florida. - - Lemons of ordinary size contain about 2 oz. of juice, of specific - gravity 1.039-1.046, yielding on an average 32.5 to 42.53 grains of - citric acid per oz. The amount of this acid, according to Stoddart, - varies in different seasons, decreasing in lemons kept from February - to July, at first slowly and afterwards rapidly, until at the end of - that period it is all split up into glucose and carbonic acid--the - specific gravity of the juice being in February 1.046, in May 1.041 - and in July 1.027, while the fruit is hardly altered in appearance. It - has been stated that lemons may be kept for some months with scarcely - perceptible deterioration by varnishing them with an alcoholic - solution of shellac--the coating thus formed being easily removed when - the fruit is required for household use by gently kneading it in the - hands. Besides citric acid, lemon juice contains 3 to 4% of gum and - sugar, albuminoid matters, malic acid and 2.28% of inorganic salts. - Cossa has determined that the ash of dried lemon juice contains 54% of - potash, besides 15% of phosphoric acid. In the white portion of the - peel (in common with other fruits of the genus) a bitter principle - called _hesperidin_ has been found. It is very slightly soluble in - boiling water, but is soluble in dilute alcohol and in alkaline - solutions, which it soon turns of a yellow or reddish colour. It is - also darkened by tincture of perchloride of iron. Another substance - named _lemonin_, crystallizing in lustrous plates, was discovered in - 1879 by Palerno and Aglialoro in the seeds, in which it is present in - very small quantity, 15,000 grains of seed yielding only 80 grains of - it. It differs from hesperidin in dissolving in potash without - alteration. It melts at 275 deg. F. - - The simplest method of preserving lemon juice in small quantities for - medicinal or domestic use is to keep it covered with a layer of olive - or almond oil in a closed vessel furnished with a glass tap, by which - the clear liquid may be drawn off as required. Lemon juice is largely - used on shipboard as a preventive of scurvy. By the Merchant Shipping - Act 1867 every British ship going to other countries where lemon or - lime juice cannot be obtained was required to take sufficient to give - 1 oz. to every member of the crew daily. Of this juice it requires - about 13,000 lemons to yield l pipe (108 gallons). Sicilian juice in - November yields about 9 oz. of crude citric acid per gallon, but only - 6 oz. if the fruit is collected in April. The crude juice was formerly - exported to England, and was often adulterated with sea-water, but is - now almost entirely replaced by lime juice. A concentrated lemon juice - for the manufacture of citric acid is prepared in considerable - quantities, chiefly at Messina and Palermo, by boiling down the crude - juice in copper vessels over an open fire until its specific gravity - is about 1.239, seven to ten pipes of raw making only one of - concentrated lemon juice. "Lemon juice" for use on shipboard is - prepared also from the fruits of limes and Bergamot oranges. It is - said to be sometimes adulterated with sulphuric acid on arrival in - England. - - The lemon used in medicine is described in the British pharmacopoeia - as being the fruit of _Citrus medica_, var. Limonum. The preparations - of lemon peel are of small importance. From the fresh peel is obtained - the _oleum limonis_ (dose (1/2)-3 minims), which has the characters of - its class. It contains a terpene known as citrene or limonene, which - also occurs in orange peel: and citral, the aldehyde of geraniol, - which is the chief constituent of oil of roses. Of much importance is - the _succus limonis_ or lemon juice, 1 oz. of which contains about 40 - grains of free citric acid, besides the citrate of potassium (.25%) - and malic acid, free and combined. Ten per cent. of alcohol must be - added to lemon juice if it is to be kept. From it are prepared the - _syrupus limonis_ (dose (1/2)-2 drachms), which consists of sugar, - lemon juice and an alcoholic extract of lemon peel, and also citric - acid itself. Lemon juice is practically impure citric acid (q.v.). - - _Essence or Essential Oil of Lemon._--The essential oil contained in - the rind of the lemon occurs in commerce as a distinct article. It is - manufactured chiefly in Sicily, at Reggio in Calabria, and at Mentone - and Nice in France. The small and irregularly shaped fruits are - employed while still green, in which state the yield of oil is greater - than when they are quite ripe. In Sicily and Calabria the oil is - extracted in November and December as follows. A workman cuts three - longitudinal slices off each lemon, leaving a three-cornered central - core having a small portion of rind at the apex and base. These pieces - are then divided transversely and cast on one side, and the strips of - peel are thrown in another place. Next day the pieces of peel are - deprived of their oil by pressing four or five times successively the - outer surface of the peel (zest or flavedo) bent into a convex shape, - against a flat sponge held in the palm of the left hand and wrapped - round the forefinger. The oil vesicles in the rind, which are ruptured - more easily in the fresh fruit than in the state in which lemons are - imported, yield up their oil to the sponge, which when saturated is - squeezed into an earthen vessel furnished with a spout and capable of - holding about three pints. After a time the oil separates from the - watery liquid which accompanies it, and is then decanted. By this - process four hundred fruits yield 9 to 14 oz. of essence. The prisms - of pulp are afterwards expressed to obtain lemon juice, and then - distilled to obtain the small quantity of volatile oil they contain. - At Mentone and Nice a different process is adopted. The lemons are - placed in an _ecuelle a piquer_, a shallow basin of pewter about 8(1/2) - in. in diameter, having i a lip for pouring on one side and a closed - tube at the bottom about 5 in. long and 1 in. in diameter. A number of - stout brass pins stand up about half an inch from the bottom of the - vessel. The workman rubs a lemon over these pins, which rupture the - oil vesicles, and the oil collects in the tube, which when it becomes - full is emptied into another vessel that it may separate from the - aqueous liquid mixed with it. When filtered it is known as _Essence de - citron au zeste_, or, in the English market, as perfumers' essence of - lemon, inferior qualities being distinguished as druggists' essence of - lemon. An additional product is obtained by immersing the scarified - lemons in warm water and separating the oil which floats off. _Essence - de citron distillee_ is obtained by rubbing the surface of fresh - lemons (or of those which have been submitted to the action of the - _ecuelle a piquer_) on a coarse grater of tinned iron, and distilling - the grated peel. The oil so obtained is colourless, and of inferior - fragrance, and is sold at a lower price, while that obtained by the - cold processes has a yellow colour and powerful odour. - - Essence of lemon is chiefly brought from Messina and Palermo packed in - copper bottles holding 25 to 50 kilogrammes or more, and sometimes in - tinned bottles of smaller size. It is said to be rarely found in a - state of purity in commerce, almost all that comes into the market - being diluted with the cheaper distilled oil. This fact may be - considered as proved by the price at which the essence of lemon is - sold in England, this being less than it costs the manufacturer to - make it. When long kept the essence deposits a white greasy - stearoptene, apparently identical with the bergaptene obtained from - the essential oil of the Bergamot orange. The chief constituent of oil - of lemon is the terpene, C10H16, boiling at 348 deg.8 Fahr., which, - like oil of turpentine, readily yields crystals of terpin, C10H163OH2, - but differs in yielding the crystalline compound, C10H16 + 2Cl, oil of - turpentine forming one having the formula C10H16 + HCl. Oil of lemons - also contains, according to Tilden, another hydrocarbon, C10H16, - boiling at 3.20 deg. Fahr., a small amount of _cymene_, and a compound - acetic ether, C2H3O.C10H17O. The natural essence of lemon not being - wholly soluble in rectified spirit of wine, an essence for culinary - purposes is sometimes prepared by digesting 6 oz of lemon peel in one - pint of pure alcohol of 95%, and, when the rind has become brittle, - which takes place in about two and a half hours, powdering it and - percolating the alcohol through it. This article is known as "lemon - flavour." - -The name lemon is also applied to some other fruits. The Java lemon is -the fruit of _Citrus javanica_, the pear lemon of a variety of _C. -Limetta_, and the pearl lemon of _C. margarita_. The fruit of a -passion-flower, _Passiflora laurifolia_, is sometimes known as the -water-lemon, and that of a Berberidaceous plant, _Podophyllum peltatum_, -as the wild lemon. In France and Germany the lemon is known as the -citron, and hence much confusion arises concerning the fruits referred -to in different works. The essential oil known as oil of cedrat is -usually a factitious article instead of being prepared, as its name -implies, from the citron (Fr. _cedratier_). An essential oil is also -prepared from _C. Lumia_, at Squillace in Calabria, and has an odour -like that of Bergamot but less powerful. - -[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Lime--_Citrus medica_, var. _acida_. - - 1, Flowering shoot. - 2, Fruit. - 3, Same cut transversely. - 4, Seed. - 5, Seed cut lengthwise. - 6, Seed cut transversely. - 7, Superficial view of portion of rind showing oil glands.] - -The sour lime is _Citrus acida_, generally regarded as a var. (_acida_) -of _C. medica_. It is a native of India, ascending to about 4000 ft. in -the mountains, and occurring as a small, much-branched thorny bush. The -small flowers are white or tinged with pink on the outside; the fruit is -small and generally round, with a thin, light green or lemon-yellow -bitter rind, and a very sour, somewhat bitter juicy pulp. It is -extensively cultivated throughout the West Indies, especially in -Dominica, Montserrat and Jamaica, the approximate annual value of the -exports from these islands being respectively L45,000, L6000 and L6000. -The plants are grown from seed in nurseries and planted out about 200 to -the acre. They begin to bear from about the third year, but full crops -are not produced until the trees are six or seven years old. The ripe -yellow fruit is gathered as it falls. The fruit is bruised by hand in a -funnel-shaped vessel known as an _ecuelle_, with a hollow stem; by -rolling the fruit on a number of points on the side of the funnel the -oil cells in the rind are broken and the oil collects in the hollow -stem--this is the essential oil or essence of limes. The fruits are then -taken to the mill, sorted, washed and passed through rollers and exposed -to two squeezings. Two-thirds of the juice is expressed by the first -squeezing, is strained at once, done up in puncheons and exported as raw -juice. The product of the second squeezing, together with the juice -extracted by a subsequent squeezing in a press, is strained and -evaporated down to make concentrated juice; ten gallons of the raw juice -yield one gallon of the concentrated juice. The raw juice is used for -preparations of lime juice cordial, the concentrated for manufactures of -citric acid. - - On some estates citrate of lime is now manufactured in place of - concentrated acid. Distilled oil of limes is prepared by distilling - the juice, but its value is low in comparison with the expressed oil - obtained by hand as described above. Green limes and pickled limes - preserved in brine are largely exported to the United States, and more - recently green limes have been exported to the United Kingdom. - Limalade or preserved limes is an excellent substitute for marmalade. - A spineless form of the lime appeared as a sport in Dominica in 1892, - and is now grown there and elsewhere on a commercial scale. A form - with seedless fruits has also recently been obtained in Dominica and - Trinidad independently. The young leaves of the lime are used for - perfuming the water in finger-glasses, a few being placed in the water - and bruised before use. - - - - -LEMONNIER, ANTOINE LOUIS CAMILLE (1844- ), Belgian poet, was born at -Ixelles, Brussels, on the 24th of March 1844. He studied law, and then -took a clerkship in a government office, which he resigned after three -years. Lemonnier inherited Flemish blood from both parents, and with it -the animal force and pictorial energy of the Flemish temperament. He -published a _Salon de Bruxelles_ in 1863, and again in 1866. His early -friendships were chiefly with artists; and he wrote art criticisms with -recognized discernment. Taking a house in the hills near Namur, he -devoted himself to sport, and developed the intimate sympathy with -nature which informs his best work. _Nos Flamands_ (1869) and _Croquis -d'automne_ (1870) date from this time. _Paris-Berlin_ (1870), a pamphlet -pleading the cause of France, and full of the author's horror of war, -had a great success. His capacity as a novelist, in the fresh, humorous -description of peasant life, was revealed in _Un Coin de village_ -(1879). In _Un Male_ (1881) he achieved a different kind of success. It -deals with the amours of a poacher and a farmer's daughter, with the -forest as a background. Cachapres, the poacher, seems the very -embodiment of the wild life around him. The rejection of _Un Male_ by -the judges for the quinquennial prize of literature in 1883 made -Lemonnier the centre of a school, inaugurated at a banquet given in his -honour on the 27th of May 1883. _Le Mort_ (1882), which describes the -remorse of two peasants for a murder they have committed, is a -masterpiece in its vivid representation of terror. It was remodelled as -a tragedy in five acts (Paris, 1899) by its author. _Ceux de la glebe_ -(1889), dedicated to the "children of the soil," was written in 1885. He -turned aside from local subjects for some time to produce a series of -psychological novels, books of art criticism, &c., of considerable -value, but assimilating more closely to French contemporary literature. -The most striking of his later novels are: _L'Hysterique_ (1885); -_Happe-chair_ (1886), often compared with Zola's _Germinal_; _Le -Possede_ (1890); _La Fin des bourgeois_ (1892); _L'Arche, journal d'une -maman_ (1894), a quiet book, quite different from his usual work; _La -Faute de Mme Charvet_ (1895); _L'Homme en amour_ (1897); and, with a -return to Flemish subjects, _Le Vent dans les moulins_ (1901); _Petit -Homme de Dieu_ (1902), and _Comme va le ruisseau_ (1903). In 1888 -Lemonnier was prosecuted in Paris for offending against public morals by -a story in _Gil Blas_, and was condemned to a fine. In a later -prosecution at Brussels he was defended by Edmond Picard, and acquitted; -and he was arraigned for a third time, at Bruges, for his _Homme en -amour_, but again acquitted. He represents his own case in _Les Deux -consciences_ (1902), _L'Ile vierge_ (1897) was the first of a trilogy to -be called _La Legende de la vie_, which was to trace, under the fortunes -of the hero, the pilgrimage of man through sorrow and sacrifice to the -conception of the divinity within him. In _Adam et Eve_ (1899), and _Au -Coeur frais de la foret_ (1900), he preached the return to nature as the -salvation not only of the individual but of the community. Among his -other more important works are _G. Courbet, et ses oeuvres_ (1878); -_L'Histoire des Beaux-Arts en Belgique_ 1830-1887 (1887); _En Allemagne_ -(1888), dealing especially with the Pinakothek at Munich; _La Belgique_ -(1888), an elaborate descriptive work with many illustrations; _La Vie -belge_ (1905); and _Alfred Stevens et son oeuvre_ (1906). - -Lemonnier spent much time in Paris, and was one of the early -contributors to the _Mercure de France_. He began to write at a time -when Belgian letters lacked style; and with much toil, and some initial -extravagances, he created a medium for the expression of his ideas. He -explained something of the process in a preface contributed to Gustave -Abel's _Labeur de la prose_ (1902). His prose is magnificent and -sonorous, but abounds in neologisms and strange metaphors. - - See the _Revue de Belgique_ (15th February 1903), which contains the - syllabus of a series of lectures on Lemonnier by Edmond Picard, a - bibliography of his works, and appreciations by various writers. - - - - -LEMONNIER, PIERRE CHARLES (1715-1799), French astronomer, was born on -the 23rd of November 1715 in Paris, where his father was professor of -philosophy at the college d'Harcourt. His first recorded observation was -made before he was sixteen, and the presentation of an elaborate lunar -map procured for him admission to the Academy, on the 21st of April -1736, at the early age of twenty. He was chosen in the same year to -accompany P. L. Maupertuis and Alexis Clairault on their geodetical -expedition to Lapland. In 1738, shortly after his return, he explained, -in a memoir read before the Academy, the advantages of J. Flamsteed's -mode of determining right ascensions. His persistent recommendation, in -fact, of English methods and instruments contributed effectively to the -reform of French practical astronomy, and constituted the most eminent -of his services to science. He corresponded with J. Bradley, was the -first to represent the effects of nutation in the solar tables, and -introduced, in 1741, the use of the transit-instrument at the Paris -observatory. He visited England in 1748, and, in company with the earl -of Morton and James Short the optician, continued his journey to -Scotland, where he observed the annular eclipse of July 25. The -liberality of Louis XV., in whose favour he stood high, furnished him -with the means of procuring the best instruments, many of them by -English makers. Amongst the fruits of his industry may be mentioned a -laborious investigation of the disturbances of Jupiter by Saturn, the -results of which were employed and confirmed by L. Euler in his prize -essay of 1748; a series of lunar observations extending over fifty -years; some interesting researches in terrestrial magnetism and -atmospheric electricity, in the latter of which he detected a regular -diurnal period; and the determination of the places of a great number of -stars, including twelve separate observations of Uranus, between 1765 -and its discovery as a planet. In his lectures at the college de France -he first publicly expounded the analytical theory of gravitation, and -his timely patronage secured the services of J. J. Lalande for -astronomy. His temper was irritable, and his hasty utterances exposed -him to retorts which he did not readily forgive. Against Lalande, owing -to some trifling pique, he closed his doors "during an entire revolution -of the moon's nodes." His career was arrested by paralysis late in 1791, -and a repetition of the stroke terminated his life. He died at Heril -near Bayeux on the 31st of May 1799. By his marriage with Mademoiselle -de Cussy he left three daughters, one of whom became the wife of J. L. -Lagrange. He was admitted in 1739 to the Royal Society, and was one of -the one hundred and forty-four original members of the Institute. - - He wrote _Histoire celeste_ (1741); _Theorie des cometes_ (1743), a - translation, with additions of Hailey's _Synopsis; Institutions - astronomiques_ (1746), an improved translation of J. Keill's - text-book; _Nouveau zodiaque_ (1755); _Observations de la lune, du - soleil, et des etoiles fixes_ (1751-1775); _Lois du magnetisme_ - (1776-1778), &c. - - See J. J. Lalande, _Bibl. astr._, p. 819 (also in the _Journal des - savants_ for 1801); F. X. von Zach, _Allgemeine geog. Ephemeriden_ - iii. 625; J. S. Bailly, _Hist. de l'astr. moderne_, iii.; J. B. J. - Delambre. _Hist. de l'astr. au XVIII^e. siecle_, p. 179; J. Madler, - _Geschichte der Himmelskunde_, ii. 6; R. Wolf, _Geschichte der - Astronomie_, p. 480. - - - - -LEMOYNE, JEAN BAPTISTE (1704-1778), French sculptor, was the pupil of -his father, Jean Louis Lemoyne, and of Robert le Lorrain. He was a great -figure in his day, around whose modest and kindly personality there -waged opposing storms of denunciation and applause. Although his -disregard of the classic tradition and of the essentials of dignified -sculpture, as well as his lack of firmness and of intellectual grasp of -the larger principles of his art, lay him open to stringent criticism, -de Clarac's charge that he had delivered a mortal blow at sculpture is -altogether exaggerated. Lemoyne's more important works have for the most -part been destroyed or have disappeared. The equestrian statue of "Louis -XV." for the military school, and the composition of "Mignard's -daughter, Mme Feuquieres, kneeling before her father's bust" (which bust -was from the hand of Coysevox) were subjected to the violence by which -Bouchardon's equestrian monument of Louis XIV. (q.v.) was destroyed. The -panels only have been preserved. In his busts evidence of his riotous -and florid imagination to a great extent disappears, and we have a -remarkable series of important portraits, of which those of women are -perhaps the best. Among Lemoyne's leading achievements in this class are -"Fontenelle" (at Versailles), "Voltaire," "Latour" (all of 1748), "Duc -de la Valiere" (Versailles), "Comte de St Florentin," and "Crebillon" -(Dijon Museum); "Mlle Chiron" and "Mlle Dangeville," both produced in -1761 and both at the Theatre Francais in Paris, and "Mme de Pompadour," -the work of the same year. Of the Pompadour he also executed a statue in -the costume of a nymph, very delicate and playful in its air of grace. -Lemoyne was perhaps most successful in his training of pupils, one of -the leaders of whom was Falconnet. - - - - -LEMPRIERE, JOHN (c. 1765-1824), English classical scholar, was born in -Jersey, and educated at Winchester and Pembroke College, Oxford. He is -chiefly known for his _Bibliotheca Classica_ or _Classical Dictionary_ -(1788), which, edited by various later scholars, long remained a -readable if not very trustworthy reference book in mythology and -classical history. In 1792, after holding other scholastic posts, he was -appointed to the head-mastership of Abingdon grammar school, and later -became the vicar of that parish. While occupying this living, he -published a _Universal Biography of Eminent Persons in all Ages and -Countries_ (1808). In 1809 he succeeded to the head-mastership of Exeter -free grammar school. On retiring from this, in consequence of a -disagreement with the trustees, he was given the living of Meeth in -Devonshire, which, together with that of Newton Petrock, he held till -his death in London on the 1st of February 1824. - - - - -LEMUR (from Lat. _lemures_, "ghosts"), the name applied by Linnaeus to -certain peculiar Malagasy representatives of the order PRIMATES (q.v.) -which do not come under the designation of either monkeys or apes, and, -with allied animals from the same island and tropical Asia and Africa, -constitute the suborder _Prosimiae_, or _Lemuroidea_, the -characteristics of which are given in the article just mentioned. The -typical lemurs include species like _Lemur mongoz_ and _L. catta_, but -the English name "lemur" is often taken to include all the members of -the suborder, although the aberrant forms are often conveniently termed -"lemuroids." All the Malagasy lemurs, which agree in the structure of -the internal ear, are now included in the family _Lemuridae_, confined -to Madagascar and the Comoro Islands, which comprises the great majority -of the group. The other families are the _Nycticebidae_, common to -tropical Asia and Africa, and the _Tarsiidae_, restricted to the Malay -countries. In the more typical _Lemuridae_ there are two pairs of upper -incisor teeth, separated by a gap in the middle line; the premolars may -be either two or three, but the molars, as in the lower jaw, are always -three on each side. In the lower jaw the incisors and canines are -directed straight forwards, and are of small size and nearly similar -form; the function of the canine being discharged by the first premolar, -which is larger than the other teeth of the same series. With the -exception of the second toe of the hind-foot, the digits have -well-formed, flattened nails as in the majority of monkeys. In the -members of the typical genus _Lemur_, as well as in the allied -_Hapalemur_ and _Lepidolemur_, none of the toes or fingers are connected -by webs, and all have the hind-limbs of moderate length, and the tail -long. The maximum number of teeth is 36, there being typically two pairs -of incisors and three of premolars in each jaw. In habits some of the -species are nocturnal and others diurnal; but all subsist on a mixed -diet, which includes birds, reptiles, eggs, insects and fruits. Most are -arboreal, but the ring-tailed lemur (_L. catta_) often dwells among -rocks. The species of the genus _Lemur_ are diurnal, and may be -recognized by the length of the muzzle, and the large tufted ears. In -some cases, as in the black lemur (_L. macaco_) the two sexes are -differently coloured; but in others, especially the ruffed lemur (_L. -varius_), there is much individual variation in this respect, scarcely -any two being alike. The gentle lemurs (_Hapalemur_) have a rounder -head, with smaller ears and a shorter muzzle, and also a bare patch -covered with spines on the fore-arm. The sportive lemurs (_Lepidolemur_) -are smaller than the typical species of _Lemur_, and the adults -generally lose their upper incisors. The head is short and conical, the -ears large, round and mostly bare, and the tail shorter than the body. -Like the gentle lemurs they are nocturnal. (See AVAHI, AYE-AYE, GALAGO, -INDRI, LORIS, POTTO, SIFAKA and TARSIER.) (R. L.*) - - - - -LENA, a river of Siberia, rising in the Baikal Mountains, on the W. side -of Lake Baikal, in 54 deg. 10' N. and 107 deg. 55' E. Wheeling round by -the S., it describes a semicircle, then flows N.N.E. and N.E., being -joined by the Kirenga and the Vitim, both from the right; from 113 deg. -E. it flows E.N.E as far as Yakutsk (62 deg. N., 127 deg. 40' E.), where -it enters the lowlands, after being joined by the Olekma, also from the -right. From Yakutsk it goes N. until joined by its right-hand affluent -the Aldan, which deflects it to the north-west; then, after receiving -its most important left-hand tributary, the Vilyui, it makes its way -nearly due N. to the Nordenskjold Sea, a division of the Arctic, -disemboguing S.W. of the New Siberian Islands by a delta 10,800 sq. m. -in area, and traversed by seven principal branches, the most important -being Bylov, farthest east. The total length of the river is estimated -at 2860 m. The delta arms sometimes remain blocked with ice the whole -year round. At Yakutsk navigation is generally practicable from the -middle of May to the end of October, and at Kirensk, at the confluence -of the Lena and the Kirenga, from the beginning of May to about the same -time. Between these two towns there is during the season regular -steamboat communication. The area of the river basin is calculated at -895,500 sq. m. Gold is washed out of the sands of the Vitim and the -Olekma, and tusks of the mammoth are dug out of the delta. - - See G. W. Melville, _In the Lena Delta_ (1885). - - - - -LE NAIN, the name of three brothers, LOUIS, ANTOINE and MATHIEU, who -occupy a peculiar position in the history of French art. Although they -figure amongst the original members of the French Academy, their works -show no trace of the influences which prevailed when that body was -founded. Their sober execution and choice of colour recall -characteristics of the Spanish school, and when the world of Paris was -busy with mythological allegories, and the "heroic deeds" of the king, -the three Le Nain devoted themselves chiefly to subjects of humble life -such as "Boys Playing Cards," "The Forge," or "The Peasants' Meal." -These three paintings are now in the Louvre; various others may be found -in local collections, and some fine drawings may be seen in the British -Museum; but the Le Nain signature is rare, and is never accompanied by -initials which might enable us to distinguish the work of the brothers. -Their lives are lost in obscurity; all that can be affirmed is that they -were born at Laon in Picardy towards the close of the 16th century. -About 1629 they went to Paris; in 1648 the three brothers were received -into the Academy, and in the same year both Antoine and Louis died. -Mathieu lived on till August 1677; he bore the title of chevalier, and -painted many portraits. Mary of Medici and Mazarin were amongst his -sitters, but these works seem to have disappeared. - - See Champfleury, _Essai sur la vie et l'oeuvre des Le Nain_ (1850), - and _Catalogue des tableaux des Le Nain_ (1861). - - - - -LENAU, NIKOLAUS, the pseudonym of NIKOLAUS FRANZ NIEMBSCH VON STREHLENAU -(1802-1850), Austrian poet, who was born at Csatad near Temesvar in -Hungary, on the 15th of August 1802. His father, a government official, -died at Budapest in 1807, leaving his children to the care of an -affectionate, but jealous and somewhat hysterical, mother, who in 1811 -married again. In 1819 the boy went to the university of Vienna; he -subsequently studied Hungarian law at Pressburg and then spent the best -part of four years in qualifying himself in medicine. But he was unable -to settle down to any profession. He had early begun to write verses; -and the disposition to sentimental melancholy acquired from his mother, -stimulated by love disappointments and by the prevailing fashion of the -romantic school of poetry, settled into gloom after his mother's death -in 1829. Soon afterwards a legacy from his grandmother enabled him to -devote himself wholly to poetry. His first published poems appeared in -1827, in J. G. Seidl's _Aurora_. In 1831 he went to Stuttgart, where he -published a volume of _Gedichte_ (1832) dedicated to the Swabian poet -Gustav Schwab. Here he also made the acquaintance of Uhland, Justinus -Kerner, Karl Mayer[1] and others; but his restless spirit longed for -change, and he determined to seek for peace and freedom in America. In -October 1832 he landed at Baltimore and settled on a homestead in Ohio. -But the reality of life in "the primeval forest" fell lamentably short -of the ideal he had pictured; he disliked the Americans with their -eternal "English lisping of dollars" (_englisches Talergelispel_); and -in 1833 he returned to Germany, where the appreciation of his first -volume of poems revived his spirits. From now on he lived partly in -Stuttgart and partly in Vienna. In 1836 appeared his _Faust_, in which -he laid bare his own soul to the world; in 1837, _Savonarola_, an epic -in which freedom from political and intellectual tyranny is insisted -upon as essential to Christianity. In 1838 appeared his _Neuere -Gedichte_, which prove that _Savonarola_ had been but the result of a -passing exaltation. Of these new poems, some of the finest were inspired -by his hopeless passion for Sophie von Lowenthal, the wife of a friend, -whose acquaintance he had made in 1833 and who "understood him as no -other." In 1842 appeared _Die Albigenser_, and in 1844 he began writing -his _Don Juan_, a fragment of which was published after his death. Soon -afterwards his never well-balanced mind began to show signs of -aberration, and in October 1844 he was placed under restraint. He died -in the asylum at Oberdobling near Vienna on the 22nd of August 1850. -Lenau's fame rests mainly upon his shorter poems; even his epics are -essentially lyric in quality. He is the greatest modern lyric poet of -Austria, and the typical representative in German literature of that -pessimistic _Weltschmerz_ which, beginning with Byron, reached its -culmination in the poetry of Leopardi. - - Lenau's _Samtliche Werke_ were published in 4 vols. by A. Grun (1855); - but there are several more modern editions, as those by M. Koch in - Kurschner's _Deutsche Nationalliteratur_, vols. 154-155 (1888), and by - E. Castle (2 vols., 1900). See A. Schurz, _Lenaus Leben, grosstenteils - aus des Dichters eigenen Briefen_ (1855); L. A. Frankl, _Zu Lenaus - Biographie_ (1854, 2nd ed., 1885); A. Marchand, _Les Poetes lyriques - de l'Autriche_ (1881); L. A. Frankl, _Lenaus Tagebuch und Briefe an - Sophie Lowenthal_ (1891); A. Schlossar, _Lenaus Briefe an die Familie - Reinbeck_ (1896); L. Roustan, _Lenau et son temps_ (1898); E. Castle, - _Lenau und die Familie Lowenthal_ (1906). - - -FOOTNOTE: - - [1] Karl Friedrich Hartmann Mayer (1786-1870), poet, and biographer - of Uhland, was by profession a lawyer and government official in - Wurttemberg. - - - - -LENBACH, FRANZ VON (1836-1904), German painter, was born at -Schrobenhausen, in Bavaria, on the 13th of December 1836. His father was -a mason, and the boy was intended to follow his father's trade or be a -builder. With this view he was sent to school at Landsberg, and then to -the polytechnic at Augsburg. But after seeing Hofner, the animal -painter, executing some studies, he made various attempts at painting, -which his father's orders interrupted. However, when he had seen the -galleries of Augsburg and Munich, he finally obtained his father's -permission to become an artist, and worked for a short time in the -studio of Grafle, the painter; after this he devoted much time to -copying. Thus he was already accomplished in technique when he became -the pupil of Piloty, with whom he set out for Italy in 1858. A few -interesting works remain as the outcome of this first journey--"A -Peasant seeking Shelter from Bad Weather" (1855), "The Goatherd" (1860, -in the Schack Gallery, Munich), and "The Arch of Titus" (in the Palfy -collection, Budapest). On returning to Munich, he was at once called to -Weimar to take the appointment of professor at the Academy. But he did -not hold it long, having made the acquaintance of Count Schack, who -commissioned a great number of copies for his collection. Lenbach -returned to Italy the same year, and there copied many famous pictures. -He set out in 1867 for Spain, where he copied not only the famous -pictures by Velasquez in the Prado, but also some landscapes in the -museums of Granada and the Alhambra (1868). In the previous year he had -exhibited at the great exhibition at Paris several portraits, one of -which took a third-class medal. Thereafter he exhibited frequently both -at Munich and at Vienna, and in 1900 at the Paris exhibition was awarded -a Grand Prix for painting. Lenbach, who died in 1904, painted many of -the most remarkable personages of his time. - - See Berlepsch, "Lenbach," _Velhagen und Klasings Monatshefte_ (1891); - Begouen, _Les Portraits de Lenbach a l'exposition de Munich_ (1899); - K. Knackfuss, _Lenbach_, and _Franz von Lenbach Bildnisse_ (1900). - - - - -LENCLOS, NINON DE (1615-1705), the daughter of a gentleman of good -position in Touraine, was born in Paris in November 1615. Her long and -eventful life divides into two periods, during the former of which she -was the typical Frenchwoman of the gayest and most licentious society of -the 17th century, during the latter the recognized leader of the fashion -in Paris, and the friend of wits and poets. All that can be pleaded in -defence of her earlier life is that she had been educated by her father -in epicurean and sensual beliefs, and that she retained throughout the -frank demeanour, and disregard of money, which won from Saint Evremond -the remark that she was an _honnete homme_. She had a succession of -distinguished lovers, among them being Gaspard de Coligny, the marquis -d'Estrees, La Rochefoucauld, Conde and Saint Evremond. Queen Christina -of Sweden visited her, and Anne of Austria was powerless against her. -After she had continued her career for a preposterous length of time, -she settled down to the social leadership of Paris. Among her friends -she counted Mme de la Sabliere, Mme de la Fayette and Mme de Maintenon. -It became the fashion for young men as well as old to throng round her, -and the best of all introductions for a young man who wished to make a -figure in society was an introduction to Mlle de Lenclos. Her long -friendship with Saint Evremond must be briefly noticed. They were of the -same age, and had been lovers in their youth, and throughout his long -exile the wit seems to have kept a kind remembrance of her. The few -really authentic letters of Ninon are those addressed to her old friend, -and the letters of both in the last few years of their equally long -lives are exceptionally touching, and unique in the polite compliments -with which they try to keep off old age. If Ninon owes part of her -posthumous fame to Saint Evremond, she owes at least as much to -Voltaire, who was presented to her as a promising boy poet by the abbe -de Chateauneuf. To him she left 2000 francs to buy books, and his letter -on her was the chief authority of many subsequent biographers. Her -personal appearance is, according to Sainte-Beuve, best described in -_Clelie_, a novel by Mlle de Scudery, in which she figures as Clarisse. -Her distinguishing characteristic was neither beauty nor wit, but high -spirits and perfect evenness of temperament. - - The letters of Ninon published after her death were, according to - Voltaire, all spurious, and the only authentic ones are those to Saint - Evremond, which can be best studied in Dauxmesnil's edition of _Saint - Evremond_, and his notice on her. Sainte-Beuve has an interesting - notice of these letters in the _Causeries du Lundi_, vol. iv. The - _Correspondance authentique_ was edited by E. Colombey in 1886. See - also Helen K. Hayes, _The Real Ninon de l'Enclos_ (1908); and Mary C. - Rowsell, _Ninon de l'Enclos and her century_ (1910). - - - - -LENFANT, JACQUES (1661-1728), French Protestant divine, was born at -Bazoche in La Beauce on the 13th of April 1661, son of Paul Lenfant, -Protestant pastor at Bazoche and afterwards at Chatillon-sur-Loing until -the revocation of the edict of Nantes, when he removed to Cassel. After -studying at Saumur and Geneva, Lenfant completed his theological course -at Heidelberg, where in 1684 he was ordained minister of the French -Protestant church, and appointed chaplain to the dowager electress -palatine. When the French invaded the Palatinate in 1688 Lenfant -withdrew to Berlin, as in a recent book he had vigorously attacked the -Jesuits. Here in 1689 he was again appointed one of the ministers of the -French Protestant church; this office he continued to hold until his -death, ultimately adding to it that of chaplain to the king, with the -dignity of _Consistorialrath_. He visited Holland and England in 1707, -preached before Queen Anne, and, it is said, was invited to become one -of her chaplains. He was the author of many works, chiefly on church -history. In search of materials he visited Helmstadt in 1712, and -Leipzig in 1715 and 1725. He died at Berlin on the 7th of August 1728. - - An exhaustive catalogue of his publications, thirty-two in all, will - be found in J. G. de Chauffepie's _Dictionnaire_. See also E. and S. - Haag's _France Protestante_. He is now best known by his _Histoire du - concile de Constance_ (Amsterdam, 1714; 2nd ed., 1728; English trans., - 1730). It is of course largely dependent upon the laborious work of - Hermann von der Hardt (1660-1746), but has literary merits peculiar to - itself, and has been praised on all sides for its fairness. It was - followed by _Histoire du concile de Pise_ (1724), and (posthumously) - by _Histoire de la guerre des Hussites et du concile de Basle_ - (Amsterdam, 1731; German translation, Vienna, 1783-1784). Lenfant was - one of the chief promoters of the _Bibliotheque Germanique_, begun in - 1720; and he was associated with Isaac Beausobre (1659-1738) in the - preparation of the new French translation of the New Testament with - original notes, published at Amsterdam in 1718. - - - - -LENKORAN, a town in Russian Transcaucasia, in the government of Baku, -stands on the Caspian Sea, at the mouth of a small stream of its own -name, and close to a large lagoon. The lighthouse stands in 38 deg. 45' -38" N. and 48 deg. 50' 18" E. Taken by storm on New Year's day 1813 by -the Russians, Lenkoran was in the same year formally surrendered by -Persia to Russia by the treaty of Gulistan, along with the khanate of -Talysh, of which it was the capital. Pop. (1867) 15,933, (1897) 8768. -The fort has been dismantled; and in trade the town is outstripped by -Astara, the customs station on the Persian frontier. - -The DISTRICT OF LENKORAN (2117 sq. m.) is a thickly wooded mountainous -region, shut off from the Persian plateau by the Talysh range (7000-8000 -ft. high), and with a narrow marshy strip along the coast. The climate -is exceptionally moist and warm (annual rainfall 52.79 in; mean -temperature in summer 75 deg. F., in winter 40 deg.), and fosters the -growth of even Indian species of vegetation. The iron tree (_Parrotia -persica_), the silk acacia, _Carpinus betulus_, _Quercus iberica_, the -box tree and the walnut flourish freely, as well as the sumach, the -pomegranate, and the _Gleditschia caspica_. The Bengal tiger is not -unfrequently met with, and wild boars are abundant. Of the 131,361 -inhabitants in 1897 the Talyshes (35,000) form the aboriginal element, -belonging to the Iranian family, and speaking an independently developed -language closely related to Persian. They are of middle height and dark -complexion, with generally straight nose, small round skull, small sharp -chin and large full eyes, which are expressive, however, rather of -cunning than intelligence. They live exclusively on rice. In the -northern half of the district the Tatar element predominates (40,000) -and there are a number of villages occupied by Russian Raskolniks -(Nonconformists). Agriculture, bee-keeping, silkworm-rearing and fishing -are the principal occupations. - - - - -LENNEP, JACOB VAN (1802-1868), Dutch poet and novelist, was born on the -24th of March 1802 at Amsterdam, where his father, David Jacob van -Lennep (1774-1853), a scholar and poet, was professor of eloquence and -the classical languages in the Athenaeum. Lennep took the degree of -doctor of laws at Leiden, and then settled as an advocate in Amsterdam. -His first poetical efforts had been translations from Byron, of whom he -was an ardent admirer, and in 1826 he published a collection of original -_Academische Idyllen_, which had some success. He first attained genuine -popularity by the _Nederlandsche Legenden_ (2 vols., 1828) which -reproduced, after the manner of Sir Walter Scott, some of the more -stirring incidents in the early history of his fatherland. His fame was -further raised by his patriotic songs at the time of the Belgian revolt, -and by his comedies _Het Dorp aan de Grenzen_ (1830) and _Het Dorp over -de Grenzen_ (1831), which also had reference to the political events of -1830. In 1833 he broke new ground with the publication of _De Pleegzoon -(The Adopted Son)_, the first of a series of historical romances in -prose, which have acquired for him in Holland a position somewhat -analogous to that of Sir Walter Scott in Great Britain. The series -included _De Roos van Dekama_ (2 vols., 1836), _Onze Voorouders_ (5 -vols., 1838), _De Lotgevallen van Ferdinand Huyck_ (2 vols., 1840), -_Elizabeth Musch_ (3 vols., 1850), and _De Lotgevallen van Klaasje -Zevenster_ (5 vols., 1865), several of which have been translated into -German and French, and two--_The Rose of Dekama_ (1847) and _The Adopted -Son_ (New York, 1847)--into English. His Dutch history for young people -(_Voornaamste Geschiedenissen van Noord-Nederland aan mijne Kindern -verhaald_, 4 vols., 1845) is attractively written. Apart from the two -comedies already mentioned, Lennep was an indefatigable journalist and -literary critic, the author of numerous dramatic pieces, and of an -excellent edition of Vondel's works. For some years Lennep held a -judicial appointment, and from 1853 to 1856 he was a member of the -second chamber, in which he voted with the conservative party. He died -at Oosterbeek near Arnheim on the 25th of August 1868. - - There is a collective edition of his _Poetische Werken_ (13 vols., - 1859-1872), and also of his _Romantische Werken_ (23 vols., - 1855-1872). See also a bibliography by P. Knoll (1869); and Jan ten - Brink, _Geschiedenis der Noord-Nederlandsche Letteren in de XIX^e - Eeuw_ (No. iii.). - - - - -LENNEP, a town of Germany, in the Prussian Rhine province, 18 m. E. of -Dusseldorf, and 9 m. S. of Barmen by rail, at a height of 1000 ft. above -the level of the sea. Pop. (1905) 10,323. It lies in the heart of one of -the busiest industrial districts in Germany, and carries on important -manufactures of the finer kinds of cloth, wool, yarn and felt, and also -of iron and steel goods. It has an Evangelical and a Protestant church, -a modern school and a well-equipped hospital. Lennep, which was the -residence of the counts of Berg from 1226 to 1300, owes the foundation -of its prosperity to an influx of Cologne weavers during the 14th -century. - - - - -LENNOX, a name given to a large district in Dumbartonshire and -Stirlingshire, which was erected into an earldom in the latter half of -the 12th century. It embraced the ancient sheriffdom of Dumbarton and -nineteen parishes with the whole of the lands round Loch Lomond, -formerly Loch Leven, and the river of that name which glides into the -estuary of the Clyde at the ancient castle of Dumbarton. - -On this river Leven, at Balloch, was the seat of Alwin, first earl of -Lennox. It is probable that he was of Celtic descent, but the records -are silent as to his part in history; that he was earl at all is only -proved from the charters of his son, another Alwin, and he died some -time before 1217. The second Alwin was father of ten sons, one of whom -founded the clan Macfarlane, famous in the annals of the district, while -another was ancestor of Walter of Farlane, who married the heiress of -the 6th earl of Lennox. Maldouen, the 3rd earl, eldest of the sons of -Alwin the younger, is an historical personage; he was a witness to the -treaty between Alexander II., king of Scotland, and his brother-in-law -the English king Henry III., at Newcastle in 1237, concerning the much -disputed northern counties of England. His grandson, Malcolm, successor -to the title, swore fealty to Edward I. in 1296; it was apparently his -son, another Malcolm, the 5th earl, who was summoned by Edward to -parliament and entrusted with the important post of guarding the fords -of the river Forth. But the 5th earl soon after gave his services to the -party of Bruce, the cause of that family having been embraced by his -father as early as 1292. As a result the English king bestowed the -earldom on Sir John Menteith, who was holding it in 1307 while the real -earl was with King Robert Bruce in his wanderings in the Lennox country. -For his services he was rewarded with a renewal of the earldom and the -keeping of Dumbarton Castle; he fell fighting for his country at Halidon -Hill in 1333. His son Donald, the 6th earl, an adherent of King David -II., left a daughter, Margaret, countess of Lennox, who was married to -her kinsman the above-mentioned Walter of Farlane, nearest heir male of -the Lennox family. - -In 1392, on the marriage of their grand-daughter Isabella, eldest -daughter of Duncan, 8th earl, with Sir Murdoch Stewart, afterwards duke -of Albany, the earldom was resigned into the hands of the king, who -re-granted it to Earl Duncan, with remainder to the heirs male of his -body, with remainder to Murdoch and Isabella and the heirs of their -bodies begotten between them, with eventual remainder to Earl Duncan's -nearest and lawful heirs. In 1424, when Murdoch, then duke of Albany, -succeeded in ransoming the poet king James I. from his long English -captivity, the aged Earl Duncan went with the Scottish party to Durham. -The next year, however, he suffered the fate of Albany, being executed -perhaps for no other reason than that he was his father-in-law. The -earldom was not forfeited, and the widowed duchess of Albany, now also -countess of Lennox, lived secure in her island castle of Inchmurrin on -Loch Lomond until her death. Of her four sons, none of whom left -legitimate issue, the eldest died in 1421, the two next suffered their -father's fate at Stirling, while the youngest had to flee for his life -to Ireland. Her daughter Isobel appears to have been the wife of Sir -Walter Buchanan of that ilk. - -It was from Elizabeth, sister of the countess, that the next holders of -the title descended. She was married to Sir John Stewart of Darnley -(distinguished in the military history of France as seigneur d'Aubigny), -whose immediate ancestor was brother of James, 5th high steward of -Scotland. Their grandson, another Sir John Stewart, created a lord of -parliament as Lord Darnley, was served heir to his great-grandfather -Duncan, earl of Lennox, in 1473, and was designated as earl of Lennox in -a charter under the great seal in the same year. Thereafter followed -disputes with John of Haldane, whose wife's great-grandmother had been -another of the three daughters of Duncan, 8th earl of Lennox, and in her -right he contested the succession. Lord Darnley, however, appears to -have silenced all opposition and for the last seven years of his life -maintained his right to the earldom undisputed. Three of his younger -sons were greatly distinguished in the French service, one being captain -of Scotsmen-at-arms, another _premier homme d'armes_, and a third -_marechal de France_. Their elder brother Matthew, 2nd earl of this -line, fell on Flodden Field, leaving by his wife Elizabeth, daughter of -James, earl of Arran, and niece of James III., a son and successor John, -who became one of the guardians of James V. and was murdered in 1526. -His son Matthew, the 4th earl, played a great part in the intrigues of -his time, and by his marriage with Margaret Douglas allied himself to -the royal house of England as well as strengthening the ties which bound -his family to that of Scotland; because Margaret was the daughter and -heir of the 6th earl of Angus by his wife, Margaret Tudor, sister of -King Henry VIII. and widow of King James IV. Though his estates were -forfeited in 1545, Earl Matthew in 1564 not only had them restored but -had the satisfaction of getting his eldest son Henry married to Mary, -queen of Scots. The murder of Lord Darnley, now created earl of Rosse, -lord of Ardmanoch and duke of Albany, took place in February 1567, and -in July his only son James, by Mary's abdication, became king of -Scotland. The old earl of Lennox, now grandfather of his sovereign, -obtained the regency in 1570, but in the next year was killed in the -attack made on the parliament at Stirling, being the third earl in -succession to meet with a violent death. - -The title was now merged in the crown in the person of James VI. the -next heir, but was soon after granted to the king's uncle Charles, who -died in 1576, leaving an only child, the unfortunate Lady Arabella -Stewart. - -Two years later the title was granted to Robert Stewart, the king's -grand-uncle, second son of John, the 3rd earl, but he in 1580 exchanged -it for that of earl of March. On the same day the earldom of Lennox was -given to Esme Stewart, first cousin of the king and grandson of the 3rd -earl, he being son of John Stewart (adopted heir of the marechal -d'Aubigny) and his French wife, Anne de la Queulle. In the following -year Esme was created duke of Lennox, earl of Darnley, Lord Aubigny, -Tarboulton and Dalkeith, and other favours were heaped upon him, but the -earl of Ruthven sent him back to France where he died soon after. His -elder son, Ludovic, was thereupon summoned to Scotland by James, who -invested him with all his father's honours and estates, and after his -accession to the English throne created him Lord Settrington and earl of -Richmond (1613), and earl of Newcastle-upon-Tyne and duke of Richmond -(1623), all these titles being in the peerage of England. After holding -many appointments the 2nd duke died without issue in 1624, being -succeeded in his Scottish titles by his brother Esme, who had already -been created earl of March and Lord Clifton of Leighton Bromswold in the -peerage of England (1619) and was seigneur d'Aubigny in France. Of his -sons, Henry succeeded to Aubigny and died young at Venice; Ludovic, -seigneur d'Aubigny, entered the Roman Catholic Church and received a -cardinal's hat just before his death; while the three other younger -sons, George, seigneur d'Aubigny, John and Bernard, were all -distinguished as royalists in the Civil war. Each met a soldier's death, -George at Edgehill, John at Alresford and Bernard at Rowton Heath. -James, the eldest son and 4th duke of Lennox, was created duke of -Richmond in 1641, being like his brother a devoted adherent of Charles -I. - -With the death of his little son Esme, the 5th duke, in 1660, the -titles, including that of Richmond, passed to his first cousin Charles, -who had already been created Lord Stuart of Newbury and earl of -Lichfield, being likewise now seigneur d'Aubigny. Disliked by Charles -II., principally because of his marriage with "la belle Stuart"--"the -noblest romance and example of a brave lady that ever I read in my -life," writes Pepys--he was sent into exile as ambassador to Denmark, -where he was drowned in 1672. His wife had had the Lennox estates -granted to her for life, but his only sister Katharine, wife of Henry -O'Brien, heir apparent of the 7th earl of Thomond, was served heir to -him. Her only daughter, the countess of Clarendon, was mother of -Theodosia Hyde, ancestress of the present earls of Darnley. - -The Lennox dukedom, being to heirs male, now devolved upon Charles II., -who bestowed it with the titles of earl of Darnley and Lord Tarbolton -upon one of his bastards, Charles Lennox, son of the celebrated duchess -of Portsmouth, he having previously been created duke of Richmond, earl -of March and Lord Settrington in the peerage of England. The ancient -lands of the Lennox title were also granted to him, but these he sold to -the duke of Montrose. - -His son Charles, who inherited his grandmother's French dukedom of -Aubigny, was a soldier of distinction, as were the 3rd and 4th dukes. -The wife of the last, Lady Charlotte Gordon, as heir of her brother -brought the ancient estates of her family to the Lennoxes; the -additional name of Gordon being taken by the 5th duke of Richmond and of -Lennox on the death of his uncle, the 5th duke of Gordon. In the next -generation further honours were granted to the family in the person of -the 6th duke, who was rewarded for his great public services with the -titles of duke of Gordon and earl of Kinrara in the peerage of the -United Kingdom (1876). - - _See Scots Peerage_, vol. v., for excellent accounts of these peerages - by the Rev. John Anderson, curator Historical Dept. H.M. Register - House; A. Francis Steuart and Francis J. Grant, Rothesay Herald. See - also _The Lennox_ by William Fraser. - - - - -LENNOX, CHARLOTTE (1720-1804), British writer, daughter of Colonel James -Ramsay, lieutenant-governor of New York, was born in 1720. She went to -London in 1735, and, being left unprovided for at her father's death, -she began to earn her living by writing. She made some unsuccessful -appearances on the stage and married in 1748. Samuel Johnson had an -exaggerated admiration for her. "Three such women," he said, speaking of -Elizabeth Carter, Hannah More and Fanny Burney, "are not to be found; I -know not where to find a fourth, except Mrs Lennox, who is superior to -them all." Her chief works are: _The Female Quixote; or the Adventures -of Arabella_ (1752), a novel; _Shakespear illustrated; or the novels and -histories on which the plays ... are founded_ (1753-1754), in which she -argued that Shakespeare had spoiled the stories he borrowed for his -plots by interpolating unnecessary intrigues and incidents; _The Life of -Harriot Stuart_ (1751), a novel; and _The Sister_, a comedy produced at -Covent Garden (18th February 1769). This last was withdrawn after the -first night, after a stormy reception, due, said Goldsmith, to the fact -that its author had abused Shakespeare. - - - - -LENNOX, MARGARET, COUNTESS OF (1515-1578), daughter of Archibald -Douglas, 6th earl of Angus, and Margaret Tudor, daughter of Henry VII. -of England and widow of James IV. of Scotland, was born at Harbottle -Castle, Northumberland, on the 8th of October 1515. On account of her -nearness to the English crown, Lady Margaret Douglas was brought up -chiefly at the English court in close association with the Princess -Mary, who remained her fast friend throughout life. She was high in -Henry VIII.'s favour, but was twice disgraced; first for an attachment -to Lord Thomas Howard, who died in the Tower in 1537, and again in 1541 -for a similar affair with Sir Charles Howard, brother of Queen Catherine -Howard. In 1544 she married a Scottish exile, Matthew Stewart, 4th earl -of Lennox (1516-1571), who was regent of Scotland in 1570-1571. During -Mary's reign the countess of Lennox had rooms in Westminster Palace; but -on Elizabeth's accession she removed to Yorkshire, where her home at -Temple Newsam became a centre for Catholic intrigue. By a series of -successful manoeuvres she married her son Henry Stewart, Lord Darnley, -to Mary, queen of Scots. In 1566 she was sent to the Tower, but after -the murder of Darnley in 1567 she was released. She was at first loud in -her denunciations of Mary, but was eventually reconciled with her -daughter-in-law. In 1574 she again aroused Elizabeth's anger by the -marriage of her son Charles, earl of Lennox, with Elizabeth Cavendish, -daughter of the earl of Shrewsbury. She was sent to the Tower with Lady -Shrewsbury, and was only pardoned after her son's death in 1577. Her -diplomacy largely contributed to the future succession of her grandson -James to the English throne. She died on the 7th of March 1578. - - The famous Lennox jewel, made for Lady Lennox as a memento of her - husband, was bought by Queen Victoria in 1842. - - - - -LENO, DAN, the stage-name of George Galvin (1861-1904), English -comedian, who was born at Somers Town, London, in February 1861. His -parents were actors, known as Mr and Mrs Johnny Wilde. Dan Leno was -trained to be an acrobat, but soon became a dancer, travelling with his -brother as "the brothers Leno," and winning the world's championship in -clog-dancing at Leeds in 1880. Shortly afterwards he appeared in London -at the Oxford, and in 1886-1887 at the Surrey Theatre. In 1888-1889 he -was engaged by Sir Augustus Harris to play the Baroness in the _Babes in -the Wood_, and from that time he was a principal figure in the Drury -Lane pantomimes. He was the wittiest and most popular comedian of his -day, and delighted London music-hall audiences by his shop-walker, -stores-proprietor, waiter, doctor, beef-eater, bathing attendant, "Mrs -Kelly," and other impersonations. In 1900 he engaged to give his entire -services to the Pavilion Music Hall, where he received L100 per week. In -November 1901 he was summoned to Sandringham to do a "turn" before the -king, and was proud from that time to call himself the "king's jester." -Dan Leno's generosity endeared him to his profession, and he was the -object of much sympathy during the brain failure which recurred during -the last eighteen months of his life. He died on the 31st of October -1904. - - - - -LENORMANT, FRANCOIS (1837-1883), French Assyriologist and archaeologist, -was born in Paris on the 17th of January 1837. His father, Charles -Lenormant, distinguished as an archaeologist, numismatist and -Egyptologist, was anxious that his son should follow in his steps. He -made him begin Greek at the age of six, and the child responded so well -to this precocious scheme of instruction, that when he was only fourteen -an essay of his, on the Greek tablets found at Memphis, appeared in the -_Revue archeologique_. In 1856 he won the numismatic prize of the -Academie des Inscriptions with an essay entitled _Classification des -monnaies des Lagides_. In 1862 he became sub-librarian of the Institute. -In 1859 he accompanied his father on a journey of exploration to Greece, -during which Charles Lenormant succumbed to fever at Athens (24th -November). Lenormant returned to Greece three times during the next six -years, and gave up all the time he could spare from his official work to -archaeological research. These peaceful labours were rudely interrupted -by the war of 1870, when Lenormant served with the army and was wounded -in the siege of Paris. In 1874 he was appointed professor of archaeology -at the National Library, and in the following year he collaborated with -Baron de Witte in founding the _Gazette archeologique_. As early as 1867 -he had turned his attention to Assyrian studies; he was among the first -to recognize in the cuneiform inscriptions the existence of a -non-Semitic language, now known as Accadian. Lenormant's knowledge was -of encyclopaedic extent, ranging over an immense number of subjects, and -at the same time thorough, though somewhat lacking perhaps in the strict -accuracy of the modern school. Most of his varied studies were directed -towards tracing the origins of the two great civilizations of the -ancient world, which were to be sought in Mesopotamia and on the shores -of the Mediterranean. He had a perfect passion for exploration. Besides -his early expeditions to Greece, he visited the south of Italy three -times with this object, and it was while exploring in Calabria that he -met with an accident which ended fatally in Paris on the 9th of December -1883, after a long illness. The amount and variety of Lenormant's work -is truly amazing when it is remembered that he died at the early age of -forty-six. Probably the best known of his books are _Les Origines de -l'histoire d'apres la Bible_, and his ancient history of the East and -account of Chaldean magic. For breadth of view, combined with -extraordinary subtlety of intuition, he was probably unrivalled. - - - - -LENOX, a township of Berkshire county, Massachusetts, U.S.A. Pop. (1900) -2942, (1905) 3058; (1910) 3060. Area, 19.2 sq. m. The principal village, -also named Lenox (or Lenox-on-the-Heights), lies about 2 m. W. of the -Housatonic river, at an altitude of about 1000 ft., and about it are -high hills--Yokun Seat (2080 ft.), South Mountain (1200 ft.), Bald Head -(1583 ft.), and Rattlesnake Hill (1540 ft.). New Lenox and Lenoxdale are -other villages in the township. Lenox is a fashionable summer and autumn -resort, much frequented by wealthy people from Washington, Newport and -New York. There are innumerable lovely walks and drives in the -surrounding region, which contains some of the most beautiful country of -the Berkshires--hills, lakes, charming intervales and woods. As early as -1835 Lenox began to attract summer residents. In the next decade began -the creation of large estates, although the great holdings of the -present day, and the villas scattered over the hills, are comparatively -recent features. The height of the season is in the autumn, when there -are horse-shows, golf, tennis, hunts and other outdoor amusements. The -Lenox library (1855) contained about 20,000 volumes in 1908. Lenox was -settled about 1750, was included in Richmond township in 1765, and -became an independent township in 1767. The names were those of Sir -Charles Lennox, third duke of Richmond and of Lennox (1735-1806), one of -the staunch friends of the American colonies during the War of -Independence. Lenox was the county-seat from 1787 to 1868. It has -literary associations with Catherine M. Sedgwick (1789-1867), who passed -here the second half of her life; with Nathaniel Hawthorne, whose brief -residence here (1850-1851) was marked by the production of the _House -of the Seven Gables_ and the _Wonder Book_; with Fanny Kemble, a summer -resident from 1836-1853; and with Henry Ward Beecher (see his _Star -Papers_). Elizabeth (Mrs Charles) Sedgwick, the sister-in-law of -Catherine Sedgwick, maintained here from 1828 to 1864 a school for -girls, in which Harriet Hosmer, the sculptor, and Maria S. Cummins -(1827-1866), the novelist, were educated; and in Lenox academy (1803), a -famous classical school (now a public high school) were educated W. L. -Yancey, A. H. Stephens, Mark Hopkins and David Davis (1815-1886), a -circuit judge of Illinois from 1848 to 1862, a justice (1862-1877) of -the United States Supreme Court, a Republican member of the United -States Senate from Illinois in 1877-1883, and president of the Senate -from the 31st of October 1881, when he succeeded Chester A. Arthur, -until the 3rd of March 1883. There is a statue commemorating General -John Paterson (1744-1808) a soldier from Lenox in the War of -Independence. - - See R. de W. Mallary, _Lenox and the Berkshire Highlands_ (1902); J. - C. Adams, _Nature Studies in Berkshire_; C. F. Warner, _Picturesque - Berkshire_ (1890); and Katherine M. Abbott, _Old Paths and Legends of - the New England Border_ (1907). - - - - -LENS, a town of Northern France, in the department of Pas-de-Calais, 13 -m. N.N.E. of Arras by rail on the Deule and on the Lens canal. Pop. -(1906) 27,692. Lens has important iron and steel foundries, and -engineering works and manufactories of steel cables, and occupies a -central position in the coalfields of the department. Two and a half -miles W.S.W. lies Lievin (pop. 22,070), likewise a centre of the -coalfield. In 1648 the neighbourhood of Lens was the scene of a -celebrated victory gained by Louis II. of Bourbon, prince of Conde, over -the Spaniards. - - - - -LENS (from Lat. _lens_, lentil, on account of the similarity of the form -of a lens to that of a lentil seed), in optics, an instrument which -refracts the luminous rays proceeding from an object in such a manner as -to produce an image of the object. It may be regarded as having four -principal functions: (1) to produce an image larger than the object, as -in the magnifying glass, microscope, &c.; (2) to produce an image -smaller than the object, as in the ordinary photographic camera; (3) to -convert rays proceeding from a point or other luminous source into a -definite pencil, as in lighthouse lenses, the engraver's globe, &c.; (4) -to collect luminous and heating rays into a smaller area, as in the -burning glass. A lens made up of two or more lenses cemented together or -very close to each other is termed "composite" or "compound"; several -lenses arranged in succession at a distance from each other form a -"system of lenses," and if the axes be collinear a "centred system." -This article is concerned with the general theory of lenses, and more -particularly with spherical lenses. For a special part of the theory of -lenses see ABERRATION; the instruments in which the lenses occur are -treated under their own headings. - -The most important type of lens is the spherical lens, which is a piece -of transparent material bounded by two spherical surfaces, the boundary -at the edge being usually cylindrical or conical. The line joining the -centres, C1, C2 (fig. 1), of the bounding surfaces is termed the _axis_; -the points S1, S2, at which the axis intersects the surfaces, are termed -the "vertices" of the lens; and the distance between the vertices is -termed the "thickness." If the edge be everywhere equidistant from the -vertex, the lens is "centred." - -[Illustration: FIG. 1.] - -Although light is really a wave motion in the aether, it is only -necessary, in the investigation of the optical properties of systems of -lenses, to trace the rectilinear path of the waves, i.e. the direction -of the normal to the wave front, and this can be done by purely -geometrical methods. It will be assumed that light, so long as it -traverses the same medium, always travels in a straight line; and in -following out the geometrical theory it will always be assumed that the -light travels from left to right; accordingly all distances measured in -this direction are positive, while those measured in the opposite -direction are negative. - - _Theory of Optical Representation._--If a pencil of rays, i.e. the - totality of the rays proceeding from a luminous point, falls on a lens - or lens system, a section of the pencil, determined by the dimensions - of the system, will be transmitted. The emergent rays will have - directions differing from those of the incident rays, the alteration, - however, being such that the transmitted rays are convergent in the - "image-point," just as the incident rays diverge from the - "object-point." With each incident ray is associated an emergent ray; - such pairs are termed "conjugate ray pairs." Similarly we define an - object-point and its image-point as "conjugate points"; all - object-points lie in the "object-space," and all image-points lie in - the "image-space." - - [Illustration: FIG. 2.] - - The laws of optical representations were first deduced in their most - general form by E. Abbe, who assumed (1) that an optical - representation always exists, and (2) that to every point in the - object-space there corresponds a point in the image-space, these - points being mutually convertible by straight rays; in other words, - with each object-point is associated one, and only one, image-point, - and if the object-point be placed at the image-point, the conjugate - point is the original object-point. Such a transformation is termed a - "collineation," since it transforms points into points and straight - lines into straight lines. Prior to Abbe, however, James Clerk Maxwell - published, in 1856, a geometrical theory of optical representation, - but his methods were unknown to Abbe and to his pupils until O. - Eppenstein drew attention to them. Although Maxwell's theory is not so - general as Abbe's, it is used here since its methods permit a simple - and convenient deduction of the laws. - - [Illustration] - - Maxwell assumed that two object-planes perpendicular to the axis are - represented sharply and similarly in two image-planes also - perpendicular to the axis (by "sharply" is meant that the assumed - ideal instrument unites all the rays proceeding from an object-point - in one of the two planes in its image-point, the rays being generally - transmitted by the system). The symmetry of the axis being premised, - it is sufficient to deduce laws for a plane containing the axis. In - fig. 2 let O1, O2 be the two points in which the perpendicular - object-planes meet the axis; and since the axis corresponds to itself, - the two conjugate points O'1, O'2, are at the intersections of the two - image-planes with the axis. We denote the four planes by the letters - O1, O2, and O'1, O'2. If two points A, C be taken in the plane O1, - their images are A', C' in the plane O'1, and since the planes are - represented similarly, we have O'1A':O1A = O'1C'1:O1C = [beta]1 (say), - in which [beta]1 is easily seen to be the _linear magnification_ of - the plane-pair O1, O'1. Similarly, if two points B, D be taken in the - plane O2 and their images B', D' in the plane O'2, we have O'2B':O2B = - O'2D':O2D = [beta]2 (say), [beta]2 being the linear magnification of - the plane-pair O2, O'2. The joins of A and B and of C and D intersect - in a point P, and the joins of the conjugate points similarly - determine the point P'. - - If P' is the only possible image-point of the object-point P, then the - conjugate of every ray passing through P must pass through P'. To - prove this, take a third line through P intersecting the planes O1, O2 - in the points E, F, and by means of the magnifications [beta]1, - [beta]2 determine the conjugate points E', F' in the planes O'1, O'2. - Since the planes O1, O2 are parallel, then AC/AE = BD/BF; and since - these planes are represented similarly in O'1, O'2, then A'C'/A'E' = - B'D'/B'F'. This proportion is only possible when the straight line - E'F' contains the point P'. Since P was any point whatever, it follows - that every point of the object-space is represented in one and only - one point in the image-space. - - Take a second object-point P1, vertically under P and defined by the - two rays CD1, and EF1, the conjugate point P'1 will be determined by - the intersection of the conjugate rays C'D'1 and E'F'1, the points - D'1, F'1, being readily found from the magnifications [beta]1, - [beta]2. Since PP1 is parallel to CE and also to DF, then DF = D1F1. - Since the plane O2 is similarly represented in O'2, D'F' = D'1F'1; - this is impossible unless P'P'1 be parallel to C'E'. Therefore every - perpendicular object-plane is represented by a perpendicular - image-plane. - - Let O be the intersection of the line PP1 with the axis, and let O' be - its conjugate; then it may be shown that a fixed magnification [beta]3 - exists for the planes O and O'. For PP1/FF1 = OO1/O1O2, P'P'1/F'F'1 = - O'O'/O'1O'2, and F'F'1 = [beta]2FF1. Eliminating FF1 and F'F'1 between - these ratios, we have P'P'1/PP1[beta]2 = O'O'1.O1O2/OO1. O'1O'2, or - [beta]3 = [beta]2.O'O'1.O1O2/OO1.O'1O'2, i.e. [beta]3 = [beta]2 X a - product of the axial distances. - - The determination of the image-point of a given object-point is - facilitated by means of the so-called "cardinal points" of the optical - system. To determine the image-point O'1 (fig. 3) corresponding to the - object-point O1, we begin by choosing from the ray pencil proceeding - from O1, the ray parallel with the axis, i.e. intersecting the axis at - infinity. Since the axis is its own conjugate, the parallel ray - through O1 must intersect the axis after refraction (say at F'). Then - F' is the image-point of an object-point situated at infinity on the - axis, and is termed the "second principal focus" (German _der - bildseitige Brennpunkt_, the image-side focus). Similarly if O'4 be on - the parallel through O1 but in the image-space, then the conjugate ray - must intersect the axis at a point (say F), which is conjugate with - the point at infinity on the axis in the image-space. This point is - termed the "first principal focus" (German _der objektseitige - Brennpunkt_, the object-side focus). - - Let H1, H'1 be the intersections of the focal rays through F and F' - with the line O1O'4. These two points are in the position of object - and image, since they are each determined by two pairs of conjugate - rays (O1H1 being conjugate with H'1F', and O'4H'1 with H1F). It has - already been shown that object-planes perpendicular to the axis are - represented by image-planes also perpendicular to the axis. Two - vertical planes through H1 and H'1, are related as object- and - image-planes; and if these planes intersect the axis in two points H - and H', these points are named the "principal," or "Gauss points" of - the system, H being the "object-side" and H' the "image-side principal - point." The vertical planes containing H and H' are the "principal - planes." It is obvious that conjugate points in these planes are - equidistant from the axis; in other words, the magnification [beta] of - the pair of planes is unity. An additional characteristic of the - principal planes is that the object and image are direct and not - inverted. The distances between F and H, and between F' and H' are - termed the focal lengths; the former may be called the "object-side - focal length" and the latter the "image-side focal length." The two - focal points and the two principal points constitute the so-called - four cardinal points of the system, and with their aid the image of - any object can be readily determined. - - _Equations relating to the Focal Points._--We know that the ray - proceeding from the object point O1, parallel to the axis and - intersecting the principal plane H in H1, passes through H'1 and F'. - Choose from the pencil a second ray which contains F and intersects - the principal plane H in H2; then the conjugate ray must contain - points corresponding to F and H2. The conjugate of F is the point at - infinity on the axis, i.e. on the ray parallel to the axis. The image - of H2 must be in the plane H' at the same distance from, and on the - same side of, the axis, as in H'2. The straight line passing through - H'2 parallel to the axis intersects the ray H'1F' in the point O'1, - which must be the image of O1. If O be the foot of the perpendicular - from O1 to the axis, then OO1 is represented by the line O'O'1 also - perpendicular to the axis. - - [Illustration: FIG. 3.] - - This construction is not applicable if the object or image be - infinitely distant. For example, if the object OO1 be at infinity (O - being assumed to be on the axis for the sake of simplicity), so that - the object appears under a constant angle w, we know that the second - principal focus is conjugate with the infinitely distant axis-point. - If the object is at infinity in a plane perpendicular to the axis, the - image must be in the perpendicular plane through the focal point F' - (fig. 4). - - The size y' of the image is readily deduced. Of the parallel rays from - the object subtending the angle w, there is one which passes through - the first principal focus F, and intersects the principal plane H in - H1. Its conjugate ray passes through H' parallel to, and at the same - distance from the axis, and intersects the image-side focal plane in - O'1; this point is the image of O1, and y' is its magnitude. From the - figure we have tan w = HH1/FH = y'/f, or f = y'/tan w; this equation - was used by Gauss to define the focal length. - - [Illustration: FIG. 4.] - - Referring to fig. 3, we have from the similarity of the triangles OO1F - and HH2F, HH2/OO1 = FH/FO, or O'O'1/OO1 = FH/FO. Let y be the - magnitude of the object OO1, y' that of the image O'O'1, x the focal - distance FO of the object, and f the object-side focal distance FH; - then the above equation may be written y'/y = f/x. From the similar - triangles H'1H'F' and O'1O'F', we obtain O'O'1/OO1 = F'O'/F'H'. Let x' - be the focal distance of the image F'O', and f' the image-side focal - length F'H'; then y'/y = x'/f'. The ratio of the size of the image to - the size of the object is termed the _lateral magnification_. Denoting - this by [beta], we have - - [beta] = y'/y = f/x = x'/f', (1) - - and also - - xx' = ff'. (2) - - By differentiating equation (2) we obtain - - dx'= -(ff'/x^2)dx or dx'/dx = -ff'/x^2. (3) - - The ratio of the displacement of the image dx' to the displacement of - the object dx is the axial magnification, and is denoted by [alpha]. - Equation (3) gives important information on the displacement of the - image when the object is moved. Since f and f' always have contrary - signs (as is proved below), the product -ff' is invariably positive, - and since x^2 is positive for all values of x, it follows that dx and - dx' have the same sign, i.e. the object and image always move in the - same direction, either both in the direction of the light, or both in - the opposite direction. This is shown in fig. 3 by the object O3O2 and - the image O'3O'2. - - If two conjugate rays be drawn from two conjugate points on the axis, - making angles u and u' with the axis, as for example the rays OH1, - O'H'1, in fig. 3, u is termed the "angular aperture for the object," - and u' the "angular aperture for the image." The ratio of the tangents - of these angles is termed the "convergence" and is denoted by [gamma], - thus [gamma] = tan u'/tan u. Now tan u'= H'H'1/O'H' = H'H'1/(O'F'+ - F'H') = H'H'1/(F'H'- F'O'). Also tan u = HH1/OH = HH1/(OF + FH) = - HH1/(FH-FO). Consequently [gamma] = (FH - FO)/(F'H'-F'O'), or, in our - previous notation, [gamma] = (f - x)/(f'- x'). - - From equation (1) f/x = x'/f', we obtain by subtracting unity from - both sides (f-x)/x = (x'-f')/f', and consequently - - f - x x f - ------- = - -- = - -- = [gamma]. (4) - f' - x' f' x' - - From equations (1), (3) and (4), it is seen that a simple relation - exists between the lateral magnification, the axial magnification and - the convergence, viz. [alpha][gamma] = [beta]. - - [Illustration: FIG. 5.] - - In addition to the four cardinal points F, H, F', H', J. B. Listing, - "Beitrage aus physiologischen Optik," _Gottinger Studien_ (1845) - introduced the so-called "nodal points" (_Knotenpunkte_) of the - system, which are the two conjugate points from which the object and - image appear under the same angle. In fig. 5 let K be the nodal point - from which the object y appears under the same angle as the image y' - from the other nodal point K'. Then OO1/KO = O'O'1/K'O', or OO1/(KF + - FO) = O'O'1/(K'F'+ F'O'), or OO1/(FO - FK) = O'O'1/(F'O'- F'K'). - Calling the focal distances FK and F'K', X and X', we have y/(x - X) = - y'/(x'- X'), and since y'/y = [beta], it follows that 1/(x - X) = - [beta]/(x'- X'). Replace x' and X' by the values given in equation - (2), and we obtain - - 1 /ff' ff'\ xX - ----- = [beta]/( --- - --- ) or 1 = -[beta]---. - x - X \ x X / ff' - - Since [beta] = f/x = x'/f', we have f' = -X, f = -X'. - - These equations show that to determine the nodal points, it is only - necessary to measure the focal distance of the second principal focus - from the first principal focus, and vice versa. In the special case - when the initial and final medium is the same, as for example, a lens - in air, we have f = -f', and the nodal points coincide with the - principal points of the system; we then speak of the "nodal point - property of the principal points," meaning that the object and - corresponding image subtend the same angle at the principal points. - - _Equations Relating to the Principal Points._--It is sometimes - desirable to determine the distances of an object and its image, not - from the focal points, but from the principal points. Let A (see fig. - 3) be the principal point distance of the object and A' that of the - image, we then have - - A = HO = HF + FO = FO - FH = x - f, - A' = H'O' = H'F' + F'O' = F'O' - F'H' = x' - f', - - whence - - x = A + f and x' = A' + f'. - - Using xx' = ff', we have (A + f)(A' + f') = ff', which leads to AA' + - Af' + A'f = O, or - - f' f - 1 + -- + - = O; - A' A - - this becomes in the special case when f = -f', - - 1 1 1 - -- - -- = --. - A' A f - - To express the linear magnification in terms of the principal point - distances, we start with equation (4) (f - x)/(f' - x') = -x/f'. From - this we obtain A/A' = -x/f', or x = -f'A/A'; and by using equation (1) - we have [beta] = -fA'/f'A. - - In the special case of f = -f', this becomes [beta] = A'/A = y'/y, - from which it follows that the ratio of the dimensions of the object - and image is equal to the ratio of the distances of the object and - image from the principal points. - - The convergence can be determined in terms of A and A' by substituting - x = -f'A/A' in equation (4), when we obtain [gamma] = A/A'. - - _Compound Systems._--In discussing the laws relating to compound - systems, we assume that the cardinal points of the component systems - are known, and also that the combinations are centred, i.e. that the - axes of the component lenses coincide. If some object be represented - by two systems arranged one behind the other, we can regard the - systems as co-operating in the formation of the final image. - - [Illustration: FIG. 6.] - - Let such a system be represented in fig. 6. The two single systems are - denoted by the suffixes 1 and 2; for example, F1 is the first - principal focus of the first, and F'2 the second principal focus of - the second system. A ray parallel to the axis at a distance y passes - through the second principal focus F'1 of the first system, - intersecting the axis at an angle w'1. The point F'1 will be - represented in the second system by the point F', which is therefore - conjugate to the point at infinity for the entire system, i.e. it is - the second principal focus of the compound system. The representation - of F'1 in F' by the second system leads to the relations F2F'1 = x2, - and F'2F' = x'2, whence x2x'2 = f2f'2. Denoting the distance between - the adjacent focal planes F'1, F2 by [Delta], we have [Delta] = F'1F2 - = -F2F'1, so that x'2 = -f2f'2/[Delta]. A similar ray parallel to the - axis at a distance y proceeding from the image-side will intersect the - axis at the focal point F2; and by finding the image of this point in - the first system, we determine the first principal focus of the - compound system. Equation (2) gives x1x'1 = f1f'1, and since x'1 = - F'1F2 = [Delta], we have x1 = f1f'1/[Delta] as the distance of the - first principal focus F of the compound system from the first - principal focus F1 of the first system. - - To determine the focal lengths f and f' of the compound system and the - principal points H and H', we employ the equations defining the focal - lengths, viz. f = y'/tan w, and f' = y/tan w'. From the construction - (fig. 6) tan w'1 = y/f'1. The variation of the angle w'1 by the second - system is deduced from the equation to the convergence, viz. [gamma] = - tan w'2/tan w2 = -x2/f'2 = [Delta]/f'2, and since w2 = w'1, we have - tan w'2 = ([Delta]/f'2) tan w'1. Since w' = w'2 in our system of - notation, we have - - y yf'2 f'1. - f' = ------ = --------------- = -----------. (5) - tan w' [Delta] tan w'1 f'2/[Delta] - - By taking a ray proceeding from the image-side we obtain for the first - principal focal distance of the combination - - f = -f1f2/[Delta]. - - In the particular case in which [Delta] = 0, the two focal planes F'1, - F2 coincide, and the focal lengths f, f' are infinite. Such a system - is called a telescopic system, and this condition is realized in a - telescope focused for a normal eye. - - So far we have assumed that all the rays proceeding from an - object-point are exactly united in an image-point after transmission - through the ideal system. The question now arises as to how far this - assumption is justified for spherical lenses. To investigate this it - is simplest to trace the path of a ray through one spherical - refracting surface. Let such a surface divide media of refractive - indices n and n', the former being to the left. The point where the - axis intersects the surface is the vertex S (fig. 7). Denote the - distance of the axial object-point O from S by s; the distance from O - to the point of incidence P by p; the radius of the spherical surface - by r; and the distance OC by c, C being the centre of the sphere. Let - u be the angle made by the ray with the axis, and i the angle of - incidence, i.e. the angle between the ray and the normal to the sphere - at the point of incidence. The corresponding quantities in the - image-space are denoted by the same letters with a dash. From the - triangle O'PC we have sin u = (r/c) sin i, and from the triangle O'PC - we have sin u' = (r/c') sin i'. By Snell's law we have n'/n = sin - i/sin i', and also [phi] = u' + i'. Consequently c' and the position - of the image may be found. - - [Illustration: FIG. 7.] - - To determine whether all the rays proceeding from O are refracted - through O', we investigate the triangle OPO'. We have p/p' = sin - u'/sin u. Substituting for sin u and sin u' the values found above, we - obtain p'/p = c' sin i/c sin i' = n'c'/nc. Also c = OC = CS + SO = -SC - + SO = s - r, and similarly c' = s' - r. Substituting these values we - obtain - - p' n'(s' - r) n(s - r) n'(s' - r) - -- = ----------, or -------- = ----------. (6) - p n(s - r) p p' - - To obtain p and p' we use the triangles OPC and O'PC; we have p^2 = (s - - r)^2 + r^2 + 2r(s - r) cos [phi], p'^2 = (s' - r)^2 + r^2 + 2r(s' - - r) cos [phi]. Hence if s, r, n and n' be constant, s' must vary as - [phi] varies. The refracted rays therefore do not reunite in a point, - and the deflection is termed the spherical aberration (see - ABERRATION). - - Developing cos [phi] in powers of [phi], we obtain - - / [phi]^2 [phi]^4 [phi]^6 \ - p^2 = (s - r)^2 + r^2 + 2r(s - r) ( 1 - ------- + ------- - ------- + ...), - \ 2! 4! 6! / - - and therefore for such values of [phi] for which the second and higher - powers may be neglected, we have p^2 = (s - r)^2 + r^2 + 2r(s - r), - i.e. p = s, and similarly p' = s'. Equation (6) then becomes n(s - - r)/s = n'(s' - r)/s' or - - n' n n'- n - -- = -- + -----. (7) - s' s r - - This relation shows that in a very small central aperture in which the - equation p = s holds, all rays proceeding from an object-point are - exactly united in an image-point, and therefore the equations - previously deduced are valid for this aperture. K. F. Gauss derived - the equations for thin pencils in his _Dioptrische Untersuchungen_ - (1840) by very elegant methods. More recently the laws relating to - systems with finite aperture have been approximately realized, as for - example, in well-corrected photographic objectives. - - _Position of the Cardinal Points of a Lens._--Taking the case of a - single spherical refracting surface, and limiting ourselves to the - small central aperture, it is seen that the second principal focus F' - is obtained when s is infinitely great. Consequently s' = -f'; the - difference of sign is obvious, since s' is measured from S, while f' - is measured from F'. The focal lengths are directly deducible from - equation (7):-- - - f' = -n'r/(n' - n) (8) - - f = nr/(n' - n). (9) - - By joining this simple refracting system with a similar one, so that - the second spherical surface limits the medium of refractive index n', - we derive the spherical lens. Generally the two spherical surfaces - enclose a glass lens, and are bounded on the outside by air of - refractive index 1. - - The deduction of the cardinal points of a spherical glass lens in air - from the relations already proved is readily effected if we regard the - lens as a combination of two systems each having one refracting - surface, the light passing in the first system from air to glass, and - in the second from glass to air. If we know the refractive index of - the glass n, the radii r1, r2 of the spherical surfaces, and the - distances of the two lens-vertices (or the thickness of the lens d) we - can determine all the properties of the lens. A biconvex lens is shown - in fig. 8. Let F1 be the first principal focus of the first system of - radius r1, and F1' the second principal focus; and let S1 be its - vertex. Denote the distance F1 S1 (the first principal focal length) - by f1, and the corresponding distance F'1 S1 by f'1. Let the - corresponding quantities in the second system be denoted by the same - letters with the suffix 2. - - By equations (8) and (9) we have - - r1 nr1 nr2 r2 - f1 = -----, f'1 = - -----, f2 = - -----, f'2 = -----, - n - 1 n - 1 n - 1 n - 1 - - f2 having the opposite sign to f1. Denoting the distance F'1F2 by - [Delta], we have [Delta] = F'1F2 = F'1S1 + S1S2 + S2F2 = F'1S1 + S1S2 - - F2S2 = f'1 + d - f2. - - Substituting for f'1 and f2 we obtain - - nr1 nr2 - [Delta] = ----- + d + -----. - n - 1 n - 1 - - Writing R = [Delta](n - 1), this relation becomes - - R = n(r2 - r1) + d(n - 1). - - We have already shown that f (the first principal focal length of a - compound system) = -f1f2/[Delta]. Substituting for f1, f2 and [Delta] - the values found above, we obtain - - r1r2n r1r2n - f = --------- = ------------------------------, (10) - (n - 1)R} (n - 1){n(r2 - r1) + d(n - 1)} - - which is equivalent to - - 1 /1 1 \ (n-1)^2d - -- = (n - 1)( -- - -- ) + --------. - f \r1 r2/ r1r2n - - If the lens be infinitely thin, i.e. if d be zero, we have for the - first principal focal length. - - 1 /1 1 \ - -- = (n - 1)( -- - -- ). - f \r1 r2/ - - By the same method we obtain for the second principal focal length - - f'1f'2 nr1r2 - f' = ------- = - --------- = -f. - [Delta] (n - 1)R - - [Illustration: FIG. 8.] - - The reciprocal of the focal length is termed the _power_ of the lens - and is denoted by [phi]. In formulae involving [phi] it is customary - to denote the reciprocal of the radii by the symbol [rho]; we thus - have [phi] = 1/f, [rho] = 1/r. Equation (10) thus becomes - - (n - 1)^2d[rho]1[rho]2 - [phi] = (n - 1)([rho]1 - [rho]2) + ----------------------. - n - - The unit of power employed by spectacle-makers is termed the _diopter_ - or _dioptric_ (see SPECTACLES). - - We proceed to determine the distances of the focal points from the - vertices of the lens, i.e. the distances FS1 and F'S2. Since F is - represented by the first system in F2, we have by equation (2) - - f1f'1 f1f'1 nr1^2 - x1 = ----- = ------- = --------, - x'1 [Delta] (n - 1)R - - where x1 = F1F, and x'1 = F'1F2 = [Delta]. The distance of the first - principal focus from the vertex S, i.e. S1F, which we denote by s_F - is given by s_F = S1F = S1F1 + F1F = -F1S1 + F1F. Now F1S1 is the - distance from the vertex of the first principal focus of the first - system, i.e. f1 and F1F = x1. Substituting these values, we obtain - - r1 nr1^2 r1(nr1 + R) - s_F = - ----- - -------- = -----------. - n - 1 (n - 1)R (n - 1)R - - The distance F'2F' or x'2 is similarly determined by considering F'1 - to be represented by the second system in F'. - - We have - - f2f'2 f2f'2 nr2^2 - x'2 = ----- = ------- = --------, - x2 [Delta] (n - 1)R - - so that - - r2(nr2 - R) - s_F' = x'2 - f'2 = -----------, - (n - 1)R - - where s_F' denotes the distance of the second principal focus from - the vertex S2. - - The two focal lengths and the distances of the foci from the vertices - being known, the positions of the remaining cardinal points, i.e. the - principal points H and H', are readily determined. Let s_H = S1H, i.e. - the distance of the object-side principal point from the vertex of the - first surface, and s_H' = S2H', i.e. the distance of the image-side - principal point from the vertex of the second surface, then f = FH = - FS1 + S1H = -S1F + S1H = -s_F + s_H; hence s_H = s_F + f = -dr1/R. - Similarly s_H' = s_F' + f' = -dr2/R. It is readily seen that the - distances s_H and s_H' are in the ratio of the radii r1 and r2. - - The distance between the two principal planes (the interstitium) is - deduced very simply. We have S1S2 = S1H + HH' + H'S2, or HH' = S1S2 - - S1H + S2H'. Substituting, we have - - HH' = d - s_H + s_H' = d(n - 1)(r2 - r1 + d)/R. - - The interstitium becomes zero, or the two principal planes coincide, - if d = r1 - r2. - - We have now derived all the properties of the lens in terms of its - elements, viz. the refractive index, the radii of the surfaces, and - the thickness. - - _Forms of Lenses._--By varying the signs and relative magnitude of the - radii, lenses may be divided into two groups according to their - action, and into four groups according to their form. - - According to their action, lenses are either collecting, convergent - and condensing, or divergent and dispersing; the term positive is - sometimes applied to the former, and the term negative to the latter. - Convergent lenses transform a parallel pencil into a converging one, - and increase the convergence, and diminish the divergence of any - pencil. Divergent lenses, on the other hand, transform a parallel - pencil into a diverging one, and diminish the convergence, and - increase the divergence of any pencil. In convergent lenses the first - principal focal distance is positive and the second principal focal - distance negative; in divergent lenses the converse holds. - - The four forms of lenses are interpretable by means of equation (10). - - r1r2n - f = -------------------------------. - (n - 1) {n(r2 - r1) + d(n - 1)} - - [Illustration: FIG. 9.] - - (1) If r1 be positive and r2 negative. This type is called biconvex - (fig. 9, 1). The first principal focus is in front of the lens, and - the second principal focus behind the lens, and the two principal - points are inside the lens. The order of the cardinal points is - therefore FS1HH'S2F'. The lens is convergent so long as the thickness - is less than n(r1 - r2)/(n - 1). The special case when one of the - radii is infinite, in other words, when one of the bounding surfaces - is plane is shown in fig. 9, 2. Such a collective lens is termed - _plano-convex_. As d increases, F and H move to the right and F' and - H' to the left. If d = n(r1 - r2)/(n - 1), the focal length is - infinite, i.e. the lens is telescopic. If the thickness be greater - than n(r1 - r2)/(n - 1), the lens is dispersive, and the order of the - cardinal points is HFS1S2F'H'. - - (2) If r1 is negative and r2 positive. This type is called _biconcave_ - (fig. 9, 4). Such lenses are dispersive for all thicknesses. If d - increases, the radii remaining constant, the focal lengths diminish. - It is seen from the equations giving the distances of the cardinal - points from the vertices that the first principal focus F is always - behind S1, and the second principal focus F' always in front of S2, - and that the principal points are within the lens, H' always following - H. If one of the radii becomes infinite, the lens is _plano-concave_ - (fig. 9, 5). - - (3) If the radii are both positive. These lenses are called - _convexo-concave_. Two cases occur according as r2 > r1, or < r1. (a) - If r2 > r1, we obtain the _mensicus_ (fig. 9, 3). Such lenses are - always collective; and the order of the cardinal points is FHH'F'. - Since s_F and s_H are always negative, the object-side cardinal - points are always in front of the lens. H' can take up different - positions. Since s_H' = -dr2/R = -dr2/{n(r2 - r1) + d(n - 1)}, s_H' - is greater or less than d, i.e. H' is either in front of or inside the - lens, according as d < or > {r2 - n(r2 - r1)}/(n - 1). (b) If r2 < r1 the - lens is dispersive so long as d < n(r1 - r2)/(n-1). H is always behind - S1 and H' behind S2, since s_H and s_H' are always positive. The - focus F is always behind S1 and F' in front of S2. If the thickness be - small, the order of the cardinal points is F'HH'F; a dispersive lens - of this type is shown in fig. 9, 6. As the thickness increases, H, H' - and F move to the right, F more rapidly than H, and H more rapidly - than H'; F', on the other hand, moves to the left. As with biconvex - lenses, a telescopic lens, having all the cardinal points at infinity, - results when d = n(r1 - r2)/(n - 1). If d > n(r1 - r2)/(n - 1), f is - positive and the lens is collective. The cardinal points are in the - same order as in the mensicus, viz. FHH'F'; and the relation of the - principal points to the vertices is also the same as in the mensicus. - - (4) If r1 and r2 are both negative. This case is reduced to (3) above, - by assuming a change in the direction of the light, or, in other - words, by interchanging the object- and image-spaces. - - The six forms shown in fig. 9 are all used in optical constructions. - It may be stated fairly generally that lenses which are thicker at the - middle are collective, while those which are thinnest at the middle - are dispersive. - - [Illustration: FIG. 10.] - - _Different Positions of Object and Image._--The principal points are - always near the surfaces limiting the lens, and consequently the lens - divides the direct pencil containing the axis into two parts. The - object can be either in front of or behind the lens as in fig. 10. If - the object point be in front of the lens, and if it be realized by - rays passing from it, it is called _real_. If, on the other hand, the - object be behind the lens, it is called _virtual_; it does not - actually exist, and can only be realized as an image. - - [Illustration: FIG. 11.] - - When we speak of "object-points," it is always understood that the - rays from the object traverse the first surface of the lens before - meeting the second. In the same way, images may be either real or - virtual. If the image be behind the second surface, it is _real_, and - can be intercepted on a screen. If, however, it be in front of the - lens, it is visible to an eye placed behind the lens, although the - rays do not actually intersect, but only appear to do so, but the - image cannot be intercepted on a screen behind the lens. Such an image - is said to be _virtual_. These relations are shown in fig. 11. - - [Illustration: FIG. 12.] - - By referring to the equations given above, it is seen that a thin - convergent lens produces both real and virtual images of real objects, - but only a real image of a virtual object, whilst a divergent lens - produces a virtual image of a real object and both real and virtual - images of a virtual object. The construction of a real image of a real - object by a convergent lens is shown in fig. 3; and that of a virtual - image of a real object by a divergent lens in fig. 12. - - [Illustration: FIG. 13.] - - _The optical centre of a lens_ is a point such that, for any ray which - passes through it, the incident and emergent rays are parallel. The - idea of the optical centre was originally due to J. Harris (_Treatise - on Optics_, 1775); it is not properly a cardinal point, although it - has several interesting properties. In fig. 13, let C1P1 and C2P2 be - two parallel radii of a biconvex lens. Join P1P2 and let O1P1 and O2P2 - be incident and emergent rays which have P1P2 for the path through the - lens. Then if M be the intersection of P1P2 with the axis, we have - angle C1P1M = angle C2P2M; these two angles are--for a ray travelling - in the direction O1P1P2O2--the angles of emergence and of incidence - respectively. From the similar triangles C2P2M and C1P1M we have - - C1M : C2M = C1P1 : C2P2 = r1 : r2. (11) - - Such rays as P1P2 therefore divide the distance C1C2 in the ratio of - the radii, i.e. at the fixed point M, the optical centre. Calling S1M - = s1, S2M = s2, then C1S1 = C1M + MS1 = C1M - S1M, i.e. since C1S1 = - r1, C1M = r1 + s1, and similarly C2M = r2 + s2. Also S1S2 = S1M + MS2 - = S1M - S2M, i.e. d = s1 - s2. Then by using equation (11) we have s1 - = r1d/(r - r2) and s2 = r2d/(r1 - r2), and hence s1/s2 = r1/r2. The - vertex distances of the optical centre are therefore in the ratio of - the radii. - - The values of s1 and s2 show that the optical centre of a biconvex or - biconcave lens is in the interior of the lens, that in a plano-convex - or plano-concave lens it is at the vertex of the curved surface, and - in a concavo-convex lens outside the lens. - - _The Wave-theory Derivation of the Focal Length._--The formulae above - have been derived by means of geometrical rays. We here give an - account of Lord Rayleigh's wave-theory derivation of the focal length - of a convex lens in terms of the aperture, thickness and refractive - index (_Phil. Mag._ 1879 (5) 8, p. 480; 1885, 20, p. 354); the - argument is based on the principle that the optical distance from - object to image is constant. - - [Illustration: FIG. 14.] - - "Taking the case of a convex lens of glass, let us suppose that - parallel rays DA, EC, GB (fig. 14) fall upon the lens ACB, and are - collected by it to a focus at F. The points D, E, G, equally distant - from ACB, lie upon a front of the wave before it impinges upon the - lens. The focus is a point at which the different parts of the wave - arrive at the same time, and that such a point can exist depends upon - the fact that the propagation is slower in glass than in air. The ray - ECF is retarded from having to pass through the thickness (d) of glass - by the amount (n - 1)d. The ray DAF, which traverses only the extreme - edge of the lens, is retarded merely on account of the crookedness of - its path, and the amount of the retardation is measured by AF - CF. If - F is a focus these retardations must be equal, or AF - CF = (n - 1)d. - Now if y be the semi-aperture AC of the lens, and f be the focal - length CF, AF - CF = [root](f^2 + y^2) - f = (1/2)y^2/f approximately, - whence - - f = (1/2)y^2/(n - 1)d. (12) - - In the case of plate-glass (n - 1) = 1/2 (nearly), and then the rule - (12) may be thus stated: _the semi-aperture is a mean proportional - between the focal length and the thickness_. The form (12) is in - general the more significant, as well as the more practically useful, - but we may, of course, express the thickness in terms of the - curvatures and semi-aperture by means of d = (1/2)y^2[r1^(-1) - - r2^(-1)]. In the preceding statement it has been supposed for - simplicity that the lens comes to a sharp edge. If this be not the - case we must take as the thickness of the lens the difference of the - thicknesses at the centre and at the circumference. In this form the - statement is applicable to concave lenses, and we see that the focal - length is positive when the lens is thickest at the centre, but - negative when the lens is thickest at the edge." - - -_Regulation of the Rays._ - -The geometrical theory of optical instruments can be conveniently -divided into four parts: (1) The relations of the positions and sizes of -objects and their images (see above); (2) the different aberrations from -an ideal image (see ABERRATION); (3) the intensity of radiation in the -object- and image-spaces, in other words, the alteration of brightness -caused by physical or geometrical influences; and (4) the regulation of -the rays (_Strahlenbegrenzung_). - -[Illustration: FIG. 15.] - - The regulation of rays will here be treated only in systems free from - aberration. E. Abbe first gave a connected theory; and M. von Rohr has - done a great deal towards the elaboration. The Gauss cardinal points - make it simple to construct the image of a given object. No account is - taken of the size of the system, or whether the rays used for the - construction really assist in the reproduction of the image or not. - The diverging cones of rays coming from the object-points can only - take a certain small part in the production of the image in - consequence of the apertures of the lenses, or of diaphragms. It often - happens that the rays used for the construction of the image do not - pass through the system; the image being formed by quite different - rays. If we take a luminous point of the object lying on the axis of - the system then an eye introduced at the image-point sees in the - instrument several concentric rings, which are either the fittings of - the lenses or their images, or the real diaphragms or their images. - The innermost and smallest ring is completely lighted, and forms the - origin of the cone of rays entering the image-space. Abbe called it - the _exit pupil_. Similarly there is a corresponding smallest ring in - the object-space which limits the entering cone of rays. This is - called the _entrance pupil_. The real diaphragm acting as a limit at - any part of the system is called the _aperture-diaphragm_. These - diaphragms remain for all practical purposes the same for all points - lying on the axis. It sometimes happens that one and the same - diaphragm fulfils the functions of the entrance pupil and the - aperture-diaphragm or the exit pupil and the aperture-diaphragm. - - Fig. 15 shows the general but simplified case of the different - diaphragms which are of importance for the regulation of the rays. S1, - S2 are two centred systems. A' is a real diaphragm lying between them. - B1 and B'2 are the fittings of the systems. Then S1 produces the - virtual image A of the diaphragm A' and the image B2 of the fitting - B'2, whilst the system S2 makes the virtual image A" of the diaphragm - A' and the virtual image B'1 of the fitting B1. The object-point O is - reproduced really through the whole system in the point O'. From the - object-point O three diaphragms can be seen in the object-space, viz. - the fitting B1, the image of the fitting B2 and the image A of the - diaphragm A' formed by the system S1. The cone of rays nearest to B2 - is not received to its total extent by the fitting B1, and the cone - which has entered through B1 is again diminished in its further - course, when passing through the diaphragm A', so that the cone of - rays really used for producing the image is limited by A, the - diaphragm which seen from O appears to be the smallest. A is therefore - the entrance pupil. The real diaphragm A' which limits the rays in the - centre of the system is the aperture diaphragm. Similarly three - diaphragms lying in the image-space are to be seen from the - image-point O'--namely B', A", and B'2. A" limits the rays in the - image-space, and is therefore the exit pupil. As A is conjugate to the - diaphragm A' in the system S1, and A" to the same diaphragm A' in the - system S2, the entrance pupil A is conjugate to the exit pupil A" - throughout the instrument. This relation between entrance and exit - pupils is general. - - The apices of the cones of rays producing the image of points near the - axis thus lie in the object-points, and their common base is the - entrance pupil. The axis of such a cone, which connects the object - point with the centre of the entrance pupil, is called the _principal - ray_. Similarly, the principal rays in the image-space join the centre - of the exit pupil with the image-points. The centres of the entrance - and exit pupils are thus the intersections of the principal rays. - - [Illustration: FIG. 16.] - - [Illustration: FIG. 17a.] - - [Illustration: FIG. 17b.] - - For points lying farther from the axis, the entrance pupil no longer - alone limits the rays, the other diaphragms taking part. In fig. 16 - only one diaphragm L is present besides the entrance pupil A, and the - object-space is divided to a certain extent into four parts. The - section M contains all points rendered by a system with a complete - aperture; N contains all points rendered by a system with a gradually - diminishing aperture; but this diminution does not attain the - principal ray passing through the centre C. In the section O are those - points rendered by a system with an aperture which gradually decreases - to zero. No rays pass from the points of the section P through the - system and no image can arise from them. The second diaphragm L - therefore limits the three-dimensional object-space containing the - points which can be rendered by the optical system. From C through - this diaphragm L this three-dimensional object-space can be seen as - through a window. L is called by M von Rohr the _entrance luke_. If - several diaphragms can be seen from C, then the entrance _luke_ is the - diaphragm which seen from C appears the smallest. In the sections N - and O the entrance _luke_ also takes part in limiting the cones of - rays. This restriction is known as the "vignetting" action of the - entrance _luke_. The base of the cone of rays for the points of this - section of the object-space is no longer a circle but a two-cornered - curve which arises from the object-point by the projection of the - entrance _luke_ on the entrance pupil. Fig. 17a shows the base of such - a cone of rays. It often happens that besides the entrance _luke_, - another diaphragm acts in a vignetting manner, then the operating - aperture of the cone of rays is a curve made up of circular arcs - formed out of the entrance pupil and the two projections of the two - acting diaphragms (fig. 17b). - - If the entrance pupil is narrow, then the section NO, in which the - vignetting is increasing, is diminished, and there is really only one - division of the section M which can be reproduced, and of the section - P which cannot be reproduced. The angle w + w = 2w, comprising the - section which can be reproduced, is called the angle of the field of - view on the object-side. The field of view 2w retains its importance - if the entrance pupil is increased. It then comprises all points - reached by principal rays. The same relations apply to the - image-space, in which there is an exit _luke_, which, seen from the - middle of the exit pupil, appears under the smallest angle. It is the - image of the entrance _luke_ produced by the whole system. The - image-side field of view 2w' is the angle comprised by the principal - rays reaching the edge of the exit _luke_. - - [Illustration: FIG. 18.] - - Most optical instruments are used to observe object-reliefs - (three-dimensional objects), and generally an image-relief (a - three-dimensional image) is conjugate to this object-relief. It is - sometimes required, however, to represent by means of an optical - instrument the object-relief on a plane or on a ground-glass as in the - photographic camera. For simplicity we shall assume the intercepting - plane as perpendicular to the axis and shall call it, after von Rohr, - the "ground glass plane." All points of the image not lying in this - plane produce circular spots (corresponding to the form of the pupils) - on it, which are called "circles of confusion." The ground-glass plane - (fig. 18) is conjugate to the object-plane E in the object-space, - perpendicular to the axis, and called the "plane focused for." All - points lying in this plane are reproduced exactly on the ground-glass - plane as the points OO. The circle of confusion Z on the plane focused - for corresponds to the circle of confusion Z' on the ground-glass - plane. The figure formed on the plane focused for by the cones of rays - from all of the object-points of the total object-space directed to - the entrance pupil, was called "object-side representation" (_imago_) - by M von Rohr. This representation is a central projection. If, for - instance, the entrance pupil is imagined so small that only the - principal rays pass through, then they project directly, and the - intersections of the principal rays represent the projections of the - points of the object lying off the plane focused for. The centre of - the projection or the perspective centre is the middle point of the - entrance pupil C. If the entrance pupil is opened, in place of points, - circles of confusion appear, whose size depends upon the size of the - entrance pupil and the position of the object-points and the plane - focused for. The intersection of the principal ray is the centre of - the circle of confusion. The clearness of the representation on the - plane focused for is of course diminished by the circles of confusion. - This central projection does not at all depend upon the instrument, - but is entirely geometrical, arising when the position and the size of - the entrance pupil, and the position of the plane focused for have - been fixed. The instrument then produces an image on the ground-glass - plane of this perspective representation on the plane focused for, and - on account of the exact likeness which this image has to the - object-side representation it is called the "representation copy." By - moving it round an angle of 180 deg., this representation can be - brought into a perspective position to the objects, so that all rays - coming from the middle of the entrance pupil and aiming at the - object-points, would always meet the corresponding image-points. This - representation is accessible to the observer in different ways in - different instruments. If the observer desires a perfectly correct - perspective impression of the object-relief the distance of the pivot - of the eye from the representation copy must be equal to the nth part - of the distance of the plane focused for from the entrance pupil, if - the instrument has produced a nth diminution of the object-side - representation. The pivot of the eye must coincide with the centre of - the perspective, because all images are observed in direct vision. It - is known that the pivot of the eye is the point of intersection of all - the directions in which one can look. Thus all these points - represented by circles of confusion which are less than the angular - sharpness of vision appear clear to the eye; the space containing all - these object-points, which appear clear to the eye, is called the - _depth_. The depth of definition, therefore, is not a special property - of the instrument, but depends on the size of the entrance pupil, the - position of the plane focused for and on the conditions under which - the representation can be observed. - - If the distance of the representation from the pivot of the eye be - altered from the correct distance already mentioned, the angles of - vision under which various objects appear are changed; perspective - errors arise, causing an incorrect idea to be given of the depth. A - simple case is shown in fig. 19. A cube is the object, and if it is - observed as in fig. 19a with the representation copy at the correct - distance, a correct idea of a cube will be obtained. If, as in figs. - 19b and 19c, the distance is too great, there can be two results. If - it is known that the farthest section is just as high as the nearer - one then the cube appears exceptionally deepened, like a long - parallelepipedon. But if it is known to be as deep as it is high then - the eye will see it low at the back and high at the front. The reverse - occurs when the distance of observation is too short, the body then - appears either too flat, or the nearer sections seem too low in - relation to those farther off. These perspective errors can be seen in - any telescope. In the telescope ocular the representation copy has to - be observed under too large an angle or at too short a distance: all - objects therefore appear flattened, or the more distant objects appear - too large in comparison with those nearer at hand. - - [Illustration: FIG. 19. After von Rohr.] - - [Illustration: FIG. 20. After von Rohr.] - - [Illustration: FIG. 21. After von Rohr.] - - [Illustration: FIG. 22. After von Rohr.] - - From the above the importance of experience will be inferred. But it - is not only necessary that the objects themselves be known to the - observer but also that they are presented to his eye in the customary - manner. This depends upon the way in which the principal rays pass - through the system--in other words, upon the special kind of - "transmission" of the principal rays. In ordinary vision the pivot of - the eye is the centre of the perspective representation which arises - on the very distant plane standing perpendicular to the mean direction - of sight. In this kind of central projection all objects lying in - front of the plane focused for are diminished when projected on this - plane, and those lying behind it are magnified. (The distances are - always given in the direction of light.) Thus the objects near to the - eye appear large and those farther from it appear small. This - perspective has been called by M von Rohr[1] "entocentric - transmission" (fig. 20). If the entrance pupil of the instrument lies - at infinity, then all the principal rays are parallel and the - projections of all objects on the plane focused for are exactly as - large as the objects themselves. After E. Abbe, this course of rays is - called "telecentric transmission" (fig. 21). The exit pupil then lies - in the image-side focus of the system. If the perspective centre lies - in front of the plane focused for, then the objects lying in front of - this plane are magnified and those behind it are diminished. This is - just the reverse of perspective representation in ordinary sight, so - that the relations of size and the arrangements for space must be - quite incorrectly indicated (fig. 22); this representation is called - by M von Rohr a "hypercentric transmission." (O. Hr.) - - -FOOTNOTE: - - [1] M von Rohr, _Zeitschr. fur Sinnesphysiologie_ (1907), xli. 408-429. - - - - -LENT (O. Eng. _lencten_, "spring," M. Eng. _lenten_, _lente_, _lent_; -cf. Dut. _lente_, Ger. _Lenz_, "spring," O. H. Ger. _lenzin_, -_lengizin_, _lenzo_, probably from the same root as "long" and referring -to "the lengthening days"), in the Christian Church, the period of -fasting preparatory to the festival of Easter. As this fast falls in the -early part of the year, it became confused with the season, and -gradually the word Lent, which originally meant spring, was confined to -this use. The Latin name for the fast, _Quadragesima_ (whence Ital. -_quaresima_, Span. _cuaresma_ and Fr. _careme_), and its Gr. equivalent -[Greek: tessarakoste] (now superseded by the term [Greek: he nesteia] -"the fast"), are derived from the Sunday which was the fortieth day -before Easter, as _Quinquagesima_ and _Sexagesima_ are the fiftieth and -sixtieth, Quadragesima being until the 7th century the _caput jejunii_ -or first day of the fast. - -The length of this fast and the rigour with which it has been observed -have varied greatly at different times and in different countries (see -FASTING). In the time of Irenaeus the fast before Easter was very short, -but very severe; thus some ate nothing for forty hours between the -afternoon of Good Friday and the morning of Easter. This was the only -authoritatively prescribed fast known to Tertullian (_De jejunio_, 2, -13, 14; _De oratione_, 18). In Alexandria about the middle of the 3rd -century it was already customary to fast during Holy Week; and earlier -still the Montanists boasted that they observed a two weeks' fast -instead of one. Of the Lenten fast or Quadragesima, the first mention is -in the fifth canon of the council of Nicaea (325), and from this time it -is frequently referred to, but chiefly as a season of preparation for -baptism, of absolution of penitents or of retreat and recollection. In -this season fasting played a part, but it was not universally nor -rigorously enforced. At Rome, for instance, the whole period of fasting -was but three weeks, according to the historian Socrates (_Hist. eccl._ -v. 22), these three weeks, in Mgr. Duchesne's opinion, being not -continuous but, following the primitive Roman custom, broken by -intervals. Gradually, however, the fast as observed in East and West -became more rigorously defined. In the East, where after the example of -the Church of Antioch the Quadragesima fast had been kept distinct from -that of Holy Week, the whole fast came to last for seven weeks, both -Saturdays and Sundays (except Holy Saturday) being, however, excluded. -In Rome and Alexandria, and even in Jerusalem, Holy Week was included in -Lent and the whole fast lasted but six weeks, Saturdays, however, not -being exempt. Both at Rome and Constantinople, therefore, the actual -fast was but thirty-six days. Some Churches still continued the three -weeks' fast, but by the middle of the 5th century most of these -divergences had ceased and the usages of Antioch-Constantinople and -Rome-Alexandria had become stereotyped in their respective spheres of -influence. - -The thirty-six days, as forming a tenth part of the year and therefore a -perfect number, at first found a wide acceptance (so Cassianus, _Coll._ -xxi. 30); but the inconsistency of this period with the name -Quadragesima, and with the forty days' fast of Christ, came to be noted, -and early in the 7th century four days were added, by what pope is -unknown, Lent in the West beginning henceforth on Ash Wednesday (q.v.). -About the same time the cycle of paschal solemnities was extended to the -ninth week before Easter by the institution of stational masses for -Septuagesima, Sexagesima and Quinquagesima Sundays. At Constantinople, -too, three Sundays were added and associated with the Easter festival in -the same way as the Sundays in Lent proper. These three Sundays were -added in the Greek Church also, and the present custom of keeping an -eight weeks' fast (i.e. exactly 8X5 days), now universal in the Eastern -Church, originated in the 7th century. The Greek Lent begins on the -Monday of Sexagesima, with a week of preparatory fasting, known as -[Greek: turophagia], or the "butter-week"; the actual fast, however, -starts on the Monday of Quinquagesima (Estomihi), this week being known -as "the first week of the fast" ([Greek: hebdomas ton nesteion]). The -period of Lent is still described as "the six weeks of the fast" -([Greek: hex hebdomades ton nesteion]), Holy Week ([Greek: he hagia kai -megale hebdomas]) not being reckoned in. The Lenten fast was retained at -the Reformation in some of the reformed Churches, and is still observed -in the Anglican and Lutheran communions. In England a Lenten fast was -first ordered to be observed by Earconberht, king of Kent (640-664). In -the middle ages, meat, eggs and milk were forbidden in Lent not only by -ecclesiastical but by statute law; and this rule was enforced until the -reign of william III. The chief Lenten food from the earliest days was -fish, and entries in the royal household accounts of Edward III. show -the amount of fish supplied to the king. Herring-pies were a great -delicacy. Charters granted to seaports often stipulated that the town -should send so many herrings or other fish to the king annually during -Lent. How severely strict medieval abstinence was may be gauged from the -fact that armies and garrisons were sometimes, in default of -dispensations, as in the case of the siege of Orleans in 1429, reduced -to starvation for want of Lenten food, though in full possession of meat -and other supplies. The battle of the Herrings (February 1429) was -fought in order to cover the march of a convoy of Lenten food to the -English army besieging Orleans. Dispensations from fasting were, -however, given in case of illness. - -During the religious confusion of the Reformation, the practice of -fasting was generally relaxed and it was found necessary to reassert the -obligation of keeping Lent and the other periods and days of abstinence -by a series of proclamations and statutes. In these, however, the -religious was avowedly subordinate to a political motive, viz. to -prevent the ruin of the fisheries, which were the great nursery of -English seamen. Thus the statute of 2 and 3 Edward VI., cap. 9 (1549), -while inculcating that "due and godly abstinence from flesh is a means -to virtue," adds that "by the eating of fish much flesh is saved to the -country," and that thereby, too, the fishing trade is encouraged. The -statute, however, would not seem to have had much effect; for in spite -of a proclamation of Queen Elizabeth in 1560 imposing a fine of L20 for -each offence on butchers slaughtering animals during Lent, in 1563 Sir -William Cecil, in _Notes upon an Act for the Increase of the Navy_, says -that "in old times no flesh at all was eaten on fish days; even the king -himself could not have license; which was occasion of eating so much -fish as now is eaten in flesh upon fish days." The revolt against fish -had ruined the fisheries and driven the fishermen to turn pirates, to -the great scandal and detriment of the realm. Accordingly, in the -session of 1562-1563, Cecil forced upon an unwilling parliament "a -politic ordinance on fish eating," by which the eating of flesh on fast -days was made punishable by a fine of three pounds or three months' -imprisonment, one meat dish being allowed on Wednesdays on condition -that three fish dishes were present on the table. The kind of argument -by which Cecil overcame the Protestant temper of the parliament is -illustrated by a clause which he had meditated adding to the statute, a -draft of which in his own handwriting is preserved: "Because no person -should misjudge the intent of the statute," it runs, "which is politicly -meant only for the increase of fishermen and mariners, and not for any -superstition for choice of meats; whoever shall preach or teach that -eating of fish or forbearing of flesh is for the saving of the soul of -man, or for the service of God, shall be punished as the spreader of -false news" (Dom. MSS., Elizabeth, vol. xxvii.). But in spite of -statutes and proclamations, of occasional severities and of the -patriotic example of Queen Elizabeth, the practice of fasting fell more -and more into disuse. Ostentatious avoidance of a fish-diet became, -indeed, one of the outward symbols of militant Protestantism among the -Puritans. "I have often noted," writes John Taylor, the water-poet, in -his _Jack a Lent_ (1620), "that if any superfluous feasting or -gormandizing, paunch-cramming assembly do meet, it is so ordered that it -must be either in Lent, upon a Friday, or a fasting: for the meat does -not relish well except it be sauced with disobedience and comtempt of -authority." The government continued to struggle against this spirit of -defiance; proclamations of James I. in 1619 and 1625, and of Charles I. -in 1627 and 1631, again commanded abstinence from all flesh during Lent, -and the High Church movement of the 17th century lent a fresh religious -sanction to the official attitude. So late as 1687, James II. issued a -proclamation ordering abstention from meat; but, after the Revolution, -the Lenten laws fell obsolete, though they remained on the statute-book -till repealed by the Statute Law Revision Act 1863. But during the 18th -century, though the strict observance of the Lenten fast was generally -abandoned, it was still observed and inculcated by the more earnest of -the clergy, such as William Law and John Wesley; and the custom of women -wearing mourning in Lent, which had been followed by Queen Elizabeth and -her court, survived until well into the 19th century. With the growth of -the Oxford Movement in the English Church, the practice of observing -Lent was revived; and, though no rules for fasting are authoritatively -laid down, the duty of abstinence is now very generally inculcated by -bishops and clergy, either as a discipline or as an exercise in -self-denial. For the more "advanced" Churches, Lenten practice tends to -conform to that of the pre-Reformation Church. - -Mid-Lent, or the fourth Sunday in Lent, was long known as _Mothering -Sunday_, in allusion to the custom for girls in service to be allowed a -holiday on that day to visit their parents. They usually took as a -present for their mother a small cake known as a _simnel_. In shape it -resembled a pork-pie but in materials it was a rich plum-pudding. The -word is derived through M. Lat. _simenellus_, _simella_, from Lat. -_simila_, wheat flour. In Gloucestershire simnel cakes are still -common; and at Usk, Monmouth, the custom of mothering is still -scrupulously observed. - - - - -LENTHALL, WILLIAM (1591-1662), English parliamentarian, speaker of the -House of Commons, second son of William Lenthall, of Lachford, -Oxfordshire, a descendent of an old Herefordshire family, was born at -Henley-on-Thames in June 1591. He left Oxford without taking a degree in -1609, and was called to the bar at Lincoln's Inn in 1616, becoming a -bencher in 1633. He represented Woodstock in the Short Parliament (April -1640), and was chosen by King Charles I. to be speaker of the Long -Parliament, which met on the 3rd of November 1640. According to -Clarendon, a worse choice could not have been made, for Lenthall was of -a "very timorous nature." He was treated with scanty respect in the -chair, and seems to have had little control over the proceedings. On the -4th of January 1642, however, when the king entered the House of Commons -to seize the five members, Lenthall behaved with great prudence and -dignity. Having taken the speaker's chair and looked round in vain to -discover the offending members, Charles turned to Lenthall standing -below, and demanded of him "whether any of those persons were in the -House, whether he saw any of them and where they were." Lenthall fell on -his knees and replied: "May it please your Majesty, I have neither eyes -to see nor tongue to speak in this place but as the House is pleased to -direct me, whose servant I am here." On the outbreak of the great -rebellion, Lenthall threw in his lot with the parliament. He had already -called attention to the inadequacy of his salary and been granted a sum -of L6000 (9th of April 1642); and he was now appointed master of the -rolls (22nd of November 1643), and one of the commissioners of the great -seal (Oct. 1646-March 1648). - -He carried on his duties as speaker without interruption till 1647, when -the power of the parliament had been transferred to the army. On the -26th of July a mob invaded the House of Commons and obliged it to -rescind the ordinance re-establishing the old parliamentary committee of -militia; Lenthall was held in the chair by main force and compelled to -put to the vote a resolution inviting the king to London. Threats of -worse things came subsequently to Lenthall's ears, and, taking the mace -with him, he left London on the 29th to join the army and Fairfax. -Lenthall and Manchester, the speaker of the Lords, headed the fugitive -members at the review on Hounslow Heath on the 3rd of August, being -received by the soldiers "as so many angels sent from heaven for their -good." Returning to London with the army, he was installed again by -Fairfax in the chair (6th August), and all votes passed during his -absence were annulled. He adhered henceforth to the army party, but with -a constant bias in favour of the king. - -At the Restoration he claimed to have sent money to the king at Oxford, -to have provided the queen with comforts and necessaries and to have -taken care of the royal children. But he put the question for the king's -trial from the chair, and continued to act as speaker after the king's -execution. He still continued to use his influence in favour of the -royalists, whenever this was possible without imperilling his own -interests, and he saved the lives of both the earl of Norwich (8th March -1649) and Sir W. D'Avenant (3rd July 1650) by his casting vote. The -removal of the king had left the parliament supreme; and Lenthall as its -representative, though holding little real power, was the first man in -the state. - -His speakership continued till the 20th of April 1653, when the Long -Parliament was summarily expelled. Cromwell directed Colonel Harrison, -on the refusal of Lenthall to quit the chair, to pull him out--and -Lenthall submitted to the show of force. He took no part in politics -till the assembling of the first protectorate parliament, on the 3rd of -September 1654, in which he sat as member for Oxfordshire. He was again -chosen speaker, his former experience and his pliability of character -being his chief recommendations. In the second protectorate parliament, -summoned by Cromwell on the 17th of September 1656, Lenthall was again -chosen member for Oxfordshire, but had some difficulty in obtaining -admission, and was not re-elected speaker. He supported Cromwell's -administration, and was active in urging the protector to take the title -of king. In spite of his services, Lenthall was not included by Cromwell -in his new House of Lords, and was much disappointed and crestfallen at -his omission. The protector, hearing of his "grievous complaint," sent -him a writ, and Lenthall was elated at believing he had secured a -peerage. After Cromwell's death, the officers, having determined to -recall the "Rump" Parliament, assembled at Lenthall's house at the Rolls -(6th May 1659), to desire him to send out the writs. Lenthall, however, -had no wish to resume his duties as speaker, preferring the House of -Lords, and made various excuses for not complying. Nevertheless, upon -the officers threatening to summon the parliament without his aid, and -hearing the next morning that several members had assembled, he led the -procession to the parliament house. Lenthall was now restored to the -position of dignity which he had filled before. He was temporarily made -keeper of the new great seal (14th of May). On the 6th of June it was -voted that all commissions should be signed by Lenthall and not by the -commander-in-chief. His exalted position, however, was not left long -unassailed. On the 13th of October Lambert placed soldiers round the -House and prevented the members from assembling. Lenthall's coach was -stopped as he was entering Palace Yard, the mace was seized and he was -obliged to return. The army, however, soon returned to their allegiance -to the parliament. On the 24th of December they marched to Lenthall's -house, and expressed their sorrow. On the 29th the speaker received the -thanks of the reassembled parliament. - -Lenthall now turned his attention to bring about the Restoration. He -"very violently" opposed the oath abjuring the house of Stuart, now -sought to be imposed by the republican faction on the parliament, and -absented himself from the House for ten days, to avoid, it was said, any -responsibility for the bill. He had been in communication with Monk for -some time, and on Monk entering London with his army (3rd February 1660) -Lenthall met him in front of Somerset House. On the 6th of February Monk -visited the House of Commons, when Lenthall pronounced a speech of -thanks. On the 28th of March Lenthall forwarded to the king a paper -containing "Heads of Advice." According to Monk, he "was very active for -the restoring of His Majesty and performed many services ... which could -not have been soe well effected without his helpe." Lenthall -notwithstanding found himself in disgrace at the Restoration. In spite -of Monk's recommendation, he was not elected by Oxford University for -the Convention Parliament, nor was he allowed by the king, though he had -sent him a present of L3000, to remain master of the rolls. On the 11th -of June he was included by the House of Commons, in spite of a -recommendatory letter from Monk, among the twenty persons excepted from -the act of indemnity and subject to penalties not extending to life. In -the House of Lords, however, Monk's testimony and intercession were -effectual, and Lenthall was only declared incapable of holding for the -future any public office. His last public act was a disgraceful one. -Unmindful now of the privileges of parliament, he consented to appear as -a witness against the regicide Thomas Scot, for words spoken in the -House of Commons while Lenthall was in the chair. It was probably after -this that he was allowed to present himself at court, and his -contemporaries took a malicious glee in telling how "when, with some -difficulty, he obtained leave to kiss the king's hand he, out of guilt, -fell backward, as he was kneeling." - -Lenthall died on the 3rd of September 1662. In his will he desired to be -buried without any state and without a monument, "but at the utmost a -plain stone with this superscription only, _Vermis sum_, acknowledging -myself to be unworthy of the least outward regard in this world and -unworthy of any remembrance that hath been so great a sinner." He was -held in little honour by his contemporaries, and was universally -regarded as a time-server. He was, however, a man of good intentions, -strong family affections and considerable ability. Unfortunately he was -called by the irony of fate to fill a great office, in which governed -constantly by fears for his person and estate, he was seduced into a -series of unworthy actions. He left one son, Sir John Lenthall, who had -descendants. His brother, Sir John Lenthall, who, it was said, had too -much influence with him, was notorious for his extortions as keeper of -the King's Bench prison. - - See C. H. Firth in the _Dict. Nat. Biog._; Wood (ed. Bliss), _Ath. - Oxon._ iii. 603, who gives a list of his printed speeches and letters; - Foss, _Lives of the Judges_, vi. 447; and J. A. Manning, _Lives of the - Speakers of the House of Commons_. There are numerous references to - Lenthall in his official capacity, and letters written by and to him, - in the Calendar of State Papers, Domestic Series, and in various MSS. - calendared in the Hist. MSS. Commission Series. See also D'Ewes's - _Diary_, in the Harleian Collection, British Museum, some extracts - from which have been given by J. Forster, _Case of the Five Members_, - 233 sq.; and _Notes and Queries_, ser. iii., vii. 45 ("Lenthall's - Lamentation"), viii., i. 165, 338, 2, ix., xi. 57. - - - - -LENTIL, the seed of _Lens esculenta_ (also known as _Ervum Lens_), a -small annual of the vetch tribe. The plant varies from 6 to 18 in. in -height, and has many long ascending branches. The leaves are alternate, -with six pairs of oblong-linear, obtuse, mucronate leaflets. The -flowers, two to four in number, are of a pale blue colour, and are borne -in the axils of the leaves, on a slender footstalk nearly equalling the -leaves in length; they are produced in June or early in July. The pods -are about 1/2 in. long, broadly oblong, slightly inflated, and contain -two seeds, which are of the shape of a doubly convex lens, and about 1/6 -in. in diameter. There are several cultivated varieties of the plant, -differing in size, hairiness and colour of the leaves, flowers and -seeds. The last may be more or less compressed in shape, and in colour -may vary from yellow or grey to dark brown; they are also sometimes -mottled or speckled. In English commerce two kinds of lentils are -principally met with, French and Egyptian. The former are usually sold -entire, and are of an ash-grey colour externally and of a yellow tint -within; the latter are usually sold like split peas, without the seed -coat, and consist of the reddish-yellow cotyledons, which are smaller -and rounder than those of the French lentil; the seed coat when present -is of a dark brown colour. Considerable quantities of lentils are also -imported into the United States. - -The native country of the lentil is not known. It was probably one of -the first plants brought under cultivation by mankind; lentils have been -found in the lake dwellings of St Peter's Island, Lake of Bienne, which -are of the Bronze age. The name 'adas (Heb. [Hebrew: adash]) appears to -be an original Semitic word, and the red pottage of lentils for which -Esau sold his birthright (Gen. xxv. 34) was apparently made from the red -Egyptian lentil. This lentil is cultivated in one or other variety in -India, Persia, Syria, Egypt, Nubia and North Africa, and in Europe, -along the coast of the Mediterranean, and as far north as Germany, -Holland and France. In Egypt, Syria and other Eastern countries the -parched seeds are exposed for sale in shops, and esteemed the best food -to carry on long journeys. Lentils form a chief ingredient in the -Spanish puchero, and are used in a similar way in France and other -countries. For this purpose they are usually sold in the shelled state. - - The reddish variety of the lentil (_lentillon d'hiver_) is the kind - most esteemed in Paris on account of the superior flavour of its - smaller seeds. It is sown in autumn either with a cereal crop or - alone, and is cultivated chiefly in the north and east of France. The - large or common variety, _lentille large blonde_, cultivated in - Lorraine and at Gallardon (Eure-et-Loir), and largely in Germany, is - the most productive, but is less esteemed. This kind has very small - whitish flowers, two or rarely three on a footstalk, and the pods are - generally one-seeded, the seeds being of a whitish or cream colour, - about 3/8 of an inch broad and 1/8 in. thick. A single plant - produces from 100 to 150 pods, which are flattened, about 3/4 in. long - and 1/2 in. broad. Another variety, with seeds similar in form and - colour to the last, but of much smaller size, is known as the - _lentillon de Mars_. It is sown in spring. This variety and the - _lentille large_ are both sometimes called the _lentille a la reine_. - A small variety, _lentille verte du Puy_, cultivated chiefly in the - departments of Haute Loire and Cantal, is also grown as a vegetable - and for forage. The Egyptian lentil was introduced into Britain in - 1820. It has blue flowers. Another species of lentil, _Ervum - monanthos_, is grown in France about Orleans and elsewhere under the - name of _jarosse_ and _jarande_. It is, according to Vilmorin, one of - the best kinds of green food to grow on a poor dry sandy soil; on - calcareous soil it does not succeed so well. It is usually sown in - autumn with a little rye or winter oats, at the rate of a hectolitre - to a hectare. - - The lentil prefers a light warm sandy soil; on rich land it runs to - leaf and produces but few pods. The seeds are sown in March or April - or early in May, according to the climate of the country, as they - cannot endure night frosts. If for fodder they are sown broadcast, but - in drills if the ripe seeds are required. The pods are gathered in - August or September, as soon as they begin to turn brown--the plants - being pulled up like flax while the foliage is still green, and on a - dry day lest the pods split in drying and loss of seed takes place. - Lentils keep best in the husk so far as flavour is concerned, and will - keep good in this way for two years either for sowing or for food. An - acre of ground yields on an average about 11 cwt. of seed and 30 cwt. - of straw. The amount and character of the mineral matter requisite in - the soil may be judged from the analysis of the ash, which in the - seeds has as its chief ingredients--potash 34.6%, soda 9.5, lime 6.3, - phosphoric acid 36.2, chloride of sodium 7.6, while in the straw the - percentages are--potash 10.8, lime 52.3, silica 17.6, phosphoric acid - 12.3, chloride of sodium 2.1. - - Lentils have attracted considerable notice among vegetarians as a food - material, especially for soup. A Hindu proverb says, "Rice is good, - but lentils are my life." The husk of the seed is indigestible, and to - cook lentils properly requires at least two and a half hours, but they - are richer in nutritious matter than almost any other kind of pulse, - containing, according to Payen's analysis, 25.2% of nitrogenous matter - (legumin), 56% of starch and 2.6% of fatty matter. Fresenius's - analysis differs in giving only 35% of starch; Einhoff gives 32.81 of - starch and 37.82% of nitrogenous matter. Lentils are more properly the - food of the poor in all countries where they are grown, and have often - been spurned when better food could be obtained, hence the proverb - _Dives factus jam desiit gaudere lente_. The seeds are said to be good - for pigeons, or mixed in a ground state with potatoes or barley for - fattening pigs. The herbage is highly esteemed as green food for - suckling ewes and all kinds of cattle (being said to increase the - yield of milk), also for calves and lambs. Haller says that lentils - are so flatulent as to kill horses. They were also believed to be the - cause of severe scrofulous disorders common in Egypt. This bad - reputation may possibly be due to the substitution of the seeds of the - bitter vetch or tare lentil, _Ervum Ervilia_, a plant which closely - resembles the true lentil in height, habit, flower and pod, but whose - seeds are without doubt possessed of deleterious properties--producing - weakness or even paralysis of the extremities in horses which have - partaken of them. The poisonous principle seems to reside chiefly in - the bitter seed coat, and can apparently be removed by steeping in - water, since Gerard, speaking of the "bitter vetch" (_E. Ervilia_), - says "kine in Asia and in most other countries do eat thereof, being - made sweet by steeping in water." The seed of _E. Ervilia_ is about - the same size and almost exactly of the same reddish-brown colour as - that of the Egyptian lentil, and when the seed coat is removed they - are both of the same orange red hue, but the former is not so bright - as the latter. The shape is the best means of distinguishing the two - seeds, that of E. _Ervilia_ being obtusely triangular. - - Sea-lentil is a name sometimes applied to the gulfweed _Sargassum - vulgare_. - - - - -LENTULUS, the name of a Roman patrician family of the Cornelian gens, -derived from _lentes_ ("lentils"), which its oldest members were fond of -cultivating (according to Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ xviii. 3, 10). The word -_Lentulitas_ ("Lentulism"; cf. _Appietas_) is coined by Cicero (_Ad -Fam._ iii. 7, 5) to express the attributes of a pronounced aristocrat. -The three first of the name were L. Cornelius Lentulus (consul 327 -B.C.), Servius Cornelius Lentulus (consul 303) and L. Cornelius Lentulus -Caudinus (consul 275). Their connexion with the later Lentuli -(especially those of the Ciceronian period) is very obscure and -difficult to establish. The following members of the family deserve -mention. - -PUBLIUS CORNELIUS LENTULUS, nicknamed SURA, one of the chief figures in -the Catilinarian conspiracy. When accused by Sulla (to whom he had been -quaestor in 81 B.C.) of having squandered the public money, he refused -to render any account, but insolently held out the calf of his leg -(_sura_), on which part of the person boys were punished when they made -mistakes in playing ball. He was praetor in 75, governor of Sicily 74, -consul 71. In 70, being expelled from the senate with a number of others -for immorality, he joined Catiline. Relying upon a Sibylline oracle that -three Cornelii should be rulers of Rome, Lentulus regarded himself as -the destined successor of Cornelius Sulla and Cornelius Cinna. When -Catiline left Rome after Cicero's first speech _In Catilinam_, Lentulus -took his place as chief of the conspirators in the city. In conjunction -with C. Cornelius Cethegus, he undertook to murder Cicero and set fire -to Rome, but the plot failed owing to his timidity and indiscretion. -Ambassadors from the Allobroges being at the time in Rome, the bearers -of a complaint against the oppressions of provincial governors, Lentulus -made overtures to them, with the object of obtaining armed assistance. -Pretending to fall in with his views, the ambassadors obtained a written -agreement signed by the chief conspirators, and informed Q. Fabius -Sanga, their "patron" in Rome, who in his turn acquainted Cicero. The -conspirators were arrested and forced to admit their guilt. Lentulus was -compelled to abdicate his praetorship, and, as it was feared that there -might be an attempt to rescue him, he was put to death in the Tullianum -on the 5th of December 63. - - See Dio Cassius xxxvii. 30, xlvi. 20; Plutarch, _Cicero_, 17; Sallust, - _Catilina_; Cicero, _In Catilinam_, iii., iv.; _Pro Sulla_, 25; also - CATILINE. - -PUBLIUS CORNELIUS LENTULUS, called SPINTHER from his likeness to an -actor of that name, one of the chief adherents of the Pompeian party. In -63 B.C. he was curule aedile, assisted Cicero in the suppression of the -Catilinarian conspiracy, and distinguished himself by the splendour of -the games he provided. Praetor in 60, he obtained the governorship of -Hispania Citerior (59) through the support of Caesar, to whom he was -also indebted for his election to the consulship (57). Lentulus played a -prominent part in the recall of Cicero from exile, and although a -temporary coolness seems to have arisen between them, Cicero speaks of -him in most grateful terms. From 56-53 Lentulus was governor of the -province of Cilicia (with Cyprus) and during that time was commissioned -by the senate to restore Ptolemy XI. Auletes to his kingdom (see -PTOLEMIES). The Sibylline books, however, declared that the king must -not be restored by force of arms, at the risk of peril to Rome. As a -provincial governor, Lentulus appears to have looked after the interests -of his subjects, and did not enrich himself at their expense. In spite -of his indebtedness to Caesar, Lentulus joined the Pompeians on the -outbreak of civil war (49). The generosity with which he was treated by -Caesar after the capitulation of Corfinium made him hesitate, but he -finally decided in favour of Pompey. After the battle of Pharsalus, -Lentulus escaped to Rhodes, where he was at first refused admission, -although he subsequently found an asylum there (Cicero, _Ad Att._ xi. -13. 1). According to Aurelius Victor (_De vir. ill._ lxxviii., 9, if the -reading be correct), he subsequently fell into Caesar's hands and was -put to death. - - See Caesar, _Bell. Civ._ i. 15-23, iii. 102; Plutarch, _Pomp._ 49; - Valerius Maximus ix. 14, 4; many letters of Cicero, especially _Ad - Fam._ i. 1-9. - -LUCIUS CORNELIUS LENTULUS, surnamed CRUS or CRUSCELLO (for what reason -is unknown), member of the anti-Caesarian party. In 61 B.C. he was the -chief accuser of P. Clodius (q.v.) in the affair of the festival of Bona -Dea. When consul (49) he advised the rejection of all peace terms -offered by Caesar, and declared that, if the senate did not at once -decide upon opposing him by force of arms, he would act upon his own -responsibility. There seems no reason to doubt that Lentulus was mainly -inspired by selfish motives, and hoped to find in civil war an -opportunity for his own aggrandizement. But in spite of his brave words -he fled in haste from Rome as soon as he heard of Caesar's advance, and -crossed over to Greece. After Pharsalus, he made his way to Rhodes (but -was refused admission), thence, by way of Cyprus, to Egypt. He landed at -Pelusium the day after the murder of Pompey, was immediately seized by -Ptolemy, imprisoned, and put to death. - - See Caesar, _Bell. Civ._ i. 4, iii. 104; Plutarch, _Pompey_, 80. - - A full account of the different Cornelii Lentuli, with genealogical - table, will be found in Pauly-Wissowa's _Realencyclopadie_, iv. pt. 1, - p. 1355 (1900) (s.v. "Cornelius"); see also V. de Vit, _Onomasticon_, - ii. 433. - - - - -LENZ, JAKOB MICHAEL REINHOLD (1751-1792), German poet, was born at -Sesswegen in Livonia, the son of the village pastor, on the 12th of -January 1751. He removed with his parents to Dorpat in 1759, and soon -began to compose sacred odes, in the manner of Klopstock. In 1768 he -entered the university of Konigsberg as a student of theology, and in -1771 accompanied, as tutor, two young German nobles, named von Kleist, -to Strassburg, where they were to enter the French army. In Strassburg -Lenz was received into the literary circle that gathered round Friedrich -Rudolf Salzmann (1749-1821) and became acquainted with Goethe, at that -time a student at the university. In order to be close to his young -pupils, Lenz had to remove to Fort Louis in the neighbourhood, and while -here became deeply enamoured of Goethe's friend, Friederike Elisabeth -Brion (1752-1813), daughter of the pastor of Sesenheim. Lenz -endeavoured, after Goethe's departure from Strassburg, to replace the -great poet in her affections, and to her he poured out songs and poems -(_Die Liebe auf dem Lande_) which were long attributed to Goethe -himself, as was also Lenz's first drama, the comedy, _Der Hofmeister, -oder Vorteile der Privaterziehung_ (1774). In 1776 he visited Weimar and -was most kindly received by the duke; but his rude, overbearing manner -and vicious habits led to his expulsion. In 1777 he became insane, and -in 1779 was removed from Emmendingen, where J. G. Schlosser (1739-1799), -Goethe's brother-in-law, had given him a home, to his native village. -Here he lived in great poverty for several years, and then was given, -more out of charity than on account of his merits, the appointment of -tutor in a pension school near Moscow, where he died on the 24th of May -1792. Lenz, though one of the most talented poets of the _Sturm und -Drang_ period, presented a strange medley of genius and childishness. -His great, though neglected and distorted, abilities found vent in -ill-conceived imitations of Shakespeare. His comedies, _Der Hofmeister_; -_Der neue Menoza_ (1774); _Die Soldaten_ (1776); _Die Freunde machen den -Philosophen_ (1776), though accounted the best of his works, are -characterized by unnatural situations and an incongruous mixture of -tragedy and comedy. - - Lenz's _Gesammelte Schriften_ were published by L. Tieck in three - volumes (1828); supplementary to these volumes are E. Dorer-Egloff, - _J. M. R. Lenz und seine Schriften_ (1857) and K. Weinhold, - _Dramatischer Nachlass von J. M. R. Lenz_ (1884); a selection of - Lenz's writings will be found in A. Sauer, _Sturmer und Dranger_, ii.; - Kurschner's _Deutsche Nationalliteratur_, vol. lxxx., (1883). See - further E. Schmidt, _Lenz und Klinger_ (1878); J. Froitzheim, _Lenz - und Goethe_ (1891); H. Rauch, _Lenz und Shakespeare_ (1892); F. - Waldmann, _Lenz in Briefen_ (1894). - - - - -LEO, the name of thirteen popes. - -LEO I., who alone of Roman pontiffs shares with Gregory I. the surname -of THE GREAT, pope from 440 to 461, was a native of Rome, or, according -to a less probable account, of Volterra in Tuscany. Of his family or -early life nothing is known; that he was highly cultivated according to -the standards of his time is obvious, but it does not appear that he -could write Greek, or even that he understood that language. In one of -the letters (_Ep._ 104) of Augustine, an acolyte named Leo is mentioned -as having been in 418 the bearer of a communication from Sixtus of Rome -(afterwards pope) to Aurelius of Carthage against the Pelagians. In 429, -when the first unmistakable reference to Pope Leo occurs, he was still -only a deacon, but already a man of commanding influence; it was at his -suggestion that the _De incarnatione_ of the aged Cassianus, having -reference to the Nestorian heresy, was composed in that year, and about -431 we find Cyril of Alexandria writing to him that he might prevent the -Roman Church from lending its support in any way to the ambitious -schemes of Juvenal of Jerusalem. In 440, while Leo was in Gaul, whither -he had been sent to compose some differences between Aetius and another -general named Albinus, Pope Sixtus III. died. The absent deacon, or -rather archdeacon, was unanimously chosen to succeed him, and received -consecration on his return six weeks afterwards (September 29). In 443 -he began to take measures against the Manichaeans (who since the capture -of Carthage by Genseric in 439 had become very numerous at Rome), and in -the following year he was able to report to the Italian bishops that -some of the heretics had returned to Catholicism, while a large number -had been sentenced to perpetual banishment "in accordance with the -constitutions of the Christian emperors," and others had fled; in -seeking these out the help of the provincial clergy was sought. It was -during the earlier years of Leo's pontificate that the events in Gaul -occurred which resulted in this triumph over Hilarius of Arles, -signalized by the edict of Valentinian III. (445), denouncing the -contumacy of the Gallic bishop, and enacting "that nothing should be -done in Gaul, contrary to ancient usage, without the authority of the -bishop of Rome, and that the decree of the apostolic see should -henceforth be law." In 447 Leo held the correspondence with Turribus of -Astorga which led to the condemnation of the Priscillianists by the -Spanish national church. In 448 he received with commendation a letter -from Eutyches, the Constantinopolitan monk, complaining of the revival -of the Nestorian heresy there; and in the following year Eutyches wrote -his circular, appealing against the sentence which at the instance of -Eusebius of Dorylaeum had been passed against him at a synod held in -Constantinople under the presidency of the patriarch Flavian, and asking -papal support at the oecumenical council at that time under summons to -meet at Ephesus. The result of a correspondence was that Leo by his -legates sent to Flavian that famous epistle in which he sets forth with -great fulness of detail the doctrine ever since recognized as orthodox -regarding the union of the two natures in the one person of Jesus -Christ. The events at the "robber" synod at Ephesus belong to general -church history rather than to the biography of Leo; his letter, though -submitted, was not read by the assembled fathers, and the papal legates -had some difficulty in escaping with their lives from the violence of -the theologians who, not content with deposing Flavian and Eusebius, -shouted for the dividing of those who divided Christ. When the news of -the result of this oecumenical council (oecumenical in every -circumstance except that it was not presided over by the pope) reached -Rome, Leo wrote to Theodosius "with groanings and tears," requesting the -emperor to sanction another council, to be held this time, however, in -Italy. In this petition he was supported by Valentinian III., by the -empress-mother Galla Placidia and by the empress Eudoxia, but the appeal -was made in vain. A change, however, was brought about by the accession -in the following year of Marcian, who three days after coming to the -throne published an edict bringing within the scope of the penal laws -against heretics the supporters of the dogmas of Apollinaris and -Eutyches. To convoke a synod in which greater orthodoxy might reasonably -be expected was in these circumstances no longer difficult, but all -Leo's efforts to secure that the meeting should take place on Italian -soil were unavailing. When the synod of Chalcedon assembled in 451, the -papal legates were treated with great respect, and Leo's former letter -to Flavian was adopted by acclamation as formulating the creed of the -universal church on the subject of the person of Christ. Among the -reasons urged by Leo for holding this council in Italy had been the -threatening attitude of the Huns; the dreaded irruption took place in -the following year (452). After Aquileia had succumbed to Attila's long -siege, the conqueror set out for Rome. Near the confluence of the Mincio -and the Po he was met by Leo, whose eloquence persuaded him to turn -back. Legend has sought to enhance the impressiveness of the occurrence -by an unnecessarily imagined miracle. The pope was less successful with -Genseric when the Vandal chief arrived under the walls of Rome in 455, -but he secured a promise that there should be no incendiarism or murder, -and that three of the oldest basilicas should be exempt from plunder--a -promise which seems to have been faithfully observed. Leo died on the -10th of November 461, the liturgical anniversary being the 11th of -April. His successor was Hilarius or Hilarus, who had been one of the -papal legates at the "robber" synod in 449. - -The title of _doctor ecclesiae_ was given to Leo by Benedict XIV. As -bishop of the diocese of Rome, Leo distinguished himself above all his -predecessors by his preaching, to which he devoted himself with great -zeal and success. From his short and pithy _Sermones_ many of the -lessons now to be found in the Roman breviary have been taken. Viewed in -conjunction with his voluminous correspondence, the sermons sufficiently -explain the secret of his greatness, which chiefly lay in the -extraordinary strength and purity of his convictions as to the primacy -of the successors of St Peter at a time when the civil and -ecclesiastical troubles of the civilized world made men willing enough -to submit themselves to any authority whatsoever that could establish -its right to exist by courage, honesty and knowledge of affairs. - - The works of Leo I. were first collectively edited by Quesnel (Lyons, - 1700), and again, on the basis of this, in what is now the standard - edition by Ballerini (Venice, 1753-1756). Ninety-three Sermones and - one hundred and seventy-three _Epistolae_ occupy the first volume; the - second contains the _Liber Sacramentorum_, usually attributed to Leo, - and the _De Vocatione Omnium Gentium_, also ascribed, by Quesnel and - others, to him, but more probably the production of a certain Prosper, - of whom nothing further is known. The works of Hilary of Arles are - appended. - -LEO II., pope from August 682 to July 683, was a Sicilian by birth, and -succeeded Agatho I. Agatho had been represented at the sixth oecumenical -council (that of Constantinople in 681), where Pope Honorius I. was -anathematized for his views in the Monothelite controversy as a favourer -of heresy, and the only fact of permanent historical interest with -regard to Leo is that he wrote once and again in approbation of the -decision of the council and in condemnation of Honorius, whom he -regarded as one who _profana proditione immaculatam fidem subvertere -conatus est_. In their bearing upon the question of papal infallibility -these words have excited considerable attention and controversy, and -prominence is given to the circumstance that in the Greek text of the -letter to the emperor in which the phrase occurs the milder expression -[Greek: parechoresen] (_subverti permisit_) is used for subvertere -conatus est. This Hefele in his _Conciliengeschichte_ (iii. 294) regards -as alone expressing the true meaning of Leo. It was during Leo's -pontificate that the dependence of the see of Ravenna upon that of Rome -was finally settled by imperial edict. Benedict II. succeeded him. - -LEO III., whose pontificate (795-816) covered the last eighteen years of -the reign of Charlemagne, was a native of Rome, and having been chosen -successor of Adrian I. on the 26th of December 795, was consecrated to -the office on the following day. His first act was to send to Charles as -patrician the standard of Rome along with the keys of the sepulchre of -St Peter and of the city; a gracious and condescending letter in reply -made it still more clear where all real power at that moment lay. For -more than three years his term of office was uneventful; but at the end -of that period the feelings of disappointment which had secretly been -rankling in the breasts of Paschalis and Campulus, nephews of Adrian I., -who had received from him the offices of _primicerius_ and _sacellarius_ -respectively, suddenly manifested themselves in an organized attack upon -Leo as he was riding in procession through the city on the day of the -Greater Litany (25th April 799); the object of his assailants was, by -depriving him of his eyes and tongue, to disqualify him for the papal -office, and, although they were unsuccessful in this attempt, he found -it necessary to accept the protection of Winegis, the Frankish duke of -Spoleto, who came to the rescue. Having vainly requested the presence of -Charles in Rome, Leo went beyond the Alps to meet the king at Paderborn; -he was received with much ceremony and respect, but his enemies having -sent in serious written charges, of which the character is not now -known, Charles decided to appoint both the pope and his accusers to -appear as parties before him when he should have arrived in Rome. Leo -returned in great state to his diocese, and was received with honour; -Charles, who did not arrive until November in the following year, lost -no time in assuming the office of a judge, and the result of his -investigation was the acquittal of the pope, who at the same time, -however, was permitted or rather required to clear himself by the oath -of compurgation. The coronation of the emperor followed two days -afterwards; its effect was to bring out with increased clearness the -personally subordinate position of Leo. The decision of the emperor, -however, secured for Leo's pontificate an external peace which was only -broken after the accession of Louis the Pious. His enemies began to -renew their attacks; the violent repression of a conspiracy led to an -open rebellion at Rome; serious charges were once more brought against -him, when he was overtaken by death in 816. It was under this -pontificate that Felix of Urgel, the adoptianist, was anathematized -(798) by a Roman synod. Leo at another synod held in Rome in 810 -admitted the dogmatic correctness of the _filioque_, but deprecated its -introduction into the creed. On this point, however, the Frankish Church -persevered in the course it had already initiated. Leo's successor was -Stephen IV. - -LEO IV., pope from 847 to 855, was a Roman by birth, and succeeded -Sergius II. His pontificate was chiefly distinguished by his efforts to -repair the damage done by the Saracens during the reign of his -predecessor to various churches of the city, especially those of St -Peter and St Paul. It was he who built and fortified the suburb on the -right bank of the Tiber still known as the Civitas Leonina. A frightful -conflagration, which he is said to have extinguished by his prayers, is -the subject of Raphael's great work in the Sala dell' Incendio of the -Vatican. He held three synods, one of them (in 850) distinguished by the -presence of Louis II., who was crowned emperor on the occasion, but none -of them otherwise of importance. The history of the papal struggle with -Hincmar of Reims, which began during Leo's pontificate, belongs rather -to that of Nicholas I. Benedict III. was Leo's immediate successor. - -LEO V., a native of Ardea, was pope for two months in 903 after the -death of Benedict IV. He was overthrown and cast into prison by the -priest Christopher, who installed himself in his place. - -LEO VI. succeeded John X. in 928, and reigned seven months and a few -days. He was succeeded by Stephen VIII. - -LEO VII., pope from 936 to 939, was preceded by John XI., and followed -by Stephen IX. - -LEO VIII., pope from 963 to 965, a Roman by birth, held the lay office -of _protoscrinius_ when he was elected to the papal chair at the -instance of Otto the Great by the Roman synod which deposed John XII. in -December 963. Having been hurried with unseemly haste through all the -intermediate orders, he received consecration two days after his -election, which was unacceptable to the people. In February 964, the -emperor having withdrawn from the city, Leo found it necessary to seek -safety in flight, whereupon he was deposed by a synod held under the -presidency of John XII. On the sudden death of the latter, the populace -chose Benedict V. as his successor; but Otto, returning and laying siege -to the city, compelled their acceptance of Leo. It is usually said that, -at the synod which deposed Benedict, Leo conceded to the emperor and his -successors as sovereign of Italy full rights of investiture, but the -genuineness of the document on which this allegation rests is more than -doubtful. Leo VIII. was succeeded by John XIII. - -LEO IX., pope from 1049 to 1054, was a native of Upper Alsace, where he -was born on the 21st of June 1002. His proper name was Bruno; the family -to which he belonged was of noble rank, and through his father he was -related to the emperor Conrad II. He was educated at Toul, where he -successively became canon and (1026) bishop; in the latter capacity he -rendered important political services to his relative Conrad II., and -afterwards to Henry III., and at the same time he became widely known as -an earnest and reforming ecclesiastic by the zeal he showed in spreading -the rule of the order of Cluny. On the death of Damasus II., Bruno was -in December 1048, with the concurrence both of the emperor and of the -Roman delegates, selected his successor by an assembly at Worms; he -stipulated, however, as a condition of his acceptance that he should -first proceed to Rome and be canonically elected by the voice of clergy -and people. Setting out shortly after Christmas, he had a meeting with -abbot Hugo of Cluny at Besancon, where he was joined by the young monk -Hildebrand, who afterwards became Pope Gregory VII.; arriving in pilgrim -garb at Rome in the following February, he was received with much -cordiality, and at his consecration assumed the name of Leo IX. One of -his first public acts was to hold the well-known Easter synod of 1049, -at which celibacy of the clergy (down to the rank of subdeacon) was anew -enjoined, and where he at least succeeded in making clear his own -convictions against every kind of simony. The greater part of the year -that followed was occupied in one of those progresses through Italy, -Germany and France which form a marked feature in Leo's pontificate. -After presiding over a synod at Pavia, he joined the emperor Henry III. -in Saxony, and accompanied him to Cologne and Aix-la-Chapelle; to Reims -he also summoned a meeting of the higher clergy, by which several -important reforming decrees were passed. At Mainz also he held a -council, at which the Italian and French as well as the German clergy -were represented, and ambassadors of the Greek emperor were present; -here too simony and the marriage of the clergy were the principal -matters dealt with. After his return to Rome he held (29th April 1050) -another Easter synod, which was occupied largely with the controversy -about the teachings of Berengarius of Tours; in the same year he -presided over provincial synods at Salerno, Siponto and Vercelli, and in -September revisited Germany, returning to Rome in time for a third -Easter synod, at which the question of the reordination of those who had -been ordained by simonists was considered. In 1052 he joined the emperor -at Pressburg, and vainly sought to secure the submission of the -Hungarians; and at Regensburg, Bamberg and Worms the papal presence was -marked by various ecclesiastical solemnities. After a fourth Easter -synod in 1053 Leo set out against the Normans in the south with an army -of Italians and German volunteers, but his forces sustained a total -defeat at Astagnum near Civitella (18th June 1053); on going out, -however, from the city to meet the enemy he was received with every -token of submission, relief from the pressure of his ban was implored -and fidelity and homage were sworn. From June 1053 to March 1054 he was -nevertheless detained at Benevento in honourable captivity; he did not -long survive his return to Rome, where he died on the 19th of April -1054. He was succeeded by Victor II. - -LEO X. [Giovanni de' Medici] (1475-1521), pope from the 11th of March -1513 to the 1st of December 1521, was the second son of Lorenzo de' -Medici, called the Magnificent, and was born at Florence on the 11th of -December 1475. Destined from his birth for the church, he received the -tonsure at the age of seven and was soon loaded with rich benefices and -preferments. His father prevailed on Innocent VIII. to name him -cardinal-deacon of Sta Maria in Dominica in March 1489, although he was -not allowed to wear the insignia or share in the deliberations of the -college until three years later. Meanwhile he received a careful -education at Lorenzo's brilliant humanistic court under such men as -Angelo Poliziano, the classical scholar, Pico della Mirandola, the -philosopher and theologian, the pious Marsilio Ficino who endeavoured to -unite the Platonic cult with Christianity and the poet Bernardo Dovizio -Bibbiena. From 1489 to 1491 he studied theology and canon law at Pisa -under Filippo Decio and Bartolomeo Sozzini. On the 23rd of March 1492 he -was formally admitted into the sacred college and took up his residence -at Rome, receiving a letter of advice from his father which ranks among -the wisest of its kind. The death of Lorenzo on the 8th of April, -however, called the seventeen-year-old cardinal to Florence. He -participated in the conclave which followed the death of Innocent VIII. -in July 1492 and opposed the election of Cardinal Borgia. He made his -home with his elder brother Piero at Florence throughout the agitation -of Savonarola and the invasion of Charles VIII. of France, until the -uprising of the Florentines and the expulsion of the Medici in November -1494. While Piero found refuge at Venice and Urbino, Cardinal Giovanni -travelled in Germany, in the Netherlands and in France. In May 1500 he -returned to Rome, where he was received with outward cordiality by -Alexander VI., and where he lived for several years immersed in art and -literature. In 1503 he welcomed the accession of Julius II. to the -pontificate; the death of Piero de' Medici in the same year made -Giovanni head of his family. On the 1st of October 1511 he was appointed -papal legate of Bologna and the Romagna, and when the Florentine -republic declared in favour of the schismatic Pisans Julius II. sent him -against his native city at the head of the papal army. This and other -attempts to regain political control of Florence were frustrated, until -a bloodless revolution permitted the return of the Medici on the 14th of -September 1512. Giovanni's younger brother Giuliano was placed at the -head of the republic, but the cardinal actually managed the government. -Julius II. died in February 1513, and the conclave, after a stormy seven -day's session, united on Cardinal de' Medici as the candidate of the -younger cardinals. He was ordained to the priesthood on the 15th of -March, consecrated bishop on the 17th, and enthroned with the name of -Leo X. on the 19th. There is no evidence of simony in the conclave, and -Leo's election was hailed with delight by the Romans on account of his -reputation for liberality, kindliness and love of peace. Following the -example of many of his predecessors, he promptly repudiated his election -"capitulation" as an infringement on the divinely bestowed prerogatives -of the Holy See. - -Many problems confronted Leo X. on his accession. He must preserve the -papal conquests which he had inherited from Alexander VI. and Julius II. -He must minimize foreign influence, whether French, Spanish or German, -in Italy. He must put an end to the Pisan schism and settle the other -troubles incident to the French invasion. He must restore the French -Church to Catholic unity, abolish the pragmatic sanction of Bourges, and -bring to a successful close the Lateran council convoked by his -predecessor. He must stay the victorious advance of the Turks. He must -quiet the disagreeable wranglings of the German humanists. Other -problems connected with his family interests served to complicate the -situation and eventually to prevent the successful consummation of many -of his plans. At the very time of Leo's accession Louis XII. of France, -in alliance with Venice, was making a determined effort to regain the -duchy of Milan, and the pope, after fruitless endeavours to maintain -peace, joined the league of Mechlin on the 5th of April 1513 with the -emperor Maximilian I., Ferdinand I. of Spain and Henry VIII. of England. -The French and Venetians were at first successful, but on the 6th of -June met overwhelming defeat at Novara. The Venetians continued the -struggle until October. On the 19th of December the fifth Lateran -council, which had been reopened by Leo in April, ratified the peace -with Louis XII. and registered the conclusion of the Pisan schism. While -the council was engaged in planning a crusade and in considering the -reform of the clergy, a new crisis occurred between the pope and the -king of France. Francis I., who succeeded Louis XII. on the 1st of -January 1515, was an enthusiastic young prince, dominated by the -ambition of recovering Milan and Naples. Leo at once formed a new league -with the emperor and the king of Spain, and to ensure English support -made Wolsey a cardinal. Francis entered Italy in August and on the 14th -of September won the battle of Marignano. The pope in October signed an -agreement binding him to withdraw his troops from Parma and Piacenza, -which had been previously gained at the expense of the duchy of Milan, -on condition of French protection at Rome and Florence. The king of -Spain wrote to his ambassador at Rome "that His Holiness had hitherto -played a double game and that all his zeal to drive the French from -Italy had been only a mask"; this reproach seemed to receive some -confirmation when Leo X. held a secret conference with Francis at -Bologna in December 1515. The ostensible subjects under consideration -were the establishment of peace between France, Venice and the Empire, -with a view to an expedition against the Turks, and the ecclesiastical -affairs of France. Precisely what was arranged is unknown. During these -two or three years of incessant political intrigue and warfare it was -not to be expected that the Lateran council should accomplish much. Its -three main objects, the peace of Christendom, the crusade and the reform -of the church, could be secured only by general agreement among the -powers, and Leo or the council failed to secure such agreement. Its most -important achievements were the registration at its eleventh sitting -(19th December 1516) of the abolition of the pragmatic sanction, which -the popes since Pius II. had unanimously condemned, and the confirmation -of the concordat between Leo X. and Francis I., which was destined to -regulate the relations between the French Church and the Holy See until -the Revolution. Leo closed the council on the 16th of March 1517. It had -ended the schism, ratified the censorship of books introduced by -Alexander VI. and imposed tithes for a war against the Turks. It raised -no voice against the primacy of the pope. - -The year which marked the close of the Lateran council was also -signalized by Leo's unholy war against the duke of Urbino. The pope was -naturally proud of his family and had practised nepotism from the -outset. His cousin Giulio, who subsequently became Clement VII., he had -made the most influential man in the curia, naming him archbishop of -Florence, cardinal and vice-chancellor of the Holy See. Leo had intended -his younger brother Giuliano and his nephew Lorenzo for brilliant -secular careers. He had named them Roman patricians; the latter he had -placed in charge of Florence; the former, for whom he planned to carve -out a kingdom in central Italy of Parma, Piacenza, Ferrara and Urbino, -he had taken with himself to Rome and married to Filiberta of Savoy. The -death of Giuliano in March 1516, however, caused the pope to transfer -his ambitions to Lorenzo. At the very time (December 1516) that peace -between France, Spain, Venice and the Empire seemed to give some promise -of a Christendom united against the Turk, Leo was preparing an -enterprise as unscrupulous as any of the similar exploits of Cesare -Borgia. He obtained 150,000 ducats towards the expenses of the -expedition from Henry VIII. of England, in return for which he entered -the imperial league of Spain and England against France. The war lasted -from February to September 1517 and ended with the expulsion of the duke -and the triumph of Lorenzo; but it revived the nefarious policy of -Alexander VI., increased brigandage and anarchy in the States of the -Church, hindered the preparations for a crusade and wrecked the papal -finances. Guicciardini reckoned the cost of the war to Leo at the -prodigious sum of 800,000 ducats. The new duke of Urbino was the Lorenzo -de' Medici to whom Machiavelli addressed _The Prince_. His marriage in -March 1518 was arranged by the pope with Madeleine la Tour d'Auvergne, a -royal princess of France, whose daughter was the Catherine de' Medici -celebrated in French history. The war of Urbino was further marked by a -crisis in the relations between pope and cardinals. The sacred college -had grown especially worldly and troublesome since the time of Sixtus -IV., and Leo took advantage of a plot of several of its members to -poison him, not only to inflict exemplary punishments by executing one -and imprisoning several others, but also to make a radical change in the -college. On the 3rd of July 1517 he published the names of thirty-one -new cardinals, a number almost unprecedented in the history of the -papacy. Some of the nominations were excellent, such as Lorenzo -Campeggio, Giambattista Pallavicini, Adrian of Utrecht, Cajetan, -Cristoforo Numai and Egidio Canisio. The naming of seven members of -prominent Roman families, however, reversed the wise policy of his -predecessor which had kept the dangerous factions of the city out of the -curia. Other promotions were for political or family considerations or -to secure money for the war against Urbino. The pope was accused of -having exaggerated the conspiracy of the cardinals for purposes of -financial gain, but most of such accusations appear to be -unsubstantiated. - -Leo, meanwhile, felt the need of staying the advance of the warlike -sultan, Selim I., who was threatening western Europe, and made elaborate -plans for a crusade. A truce was to be proclaimed throughout -Christendom; the pope was to be the arbiter of disputes; the emperor and -the king of France were to lead the army; England, Spain and Portugal -were to furnish the fleet; and the combined forces were to be directed -against Constantinople. Papal diplomacy in the interests of peace -failed, however; Cardinal Wolsey made England, not the pope, the arbiter -between France and the Empire; and much of the money collected for the -crusade from tithes and indulgences was spent in other ways. In 1519 -Hungary concluded a three years' truce with Selim I., but the succeeding -sultan, Suliman the Magnificent, renewed the war in June 1521 and on the -28th of August captured the citadel of Belgrade. The pope was greatly -alarmed, and although he was then involved in war with France he sent -about 30,000 ducats to the Hungarians. Leo treated the Uniate Greeks -with great loyalty, and by bull of the 18th of May 1521 forbade Latin -clergy to celebrate mass in Greek churches and Latin bishops to ordain -Greek clergy. These provisions were later strengthened by Clement VII. -and Paul III. and went far to settle the chronic disputes between the -Latins and Uniate Greeks. - -Leo was disturbed throughout his pontificate by heresy and schism. The -dispute between Reuchlin and Pfefferkorn relative to the Talmud and -other Jewish books was referred to the pope in September 1513. He in -turn referred it to the bishops of Spires and Worms, who gave decision -in March 1514 in favour of Reuchlin. After the appeal of the -inquisitor-general, Hochstraten, and the appearance of the _Epistolae -obscurorum virorum_, however, Leo annulled the decision (June 1520) and -imposed silence on Reuchlin. The pope had already authorized the -extensive grant of indulgences in order to secure funds for the crusade -and more particularly for the rebuilding of St Peter's at Rome. Against -the attendant abuses the Augustinian monk Martin Luther (q.v.) posted -(31st October 1517) on the church door at Wittenberg his famous -ninety-five theses, which were the signal for widespread revolt against -the church. Although Leo did not fully comprehend the import of the -movement, he directed (3rd February 1518) the vicar-general of the -Augustinians to impose silence on the monks. On the 30th of May Luther -sent an explanation of his theses to the pope; on the 7th of August he -was cited to appear at Rome. An arrangement was effected, however, -whereby that citation was cancelled, and Luther betook himself in -October 1518 to Augsburg to meet the papal legate, Cardinal Cajetan, who -was attending the imperial diet convened by the emperor Maximilian to -impose the tithes for the Turkish war and to elect a king of the Romans; -but neither the arguments of the learned cardinal, nor the dogmatic -papal bull of the 9th of November to the effect that all Christians must -believe in the pope's power to grant indulgences, moved Luther to -retract. A year of fruitless negotiation followed, during which the -pamphlets of the reformer set all Germany on fire. A papal bull of the -15th of June 1520, which condemned forty-one propositions extracted from -Luther's teachings, was taken to Germany by Eck in his capacity of -apostolic nuncio, published by him and the legates Alexander and -Caracciola, and burned by Luther on the 10th of December at Wittenberg. -Leo then formally excommunicated Luther by bull of the 3rd of January -1521; and in a brief directed the emperor to take energetic measures -against heresy. On the 26th of May 1521 the emperor signed the edict of -the diet of Worms, which placed Luther under the ban of the Empire; on -the 21st of the same month Henry VIII. of England sent to Leo his book -against Luther on the seven sacraments. The pope, after careful -consideration, conferred on the king of England the title "Defender of -the Faith" by bull of the 11th of October 1521. Neither the imperial -edict nor the work of Henry VIII. stayed the Lutheran movement, and -Luther himself, safe in the solitude of the Wartburg, survived Leo X. It -was under Leo X. also that the Protestant movement had its beginning in -Scandinavia. The pope had repeatedly used the rich northern benefices to -reward members of the Roman curia, and towards the close of the year -1516 he sent the grasping and impolitic Arcimboldi as papal nuncio to -Denmark to collect money for St Peter's. King Christian II. took -advantage of the growing dissatisfaction on the part of the native -clergy toward the papal government, and of Arcimboldi's interference in -the Swedish revolt, in order to expel the nuncio and summon (1520) -Lutheran theologians to Copenhagen. Christian approved a plan by which a -formal state church should be established in Denmark, all appeals to -Rome should be abolished, and the king and diet should have final -jurisdiction in ecclesiastical causes. Leo sent a new nuncio to -Copenhagen (1521) in the person of the Minorite Francesco de Potentia, -who readily absolved the king and received the rich bishopric of Skara. -The pope or his legate, however, took no steps to remove abuses or -otherwise reform the Scandinavian churches. - -That Leo did not do more to check the tendency toward heresy and schism -in Germany and Scandinavia is to be partially explained by the political -complications of the time, and by his own preoccupation with schemes of -papal and Medicean aggrandizement in Italy. The death of the emperor -Maximilian on the 12th of January 1519 had seriously affected the -situation. Leo vacillated between the powerful candidates for the -succession, allowing it to appear at first that he favoured Francis I. -while really working for the election of some minor German prince. He -finally accepted Charles I. of Spain as inevitable, and the election of -Charles (28th of June 1519) revealed Leo's desertion of his French -alliance, a step facilitated by the death at about the same time of -Lorenzo de' Medici and his French wife. Leo was now anxious to unite -Ferrara, Parma and Piacenza to the States of the Church. An attempt late -in 1519 to seize Ferrara failed, and the pope recognized the need of -foreign aid. In May 1521 a treaty of alliance was signed at Rome between -him and the emperor. Milan and Genoa were to be taken from France and -restored to the Empire, and Parma and Piacenza were to be given to the -Church on the expulsion of the French. The expense of enlisting 10,000 -Swiss was to be borne equally by pope and emperor. Charles took Florence -and the Medici family under his protection and promised to punish all -enemies of the Catholic faith. Leo agreed to invest Charles with Naples, -to crown him emperor, and to aid in a war against Venice. It was -provided that England and the Swiss might join the league. Henry VIII. -announced his adherence in August. Francis I. had already begun war with -Charles in Navarre, and in Italy, too, the French made the first hostile -movement (23rd June 1521). Leo at once announced that he would -excommunicate the king of France and release his subjects from their -allegiance unless Francis laid down his arms and surrendered Parma and -Piacenza. The pope lived to hear the joyful news of the capture of Milan -from the French and of the occupation by papal troops of the -long-coveted provinces (November 1521). Leo X. died on the 1st of -December 1521, so suddenly that the last sacraments could not be -administered; but the contemporary suspicions of poison were unfounded. -His successor was Adrian VI. - -Several minor events of Leo's pontificate are worthy of mention. He was -particularly friendly with King Emmanuel of Portugal on account of the -latter's missionary enterprises in Asia and Africa. His concordat with -Florence (1516) guaranteed the free election of the clergy in that city. -His constitution of the 1st of March 1519 condemned the king of Spain's -claim to refuse the publication of papal bulls. He maintained close -relations with Poland because of the Turkish advance and the Polish -contest with the Teutonic Knights. His bull of the 1st of July 1519, -which regulated the discipline of the Polish Church, was later -transformed into a concordat by Clement VII. Leo showed special favours -to the Jews and permitted them to erect a Hebrew printing-press at Rome. -He approved the formation of the Oratory of Divine Love, a group of -pious men at Rome which later became the Theatine Order, and he -canonized Francesco di Paola. - -As patron of learning Leo X. deserves a prominent place among the popes. -He raised the church to a high rank as the friend of whatever seemed to -extend knowledge or to refine and embellish life. He made the capital of -Christendom the centre of culture. Every Italian artist and man of -letters in an age of singular intellectual brilliancy tasted or hoped to -taste of his bounty, while yet a cardinal, he had restored the church of -Sta Maria in Domnica after Raphael's designs; and as pope he built S. -Giovanni on the Via Giulia after designs by Jacopo Sansovino and pressed -forward the work on St Peter's and the Vatican under Raphael and Chigi. -His constitution of the 5th of November 1513 reformed the Roman -university, which had been neglected by Julius II. He restored all its -faculties, gave larger salaries to the professors, and summoned -distinguished teachers from afar; and, although it never attained to the -importance of Padua or Bologna, it nevertheless possessed in 1514 an -excellent faculty of eighty-eight professors. Leo called Theodore -Lascaris to Rome to give instruction in Greek, and established a Greek -printing-press from which the first Greek book printed at Rome appeared -in 1515. He made Raphael custodian of the classical antiquities of Rome -and the vicinity. The distinguished Latinists Pietro Bembo (1470-1547) -and Jacopo Sadoleto (1477-1547) were papal secretaries, as well as the -famous poet Bernardo Accolti (d. 1534). Writers of poetry like Vida -(1490-1566), Trissino (1478-1550), and Bibbiena (1470-1520), writers of -_novelle_ like Bandello, and a hundred other _literati_ of the time were -bishops, or papal scriptors or abbreviators, or in other papal employ. -Leo's lively interest in art and literature, to say nothing of his -natural liberality, his nepotism, his political ambitions and -necessities, and his immoderate personal luxury, exhausted within two -years the hard savings of Julius II., and precipitated a financial -crisis from which he never emerged and which was a direct cause of most -of the calamities of his pontificate. He created many new offices and -shamelessly sold them. He sold cardinals' hats. He sold membership in -the "Knights of Peter." He borrowed large sums from bankers, curials, -princes and Jews. The Venetian ambassador Gradenigo estimated the paying -number of offices on Leo's death at 2150, with a capital value of nearly -3,000,000 ducats and a yearly income of 328,000 ducats. Marino Giorgi -reckoned the ordinary income of the pope for the year 1517 at about -580,000 ducats, of which 420,000 came from the States of the Church, -100,000 from annates, and 60,000 from the composition tax instituted by -Sixtus IV. These sums, together with the considerable amounts accruing -from indulgences, jubilees, and special fees, vanished as quickly as -they were received. Then the pope resorted to pawning palace furniture, -table plate, jewels, even statues of the apostles. Several banking firms -and many individual creditors were ruined by the death of the pope. - -In the past many conflicting estimates were made of the character and -achievements of the pope during whose pontificate Protestantism first -took form. More recent studies have served to produce a fairer and more -honest opinion of Leo X. A report of the Venetian ambassador Marino -Giorgi bearing date of March 1517 indicates some of his predominant -characteristics:--"The pope is a good-natured and extremely free-hearted -man, who avoids every difficult situation and above all wants peace; he -would not undertake a war himself unless his own personal interests were -involved; he loves learning; of canon law and literature he possesses -remarkable knowledge; he is, moreover, a very excellent musician." Leo -was dignified in appearance and elegant in speech, manners and writing. -He enjoyed music and the theatre, art and poetry, the masterpieces of -the ancients and the wonderful creations of his contemporaries, the -spiritual and the witty--life in every form. It is by no means certain -that he made the remark often attributed to him, "Let us enjoy the -papacy since God has given it to us," but there is little doubt that he -was by nature devoid of moral earnestness or deep religious feeling. On -the other hand, in spite of his worldliness, Leo was not an unbeliever; -he prayed, fasted, and participated in the services of the church with -conscientiousness. To the virtues of liberality, charity and clemency he -added the Machiavellian qualities of falsehood and shrewdness, so highly -esteemed by the princes of his time. Leo was deemed fortunate by his -contemporaries, but an incurable malady, wars, enemies, a conspiracy of -cardinals, and the loss of all his nearest relations darkened his days; -and he failed entirely in his general policy of expelling foreigners -from Italy, of restoring peace throughout Europe, and of prosecuting war -against the Turks. He failed to recognize the pressing need of reform -within the church and the tremendous dangers which threatened the papal -monarchy; and he unpardonably neglected the spiritual needs of the time. -He was, however, zealous in firmly establishing the political power of -the Holy See; he made it unquestionably supreme in Italy; he -successfully restored the papal power in France; and he secured a -prominent place in the history of culture. - - AUTHORITIES.--The life of Leo X. was written shortly after his death - by Paolo Giovio, bishop of Nocera, who had known him intimately. Other - important contemporary sources are the Italian _History_ of the - Florentine writer Guicciardini, covering the period 1492-1530 (4 - vols., Milan, 1884); the reports of the Venetian ambassadors, Marino - Giorgi (1517), Marco Minio (1520) and Luigi Gradenigo (1523), in vol. - iii. of the 2nd series of _Le Relazioni degli ambasciatori Veneti_, - edited by Alberi (Florence, 1846); and the _Diarii_ of the Venetian - Marino Sanuto (58 vols., 1879-1903). Other materials for the biography - are to be found in the incomplete _Regesta_ edited by Joseph Cardinal - Hergenrother (Freiburg-i-B., 1884 ff.); in the Turin collection of - papal bulls (1859, &c.); in _Il Diario di Leone X. dai volumi - manoscritti degli archivi Vaticani della S. Sede connote di M. - Armellini_ (Rome, 1884); and in "Documenti risguardanti Giovanni de' - Medici e il pontifice Leone X.," appendix to vol. 1 of the _Archivio - storico Italiano_ (Florence, 1842). - - See L. Pastor, _Geschichte der Papste im Zeitalter der Renaissance u. - der Glaubensspaltung von der Wahl Leos X. bis zum Tode Klemens VII._ - part 1 (Freiburg-i.-B., 1906); M. Creighton, _History of the Papacy_, - vol. 6 (1901); F. Gregorovius, _Rome in the Middle Ages_, trans. by - Mrs G. W. Hamilton, vol. viii., part 1 (1902); L. von Ranke, _History - of the Popes_, vol. i., trans. by E. Foster in the Bohn Library; - _Histoire de France_, ed. by E. Lavisse, vol. 5, part 1 (1903); Walter - Friedensburg, "Ein rotulus familiae Papst Leos X.," in _Quellen u. - Forschungen aus italienischen Archiven u. Bibliotheken_, vol. vi. - (1904); W. Roscoe, _Life and Pontificate of Leo X._ (6th ed., 2 vols., - 1853), a celebrated biography but considerably out of date in spite of - the valuable notes of the German and Italian translators, Henke and - Bossi; F. S. Nitti, _Leone X. e la sua politica secondo documenti e - carteggi inediti_ (Florence, 1892); A. Schulte, _Die Fugger in Rom - 1495-1523_ (2 vols., Leipzig, 1906); and H. M. Vaughan, _The Medici - Popes_ (1908). (C. H. Ha.) - -LEO XI. (Alessandro de' Medici) was elected pope on the 1st of April -1605, at the age of seventy. He had long been archbishop of Florence and -nuncio to Tuscany; and was entirely pro-French in his sympathies. He -died on the 27th day of his pontificate, and was succeeded by Paul V. - - See the contemporary life by Vitorelli, continuator of Ciaconius, - _Vitae et res gestae summorum Pontiff. Rom._; Ranke, _Popes_ (Eng. - trans., Austin), ii. 330; v. Reumont, _Gesch. der Stadt Rom._ iii. 2, - 604; Brosch, _Gesch. des Kirchenstaates_ (1880), i. 350. - -LEO XII. (Annibale della Genga), pope from 1823 to 1829, was born of a -noble family, near Spoleto, on the 22nd of August 1760. Educated at the -Accademia dei Nobili ecclesiastici at Rome, he was ordained priest in -1783, and in 1790 attracted favourable attention by a tactful sermon -commemorative of the emperor Joseph II. In 1792 Pius VI. made him his -private secretary, in 1793 creating him titular archbishop of Tyre and -despatching him to Lucerne as nuncio. In 1794 he was transferred to the -nunciature at Cologne, but owing to the war had to make his residence in -Augsburg. During the dozen or more years he spent in Germany he was -entrusted with several honourable and difficult missions, which brought -him into contact with the courts of Dresden, Vienna, Munich and -Wurttemberg, as well as with Napoleon. It is, however, charged at one -time during this period that his finances were disordered, and his -private life not above suspicion. After the abolition of the States of -the Church, he was treated by the French as a state prisoner, and lived -for some years at the abbey of Monticelli, solacing himself with music -and with bird-shooting, pastimes which he did not eschew even after his -election as pope. In 1814 he was chosen to carry the pope's -congratulations to Louis XVIII.; in 1816 he was created cardinal-priest -of Santa Maria Maggiore, and appointed to the see of Sinigaglia, which -he resigned in 1818. In 1820 Pius VII. gave him the distinguished post -of cardinal vicar. In the conclave of 1823, in spite of the active -opposition of France, he was elected pope by the _zelanti_ on the 28th -of September. His election had been facilitated because he was thought -to be on the edge of the grave; but he unexpectedly rallied. His foreign -policy, entrusted at first to Della Somaglia and then to the more able -Bernetti, moved in general along lines laid down by Consalvi; and he -negotiated certain concordats very advantageous to the papacy. -Personally most frugal, Leo reduced taxes, made justice less costly, and -was able to find money for certain public improvements; yet he left the -finances more confused than he had found them, and even the elaborate -jubilee of 1825 did not really mend matters. His domestic policy was one -of extreme reaction. He condemned the Bible societies, and under Jesuit -influence reorganized the educational system. Severe ghetto laws led -many of the Jews to emigrate. He hunted down the _Carbonari_ and the -Freemasons; he took the strongest measures against political agitation -in theatres. A well-nigh ubiquitous system of espionage, perhaps most -fruitful when directed against official corruption, sapped the -foundations of public confidence. Leo, temperamentally stern, -hard-working in spite of bodily infirmity, died at Rome on the 10th of -February 1829. The news was received by the populace with unconcealed -joy. He was succeeded by Pius VIII. - - AUTHORITIES.--Artaud de Montor, _Histoire du Pape Leon XII._ (2 vols., - 1843; by the secretary of the French embassy in Rome); Bruck, "Leo - XII.," in Wetzer and Welte's _Kirchenlexikon_, vol. vii. (Freiburg, - 1891); F. Nippold, _The Papacy in the 19th Century_ (New York, 1900), - chap. 5; Benrath, "Leo XII.," in Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyklopadie_, - vol. xi.-(Leipzig, 1902), 390-393, with bibliography; F. Nielsen, _The - History of the Papacy in the 19th century_ (1906), vol. ii. 1-30; Lady - Blennerhassett, in the _Cambridge Modern History_, vol. x. (1907), - 151-154. (W. W. R.*) - -LEO XIII. (Gioacchino Pecci) (1810-1903), pope from 1878 to 1903, -reckoned the 257th successor of St Peter, was born at Carpineto on the -2nd of March 1810. His family was Sienese in origin, and his father, -Colonel Domenico Pecci, had served in the army of Napoleon. His mother, -Anna Prosperi, is said to have been a descendant of Rienzi, and was a -member of the third order of St Francis. He and his elder brother -Giuseppe (known as Cardinal Pecci) received their earliest education -from the Jesuits at Viterbo, and completed their education in Rome. In -the jubilee year 1825 he was selected by his fellow-students at the -Collegium Romanum to head a deputation to Pope Leo XII., whose memory he -subsequently cherished and whose name he assumed in 1878. Weak health, -consequent on over-study, prevented him from obtaining the highest -academical honours, but he graduated as doctor in theology at the age of -twenty-two, and then entered the Accademia dei Nobili ecclesiastici, a -college in which clergy of aristocratic birth are trained for the -diplomatic service of the Roman Church. Two years later Gregory XVI. -appointed him a domestic prelate, and bestowed on him, by way of -apprenticeship, various minor administrative offices. He was ordained -priest on the 31st of December 1837, and a few weeks later was made -apostolic delegate of the small papal territory of Benevento, where he -had to deal with brigands and smugglers, who enjoyed the protection of -some of the noble families of the district. His success here led to his -appointment in 1841 as delegate of Perugia, which was at that time a -centre of anti-papal secret societies. This post he held for eighteen -months only, but in that brief period he obtained a reputation as a -social and municipal reformer. In 1843 he was sent as nuncio to -Brussels, being first consecrated a bishop (19th February), with the -title of archbishop of Damietta. During his three years' residence at -the Belgian capital he found ample scope for his gifts as a diplomatist -in the education controversy then raging, and as mediator between the -Jesuits and the Catholic university of Louvain. He gained the esteem of -Leopold I., and was presented to Queen Victoria of England and the -Prince Consort. He also made the acquaintance of many Englishmen, -Archbishop Whately among them. In January 1846, at the request of the -magistrates and people of Perugia, he was appointed bishop of that city -with the rank of archbishop; but before returning to Italy he spent -February in London, and March and April in Paris. On his arrival in Rome -he would, at the request of King Leopold, have been created cardinal but -for the death of Gregory XVI. Seven years later, 19th December 1853, he -received the red hat from Pius IX. Meanwhile, and throughout his long -episcopate of thirty-two years, he foreshadowed the zeal and the -enlightened policy later to be displayed in the prolonged period of his -pontificate, building and restoring many churches, striving to elevate -the intellectual as well as the spiritual tone of his clergy, and -showing in his pastoral letters an unusual regard for learning and for -social reform. His position in Italy was similar to that of Bishop -Dupanloup in France; and, as but a moderate supporter of the policy -enunciated in the Syllabus, he was not altogether _persona grata_ to -Pius IX. But he protested energetically against the loss of the pope's -temporal power in 1870, against the confiscation of the property of the -religious orders, and against the law of civil marriage established by -the Italian government, and he refused to welcome Victor Emmanuel in his -diocese. Nevertheless, he remained in the comparative obscurity of his -episcopal see until the death of Cardinal Antonelli; but in 1877, when -the important papal office of _camerlengo_ became vacant, Pius IX. -appointed to it Cardinal Pecci, who thus returned to reside in Rome, -with the prospect of having shortly responsible functions to perform -during the vacancy of the Holy See, though the _camerlengo_ was -traditionally regarded as disqualified by his office from succeeding to -the papal throne. - -When Pius IX. died (7th February 1878) Cardinal Pecci was elected pope -at the subsequent conclave with comparative unanimity, obtaining at the -third scrutiny (20th February) forty-four out of sixty-one votes, or -more than the requisite two-thirds majority. The conclave was remarkably -free from political influences, the attention of Europe being at the -time engrossed by the presence of a Russian army at the gates of -Constantinople. It was said that the long pontificate of Pius IX. led -some of the cardinals to vote for Pecci, since his age (within a few -days of sixty-eight) and health warranted the expectation that his reign -would be comparatively brief; but he had for years been known as one of -the few "papable" cardinals; and although his long seclusion at Perugia -had caused his name to be little known outside Italy, there was a -general belief that the conclave had selected a man who was a prudent -statesman as well as a devout churchman; and Newman (whom he created a -cardinal in the year following) is reported to have said, "In the -successor of Pius I recognize a depth of thought, a tenderness of heart, -a winning simplicity, and a power answering to the name of Leo, which -prevent me from lamenting that Pius is no longer here." - -The second day after his election Pope Leo XIII. crossed the Tiber -_incognito_ to his former residence in the Falconieri Palace to collect -his papers, returning at once to the Vatican, where he continued to -regard himself as "imprisoned" so long as the Italian government -occupied the city of Rome. He was crowned in the Sistine Chapel 3rd -March 1878, and at once began a reform of the papal household on austere -and economic lines which found little favour with the _entourage_ of the -former pope. To fill posts near his own person he summoned certain of -the Perugian clergy who had been trained under his own eye, and from the -first he was less accessible than his predecessor had been, either in -public or private audience. Externally uneventful as his life henceforth -necessarily was, it was marked chiefly by the reception of distinguished -personages and of numerous pilgrimages, often on a large scale, from all -parts of the world, and by the issue of encyclical letters. The stricter -theological training of the Roman Catholic clergy throughout the world -on the lines laid down by St Thomas Aquinas was his first care, and to -this end he founded in Rome and endowed an academy bearing the great -schoolman's name, further devoting about L12,000 to the publication of a -new and splendid edition of his works, the idea being that on this basis -the later teaching of Catholic theologians and many of the speculations -of modern thinkers could best be harmonized and brought into line. The -study of Church history was next encouraged, and in August 1883 the pope -addressed a letter to Cardinals de Luca, Pitra and Hergenrother, in -which he made the remarkable concession that the Vatican archives and -library might be placed at the disposal of persons qualified to compile -manuals of history. His belief was that the Church would not suffer by -the publication of documents. A man of literary taste and culture, -familiar with the classics, a facile writer of Latin verses[1] as well -as of Ciceronian prose, he was as anxious that the Roman clergy should -unite human science and literature with their theological studies as -that the laity should be educated in the principles of religion; and to -this end he established in Rome a kind of voluntary school board, with -members both lay and clerical; and the rivalry of the schools thus -founded ultimately obliged the state to include religious teaching in -its curriculum. The numerous encyclicals by which the pontificate of Leo -XIII. will always be distinguished were prepared and written by himself, -but were submitted to the customary revision. The encyclical _Aeterni -Patris_ (4th August 1879) was written in the defence of the philosophy -of St Thomas Aquinas. In later ones, working on the principle that the -Christian Church should superintend and direct every form of civil life, -he dealt with the Christian constitution of states (_Immortale Dei_, 1st -November 1885), with human liberty (_Libertas_, 20th June 1888), and -with the condition of the working classes (_Rerum novarum_, 15th May -1891). This last was slightly tinged with modern socialism; it was -described as "the social Magna Carta of Catholicism," and it won for Leo -the name of "the working-man's pope." Translated into the chief modern -languages, many thousands of copies were circulated among the working -classes in Catholic countries. Other encyclicals, such as those on -Christian marriage (_Arcanum divinae sapientiae_, 10th February 1880), -on the Rosary (_Supremi apostolatus officii_, 1st September 1883, and -_Superiore anno_, 5th September 1898), and on Freemasonry (_Humanum -genus_, 20th April 1884), dealt with subjects on which his predecessor -had been accustomed to pronounce allocutions, and were on similar lines. -It was the knowledge that in all points of religious faith and practice -Leo XIII. stood precisely where Pius IX. had stood that served to render -ineffectual others of his encyclicals, in which he dealt earnestly and -effectively with matters in which orthodox Protestants had a sympathetic -interest with him and might otherwise have lent an ear to his counsels. -Such were the letters on the study of Holy Scripture (18th November -1893), and on the reunion of Christendom (20th June 1894). He showed -special anxiety for the return of England to the Roman Catholic fold, -and addressed a letter _ad Anglos_, dated 14th April 1895. This he -followed up by an encyclical on the unity of the Church (_Satis -cognitum_, 29th June 1896); and the question of the validity of Anglican -ordinations from the Roman Catholic point of view having been raised in -Rome by Viscount Halifax, with whom the abbe Louis Duchesne and one or -two other French priests were in sympathy, a commission was appointed to -consider the subject, and on the 15th of September 1896 a condemnation -of the Anglican form as theologically insufficient was issued, and was -directed to be taken as final. - -The establishment of a diocesan hierarchy in Scotland had been decided -upon before the death of Pius IX., but the actual announcement of it was -made by Leo XIII. On the 25th of July 1898 he addressed to the Scottish -Catholic bishops a letter, in the course of which he said that "many of -the Scottish people who do not agree with us in faith sincerely love the -name of Christ and strive to ascertain His doctrine and to imitate His -most holy example." The Irish and American bishops he summoned to Rome -to confer with him on the subjects of Home Rule and of "Americanism" -respectively. In India he established a diocesan hierarchy, with seven -archbishoprics, the archbishop of Goa taking precedence with the rank of -patriarch. - -With the government of Italy his general policy was to be as -conciliatory as was consistent with his oath as pope never to surrender -the "patrimony of St Peter"; but a moderate attitude was rendered -difficult by partisans on either side in the press, each of whom claimed -to represent his views. In 1879, addressing a congress of Catholic -journalists in Rome, he exhorted them to uphold the necessity of the -temporal power, and to proclaim to the world that the affairs of Italy -would never prosper until it was restored; in 1887 he found it necessary -to deprecate the violence with which this doctrine was advocated in -certain journals. A similar counsel of moderation was given to the -Canadian press in connexion with the Manitoba school question in -December 1897. The less conciliatory attitude towards the Italian -government was resumed in an encyclical addressed to the Italian clergy -(5th August 1898), in which he insisted on the duty of Italian Catholics -to abstain from political life while the papacy remained in its -"painful, precarious and intolerable position." And in January 1902, -reversing the policy which had its inception in the encyclical, _Rerum -novarum_, of 1891, and had further been developed ten years later in a -letter to the Italian bishops entitled _Graves de communi_, the "Sacred -Congregation of Extraordinary Ecclesiastical Affairs" issued -instructions concerning "Christian Democracy in Italy," directing that -the popular Christian movement, which embraced in its programme a number -of social reforms, such as factory laws for children, old-age pensions, -a minimum wage in agricultural industries, an eight-hours' day, the -revival of trade gilds, and the encouragement of Sunday rest, should -divert its attention from all such things as savoured of novelty and -devote its energies to the restoration of the temporal power. The -reactionary policy thus indicated gave the impression that a similar aim -underlay the appointment about the same date of a commission to inquire -into Biblical studies; and in other minor matters Leo XIII. disappointed -those who had looked to him for certain reforms in the devotional system -of the Church. A revision of the breviary, which would have involved the -omission of some of the less credible legends, came to nothing, while -the recitation of the office in honour of the Santa Casa at Loreto was -imposed on all the clergy. The worship of Mary, largely developed during -the reign of Pius IX., received further stimulus from Leo; nor did he do -anything during his pontificate to correct the superstitions connected -with popular beliefs concerning relics and indulgences. - -His policy towards all governments outside Italy was to support them -wherever they represented social order; and it was with difficulty that -he persuaded French Catholics to be united in defence of the republic. -The German _Kulturkampf_ was ended by his exertions. In 1885 he -successfully arbitrated between Germany and Spain in a dispute -concerning the Caroline Islands. In Ireland he condemned the "Plan of -Campaign" in 1888, but he conciliated the Nationalists by appointing Dr -Walsh archbishop of Dublin. His hope that his support of the British -government in Ireland would be followed by the establishment of formal -diplomatic relations between the court of St James's and the Vatican was -disappointed. But the jubilee of Queen Victoria in 1887 and the pope's -priestly jubilee a few months later were the occasion of friendly -intercourse between Rome and Windsor, Mgr. Ruffo Scilla coming to London -as special papal envoy, and the duke of Norfolk being received at the -Vatican as the bearer of the congratulations of the queen of England. -Similar courtesies were exchanged during the jubilee of 1897, and again -in March 1902, when Edward VII. sent the earl of Denbigh to Rome to -congratulate Leo XIII. on reaching his ninety-third year and the -twenty-fifth year of his pontificate. The visit of Edward VII. to Leo -XIII. in April 1903 was a further proof of the friendliness between the -English court and the Vatican. - -The elevation of Newman to the college of Cardinals in 1879 was regarded -with approval throughout the English-speaking world, both on Newman's -account and also as evidence that Leo XIII. had a wider horizon than his -predecessor; and his similar recognition of two of the most -distinguished "inopportunist" members of the Vatican council, Haynald, -archbishop of Kalocsa, and Prince Furstenberg, archbishop of Olmutz, was -even more noteworthy. Dupanloup would doubtless have received the same -honour had he not died shortly after Leo's accession. Dollinger the pope -attempted to reconcile, but failed. He laboured much to bring about the -reunion of the Oriental Churches with the see of Rome, establishing -Catholic educational centres in Athens and in Constantinople with that -end in view. He used his influence with the emperor of Russia, as also -with the emperors of China and Japan and with the shah of Persia, to -secure the free practice of their religion for Roman Catholics within -their respective dominions. Among the canonizations and beatifications -of his pontificate that of Sir Thomas More, author of _Utopia_, is -memorable. His encyclical issued at Easter 1902, and described by -himself as a kind of will, was mainly a reiteration of earlier -condemnations of the Reformation, and of modern philosophical systems, -which for their atheism and materialism he makes responsible for all -existing moral and political disorders. Society, he earnestly pleaded, -can only find salvation by a return to Christianity and to the fold of -the Roman Catholic Church. - -Grave and serious in manner, speaking slowly, but with energetic -gestures, simple and abstemious in his life--his daily bill of fare -being reckoned as hardly costing a couple of francs--Leo XIII. -distributed large sums in charity, and at his own charges placed costly -astronomical instruments in the Vatican observatory, providing also -accommodation and endowment for a staff of officials. He always showed -the greatest interest in science and in literature, and he would have -taken a position as a statesman of the first rank had he held office in -any secular government. He may be reckoned the most illustrious pope -since Benedict XIV., and under him the papacy acquired a prestige -unknown since the middle ages. On the 3rd of March 1903 he celebrated -his jubilee in St Peter's with more than usual pomp and splendour; he -died on the 20th of July following. His successor was Pius X. - - See _Scelta di atti episcopali del cardinale G. Pecci ..._ (Rome, - 1879); _Leonis XIII. Pont. Max. acta_ (17 vols., Rome, 1881-1898); - _Sanctissimi Domini N. Leonis XIII. allocutiones, epistolae, &c._ - (Bruges and Lille, 1887, &c.); the encyclicals (_Samtliche - Rundschreiben_) with a German translation (6 vols., Freiburg, - 1878-1904); _Discorsi del Sommo Pontefice Leone XIII. 1878-1882_ - (Rome, 1882). There are lives of Leo XIII. by B. O'Reilly (new ed., - Chicago, 1903), H. des Houx (pseudonym of Durand Morimbeau) (Paris, - 1900), by W. Meynell (1887), by J. McCarthy (1896), by Boyer d'Agen, - (_Jeunesse de Leon XIII._ (1896); _La Prelature_, 1900), by M. Spahn - (Munich, 1905), by L. K. Goetz (Gotha, 1899), &c. A life of Leo XIII. - (4 vols.) was undertaken by F. Marion Crawford, Count Edoardo Soderini - and Professor Giuseppe Clementi. (A. W. Hu.; M. Br.) - - -FOOTNOTE: - - [1] _Leonis XIII. Pont. Maximi carmina_, ed. Brunelli (Udine, 1883); - _Leonis XIII. carmina, inscriptiones, numismata_, ed. J. Bach - (Cologne, 1903). - - - - -LEO, the name of six emperors of the East. - -LEO I., variously surnamed THRAX, MAGNUS and MAKELLES, emperor of the -East, 457-474, was born in Thrace about 400. From his position as -military tribune he was raised to the throne by the soldiery and -recognized both by senate and clergy; his coronation by the patriarch of -Constantinople is said to have been the earliest instance of such a -ceremony. Leo owed his elevation mainly to Aspar, the commander of the -guards, who was debarred by his Arianism from becoming emperor in his -own person, but hoped to exercise a virtual autocracy through his former -steward and dependant. But Leo, following the traditions of his -predecessor Marcian, set himself to curtail the domination of the great -nobles and repeatedly acted in defiance of Aspar. Thus he vigorously -suppressed the Eutychian heresy in Egypt, and by exchanging his Germanic -bodyguard for Isaurians removed the chief basis of Aspar's power. With -the help of his generals Anthemius and Anagastus, he repelled invasions -of the Huns into Dacia (466 and 468). In 467 Leo had Anthemius elected -emperor of the West, and in concert with him equipped an armament of -more than 1100 ships and 100,000 men against the pirate empire of the -Vandals in Africa. Through the remissness of Leo's brother-in-law -Basiliscus, who commanded the expedition, the fleet was surprised by the -Vandal king, Genseric, and half of its vessels sunk or burnt (468). This -failure was made a pretext by Leo for killing Aspar as a traitor (471), -and Aspar's murder served the Goths in turn as an excuse for ravaging -Thrace up to the walls of the capital. In 473 the emperor associated -with himself his infant grandson, LEO II., who, however, survived him by -only a few months. His surnames Magnus (Great) and Makelles (butcher) -respectively reflect the attitude of the Orthodox and the Arians towards -his religious policy. - - See E. Gibbon, _The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire_ (ed. Bury, - 1896), iv. 29-37; J. B. Bury, _The Later Roman Empire_ (1889), i. - 227-233. - -LEO III. (c. 680-740), surnamed THE ISAURIAN, emperor of the East, -717-740. Born about 680 in the Syrian province of Commagene, he rose to -distinction in the military service, and under Anastasius II. was -invested with the command of the eastern army. In 717 he revolted -against the usurper Theodosius III. and, marching upon Constantinople, -was elected emperor in his stead. The first year of Leo's reign saw a -memorable siege of his capital by the Saracens, who had taken advantage -of the civil discord in the Roman empire to bring up a force of 80,000 -men to the Bosporus. By his stubborn defence the new ruler wore out the -invaders who, after a twelve months' investment, withdrew their forces. -An important factor in the victory of the Romans was their use of Greek -fire. Having thus preserved the empire from extinction, Leo proceeded to -consolidate its administration, which in the previous years of anarchy -had become completely disorganized. He secured its frontiers by inviting -Slavonic settlers into the depopulated districts and by restoring the -army to efficiency; when the Arabs renewed their invasions in 726 and -739 they were decisively beaten. His civil reforms include the abolition -of the system of prepaying taxes which had weighed heavily upon the -wealthier proprietors, the elevation of the serfs into a class of free -tenants, the remodelling of family and of maritime law. These measures, -which were embodied in a new code published in 740, met with some -opposition on the part of the nobles and higher clergy. But Leo's most -striking legislative reforms dealt with religious matters. After an -apparently successful attempt to enforce the baptism of all Jews and -Montanists in his realm (722), he issued a series of edicts against the -worship of images (726-729). This prohibition of a custom which had -undoubtedly given rise to grave abuses seems to have been inspired by a -genuine desire to improve public morality, and received the support of -the official aristocracy and a section of the clergy. But a majority of -the theologians and all the monks opposed these measures with -uncompromising hostility, and in the western parts of the empire the -people refused to obey the edict. A revolt which broke out in Greece, -mainly on religious grounds, was crushed by the imperial fleet (727), -and two years later, by deposing the patriarch of Constantinople, Leo -suppressed the overt opposition of the capital. In Italy the defiant -attitude of Popes Gregory II. and III. on behalf of image-worship led to -a fierce quarrel with the emperor. The former summoned councils in Rome -to anathematize and excommunicate the image-breakers (730, 732); Leo -retaliated by transferring southern Italy and Greece from the papal -diocese to that of the patriarch. The struggle was accompanied by an -armed outbreak in the exarchate of Ravenna (727), which Leo finally -endeavoured to subdue by means of a large fleet. But the destruction of -the armament by a storm decided the issue against him; his south Italian -subjects successfully defied his religious edicts, and the province of -Ravenna became detached from the empire. In spite of this partial -failure Leo must be reckoned as one of the greatest of the later Roman -emperors. By his resolute stand against the Saracens he delivered all -eastern Europe from a great danger, and by his thorough-going reforms he -not only saved the empire from collapse, but invested it with a -stability which enabled it to survive all further shocks for a space of -five centuries. - - See E. Gibbon, _The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire_ (ed. Bury, - 1896), v. 185 seq., 251 seq. and appendices, vi. 6-12; J. B. Bury, - _The Later Roman Empire_ (1889), ii. 401-449; K. Schenk, _Kaiser Leo - III._ (Halle, 1880), and in _Byzantinische Zeitschrift_ (1896), v. - 257-301; T. Hodgkin, _Italy and her Invaders_ (1892, &c.), bk. vii., - chs. 11, 12. See also ICONOCLASTS. - -LEO IV., called CHOZAR, succeeded his father, Constantine V., as emperor -of the East in 775. In 776 he associated his young son, Constantine, -with himself in the empire, and suppressed a rising led by his five -step-brothers which broke out as a result of this proceeding. Leo was -largely under the influence of his wife Irene (q.v.), and when he died -in 780 he left her as the guardian of his successor, Constantine VI. - -LEO V., surnamed THE ARMENIAN, emperor of the East, 813-820, was a -distinguished general of Nicephorus I. and Michael I. After rendering -good service on behalf of the latter in a war with the Arabs (812), he -was summoned in 813 to co-operate in a campaign against the Bulgarians. -Taking advantage of the disaffection prevalent among the troops, he left -Michael in the lurch at the battle of Adrianople and subsequently led a -successful revolution against him. Leo justified his usurpation by -repeatedly defeating the Bulgarians who had been contemplating the siege -of Constantinople (814-817). By his vigorous measures of repression -against the Paulicians and image-worshippers he roused considerable -opposition, and after a conspiracy under his friend Michael Psellus had -been foiled by the imprisonment of its leader, he was assassinated in -the palace chapel on Christmas Eve, 820. - - See E. Gibbon, _The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire_ (ed. Bury, - 1896), v. 193-195. (M. O. B. C.) - -LEO VI., surnamed THE WISE and THE PHILOSOPHER, Byzantine emperor, -886-911. He was a weak-minded ruler, chiefly occupied with unimportant -wars with barbarians and struggles with churchmen. The chief event of -his reign was the capture of Thessalonica (904) by Mahommedan pirates -(described in _The Capture of Thessalonica_ by John Cameniata) under the -renegade Leo of Tripolis. In Sicily and Lower Italy the imperial arms -were unsuccessful, and the Bulgarian Symeon, who assumed the title of -"Czar of the Bulgarians and autocrat of the Romaei" secured the -independence of his church by the establishment of a patriarchate. Leo's -somewhat absurd surname may be explained by the facts that he "was less -ignorant than the greater part of his contemporaries in church and -state, that his education had been directed by the learned Photius, and -that several books of profane and ecclesiastical science were composed -by the pen, or in the name, of the imperial philosopher" (Gibbon). His -works include seventeen _Oracula_, in iambic verse, on the destinies of -future emperors and patriarchs of Constantinople; thirty-three -_Orations_, chiefly on theological subjects (such as church festivals); -_Basilica_, the completion of the digest of the laws of Justinian, begun -by Basil I., the father of Leo; some epigrams in the Greek _Anthology_; -an iambic lament on the melancholy condition of the empire; and some -palindromic verses, curiously called [Greek: karkinoi] (crabs). The -treatise on military tactics, attributed to him, is probably by Leo -III., the Isaurian. - - Complete edition in Migne, _Patrologia Graeca_, cvii.; for the - literature of individual works see C. Krumbacher, _Geschichte der - byzantinischen Litteratur_ (1897). (J. H. F.) - - - - -LEO, BROTHER (d. c. 1270), the favourite disciple, secretary and -confessor of St Francis of Assisi. The dates of his birth and of his -becoming a Franciscan are not known; but he was one of the small group -of most trusted companions of the saint during his last years. After -Francis's death Leo took a leading part in the opposition to Elias: he -it was who broke in pieces the marble box which Elias had set up for -offertories for the completion of the basilica at Assisi. For this Elias -had him scourged, and this outrage on St Francis's dearest disciple -consolidated the opposition to Elias and brought about his deposition. -Leo was the leader in the early stages of the struggle in the order for -the maintenance of St Francis's ideas on strict poverty, and the chief -inspirer of the tradition of the Spirituals on St Francis's life and -teaching. The claim that he wrote the so-called _Speculum perfectionis_ -cannot be allowed, but portions of it no doubt go back to him. A little -volume of his writings has been published by Lemmeus (_Scripta Iratris -Leonis_, 1901). Leo assisted at St Clara's death-bed, 1253; after -suffering many persecutions from the dominant party in the order he died -at the Portiuncula in extreme old age. - - All that is known concerning him is collected by Paul Sabatier in the - "Introduction" to the _Speculum perfectionis_ (1898). See ST FRANCIS - and FRANCISCANS. (E. C. B.) - - - - -LEO, HEINRICH (1799-1878), German historian, was born at Rudolstadt on -the 19th of March 1799, his father being chaplain to the garrison there. -His family, not of Italian origin--as he himself was inclined to believe -on the strength of family tradition--but established in Lower Saxony so -early as the 16th century, was typical of the German upper middle -classes, and this fact, together with the strongly religious atmosphere -in which he was brought up and his early enthusiasm for nature, largely -determined the bent of his mind. The taste for historical study was, -moreover, early instilled into him by the eminent philologist Karl -Wilhelm Gottling (1793-1869), who in 1816 became a master at the -Rudolstadt gymnasium. From 1816 to 1819 Leo studied at the universities -of Breslau, Jena and Gottingen, devoting himself more especially to -history, philology and theology. At this time the universities were -still agitated by the Liberal and patriotic aspirations aroused by the -War of Liberation; at Breslau Leo fell under the influence of Jahn, and -joined the political gymnastic association (_Turnverein_); at Jena he -attached himself to the radical wing of the German _Burschenschaft_, the -so-called "Black Band," under the leadership of Karl Follen. The murder -of Kotzebue by Karl Sand, however, shocked him out of his extreme -revolutionary views, and from this time he tended, under the influence -of the writings of Hamann and Herder, more and more in the direction of -conservatism and romanticism, until at last he ended, in a mood almost -of pessimism, by attaching himself to the extreme right wing of the -forces of reaction. So early as April 1819, at Gottingen, he had fallen -under the influence of Karl Ludwig von Haller's _Handbuch der -allgemeinen Staatenkunde_ (1808), a text-book of the counter-Revolution. -On the 11th of May 1820 he took his doctor's degree; in the same year he -qualified as _Privatdozent_ at the university of Erlangen. For this -latter purpose he had chosen as his thesis the constitution of the free -Lombard cities in the middle ages, the province in which he was destined -to do most for the scientific study of history. His interest in it was -greatly stimulated by a journey to Italy in 1823; in 1824 he returned to -the subject, and, as the result, published in five volumes a history of -the Italian states (1829-1832). Meanwhile he had been established -(1822-1827) as _Dozent_ at Berlin, where he came in contact with the -leaders of German thought and was somewhat spoilt by the flattering -attentions of the highest Prussian society. Here, too, it was that -Hegel's philosophy of history made a deep impression upon him. It was at -Halle, however, where he remained for forty years (1828-1868), that he -acquired his fame as an academical teacher. His wonderful power of -exposition, aided by a remarkable memory, is attested by the most -various witnesses. In 1830 he became ordinary professor. - -In addition to his lecturing, Leo found time for much literary and -political work. He collaborated in the _Jahrbucher fur Wissenschaftliche -Kritik_ from its foundation in 1827 until the publication was stopped in -1846. As a critic of independent views he won the approval of Goethe; on -the other hand, he fell into violent controversy with Ranke about -questions connected with Italian history. Up to the revolutionary year -1830 his religious views had remained strongly tinged with rationalism, -Hegel remaining his guide in religion as in practical politics and the -treatment of history. It was not till 1838 that Leo's polemical work -_Die Hegelingen_ proclaimed his breach with the radical developments of -the philosopher's later disciples; a breach which developed into -opposition to the philosopher himself. Under the impression of the July -revolution in Paris and of the orthodox and pietistic influences at -Halle, Leo's political convictions were henceforth dominated by -reactionary principles. As a friend of the Prussian "Camarilla" and of -King Frederick William IV. he collaborated especially in the high -conservative _Politisches Wochenblatt_, which first appeared in 1831, as -well as in the _Evangelische Kirchenzeitung_, the _Kreuzzeitung_ and the -_Volksblatt fur Stadt und Land_. In all this his critics scented an -inclination towards Catholicism; and Leo did actually glorify the -counter-Reformation, e.g. in his _History of the Netherlands_ (2 vols. -1832-1835). His other historical works also, notably his -_Universalgeschichte_ (6 vols., 1835-1844), display a very one-sided -point of view. When, however, in connexion with the quarrel about the -archbishopric of Cologne (1837), political Catholicism raised its head -menacingly, Leo turned against it with extreme violence in his open -letter (1838) to Goerres, its foremost champion. On the other hand, he -took a lively part in the politico-religious controversies within the -fold of Prussian Protestantism. - -Leo was by nature highly excitable and almost insanely passionate, -though at the same time strictly honourable, unselfish, and in private -intercourse even gentle. During the last year of his life his mind -suffered rapid decay, of which signs had been apparent so early as 1868. -He died at Halle on the 24th of April 1878. In addition to the works -already mentioned, he left behind an account of his early life (_Meine -Jugendzeit_, Gotha, 1880) which is of interest. - - See Lord Acton, _English Historical Review_, i. (1886); H. Haupt, - _Karl Follen und die Giessener Schwarzen_ (Giessen, 1907); W. Herbst, - _Deutsch-Evangelische Blatter_, Bd. 3; P. Kragelin, _H. Leo_, vol. i. - (1779-1844) (Leipzig, 1908); P. Kraus, _Allgemeine Konservative - Monatsschrift_, Bd. 50 u. 51; R. M. Meyer, _Gestalten und Probleme_ - (1904); W. Schrader, _Geschichte der Friedrichs-Universitat in Halle_ - (Berlin, 1894); C. Varrentrapp, _Historische Zeitschrift_, Bd. 92; F. - X. Wegele, _Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie_, Bd. 18 (1883); - _Geschichte der deutschen Historiographie_ (1885); G. Wolf, - _Einfuhrung in das Studium der neueren Geschichte_ (1910). Leo's - _Rectitudines singularum personarum nebst einer einleitenden - Abhandlung uber Landsiedelung, Landbau, gutsherrliche und bauerliche - Verhaltnisse der Angelsachsen_, was translated into English by Lord - Acton (1852). (J. Hn.) - - - - -LEO, JOHANNES (c. 1494-1552), in Italian GIOVANNI LEO or LEONE, usually -called LEO AFRICANUS, sometimes ELIBERITANUS (i.e. of Granada), and -properly known among the Moors as Al Hassan Ibn Mahommed Al Wezaz Al -Fasi, was the author of a _Descrizione dell' Affrica_, or _Africae -descriptio_, which long ranked as the best authority on Mahommedan -Africa. Born probably at Granada of a noble Moorish stock (his father -was a landowner; an uncle of his appears as an envoy from Fez to -Timbuktu), he received a great part of his education at Fez, and while -still very young began to travel widely in the Barbary States. In 1512 -we trace him at Morocco, Tunis, Bugia and Constantine; in 1513 we find -him returning from Tunis to Morocco; and before the close of the latter -year he seems to have started on his famous Sudan and Sahara journeys -(1513-1515) which brought him to Timbuktu, to many other regions of the -Great Desert and the Niger basin (Guinea, Melli, Gago, Walata, Aghadez, -Wangara, Katsena, &c.), and apparently to Bornu and Lake Chad. In -1516-1517 he travelled to Constantinople, probably visiting Egypt on the -way; it is more uncertain when he visited the three Arabias (_Deserta_, -_Felix_ and _Petraea_), Armenia and "Tartary" (the last term is perhaps -satisfied by his stay at Tabriz). His three Egyptian journeys, -immediately after the Turkish conquest, all probably fell between 1517 -and 1520; on one of these he ascended the Nile from Cairo to Assuan. As -he was returning from Egypt about 1520 he was captured by pirates near -the island of Gerba, and was ultimately presented as a slave to Leo X. -The pope discovered his merit, assigned him a pension, and having -persuaded him to profess the Christian faith, stood sponsor at his -baptism, and bestowed on him (as Ramusio says) his own names, Johannes -and Leo. The new convert, having made himself acquainted with Latin and -Italian, taught Arabic (among his pupils was Cardinal Egidio Antonini, -bishop of Viterbo); he also wrote books in both the Christian tongues he -had acquired. His _Description of Africa_ was first, apparently, written -in Arabic, but the primary text now remaining is that of the Italian -version, issued by the author at Rome, on the 10th of March 1526, three -years after Pope Leo's death, though originally undertaken at the -latter's suggestion. The Moor seems to have lived on Rome for some time -longer, but he returned to Africa some time before his death at Tunis in -1552; according to some, he renounced his Christianity and returned to -Islam; but the later part of his career is obscure. - - The _Descrizione dell' Affrica_ in its original Arabic MS. is said to - have existed for some time in the library of Vincenzo Pinelli - (1535-1601); the Italian text, though issued in 1526, was first - printed by Giovanni Battista Ramusio in his _Navigationi et Viaggi_ - (vol. i.) of 1550. This was reprinted in 1554, 1563, 1588, &c. In 1556 - Jean Temporal executed at Lyons an admirable French version from the - Italian (_Historiale description de l'Afrique_); and in the same year - appeared at Antwerp both Christopher Plantin's and Jean Bellere's - pirated issues of Temporal's translation, and a new (very inaccurate) - Latin version by Joannes Florianus, _Joannis Leonis Africani de totius - Africae descriptione libri i.-ix._ The latter was reprinted in 1558, - 1559 (Zurich), and 1632 (Leiden), and served as the basis of John - Pory's Elizabethan English translation, made at the suggestion of - Richard Hakluyt (_A Geographical Historie of Africa_, London, 1600). - Pory's version was reissued, with notes, maps, &c., by Robert Brown, - E. G. Ravenstein, &c. (3 vols., Hakluyt Society, London, 1896). An - excellent German translation was made by Lorsbach, from the Italian, - in 1805 (_Johann Leos des Afrikaners Beschreibung von Afrika_, - Herborn). See also Francis Moore's _Travels into the inland parts of - Africa_ (1738), containing a translation of Leo's account of negro - kingdoms. Heinrich Barth intended to have made a fresh version, with a - commentary, but was prevented by death; as it is, his own great works - on the Sudan are the best elucidation of the _Descrizione dell' - Affrica_. - - Leo also wrote lives of the Arab physicians and philosophers (_De - viris quibusdam illustribus apud Arabes_; see J. A. Fabricius, - _Bibliotheca Graeca_, Hamburg, 1726, xiii. 259-298); a Spanish-Arabic - vocabulary, now lost, but noticed by Ramusio as having been consulted - by the famous Hebrew physician, Jacob Mantino; a collection of Arabic - epitaphs in and near Fez (the MS. of this Leo presented, it is said, - to the brother of the king); and poems, also lost. It is stated, - moreover, that Leo intended writing a history of the Mahommedan - religion, an epitome of Mahommedan chronicles, and an account of his - travels in Asia and Egypt. (C. R. B.) - - - - -LEO, LEONARDO (1694-1744), more correctly LIONARDO ORONZO SALVATORE DE -LEO, Italian musical composer, was born on the 5th of August 1694 at S. -Vito dei Normanni, near Brindisi. He became a student at the -Conservatorio della Pieta dei Turchini at Naples in 1703, and was a -pupil first of Provenzale and later of Nicola Fago. It has been supposed -that he was a pupil of Pitoni and Alessandro Scarlatti, but he could not -possibly have studied with either of these composers, although he was -undoubtedly influenced by their compositions. His earliest known work -was a sacred drama, _L'Infedelta abbattuta_, performed by his -fellow-students in 1712. In 1714 he produced, at the court theatre, an -opera, _Pisistrato_, which was much admired. He held various posts at -the royal chapel, and continued to write for the stage, besides teaching -at the conservatorio. After adding comic scenes to Gasparini's -_Bajazette_ in 1722 for performance at Naples, he composed a comic -opera, _La Mpeca scoperta_, in Neapolitan dialect, in 1723. His most -famous comic opera was _Amor vuol sofferenze_ (1739), better known as -_La Finta Frascatana_, highly praised by Des Brosses. He was equally -distinguished as a composer of serious opera, _Demofoonte_ (1735), -_Farnace_ (1737) and _L'Olimpiade_ (1737) being his most famous works in -this branch, and is still better known as a composer of sacred music. He -died of apoplexy on the 31st of October 1744 while engaged in the -composition of new airs for a revival of _La Finta Frascatana_. - -Leo was the first of the Neapolitan school to obtain a complete mastery -over modern harmonic counterpoint. His sacred music is masterly and -dignified, logical rather than passionate, and free from the -sentimentality which disfigures the work of F. Durante and G. B. -Pergolesi. His serious operas suffer from a coldness and severity of -style, but in his comic operas he shows a keen sense of humour. His -_ensemble_ movements are spirited, but never worked up to a strong -climax. - - A fine and characteristic example of his sacred music is the _Dixit - Dominus_ in C, edited by C. V. Stanford and published by Novello. A - number of songs from operas are accessible in modern editions. - (E. J. D.) - - - - -LEO (THE LION), in astronomy, the fifth sign of the zodiac (q.v.), -denoted by the symbol [Omega]. It is also a constellation, mentioned by -Eudoxus (4th century B.C.) and Aratus (3rd century B.C.). According to -Greek mythology this constellation is the Nemean lion, which, after -being killed by Hercules, was raised to the heavens by Jupiter in honour -of Hercules. A part of Ptolemy's Leo is now known as Coma Berenices -(q.v.). [alpha] Leonis, also known as Cor Leonis or the Lion's Heart, -Regulus, Basilicus, &c., is a very bright star of magnitude 1.23, and -parallax 0.02", and proper motion 0.27" per annum. [gamma] Leonis is a -very fine orange-yellow binary star, of magnitudes 2 and 4, and period -400 years. [iota] Leonis is a binary, composed of a 4th magnitude pale -yellow star, and a 7th magnitude blue star. The Leonids are a meteoric -swarm, appearing in November and radiating from this constellation (see -METEOR). - - - - -LEOBEN, a town in Styria, Austria, 44 m. N.W. of Graz by rail. Pop. -(1900) 10,204. It is situated on the Mur, and part of its old walls and -towers still remain. It has a well-known academy of mining and a number -of technical schools. Its extensive iron-works and trade in iron are a -consequence of its position on the verge of the important lignite -deposits of Upper Styria and in the neighbourhood of the iron mines and -furnaces of Vordernberg and Eisenerz. On the 18th of April 1797 a -preliminary peace was concluded here between Austria and France, which -led to the treaty of Campo-Formio. - - - - -LEOBSCHUTZ (Bohemian _Lubczyce_), a town of Germany, in the Prussian -province of Silesia, on the Zinna, about 20 m. to the N.W. of Ratibor by -rail. Pop. (1905) 12,700. It has a large trade in wool, flax and grain, -its markets for these commodities being very numerously attended. The -principal industries are malting, carriage-building, wool-spinning and -glass-making. The town contains three Roman Catholic churches, a -Protestant church, a synagogue, a new town-hall and a gymnasium. -Leobschutz existed in the 10th century, and from 1524 to 1623 was the -capital of the principality of Jagerndorf. - - See F. Troska, _Geschichte der Stadt Leobschutz_ (Leobschutz, 1892). - - - - -LEOCHARES, a Greek sculptor who worked with Scopas on the Mausoleum -about 350 B.C. He executed statues of the family of Philip of Macedon, -in gold and ivory, which were set up by that king in the Philippeum at -Olympia. He also with Lysippus made a group in bronze at Delphi -representing a lion-hunt of Alexander. Of this the base with an -inscription was recently found. We hear of other statues by Leochares of -Zeus, Apollo and Ares. The statuette in the Vatican, representing -Ganymede being carried away by an eagle, though considerably restored -and poor in execution, so closely corresponds with Pliny's description -of a group by Leochares that we are justified in considering it a copy -of that group, especially as the Vatican statue shows all the -characteristics of Attic 4th-century art. Pliny (_N.H._ 34. 79) writes: -"Leochares made a group of an eagle aware whom it is carrying off in -Ganymede and to whom it is bearing him; holding the boy delicately in -its claws, with his garment between." (For engraving see GREEK ART, -Plate I. fig. 53.) The tree stem is skilfully used as a support; and the -upward strain of the group is ably rendered. The close likeness both in -head and pose between the Ganymede and the well-known Apollo Belvidere -has caused some modern archaeologists to assign the latter also to -Leochares. With somewhat more confidence we may regard the fine statue -of Alexander the Great at Munich as a copy of his gold and ivory -portrait at Olympia. (P. G.) - - - - -LEOFRIC (d. 1057), earl of Mercia, was a son of Leofwine, earl of -Mercia, and became earl at some date previous to 1032. Henceforth, being -one of the three great earls of the realm, he took a leading part in -public affairs. On the death of King Canute in 1035 he supported the -claim of his son Harold to the throne against that of Hardicanute; and -during the quarrel between Edward the Confessor and Earl Godwine in 1051 -he played the part of a mediator. Through his efforts civil war was -averted, and in accordance with his advice the settlement of the dispute -was referred to the Witan. When he became earl of Mercia his direct rule -seems to have been confined to Cheshire, Staffordshire, Shropshire and -the borders of north Wales, but afterwards he extended the area of his -earldom. As Chester was his principal residence and the seat of his -government, he is sometimes called earl of Chester. Leofric died at -Bromley in Staffordshire on the 31st of August 1057. His wife was -Godgifu, famous in legend as Lady Godiva. Both husband and wife were -noted as liberal benefactors to the church, among their foundations -being the famous Benedictine monastery at Coventry. Leofric's son, -Aelfgar, succeeded him as earl of Mercia. - - See E. A. Freeman, _The Norman Conquest_, vols. i. and ii. (1877). - - - - -LEOMINSTER, a market-town and municipal borough in the Leominster -parliamentary division of Herefordshire, England, in a rich agricultural -country on the Lugg, 157 m. W.N.W. of London and 12(1/2) N. of Hereford -on the Great Western and London & North-Western railways. Pop. (1901) -5826. Area, 8728 acres. Some fine old timber houses lend picturesqueness -to the wide streets. The parish church, of mixed architecture, including -the Norman nave of the old priory church, and containing some of the -most beautiful examples of window tracery in England, was restored in -1866, and enlarged by the addition of a south nave in 1879. The Butter -Cross, a beautiful example of timber work of the date 1633, was removed -when the town-hall was building, and re-erected in the pleasure ground -of the Grange. Trade is chiefly in agricultural produce, wool and cider, -as the district is rich in orchards. Brewing (from the produce of local -hop-gardens) and the manufacture of agricultural implements are also -carried on. The town is under a mayor, four aldermen and twelve -councillors. - -Merewald, king of Mercia, is said to have founded a religious house in -Leominster (Llanlieni, Leofminstre, Lempster) in 660, and a nunnery -existed here until the Conquest, when the place became a royal demesne. -It was granted by Henry I. to the monks of Reading, who built in it a -cell of their abbey, and under whose protection the town grew up and was -exempted from the sphere of the county and hundred courts. In 1539 it -reverted to the crown; and in 1554 was incorporated, by a charter -renewed in 1562, 1563, 1605, 1666, 1685 and 1786. The borough returned -two members to the parliament of 1295 and to other parliaments, until by -the Representation Act 1867 it lost one representative, and by the -Redistribution of Seats Act 1885 separate representation. A fair was -granted in the time of Henry II., and fairs in the seasons of Michaelmas -and the feasts of St Philip and St James and of Edward the Confessor, in -1265, 1281 and 1290 respectively. Charters to the burghers authorized -fairs on the days of St Peter and of St Simon and St Jude in 1554, on St -Bartholomew's day in 1605, in Mid-lent week in 1665, and on the feast of -the Purification and on the 2nd of May in 1685; these fairs have modern -representatives. A market was held by the abbey by a grant of Henry I.; -Friday is now market day. Leominster was famous for wool from the 13th -to the 18th century. There were gilds of mercers, tailors, drapers, -dyers and glovers in the 16th century. In 1835 the wool trade was said -to be dead; and that of glove-making, which had been important, was -diminishing. Hops and apples were grown in 1715. - - See G. Townsend, _The Town and Borough of Leominster_ (1863), and John - Price, _An Historical and Topographical Account of Leominster and its - Vicinity_ (Ludlow, 1715). - - - - -LEOMINSTER, a township of Worcester county, Massachusetts, U.S.A., about -45 m. N.W. of Boston and about 20 m. N. by E. of Worcester. Pop. (1890) -7269; (1900) 12,392, of whom 2827 were foreign-born; (1910 census) -17,580. It is a broken, hilly district, 26.48 sq. m. in area, traversed -by the Nashua river, crossed by the Northern Division of the New York, -New Haven & Hartford railroad, and by the Fitchburg Division of the -Boston & Maine, and connected with Boston, Worcester and other cities by -interurban electric lines. Along the N.E. border and mostly in the -township of Lunenburg are Whalom Lake and Whalom Park, popular pleasure -resorts. The principal villages are Leominster, 5 m. S.E. of Fitchburg, -and North Leominster; the two adjoin and are virtually one. According to -the Special U.S. Census of Manufactures of 1905 the township had in that -year a greater diversity of important manufacturing industries than any -place of its size in the state, or, probably, in the United States; its -65 manufactories, with a capital of $4,572,726 and with a product for -the year valued at $7,501,720 (39% more than in 1900), produced -celluloid and horn work (the manufacture of which is a more important -industry here than elsewhere in the United States), celluloid combs, -furniture, paper, buttons, pianos and piano-cases, children's carriages -and sleds, stationery, leatherboard, worsted, woollen and cotton goods, -shirts, paper boxes, &c. Leominster owns and operates its water-works. -The township was formed from a part of Lancaster township in 1740. - - - - -LEON, LUIS PONCE DE (1527-1591), Spanish poet and mystic, was born at -Belmonte de Cuenca, entered the university of Salamanca at the age of -fourteen, and in 1544 joined the Augustinian order. In 1561 he obtained -a theological chair at Salamanca, to which in 1571 was added that of -sacred literature. He was denounced to the Inquisition for translating -the book of Canticles, and for criticizing the text of the Vulgate. He -was consequently imprisoned at Valladolid from March 1572 till December -1576; the charges against him were then abandoned, and he was released -with an admonition. He returned to Salamanca as professor of Biblical -exegesis, and was again reported to the Inquisition in 1582, but without -result. In 1583-1585 he published the three books of a celebrated mystic -treatise, _Los Nombres de Cristo_, which he had written in prison. In -1583 also appeared the most popular of his prose works, a treatise -entitled _La Perfecta Casada_, for the use of a lady newly married. Ten -days before his death, which occurred at Madrigal on the 23rd of August -1591, he was elected vicar general of the Augustinian order. Luis de -Leon is not only the greatest of Spanish mystics; he is among the -greatest of Spanish lyrical poets. His translations of Euripides, -Pindar, Virgil and Horace are singularly happy; his original pieces, -whether devout like the ode _De la vida del cielo_, or secular like the -ode _A Salinas_, are instinct with a serene sublimity unsurpassed in any -literature, and their form is impeccable. Absorbed by less worldly -interests, Fray Luis de Leon refrained from printing his poems, which -were not issued till 1631, when Quevedo published them as a counterblast -to _culteranismo_. - - The best edition of Luis de Leon's works is that of Merino (6 vols., - Madrid, 1816); the reprint (Madrid, 1885) by C. Munoz Saenz is - incorrect. The text of _La Perfecta Casada_ has been well edited by - Miss Elizabeth Wallace (Chicago, 1903). See _Coleccion de documentos - ineditos para la historia de Espana_, vols. x.-xi.; F. H. Reusch, - _Luis de Leon und die spanische Inquisition_ (Bonn, 1873); M. - Gutierrez, _Fray Luis de Leon y la filosofia espanola_ (Madrid, 1885); - M. Menendez y Pelayo, _Estudios de critica literaria_ (Madrid, 1893), - Primera serie, pp. 1-72. - - - - -LEON, MOSES [BEN SHEM-TOB] DE (d. 1305), Jewish scholar, was born in -Leon (Spain) in the middle of the 13th century and died at Arevalo. His -fame is due to his authorship of the most influential Kabbalist work, -the _Zohar_ (see KABBALA), which was attributed to Simon b. Yohai, a -Rabbi of the 2nd century. In modern times the discovery of the modernity -of the _Zohar_ has led to injustice to the author. Moses de Leon -undoubtedly used old materials and out of them constructed a work of -genius. The discredit into which he fell was due partly to the -unedifying incidents of his personal career. He led a wandering life, -and was more or less of an adventurer. But as to the greatness of his -work, the profundity of his philosophy and the brilliance of his -religious idealism, there can be no question. - - See Graetz, _History of the Jews_, vol. iv. ch. i.; Geiger, _Leon de - Modena_. (I. A.) - - - - -LEON OF MODENA (1571-1648), Jewish scholar, was born in Venice, of a -notable French family which had migrated to Italy after the expulsion of -the Jews from France. He was a precocious child, but, as Graetz points -out, his lack of stable character prevented his gifts from maturing. "He -pursued all sorts of occupations to support himself, viz. those of -preacher, teacher of Jews and Christians, reader of prayers, -interpreter, writer, proof-reader, bookseller, broker, merchant, rabbi, -musician, matchmaker and manufacturer of amulets." Though he failed to -rise to real distinction he earned a place by his criticism of the -Talmud among those who prepared the way for the new learning in Judaism. -One of Leon's most effective works was his attack on the Kabbala (_'Ari -Nohem_, first published in 1840), for in it he demonstrated that the -"Bible of the Kabbalists" (the _Zohar_) was a modern composition. He -became best known, however, as the interpreter of Judaism to the -Christian world. At the instance of an English nobleman he prepared an -account of the religious customs of the Synagogue, _Riti Ebraici_ -(1637). This book was widely read by Christians; it was rendered into -various languages, and in 1650 was translated into English by Edward -Chilmead. At the time the Jewish question was coming to the fore in -London, and Leon of Modena's book did much to stimulate popular -interest. He died at Venice. - - See Graetz, _History of the Jews_ (Eng. trans.), vol. v. ch. iii.; - _Jewish Encyclopedia_, viii. 6; Geiger, _Leon de Modena_. (I. A.) - - - - -LEON, or LEON DE LAS ALDAMAS, a city of the state of Guanajuato, Mexico, -209 m. N.W. of the federal capital and 30 m. W. by N. of the city of -Guanajuato. Pop. (1895) 90,978; (1900) 62,623, Leon ranking fourth in -the latter year among the cities of Mexico. The Mexican Central gives it -railway connexion with the national capital and other prominent cities -of the Republic. Leon stands in a fertile plain on the banks of the -Turbio, a tributary of the Rio Grande de Lerma, at an elevation of 5862 -ft. above sea-level and in the midst of very attractive surroundings. -The country about Leon is considered to be one of the richest -cereal-producing districts of Mexico. The city itself is subject to -disastrous floods, sometimes leading to loss of life as well as damage -to property, as in the great flood of 1889. Leon is essentially a -manufacturing and commercial city; it has a cathedral and a theatre, -the latter one of the largest and finest in the republic. The city is -regularly built, with wide streets and numerous shady parks and gardens. -It manufactures saddlery and other leather work, gold and silver -embroideries, cotton and woollen goods, especially _rebozos_ (long -shawls), soap and cutlery. There are also tanneries and flour mills. The -city has a considerable trade in wheat and flour. The first settlement -of Leon occurred in 1552, but its formal foundation was in 1576, and it -did not reach the dignity of a city until 1836. - - - - -LEON, the capital of the department of Leon, Nicaragua, an episcopal -see, and the largest city in the republic, situated midway between Lake -Managua and the Pacific Ocean, 50 m. N.W. of Managua, on the railway -from that city to the Pacific port of Corinto. Pop. (1905) about 45,000, -including the Indian town of Subtiaba. Leon covers a very wide area, -owing to its gardens and plantations. Its houses are usually -one-storeyed, built of adobe and roofed with red tiles; its public -buildings are among the finest in Central America. The massive and -elaborately ornamented cathedral was built in the Renaissance style -between 1746 and 1774; a Dominican church in Subtiaba is little less -striking. The old (1678) and new (1873) episcopal palaces, the hospital, -the university and the barracks (formerly a Franciscan monastery) are -noteworthy examples of Spanish colonial architecture. Leon has a large -general trade, and manufactures cotton and woollen fabrics, ice, cigars, -boots, shoes and saddlery; its tanneries supply large quantities of -cheap leather for export. But its population (about 60,000 in 1850) -tends to decrease. - -At the time of the Spanish conquest Subtiaba was the residence of the -great cacique of Nagrando, and contained an important Indian temple. The -city of Leon, founded by Francisco Hernandez de Cordova in 1523, was -originally situated at the head of the western bay of Lake Managua, and -was not removed to its present position till 1610. Thomas Gage, who -visited it in 1665, describes it as a splendid city; and in 1685 it -yielded rich booty to William Dampier (q.v.). Until 1855 Leon was the -capital of Nicaragua, although its great commercial rival Granada -contested its claim to that position, and the jealousy between the two -cities often resulted in bloodshed. Leon was identified with the -interests of the democracy of Nicaragua, Granada with the clerical and -aristocratic parties. - - See NICARAGUA; E. G. Squier, _Central America_, vol. i. (1856); and T. - Gage, _Through Mexico_, &c. (1665). - - - - -LEON, the name of a modern province and of an ancient kingdom, -captaincy-general and province in north-western Spain. The modern -province, founded in 1833, is bounded on the N. by Oviedo, N.E. by -Santander, E. by Palencia, S. by Valladolid and Zamora and W. by Orense -and Lugo. Pop. (1900) 386,083. Area, 5986 sq. m. The boundaries of the -province on the north and west, formed respectively by the central ridge -and southerly offshoots of the Cantabrian Mountains (q.v.), are strongly -marked; towards the south-east the surface merges imperceptibly into the -Castilian plateau, the line of demarcation being for the most part -merely conventional. Leon belongs partly to the river system of the Mino -(see SPAIN), partly to that of the Duero or Douro (q.v.), these being -separated by the Montanas de Leon, which extend in a continuous wall -(with passes at Manzanal and Poncebadon) from north to south-west. To -the north-west of the Montanas de Leon is the richly wooded pastoral and -highland district known as the Vierzo, which in its lower valleys -produces grain, fruit, and wine in abundance. The Tierra del Campo in -the west of the province is fairly productive, but in need of -irrigation. The whole province is sparsely peopled. Apart from -agriculture, stock-raising and mining, its commerce and industries are -unimportant. Cattle, mules, butter, leather, coal and iron are exported. -The hills of Leon were worked for gold in the time of the Romans; iron -is still obtained, and coal-mining developed considerably towards the -close of the 19th century. The only towns with more than 5000 -inhabitants in 1900 were Leon (15,580) and Astorga (5573) (q.v.). The -main railway from Madrid to Corunna passes through the province, and -there are branches from the city of Leon to Vierzo, Oviedo, and the -Biscayan port of Gijon. - -At the time of the Roman conquest, the province was inhabited by the -Vettones and Callaici; it afterwards formed part of Hispania -Tarraconensis. Among the Christian kingdoms which arose in Spain as the -Moorish invasion of the 8th century receded, Leon was one of the oldest. -The title of king of Leon was first assumed by Ordono in 913. Ferdinand -I. (the Great) of Castile united the crowns of Castile and Leon in the -11th century; the two were again separated in the 12th, until a final -union took place (1230) in the person of St Ferdinand. The limits of the -kingdom varied with the vicissitudes of war, but roughly speaking it may -be said to have embraced what are now the provinces of Leon, Palencia, -Valladolid, Zamora and Salamanca. For a detailed account of this -kingdom, see SPAIN: _History_. The captaincy-general of the province of -Leon before 1833 included Leon, Zamora and Salamanca. The Leonese, or -inhabitants of these three provinces, have less individuality, in -character and physique, than the people of Galicia, Catalonia or -Andalusia, who are quite distinct from what is usually regarded as the -central or national Spanish type, i.e. the Castilian. The Leonese belong -partly to the Castilian section of the Spaniards, partly to the -north-western section which includes the Galicians and Asturians. They -have comparatively few of the Moorish traits which are so marked in the -south and east of Spain. Near Astorga there dwells a curious tribe, the -Maragatos, sometimes considered to be a remnant of the original -Celtiberian inhabitants. As a rule the Maragatos earn their living as -muleteers or carriers; they wear a distinctive costume, mix as little as -possible with their neighbours and do not marry outside their own tribe. - - - - -LEON, an episcopal see and the capital of the Spanish province of Leon, -situated on a hill 2631 ft. above sea-level, in the angle made by the -Torio and Bernesga, streams which unite on the south, and form the river -Leon, a tributary of the Esla. Pop. (1900) 15,580. Leon is on the main -railway from Madrid to Oviedo, and is connected with Astorga by a branch -line. The older quarters of the city, which contain the cathedral and -other medieval buildings, are surrounded by walls, and have lost little -of their beauty and interest from the restoration carried out in the -second half of the 19th century. During the same period new suburbs grew -up outside the walls to house the industrial population which was -attracted by the development of iron-founding and the manufacture of -machinery, railway-plant, chemicals and leather. Leon thus comprises two -towns--the old, which is mainly ecclesiastical in its character, and the -new, which is industrial. The cathedral, founded in 1199 and only -finished at the close of the 14th century, is built of a warm -cream-coloured stone, and is remarkable for simplicity, lightness and -strength. It is one of the finest examples of Spanish Gothic, smaller, -indeed, than the cathedrals of Burgos and Toledo, but exquisite in -design and workmanship. The chapter library contains some valuable -manuscripts. The collegiate church of San Isidoro was founded by -Ferdinand I. of Castile in 1063 and consecrated in 1149. Its -architecture is Romanesque. The church contains some fine plate, -including the silver reliquary in which the bones of St Isidore of -Seville are preserved, and a silver processional cross dating from the -16th century, which is one of the most beautiful in the country. The -convent and church of San Marcos, planned in 1514 by Ferdinand the -Catholic, founded by Charles V. in 1537, and consecrated in 1541, are -Renaissance in style. They are built on the site of a hostel used by -pilgrims on their way to Santiago de Compostela. The provincial museum -occupies the chapterhouse and contains some interesting Roman monuments. -The lower part of the city walls consists of Roman masonry dating from -the 3rd century. Other buildings are the high school, ecclesiastical -seminaries, hospital, episcopal palace and municipal and provincial -halls. - -Leon (Arab. _Liyun_) owes its name to the Legio Septima Gemina of Galba, -which, under the later emperors, had its headquarters here. About 540 -Leon fell into the hands of the Gothic king Leovigild, and in 717 it -capitulated to the Moors. Retaken about 742, it ultimately, in the -beginning of the 10th century, became the capital of the kingdom of Leon -(see SPAIN: _History_). About 996 it was taken by Almansur, but on his -death soon afterwards it reverted to the Spaniards. It was the seat of -several ecclesiastical councils, the first of which was held under -Alphonso V. in 1012 and the last in 1288. - - - - -LEONARDO DA VINCI (1452-1519), the great Italian painter, sculptor, -architect, musician, mechanician, engineer and natural philosopher, was -the son of a Florentine lawyer, born out of wedlock by a mother in a -humble station, variously described as a peasant and as of gentle birth. -The place of his birth was Vinci, a _castello_ or fortified hill village -in the Florentine territory near Empoli, from which his father's family -derived its name. The Christian name of the father was Piero (the son of -Antonio the son of Piero the son of Guido, all of whom had been men of -law like their descendant). Leonardo's mother was called Catarina. Her -relations with Ser Piero da Vinci seem to have come to an end almost -immediately upon the birth of their son. She was soon afterwards married -to one Accattabriga di Piero del Vacca, of Vinci. Ser Piero on his part -was four times married, and had by his last two wives nine sons and two -daughters; but he had from the first acknowledged the boy Leonardo and -brought him up in his own house, principally, no doubt, at Florence. In -that city Ser Piero followed his profession with success, as notary to -many of the chief families in the city, including the Medici, and -afterwards to the signory or governing council of the state. The son -born to him before marriage grew up into a youth of shining promise. To -splendid beauty and activity of person he joined a winning charm of -temper and manners, a tact for all societies, and an aptitude for all -accomplishments. An inexhaustible intellectual energy and curiosity lay -beneath this amiable surface. Among the multifarious pursuits to which -the young Leonardo set his hand, the favourites at first were music, -drawing and modelling. His father showed some of his drawings to an -acquaintance, Andrea del Verrocchio, who at once recognized the boy's -artistic vocation, and was selected by Ser Piero to be his master. - -Verrocchio, although hardly one of the great creative or inventive -forces in the art of his age at Florence, was a first-rate craftsman -alike as goldsmith, sculptor and painter, and particularly distinguished -as a teacher. In his studio Leonardo worked for several years (about -1470-1477) in the company of Lorenzo di Credi and other less celebrated -pupils. Among his contemporaries he formed special ties of friendship -with the painters Sandro Botticelli and Pietro Perugino. He had soon -learnt all that Verrocchio had to teach--more than all, if we are to -believe the oft-told tale of the figure, or figures, executed by the -pupil in the picture of Christ's Baptism designed by the master for the -monks of Vallombrosa. The work in question is now in the Academy at -Florence. According to Vasari the angel kneeling on the left, with a -drapery over the right arm, was put in by Leonardo, and when Verrocchio -saw it his sense of its superiority to his own work caused him to -forswear painting for ever after. The latter part of the story is -certainly false. The picture, originally painted in tempera, has -suffered much from later repaints in oil, rendering exact judgment -difficult. The most competent opinion inclines to acknowledge the hand -of Leonardo, not only in the face of the angel, but also in parts of the -drapery and of the landscape background. The work was probably done in -or about 1470, when Leonardo was eighteen years old. By 1472 we find him -enrolled in the lists of the painters' gild at Florence. Here he -continued to live and work for ten or eleven years longer. Up till 1477 -he is still spoken of as a pupil or apprentice of Verrocchio; but in -that year he seems to have been taken into special favour by Lorenzo the -Magnificent, and to have worked as an independent artist under his -patronage until 1482-1483. In 1478 we find him receiving an important -commission from the signory, and in 1480 another from the monks of San -Donato in Scopeto. - -Leonardo was not one of those artists of the Renaissance who sought the -means of reviving the ancient glories of art mainly in the imitation of -ancient models. The antiques of the Medici gardens seem to have had -little influence on him beyond that of generally stimulating his passion -for perfection. By his own instincts he was an exclusive student of -nature. From his earliest days he had flung himself upon that study -with an unprecedented ardour of delight and curiosity. In drawing from -life he had early found the way to unite precision with freedom and -fire--the subtlest accuracy of expressive definition with vital movement -and rhythm of line--as no draughtsman had been able to unite them -before. He was the first painter to recognize the play of light and -shade as among the most significant and attractive of the world's -appearances, the earlier schools having with one consent subordinated -light and shade to colour and outline. Nor was he a student of the -broad, usual, patent appearances only of the world; its fugitive, -fantastic, unaccustomed appearances attracted him most of all. Strange -shapes of hills and rocks, rare plants and animals, unusual faces and -figures of men, questionable smiles and expressions, whether beautiful -or grotesque, far-fetched objects and curiosities, were things he loved -to pore upon and keep in memory. Neither did he stop at mere appearances -of any kind, but, having stamped the image of things upon his brain, -went on indefatigably to probe their hidden laws and causes. He soon -satisfied himself that the artist who was content to reproduce the -external aspects of things without searching into the hidden workings of -nature behind them, was one but half equipped for his calling. Every -fresh artistic problem immediately became for him a far-reaching -scientific problem as well. The laws of light and shade, the laws of -"perspective," including optics and the physiology of the eye, the laws -of human and animal anatomy and muscular movement, those of the growth -and structure of plants and of the powers and properties of water, all -these and much more furnished food almost from the beginning to his -insatiable spirit of inquiry. - -The evidence of the young man's predilections and curiosities is -contained in the legends which tell of lost works produced by him in -youth. One of these was a cartoon or monochrome painting of Adam and Eve -in tempera, and in this, besides the beauty of the figures, the infinite -truth and elaboration of the foliage and animals in the background are -celebrated in terms which bring to mind the treatment of the subject by -Albrecht Durer in his famous engraving done thirty years later. Again, a -peasant of Vinci having in his simplicity asked Ser Piero to get a -picture painted for him on a wooden shield, the father is said to have -laughingly handed on the commission to his son, who thereupon shut -himself up with all the noxious insects and grotesque reptiles he could -find, observed and drew and dissected them assiduously, and produced at -last a picture of a dragon compounded of their various shapes and -aspects, which was so fierce and so life-like as to terrify all who saw -it. With equal research and no less effect he painted on another -occasion the head of a snaky-haired Medusa. (A picture of this subject -which long did duty at the Uffizi for Leonardo's work is in all -likelihood merely the production of some later artist to whom the -descriptions of that work have given the cue.) Lastly, Leonardo is -related to have begun work in sculpture about this time by modelling -several heads of smiling women and children. - -Of certified and accepted paintings produced by the young genius, -whether during his apprentice or his independent years at Florence -(about 1470-1482), very few are extant, and the two most important are -incomplete. A small and charming strip of an oblong "Annunciation" at -the Louvre is generally accepted as his work, done soon after 1470; a -very highly wrought drawing at the Uffizi, corresponding on a larger -scale to the head of the Virgin in the same picture, seems rather to be -a copy by a later hand. This little Louvre "Annunciation" is not very -compatible in style with another and larger, much-debated "Annunciation" -at the Uffizi, which manifestly came from the workshop of Verrocchio -about 1473-1474, and which many critics claim confidently for the young -Leonardo. It may have been joint studio-work of Verrocchio and his -pupils including Leonardo, who certainly was concerned in it, since a -study for the sleeve of the angel, preserved at Christ Church, Oxford, -is unquestionably by his hand. The landscape, with its mysterious spiry -mountains and winding waters, is very Leonardesque both in this picture -and in another contemporary product of the workshop, or as some think -of Leonardo's hand, namely a very highly and coldly finished small -"Madonna with a Pink" at Munich. The likeness he is recorded to have -painted of Ginevra de' Benci used to be traditionally identified with -the fine portrait of a matron at the Pitti absurdly known as _La -Monaca_: more lately it has been recognized in a rather dull, -expressionless Verrocchiesque portrait of a young woman with a fanciful -background of pine-sprays in the Liechtenstein gallery at Vienna. -Neither attribution can be counted convincing. Several works of -sculpture, including a bas-relief at Pistoia and a small terra-cotta -model of a St John at the Victoria and Albert Museum, have also been -claimed, but without general consent, as the young master's handiwork. -Of many brilliant early drawings by him, the first that can be dated is -a study of landscape done in 1473. A magnificent silver-point head of a -Roman warrior at the British Museum was clearly done, from or for a -bas-relief, under the immediate influence of Verrocchio. A number of -studies of heads in pen or silver point, with some sketches for -Madonnas, including a charming series in the British Museum for a -"Madonna with the Cat," may belong to the same years or the first years -of his independence. A sheet with two studies of heads bears a MS. note -of 1478, saying that in one of the last months of that year he began -painting the "Two Maries." One of the two may have been a picture of the -Virgin appearing to St Bernard, which we know he was commissioned to -paint in that year for a chapel in the Palace of the Signory, but never -finished: the commission was afterwards transferred to Filippino Lippi, -whose performance is now in the Badia. One of the two heads on this -dated sheet may probably have been a study for the same St Bernard; it -was used afterwards by some follower for a St Leonard in a stiff and -vapid "Ascension of Christ," wrongly attributed to the master himself in -the Berlin Museum. A pen-drawing representing a ringleader of the Pazzi -conspiracy, Bernardo Baroncelli, hung out of a window of the Bargello -after his surrender by the sultan at Constantinople to the emissaries of -Florence, can be dated from its subject as done in December 1479. A -number of his best drawings of the next following years are preparatory -pen-studies for an altar-piece of the "Adoration of the Magi," -undertaken early in 1481 on the commission of the monks of S. Donato at -Scopeto. The preparation in monochrome for this picture, a work of -extraordinary power both of design and physiognomical expression, is -preserved at the Uffizi, but the painting itself was never carried out, -and after Leonardo's failure to fulfil his contract Filippino Lippi had -once more to be employed in his place. Of equal or even more intense -power, though of narrower scope, is an unfinished monochrome preparation -for a St Jerome, found accidentally at Rome by Cardinal Fesch and now in -the Vatican gallery; this also seems to belong to the first Florentine -period, but is not mentioned in documents. - -The tale of completed work for these twelve or fourteen years (1470-1483 -or thereabouts) is thus very scanty. But it must be remembered that -Leonardo was already full of projects in mechanics, hydraulics, -architecture, and military and civil engineering, ardently feeling his -way in the work of experimental study and observation in every branch of -theoretical or applied science in which any beginning had been made in -his age, as well as in some in which he was himself the first pioneer. -He was full of new ideas concerning both the laws and the applications -of mechanical forces. His architectural and engineering projects were of -a daring which amazed even the fellow-citizens of Alberti and -Brunelleschi. History presents few figures more attractive to the mind's -eye than that of Leonardo during this period of his all-capable and -dazzling youth. He did not indeed escape calumny, and was even denounced -on a charge of immoral practices, but fully and honourably acquitted. -There was nothing about him, as there was afterwards about Michelangelo, -dark-tempered, secret or morose; he was open and genial with all men. He -has indeed praised "the self-sufficing power of solitude" in almost the -same phrase as Wordsworth, and from time to time would even in youth -seclude himself for a season in complete intellectual absorption, as -when he toiled among his bats and wasps and lizards, forgetful of rest -and food, and insensible to the noisomeness of their corruption. But we -have to picture him as anon coming out and gathering about him a -tatterdemalion company, and jesting with them until they were in fits of -laughter, for the sake of observing their burlesque physiognomies; anon -as eagerly frequenting the society of men of science and learning of an -older generation like the mathematician Benedetto Aritmetico, the -physician, geographer and astronomer Paolo Toscanelli, the famous Greek -Aristotelian Giovanni Argiropoulo; or as out-rivalling all the youth of -the city now by charm of recitation, now by skill in music and now by -feats of strength and horsemanship; or as stopping to buy caged birds in -the market that he might set them free and watch them rejoicing in their -flight; or again as standing radiant in his rose-coloured cloak and his -rich gold hair among the throng of young and old on the piazza, and -holding them spellbound while he expatiated on the great projects in art -and mechanics that were teeming in his mind. Unluckily it is to written -records and to imagination that we have to trust exclusively for our -picture. No portrait of Leonardo as he appeared during this period of -his life has come down to us. - -But his far-reaching schemes and studies brought him no immediate gain, -and diverted him from the tasks by which he should have supported -himself. For all his shining power and promise he remained poor. -Probably also his exclusive belief in experimental methods, and slight -regard for mere authority whether in science or art made the -intellectual atmosphere of the Medicean circle, with its passionate -mixed cult of the classic past and of a Christianity mystically blended -and reconciled with Platonism, uncongenial to him. At any rate he was -ready to leave Florence when the chance was offered him of fixed service -at the court of Ludovico Sforza (il Moro) at Milan. Soon after that -prince had firmly established his power as nominal guardian and -protector of his nephew Gian Galeazzo but really as usurping ruler of -the state, he revived a project previously mooted for the erection of an -equestrian monument in honour of the founder of his house's greatness, -Francesco Sforza, and consulted Lorenzo dei Medici on the choice of an -artist. Lorenzo recommended the young Leonardo, who went to Milan -accordingly (at some uncertain date in or about 1483), taking as a gift -from Lorenzo and a token of his own skill a silver lute of wondrous -sweetness fashioned in the likeness of a horse's head. Hostilities were -at the moment imminent between Milan and Venice; it was doubtless on -that account that in the letter commending himself to the duke, and -setting forth his own capacities, Leonardo rests his title to patronage -chiefly on his attainments and inventions in military engineering. After -asserting these in detail under nine different heads, he speaks under a -tenth of his proficiency as a civil engineer and architect, and adds -lastly a brief paragraph with reference to what he can do in painting -and sculpture, undertaking in particular to carry out in a fitting -manner the monument to Francesco Sforza. - -The first definite documentary evidence of Leonardo's employments at -Milan dates from 1487. Some biographers have supposed that the interval, -or part of it, between 1483 and that date was occupied by travels in the -East. The grounds of the supposition are some drafts occurring among his -MSS. of a letter addressed to the _diodario_ or _diwadar_ of Syria, -lieutenant of the sultan of Babylon (Babylon meaning according to a -usage of that time Cairo). In these drafts Leonardo describes in the -first person, with sketches, a traveller's strange experiences in Egypt, -Cyprus, Constantinople, the Cilician coasts about Mount Taurus and -Armenia. He relates the rise and persecution of a prophet and preacher, -the catastrophe of a falling mountain and submergence of a great city, -followed by a general inundation, and the claim of the prophet to have -foretold these disasters; adding physical descriptions of the Euphrates -river and the marvellous effects of sunset light on the Taurus range. No -contemporary gives the least hint of Leonardo's having travelled in the -East; to the places he mentions he gives their classical and not their -current Oriental names; the catastrophes he describes are unattested -from any other source; he confuses the Taurus and the Caucasus; some of -the phenomena he mentions are repeated from Aristotle and Ptolemy; and -there seems little reason to doubt that these passages in his MSS. are -merely his drafts of a projected geographical treatise or perhaps -romance. He had a passion for geography and travellers' tales, for -descriptions of natural wonders and ruined cities, and was himself a -practised fictitious narrator and fabulist, as other passages in his -MSS. prove. Neither is the gap in the account of his doings after he -first went to the court of Milan really so complete as has been -represented. Ludovico was vehemently denounced and attacked during the -earlier years of his usurpation, especially by the partisans of his -sister-in-law Bona of Savoy, the mother of the rightful duke, young Gian -Galeazzo. To repel these attacks he employed the talents of a number of -court poets and artists, who in public recitation and pageant, in -emblematic picture and banner and device, proclaimed the wisdom and -kindness of his guardianship and the wickedness of his assailants. That -Leonardo was among the artists thus employed is proved both by notes and -projects among his MSS. and by allegoric sketches still extant. Several -such sketches are at Christ Church, Oxford: one shows a horned hag or -she-fiend urging her hounds to an attack on the state of Milan, and -baffled by the Prudence and Justice of Il Moro (all this made clear by -easily recognizable emblems). The allusion must almost certainly be to -the attempted assassination of Ludovico by agents of the duchess Bona in -1484. Again, it must have been the pestilence decimating Milan in -1484-1485 which gave occasion to the projects submitted by Leonardo to -Ludovico for breaking up the city and reconstructing it on improved -sanitary principles. To 1485-1486 also appears to belong the inception -of his elaborate though unfulfilled architectural plans for beautifying -and strengthening the _Castello_, the great stronghold of the ruling -power in the state. Very soon afterwards he must have begun work upon -his plans and models, undertaken during an acute phase of the -competition which the task had called forth between German and Italian -architects, for another momentous enterprise, the completion of Milan -cathedral. Extant records of payments made to him in connexion with -these architectural plans extend from August 1487 to May 1490: in the -upshot none of them was carried out. From the beginning of his residence -with Ludovico his combination of unprecedented mechanical ingenuity with -apt allegoric invention and courtly charm and eloquence had made him the -directing spirit in all court ceremonies and festivities. On the -occasion of the marriage of the young duke Gian Galeazzo with Isabella -of Aragon in 1487, we find Leonardo devising all the mechanical and -spectacular part of a masque of Paradise; and presently afterwards -designing a bathing pavilion of unheard-of beauty and ingenuity for the -young duchess. Meanwhile he was filling his note-books as busily as ever -with the results of his studies in statics and dynamics, in human -anatomy, geometry and the phenomena of light and shade. It is probable -that from the first he had not forgotten his great task of the Sforza -monument, with its attendant researches in equine movement and anatomy, -and in the science and art of bronze casting on a great scale. The many -existing sketches for the work (of which the chief collection is at -Windsor) cannot be distinctly dated. In 1490, the seventh year of his -residence at Milan, after some expressions of impatience on the part of -his patron, he had all but got his model ready for display on the -occasion of the marriage of Ludovico with Beatrice d'Este, but at the -last moment was dissatisfied with what he had done and determined to -begin all over again. - -In the same year, 1490, Leonardo enjoyed some months of uninterrupted -mathematical and physical research in the libraries and among the -learned men of Pavia, whither he had been called to advise on some -architectural difficulties concerning the cathedral. Here also the study -of an ancient equestrian monument (the so-called _Regisole_, destroyed -in 1796) gave him fresh ideas for his Francesco Sforza. In January 1491 -a double Sforza-Este marriage (Ludovico Sforza himself with Beatrice -d'Este, Alfonso d'Este with Anna Sforza the sister of Gian Galeazzo) -again called forth his powers as a masque and pageant-master. For the -next following years the ever-increasing gaiety and splendour of the -Milanese court gave him continual employment in similar kinds, including -the composition and recitation of jests, tales, fables and "prophecies" -(i.e. moral and social satires and allegories cast in the future tense); -among his MSS. occur the drafts of many such, some of them both profound -and pungent. Meanwhile he was again at work upon the monument to -Francesco Sforza, and this time to practical purpose. When ambassadors -from Austria came to Milan towards the close of 1493 to escort the -betrothed bride of their emperor Maximilian, Bianca Maria Sforza, away -on her nuptial journey, the finished colossal model, 26 ft. high, was at -last in its place for all to see in the courtyard of the Castello. -Contemporary accounts attest the magnificence of the work and the -enthusiasm it excited, but are not precise enough to enable us to judge -to which of the two main groups of extant sketches its design -corresponded. One of these groups shows the horse and rider in -relatively tranquil march, in the manner of the Gattemalata monument put -up fifty years before by Donatello at Padua and the Colleoni monument on -which Verocchio was now engaged at Venice. Another group of sketches -shows the horse galloping or rearing in violent action, in some -instances in the act of trampling a fallen enemy. Neither is it possible -to discriminate with certainty the sketches intended for the Sforza -monument from others which Leonardo may have done in view of another and -later commission for an equestrian statue, namely, that in honour of -Ludovico's great enemy, Gian Giacomo Trivulzio. - -The year 1494 is a momentous one in the history of Italian politics. In -that year the long ousted and secluded prince, Gian Galeazzo, died under -circumstances more than suspicious. In that year Ludovico, now duke of -Milan in his own right, for the strengthening of his power against -Naples, first entered into those intrigues with Charles VIII. of France -which later brought upon Italy successive floods of invasion, revolution -and calamity. The same year was one of special importance in the -prodigiously versatile activities of Leonardo da Vinci. Documents show -him, among other things, planning during an absence of several months -from the city vast new engineering works for improving the irrigation -and water-ways of the Lomellina and adjacent regions of the Lombard -plain; ardently studying phenomena of storm and lightning, of river -action and of mountain structure; co-operating with his friend, Donato -Bramante, the great architect, in fresh designs for the improvement and -embellishment of the Castello at Milan; and petitioning the duke to -secure him proper payment for a Madonna lately executed with the help of -his pupil, Ambrogio de Predis, for the brotherhood of the Conception of -St Francis at Milan. (This is almost certainly the fine, slightly -altered second version of the "Virgin of the Rocks," now in the National -Gallery, London. The original and earlier version is one of the glories -of the Louvre, and shows far more of a Florentine and less of a Milanese -character than the London picture.) In the same year, 1494, or early in -the next, Leonardo, if Vasari is to be trusted, paid a visit to Florence -to take part in deliberations concerning the projected new council-hall -to be constructed in the palace of the Signory. Lastly, recent research -has proved that it was in 1494 that Leonardo got to work in earnest on -what was to prove not only by far his greatest but by far his most -expeditiously and steadily executed work in painting. This was the "Last -Supper" undertaken for the refectory of the convent church of Sta Maria -delle Grazie at Milan on the joint commission (as it would appear) of -Ludovico and of the monks themselves. - -This picture, the world-famous "Cenacolo" of Leonardo, has been the -subject of much erroneous legend and much misdirected experiment. Having -through centuries undergone cruel injury, from technical imperfections -at the outset, from disastrous atmospheric conditions, from vandalism -and neglect, and most of all from unskilled repair, its remains have at -last (1904-1908) been treated with a mastery of scientific resource and -a tenderness of conscientious skill that have revived for ourselves and -for posterity a great part of its power. At the same time its true -history has been investigated and re-established. The intensity of -intellectual and manual application which Leonardo threw into the work -is proved by the fact that he finished it within four years, in spite of -all his other avocations and of those prolonged pauses of concentrated -imaginative effort and intense self-critical brooding to which we have -direct contemporary witness. He painted the picture on the wall in -tempera, not, according to the legend which sprung up within twenty -years of its completion, in oil. The tempera vehicle, perhaps including -new experimental ingredients, did not long hold firmly to its plaster -ground, nor that to the wall. Flaking and scaling set in; hard crusts of -mildew formed, dissolved and re-formed with changes of weather over both -the loosened parts and those that remained firm. Decade after decade -these processes went on, a rain of minute scales and grains falling, -according to one witness, continually from the surface, till the picture -seemed to be perishing altogether. In the 18th century attempts were -first made at restoration. They all proceeded on the false assumption, -dating from the early years of the 16th century, that the work had been -executed in oil. With oil it was accordingly at one time saturated in -hopes of reviving the colours. Other experimenters tried various -"secrets," which for the most part meant deleterious glues and -varnishes. Fortunately not very much of actual repainting was -accomplished except on some parts of the garments. The chief operations -were carried on by Bellotti in 1726, by Mazza in 1770, and by Barezzi in -1819 and the following years. None of them arrested, some actually -accelerated, the natural agencies of damp and disintegration, decay and -mildew. Yet this mere ghost of a picture, this evocation, half vanished -as it was, by a great world-genius of a mighty spiritual world-event, -remained a thing indescribably impressive. The ghost has now been -brought back to much of true life again by the skill of the most -scrupulous of all restorers, Cavaliere Cavenaghi, who, acting under the -authority of a competent commission, and after long and patient -experiment, found it possible to secure to the wall the innumerable -blistered, mildewed and half-detached flakes and scales of the original -work that yet remained, to clear the surface thus obtained of much of -the obliterating accretions due to decay and mishandling, and to bring -the whole to unity by touching tenderly in with tempera the spots and -spaces actually left bare. A further gain obtained through these -operations has been the uncovering, immediately above the main subject, -of a beautiful scheme of painted lunettes and vaultings, the lunettes -filled by Leonardo's hand with inscribed scutcheons and interlaced plait -or knot ornaments (_intrecciamenti_), the vaultings with stars on a blue -ground. The total result, if adequate steps can be taken to counteract -the effects of atmospheric change in future, will remain a splendid gain -for posterity and a happy refutation of D'Annunzio's despairing poem, -the _Death of a Masterpiece_. - -Leonardo's "Last Supper," for all its injuries, became from the first, -and has ever since remained, for all Christendom the typical -representation of the scene. Goethe in his famous criticism has said all -that needs to be said of it. The painter has departed from precedent in -grouping the disciples, with their Master in the midst, along the far -side and the two ends of a long, narrow table, and in leaving the near -or service side of the table towards the spectator free. The chamber is -seen in a perfectly symmetrical perspective, its rear wall pierced by -three plain openings which admit the sense of quiet distance and mystery -from the open landscape beyond; by the central of these openings, which -is the widest of the three, the head and shoulders of the Saviour are -framed in. On His right and left are ranged the disciples in equal -numbers. The furniture and accessories of the chamber, very simply -conceived, have been rendered with scrupulous exactness and -distinctness; yet they leave to the human and dramatic elements the -absolute mastery of the scene. The serenity of the holy company has -within a moment been broken by the words of their Master, "One of you -shall betray Me." In the agitation of their consciences and affections, -the disciples have started into groups or clusters along the table, -some standing, some still remaining seated. There are four of these -groups, of three disciples each, and each group is harmoniously -interlinked by some natural connecting action with the next. Leonardo, -though no special student of the Greeks, has perfectly carried out the -Greek principle of expressive variety in particulars subordinated to -general symmetry. He has used all his acquired science of linear and -aerial perspective to create an almost complete illusion to the eye, but -an illusion that has in it nothing trivial, and in heightening our sense -of the material reality of the scene only heightens its profound -spiritual impressiveness and gravity. The results of his intensest -meditations on the psychology and the human and divine significance of -the event (on which he has left some pregnant hints in written words of -his own) are perfectly fused with those of his subtlest technical -calculations on the rhythmical balancing of groups and arrangement of -figures in space. - -Of authentic preparatory studies for this work there remain but few. -There is a sheet at the Louvre of much earlier date than the first idea -or commission for this particular picture, containing some nude sketches -for the arrangement of the subject; another later and farther advanced, -but still probably anterior to the practical commission, at Venice, and -a MS. sheet of great interest at the Victoria and Albert Museum, on -which the painter has noted in writing the dramatic motives appropriate -to the several disciples. At Windsor and Milan are a few finished -studies in red chalk for the heads. A highly-reputed series of -life-sized chalk drawings of the same heads, of which the greater -portion is at Weimar, consists of early copies, and is interesting -though having no just claim to originality. Scarcely less doubtful is -the celebrated unfinished and injured study of the head of Christ at the -Brera, Milan. - -Leonardo's triumph with his "Last Supper" encouraged him in the hope of -proceeding now to the casting of the Sforza monument or "Great Horse," -the model of which had stood for the last three years the admiration of -all beholders, in the Corte Vecchio of the Castello. He had formed a new -and close friendship with Luca Pacioli of Borgo San Sepolcro, the great -mathematician, whose _Summa de aritmetica_, _geometrica_, &c., he had -eagerly bought at Pavia on its first appearance, and who arrived at the -Court of Milan about the moment of the completion of the "Cenacolo." -Pacioli was equally amazed and delighted at Leonardo's two great -achievements in sculpture and painting, and still more at the genius for -mathematical, physical and anatomical research shown in the collections -of MS. notes which the master laid before him. The two began working -together on the materials for Pacioli's next book, _De divina -proportione_. Leonardo obtained Pacioli's help in calculations and -measurements for the great task of casting the bronze horse and man. But -he was soon called away by Ludovico to a different undertaking, the -completion of the interior decorations, already begun by another hand -and interrupted, of certain chambers of the Castello called the _Saletta -Negra_ and the _Sala Grande dell' Asse_, or _Sala della Torre_. When, in -the last decade of the 19th century, works of thorough architectural -investigation and repair were undertaken in that building under the -superintendence of Professor Luca Beltrami, a devoted foreign student, -Dr Paul Muller-Walde, obtained leave to scrape for traces of Leonardo's -handiwork beneath the replastered and white-washed walls and ceilings of -chambers that might be identified with these. In one small chamber there -was cleared a frieze of cupids intermingled with foliage; but in this, -after the first moments of illusion, it was only possible to acknowledge -the hand of some unknown late and lax decorator of the school, -influenced as much by Raphael as by Leonardo. In another room (_Sala del -Tesoro_) was recovered a gigantic headless figure, in all probability of -Mercury, also wrongly claimed at first for Leonardo, and afterwards, to -all appearance rightly, for Bramante. But in the great _Sala dell' Asse_ -(or _della Torre_) abundant traces of Leonardo's own hand were found, in -the shape of a decoration of intricate geometrical knot or plait work -combined with natural leafage; the abstract puzzle-pattern, of a kind -in which Leonardo took peculiar pleasure, intermingling in cunning play -and contrast with a pattern of living boughs and leaves exquisitely -drawn in free and vital growth. Sufficient portions of this design were -found in good preservation to enable the whole to be accurately -restored--a process as legitimate in such a case as censurable in the -case of a figure-painting. For these and other artistic labours Leonardo -was rewarded in 1498 (ready money being with difficulty forthcoming and -his salary being long in arrears) by the gift of a suburban garden -outside the Porta Vercelli. - -But again he could not get leave to complete the task in hand. He was -called away on duty as chief military engineer (_ingegnere camerale_) -with the special charge of inspecting and maintaining all the canals and -waterways of the duchy. Dangers were accumulating upon Ludovico and the -state of Milan. France had become Ludovico's enemy; and Louis XII., the -pope and Venice had formed a league to divide his principality among -them. He counted on baffling them by forming a counter league of the -principalities of northern Italy, and by raising the Turks against -Venice, and the Germans and Swiss against France. Germans and Swiss, -however, inopportunely fell to war against each other. Ludovico -travelled to Innsbruck, the better to push his interests (September -1499). In his absence Louis XII. invaded the Milanese, and the officers -left in charge of the city surrendered it without striking a blow. The -invading sovereign, going to Sta Maria delle Grazie with his retinue to -admire the renowned painting of the "Last Supper," asked if it could not -be detached from the wall and transported to France. The French -lieutenant in Milan, Gian Giacomo Trivulzio, the embittered enemy of -Ludovico, began exercising a vindictive tyranny over the city which had -so long accepted the sway of the usurper. Great artists were usually -exempt from the consequences of political revolutions, and Trivulzio, -now or later, commissioned Leonardo to design an equestrian monument to -himself. Leonardo, having remained unmolested at Milan for two months -under the new regime, but knowing that Ludovico was preparing a great -stroke for the re-establishment of his power, and that fresh convulsions -must ensue, thought it best to provide for his own security. In December -he left Milan with his friend Luca Pacioli, having first sent some of -his modest savings to Florence for investment. His intention was to -watch events. They took a turn which made him a stranger to Milan for -the next seven years. Ludovico, at the head of an army of Swiss -mercenaries, returned victoriously in February 1500, and was welcomed by -a population disgusted with the oppression of the invaders. But in April -he was once more overthrown by the French in a battle fought at Novara, -his Swiss clamouring at the last moment for their overdue pay, and -treacherously refusing to fight against a force of their own countrymen -led by La Tremouille. Ludovico was taken prisoner and carried to France; -the city, which had been strictly spared on the first entry of Louis -XII., was entered and sacked; and the model of Leonardo's great statue -made a butt (as eye witnesses tell) for Gascon archers. Two years later -we find the duke Ercole of Ferrara begging the French king's lieutenant -in Milan to let him have the model, injured as it was, for the adornment -of his own city; but nothing came of the petition, and within a short -time it seems to have been totally broken up. - -Thus, of Leonardo's sixteen years' work at Milan (1483-1499) the results -actually remaining are as follows: The Louvre "Virgin of the Rocks" -possibly, i.e. as to its execution; the conception and style are -essentially Florentine, carried out by Leonardo to a point of intense -and almost glittering finish, of quintessential, almost overstrained, -refinement in design and expression, and invested with a new element of -romance by the landscape in which the scene is set--a strange watered -country of basaltic caves and arches, with the lights and shadows -striking sharply and yet mysteriously among rocks, some upright, some -jutting, some pendent, all tufted here and there with exquisite growths -of shrub and flower. The National Gallery "Virgin of the Rocks" -certainly, with help from Ambrogio de Predis; in this the Florentine -character of the original is modified by an admixture of Milanese -elements, the tendency to harshness and over-elaboration of detail -softened, the strained action of the angel's pointing hand altogether -dropped, while in many places pupils' work seems recognizable beside -that of the master. The "Last Supper" of Sta Maria delle Grazie, his -masterpiece; as to its history and present condition enough has been -said. The decorations of the ceiling of the Sala della Torre in the -Castello. Other paintings done by him at Milan are mentioned, and -attempts have been made to identify them with works still existing. He -is known to have painted portraits of two of the king's mistresses, -Cecilia Gallerani and Lucrezia Crivelli. Cecilia Gallerani used to be -identified as a lady with ringlets and a lute, depicted in a portrait at -Milan, now rightly assigned to Bartolommeo Veneto. More lately she has -by some been conjecturally recognized in a doubtful, though -Leonardesque, portrait of a lady with a weasel in the Czartoryski -collection at Prague. Lucrezia Crivelli has, with no better reason, been -identified with the famous "Belle Ferronniere" (a mere misnomer, caught -from the true name of another portrait which used to hang near it) at -the Louvre; this last is either a genuine Milanese portrait by Leonardo -himself or an extraordinarily fine work of his pupil Boltraffio. Strong -claims have also been made on behalf of a fine profile portrait -resembling Beatrice d'Este in the Ambrosiana; but this the best judges -are agreed in regarding as a work, done in a lucky hour, of Ambrogio de -Predis. A portrait of a musician in the same gallery is in like manner -contested between the master and the pupil. Mention is made of a -"Nativity" painted for and sent to the emperor Maximilian, and also -apparently of some picture painted for Matthias Corvinus, king of -Hungary; both are lost or at least unidentified. The painters especially -recorded as Leonardo's immediate pupils during this part of his life at -Milan are the two before mentioned, Giovanni Antonio Boltraffio and -Ambrogio Preda or de Predis, with Marco d'Oggionno and Andrea Salai, the -last apparently less a fully-trained painter than a studio assistant and -personal attendant, devotedly attached and faithful in both capacities. -Leonardo's own native Florentine manner had at first been not a little -modified by that of the Milanese school as he found it represented in -the works of such men as Bramantino, Borgognone and Zenale; but his -genius had in its turn reacted far more strongly upon the younger -members of the school, and exercised, now or later, a transforming and -dominating influence not only upon his immediate pupils, but upon men -like Luini, Giampetrino, Bazzi, Cesare da Sesto and indeed the whole -Lombard school in the early 15th century. Of sculpture done by him -during this period we have no remains, only the tragically tantalizing -history of the Sforza monument. Of drawings there are very many, -including few only for the "Last Supper," many for the Sforza monument, -as well as the multitude of sketches, scientific and other, which we -find intermingled among the vast body of his miscellaneous MSS., notes -and records. In mechanical, scientific and theoretical studies of all -kinds it was a period, as these MSS. attest, of extraordinary activity -and self-development. At Pavia in 1494 we find him taking up literary -and grammatical studies, both in Latin and the vernacular; the former, -no doubt, in order the more easily to read those among the ancients who -had laboured in the fields that were his own, as Euclid, Galen, Celsus, -Ptolemy, Pliny, Vitruvius and, above all, Archimedes; the latter with a -growing hope of some day getting into proper form and order the mass of -materials he was daily accumulating for treatises on all his manifold -subjects of enquiry. He had been much helped by his opportunities of -intercourse with the great architects, engineers and mathematicians who -frequented the court of Milan--Bramante, Alberghetti, Andrea di Ferrara, -Pietro Monti, Fazio Cardano and, above all, Luca Pacioli. The knowledge -of Leonardo's position among and familiarity with such men early helped -to spread the idea that he had been at the head of a regularly -constituted academy of arts and sciences at Milan. The occurrence of the -words "Achademia Leonardi Vinci" on certain engravings, done after his -drawings, of geometric "knots" or puzzle-patterns (things for which we -have already learned his partiality), helped to give currency to this -impression not only in Italy but in the North, where the same -engravings were copied by Albrecht Durer. The whole notion has been -proved mistaken. There existed no such academy at Milan, with Leonardo -as president. The academies of the day represented the prevailing -intellectual tendency of Renaissance humanism, namely, an absorbing -enthusiasm for classic letters and for the transcendental speculations -of Platonic and neo-Platonic mysticism, not unmixed with the traditions -and practice of medieval alchemy, astrology and necromantics. For these -last pursuits Leonardo had nothing but contempt. His many-sided and -far-reaching studies in experimental science were mainly his own, -conceived and carried out long in advance of his time, and in communion -with only such more or less isolated spirits as were advancing along one -or another of the same paths of knowledge. He learnt indeed on these -lines eagerly wherever he could, and in learning imparted knowledge to -others. But he had no school in any proper sense except his studio, and -his only scholars were those who painted there. Of these one or two, as -we have evidence, tried their hands at engraving; among their engravings -were these "knots," which, being things of use for decorative craftsmen -to copy, were inscribed for identification, and perhaps for protection, -as coming from the Achademia Leonardi Vinci; a trifling matter -altogether, and quite unfit to sustain the elaborate structure of -conjecture which has been built on it. - -To return to the master: when he and Luca Pacioli left Milan in December -1499, their destination was Venice. They made a brief stay at Mantua, -where Leonardo was graciously received by the duchess Isabella Gonzaga, -the most cultured of the many cultured great ladies of her time, whose -portrait he promised to paint on a future day; meantime he made the fine -chalk drawing of her now at the Louvre. Arrived at Venice, he seems to -have occupied himself chiefly with studies in mathematics and -cosmography. In April the friends heard of the second and final -overthrow of Ludovico il Moro, and at that news, giving up all idea of a -return to Milan, moved on to Florence, which they found depressed both -by internal troubles and by the protraction of the indecisive and -inglorious war with Pisa. Here Leonardo undertook to paint an -altar-piece for the Church of the Annunziata, Filippino Lippi, who had -already received the commission, courteously retiring from it in his -favour. A year passed by, and no progress had been made with the -painting. Questions of physical geography and engineering engrossed him -as much as ever. He writes to correspondents making enquiries about the -tides in the Euxine and Caspian Seas. He reports for the information of -the _Arte de' Mercanti_ on the precautions to be taken against a -threatening landslip on the hill of S. Salvatore dell' Osservanza. He -submits drawings and models for the canalization and control of the -waters of the Arno, and propounds, with compulsive eloquence and -conviction, a scheme for transporting the Baptistery of St John, the -"bel San Giovanni" of Dante, to another part of the city, and elevating -it on a stately basement of marble. Meantime the Servite brothers of the -Annunziata were growing impatient for the completion of their -altar-piece. In April 1501 Leonardo had only finished the cartoon, and -this all Florence flocked to see and admire. Isabella Gonzaga, who -cherished the hope that he might be induced permanently to attach -himself to the court of Mantua, wrote about this time to ask news of -him, and to beg for a painting from him for her study, already adorned -with masterpieces by the first hands of Italy, or at least for a "small -Madonna, devout and sweet as is natural to him." In reply her -correspondent says that the master is wholly taken up with geometry and -very impatient of the brush, but at the same time tells her all about -his just completed cartoon for the Annunziata. The subject was the -Virgin seated in the lap of St Anne, bending forward to hold her child -who had half escaped from her embrace to play with a lamb upon the -ground. The description answers exactly to the composition of the -celebrated picture of the Virgin and St Anne at the Louvre. A cartoon of -this composition in the Esterhazy collection at Vienna is held to be -only a copy, and the original cartoon must be regarded as lost. But -another of kindred though not identical motive has come down to us and -is preserved in the Diploma Gallery at the Royal Academy. In this -incomparable work St Anne, pointing upward with her left hand, smiles -with an intense look of wondering, questioning, inward sweetness into -the face of the Virgin, who in her turn smiles down upon her child as He -leans from her lap to give the blessing to the little St John standing -beside her. Evidently two different though nearly related designs had -been maturing in Leonardo's mind. A rough first sketch for the motive of -the Academy cartoon is in the British Museum; one for the motive of the -lost cartoon and of the Louvre picture is at Venice. No painting by -Leonardo from the Academy cartoon exists, but in the Ambrosiana at Milan -there is one by Luini, with the figure of St Joseph added. It remains a -matter of debate whether the Academy cartoon or that shown by Leonardo -at the Annunziata in 1501 was the earlier. The probabilities seem in -favour of the Academy cartoon. This, whether done at Milan or at -Florence, is in any case a typically perfect and harmonious example of -the master's Milanese manner; while in the other composition with the -lamb the action and attitude of the Virgin are somewhat strained, and -the original relation between her head and her mother's, lovely both in -design and expression, is lost. - -In spite of the universal praise of his cartoon, Leonardo did not -persevere with the picture, and the monks of the Annunziata had to give -back the commission to Filippino Lippi, at whose death the task was -completed by Perugino. It remains uncertain whether a small Madonna with -distaff and spindle, which the correspondent of Isabella Gonzaga reports -Leonardo as having begun for one Robertet, a favourite of the king of -France, was ever finished. He painted one portrait, it is said, at this -time, that of Ginevra Benci, a kinswoman, perhaps sister, of a youth -Giovanni di Amerigo Benci, who shared his passion for cosmographical -studies; and probably began another, the famous "La Gioconda," which was -only finished four years afterwards. The gonfalionere Soderini offered -him in vain, to do with it what he would, the huge half-spoiled block of -marble out of which Michelangelo three years later wrought his "David." -Isabella Gonzaga again begged, in an autograph letter, that she might -have a painting by his hand, but her request was put off; he did her, -however, one small service by examining and reporting on some jewelled -vases, formerly the property of Lorenzo de' Medici, which had been -offered her. The importunate expectations of a masterpiece or -masterpieces in painting or sculpture, which beset him on all hands in -Florence, inclined him to take service again with some princely patron, -if possible of a genius commensurate with his own, who would give him -scope to carry out engineering schemes on a vast scale. Accordingly he -suddenly took service, in the spring of 1502, with Cesare Borgia, duke -of Valentinois, then almost within sight of the realization of his huge -ambitions, and meanwhile occupied in consolidating his recent conquests -in the Romagna. Between May 1502 and March 1503 Leonardo travelled as -chief engineer to Duke Caesar over a great part of central Italy. -Starting with a visit to Piombino, on the coast opposite Elba, he went -by way of Siena to Urbino, where he made drawings and began works; was -thence hastily summoned by way of Pesaro and Rimini to Cesena; spent two -months between there and Cesenatico, projecting and directing canal and -harbour works, and planning the restoration of the palace of Frederic -II.; thence hurriedly joined his master, momentarily besieged by enemies -at Imola; followed him probably to Sinigaglia and Perugia, through the -whirl of storms and surprises, vengeances and treasons, which marked his -course that winter, and finally, by way of Chiusi and Acquapendente, as -far as Orvieto and probably to Rome, where Caesar arrived on the 14th of -February 1503. The pope's death and Caesar's own downfall were not -destined to be long delayed. But Leonardo apparently had already had -enough of that service, and was back at Florence in March. He has left -dated notes and drawings made at most of the stations we have named, -besides a set of six large-scale maps drawn minutely with his own hand, -and including nearly the whole territory of the Maremma, Tuscany and -Umbria between the Apennines and the Tyrrhene Sea. - -At Florence he was at last persuaded, on the initiative of Piero -Soderini, to undertake for his native city a work of painting as great -as that with which he had adorned Milan. This was a battle-piece to -decorate one of the walls of the new council-hall in the palace of the -signory. He chose an episode in the victory won by the generals of the -republic in 1440 over Niccolo Piccinino near a bridge at Anghiari, in -the upper valley of the Tiber. To the young Michelangelo was presently -entrusted a rival battle-piece to be painted on another wall of the same -apartment; he chose, as is well known, a surprise of the Florentine -forces in the act of bathing near Pisa. About the same time Leonardo -took part in the debate on the proper site for Michelangelo's newly -finished colossal "David," and voted in favour of the Loggia dei Lanzi, -against a majority which included Michelangelo himself. Neither -Leonardo's genius nor his noble manners could soften the rude and -taunting temper of the younger man, whose style as an artist, -nevertheless, in subjects both of tenderness and terror, underwent at -this time a profound modification from Leonardo's example. - -In one of the sections of his projected _Treatise on Painting_, Leonardo -has detailed at length, and obviously from his own observation, the -pictorial aspects of a battle. His choice of subject in this instance -was certainly not made from any love of warfare or indifference to its -horrors. In his MSS. there occur almost as many trenchant sayings on -life and human affairs as on art and natural law; and of war he has -disposed in two words as a "bestial frenzy" (_pazzia bestialissima_). In -his design for the Hall of Council he set himself to depict this frenzy -at its fiercest. He chose the moment of a terrific struggle for the -colours between the opposing sides; hence the work became commonly known -as the "Battle of the Standard." Judging by the accounts of those who -saw it, and the fragmentary evidences which remain, the tumultuous -medley of men and horses, and the expressions of martial fury and -despair, must have been conceived and rendered with a mastery not less -commanding than had been the looks and gestures of bodeful sorrow and -soul's perplexity among the quiet company on the convent wall at Milan. -The place assigned to Leonardo for the preparation of his cartoon was -the Sala del Papa at Santa Maria Novella. He for once worked steadily -and unremittingly at his task. His accounts with the signory enable us -to follow its progress step by step. He had finished the cartoon in less -than two years (1504-1505), and when it was exhibited along with that of -Michelangelo, the two rival works seemed to all men a new revelation of -the powers of art, and served as a model and example of the students of -that generation, as the frescoes of Masaccio in the Carmine had served -to those of two generations earlier. The young Raphael, whose -incomparable instinct for rhythmical design had been trained hitherto on -subjects of holy quietude and rapt contemplation according to the -traditions of Umbrian art, learnt from Leonardo's example to apply the -same instinct to themes of violent action and strife. From the same -example Fra Bartolommeo and a crowd of other Florentine painters of the -rising or risen generation took in like manner a new impulse. The master -lost no time in proceeding to the execution of his design upon the mural -surface; this time he had devised a technical method of which, after a -preliminary trial in the Sala del Papa, he regarded the success as -certain; the colours, whether tempera or other remains in doubt, were to -be laid on a specially prepared ground, and then both colours and ground -made secure upon the wall by the application of heat. When the central -group was done the heat was applied, but it was found to take effect -unequally; the colours in the upper part ran or scaled from the wall, -and the result was a failure more or less complete. The unfinished and -decayed painting remained for some fifty years on the wall, but after -1560 was covered over with new frescoes by Vasari. The cartoon did not -last so long. After doing its work as the most inspiring of all examples -for students it seems to have been cut up. When Leonardo left Italy for -good in 1516 he is recorded to have left "the greater part of it" in -deposit at the hospital of S. Maria Nuova, where he was accustomed also -to deposit his moneys, and whence it seems before long to have -disappeared. Our only existing memorials of the great work are a number -of small pen-studies of fighting men and horses, three splendid studies -in red chalk at Budapest for heads in the principal group, one head at -Oxford copied by a contemporary of the size of the original cartoon -(above life); a tiny sketch, also at Oxford, by Raphael after the -principal group; an engraving done by Zacchia of Lucca in 1558 not after -the original but after a copy; a 16th-century Flemish drawing of the -principal group, and another, splendidly spirited, by Rubens, both -copies of copies; with Edelinck's fine engraving after the Rubens -drawing. - -During these years, 1503-1506, Leonardo also resumed (if it is true that -he had already begun it before his travels with Cesare Borgia) the -portrait of Madonna Lisa, the Neapolitan wife of Zanobi del Giocondo, -and finished it to the last pitch of his powers. In this lady he had -found a sitter whose face and smile possessed in a singular degree the -haunting, enigmatic charm in which he delighted. He worked, it is said, -at her portrait during some portion of four successive years, causing -music to be played during the sittings that the rapt expression might -not fade from off her countenance. The picture was bought afterwards by -Francis I. for four thousand gold florins, and is now one of the glories -of the Louvre. The richness of colouring on which Vasari expatiates has -indeed flown, partly from injury, partly because in striving for effects -of light and shade the painter was accustomed to model his figures on a -dark ground, and in this as in his other oil-pictures the ground has to -a large extent come through. Nevertheless, in its dimmed and blackened -state, the portrait casts an irresistible spell alike by subtlety of -expression, by refinement and precision of drawing, and by the romantic -invention of its background. It has been the theme of endless critical -rhapsodies, among which that of Pater is perhaps the most imaginative as -it is the best known. - -In the spring of 1506 Leonardo, moved perhaps by chagrin at the failure -of his work in the Hall of Council, accepted a pressing invitation to -Milan, from Charles d'Amboise, Marechal de Chaumont, the lieutenant of -the French king in Lombardy. The leave of absence granted to him by the -signory on the request of the French viceroy was for three months only. -The period was several times extended, at first grudgingly, Soderini -complaining that Leonardo had treated the republic ill in the matter of -the battle picture; whereupon the painter honourably offered to refund -the money paid, an offer which the signory as honourably refused. Louis -XII. sent messages urgently desiring that Leonardo should await his own -arrival in Milan, having seen a small Madonna by him in France (probably -that painted for Robertet) and hoping to obtain from him works of the -same class and perhaps a portrait. The king arrived in May 1507, and -soon afterwards Leonardo's services were formally and amicably -transferred from the signory of Florence to Louis, who gave him the -title of painter and engineer in ordinary. In September of the same year -troublesome private affairs called him to Florence. His father had died -in 1504, apparently intestate. After his death Leonardo experienced -unkindness from his seven half-brothers, Ser Piero's legitimate sons. -They were all much younger than himself. One of them, who followed his -father's profession, made himself the champion of the others in -disputing Leonardo's claim to his share, first in the paternal -inheritance, and then in that which had been left to be divided between -the brothers and sisters by an uncle. The litigation that ensued dragged -on for several years, and forced upon Leonardo frequent visits to -Florence and interruptions of his work at Milan, in spite of pressing -letters to the authorities of the republic from Charles d'Amboise, from -the French king himself, and from others of his powerful friends and -patrons, begging that the proceedings might be accelerated. There are -traces of work done during these intervals of compulsory residence at -Florence. A sheet of sketches drawn there in 1508 shows the beginning of -a Madonna now lost except in the form of copies, one of which (known as -the "Madonna Litta") is at St Petersburg, another in the Poldi-Pezzoli -Museum at Milan. A letter from Leonardo to Charles d'Amboise in 1511, -announcing the end of his law troubles, speaks of two Madonnas of -different sizes that he means to bring with him to Milan. One was no -doubt that just mentioned; can the other have been the Louvre "Virgin -with St Anne and St John," now at last completed from the cartoon -exhibited in 1501? Meantime the master's main home and business were at -Milan. Few works of painting and none of sculpture (unless the -unfulfilled commission for the Trivulzio monument belongs to this time) -are recorded as occupying him during the seven years of his second -residence in that city (1506-1513). He had attached to himself a new and -devoted young friend and pupil of noble birth, Francesco Melzi. At the -villa of the Melzi family at Vaprio, where Leonardo was a frequent -visitor, a colossal Madonna on one of the walls is traditionally -ascribed to him, but is rather the work of Sodoma or of Melzi himself -working under the master's eye. Another painter in the service of the -French king, Jehan Perreal or Jehan de Paris, visited Milan, and -consultations on technical points were held between him and Leonardo. -But Leonardo's chief practical employments were evidently on the -continuation of his great hydraulic and irrigation works in Lombardy. -His old trivial office of pageant-master and inventor of scientific toys -was revived on the occasion of Louis XII.'s triumphal entry after the -victory of Agnadello in 1509, and gave intense delight to the French -retinue of the king. He was consulted on the construction of new -choir-stalls for the cathedral. He laboured in the natural sciences as -ardently as ever, especially at anatomy in company with the famous -professor of Pavia, Marcantonio della Torre. To about this time, when he -was approaching his sixtieth year, may belong the noble portrait-drawing -of himself in red chalk at Turin. He looks too old for his years, but -quite unbroken; the character of a veteran sage has fully imprinted -itself on his countenance; the features are grand, clear and deeply -lined, the mouth firmly set and almost stern, the eyes strong and intent -beneath their bushy eyebrows, the hair flows untrimmed over his -shoulders and commingles with a majestic beard. - -Returning to Milan with his law-suits ended in 1511, Leonardo might have -looked forward to an old age of contented labour, the chief task of -which, had he had his will, would undoubtedly have been to put in order -the vast mass of observations and speculations accumulated in his -note-books, and to prepare some of them for publication. But as his star -seemed rising that of his royal protector declined. The hold of the -French on Lombardy was rudely shaken by hostile political powers, then -confirmed again for a while by the victories of Gaston de Foix, and -finally destroyed by the battle in which that hero fell under the walls -of Ravenna. In June 1512 a coalition between Spain, Venice and the pope -re-established the Sforza dynasty in power at Milan in the person of -Ludovico's son Massimiliano. This prince must have been familiar with -Leonardo as a child, but perhaps resented the ready transfer of his -allegiance to the French, and at any rate gave him no employment. Within -a few months the ageing master uprooted himself from Milan, and moved -with his chattels and retinue of pupils to Rome, into the service of the -house that first befriended him, the Medici. The vast enterprises of -Pope Julius II. had already made Rome the chief seat and centre of -Italian art. The accession of Giulio de' Medici in 1513 under the title -of Leo X. raised on all hands hopes of still ampler and more sympathetic -patronage. Leonardo's special friend at the papal court was the pope's -youngest brother, Giuliano de' Medici, a youth who combined dissipated -habits with thoughtful culture and a genuine interest in arts and -sciences. By his influence Leonardo and his train were accommodated with -apartments in the Belvedere of the Vatican. But the conditions of the -time and place proved adverse. The young generation held the field. -Michelangelo and Raphael, who had both, as we have seen, risen to -greatness partly on Leonardo's shoulders, were fresh from the glory of -their great achievements in the Sistine Chapel and the Stanze. Their -rival factions hated each other, but both, especially the faction of -Michelangelo, turned bitterly against the veteran newcomer. The pope, -indeed, is said to have been delighted with Leonardo's minor experiments -and ingenuities in science, and especially by a kind of zoological toys -which he had invented by way of pastime, as well as mechanical tricks -played upon living animals. But for the master's graver researches and -projects he cared little, and was far more interested in the dreams of -astrologers and alchemists. When Leonardo, having received a commission -for a picture, was found distilling for himself a new medium of oils and -herbs before he had begun the design, the pope was convinced, not quite -unreasonably, that nothing serious would come of it. The only paintings -positively recorded as done by him at Rome are two small panels for an -official of the papal court, one of a child, the other of a Madonna, -both now lost or unrecognized. To this time may also belong a lost Leda, -standing upright with the god in swan's guise at her side and the four -children near their feet. This picture was at Fontainebleau in the 16th -century and is known from several copies, the finest of them at the -Borghese gallery, as well as from one or two preliminary sketches by the -master himself and a small sketch copy by Raphael. A portrait of a -Florentine lady, said to have been painted for Giuliano de' Medici and -seen afterwards in France, may also have been done at Rome; or may what -we learn of this be only a confused account of the Monna Lisa? Tradition -ascribes to Leonardo an attractive fresco of a Madonna with a donor in -the convent of St Onofrio, but this seems to be clearly the work of -Boltraffio. The only engineering works we hear of at this time are some -on the harbour and defences of Civita Vecchia. On the whole the master -in these Roman days found himself slighted for the first and only time -in his life. He was, moreover, plagued by insubordination and malignity -on the part of two German assistant craftsmen lodged in his apartments. -Charges of impiety and body-snatching laid by these men in connexion -with his anatomical studies caused the favour of the pope to be for a -time withdrawn. After a stay of less than two years, Leonardo left Rome -under the following circumstances. Louis XII. of France had died in the -last days of 1514. His young and brilliant successor, Francis I., -surprised Europe by making a sudden dash at the head of an army across -the Alps to vindicate his rights in Italy. After much hesitation Leo X. -in the summer of 1515 ordered Giuliano de' Medici, as gonfalonier of the -Church, to lead a papal force into the Emilia and watch the movements of -the invader. Leonardo accompanied his protector on the march, and -remained with the headquarters of the papal army at Piacenza when -Giuliano fell ill and retired to Florence. After the battle of Marignano -it was arranged that Francis and the pope should meet in December at -Bologna. The pope, travelling by way of Florence and discussing there -the great new scheme of the Laurentian library, entertained the idea of -giving the commission to Leonardo; but Michelangelo came in hot haste -from Rome and succeeded in securing it for himself. As the time for the -meeting of the potentates at Bologna drew near, Leonardo proceeded -thither from Piacenza, and in due course was presented to the king. -Between the brilliant young sovereign and the grand old sage an -immediate and strong sympathy sprang up; Leonardo accompanied Francis on -his homeward march as far as Milan, and there determined to accept the -royal invitation to France, where a new home was offered him with every -assurance of honour and regard. - -The remaining two and a half years of Leonardo's life were spent at the -Castle of Cloux near Amboise, which was assigned, with a handsome -pension, to his use. The court came often to Amboise, and the king -delighted in his company, declaring his knowledge both of the fine arts -and of philosophy to be beyond those of all mortal men. In the spring of -1518 Leonardo had occasion to exercise his old talents as a -festival-master when the dauphin was christened and a Medici-Bourbon -marriage celebrated. He drew the designs for a new palace at Amboise, -and was much engaged with the project of a great canal to connect the -Loire and Saone. An ingenious attempt has been made to prove, in the -absence of records, that the famous spiral staircase at Blois was also -of his designing. - -Among his visitors was a fellow-countryman, Cardinal Louis of Aragon, -whose secretary has left an account of the day. Leonardo, it seems, was -suffering from some form of slight paralysis which impaired his power of -hand. But he showed the cardinal three pictures, the portrait of a -Florentine lady done for Giuliano de' Medici (the Gioconda?), the Virgin -in the lap of St Anne (the Louvre picture; finished at Florence or Milan -1507-1513?), and a youthful John the Baptist. The last, which may have -been done since he settled in France, is the darkened and partly -repainted, but still powerful and haunting half-length figure in the -Louvre, with the smile of inward ravishment and the prophetic finger -beckoning skyward like that of St Anne in the Academy cartoon. Of the -"Pomona" mentioned by Lomazzo as a work of the Amboise time his visitor -says nothing, nor yet of the Louvre "Bacchus," which tradition ascribes -to Leonardo but which is clearly pupil's work. Besides pictures, the -master seems also to have shown and explained to his visitors some of -his vast store of notes and observations on anatomy and physics. He kept -hoping to get some order among his papers, the accumulation of more than -forty years, and perhaps to give the world some portion of the studies -they contained. But his strength was nearly exhausted. On Easter Eve -1519, feeling that the end was near, he made his will. It made -provision, as became a great servant of the most Christian king, for -masses to be said and candles to be offered in three different churches -of Amboise, first among them that of St Florentin, where he desired to -be buried, as well as for sixty poor men to serve as torch-bearers at -his funeral. Vasari babbles of a death-bed conversion and repentance. -But Leonardo had never been either a friend or an enemy of the Church. -Sometimes, indeed, he denounces fiercely enough the arts and pretensions -of priests; but no one has embodied with such profound spiritual insight -some of the most vital moments of the Christian story. His insatiable -researches into natural fact brought upon him among the vulgar some -suspicion of practising those magic arts which of all things he scouted -and despised. The bent of his mind was all towards the teachings of -experience and against those of authority, and laws of nature certainly -occupied far more of his thoughts than dogmas of religion; but when he -mentions these it is with respect as throwing light on the truth of -things from a side which was not his own. His conformity at the end had -in it nothing contradictory of his past. He received the sacraments of -the Church and died on the 2nd of May 1519. King Francis, then at his -court of St Germain-en-Laye, is said to have wept for the loss of such a -servant; that he was present beside the death-bed and held the dying -painter in his arms is a familiar but an untrue tale. After a temporary -sepulture elsewhere his remains were transported on the 12th of August -to the cloister of St Florentin according to his wish. He left all his -MSS. and apparently all the contents of his studio, with other gifts, to -the devoted Melzi, whom he named executor; to Salai and to his servant -Battista Villanis a half each of his vineyard outside Milan; gifts of -money and clothes to his maid Maturina; one of money to the poor of the -hospital in Amboise; and to his unbrotherly half-brothers a sum of four -hundred ducats lying to his credit at Florence. - -History tells of no man gifted in the same degree as Leonardo was at -once for art and science. In art he was an inheritor and perfecter, born -in a day of great and many-sided endeavours on which he put the crown, -surpassing both predecessors and contemporaries. In science, on the -other hand, he was a pioneer, working wholly for the future, and in -great part alone. That the two stupendous gifts should in some degree -neutralize each other was inevitable. No imaginable strength of any -single man would have sufficed to carry out a hundredth part of what -Leonardo essayed. The mere attempt to conquer the kingdom of light and -shade for the art of painting was destined to tax the skill of -generations, and is perhaps not wholly and finally accomplished yet. -Leonardo sought to achieve that conquest and at the same time to carry -the old Florentine excellences of linear drawing and psychological -expression to a perfection of which other men had not dreamed. The -result, though marvellous in quality, is in quantity lamentably meagre. -Knowing and doing allured him equally, and in art, which consists in -doing, his efforts were often paralysed by his strained desire to know. -The thirst for knowledge had first been aroused in him by the desire of -perfecting the images of beauty and power which it was his business to -create. - -Thence there grew upon him the passion of knowledge for its own sake. In -the splendid balance of his nature the Virgilian longing, _rerum -cognoscere causas_, could never indeed wholly silence the call to -exercise his active powers. But the powers he cared most to exercise -ceased by degree to be those of imaginative creation, and came to be -those of turning to practical human use the mastery which his studies -had taught him over the forces of nature. In science he was the first -among modern men to set himself most of those problems which unnumbered -searchers of later generations have laboured severally or in concert to -solve. Florence had had other sons of comprehensive genius, artistic and -mechanical, Leon Battista Alberti perhaps the chief. But the more the -range and character of Leonardo's studies becomes ascertained the more -his greatness dwarfs them all. A hundred years before Bacon, say those -who can judge best, he showed a firmer grasp of the principles of -experimental science than Bacon showed, fortified by a far wider range -of actual experiment and observation. Not in his actual conclusions, -though many of these point with surprising accuracy in the direction of -truths established by later generations, but in the soundness, the -wisdom, the tenacity of his methods lies his great title to glory. Had -the Catholic reaction not fatally discouraged the pursuit of the natural -sciences in Italy, had Leonardo even left behind him any one with zeal -and knowledge enough to extract from the mass of his MSS. some portion -of his labours in those sciences and give them to the world, an -incalculable impulse would have been given to all those enquiries by -which mankind has since been striving to understand the laws of its -being and control the conditions of its environment,--to mathematics and -astronomy, to mechanics, hydraulics, and physics generally, to geology, -geography, and cosmology, to anatomy and the sciences of life. As it -was, these studies of Leonardo--"studies intense of strong and stern -delight"--seemed to his trivial followers and biographers merely his -whims and fancies, _ghiribizzi_, things to be spoken of slightingly and -with apology. The MSS., with the single exception of some of those -relating to painting, lay unheeded and undivulged until the present -generation; and it is only now that the true range of Leonardo's powers -is beginning to be fully discerned. - -So much for the intellectual side of Leonardo's character and career. As -a moral being we are less able to discern what he was like. The man who -carried in his brain so many images of subtle beauty, as well as so much -of the hidden science of the future, must have lived spiritually, in the -main, alone. Of things communicable he was at the same time, as we have -said, communicative--a genial companion, a generous and loyal friend, -ready and eloquent of discourse, impressing all with whom he was brought -in contact by the power and the charm of genius, and inspiring fervent -devotion and attachment in friends and pupils. We see him living on -terms of constant affection with his father, and in disputes with his -brothers not the aggressor but the sufferer from aggression. We see him -full of tenderness to animals, a virtue not common in Italy in spite of -the example of St Francis; open-handed in giving, not eager in -getting--"poor," he says, "is the man of many wants"; not prone to -resentment--"the best shield against injustice is to double the cloak of -long-suffering"; zealous in labour above all men--"as a day well spent -gives joyful sleep, so does a life well spent give joyful death." With -these instincts and maxims, and with his strength, granting it almost -more than human, spent ever tunnelling in abstruse mines of knowledge, -his moral experience is not likely to have been deeply troubled. In -religion, he regarded the faith of his age and country at least with -imaginative sympathy and intellectual acquiescence, if no more. On the -political storms which shook his country and drove him from one -employment to another, he seems to have looked not with the passionate -participation of a Dante or a Michelangelo but rather with the serene -detachment of a Goethe. In matters of the heart, if any consoling or any -disturbing passion played a great part in his life, we do not know it; -we know only (apart from a few passing shadows cast by calumny and envy) -of affectionate and dignified relations with friends, patrons and -pupils, of public and private regard mixed in the days of his youth with -dazzled admiration, and in those of his age with something of -reverential awe. - - _The Drawings of Leonardo._--These are among the greatest treasures - ever given to the world by the human spirit expressing itself in pen - and pencil. Apart from the many hundreds of illustrative pen-sketches - scattered through his autobiographic and scientific MSS., the - principal collection is at Windsor Castle (partly derived from the - Arundel collection); others of importance are in the British Museum; - at Christ Church, Oxford; in the Louvre, at Chantilly, in the Uffizi, - the Venice Academy, the Royal Library at Turin, the Museum of - Budapest, and in the collections of M. Bonnat, Mrs Mond, and Captain - Holford. Leonardo's chief implements were pen, silver-point, and red - and black chalk (red chalk especially). In silver-point there are many - beautiful drawings of his earlier time, and some of his later; but of - the charming heads of women and young men in this material attributed - to him in various collections, comparatively few are his own work, the - majority being drawings in his spirit by his pupils Ambrogio Preda or - Boltraffio. Leonardo appears to have been left-handed. There is some - doubt on the point; but a contemporary and intimate friend, Luca - Pacioli, speaks of his "ineffable left hand"; all the best of his - drawings are shaded downward from left to right, which would be the - readiest way for a left-handed man; and his habitual eccentric - practice of writing from right to left is much more likely to have - been due to natural left-handedness than to any desire of mystery or - concealment. A full critical discussion and catalogue of the extant - drawings of Leonardo are to be found in Berenson's _Drawings of the - Florentine Painters_. - - _The Writings of Leonardo._--The only printed book bearing Leonardo's - name until the recent issues of transcripts from his MSS. was the - celebrated _Treatise on Painting_ (_Trattato della pittura, Traite de - la peinture_). This consists of brief didactic chapters, or more - properly paragraphs, of practical direction or critical remark on all - the branches and conditions of a painter's practice. The original MS. - draft of Leonardo has been lost, though a great number of notes for it - are scattered through the various extant volumes of his MSS. The work - has been printed in two different forms; one of these is an abridged - version consisting of 365 sections; the first edition of it was - published in Paris in 1551, by Raphael Dufresne, from a MS. which he - found in the Barberini library; the last, translated into English by - J. F. Rigaud, in London, 1877. The other is a more extended version, - in 912 sections, divided into eight books; this was printed in 1817 by - Guglielmo Manzi at Rome, from two MSS. which he had discovered in the - Vatican library; a German translation from the same MS. has been - edited by G. H. Ludwig in Eitelberger's series of _Quellenschriften - fur Kunstgeschichte_ (Vienna, 1882; Stuttgart, 1885). On the history - of the book in general see Max Jordan, _Das Malerbuch des Leonardo da - Vinci_ (Leipzig, 1873). The unknown compilers of the Vatican MSS. must - have had before them much more of Leonardo's original text than is now - extant. Only about a quarter of the total number of paragraphs are - identical with passages to be found in the master's existing autograph - note-books. It is indeed doubtful whether Leonardo himself ever - completed the MS. treatise (or treatises) on painting and kindred - subjects mentioned by Fra Luca Pacioli and by Vasari, and probable - that the form and order, and perhaps some of the substance, of the - _Trattato_ as we have it was due to compilers and not to the master - himself. - - In recent years a whole body of scholars and editors have been engaged - in giving to the world the texts of Leonardo's existing MSS. The - history of these is too complicated to be told here in any detail. - Francesco Melzi (d. 1570) kept the greater part of his master's - bequest together as a sacred trust as long as he lived, though even in - his time some MSS. on the art of painting seem to have passed into - other hands. But his descendants suffered the treasure to be - recklessly dispersed. The chief agents in their dispersal were the - Doctor Orazio Melzi who possessed them in the last quarter of the 16th - century; the members of a Milanese family called Mazzenta, into whose - hands they passed in Orazio Melzi's lifetime; and the sculptor Pompeo - Leoni, who at one time entertained the design of procuring their - presentation to Philip II. of Spain, and who cut up a number of the - note-books to form the great miscellaneous single volume called the - _Codice Atlantico_, now at Milan. This volume, with a large proportion - of the total number of other Leonardo MSS. then existing, passed into - the hands of a Count Arconati, who presented them to the Ambrosian - library at Milan in 1636. In the meantime the earl of Arundel had made - a vain attempt to purchase one of these volumes (the _Codice - Atlantico_?) at a great price for the king of England. Some stray - parts of the collection, including the MSS. now at Windsor, did - evidently come into Lord Arundel's possession, and the history of some - other parts can be followed; while much, it is evident, was lost for - good. In 1796 Napoleon swept away to Paris, along with the other art - treasures of Italy, the whole of the Leonardo MSS. at the Ambrosiana: - only the _Codice Atlantico_ was afterwards restored, the other volumes - remaining the property of the Institut de France. These also have had - their adventures, two of them having been stolen by Count Libri and - passed temporarily into the collection of Lord Ashburnham, whence they - were in recent years made over again to the Institute. The first - important step towards a better knowledge of the MSS. was made by the - beginning, in 1880, of the great series of publications from the MSS. - of the Institut de France undertaken by C. Ravaisson-Mollien; the next - by the publication in 1883 of Dr J. P. Richter's _Literary Works of - Leonardo da Vinci_ (see Bibliography): this work included, besides a - history and analytical index of the MSS., facsimiles of a number of - selected pages containing matter of autobiographical, artistic, or - literary interest, with transcripts and translations of their MS. - contexts. Since then much progress has been made in the publication of - the complete MSS., scientific and other, whether with adequate - critical apparatus or in the form of mere facsimile without - transliteration or comment. - - A brief statement follows of the present distribution of the several - MSS. and of the form in which they are severally published:-- - - England.--_Windsor_: Nine MSS., chiefly on anatomy, published entire - in simple facsimile by Rouveyre (Paris, 1901); partially, with - transliterations and introduction by Piumati and Sabachnikoff (Paris, - 1898, foll.); _British Museum_: one MS., miscellaneous, unpublished; - _Victoria and Albert Museum_: ten note-books bound in 3 vols.; - facsimile by Rouveyre, _Holkham_ (collection of Lord Leicester), 1 - vol., on hydraulics and the action of water; published in facsimile - with transliteration and notes by Gerolamo Calvi. France.--_Institut - de France_: seventeen MSS., all published with transliteration and - notes by C. Ravaisson-Mollien (6 vols., Paris, 1880-1891). - Italy.--_Milan_, _Ambrosiana_: the _Codice Atlantico_, the huge - miscellany, of vital importance for the study of the master, put - together by Pompeo Leoni; published in facsimile, with - transliteration, by the Accademia dei Lincei (1894, foll.); _Milan_: - collection of Count Trivulzio; 1 vol., miscellaneous; published and - edited by L. Beltrami (1892); _Rome_: collection of Count Marszolini; - _Treatise on the Flight of Birds_, published and edited by Piumati and - Sabachnikoff (Paris, 1492). - - BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The principal authorities are:--"Il libro di Antonio - Billi," edited from MS. by G. de Fabriazy in _Archivio Storico Ital._ - ser. v. vol. 7; "Breve vita di Leonardo da Vinci, scritto da un - adnonimo del 1500" (known as the Anonimo Gaddiano), printed by G. - Milanesi in _Archivio Storico Ital._ t. xvi. (1872), translated with - notes by H. P. Horne in series published by the Unicorn Library - (1903); Paolo Giovio, "Leonardi Vincii vita," in his _Elogia_, printed - in Tiraboschi, _Storia della Lett. Ital._ t. vii. pt. 4, and in - _Classici Italiani_, vol. 314; Vasari, in his celebrated _Lives of the - Painters_ (1st ed., Florence, 1550; 2nd ed. ibid. 1568; ed. Milanesi, - with notes and supplements, 1878-1885); Sabba da Castiglione, - _Ricordi_ (Venice, 1565); G. P. Lomazzo, _Trattato dell' arte della - pittura_, &c. (Milan, 1584-1585); _Id., Idea del tempio della pittura_ - (Milan, 1591); Le Pere Dan, _Le Tresor ... de Fontainebleau_ (1642); - J. B. Venturi, _Essai sur les ouvrages physico-mathematiques de L. da - V._ (Paris, 1797); C. Amoretti, _Memorie storiche sulla vita, &c. di - L. da V._ (Milan, 1804), a work which laid the foundation of all - future researches; Giuseppe Bossi, _Del Cenacolo di L. da V._ (Milan, - 1810); C. Fumagalli, _Scuola di Leonardo da Vinci_ (1811); Gaye, - _Carteggia d'artisti_ (1839-1841); G. Uzielli, _Ricerche intorno a L. - da V._, series 1, 2 (Florence, 1872; Rome, 1884; series 1 revised, - Turin, 1896), documentary researches of the first importance for the - study; C. L. Calvi, _Notizie dei principali professori di belle arti_ - (Milan, 1869); Arsene Houssaye, _Histoire de L. de V._ (Paris, 1869 - and 1876, an agreeable literary biography of the pre-critical kind); - Mrs Heaton, _Life of L. da V._ (London, 1872), a work also made - obsolete by recent research; Hermann Grothe, _L. da V. als Ingenieur - und Philosoph_ (Berlin, 1874); A. Marks, the _S. Anne of L. da V._ - (London, 1882); J. P. Richter, _The Literary Works of L. da V._ (2 - vols., London, 1883), this is the very important and valuable history - of and selection from the texts mentioned above under MSS.; Ch. - Ravaisson-Mollien, _Les Ecrits de L. da V._ (Paris, 1881); Paul Muller - Walde, _L. da V., Lebensskizze und Forschungen_ (Munich, 1889-1890); - _Id._, "Beitrage zur Kenntniss des L. da V.," _in Jahrbuch der k. - Preussischen Kunstsammlungen_ (1897-1899), the first immature and - incomplete, the second of high value: the whole life of this writer - has been devoted to the study of L. da V., but it is uncertain whether - the vast mass of material collected by him will ever take shape or see - the light; G. Gronau, _L. da V._ (London, 1902); Bernhard Berenson, - _The Drawings of the Florentine Painters_ (London, 1903); Edmondo - Solmi, _Studi sulla filosofia naturale di L. da V._ (Modena, 1898); - _Id., Leonardo_ (Florence, 1st ed. 1900, 2nd ed. 1907; this last - edition of Solmi's work is by far the most complete and satisfactory - critical biography of the master which yet exists); A. Rosenberg, _L. - da V._, in Knackfuss's series of art biographies (Leipzig, 1898); - Gabriel Seailles, _L. da V. l'artiste et le savant_ (1st ed. 1892, 2nd - ed. 1906), a lucid and careful general estimate of great value, - especially in reference to Leonardo's relations to modern science; - Edward McCurdy, _L. da V._, in Bell's "Great Masters" series (1904 and - 1907), a very sound and trustworthy summary of the master's career as - an artist; _Id., L. da V.'s Note-Books_ (1908), a selection from the - passages of chief general interest in the master's MSS., very well - chosen, arranged, and translated, with a useful history of the MSS. - prefixed, _Le Vicende del Cenacolo di L. da V. nel secolo XIX._ - (Milan, 1906), an official account of the later history and - vicissitudes of the "Last Supper" previous to its final repair; Luca - Beltrami, _Il Castello di Milano_ (1894); _Id., L. da V. et la Sala - dell' Asse_ (1902); Id., "Il Cenacolo di Leonardo," in _Raccolta - Vinciana_ (Milan, 1908), the official account of the successful work - of repair carried out by Signor Cavenaghi in the preceding years; - Woldemar von Seidlitz, _Leonardo da Vinci, der Wendepunkt der - Renaissance_ (2 vols., 1909), a comprehensive and careful work by an - accomplished and veteran critic, inclined to give perhaps an excessive - share in the reputed works of Leonardo to a single pupil, Ambrogio - Preda. It seems needless to give references to the voluminous - discussion in newspapers and periodicals concerning the authenticity - of a wax bust of Flora acquired in 1909 for the Berlin Museum and - unfortunately ascribed to Leonardo da Vinci, its real author having - been proved by external and internal evidence to be the Englishman - Richard Cockle Lucas, and its date 1846. (S. C.) - - - - -LEONARDO OF PISA (LEONARDUS PISANUS or FIBONACCI), Italian mathematician -of the 13th century. Of his personal history few particulars are known. -His father was called Bonaccio, most probably a nickname with the -ironical meaning of "a good, stupid fellow," while to Leonardo himself -another nickname, Bigollone (dunce, blockhead), seems to have been -given. The father was secretary in one of the numerous factories erected -on the southern and eastern coasts of the Mediterranean by the warlike -and enterprising merchants of Pisa. Leonardo was educated at Bugia, and -afterwards toured the Mediterranean. In 1202 he was again in Italy and -published his great work, _Liber abaci_, which probably procured him -access to the learned and refined court of the emperor Frederick II. -Leonardo certainly was in relation with some persons belonging to that -circle when he published in 1220 another more extensive work, _De -practica geometriae_, which he dedicated to the imperial astronomer -Dominicus Hispanus. Some years afterwards (perhaps in 1228) Leonardo -dedicated to the well-known astrologer Michael Scott the second edition -of his _Liber abaci_, which was printed with Leonardo's other works by -Prince Bald. Boncompagni (Rome, 1857-1862, 2 vols.). The other works -consist of the _Practica geometriae_ and some most striking papers of -the greatest scientific importance, amongst which the _Liber -quadratorum_ may be specially signalized. It bears the notice that the -author wrote it in 1225, and in the introduction Leonardo tells us the -occasion of its being written. Dominicus had presented Leonardo to -Frederick II. The presentation was accompanied by a kind of mathematical -performance, in which Leonardo solved several hard problems proposed to -him by John of Palermo, an imperial notary, whose name is met with in -several documents dated between 1221 and 1240. The methods which -Leonardo made use of in solving those problems fill the _Liber -quadratorum_, the _Flos_, and a _Letter to Magister Theodore_. All these -treatises seem to have been written nearly at the same period, and -certainly before the publication of the second edition of the _Liber -abaci_, in which the _Liber quadratorum_ is expressly mentioned. We know -nothing of Leonardo's fate after he issued that second edition. - - Leonardo's works are mainly developments of the results obtained by - his predecessors; the influences of Greek, Arabian, and Indian - mathematicians may be clearly discerned in his methods. In his - _Practica geometriae_ plain traces of the use of the Roman - _agrimensores_ are met with; in his _Liber abaci_ old Egyptian - problems reveal their origin by the reappearance of the very numbers - in which the problem is given, though one cannot guess through what - channel they came to Leonardo's knowledge. Leonardo cannot be regarded - as the inventor of that very great variety of truths for which he - mentions no earlier source. - - The _Liber abaci_, which fills 459 printed pages, contains the most - perfect methods of calculating with whole numbers and with fractions, - practice, extraction of the square and cube roots, proportion, chain - rule, finding of proportional parts, averages, progressions, even - compound interest, just as in the completest mercantile arithmetics of - our days. They teach further the solution of problems leading to - equations of the first and second degree, to determinate and - indeterminate equations, not by single and double position only, but - by real algebra, proved by means of geometric constructions, and - including the use of letters as symbols for known numbers, the unknown - quantity being called _res_ and its square _census_. - - The second work of Leonardo, his _Practica geometriae_ (1220) requires - readers already acquainted with Euclid's planimetry, who are able to - follow rigorous demonstrations and feel the necessity for them. Among - the contents of this book we simply mention a trigonometrical chapter, - in which the words _sinus versus arcus_ occur, the approximate - extraction of cube roots shown more at large than in the _Liber - abaci_, and a very curious problem, which nobody would search for in a - geometrical work, viz.--To find a square number remaining so after the - addition of 5. This problem evidently suggested the first question, - viz.--To find a square number which remains a square after the - addition and subtraction of 5, put to our mathematician in presence of - the emperor by John of Palermo, who, perhaps, was quite enough - Leonardo's friend to set him such problems only as he had himself - asked for. Leonardo gave as solution the numbers 11(97/144), - 16(97/144), and 6(97/144),--the squares of 3(5/12), 4(1/12) and - 2(7/12); and the method of finding them is given in the _Liber - quadratorum_. We observe, however, that this kind of problem was not - new. Arabian authors already had found three square numbers of equal - difference, but the difference itself had not been assigned in - proposing the question. Leonardo's method, therefore, when the - difference was a fixed condition of the problem, was necessarily very - different from the Arabian, and, in all probability, was his own - discovery. The _Flos_ of Leonardo turns on the second question set by - John of Palermo, which required the solution of the cubic equation x^3 - + 2x^2 + 10x = 20. Leonardo, making use of fractions of the sexagesimal - scale, gives x = 1^0 22^i 7^ii 42^iii 33^iv 4^v 40^vi, after having - demonstrated, by a discussion founded on the 10th book of Euclid, that - a solution by square roots is impossible. It is much to be deplored - that Leonardo does not give the least intimation how he found his - approximative value, outrunning by this result more than three - centuries. Genocchi believes Leonardo to have been in possession of a - certain method called _regula aurea_ by H. Cardan in the 16th century, - but this is a mere hypothesis without solid foundation. In the _Flos_ - equations with negative values of the unknown quantity are also to be - met with, and Leonardo perfectly understands the meaning of these - negative solutions. In the _Letter to Magister Theodore_ indeterminate - problems are chiefly worked, and Leonardo hints at his being able to - solve by a general method any problem of this kind not exceeding the - first degree. - - As for the influence he exercised on posterity, it is enough to say - that Luca Pacioli, about 1500, in his celebrated _Summa_, leans so - exclusively to Leonardo's works (at that time known in manuscript - only) that he frankly acknowledges his dependence on them, and states - that wherever no other author is quoted all belongs to Leonardus - Pisanus. - - _Fibonacci's series_ is a sequence of numbers such that any term is - the sum of the two preceding terms; also known as _Lame's series_. - (M. Ca.) - - - - -LEONCAVALLO, RUGGIERO (1858- ), Italian operatic composer, was born at -Naples and educated for music at the conservatoire. After some years -spent in teaching and in ineffectual attempts to obtain the production -of more than one opera, his _Pagliacci_ was performed at Milan in 1892 -with immediate success; and next year his _Medici_ was also produced -there. But neither the latter nor _Chatterton_ (1896)--both early -works--obtained any favour; and it was not till _La Boheme_ was -performed in 1897 at Venice that his talent obtained public -confirmation. Subsequent operas by Leoncavallo were _Zaza_ (1900), and -_Der Roland_ (1904). In all these operas he was his own librettist. - - - - -LEONIDAS, king of Sparta, the seventeenth of the Agiad line. He -succeeded, probably in 489 or 488 B.C., his half-brother Cleomenes, -whose daughter Gorgo he married. In 480 he was sent with about 7000 men -to hold the pass of Thermopylae against the army of Xerxes. The -smallness of the force was, according to a current story, due to the -fact that he was deliberately going to his doom, an oracle having -foretold that Sparta could be saved only by the death of one of its -kings: in reality it seems rather that the ephors supported the scheme -half-heartedly, their policy being to concentrate the Greek forces at -the Isthmus. Leonidas repulsed the frontal attacks of the Persians, but -when the Malian Ephialtes led the Persian general Hydarnes by a mountain -track to the rear of the Greeks he divided his army, himself remaining -in the pass with 300 Spartiates, 700 Thespians and 400 Thebans. Perhaps -he hoped to surround Hydarnes' force: if so, the movement failed, and -the little Greek army, attacked from both sides, was cut down to a man -save the Thebans, who are said to have surrendered. Leonidas fell in the -thickest of the fight; his head was afterwards cut off by Xerxes' order -and his body crucified. Our knowledge of the circumstances is too slight -to enable us to judge of Leonidas's strategy, but his heroism and -devotion secured him an almost unique place in the imagination not only -of his own but also of succeeding times. - - See Herodotus v. 39-41, vii. 202-225, 238, ix. 10; Diodorus xi. 4-11; - Plutarch, _Apophthegm. Lacon.; de malignitate Herodoti_, 28-33; - Pausanias i. 13, iii. 3, 4; Isocrates, _Paneg._ 92; Lycurgus, _c._ - _Leocr._ 110, 111; Strabo i. 10, ix. 429; Aelian, _Var. hist._ iii. - 25; Cicero, _Tusc. disput._ i. 42, 49; _de Finibus_, ii. 30; Cornelius - Nepos, _Themistocles_, 3; Valerius Maximus iii. 2; Justin ii. 11. For - modern criticism on the battle of Thermopylae see G. B. Grundy, _The - Great Persian War_ (1901); G. Grote, _History of Greece_, part ii., c. - 40; E. Meyer, _Geschichte des Altertums_, iii., SS 219, 220; G. - Busolt, _Griechische Geschichte_, 2nd ed., ii. 666-688; J. B. Bury, - "The Campaign of Artemisium and Thermopylae," in _British School - Annual_, ii. 83 seq.; J. A. R. Munro, "Some Observations on the - Persian Wars, II.," in _Journal of Hellenic Studies_, xxii. 294-332. - (M. N. T.) - - - - -LEONTIASIS OSSEA, a rare disease characterized by an overgrowth of the -facial and cranial bones. The common form is that in which one or other -maxilla is affected, its size progressively increasing both regularly -and irregularly, and thus encroaching on the cavities of the orbit, the -mouth, the nose and its accessory sinuses. Exophthalmos gradually -develops, going on later to a complete loss of sight due to compression -of the optic nerve by the overgrowth of bone. There may also be -interference with the nasal respiration and with the taking of food. In -the somewhat less common form of this rare disease the overgrowth of -bone affects all the cranial bones as well as those of the face, the -senses being lost one by one and death finally resulting from cerebral -pressure. There is no treatment other than exposing the overgrown bone, -and chipping away pieces, or excising entirely where possible. - - - - -LEONTINI (mod. _Lentini_), an ancient town in the south-east of Sicily, -22 m. N.N.W. of Syracuse direct, founded by Chalcidians from Naxos in -729 B.C. It is almost the only Greek settlement not on the coast, from -which it is 6 m. distant. The site, originally held by the Sicels, was -seized by the Greeks owing to its command of the fertile plain on the -north. It was reduced to subjection in 498 B.C. by Hippocrates of Gela, -and in 476 Hieron of Syracuse established here the inhabitants of Catana -and Naxos. Later on Leontini regained its independence, but in its -efforts to retain it, the intervention of Athens was more than once -invoked. It was mainly the eloquence of Gorgias (q.v.) of Leontini which -led to the abortive Athenian expedition of 427. In 422 Syracuse -supported the oligarchs against the people and received them as -citizens, Leontini itself being forsaken. This led to renewed Athenian -intervention, at first mainly diplomatic; but the exiles of Leontini -joined the envoys of Segesta in persuading Athens to undertake the great -expedition of 415. After its failure, Leontini became subject to -Syracuse once more (see Strabo vi. 272). Its independence was guaranteed -by the treaty of 405 between Dionysius and the Carthaginians, but it -very soon lost it again. It was finally stormed by M. Claudius Marcellus -in 214 B.C. In Roman times it seems to have been of small importance. It -was destroyed by the Saracens A.D. 848, and almost totally ruined by the -earthquake of 1698. The ancient city is described by Polybius (vii. 6) -as lying in a bottom between two hills, and facing north. On the western -side of this bottom ran a river with a row of houses on its western bank -under the hill. At each end was a gate, the northern leading to the -plain, the southern, at the upper end, to Syracuse. There was an -acropolis on each side of the valley, which lies between precipitous -hills with flat tops, over which buildings had extended. The eastern -hill[1] still has considerable remains of a strongly fortified medieval -castle, in which some writers are inclined (though wrongly) to recognize -portions of Greek masonry. See G. M. Columba, in _Archeologia di -Leontinoi_ (Palermo, 1891), reprinted from _Archivio Storico Siciliano_, -xi.; P. Orsi in _Romische Mitteilungen_ (1900), 61 seq. Excavations were -made in 1899 in one of the ravines in a Sicel necropolis of the third -period; explorations in the various Greek cemeteries resulted in the -discovery of some fine bronzes, notably a fine bronze _lebes_, now in -the Berlin museum. (T. As.) - - -FOOTNOTE: - - [1] As a fact there are two flat valleys, up both of which the modern - Lentini extends; and hence there is difficulty in fitting Polybius's - account to the site. - - - - -LEONTIUS, theological writer, born at Byzantium, flourished during the -6th century. He is variously styled BYZANTINUS, HIEROSOLYMITANUS (as an -inmate of the monastery of St Saba near Jerusalem) and SCHOLASTICUS (the -first "schoolman," as the introducer of the Aristotelian definitions -into theology; according to others, he had been an advocate, a special -meaning of the word _scholasticus_). He himself states that in his early -years he belonged to a Nestorian community. Nothing else is known of his -life; he is frequently confused with others of the same name, and it is -uncertain which of the works bearing the name Leontius are really by -him. Most scholars regard as genuine the polemical treatises _Contra -Nestorianos et Eutychianos_, _Contra Nestorianos_, _Contra -Monophysitas_, _Contra Severum_ (patriarch of Antioch); and the [Greek: -Scholia], generally called _De Sectis_. An essay _Adversus fraudes -Apollinaristarum_ and two homilies are referred to other hands, the -homilies to a Leontius, presbyter of Constantinople. - - Collected works in J. P. Migne, _Patrologia Graeca_, lxxxvi.; for the - various questions connected with Leontius see F. Loops, _Das Leben und - die polemischen Werke des Leontios von Byzanz_ (Leipzig, 1887); W. - Rugamer, _Leontius von Byzanz_ (1894); V. Ermoni, _De Leontio - Byzantino_ (Paris, 1895); C. Krumbacher, _Geschichte der - byzantinischen Litteratur_ (1897); J. P. Junglas, _Leontius von - Byzanz_ (1908). For other persons of the name see Fabricius, - _Bibliotheca Graeca_ (ed. Harles), viii. 323. - - - - -LEOPARD,[1] PARD or PANTHER (_Felis pardus_), the largest spotted true -cat of the Old World, with the exception of the snow-leopard, which is, -however, inferior in point of size to the largest leopard. (See -CARNIVORA and SNOW-LEOPARD.) Leopards, known in India as _cheeta_ -(_chita_), are characterized by the rosette-like form of the black spots -on the greater part of the body, and the absence of a central spot from -each rosette. Towards the head and on the limbs the spots tend to become -solid, but there is great local variation in regard to their form and -arrangement. In the Indian leopard, the true _Felis pardus_, the spots -are large and rosette-like, and the same is the case with the -long-haired Persian leopard (_F. pardus tulliana_). On the other hand -the heavily built and thick-haired Manchurian _F. p. villosa_ has more -consolidated spots. African leopards, again, to one of which the name -_F. p. leopardus_ is applicable, show a decided tendency to a -breaking-up of the spots; West African animals being much -darker-coloured than those from the east side of the continent. - -Both as regards structure and habits, the leopard may be reckoned as one -of the more typical representatives of the genus _Felis_, belonging to -that section in which the hyoid bone is loosely connected with the -skull, owing to imperfect ossification of its anterior arch, and the -pupil of the eye when contracted under the influence of light is -circular, not linear as in the smaller cats. - -The size of leopards varies greatly, the head and body usually measuring -from 3(1/2) to 4(1/2) ft. in length, and the tail from 2(1/2) to 3 ft., -but some specimens exceed these limits, while the Somali leopard (_F. p. -nanopardus_) falls considerably short of them. The ground-colour of the -fur varies from a pale fawn to a rufous buff, graduating in the Indian -race into pure white on the under-parts and inside of the limbs. -Generally speaking, the spots on the under parts and limbs are simple -and blacker than those on the other parts of the body. The bases of the -ears behind are black, the tips buff. The upper side of the tail is -buff, spotted with broken rings like the back, its under surface white -with simple spots. The hair of the cubs is longer than that of the -adults, its ground-colour less bright, and its spots less distinct. -Perfectly black leopards, which in certain lights show the -characteristic markings on the fur, are not uncommon, and are examples -of _melanism_, occurring as individual variations, sometimes in one cub -out of a litter of which the rest are normally coloured, and therefore -not indicating a distinct race, much less a species. These are met with -chiefly in southern Asia; melanism among African leopards taking the -form of an excessive breaking-up of the spots, which finally show a -tendency to coalesce. - -[Illustration: The Leopard (_Felis pardus_).] - -In habits the leopard resembles the other large cat-like animals, -yielding to none in the ferocity of its disposition. It is exceedingly -quick in its movements, but seizes its prey by waiting in ambush or -stealthily approaching to within springing distance, when it suddenly -rushes upon it and tears it to ground with its powerful claws and teeth. -It preys upon almost any animal it can overcome, such as antelopes, -deer, sheep, goats, monkeys, peafowl, and has a special liking for dogs. -It not unfrequently attacks human beings in India, chiefly children and -old women, but instances have been known of a leopard becoming a regular -"man-eater." When favourable opportunities occur, it often kills many -more victims than it can devour at once, either to gratify its -propensity for killing or for the sake of their fresh blood. It -generally inhabits woody districts, and can climb trees with facility -when hunted, but usually lives on or near the ground, among rocks, -bushes and roots and low branches of large trees. - -The geographical range of the leopard embraces practically all Africa, -and Asia from Palestine to China and Manchuria, inclusive of Ceylon and -the great Malay Islands as far as Java. Fossil bones and teeth, -indistinguishable from those of existing leopards, have been found in -cave-deposits of Pleistocene age in Spain, France, Germany and England. - (R. L.*; W. H. F.) - - -FOOTNOTE: - - [1] The name (Late Lat. _leopardus_, Late Gr. [Greek: leopardos]) was - given by the ancients to an animal supposed to have been a cross - between a lion (Lat. _leo_, Gr. [Greek: leon]) and a pard (Gr. - [Greek: pardos], Pers. _pars_) or panther. Medieval heralds made no - distinction in shape between a lion and a leopard, but marked the - difference by drawing the leopard showing the full face (see - HERALDRY: S _Beasts and Birds_). - - - - -LEOPARDI, GIACOMO, COUNT (1798-1837), Italian poet, was born at Recanati -in the March of Ancona, on the 29th of June 1798. All the circumstances -of his parentage and education conspired to foster his precocious and -sensitive genius at the expense of his physical and mental health. His -family was ancient and patrician, but so deeply embarrassed as to be -only rescued from ruin by the energy of his mother, who had taken the -control of business matters entirely into her own hands, and whose -engrossing devotion to her undertaking seems to have almost dried up the -springs of maternal tenderness. Count Monaldo Leopardi, the father, a -mere nullity in his own household, secluded himself in his extensive -library, to which his nervous, sickly and deformed son had free access, -and which absorbed him exclusively in the absence of any intelligent -sympathy from his parents, any companionship except that of his brothers -and sister, or any recreation in the dullest of Italian towns. The lad -spent his days over grammars and dictionaries, learning Latin with -little assistance, and Greek and the principal modern languages with -none at all. Any ordinarily clever boy would have emerged from this -discipline a mere pedant and bookworm. Leopardi came forth a Hellene, -not merely a consummate Greek scholar, but penetrated with the classical -conception of life, and a master of antique form and style. At sixteen -he composed a Latin treatise on the Roman rhetoricians of the 2nd -century, a commentary on Porphyry's life of Plotinus and a history of -astronomy; at seventeen he wrote on the popular errors of the ancients, -citing more than four hundred authors. A little later he imposed upon -the first scholars of Italy by two odes in the manner of Anacreon. At -eighteen he produced a poem of considerable length, the _Appressamento -alla Morte_, which, after being lost for many years, was discovered and -published by Zanino Volta. It is a vision of the omnipotence of death, -modelled upon Petrarch, but more truly inspired by Dante, and in its -conception, machinery and general tone offering a remarkable resemblance -to Shelley's _Triumph of Life_ (1822), of which Leopardi probably never -heard. This juvenile work was succeeded (1819) by two lyrical -compositions which at once placed the author upon the height which he -maintained ever afterwards. The ode to Italy, and that on the monument -to Dante erected at Florence, gave voice to the dismay and affliction -with which Italy, aroused by the French Revolution from the torpor of -the 17th and 18th centuries, contemplated her forlorn and degraded -condition, her political impotence, her degeneracy in arts and arms and -the frivolity or stagnation of her intellectual life. They were the -outcry of a student who had found an ideal of national existence in his -books, and to whose disappointment everything in his own circumstances -lent additional poignancy. But there is nothing unmanly or morbid in the -expression of these sentiments, and the odes are surprisingly exempt -from the failings characteristic of young poets. They are remarkably -chaste in diction, close and nervous in style, sparing in fancy and -almost destitute of simile and metaphor, antique in spirit, yet pervaded -by modern ideas, combining Landor's dignity with a considerable infusion -of the passion of Byron. These qualities continued to characterize -Leopardi's poetical writings throughout his life. A third ode, on -Cardinal Mai's discoveries of ancient MSS., lamented in the same spirit -of indignant sorrow the decadence of Italian literature. The publication -of these pieces widened the breach between Leopardi and his father, a -well-meaning but apparently dull and apathetic man, who had lived into -the 19th century without imbibing any of its spirit, and who provoked -his son's contempt by a superstition unpardonable in a scholar of real -learning. Very probably from a mistaken idea of duty to his son, very -probably, too, from his own entire dependence in pecuniary matters upon -his wife, he for a long time obstinately refused Leopardi funds, -recreation, change of scene, everything that could have contributed to -combat the growing pessimism which eventually became nothing less than -monomaniacal. The affection of his brothers and sister afforded him some -consolation, and he found intellectual sympathy in the eminent scholar -and patriot Pietro Giordani, with whom he assiduously corresponded at -this period, partly on the ways and means of escaping from "this -hermitage, or rather seraglio, where the delights of civil society and -the advantages of solitary life are alike wanting." This forms the -keynote of numerous letters of complaint and lamentation, as touching -but as effeminate in their pathos as those of the banished Ovid. It must -be remembered in fairness that the weakness of Leopardi's eyesight -frequently deprived him for months together of the resource of study. At -length (1822) his father allowed him to repair to Rome, where, though -cheered by the encouragement of C. C. J. Bunsen and Niebuhr, he found -little satisfaction in the trifling pedantry that passed for philology -and archaeology, while his sceptical opinions prevented his taking -orders, the indispensable condition of public employment in the Papal -States. Dispirited and with exhausted means, he returned to Recanati, -where he spent three miserable years, brightened only by the production -of several lyrical masterpieces, which appeared in 1824. The most -remarkable is perhaps the _Bruto Minore_, the condensation of his -philosophy of despair. In 1825 he accepted an engagement to edit Cicero -and Petrarch for the publisher Stella at Milan, and took up his -residence at Bologna, where his life was for a time made almost -cheerful by the friendship of the countess Malvezzi. In 1827 appeared -the _Operette Morali_, consisting principally of dialogues and his -imaginary biography of Filippo Ottonieri, which have given Leopardi a -fame as a prose writer hardly inferior to his celebrity as a poet. -Modern literature has few productions so eminently classical in form and -spirit, so symmetrical in construction and faultless in style. Lucian is -evidently the model; but the wit and irony which were playthings to -Lucian are terribly earnest with Leopardi. Leopardi's invention is equal -to Lucian's and his only drawback in comparison with his exemplar is -that, while the latter's campaign against pretence and imposture -commands hearty sympathy, Leopardi's philosophical creed is a repulsive -hedonism in the disguise of austere stoicism. The chief interlocutors in -his dialogues all profess the same unmitigated pessimism, claim -emancipation from every illusion that renders life tolerable to the -vulgar, and assert or imply a vast moral and intellectual superiority -over unenlightened mankind. When, however, we come to inquire what -renders them miserable, we find it is nothing but the privation of -pleasurable sensation, fame, fortune or some other external thing which -a lofty code of ethics would deny to be either indefeasibly due to man -or essential to his felicity. A page of _Sartor Resartus_ scatters -Leopardi's sophistry to the winds, and leaves nothing of his dialogues -but the consummate literary skill that would render the least fragment -precious. As works of art they are a possession for ever, as -contributions to moral philosophy they are worthless, and apart from -their literary qualities can only escape condemnation if regarded as -lyrical expressions of emotion, the wail extorted from a diseased mind -by a diseased body. _Filippo Ottonieri_ is a portrait of an imaginary -philosopher, imitated from the biography of a real sage in Lucian's -_Demonax_. Lucian has shown us the philosopher he wished to copy, -Leopardi has truly depicted the philosopher he was. Nothing can be more -striking or more tragical than the picture of the man superior to his -fellows in every quality of head and heart, and yet condemned to -sterility and impotence because he has, as he imagines, gone a step too -far on the road to truth, and illusions exist for him no more. The -little tract is full of remarks on life and character of surprising -depth and justice, manifesting what powers of observation as well as -reflection were possessed by the sickly youth who had seen so little of -the world. - -Want of means soon drove Leopardi back to Recanati, where, deaf, -half-blind, sleepless, tortured by incessant pain, at war with himself -and every one around him except his sister, he spent the two most -unhappy years of his unhappy life. In May 1831 he escaped to Florence, -where he formed the acquaintance of a young Swiss philologist, M. de -Sinner. To him he confided his unpublished philological writings, with a -view to their appearance in Germany. A selection appeared under the -title _Excerpta ex schedis criticis J. Leopardi_ (Bonn, 1834). The -remaining MSS. were purchased after Sinner's death by the Italian -government, and, together with Leopardi's correspondence with the Swiss -philologist, were partially edited by Aulard. In 1831 appeared a new -edition of Leopardi's poems, comprising several new pieces of the -highest merit. These are in general less austerely classical than his -earlier compositions, and evince a greater tendency to description, and -a keener interest in the works and ways of ordinary mankind. _The -Resurrection_, composed on occasion of his unexpected recovery, is a -model of concentrated energy of diction, and _The Song of the Wandering -Shepherd in Asia_ is one of the highest flights of modern lyric poetry. -The range of the author's ideas is still restricted, but his style and -melody are unsurpassable. Shortly after the publication of these pieces -(October 1831) Leopardi was driven from Florence to Rome by an unhappy -attachment. His feelings are powerfully expressed in two poems, _To -Himself_ and _Aspasia_, which seem to breathe wounded pride at least as -much as wounded love. In 1832 Leopardi returned to Florence, and there -formed acquaintance with a young Neapolitan, Antonio Ranieri, himself an -author of merit, and destined to enact towards him the part performed by -Severn towards Keats, an enviable title to renown if Ranieri had not in -his old age tarnished it by assuming the relation of Trelawny to the -dead Byron. Leopardi accompanied Ranieri and his sister to Naples, and -under their care enjoyed four years of comparative tranquillity. He made -the acquaintance of the German poet Platen, his sole modern rival in the -classical perfection of form, and composed _La Ginestra_, the most -consummate of all his lyrical masterpieces, strongly resembling -Shelley's _Mont Blanc_, but more perfect in expression. He also wrote at -Naples _The Sequel to the Battle of the Frogs and Mice_, a satire in -_ottava rima_ on the abortive Neapolitan revolution of 1820, clever and -humorous, but obscure from the local character of the allusions. The -more painful details of his Neapolitan residence may be found by those -who care to seek for them in the deplorable publication of Ranieri's -peevish old age (_Sette anni di sodalizio_). The decay of Leopardi's -constitution continued; he became dropsical; and a sudden crisis of his -malady, unanticipated by himself alone, put an end to his life-long -sufferings on the 15th of June 1837. - - The poems which constitute Leopardi's principal title to immortality - are only forty-one in number, and some of these are merely - fragmentary. They may for the most part be described as odes, - meditative soliloquies, or impassioned addresses, generally couched in - a lyrical form, although a few are in magnificent blank verse. Some - idea of the style and spirit of the former might be obtained by - imagining the thoughts of the last book of Spenser's _Faerie Queene_ - in the metre of his _Epithalamium_. They were first edited complete by - Ranieri at Florence in 1845, forming, along with the _Operette - Morali_, the first volume of an edition of Leopardi's works, which - does not, however, include _The Sequel to the Battle of the Frogs and - Mice_, first printed at Paris in 1842, nor the afterwards discovered - writings. Vols. ii.-iv. contain the philological essays and - translations, with some letters, and vols. v. and vi. the remainder of - the correspondence. Later editions are those of G. Chiarini and G. - Mestica. The juvenile essays preserved in his father's library at - Recanati were edited by Cugnoni (_Opere inedite_) in 1879, with the - consent of the family. See Cappelleti, _Bibliografia Leopardiana_ - (Parma, 1882). Leopardi's biography is mainly in his letters - (_Epistolario_, 1st ed., 1849, 5th ed., 1892), to which his later - biographers (Brandes, Bouche-Leclercq, Rosa) have merely added - criticisms, excellent in their way, more particularly Brandes's, but - generally over-rating Leopardi's significance in the history of human - thought. W. E. Gladstone's essay (_Quart. Rev._, 1850), reprinted in - vol. ii. of the author's _Gleanings_, is too much pervaded by the - theological spirit, but is in the main a pattern of generous and - discriminating eulogy. There are excellent German translations of the - poems by Heyse and Brandes. An English translation of the essays and - dialogues by C. Edwards appeared in 1882, and most of the dialogues - were translated with extraordinary felicity by James Thomson, author - of _The City of Dreadful Night_, and originally published in the - _National Reformer_. (R. G.) - - - - -LEOPARDO, ALESSANDRO (d. c. 1512), Italian sculptor, was born and died -at Venice. His first known work is the imposing mausoleum of the doge -Andrea Vendramini, now in the church of San Giovanni e Paolo; in this he -had the co-operation of Tullio Lombardo, but the finest parts are -Leopardo's. Some of the figures have been taken away, and two in the -Berlin museum are considered to be certainly his work. He was exiled on -a charge of fraud in 1487, and recalled in 1490 by the senate to finish -Verrocchio's colossal statue of Bartolommeo Colleoni. He worked between -1503 and 1505 on the tomb of Cardinal Zeno at St Mark's, which was -finished in 1515 by Pietro Lombardo; and in 1505 he designed and cast -the bronze sockets for the three flagstaffs in the square of St Mark's, -the antique character of the decorations suggesting some Greek model. -(See VENICE.) - - - - -LEOPOLD (M.H. Ger. _Liupolt_, O.H. Ger. _Liupald_, from _liut_, Mod. -Ger. _Leute_, "people," and _pald_, "bold," i.e. "bold for the people"), -the name which has been that of several European sovereigns. - - - - -LEOPOLD I. (1640-1705), Roman emperor, the second son of the emperor -Ferdinand III. and his first wife Maria Anna, daughter of Philip III. of -Spain, was born on the 9th of June 1640. Intended for the Church, he -received a good education, but his prospects were changed by the death -of his elder brother, the German king Ferdinand IV., in July 1654, when -he became his father's heir. In 1655 he was chosen king of Hungary and -in 1656 king of Bohemia, and in July 1658, more than a year after his -father's death, he was elected emperor at Frankfort, in spite of the -intrigues of Cardinal Mazarin, who wished to place on the imperial -throne Ferdinand, elector of Bavaria, or some other prince whose -elevation would break the Habsburg succession. Mazarin, however, -obtained a promise from the new emperor that he would not send -assistance to Spain, then at war with France, and, by joining a -confederation of German princes, called the league of the Rhine, France -secured a certain influence in the internal affairs of Germany. -Leopold's long reign covers one of the most important periods of -European history; for nearly the whole of its forty-seven years he was -pitted against Louis XIV. of France, whose dominant personality -completely overshadowed Leopold. The emperor was a man of peace and -never led his troops in person; yet the greater part of his public life -was spent in arranging and directing wars. The first was with Sweden, -whose king Charles X. found a useful ally in the prince of Transylvania, -George II. Rakocky, a rebellious vassal of the Hungarian crown. This -war, a legacy of the last reign, was waged by Leopold as the ally of -Poland until peace was made at Oliva in 1660. A more dangerous foe next -entered the lists. The Turks interfered in the affairs of Transylvania, -always an unruly district, and this interference brought on a war with -the Empire, which after some desultory operations really began in 1663. -By a personal appeal to the diet at Regensburg Leopold induced the -princes to send assistance for the campaign; troops were also sent by -France, and in August 1664 the great imperialist general, Montecucculi, -gained a notable victory at St Gotthard. By the peace of Vasvar the -emperor made a twenty years' truce with the sultan, granting more -generous terms than his recent victory seemed to render necessary. - -After a few years of peace began the first of three wars between France -and the Empire. The aggressive policy pursued by Louis XIV. towards -Holland had aroused the serious attention of Europe, and steps had been -taken to check it. Although the French king had sought the alliance of -several German princes and encouraged the Turks in their attacks on -Austria the emperor at first took no part in this movement. He was on -friendly terms with Louis, to whom he was closely related and with whom -he had already discussed the partition of the lands of the Spanish -monarchy; moreover, in 1671 he arranged with him a treaty of neutrality. -In 1672, however, he was forced to take action. He entered into an -alliance for the defence of Holland and war broke out; then, after this -league had collapsed owing to the defection of the elector of -Brandenburg, another and more durable alliance was formed for the same -purpose, including, besides the emperor, the king of Spain and several -German princes, and the war was renewed. At this time, twenty-five years -after the peace of Westphalia, the Empire was virtually a confederation -of independent princes, and it was very difficult for its head to -conduct any war with vigour and success, some of its members being in -alliance with the enemy and others being only lukewarm in their support -of the imperial interests. Thus this struggle, which lasted until the -end of 1678, was on the whole unfavourable to Germany, and the -advantages of the treaty of Nijmwegen (February 1679) were with France. - -Almost immediately after the conclusion of peace Louis renewed his -aggressions on the German frontier. Engaged in a serious struggle with -Turkey, the emperor was again slow to move, and although he joined a -league against France in 1682 he was glad to make a truce at Regensburg -two years later. In 1686 the league of Augsburg was formed by the -emperor and the imperial princes, to preserve the terms of the treaties -of Westphalia and of Nijmwegen. The whole European position was now -bound up with events in England, and the tension lasted until 1688, when -William of Orange won the English crown and Louis invaded Germany. In -May 1689 the grand alliance was formed, including the emperor, the kings -of England, Spain and Denmark, the elector of Brandenburg and others, -and a fierce struggle against France was waged throughout almost the -whole of western Europe. In general the several campaigns were -favourable to the allies, and in September 1697 England and Holland made -peace with Louis at Ryswick. To this treaty Leopold refused to assent, -as he considered that his allies had somewhat neglected his interests, -but in the following month he came to terms and a number of places were -transferred from France to Germany. The peace with France lasted for -about four years and then Europe was involved in the War of the Spanish -Succession. The king of Spain, Charles II., was a Habsburg by descent -and was related by marriage to the Austrian branch, while a similar tie -bound him to the royal house of France. He was feeble and childless, and -attempts had been made by the European powers to arrange for a peaceable -division of his extensive kingdom. Leopold refused to consent to any -partition, and when in November 1700 Charles died, leaving his crown to -Philip, duke of Anjou, a grandson of Louis XIV., all hopes of a -peaceable settlement vanished. Under the guidance of William III. a -powerful league, the grand alliance, was formed against France; of this -the emperor was a prominent member, and in 1703 he transferred his claim -on the Spanish monarchy to his second son, the archduke Charles. The -early course of the war was not favourable to the imperialists, but the -tide of defeat had been rolled back by the great victory of Blenheim -before Leopold died on the 5th of May 1705. - -In governing his own lands Leopold found his chief difficulties in -Hungary, where unrest was caused partly by his desire to crush -Protestantism. A rising was suppressed in 1671 and for some years -Hungary was treated with great severity. In 1681, after another rising, -some grievances were removed and a less repressive policy was adopted, -but this did not deter the Hungarians from revolting again. Espousing -the cause of the rebels the sultan sent an enormous army into Austria -early in 1683; this advanced almost unchecked to Vienna, which was -besieged from July to September, while Leopold took refuge at Passau. -Realizing the gravity of the situation somewhat tardily, some of the -German princes, among them the electors of Saxony and Bavaria, led their -contingents to the imperial army which was commanded by the emperor's -brother-in-law, Charles, duke of Lorraine, but the most redoubtable of -Leopold's allies was the king of Poland, John Sobieski, who was already -dreaded by the Turks. On the 12th of September 1683 the allied army fell -upon the enemy, who was completely routed, and Vienna was saved. The -imperialists, among whom Prince Eugene of Savoy was rapidly becoming -prominent, followed up the victory with others, notably one near Mohacz -in 1687 and another at Zenta in 1697, and in January 1699 the sultan -signed the treaty of Karlowitz by which he admitted the sovereign rights -of the house of Habsburg over nearly the whole of Hungary. Before the -conclusion of the war, however, Leopold had taken measures to strengthen -his hold upon this country. In 1687 at the diet of Pressburg the -constitution was changed, the right of the Habsburgs to succeed to the -throne without election was admitted and the emperor's elder son Joseph -was crowned hereditary king of Hungary. - -During this reign some important changes were made in the constitution -of the Empire. In 1663 the imperial diet entered upon the last stage of -its existence, and became a body permanently in session at Regensburg; -in 1692 the duke of Hanover was raised to the rank of an elector, -becoming the ninth member of the electoral college; and in 1700 Leopold, -greatly in need of help for the impending war with France, granted the -title of king of Prussia to the elector of Brandenburg. The net result -of these and similar changes was to weaken the authority of the emperor -over the members of the Empire, and to compel him to rely more and more -upon his position as ruler of the Austrian archduchies and of Hungary -and Bohemia, and Leopold was the first who really appears to have -realized this altered state of affairs and to have acted in accordance -therewith. - -The emperor was married three times. His first wife was Margaret Theresa -(d. 1673), daughter of Philip IV. of Spain; his second Claudia Felicitas -(d. 1676), the heiress of Tirol; and his third Eleanora, a princess of -the Palatinate. By his first two wives he had no sons, but his third -wife bore him two, Joseph and Charles, both of whom became emperors. He -had also four daughters. - -Leopold was a man of industry and education, and during his later years -he showed some political ability. Extremely tenacious of his rights, and -regarding himself as an absolute sovereign, he was also very intolerant -and was greatly influenced by the Jesuits. In person he was short, but -strong and healthy. Although he had no inclination for a military life -he loved exercises in the open air, such as hunting and riding; he had -also a taste for music. - - Leopold's letters to Marco d'Aviano from 1680 to 1699 were edited by - O. Klopp and published at Graz in 1888. Other letters are found in the - _Fontes rerum Austriacarum_, Bande 56 and 57 (Vienna, 1903-1904). See - also F. Krones, _Handbuch der Geschichte Osterreichs_ (Berlin, - 1876-1879); R. Baumstark, _Kaiser Leopold I._ (1873); and A. F. - Pribram, _Zur Wahl Leopolds I._ (Vienna, 1888). (A. W. H.*) - - - - -LEOPOLD II. (1747-1792), Roman emperor, and grand-duke of Tuscany, son -of the empress Maria Theresa and her husband, Francis I., was born in -Vienna on the 5th of May 1747. He was a third son, and was at first -educated for the priesthood, but the theological studies to which he was -forced to apply himself are believed to have influenced his mind in a -way unfavourable to the Church. On the death of his elder brother -Charles in 1761 it was decided that he should succeed to his father's -grand duchy of Tuscany, which was erected into a "secundogeniture" or -apanage for a second son. This settlement was the condition of his -marriage on the 5th of August 1764 with Maria Louisa, daughter of -Charles III. of Spain, and on the death of his father Francis I. (13th -August 1765) he succeeded to the grand duchy. For five years he -exercised little more than nominal authority under the supervision of -counsellors appointed by his mother. In 1770 he made a journey to Vienna -to secure the removal of this vexatious guardianship, and returned to -Florence with a free hand. During the twenty years which elapsed between -his return to Florence and the death of his eldest brother Joseph II. in -1790 he was employed in reforming the administration of his small state. -The reformation was carried out by the removal of the ruinous -restrictions on industry and personal freedom imposed by his -predecessors of the house of Medici, and left untouched during his -father's life; by the introduction of a rational system of taxation; and -by the execution of profitable public works, such as the drainage of the -Val di Chiana. As he had no army to maintain, and as he suppressed the -small naval force kept up by the Medici, the whole of his revenue was -left free for the improvement of his state. Leopold was never popular -with his Italian subjects. His disposition was cold and retiring. His -habits were simple to the verge of sordidness, though he could display -splendour on occasion, and he could not help offending those of his -subjects who had profited by the abuses of the Medicean regime. But his -steady, consistent and intelligent administration, which advanced step -by step, making the second only when the first had been justified by -results, brought the grand duchy to a high level of material prosperity. -His ecclesiastical policy, which disturbed the deeply rooted convictions -of his people, and brought him into collision with the pope, was not -successful. He was unable to secularize the property of the religious -houses, or to put the clergy entirely under the control of the lay -power. - -During the last few years of his rule in Tuscany Leopold had begun to be -frightened by the increasing disorders in the German and Hungarian -dominions of his family, which were the direct result of his brother's -headlong methods. He and Joseph II. were tenderly attached to one -another, and met frequently both before and after the death of their -mother, while the portrait by Pompeo Baltoni in which they appear -together shows that they bore a strong personal resemblance to one -another. But it may be said of Leopold, as of Fontenelle, that his heart -was made of brains. He knew that he must succeed his childless eldest -brother in Austria, and he was unwilling to inherit his unpopularity. -When, therefore, in 1789 Joseph, who knew himself to be dying, asked him -to come to Vienna, and become co-regent, Leopold coldly evaded the -request. He was still in Florence when Joseph II. died at Vienna on the -20th of February 1790, and he did not leave his Italian capital till the -3rd of March. Leopold, during his government in Tuscany, had shown a -speculative tendency to grant his subjects a constitution. When he -succeeded to the Austrian lands he began by making large concessions to -the interests offended by his brother's innovations. He recognized the -Estates of his different dominions as "the pillars of the monarchy," -pacified the Hungarians and divided the Belgian insurgents by -concessions. When these failed to restore order, he marched troops into -the country, and re-established at the same time his own authority, and -the historic franchises of the Flemings. Yet he did not surrender any -part that could be retained of what Maria Theresa and Joseph had done to -strengthen the hands of the state. He continued, for instance, to insist -that no papal bull could be published in his dominions without his -consent (_placetum regium_). - -If Leopold's reign as emperor, and king of Hungary and Bohemia, had been -prolonged during years of peace, it is probable that he would have -repeated his successes as a reforming ruler in Tuscany on a far larger -scale. But he lived for barely two years, and during that period he was -hard pressed by peril from west and east alike. The growing -revolutionary disorders in France endangered the life of his sister -Marie Antoinette, the queen of Louis XVI., and also threatened his own -dominions with the spread of a subversive agitation. His sister sent him -passionate appeals for help, and he was pestered by the royalist -emigrants, who were intriguing both to bring about an armed intervention -in France, and against Louis XVI. From the east he was threatened by the -aggressive ambition of Catherine II. of Russia, and by the unscrupulous -policy of Prussia. Catherine would have been delighted to see Austria -and Prussia embark on a crusade in the cause of kings against the -Revolution. While they were busy beyond the Rhine, she would have -annexed what remained of Poland, and would have made conquests in -Turkey. Leopold II. had no difficulty in seeing through the rather -transparent cunning of the Russian empress, and he refused to be misled. -To his sister he gave good advice and promises of help if she and her -husband could escape from Paris. The emigrants who followed him -pertinaciously were refused audience, or when they forced themselves on -him were peremptorily denied all help. Leopold was too purely a -politician not to be secretly pleased at the destruction of the power of -France and of her influence in Europe by her internal disorders. Within -six weeks of his accession he displayed his contempt for her weakness by -practically tearing up the treaty of alliance made by Maria Theresa in -1756 and opening negotiations with England to impose a check on Russia -and Prussia. He was able to put pressure on England by threatening to -cede his part of the Low Countries to France, and then, when secure of -English support, he was in a position to baffle the intrigues of -Prussia. A personal appeal to Frederick William II. led to a conference -between them at Reichenbach in July 1790, and to an arrangement which -was in fact a defeat for Prussia. Leopold's coronation as king of -Hungary on the 15th of November 1790, was preceded by a settlement with -the diet in which he recognized the dominant position of the Magyars. He -had already made an eight months' truce with the Turks in September, -which prepared the way for the termination of the war begun by Joseph -II., the peace of Sistova being signed in August 1791. The pacification -of his eastern dominions left Leopold free to re-establish order in -Belgium and to confirm friendly relations with England and Holland. - -During 1791 the emperor continued to be increasingly preoccupied with -the affairs of France. In January he had to dismiss the count of Artois, -afterwards Charles X., king of France, in a very peremptory way. His -good sense was revolted by the folly of the French emigrants, and he did -his utmost to avoid being entangled in the affairs of that country. The -insults inflicted on Louis XVI. and Marie Antoinette, however, at the -time of their attempted flight to Varennes in June, stirred his -indignation, and he made a general appeal to the sovereigns of Europe to -take common measures in view of events which "immediately compromised -the honour of all sovereigns, and the security of all governments." Yet -he was most directly interested in the conference at Sistova, which in -June led to a final peace with Turkey. On the 25th of August he met the -king of Prussia at Pillnitz, near Dresden, and they drew up a -declaration of their readiness to intervene in France if and when their -assistance was called for by the other powers. The declaration was a -mere formality, for, as Leopold knew, neither Russia nor England was -prepared to act, and he endeavoured to guard against the use which he -foresaw the emigrants would endeavour to make of it. In face of the -agitation caused by the Pillnitz declaration in France, the intrigues of -the emigrants, and the attacks made by the French revolutionists on the -rights of the German princes in Alsace, Leopold continued to hope that -intervention might not be required. When Louis XVI. swore to observe the -constitution of September 1791, the emperor professed to think that a -settlement had been reached in France. The attacks on the rights of the -German princes on the left bank of the Rhine, and the increasing -violence of the parties in Paris which were agitating to bring about -war, soon showed, however, that this hope was vain. Leopold met the -threatening language of the revolutionists with dignity and temper. His -sudden death on the 1st of March 1792 was an irreparable loss to -Austria. - -Leopold had sixteen children, the eldest of his eight sons being his -successor, the emperor Francis II. Some of his other sons were prominent -personages in their day. Among them were: Ferdinand III., grand duke of -Tuscany; the archduke Charles, a celebrated soldier; the archduke John, -also a soldier; the archduke Joseph, palatine of Hungary; and the -archduke Rainer, viceroy of Lombardy-Venetia. - - Several volumes containing the emperor's correspondence have been - published. Among these are: _Joseph II. und Leopold von Toskana. Ihr - Briefwechsel 1781-1790_ (Vienna, 1872), and _Marie Antoinette, Joseph - II. und Leopold II. Ihr Briefwechsel_ (Vienna, 1866), both edited by - A. Ritter von Arneth; _Joseph II., Leopold II. und Kaunitz. Ihr - Briefwechsel_ (Vienna, 1873); and _Leopold II., Franz II. und - Catharina. Ihre Correspondenz nebst einer Einleitung: Zur Geschichte - der Politik Leopolds II._ (Leipzig, 1874), both edited by A. Beer; and - _Leopold II. und Marie Christine. Ihrand Briefwechsel 1781-1792_, - edited by A. Wolf (Vienna, 1867). See also H. von Sybel, _Uber die - Regierung Kaiser Leopolds II._ (Munich, 1860); A. Schultze, _Kaiser - Leopold II. und die franzosische Revolution_ (Leipzig, 1899); and A. - Wolf and H. von Zwiedeneck-Sudenhorst, _Osterreich unter Maria - Theresa, Joseph II. und Leopold II._ (Berlin, 1882-1884). - - - - -LEOPOLD I. (1790-1865), king of the Belgians, fourth son of Francis, -duke of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld, and uncle of Queen Victoria of England, -was born at Coburg on the 18th of December 1790. At the age of eighteen -he entered the military service of Russia, and accompanied the emperor -Alexander to Erfurt as a member of his staff. He was required by -Napoleon to quit the Russian army, and spent some years in travelling. -In 1813 he accepted from the emperor Alexander the post of a cavalry -general in the army of invasion, and he took part in the whole of the -campaign of that and the following year, distinguishing himself in the -battles of Leipzig, Lutzen and Bautzen. He entered Paris with the allied -sovereigns, and accompanied them to England. He married in May 1816 -Charlotte, only child of George, prince regent, afterwards George IV., -heiress-presumptive to the British throne, and was created duke of -Kendal in the British peerage and given an annuity of L50,000. The death -of the princess in the following year was a heavy blow to his hopes, but -he continued to reside in England. In 1830 he declined the offer of the -crown of Greece, owing to the refusal of the powers to grant conditions -which he considered essential to the welfare of the new kingdom, but was -in the following year elected king of the Belgians (4th June 1831). -After some hesitation he accepted the crown, having previously -ascertained that he would have the support of the great powers on -entering upon his difficult task, and on the 12th of July he made his -entry into Brussels and took the oath to observe the constitution. -During the first eight years of his reign he was confronted with the -resolute hostility of King William I. of Holland, and it was not until -1839 that the differences between the two states, which until 1830 had -formed the kingdom of the Netherlands, were finally settled at the -conference of London by the treaty of the 24 Articles (see BELGIUM). -From this date until his death, King Leopold spent all his energies in -the wise administration of the affairs of the newly formed kingdom, -which may be said to owe in a large measure its first consolidation and -constant prosperity to the care and skill of his discreet and fatherly -government. In 1848 the throne of Belgium stood unshaken amidst the -revolutions which marked that year in almost every European country. On -the 8th of August 1832 Leopold married, as his second wife, Louise of -Orleans, daughter of Louis Philippe, king of the French. Queen Louise -endeared herself to the Belgian people, and her death in 1850 was felt -as a national loss. This union produced two sons and one daughter--(1) -Leopold, afterwards king of the Belgians; (2) Philip, count of Flanders; -(3) Marie Charlotte, who married Maximilian of Austria, the unfortunate -emperor of Mexico. Leopold I. died at Laeken on the 10th of December -1865. He was a most cultured man and a great reader, and did his utmost -during his reign to encourage art, science and education. His judgment -was universally respected by contemporary sovereigns and statesmen, and -he was frequently spoken of as "the Nestor of Europe" (see also -VICTORIA, QUEEN). - - See Th. Juste, _Leopold I^er, roi des Belges d'apres des doc. ined. - 1793-1865_ (2 vols., Brussels, 1868), and _Les Fondateurs de la - monarchie Belge_ (22 vols., Brussels, 1878-1880); J. J. Thonissen, _La - Belgique sous le regne de Leopold I^er_ (Louvain, 1862). - - - - -LEOPOLD II. [LEOPOLD LOUIS PHILIPPE MARIE VICTOR] (1835-1909), king of -the Belgians, son of the preceding, was born at Brussels on the 9th of -April 1835. In 1846 he was created duke of Brabant and appointed a -sub-lieutenant in the army, in which he served until his accession, by -which time he had reached the rank of lieutenant-general. On attaining -his majority he was made a member of the senate, in whose proceedings he -took a lively interest, especially in matters concerning the development -of Belgium and its trade. On the 22nd of August 1853 Leopold married -Marie Henriette (1836-1902), daughter of the archduke Joseph of Austria, -palatine of Hungary, by his wife Marie Dorothea, duchess of Wurttemberg. -This princess, who was a great-granddaughter of the empress Maria -Theresa, and a great-niece of Marie Antoinette, endeared herself to the -people by her elevated character and indefatigable benevolence, while -her beauty gained for her the sobriquet of "The Rose of Brabant"; she -was also an accomplished artist and musician, and a fine horsewoman. -Between the years 1854 and 1865 Leopold travelled much abroad, visiting -India and China as well as Egypt and the countries on the Mediterranean -coast of Africa. On the 10th of December 1865 he succeeded his father. -On the 28th of January 1869 he lost his only son, Leopold (b. 1859), -duke of Hainaut. The king's brother Philip, count of Flanders -(1837-1905), then became heir to the throne; and on his death his son -Albert (b. 1875) became heir-presumptive. During the Franco-Prussian War -(1870-1871) the king of the Belgians preserved neutrality in a period of -unusual difficulty and danger. But the most notable event in Leopold's -career was the foundation of the Congo Free State (q.v.). While still -duke of Brabant he had been the first to call the attention of the -Belgians to the need of enlarging their horizon beyond sea, and after -his accession to the throne he gave the first impulse towards the -development of this idea by founding in 1876 the _Association -Internationale Africaine_. He enlisted the services of H. M. Stanley, -who visited Brussels in 1878 after exploring the Congo river, and -returned in 1879 to the Congo as agent of the _Comite d'Etudes du Haut -Congo_, soon afterwards reorganized as the "International Association of -the Congo." This association was, in 1884-1885, recognized by the powers -as a sovereign state under the name of the _Etat Independant du Congo_. -Leopold's exploitation of this vast territory, which he administered -autocratically, and in which he associated himself personally with -various financial schemes, was understood to bring him an enormous -fortune; it was the subject of acutely hostile criticism, to a large -extent substantiated by the report of a commission of inquiry instituted -by the king himself in 1904, and followed in 1908 by the annexation of -the state to Belgium (see CONGO FREE STATE: _History_). In 1880 Leopold -sought an interview with General C. G. Gordon and obtained his promise, -subject to the approval of the British government, to enter the Belgian -service on the Congo. Three years later Leopold claimed fulfilment of -the promise, and Gordon was about to proceed to the Congo when the -British government required his services for the Sudan. On the 15th of -November 1902 King Leopold's life was attempted in Brussels by an -Italian anarchist named Rubino. Queen Marie Henriette died at Spa on the -19th of September of the same year. Besides the son already mentioned -she had borne to Leopold three daughters--Louise Marie Amelie (b. 1858), -who in 1875 married Philip of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, and was divorced in -1906; Stephanie (b. 1864), who married Rudolph, crown prince of Austria, -in 1881, and after his death in 1889 married, against her father's -wishes, Elemer, Count Lonyay, in 1900; and Clementine (b. 1872). At the -time of the queen's death an unseemly incident was occasioned by -Leopold's refusal to see his daughter Stephanie, who in consequence was -not present at her mother's funeral. The disagreeable impression on the -public mind thus created was deepened by an unfortunate litigation, -lasting for two years (1904-1906), over the deceased queen's will, in -which the creditors of the princess Louise, together with princess -Stephanie (Countess Lonyay), claimed that under the Belgian law the -queen's estate was entitled to half of her husband's property. This -claim was disallowed by the Belgian courts. The king died at Laeken, -near Brussels, on the 17th of December 1909. On the 23rd of that month -his nephew took the oath to observe the constitution, assuming the title -of Albert I. King Leopold was personally a man of considerable -attainments and much strength of character, but he was a notoriously -dissolute monarch, who even to the last offended decent opinion by his -indulgences at Paris and on the Riviera. The wealth he amassed from the -Congo he spent, no doubt, royally not only in this way but also on -public improvements in Belgium; but he had a hard heart towards the -natives of his distant possession. - - - - -LEOPOLD II. (1797-1870), of Habsburg-Lorraine, grand-duke of Tuscany, -was born on the 3rd of October 1797, the son of the grand-duke Ferdinand -III., whom he succeeded in 1824. During the first twenty years of his -reign he devoted himself to the internal development of the state. His -was the mildest and least reactionary of all the Italian despotisms of -the day, and although always subject to Austrian influence he refused to -adopt the Austrian methods of government, allowed a fair measure of -liberty to the press, and permitted many political exiles from other -states to dwell in Tuscany undisturbed. But when in the early 'forties a -feeling of unrest spread throughout Italy, even in Tuscany demands for a -constitution and other political reforms were advanced; in 1845-1846 -riots broke out in various parts of the country, and Leopold granted a -number of administrative reforms. But Austrian influence prevented him -from going further, even had he wished to do so. The election of Pope -Pius IX. gave fresh impulse to the Liberal movement, and on the 4th of -September 1847 Leopold instituted the National Guard--a first step -towards the constitution; shortly after the marchese Cosimo Ridolfi was -appointed prime minister. The granting of the Neapolitan and Piedmontese -constitutions was followed (17th February 1848) by that of Tuscany, -drawn up by Gino Capponi. The revolution in Milan and Vienna aroused a -fever of patriotic enthusiasm in Tuscany, where war against Austria was -demanded; Leopold, giving way to popular pressure, sent a force of -regulars and volunteers to co-operate with Piedmont in the Lombard -campaign. His speech on their departure was uncompromisingly Italian and -Liberal. "Soldiers," he said, "the holy cause of Italian freedom is -being decided to-day on the fields of Lombardy. Already the citizens of -Milan have purchased their liberty with their blood and with a heroism -of which history offers few examples.... Honour to the arms of Italy! -Long live Italian independence!" The Tuscan contingent fought bravely, -if unsuccessfully, at Curtatone and Montanara. On the 26th of June the -first Tuscan parliament assembled, but the disturbances consequent on -the failure of the campaign in Lombardy led to the resignation of the -Ridolfi ministry, which was succeeded by that of Gino Capponi. The riots -continued, especially at Leghorn, which was a prey to actual civil war, -and the democratic party of which F. D. Guerrazzi and G. Montanelli were -leading lights became every day more influential. Capponi resigned, and -Leopold reluctantly agreed to a Montanelli-Guerrazzi ministry, which in -its turn had to fight against the extreme republican party. New -elections in the autumn of 1848 returned a constitutional majority, but -it ended by voting in favour of a constituent assembly. There was talk -of instituting a central Italian kingdom with Leopold as king, to form -part of a larger Italian federation, but in the meanwhile the -grand-duke, alarmed at the revolutionary and republican agitations in -Tuscany and encouraged by the success of the Austrian arms, was, -according to Montanelli, negotiating with Field-Marshal Radetzky and -with Pius IX., who had now abandoned his Liberal tendencies, and fled to -Gaeta. Leopold had left Florence for Siena, and eventually for Porto S. -Stefano, leaving a letter to Guerrazzi in which, on account of a protest -from the pope, he declared that he could not agree to the proposed -constituent assembly. The utmost confusion prevailed in Florence and -other parts of Tuscany. On the 9th of February 1849 the republic was -proclaimed, largely as a result of Mazzini's exhortations, and on the -18th Leopold sailed for Gaeta. A third parliament was elected and -Guerrazzi appointed dictator. But there was great discontent, and the -defeat of Charles Albert at Novara caused consternation among the -Liberals. The majority, while fearing an Austrian invasion, desired the -return of the grand-duke who had never been unpopular, and in April 1849 -the municipal council usurped the powers of the assembly and invited him -to return, "to save us by means of the restoration of the constitutional -monarchy surrounded by popular institutions, from the shame and ruin of -a foreign invasion." Leopold accepted, although he said nothing about -the foreign invasion, and on the 1st of May sent Count Luigi Serristori -to Tuscany with full powers. But at the same time the Austrians occupied -Lucca and Leghorn, and although Leopold simulated surprise at their -action it has since been proved, as the Austrian general d'Aspre -declared at the time, that Austrian intervention was due to the request -of the grand-duke. On the 24th of May the latter appointed G. -Baldasseroni prime minister, on the 25th the Austrians entered Florence -and on the 28th of July Leopold himself returned. In April 1850 he -concluded a treaty with Austria sanctioning the continuation for an -indefinite period of the Austrian occupation with 10,000 men; in -September he dismissed parliament, and the following year established a -concordat with the Church of a very clerical character. He feebly asked -Austria if he might maintain the constitution, and the Austrian premier, -Prince Schwarzenberg, advised him to consult the pope, the king of -Naples and the dukes of Parma and Modena. On their advice he formally -revoked the constitution (1852). Political trials were held, Guerrazzi -and many others being condemned to long terms of imprisonment, and -although in 1855 the Austrian troops left Tuscany, Leopold's popularity -was gone. A part of the Liberals, however, still believed in the -possibility of a constitutional grand-duke who could be induced for a -second time to join Piedmont in a war against Austria, whereas the -popular party headed by F. Bartolommei and G. Dolfi realized that only -by the expulsion of Leopold could the national aspirations be realized. -When in 1859 France and Piedmont made war on Austria, Leopold's -government failed to prevent numbers of young Tuscan volunteers from -joining the Franco-Piedmontese forces. Finally an agreement was arrived -at between the aristocratic constitutionalists and the popular party, as -a result of which the grand-duke's participation in the war was formally -demanded. Leopold at first gave way, and entrusted Don Neri Corsini with -the formation of a ministry. The popular demands presented by Corsini -were for the abdication of Leopold in favour of his son, an alliance -with Piedmont and the reorganization of Tuscany in accordance with the -eventual and definite reorganization of Italy. Leopold hesitated and -finally rejected the proposals as derogatory to his dignity. On the 27th -of April there was great excitement in Florence, Italian colours -appeared everywhere, but order was maintained, and the grand-duke and -his family departed for Bologna undisturbed. Thus the revolution was -accomplished without a drop of blood being shed, and after a period of -provisional government Tuscany was incorporated in the kingdom of Italy. -On the 21st of July Leopold abdicated in favour of his son Ferdinand -IV., who never reigned, but issued a protest from Dresden (26th March -1860). He spent his last years in Austria, and died in Rome on the 29th -of January 1870. - -Leopold of Tuscany was a well-meaning, not unkindly man, and fonder of -his subjects than were the other Italian despots, but he was weak, and -too closely bound by family ties and Habsburg traditions ever to become -a real Liberal. Had he not joined the conclave of autocrats at Gaeta, -and, above all, had he not summoned Austrian assistance while denying -that he had done so, in 1849, he might yet have preserved his throne, -and even changed the whole course of Italian history. At the same time -his rule, if not harsh, was enervating and demoralizing. - - See G. Baldasseroni, _Leopoldo II._ (Florence, 1871), useful but - reactionary in tendency, the author having been Leopold's minister, G. - Montanelli, _Memorie sull' Italia_ (Turin, 1853); F. D. Guerrazzi, - _Memorie_ (Leghorn, 1848); Zobi, _Storia civile della Toscana_, vols. - iv.-v. (Florence, 1850-1852); A. von Reumont, _Geschichte Toscanas_ (2 - vols., Gotha, 1876-1877); M. Bartolommei-Gioli, _Il Rivolgimento - Toscano e L'azione popolare_ (Florence, 1905); C. Tivaroni, _L' Italia - durante il dominio Austriaco_, vol. i. (Turin, 1892), and _L' Italia - degli Italiani_, vol. i. (Turin, 1895). See also RICASOLI; - BARTOLOMMEI; CAPPONI, GINO; &c. (L. V.*) - - - - -LEOPOLD II., a lake of Central Africa in the basin of the Kasai affluent -of the Congo, cut by 2 deg. S. and 18 deg. 10' E. It has a length N. to -S. of about 75 m., is 30 m. across at its northern end, tapering towards -its southern end. Numerous bays and gulfs render its outline highly -irregular. Its shores are flat and marshy, the lake being (in all -probability) simply the lowest part of a vast lake which existed here -before the Kasai system breached the barrier--at Kwa mouth--separating -it from the Congo. The lake is fed by the Lokoro (about 300 m. long) and -smaller streams from the east. Its northern and western affluents are -comparatively unimportant. It discharges its waters (at its southern -end) into the Mfini, which is in reality the lower course of the -Lukenye. The lake is gradually diminishing in area; in the rainy season -it overflows its banks. The surrounding country is very flat and densely -wooded. - - See KASAI; and articles and maps in _Le Mouvement geog._, specially - vol. xiv., No. 29 (1897) and vol. xxiv., No. 38 (1907). - - - - -LEOTYCHIDES, Spartan king, of the Eurypontid family, was descended from -Theopompus through his younger son Anaxandridas (Herod. viii. 131), and -in 491 B.C. succeeded Demaratus (q.v.), whose title to the throne he had -with Cleomenes' aid successfully challenged. He took part in Cleomenes' -second expedition to Aegina, on which ten hostages were seized and -handed over to the Athenians for safe custody: for this he narrowly -escaped being surrendered to the Aeginetans after Cleomenes' death. In -the spring of 479 we find him in command of the Greek fleet of 110 -ships, first at Aegina and afterwards at Delos. In August he attacked -the Persian position at Mycale on the coast of Asia Minor opposite -Samos, inflicted a crushing defeat on the land-army, and annihilated the -fleet which was drawn up on the shore. Soon afterwards he sailed home -with the Peloponnesians, leaving the Athenians to prosecute the siege of -Sestos. In 476 he led an army to Thessaly to punish the Aleuadae of -Larisa for the aid they had rendered to the Persians and to strengthen -Spartan influence in northern Greece. After a series of successful -engagements he accepted a bribe from the enemy to withdraw. For this he -was brought to trial at Sparta, and to save his life fled to the temple -of Athena Alea at Tegea. Sentence of exile was passed, his house was -razed and his grandson Archidamus II. ascended the throne (Herod. vi. -65-87, ix. 90-114; Thucydides i. 89; Pausanias iii. 4. 3. 7. 9-10; -Plutarch, _De malignitate Herodoti_, 21, p. 859 D; Diodorus xi. 34-37). - - According to Diodorus (xi. 48) Leotychides reigned twenty-two, his - successor Archidamus forty-two years. The total duration of the two - reigns, sixty-four years, we know to be correct, for Leotychides came - to the throne in 491 and Archidamus (q.v.) died in 427. On this basis, - then, Leotychides's exile would fall in 469 and the Thessalian - expedition in that or the preceding year (so E. Meyer, _Geschichte des - Altertums_, iii. S 287). But Diodorus is not consistent with himself; - he attributes (xi. 48) Leotychides's death to the year 476-475 and he - records (xii. 35) Archidamus's death in 434-433, though he introduces - him in the following years at the head of the Peloponnesian army (xii. - 42, 47, 52). Further, he says expressly that Leotychides [Greek: - eteleutesen arxas ete eikosi kai duo], i.e. he lived twenty-two years - after his accession. The twenty-two years, then, may include the time - which elapsed between his exile and his death. In that case - Leotychides died in 469, and 476-475 may be the year in which his - reign, though not his life, ended. This date seems, from what we know - of the political situation in general, to be more probable than the - later one for the Thessalian campaign. - - G. Busolt, _Griech. Geschichte_, iii. 83, note; J. B. Bury, _History - of Greece_, p. 326; G. Grote, _History of Greece_, new edition 1888, - iv. 349, note; also abridged edition 1907, p. 273, note 3. Beloch's - view (_Griech. Geschichte_, i. 455, note 2) that the expedition took - place in 476, the trial and flight in 469, is not generally accepted. - (M. N. T.) - - - - -LEOVIGILD, or LOWENHELD (d. 586), king of the Visigoths, became king in -568 after the short period of anarchy which followed the death of King -Athanagild, whose widow, Goisvintha, he married. At first he ruled that -part of the Visigothic kingdom which lay to the south of the Pyrenees, -his brother Liuva or Leova governing the small part to the north of -these mountains; but in 572 Liuva died and Leovigild became sole king. -At this time the Visigoths who settled in Spain early in the 5th century -were menaced by two powerful enemies, the Suevi who had a small kingdom -in the north-west of the peninsula, and the Byzantines who had answered -Athanagild's appeal for help by taking possession of a stretch of -country in the south-east. Their kingdom, too, was divided and weakened -by the fierce hostility between the orthodox Christians and those who -professed Arianism. Internal and external dangers alike, however, failed -to daunt Leovigild, who may fairly be called the restorer of the -Visigothic kingdom. He turned first against the Byzantines, who were -defeated several times; he took Cordova and chastised the Suevi; and -then by stern measures he destroyed the power of those unruly and -rebellious chieftains who had reduced former kings to the position of -ciphers. The chronicler tells how, having given peace to his people, he, -first of the Visigothic sovereigns, assumed the attire of a king and -made Toledo his capital. He strengthened the position of his family and -provided for the security of his kingdom by associating his two sons, -Recared and Hermenegild, with himself in the kingly office and placing -parts of the land under their rule. Leovigild himself was an Arian, -being the last of the Visigothic kings to hold that creed; but he was -not a bitter foe of the orthodox Christians, although he was obliged to -punish them when they conspired against him with his external enemies. -His son Hermenegild, however, was converted to the orthodox faith -through the influence of his Frankish wife, Ingundis, daughter of King -Sigebert I., and of Leander, metropolitan of Seville. Allying himself -with the Byzantines and other enemies of the Visigoths, and supported by -most of the orthodox Christians he headed a formidable insurrection. The -struggle was fierce; but at length, employing persuasion as well as -force, the old king triumphed. Hermenegild was captured; he refused to -give up his faith and in March or April 585 he was executed. He was -canonized at the request of Philip II., king of Spain, by Pope Sixtus V. -About this time Leovigild put an end to the kingdom of the Suevi. During -his last years he was engaged in a war with the Franks. He died at -Toledo on the 21st of April 586 and was succeeded by his son Recared. - - - - -LEPANTO,[1] BATTLE OF, fought on the 7th of October 1571. The conquest -of Cyprus by the Turks, and their aggressions on the Christian powers, -frightened the states of the Mediterranean into forming a holy league -for their common defence. The main promoter of the league was Pope Pius -V., but the bulk of the forces was supplied by the republic of Venice -and Philip II. of Spain, who was peculiarly interested in checking the -Turks both because of the Moorish element in the population of Spain, -and because he was also sovereign of Naples and Sicily. In compliment to -King Philip, the general command of the league's fleet was given to his -natural brother, Don John of Austria. It included, however, only -twenty-four Spanish ships. The great majority of the two hundred galleys -and eight galeasses, of which the fleet was composed, came from Venice, -under the command of the proveditore Barbarigo; from Genoa, which was in -close alliance with Spain, under Gianandrea Doria; and from the Pope -whose squadron was commanded by Marc Antonio Colonna. The Sicilian and -Neapolitan contingents were commanded by the marquess of Santa Cruz, and -Cardona, Spanish officers. Eight thousand Spanish soldiers were -embarked. The allied fleet was collected slowly at Messina, from whence -it advanced by the passage between Ithaca and Cephalonia to Cape -Marathia near Dragonera. The Turkish fleet which had come up from Cyprus -and Crete anchored in the Gulf of Patras. It consisted in all of 273 -galleys which were of lighter build than the Christians', and less well -supplied with cannon or small arms. The Turks still relied mainly on the -bow and arrow. Ali, the capitan pasha, was commander-in-chief, and he -had with him Chulouk Bey of Alexandria, commonly called Scirocco, and -Uluch Ali, dey of Algiers. On the 7th of October the Christian fleet -advanced to the neighbourhood of Cape Scropha. It was formed in the -traditional order of the galleys--a long line abreast, subdivided into -the centre or "battle" commanded by Don John in person, the left wing -under the proveditore Barbarigo, and the right under Gianandrea Doria. -But a reserve squadron was placed behind the centre under the marquess -of Santa Cruz, and the eight lumbering galeasses were stationed at -intervals in front of the line to break the formation of the Turks. The -capitan pasha left his anchorage in the Gulf of Patras with his fleet in -a single line, without reserve or advance-guard. He was himself in the -centre, with Scirocco on his right and Uluch Ali on his left. The two -fleets met south of Cape Scropha, both drawn up from north to south, the -land being close to the left flank of the Christians, and the right of -the Turks. To the left of the Turks and the right of the Christians, -there was open sea. Ali Pasha's greater numbers enabled him to outflank -his enemy. The Turks charged through the intervals between the -galeasses, which proved to be of no value. On their right Scirocco -outflanked the Venetians of Barbarigo, but the better build of the -galleys of Saint Mark and the admirable discipline of their crews gave -them the victory. The Turks were almost all sunk or driven on shore. -Scirocco and Barbarigo both lost their lives. On the centre Don John and -the capitan pasha met prow to prow--the Christians reserving the fire of -their bow guns (called _di cursia_) till the moment of impact, and then -boarding. Ali Pasha was slain and his galley taken. Everywhere on the -centre the Christians gained the upper hand, but their victory was -almost turned into a defeat by the mistaken manoeuvres of Doria. In fear -lest he should be outflanked by Uluch Ali, he stood out to sea, leaving -a gap between himself and the centre. The dey of Algiers, who saw the -opening, reversed the order of his squadron, and fell on the right of -the centre. The galleys of the Order of Malta, which were stationed at -this point, suffered severely, and their flagship was taken with great -slaughter. A disaster was averted by the marquess of Santa Cruz, who -brought up the reserve. Uluch Ali then retreated with sail and oar, -bringing most of his division off in good order. - -The loss of life in the battle was enormous, being put at 20,000 for the -Turks and 8000 for the Christians. The battle of Lepanto was of immense -political importance. It gave the naval power of the Turks a blow from -which it never recovered, and put a stop to their aggression in the -Eastern Mediterranean. Historically the battle is interesting because it -was the last example of an encounter on a great scale between fleets of -galleys and also because it was the last crusade. The Christian powers -of the Mediterranean did really combine to avert the ruin of -Christendom. Hardly a noble house of Spain or Italy was not represented -in the fleet, and the princes headed the boarders. Volunteers came from -all parts of Europe, and it is said that among them was Sir Richard -Grenville, afterwards famous for his fight in the "Revenge" off Flores -in the Azores. Cervantes was undoubtedly present, and had his left hand -shattered by a Turkish bullet. - - For full accounts of the battle, with copious references to - authorities and to ancient controversies, mostly arising out of the - conduct of Doria, see Sir W. Stirling Maxwell, _Don John of Austria_ - (1883); and Jurien de la Graviere, _La Guerre de Chypre et la bataille - de Lepanto_ (1888). (D. H.) - - -FOOTNOTE: - - [1] For Lepanto see NAUPACTUS. - - - - -LE PAUTRE, JEAN (1618-1682), French designer and engraver. He was -apprenticed to a carpenter and builder and in addition to learning -mechanical and constructive work developed considerable facility with -the pencil. His designs, which were innumerable in quantity and -exuberant in fancy, consisted mainly of ceilings, friezes, -chimney-pieces, doorways and mural decorations; he also devised -fire-dogs, sideboards, cabinets, console tables, mirrors and other -pieces of furniture; he was long employed at the Gobelins. His work is -often excessively flamboyant and over-elaborate; he revelled in amorini -and swags, arabesques and cartouches. His chimney-pieces, however, were -frequently simple and elegant. His engraved plates, almost entirely -original, are something like 1500 in number and include a portrait of -himself. He became a member of the academy of Paris in 1677. - - - - -LEPCHA, the name of the aboriginal inhabitants of Sikkim (q.v.). A -peace-loving people, the Lepchas have been repeatedly conquered by -surrounding hill-tribes, and their ancient patriarchal customs are dying -out. The total number of speakers of Lepcha, or Rong, in all India in -1901, was only 19,291. Their rich and beautiful language has been -preserved from extinction by the efforts of General Mainwaring and -others; but their literature was almost entirely destroyed by the -Tibetans, and their traditions are being rapidly forgotten. Once free -and independent, they are now the poorest people in Sikkim, and it is -from them that the coolie class is drawn. They are above all things -woodmen, knowing the ways of beasts and birds, and possessing an -extensive zoological and botanical nomenclature of their own. - - See Florence Donaldson, _Lepcha Land_ (1900). - - - - -LE PELETIER (or LEPELLETIER), DE SAINT-FARGEAU, LOUIS MICHEL -(1760-1793), French politician, was born on the 29th of May 1760 at -Paris. He belonged to a well-known family, his great-grandfather, Michel -Robert Le Peletier des Forts, count of Saint-Fargeau, having been -controller-general of finance. He inherited a great fortune, and soon -became president of the parlement of Paris and in 1789 he was a deputy -of the _noblesse_ to the States-General. At this time he shared the -conservative views of the majority of his class; but by slow degrees his -ideas changed and became very advanced. On the 13th of July 1789 he -demanded the recall of Necker, whose dismissal by the king had aroused -great excitement in Paris; and in the Constituent Assembly he had moved -the abolition of the penalty of death, of the galleys and of branding, -and the substitution of beheading for hanging. This attitude won him -great popularity, and on the 21st of June 1790 he was made president of -the Constituent Assembly. During the existence of the Legislative -Assembly, he was president of the general council for the department of -the Yonne, and was afterwards elected by this department as a deputy to -the Convention. Here he was in favour of the trial of Louis XVI. by the -assembly and voted for the death of the king. This vote, together with -his ideas in general, won him the hatred of the royalists, and on the -20th of January 1793, the eve of the execution of the king, he was -assassinated in the Palais Royal at Paris by a member of the king's -body-guard. The Convention honoured Le Peletier by a magnificent -funeral, and the painter J. L. David represented his death in a famous -picture, which was later destroyed by his daughter. Towards the end of -his life, Le Peletier had interested himself in the question of public -education; he left fragments of a plan, the ideas contained in which -were borrowed in later schemes. His assassin fled to Normandy, where, on -the point of being discovered, he blew out his brains. Le Peletier had a -brother, Felix (1769-1837), well known for his advanced ideas. His -daughter, Suzanne Louise, was "adopted" by the French nation. - - See _Oeuvres de M. le Peletier de Saint-Fargeau_ (Brussels, 1826) with - a life by his brother Felix; E. Le Blant, "Le Peletier de St-Fargeau, - et son meurtrier," in the _Correspondant_ review (1874); F. - Clerembray, _Episodes de la Revolution_ (Rouen, 1891); Brette, "La - Reforme de la legislation universelle, et le plan de Lepelletier - Saint-Fargeau," in _La Revolution francaise_, xlii. (1902); and M. - Tourneux, _Bibliog. de l'hist. de Paris ..._ (vol. i., 1890, Nos. - 3896-3910, and vol. iv., 1906, _s.v._ Lepeletier). - - - - -LEPIDOLITE, or LITHIA-MICA, a mineral of the mica group (see MICA). It -is a basic aluminium, potassium and lithium fluo-silicate, with the -approximate formula KLi [Al(OH, F)2] Al(SiO3)3. Lithia and fluorine are -each present to the extent of about 5%; rubidium and caesium are -sometimes present in small amounts. Distinctly developed monoclinic -crystals or cleavage sheets of large size are of rare occurrence, the -mineral being usually found as scaly aggregates, and on this account was -named lepidolite (from Gr. [Greek: lepis], scale) by M. H. Klaproth in -1792. It is usually of a lilac or peach-blossom colour, but is sometimes -greyish-white, and has a pearly lustre on the cleavage surfaces. The -hardness is 2(1/2)-4 and the sp. gr. 2.8-2.9, the optic axial angle -measures 50 deg.-70 deg. It is found in pegmatite-veins, often in -association with pink tourmaline (rubellite) and sometimes intergrown in -parallel position with muscovite. Scaly masses of considerable extent -are found at Rozena near Bystrzitz in Moravia and at Pala in San Diego -county, California. The material from Rozena has been known since 1791, -and has sometimes been cut and polished for ornamental purposes: it has -a pretty colour and spangled appearance and takes a good polish, but is -rather soft. At Pala it has been extensively mined for the preparation -of lithium and rubidium salts. Other localities for the mineral are the -island of Uto in Sweden, and Auburn and Paris in Maine, U.S.A.; at -Alabashka near Mursinka in the Urals large isolated crystals have been -found, and from Central Australia transparent cleavage sheets of a fine -lilac colour are known. - -The lithium-iron mica _zinnwaldite_ or _lithionite_ is closely allied to -lepidolite, differing from it in containing some ferrous iron in -addition to the constituents mentioned above. It occurs as greyish -silvery scales with hexagonal outlines in the tin-bearing granites of -Zinnwald in the Erzgebirge, Bohemia and of Cornwall. (L. J. S.) - - - - -LEPIDOPTERA (Gr. [Greek: lepis], a scale or husk, and [Greek: pteron], a -wing), a term used in zoological classification for one of the largest -and best-known orders of the class Hexapoda (q.v.), in order that -comprises the insects popularly called butterflies and moths. The term -was first used by Linnaeus (1735) in the sense still accepted by modern -zoologists, and there are few groups of animals as to whose limits and -distinguishing characters less controversy has arisen. - -[Illustration: After Edwards, Riley and Howard's _Insect Life_, vol. 3 -(U.S. Dept. Agr.). - -FIG. 1.--e, _Crytophasa unipuctata_, Donov., Australia. a, Larva; c, -pupa, natural size; b, 2nd and 3rd abdominal segments of larva; d, -cremaster of pupa, magnified.] - -_Characters._--The name of the order indicates the fact that the wings -(and other parts of the body) are clothed with flattened cuticular -structures--the scales (fig. 7)--that may be regarded as modified -arthropodan "hairs." Such scales are not peculiar to the -Lepidoptera--they are found also on many of the Aptera, on the Psocidae, -a family of Corrodentia, on some Coleoptera (beetles) and on the gnats -(Culicidae), a family of Diptera. The most distinctive structural -features of the Lepidoptera are to be found in the jaws. The mandibles -are mere vestiges or entirely absent; the second maxillae are usually -reduced to a narrow transverse mentum which bears the scale-covered -labial palps, between which project the elongate first maxillae, grooved -on their inner faces, so as to form when apposed a tubular proboscis -adapted for sucking liquid food. - -All Lepidoptera are hatched as the eruciform soft-bodied type of larva -(fig. 1, a) known as the caterpillar, with biting mandibles, three pairs -of thoracic legs and with a variable number (usually five pairs) of -abdominal prolegs, which carry complete or incomplete circles of -hooklets. The pupa in a single family only is free (i.e. with the -appendages free from the body), and mandibulate. In the vast majority of -the order it is more or less obtect (i.e. with the appendages fixed to -the cuticle of the body) and without mandibles (fig. 1, c). - -[Illustration: From Riley and Howard, _Insect Life_, vol. 7 (U.S. Dept. -Agr.). - -FIG. 2.--a, Feeler of Saturniid Moth (_Telea polyphemus_). b, c, Tips of -branches, highly magnified.] - -[Illustration: After A. Walter (_Jen. Zeits. f. Naturw._ vol. 18). - -FIG. 3.--A, Mandible, and B, 1st maxilla of _Micropteryx_ -(_Eriocephala_). Magnified. - - a, Palp. - b, Galea. - c, Lacinia. - d, Stipes. - e, Cardo of maxilla.] - - _Structure._--The head in the Lepidoptera is sub-globular in shape - with the compound eyes exceedingly well developed, and with a pair of - ocelli or "simple eyes" often present on the vertex. It is connected - to the thorax by a relatively broad and membranous "neck." The feelers - are many-jointed, often they are complex, the segments bearing - processes arranged in a comb-like manner and furnished with numerous - sensory hairs (fig. 2). The complexity of the feelers is carried to - its highest development in certain male moths that have a wonderful - power of discovering their females by smell or some analogous sense. - Often the feelers are excessively complex in male moths whose maxillae - are so reduced that they take no food in the imaginal state. The - nature of the jaws has already been briefly described. Functional - mandibles of peculiar form (fig. 3, A) are present in the remarkable - small moths of the genus _Micropteryx_ (or _Eriocephala_), and there - are vestiges of these jaws in other moths of low type, but the minute - structures in the higher Lepidoptera that were formerly described as - mandibles are now believed to belong to the labrum, the true mandibles - being perhaps represented by rounded prominences, not articulated with - the head-capsule. Throughout the order, as a whole, the jaws are - adapted for sucking liquid food, and the suctorial proboscis (often - erroneously called a "tongue") is formed as was shown by J. C. Savigny - in 1816 by two elongated and flexible outgrowths of the first - maxillae, usually regarded as representing the outer lobes or galeae - (fig. 4, A, B, g). These structures are grooved along their inner - faces and by means of a series of interlocking hair-like bristles can - be joined together so as to form a tubular sucker (fig. 4, C). At - their extremities they are beset with club-like sense-organs, whose - apparent function is that of taste. The proboscis when in use is - stretched out in front of the head and inserted into the corolla of a - flower or elsewhere, for the absorption of liquid nourishment. When at - rest, the proboscis is rolled up into a close spiral beneath the head - and between the labial palps (fig. 4, A, p). Only in the genus - _Micropteryx_ mentioned above is the lacinia of the maxilla (as A. - Walter has shown) developed (fig. 3, B, c). The maxillary palp is - usually a mere vestige (fig. 4, B, p) though it is conspicuous in a - few families of small moths. A considerable number of Lepidoptera - take no food in the imaginal state; in these the maxillae are reduced - or altogether atrophied. The second maxillae are intimately fused - together to form the labium, which consists only of a reduced mentum, - bearing sometimes vestigial lobes and always a pair of palps. These - have two or three segments and are clothed with scales. The form and - direction of the terminal segment of the labial palp afford valuable - characters in classification. - - [Illustration: FIG. 4.--Arrangement of the jaws in a typical Moth. - Somewhat diagrammatic and in part after E. Burgess and V. L. Kellogg - (_Amer. Nat._ xiv. xxix.). - - A, Front view of head. - c, Clypeus. - e, Compound eye. - m, Vestigial mandible. - l, Labrum. - g, Galeae of 1st maxillae. - p, Labial palp. Magnified, B. - b, Base of first maxilla dissected out of the head. - p, Vestigial palp. - g, Galea. Further magnified. - C, Part transverse section showing how the channel (A) of the - proboscis is formed by the interlocking of the grooved inner - faces of the flexible maxillae. - t, Air-tube. - n, Nerve. - m, Muscle-fibres. Highly magnified.] - - In the thorax of the Lepidoptera the foremost segment or prothorax is - very small, and not movable on the mesothorax. In many families it - carries a pair of small erectile plates--the patagia--which have been - regarded as serially homologous with the wings. The mesothorax is - extensive; its scutum forming most of the dorsal thoracic area and - small plates--tegulae--are often present at the base of the forewings, - as in Hymenoptera. The tegulae which are beset with long hair-like - scales are often conspicuous. The metathorax is smaller than the - mesothorax. The legs are of the typical hexapodan form with - five-segmented feet; the shins often bear terminal and median spurs - articulated at their bases and the entire limbs are clothed with - scales. - - [Illustration: After A. S. Packard, _Mem. Nat. Acad. Sci._ vol. vii. - - FIG. 5.--Wing-neuration of a Notodont Moth. 2, Sub-costal; 3, radial; - 4, median; 5, cubital; 7, 8, anal nervures. a, Discoidal areolet or - "cell"; f, frenulum. Note that the forewing has five branches (1-5) of - the radial nervure, the hindwing one only. The first anal nervure (No. - 6) is absent.] - - The wings of the Lepidoptera may be said to dominate the structure of - the insect; only exceptionally, in certain female moths, are they - vestigial or absent (fig. 17). The forewing, with its prominent apex, - is longer than the hindwing, and the neuration in both (see figs. 5 - and 6) is for the most part longitudinal, only a few transverse - nervures, which are, in fact, branches of the median trunk, marking - off a discoidal areolet or "cell" (fig. 5, a). The five branches of - the radial nervure (figs. 5, 6, 3) (see HEXAPODA) are usually present - in the forewing, but the hindwing, in most families, has only a single - radial nervure; its anal area is, however, often more strongly - developed than that of the forewing. The two wings of a side are - usually kept together during flight by a few stout bristles--the - frenulum--(fig. 5, f) projecting from the base of the costa of the - hindwing and fitting beneath a membranous fold or a few thickened - scales--the retinaculum--on the under surface of the forewing. In - butterflies there is no frenulum, but a costal outgrowth of the - hindwing subserves the same function. In the most primitive moths a - small lobate outgrowth--the jugum (fig. 6, j.)--from the dorsum of the - forewing is present, but it can be of little service in keeping the - two wings together. A jugum may be also present on the hindwing. The - legs, which are generally used for clinging rather than for walking, - have five-segmented feet and are covered with scales. In some families - the front pair are reduced and without tarsal segments. - - [Illustration: After Packard, _Mem. Nat. Acad. Sci._ vol. vii. - - FIG. 6.--Wing neuration of a Swift Moth (Hepialid). j, Jugum. Nervures - numbered as in fig. 5. Note that there are five branches to the radial - nervure (No. 3) in both fore- and hindwing, and that the median trunk - nervures (No. 4) traverse the discoidal areolet.] - - Ten abdominal segments are recognizable in many Lepidoptera, but the - terminal segments are reduced or modified to form external organs of - reproduction. In the male, according to the interpretation of C. - Peytoureau, the lateral plates belonging to the ninth segment form - paired claspers beset with harpes, or series of ridges or teeth, while - the tergum of the tenth segment forms a dorsal hook--the uncus--and - its sternum a ventral process or scaphium. In the female the terminal - segments form, in some cases, a protrusible ovipositor, but the - typical hexapodan ovipositor with its three pairs of processes is - undeveloped in the Lepidoptera. - - As already mentioned, the characteristic scales on the wings, legs and - body of the Lepidoptera are cuticular structures. A complete series of - transitional forms can be traced between the most elaborate flattened - scales (fig. 7, B) with numerous longitudinal striae and a simple - arthropod "hair." Either a "hair" or a scale owes its origin to a - special cell of the ectoderm (hypodermis), a process from which grows - through the general cuticle and forms around itself the substance of - the cuticular appendage. The scales on the wings are arranged in - regular rows (fig. 7, A), and the general cuticle is drawn out into a - narrow neck or collar around the base of each scale. The scales can be - easily rubbed from the surface of the wing, and the series of collars - in which the scales rest are then evident (fig. 7, A, c) on the - wing-membrane. On the wings of many male butterflies there are - specially modified scales--the androconia (fig. 7, C)--which are - formed by glandular cells and diffuse a scented secretion. In some - cases, the androconia are mixed among the ordinary scales; in others - they are associated into conspicuous "brands" (see fig. 66). The - admirable colours of the wings of the Lepidoptera are due partly to - pigment in the scales--as in the case of yellows, browns, reds and - blacks--partly to "interference" effects from the fine striae on the - scales--as with the blues, purples and greens. - - [Illustration: FIG. 7.--A, Arrangement of scales in rows on wing of - Butterfly. n, Nervure; c, collar-like outgrowths of cuticle. - Magnified. B, single scale, and C, an androconium more highly - magnified.] - - A few points of interest in the internal structure of the Lepidoptera - deserve mention. The mouth opens into a sub-globular, muscular pharynx - which is believed to suck the liquid food through the proboscis, and - force it along the slender gullet into a crop-like enlargement or - diverticulum of the fore-gut known as a "food-reservoir" or - "sucking-stomach." The true stomach is tubular, and beyond it lies the - intestine into which open the three pairs of excretory (Malpighian) - tubes. The terminal part of the intestine is of wide diameter, and in - some cases gives off a short caecum. The brain and the sub-oesophageal - ganglia are closely approximated; there are two or three thoracic and - four (rarely five) abdominal ganglia. In the female each ovary has - four ovarian tubes, in which the large egg-cells are enclosed in - follicles and associated with nutritive cells. There is a special - bursa which in the Hepialidae opens with the vagina on the eighth - abdominal sternum. In the Micropterygidae, Enocraniidae and the lower - Tineides, the duct of the bursa leads into the vagina, which still - opens on the eighth sternum. But in most Lepidoptera, the bursa opens - by a vestibule on the eighth sternum, distinct from the vagina, whose - opening shifts back to the ninth, the duct of the bursa being - connected with the vagina by a canal which opens opposite to the - spermatheca. In the male, the two testes are usually fused into a - single mass, and a pair of tubular accessory glands open into the vasa - deferentia or into the ejaculatory duct. In a few families--the - Hepialidae and Saturniidae for example--the testes retain the - primitive paired arrangement. These details have been worked out by - various students, among whom W. H. Jackson and W. Petersen deserve - special mention. Summing up the developmental history of the genital - ducts, Jackson remarks that there is "an Ephemeridal stage, which ends - towards the close of larval life, an Orthopteran stage, indicated - during the quiescent period preceding pupation, and a Lepidopteran - stage which begins with the commencement of pupal life." - -[Illustration: FIG. 8 A.--_Cossus macmurtrei._ (MacMurtrie's Goat Moth.) -N. America.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 8 B.--Larva of _Cossus cossus_. (Goat Moth.) -Europe.] - -_Development._--Many observations have been made on the embryology of -the Lepidoptera; for some of the more important results of these see -HEXAPODA. The post-embryonic development of Lepidoptera is more -familiar, perhaps, than that of any other group of animals. The egg -shows great variation in its outward form, the outer envelope or chorion -being in some families globular, in others flattened, in others again -erect and sub-conical or cylindrical; while its surface often exhibits a -beautifully regular series of ribs and furrows. Throughout the order the -larva is of the form known as the caterpillar (fig. 1, a, b, fig. 8 B) -characterized by the presence of three pairs of jointed and clawed legs -on the thorax and a variable number of pairs of abdominal -"prolegs"--sub-cylindrical outgrowths of the abdominal segments, -provided with a complete or incomplete circle of hooklets at the -extremity. - -[Illustration: FIG. 9.--Head of Goat Moth Caterpillar (_Cossus_) from -behind. Magnified. (From Miall and Denny after Lyonnet.) - - At, Feeler. - Mn, Mandible. - Mx, First maxilla. - Lm, Second maxillae (Labium) with spinneret.] - - There are ten abdominal segments--the ninth often small and concealed; - prolegs are usually present on the third, fourth, fifth, sixth and - tenth of these segments. The head of the caterpillar (fig. 9) is large - with firmly chitinized cuticle; it carries usually twelve simple eyes - or ocelli, a pair of short feelers (fig. 9 At) and a pair of strong - mandibles (fig. 9, Mn), for the caterpillar feeds by biting leaves or - other plant-tissues. The first maxillae, so highly developed in the - imago, are in the larva small and inconspicuous appendages, each - bearing two short jointed processes,--the galea and the palp (fig. 9, - Mx). The second maxillae form a plate-like labium on whose surface - projects the spinneret which is usually regarded as a modified - hypopharynx (fig. 9, Lm). The silk-glands whose ducts open on this - spinneret are paired convoluted tubes lying alongside the elongate - cylindrical stomach. In the common "silkworm" these glands are five - times as long as the body of the caterpillar. They are regarded as - modified salivary glands, though the correspondence has been doubted - by some students. The body of the caterpillar is usually cylindrical - and wormlike, with the segmentation well marked and the cuticle - feebly chitinized and flexible. Firm chitinous plates are, however, - not seldom present on the prothorax and on the hindmost abdominal - segment. The segments are mostly provided with bristle or - spine-bearing tubercles, whose arrangement has lately been shown by H. - G. Dyar to give partially trustworthy indications of relationship. On - either side of the median line we find two dorsal or trapezoidal - tubercles (Nos. 1 and 2), while around the spiracle are grouped (Nos. - 3, 4 and 5) supra-, post-, and pre-spiracular tubercles; below are the - sub-spiraculars, of which there may be two (Nos. 6, 7). The last-named - is situated on the base of the abdominal proleg, and yet another - tubercle (No. 8) may be present on the inner aspect of the proleg. The - spiracles are very conspicuous on the body of a caterpillar, occurring - on the prothorax and on the first eight abdominal segments. Various - tubercles may become coalesced or aborted (fig. 10, B); often, in - conjunction with the spines that they bear, the tubercles serve as a - valuable protective armature for the caterpillar. Much discussion has - taken place as to whether the abdominal prolegs are or are not - developed directly from the embryonic abdominal appendages. In the - more lowly families of Lepidoptera, these organs are provided at the - extremity with a complete circle of hooklets, but in the more highly - organized families, only the inner half of this circle is retained. - - [Illustration: B, after Grote, _Mitt. aus dem Roemer Museum_, No. 6. - - FIG. 10.--Abdominal segments of Caterpillars, to show arrangement of - tubercles; the arrows point anteriorly. A, Generalized condition; B, - specialized condition in the Saturniidae. s, Spiracle; the numbering - of the tubercles is explained in the text. Note that in B No. 2 is - much reduced and disappears after the first moult. 4 and 5 are - coalesced, and 6 is absent.] - - [Illustration: FIG. 11.--Pupa of a Butterfly (_Amathusia phidippus_).] - - The typical Lepidopteran pupa, or "chrysalis," as shown in the higher - families, is an obtect pupa (fig. 11) with no trace of mandibles, the - appendages being glued to the body by an exudation, and motion being - possible only at three of the abdominal intersegmental regions, the - fifth and sixth abdominal segments at most being "free." A flattened - or pointed process--the cremaster--often prominent at the tail-end, - may carry one or several hooks (fig. 1, d) which serve to anchor the - pupa to its cocoon or to suspend butterfly-pupae from their pad of - silk (fig. 11). In the lower families the pupa (fig. 1, c) is only - incompletely obtect, and a greater number of abdominal segments can - move on one another. The seventh abdominal segment is, in all female - lepidopterous pupae, fused with those behind it; in the male - "incomplete" pupa this becomes "free" and so may the segments anterior - to it, in both sexes, forward to and including the third. The presence - of circles of spines on the abdominal segments enables the - "incomplete" pupa as a whole to work its way partly out of the cocoon - when the time for the emergence of the imago draws near. In the family - of the Eriocraniidae (often called the Micropterygidae) the pupa - resembles that of a caddis-fly (_Trichopteron_) being active before - the emergence of the imago and provided with strong mandibles by means - of which it bites its way out of the cocoon. The importance of the - pupa in the phylogeny and classification of the Lepidoptera has lately - been demonstrated by T. A. Chapman in a valuable series of papers. - Sometimes organs are present in the pupa which are undeveloped in the - imago, such as the maxillary palps of the Sesiidae (clearwing moths) - and the pectination on the feelers of female Saturniids. E. B. Poulton - has drawn attention to the ancestral value of such characters. - -_Habits and Life-Relations._--The attractiveness of the Lepidoptera and -the conspicuous appearance of many of them have led to numerous -observations on their habits. The method of feeding of the imago by the -suction of liquids has already been mentioned in connexion with the -structure of the maxillae and the food-canal. Nectar from flowers is the -usual food of moths and butterflies, most of which alight on a blossom -before thrusting the proboscis into the corolla of the flower, while -others--the hawk moths (Sphingidae) for example--remain poised in the -air in front of the flower by means of excessively rapid vibration of -the wings, and quickly unrolling the proboscis sip the nectar. Certain -flowers with remarkably long tubular corollas seem to be specially -adapted for the visits of hawk moths. Some Lepidoptera have other -sources of food-supply. The juices of fruit are often sought for, and -certain moths can pierce the envelope of a succulent fruit with the -rough cuticular outgrowths at the tips of the maxillae, so as to reach -the soft tissue within. Animal juices attract other Lepidoptera, which -have been observed to suck blood from a wounded mammal; while putrid -meat is a familiar "lure" for the gorgeous "purple emperor" butterfly -(_Apatura iris_). The water of streams or the dew on leaves may be -frequently sought by Lepidoptera desirous of quenching their thirst, -possibly with fatal results, the insects being sometimes drowned in -rivers in large numbers. Members of several families of the -Lepidoptera--the Hepialidae, Lasiocampidae and Saturniidae, for -example--have the maxillae vestigial or aborted, and take no food at all -after attaining the winged condition. In such insects there is a -complete "division of labour" between the larval and the imaginal -instars, the former being entirely devoted to nutritive, the latter to -reproductive functions. - -Of much interest is the variety displayed among the Lepidoptera in the -season and the duration of the various instars. The brightly coloured -vanessid butterflies, for example, emerge from the pupa in the late -summer and live through the winter in sheltered situations, reappearing -to lay their eggs in the succeeding spring. Many species, such as the -vapourer moths (_Orgyia_), lay eggs in the autumn, which remain -unhatched through the winter. The eggs of the well-known magpie moths -(_Abraxas_) hatch in autumn and the caterpillar hibernates while still -quite small, awaiting for its growth the abundant food-supply to be -afforded by the next year's foliage. The codlin moths (_Carpocapsa_) -pass the winter as resting full-grown larvae, which seek shelter and -spin cocoons in autumn, but do not pupate until the succeeding spring. -Lastly, many of the Lepidoptera hibernate in the pupal stage; the -death's head moth (_Acherontia_) and the cabbage-white butterflies -(_Pieris_) are familiar examples of such. The last-named insects afford -instances of the "double-brooded" condition, two complete life-cycles -being passed through in the year. The flour moth (_Ephestia kuhniella_) -is said to have five successive generations in a twelvemonth. On the -other hand, certain species whose larvae feed in wood or on roots take -two or three years to reach the adult stage. - -The rate of growth of the larva depends to a great extent on the nature -of its food, and the feeding-habits of caterpillars afford much of -interest and variety to the student. The contrast among the Lepidoptera -between the suctorial mouth of the imago and the biting jaws of the -caterpillar is very striking (cf. figs. 4 and 9), and the profound -transformation in structure which takes place is necessarily accompanied -by the change from solid to liquid food. The first meal of a young -caterpillar is well known to be often its empty egg-shell; from this it -turns to feed upon the leaves whereon its provident parent has laid her -eggs. But in a few cases hatching takes place in winter or early spring, -and the young larvae have then to find a temporary food until their own -special plant is available. For example, the caterpillars of some -species of _Xanthia_ and other noctuid moths feed at first upon -willow-catkins. On the other hand, the caterpillars of the pith moth -(_Blastodacna_) hatched at midsummer, feed on leaves when young, and -burrow into woody shoots in autumn. All who have tried to rear -caterpillars know that, while those of some species will feed only on -one particular species of plant, others will eat several species of the -same genus or family, while others again are still less particular, some -being able to feed on almost any green herb. It is curious to note how -certain species change their food in different localities, a caterpillar -confined to one plant in some localities being less particular -elsewhere. Individual aberrations in food are of special interest in -suggesting the starting-point for a change in the race. When we consider -the vast numbers of the Lepidoptera and the structural modifications -which they have undergone, their generally faithful adherence to a -vegetable diet is remarkable. The vast majority of caterpillars eat -leaves, usually devouring them openly, and, if of large size, quickly -reducing the amount of foliage on the plant. But many small caterpillars -keep, apparently for the sake of concealment, to the under surface of -the leaf, while others burrow into the green tissue, forming a -characteristic sinuous "mine" between the two leaf-skins. In several -families we find the habit of burrowing in woody stems,--the "goat" -(_Cossus_, fig. 8) and the clearwings (Sesiidae), for example, while -others, like the larvae of the swift moths (Hepialidae) live underground -devouring roots (fig. 12). The richer nutrition in the green food is -usually shown by the quicker growth of the numerous caterpillars that -feed on it, as compared with the slower development of the wood and -root-feeding species. Aquatic larvae are very rare among the -Lepidoptera. The caterpillars of the pyralid "china-mark" moths -(_Hydrocampa_, fig. 13), however, live under water, feeding on duckweed -(_Lemna_) and breathing atmospheric air, a film of which is enclosed in -a spun-up shelter beneath the leaves, while the larvae of _Paraponyx_, -which feed on _Stratiotes_, have closed spiracles and breathe dissolved -air by means of branchial filaments along the sides of the body. - -[Illustration: FIG. 12.--Larva of _Hepialus humuli_ (ghost moth).] - -[Illustration: FIG. 13.--_Hydrocampa aquatilis_ (water moth).] - -We may now turn to instances of more anomalous modes of feeding. The -clothes moths (Tineids) have invaded our dwellings and found a congenial -food-stuff for their larvae in our garments. A few small species of the -same group are reared in meal and other human food-stores; so are the -caterpillars of some pyralid moths (_Ephestia_), while others (_Asopia_, -_Aglossa_) feed upon kitchen refuse. Two species of crambid moths -(_Aphomia sociella_ and _Galleria melonella_) find a home in bee-hives, -where their caterpillars feed upon the wax, while the waxy secretion -from the body of the great American lantern-fly (_Fulgora candelaria_) -serves both as shelter and food for the caterpillar of the moth -_Epipyrops anomala_. Very few caterpillars have developed a thoroughly -carnivorous habit. That of _Cosmia trapezina_ feeds on oak and other -leaves, but devours smaller caterpillars which happen to get in its way, -and if shaken from the tree, eats other larvae while climbing the trunk. -_Xylina ornithopus_ and a few other species are said to be always -carnivorous when opportunity offers; the small looping caterpillar of a -"pug" moth (_Eupithecia coronata_) has been observed to eat a larva -three times as big as itself. The caterpillars of _Orthosia pistacina_ -live together in peace while their food is moist, but devour each other -when it dries up; this is true cannibalism--a term which should not be -applied to the habit of preying on another species. A few carnivorous -caterpillars do not attack other caterpillars, but prey upon insects of -another order; among these _Fenescia tarquinius_, which eats aphides, -and _Erastria scitula_, which feeds upon scale insects, must be reckoned -as benefactors to mankind. The life-history of the latter moth has been -worked out by H. Rouzaud. It inhabits the shores of the Mediterranean, -and its caterpillar devours the coccids upon various fruit-trees, -especially the black-scale (_Lecanium oleae_) of the olive. The moth, -which is a small noctuid, the white markings on whose wings give it the -appearance of a bird-dropping when at rest in the daytime, appears in -May, and lays her eggs, singly and far apart, upon the trees infested by -the coccids. when hatched, the young caterpillar selects a large female -coccid, eats its way through the scale, and devours the insect beneath; -having done this it makes its way to a fresh victim. As it increases in -size it forms a case for itself made of the scales of its victims, -excrement, &c., bound together by silk which it spins, and, protected by -this covering, which closely resembles the smut-covered bark of the -tree, it roams about during its later stages, devouring several coccids -every day. So nutritious is the food, that four or five successive -broods follow each other through the summer. - -[Illustration: After Marlatt (after Riley), _Bull. 4, Div. Ent. U.S. -Dept. Agr._ - -FIG. 14.--Clothes Moth (_Tinea pellionella_), with larva in and out of -its case. Magnified.] - -The habit just mentioned of forming some kind of protective covering out -of foreign substances spun together by silk is practised by caterpillars -of different families. The clothes moth larvae (_Tinea_, fig. 14), for -example, make a tubular dwelling out of the pellets of wool passed from -their own intestines, while the allied Tortricid caterpillars roll up -leaves and spin for themselves cylindrical shelters. The habit of -spinning over the food plant a protective mass of web, whereon the -caterpillars of a family can live together socially is not uncommon. In -the case of the small ermine moths (_Hyponomeuta_) the caterpillars -remain associated throughout their lives and pupate in cocoons on the -mass of web produced by their common labour. But the larger, spiny -caterpillars of the vanessid butterflies usually scatter away from the -nest of their infancy when they have attained a certain size. - -[Illustration: FIG. 15.--Larva of _Orgyia gonostigma_. Europe.] - -Spines and hairs seem to be often effective protections for -caterpillars; the experiments of E. B. Poulton and others tend to show -that hairy caterpillars (fig. 15) are distasteful to birds. Many -caterpillars are protected by the harmony of their general green -coloration with their surroundings. When the insect attains a large -size--as in the case of the hawk moth (Sphingid) caterpillars--the -extensive green surface becomes broken up by diagonal dark markings -(fig. 46b), thus simulating the effect of light and shade among the -foliage. A remarkable result of Poulton's experiments has been the -establishment of a reflex effect through the skin on the colour of a -caterpillar. Some species of "loopers" (Geometridae, fig. 43) for -example, if placed when young among surroundings of a certain colour, -become closely assimilated thereto--dark brown among dark twigs, green -among green leaves. These colour-reflexes in conjunction with the -elongate twig-like shape of the caterpillars and their habit of -stretching themselves straight out from a branch, afford some of the -best and most familiar examples of "protective resemblance." The -"terrifying attitude" of caterpillars, and the supposed resemblance -borne by some of them to serpents and other formidable vertebrates or -arthropods, are discussed in the article MIMICRY. - -[Illustration: After Ratzeburg, _Insect Life_, vol. 2 (U.S. Dept. Agr.). - -FIG. 16.--Pupa of Gypsy Moth (_Porthetria dispar_) sheltered in leaves -joined by silken threads. Below is the cast larval cuticle.] - -The silk produced by a caterpillar is, as we have seen, often -advantageous in its own life-relations, but its great use is in -connexion with the pupal stage. In the life-history of many Lepidoptera, -the last act of the caterpillar is to spin a cocoon which may afford -protection to the pupa. In some cases this is formed entirely of the -silk produced by the spinning-glands, and may vary from the loose -meshwork that clothes the pupa of the diamond-back moth (_Plutella -cruciferarum_) to the densely woven cocoon of the silkworms (Bombycidae -and Saturniidae) or the hard shell-like covering of the eggars -(Lasiocampidae). Frequently foreign substances are worked up with the -silk and serve to strengthen the cocoon, such as hairs from the body of -the caterpillar itself, as among the "tigers" (Arctiidae) or chips of -wood, as with the timber-burrowing larva of the "goat" (_Cossus_). In -many families of Lepidoptera we can trace a degeneration of the cocoon. -Thus, the pupae of most owl moths (Noctuidae) and hawk moths -(Sphingidae) lie buried in an earthen cell. Among the butterflies we -find that the cocoon is reduced to a pad of silk which gives attachment -to the cremaster; in the Pieridae there is in addition a girdle of silk -around the waist-region of the pupa, but the pupae of the Nymphalidae -(figs. 11, 65) simply hang from the supporting pad by the tail-end. -Poulton has shown that the colours of some exposed pupae vary with the -nature of the surroundings of the larva during the final stage. - -When the pupal stage is complete the insect has to make its way out of -the cocoon. In the lower families of moths it is the pupa which comes -out at least partially, working itself onwards by the spines on its -abdominal segments; the pupa of the primitive _Micropteryx_ has -functional mandibles with which it bites through the cocoon. In the -higher Lepidoptera the pupa is immovable, and the imago, after the -ecdysis of the pupal cuticle, must emerge. This emergence is in some -cases facilitated by the secretion of an acid or alkaline solvent -discharged from the mouth or from the hind-gut, which weakens the -cocoon--so that the delicate moth can break through without injury. - -As might be expected, the conditions to which larva and pupa are -subjected have often a marked influence on the nature of the imago. An -indifferent food-supply for the larva leads to a dwarfing of the moth or -butterfly. Many converging lines of experiment and observation tend to -show that cool conditions during the pupal stage frequently induce -darkening of pigment in the imago, while a warm temperature brightens -the colours of the perfect insect. For example, in many species of -butterfly that are double-brooded, the spring brood emerging from the -wintering pupae are more darkly coloured than the summer brood, but if -the pupae producing the latter be subjected artificially to cold -conditions, the winter form of imago results. It is usually impossible, -however, to produce the summer form of the species from wintering pupae -by artificial heat. From this A. Weismann argued that the more stable -winter form must be regarded as representing the ancestral race of the -species. Further examples of this "seasonal dimorphism" are afforded by -many tropical butterflies which possess a darker "wet-season" and a -brighter "dry-season" generation. So different in appearance are often -these two seasonal forms that before their true relationship was worked -out they had been naturally regarded as independent species. The -darkening of wing-patterns in many species of Lepidoptera has been -carefully studied in our own British fauna. Melanic or melanochroic -varieties are specially characteristic of western and hilly regions, and -some remarkable dark races (fig. 43) of certain geometrid moths have -arisen and become perpetuated in the manufacturing districts of the -north of England. The production of these melanic forms is explained by -J. W. Tutt and others as largely due to the action of natural selection, -the damp and sooty conditions of the districts where they occur -rendering unusually dark the surfaces--such as rocks, tree-trunks and -palings--on which moths habitually rest and so favouring the survival of -dark, and the elimination of pale varieties, as the latter would be -conspicuous to their enemies. Breeding experiments have shown that these -melanic races are sometimes "dominant" to their parent-stock. An -evidently adaptive connexion can be frequently traced between the -resting situation and attitude of the insect and the colour and pattern -of its wings. Moths that rest with the hindwings concealed beneath the -forewings (fig. 34, f) often have the latter dull and mottled, while the -former are sometimes highly coloured. Butterflies whose normal resting -attitude is with the wings closed vertically over the back (fig. 63) so -that the under surface is exposed to view, often have this under surface -mottled and inconspicuous although the upper surface may be bright with -flashing colours. Various degrees of such "protective resemblance" can -be traced, culminating in the wonderful "imitation" of its surroundings -shown by the tropical "leaf-butterflies" (_Kallima_), the under surfaces -of whose wings, though varying greatly, yet form in every case a perfect -representation of a leaf in some stage or other of decay, the butterfly -at the same time disposing of the rest of its body so as to bear out the -deception. How this is effected is best told by A. R. Wallace, who was -the first to observe it, in his work _The Malay Archipelago_:-- - - "The habit of the species is always to rest on a twig and among dead - or dried leaves, and in this position, with the wings closely pressed - together, their outline is exactly that of a moderately sized leaf - slightly curved or shrivelled. The tail of the hindwings forms a - perfect stalk and touches the stick, while the insect is supported by - the middle pair of legs, which are not noticed among the twigs and - fibres that surround it. The head and antennae are drawn back between - the wings so as to be quite concealed, and there is a little notch - hollowed out at the very base of the wings, which allows the head to - be retracted sufficiently." - -But the British Vanessids often rest on a bare patch of ground with the -brightly coloured upper surface of their wings fully exposed to view, -and even make themselves still more conspicuous by fanning their wings -up and down. Some genera and families of Lepidoptera, believed to -secrete noxious juices that render them distasteful, are adorned with -the staring contrasts of colour usually regarded as "warning," while -other genera, belonging to harmless families sought for as food by birds -and lizards, are believed to obtain complete or partial immunity by -their likeness to the conspicuous noxious groups. (See MIMICRY.) - -[Illustration: FIG. 17.--Vapourer Moth (_Ocneria detrita_). S. Europe. -A, Male; B, Female.] - -Sexual dimorphism is frequent among the Lepidoptera. In many families -this takes the form of more elaborate feelers in the male than in the -female moth. Such complex feelers (fig. 2) bear numerous sensory -(olfactory) nerve-endings and give to the males that possess them a -wonderful power of discovering their mates. A single captive female of -the Endromidae or Lasiocampidae often causes hundreds of males of her -species to "assemble" around her prison, and this character is made use -of by collectors who want to secure specimens. In many -butterflies--notably the "blues" (Lycaenidae)--the male is brilliant -while the female is dull, and in other groups (the Danainae for example) -he is provided with scent-producing glands believed to be "alluring" in -function. The apparent evidence given by the sexual differences among the -Lepidoptera in favour of C. Darwin's theory of sexual selection finds no -support from a study of their habits. The male indeed usually seeks the -female, but she appears to exercise no choice in pairing. In some cases -the female is attracted by the male, and here a modified form of sexual -selection appears to be operative. The ghost swift moth (_Hepialus -humuli_) affords a curious and interesting example of this condition, the -female showing the usual brown and buff coloration of her genus, while -the wings of the male are pure white, rendering him conspicuous in the -dusky evening when pairing takes place. But in the northernmost haunts -of the species, where there is no midsummer night, the male closely -resembles the female in wing patterns, the development of the conspicuous -white being needless. A very interesting sexual dimorphism is seen in the -wingless condition of several female moths--the winter moths (_Hybernia_ -and _Cheimatobia_) among the Geometridae and the vapourers (_Orgyia_ and -_Ocneria_) among the Lymantriidae for example (fig. 17). It might be -thought that the loss of power of flight by the female would seriously -restrict the range of the species. In such insects, however, the -caterpillars are often active and travel far. - -_Distribution and Migration._--The range of the Lepidoptera is -practically world-wide; they are absent from the most remote and -inhospitable of the arctic and antarctic lands, but even Kerguelen -possesses a few small indigenous moths. Many of the large and dominant -families have a range wide as that of the order, and certain species -that have attached themselves to man--like the meal moths and the -clothes moths--have become almost cosmopolitan. Interesting and -suggestive restrictions of range can, however, be often traced. Although -butterflies have been found in 82 deg. N. latitude in Greenland, they -are unknown in Iceland, and only a few species of the group reach New -Zealand. Three large sections--the Ithomiinae, Heliconiinae and -Brassolinae--of the great butterfly family Nymphalidae are peculiar to -the Neotropical region, while the Morphinae, a characteristically South -American group, have a few Oriental genera in India and Indo-Malaya. The -Acraeinae, another section of the same family, have the vast majority of -their species in Ethiopian Africa, but are represented eastwards in the -Oriental and Australian regions and westwards in South America. A -comparison of the lepidopterous faunas of Ireland, Great Britain and the -European continent is very instructive, and suggests strongly that, -despite their power of flight the Lepidoptera are mostly dependent on -land-connexions for the extension of their range. For example, Ireland -has only forty of the seventy species of British butterflies. The range -of many Lepidoptera is of course determined by the distribution of the -plants on which their larvae feed. - -Nevertheless certain species of powerful flight, and some that might be -thought feeble on the wing, often cross sea-channels and establish or -reinforce distant colonies. Caterpillars of the great death's head moth -(_Acherontia atropos_) are found every summer feeding in British and -Irish potato fields, but it is doubtful if any of the pupae resulting -from them survive the winter in our climate. It is believed by Tutt that -the species is only maintained by a fresh immigration of moths from the -South each summer. Hosts of white butterflies (_Pieris_) have been -frequently observed crossing the English Channel from France to Kent. -Migrating swarms of Lepidoptera have often been met by sailors in -mid-ocean; thus, Tutt records the presence around a sailing ship in the -Atlantic of such a swarm of the rather feeble moth _Deiopeia pulchella_, -nearly 1000 m. from its nearest known habitat. This migratory instinct -is connected with the gregarious habits of many Lepidoptera. For -example, H. W. Bates states that at one place in South America he -noticed eighty different species flying about in enormous numbers in the -sunshine, and these, with few exceptions, were males, the females -remaining within the forest shades. Darwin describes a "butterfly -shower," which he observed 10 m. off the South American coast, extending -as far as the eye could reach; "even by the aid of the telescope," he -adds, "it was not possible to see a space free from butterflies." Sir J. -Emerson Tennent, witnessed in Ceylon a mighty host of butterflies of -white or pale yellow hue, "apparently miles in breadth and of such -prodigious extension as to occupy hours and even days uninterruptedly in -their passage." Observations at Heligoland by H. Gatke have shown that -migrating moths "travel under the same conditions as migrating birds, -and for the most part in their company, in an east to west direction; -they fly in swarms, the numbers of which defy all attempts at -computation and can only be expressed by millions." The painted lady -butterfly (_Pyrameis cardui_) comes in repeated swarms from the -Mediterranean region into northern and western Europe, while in North -America companies of the monarch (_Anosia archippus_) invade Canada -every summer from the United States, and are believed to return -southwards in autumn. This latter species has, during the last -half-century, extended its range south-westwards across the Pacific and -reached the Austro-Malayan islands, while several specimens have -occurred in southern and western England, though it has not established -itself on this side of the Atlantic. It is noteworthy that the -introduction of its food-plant--_Asclepias_--into the Sandwich Islands -in 1850 apparently enabled it to spread across the Pacific. - -_Fossil History._--Our knowledge of the geological history of the -Lepidoptera is but scanty. Certain Oolitic fossil insects from the -lithographic stone of Solenhofen, Bavaria, have been described as moths, -but it is only in Tertiary deposits that undoubted Lepidoptera occur, -and these, all referable to existing families, are very scarce. Most of -them come from the Oligocene beds of Florissant, Colorado, and have been -described by S. H. Scudder. The paucity of Lepidoptera among the fossils -is not surprising when we consider the delicacy of their structure, and -though their past history cannot be traced back beyond early Cainozoic -times, we can have little doubt from the geographical distribution of -some of the families that the order originated with the other higher -Endopterygota in the Mesozoic epoch. - -_Classification._--The order Lepidoptera contains more than fifty -families, the discussion of whose mutual relationships has given rise to -much difference of opinion. The generally received distinction is -between butterflies or _Rhopalocera_ (Lepidoptera with clubbed feelers, -whose habit is to fly by day) and moths or _Heterocera_ (Lepidoptera -with variously shaped feelers, mostly crepuscular or nocturnal in -habit). This distinction is quite untenable as a zoological conception, -for the relationship of butterflies to some moths is closer than that of -many families of Heterocera to each other. Still more objectionable is -the division of the order into _Macrolepidoptera_ (including the -butterflies and large moths) and the _Microlepidoptera_ (comprising the -smaller moths). Most of the recent suggestions for the division of the -Lepidoptera into sub-orders depend upon some single character. Thus J. -H. Comstock has proposed to separate the three lowest families, which -have--like caddis-flies (Trichoptera)--a jugum on each forewing, as a -suborder _Jugatae_, distinct from all the rest of the Lepidoptera--the -_Frenatae_, mostly possessing a frenulum on the hindwing. A. S. Packard -places one family (Micropterygidae) with functional mandibles and a -lacinia in the first maxilla alone in a suborder _Laciniata_, all the -rest of the order forming the suborder _Haustellata_. T. A. Chapman -divides the families with free or incompletely obtect and mobile pupae -(_Incompletae_) from those with obtect pupae which never leave the -cocoon (_Obtectae_), and this is probably the most natural primary -division of the Lepidoptera that has as yet been suggested. Dyar puts -forward a classification founded entirely on the structure of the larva, -while Tutt divides the Lepidoptera into three great stirps characterized -by the shape of the chorion of the egg. The primitive form of the egg is -oval, globular, or flattened with the micropyle at one end; from this -has apparently been derived the upright form of egg with the micropyle -on top which characterizes the butterflies and the higher moths. These -schemes, though helpful in pointing out important differences, are -unnatural in that they lay stress on single, often adaptive, characters -to the exclusion of others equally important. Although it is perhaps -best to establish no division among the Lepidoptera between the order -and the family, an attempt has been made in the classification adopted -in this article to group the families into tribes or super-families -which may indicate their probable affinities. The systematic work of G. -F. Hampson, A. R. Grote and E. Meyrick has done much to place the -classification of the Lepidoptera on a sound basis, so far as the -characters of the imago are concerned, but attention must also be paid -to the preparatory stages if a truly natural system is to be reached. - - - _Jugatae._ - - Three families are included in this group having in common certain - primitive characters of the wings and neuration (see fig. 6), as well - as of the larva and pupa. There is a membranous lobe or jugum near the - base of the wing, and the neuration of the hindwing is closely like - that of the forewing, the radial nervure being five-branched in both. - The pupa has four or five movable segments, and the larval prolegs - have complete circles of hooklets. - - The three families of the Jugatae are not very closely related to each - other. The _Micropterygidae_ (often known as _Eriocephalidae_), - comprising a few small moths with metallic wings, are the most - primitive of all Lepidoptera. They are provided with functional - mandibles, while the maxillae have distinct laciniae, well-developed - palps and galeae not modified for suction (see fig. 3). The larva is - remarkable on account of its long feelers, the presence of pairs of - jointed prolegs on the first eight abdominal segments, an anal sucker - beneath the last segment and bladder-like outgrowths on the cuticle. - These curious larvae feed on wet moss. The family has only a few - genera scattered widely over the earth's surface (Europe, America, - Australia, New Zealand). - - The _Eriocraniidae_ resemble the Micropterygidae in appearance, but - the imago has no mandibles, and the maxillae, though short and - provided with conspicuous palps, have no laciniae and form a proboscis - as in Lepidoptera generally. The abdomen of the female carries a - serrate piercing process, and the eggs are laid in the leaves of - deciduous trees, the white larvae, with aborted legs, mining in the - leaf tissue. The fully-fed larva winters in an underground cocoon and - then changes into the most remarkable of all known lepidopterous - pupae, with relatively enormous toothed mandibles which bite a way out - of the cocoon in preparation for the final change. These pupal - mandibles of the Eriocraniidae, together with the nature of the - imaginal maxillae in the Micropterygidae (Eriocephalidae) and the - wing-neuration in both families, point strongly to a relationship - between the Lepidoptera and the Trichoptera. - - The _Hepialidae_ or swift moths--the third family of the Jugatae--are - in some respects specialized. The moths are of large or moderate size - with the maxillae in a vestigial condition, no food being taken after - the attainment of the perfect state. The larvae (fig. 12) feed either - on roots or in the wood of trees and shrubs, not attaining their - growth in less than a year and some large exotic species living for - two or three. The family is world-wide in range, and Australia - possesses some almost gigantic and strangely coloured genera. - - - _Tineides._ - - A large assemblage of moths, mostly of small size, are included in - this group. The wings have no jugum, but there is a frenulum on the - hindwing, which has, as in all the groups above the Jugatae, only a - single radial nervure. Three anal nervures are present in the hindwing - in those families whose wings are well developed, but in several - families of small moths the wings of both pairs are very narrow and - pointed, and the neuration is consequently reduced. The sub-costal - nervure of the hindwing is usually present and distinct from the - radial nervure. The egg is flat except in the Cossidae and Castniidae - in which it is upright. The larval prolegs, with few exceptions, have - a complete circle of hooklets, and the larvae usually feed in some - concealed situation. The pupa is incompletely obtect, with three (in - some females only two) to five free abdominal segments, and emerges - partly from the cocoon before the moth appears. The cremaster serves - to anchor the pupa to its cocoon at the correct degree of emergence, - and thus facilitates the eclosion of the imago. - - [Illustration: FIG. 18.--_Stygia australis._ S. Europe.] - - [Illustration: FIG. 19.--_Zeuzera scalaris._ India.] - - The _Cossidae_ are a small family of large moths (figs. 8, 18, 19) - belonging to this section, characterized by their heads with erect - rough scales or hairs, the pectinate feelers of the males, their - reduced maxillae so that no food is taken in the perfect state, and - their wings with the fifth radial nervure arising from the third, and - the main median nervure forking in the discoidal areolet. The larvae - feed in plant stems, often in the wood of trees, forming tunnels and - galleries, and usually taking a year or more to reach maturity. The - pupa which has three or four free segments in the male and four or - five in the female, rests in a cocoon within the food plant, often - strengthened by chips of wood, or in a subterranean cocoon. The family - is fairly well represented in the tropics; the British fauna possesses - only three species, of which the "goat" (_Cossus cossus_) and the - "leopard" (_Zeuzera pyrina_) are well known, the caterpillars of both - being often injurious to timber and fruit trees. - - The _Tortricidae_ are a large family of small moths (see fig. 1), - nearly allied to the Cossidae. The fifth radial nervure does not - arise from the third, the maxillae are well developed, but their - palps are obsolete; the head is densely clothed with erect scales; the - terminal segment of the labial palp is short and obtuse. The female - pupa has three, the male four, free segments. All the larvae of these - moths have some method of concealing themselves while feeding. A - frequent plan is to roll up a leaf of the food-plant, fastening the - twisted portion with silken threads so as to make a tubular retreat; - this is the habit of the caterpillar of the green bell moth (_Tortrix - viridana_) which often ravages the foliage of oak plantations. The - larvae of the pine-shoot moths (_Retinia_) shelter in solidified - resinous exudations from their coniferous food-plants, while the - codlin-moth caterpillar (_Carpocapsa pomonella_) feeds in apples and - pears, growing with the growth of the fruit which affords them both - provender and home. The antics of "jumping-beans" are due to the - movements of tortricid caterpillars within the substance of the seed. - - The _Psychidae_ are a small but widely-distributed family of moths - whose males have the head, densely clothed with rough hairs, bearing - complex, bipectinated feelers, but with the maxillae reduced and - useless. The larvae live in portable cases made of grass, pieces of - leaf or stick, with a silken lining, and these cases serve as cocoons - for the pupae which agree in structure with those of the Tortricidae. - But the most remarkable feature of the family is the extreme - degradation of the female, which, wingless, legless and without jaws - or feelers, never emerges from the cocoon. - - [Illustration: FIG. 20.--_Castnia acraeoides._ Brazil.] - - The _Castniidae_ are a small family of large, conspicuous, day-flying - exotic moths (fig. 20) whose clubbed feelers and bright colours give - them a resemblance to butterflies, although their wing-neuration is of - the primitive tineoid type; the smooth larvae feed on the stems or - roots of plants and the pupal structure agrees with that of the - Tortricidae and Psychidae. The distribution of the family is confined - to Tropical America and the Indo-Malayan and Australian regions. - - [Illustration: FIG. 21.--_Neurosymploca concinna._ S. Africa.] - - The _Zygaenidae_ (burnet moths) are a large family of day-flying moths - (fig. 21) adorned with brilliant metallic colours. The feelers are - long, stout in the middle and tapering, bearing numerous long or short - pectinations. The well-developed maxillae have vestigial palps. The - larvae--often very conspicuously coloured--are remarkable among the - Tineides in having incomplete circles of hooks on the prolegs, and - they feed exposed on the leaves of various plants. The pupa, enclosed - in a silken cocoon, has four or five free segments. The _Limacodidae_ - are a small family of brownish nocturnal moths, allied to the - Zygaenidae and agreeing with them in the structure of the pupa. The - larva in this family also is an exposed feeder, but it is remarkable - in form, being flattened and slug-like, without prolegs and adorned - with curious spinous processes. - - [Illustration: FIG. 22.--A, _Sesia asiliformis_ (Gad-fly Hawk Moth). - Europe. B, Larva.] - - The _Sesiidae_ are a large family of small, narrow-winged moths, the - sub-costal nervure of the hindwing being absent and the wings being - for the most part destitute of scales (fig. 22). The maxillae are - developed but their palps are vestigial, while the terminal segment of - the labial palp is short and pointed. Many of these insects have their - bodies banded with black and yellow; this in conjunction with the - transparent wings makes some of them like wasps or hornets in - appearance. The larvae feed in the woody stems of various plants. The - pupa, with three or four free abdominal segments, remains within its - cocoon, formed with chips of wood, until the time for its final change - draws near; then it works itself partly out of the tree by means of - the spines on its abdominal segments. - - The _Nepticulidae_ are the smallest of all the Lepidoptera, measuring - only 3-8 mm. across the outspread wings, which are all lanceolate and - pointed at the tip. The sucking portions of the maxillae are - vestigial, but the palps are long and jointed. The larvae, without - thoracic limbs or prolegs, but sometimes with paired rudimentary - processes on some of the segments, mine in the leaves of plants. The - pupa, with four free abdominal segments in the female and five in the - male, rests in a cocoon usually outside the mine. - - [Illustration: FIG. 23.--_Adela degeerella._ Europe.] - - [Illustration: FIG. 24.--_Euplocampus anthracinus._ Europe.] - - [Illustration: FIG. 25.--_Tinea tapetzella_ (Clothes Moth). Europe.] - - The _Adelidae_ are a family of delicate, but larger, moths with very - long feelers (fig. 23) especially in the males. The larvae feed, when - young, in flowers; later, protected by a flat case, they devour - leaves; the pupa resembles that of the Nepticulidae in structure. The - female has an ovipositor adapted for piercing plant tissues. - - The _Tineidae_ are a large and important family of small moths (figs. - 14, 24, 25) with rough-haired heads, and with the maxillae and their - palps usually well developed. Many of the genera have narrow pointed - wings with degraded neuration. The larvae differ in their habits, - some--_Gracilaria_ for example--mine in leaves, while others, like the - well-known caterpillars of the clothes moth (_Tinea_) surround - themselves with portable cases (fig. 14) formed by spinning together - their own excrement. The female pupa has three, the male four free - abdominal segments. - - - _Plutellides._ - - This group includes a few large families of small moths that are - linked by their imaginal and larval structure to the Tineidae (in - which they have often been included) and by their pupal structure to - the higher groups that have yet to be considered. The moths have - labial palps with slender pointed terminal segments, and narrow - pointed wings, but the neuration (except in the Elachistidae) is less - degenerate than in most Tineidae. The hairy covering of the head is - smooth, and the maxillary palps are usually vestigial. The egg is - flat, and the larval prolegs have complete circles of hooklets. The - pupa is obtect with only two free abdominal segments (fifth and sixth) - in both sexes and does not move out of the cocoon. - - [Illustration: FIG. 26.--_Cerostoma asperella._ Europe.] - - [Illustration: FIG. 27.--_Psecadia pusiella._] - - Four families are included in this group. The _Plutellidae_ (fig. 26) - have the maxillary palps developed, in some genera, as slender - threadlike appendages directed straight forward. The larvae do not - usually mine in leaves, but feed openly, keeping to the underside for - protection (_Plutella_), or spinning by their united labour a mass of - web over the food-plant (_Hyponomeuta_). In the other three families - the maxillary palps are vestigial or obsolete. The _Elachistidae_ have - remarkably narrow, pointed wings and their larvae mine in leaves or - form portable cases and feed among seeds. In the _Oecophoridae_ (fig. - 27) the sub-costal nervure of the hindwing is free and distinct - throughout its length, and the larvae usually feed among spun leaves - or seeds, or in decayed wood. The _Gelechiidae_ are a large family - with similar larval habits; the moths are distinguished by the sinuate - termen of the hindwing and the connexion of its sub-costal nervure - with the discoidal areolet. - - - _Pyralides._ - - [Illustration: FIG. 28.--_Pterophorus spilodactylus._ Europe.] - - [Illustration: FIG. 29.--_Orneodes hexadactylus_ (24-plumed Moth). - Europe.] - - This group includes a number of moths of delicate build with elongate - legs, the maxillae and their palps being usually well developed. The - forewings have two anal nervures, the hindwings three (fig. 30, h, i); - in the hindwing the sub-costal nervure bends towards and often - connects with the radial, and the frenulum is usually present. The egg - is flat. The larva has complete circles of hooklets on its five pairs - of prolegs, and the pupa (usually completely obtect) does not move at - all from its cocoon. This group includes the only Lepidoptera that - have aquatic larvae. - - Of the families comprised in this division three deserve special - mention. The _Pterophoridae_ (plume moths, fig. 28) usually have the - wings deeply cleft--a single cleft in the forewing and two in the - hindwing. The hairy larvae feed openly on leaves, while the soft and - hairy pupa remains attached to its cocoon by the cremaster, although - it is incompletely obtect and has three or four free abdominal - segments. The _Orneodidae_ (multiplume moths) have all the wings - six-cleft. Our British species, _Orneodes hexadactyla_ (fig. 29), is - an exquisite little insect, whose larva feeds on the blossoms of - honeysuckle. The pupa is completely obtect, with only two free - abdominal segments. The _Pyralidae_ (figs. 13, 30), a large family - with numerous divisions, have entire wings, and their pupae are - obtect. The caterpillars feed in some kind of shelter, some spinning a - loose case among the leaves of their food-plant, others burrowing into - dry vegetable substances or eating the waxen cells of bees. Several - species of this group, such as the Mediterranean flour moth, _Ephestia - kuhniella_ (fig. 30), become serious pests in storehouses and - granaries, their larvae devouring flour and similar food-stuffs. - - [Illustration: After Riley and Howard, _Insect Life_, vol. 2 (U.S. - Dept. Agr.). - - FIG. 30.--Flour Moth (_Ephestia kuhniella_). - - c, With wings spread. - f, At rest. - g, h, i, Marking and neuration of wings. - a, Larva. - b, Pupa. - d, Head and front body-segments of larva. - e, 2nd and 3rd abdominal segments.] - - - _Noctuides._ - - In this group may be included a number of families of moths with the - second median nervure of the forewing arising close to the third. This - feature of neuration characterizes also the Jugatae (see fig. 6), - Tineides, Plutellides and Pyralides. But the Noctuides differ from - these groups in having only two anal nervures in the hindwing. The - maxillary palps are absent or vestigial, and a frenulum is usually - present on the hindwing. The larva has usually ten prolegs, whose - hooklets are arranged only along the inner edge, while the immobile - pupa is always obtect with only two free abdominal segments (the fifth - and sixth). The Lasiocampidae and their allies have flat eggs, but in - the Noctuidae, Arctiidae and their allies the egg is upright. - - [Illustration: FIG. 31.--_Claterna cydonia._ India.] - - The _Lasiocampidae_, together with a few small families, differ from - the majority of this group in wanting a frenulum. The maxillae of the - Lasiocampidae are so reduced that no food is taken in the imaginal - state, and in correlation with this condition the feelers of the male - are strongly (those of the female more feebly) bipectinated. The moths - are stout, hairy insects, usually brown or yellow in the pattern of - their wings. The caterpillars are densely hairy and many species - hibernate in the larval stage. The pupa is enclosed in a hard, dense - cocoon, whence the name "eggars" is often applied to the family, which - has a wide distribution, but is absent from New Zealand. The - _Drepanulidae_ are an allied family, in which the frenulum is usually - present, while the hindmost pair of larval prolegs are absent, their - segment being prolonged into a pointed process which is raised up when - the caterpillar is at rest. The hook-tip moths represent this family - in the British fauna. - - The _Lymantriidae_ resemble the Lasiocampidae in their hairy bodies - ana vestigial maxillae, but the frenulum is usually present on the - hindwing and the feelers are bipectinate only in the males. Some - females of this family--the vapourer moths (_Orgyia_ and allies, fig. - 17), for example--are degenerate creatures with vestigial wings. The - larvae (fig. 15) are very hairy, and often carry dense tufts on some - of their segments; hence the name of "tussocks" frequently applied to - them. The pupae are also often hairy (fig. 16)--an exceptional - condition--and are protected by a cocoon of silk mixed with some of - the larval hairs, while the female sheds some hairs from her own - abdomen to cover the eggs. The family is widely distributed, its - headquarters being the eastern tropics. To that part of the world is - restricted the allied family of the _Hypsidae_, distinguished from the - "tussocks" by the slender upturned terminal segment of the labial - palps and by the development of the maxillae. - - [Illustration: FIG. 32.--_Ophideres imperator._ Madagascar.] - - [Illustration: FIG. 33.--_Cyligramma fluctuosa._ W. Africa.] - - [Illustration: From Mally, _Bull._ 24, _Div. Ent. U.S. Dept. Agr._ - - FIG. 34.--e, f, _Heliothis armigera._ Europe, c, Larva; d, pupa in - cell. Natural size. a, b, Egg, highly magnified.] - - The _Noctuidae_ are the largest and most dominant family of the - Lepidoptera, comprising some 10,000 known species. They are mostly - moths of dull coloration, flying at dusk or by night. The maxillae are - well developed, the hindwing has a frenulum, and its sub-costal - nervure touches the radial near the base. The larvae of the Noctuidae - (fig. 34, c) are rarely hairy and the pupa (fig. 34, d) usually rests - in an earthen cell, being often the wintering stage for the species; - sometimes the pupa is enclosed in a loose cocoon of silk and leaves. - In some Noctuidae (fig. 32) the hindwings are brightly coloured, but - these are concealed beneath the dull, inconspicuous forewings when the - insect rests (fig. 34, f). Nearly allied to the Noctuidae, but very - different in appearance, are the gaily-coloured _Agaristidae_, a - family of day-flying moths (figs. 35, 36), confined to the warmer - regions of the globe and distinguished by their thickened feelers, - those of the Noctuids being thread-like or slightly pectinate. - - The _Arctiidae_ (tiger moths, footmen, &c.) are allied to the - Noctuidae, but their wing-neuration is more specialized, the - sub-costal nervure of the hindwing being confluent with the radial for - the basal part of its course. These moths (fig. 37) have gaily - coloured wings, and the caterpillars are often densely covered with - long smooth hairs. The pupae are enclosed in silken cocoons (fig. 38). - The highest specialization of structure in this group of the - Lepidoptera is reached by the _Syntomidae_, a family nearly allied to - the Arctiidae, but with the sub-costal nervure in the hindwing absent. - The Syntomidae have elongate narrow forewings and short hindwings, - usually dark in colour with clear spots and dashes destitute of scales - (fig. 40). The body, on the other hand, is often brilliantly adorned. - The family, abundant in the tropics of the Old World, has only two - European species. - - [Illustration: FIG. 35.--_Rothia pales._ Madagascar.] - - - _Sphingides._ - - [Illustration: FIG. 36.--_Aegocera rectilinea._ Tropical Africa.] - - [Illustration: FIG. 37.--_Haploa Lecontei._ N. America.] - - [Illustration: After Lugger, Riley and Howard, _Insect Life_, vol. 2 - (U.S. Dept. Agr.). - - FIG. 38.--c, Tiger Moth (_Phragmatobia fuliginosa_, Linn.). Europe. a, - Caterpillar; b, cocoon with pupa. Slightly enlarged.] - - This group includes a series of families which agree with the - Noctuides in most points, but are distinguished by the origin of the - second median nervure of the forewing close to the first, or from the - discocellular nervure midway between the first and third medians (see - fig. 5). These neurational characters may appear somewhat - insignificant, but such slight though constant distinctions in - structures of no adaptational value may be safely regarded as truly - significant of relationship. Several of the families in this group - have lost the frenulum. In larval and pupal characters the Sphingides - generally resemble the Noctuides, but in some families there is a - reduction in the number of the larval prolegs. The egg is spherical or - flat, upright only in the Notodontidae. - - [Illustration: FIG. 39.--_Halias prasinana._ Europe.] - - [Illustration: FIG. 40.--_Euchromia formosa._ S. Africa.] - - The Notodontidae are stout, hairy moths (figs. 5, 41, 42 a) with - maxillae and frenulum developed. In the larva the prolegs on the - hindmost segment are sometimes modified into pointed outgrowths which - are carried erect when the caterpillar moves about. From these - structures whip-like, coloured processes are protruded by the - caterpillar (fig. 42 b) of the puss moth (_Cerura_) when alarmed; - these processes are believed to help in "terrifying" the caterpillar's - enemies. Allied to the Notodontidae are the _Cymatophoridae_--a family - of moths agreeing with the Noctuidae in appearance and habits--and the - large and important family of the _Geometridae_. The moths (fig. 43) - of this family are distinguished from the Notodontidae by their - delicate build and elongate feet, the caterpillars (fig. 43, c) by the - absence or vestigial condition of the three anterior pairs of prolegs. - The two hinder pairs of prolegs are therefore alone functional and the - larva progresses by "looping," i.e. bending the body so as to bring - these prolegs close up to the thoracic legs, and then, taking a fresh - grip on the twig whereon it walks, stretching the body straight out - again. Many of these larvae have a striking resemblance both in form - and colour to the twigs of their food-plant. In some of the species - the female has the wings reduced to useless vestiges. The family is - world-wide in its range. The tropical _Uraniidae_ are large handsome - moths (figs. 44, 45), often with exquisite wing-patterns, allied to - the Geometridae, but distinguished by the absence of a frenulum in the - moth and the presence of the normal ten prolegs in the larva. - - [Illustration: FIG. 41.--_Notodonta ziczac_ (Pebble Prominent Moth). - Europe.] - - [Illustration: FIG. 42 A.--_Cerura borealis._ N. America.] - - [Illustration: FIG. 42 B.--Larva of _Cerura_ (Puss Moth).] - - [Illustration: After Grote, _Natural Science_ (J. M. Dent & Co.). - - FIG. 43.--Geometrid Moth (_Amphidasys betularia_, Linn.). Europe. a, - Large grey type; b, dark variety; c, caterpillar in looping attitude.] - - [Illustration: FIG. 44.--_Urania boisduvalii._ Cuba.] - - [Illustration: FIG. 45.--_Urania boisduvalii_ at rest, showing under - surface of wings.] - - The _Sphingidae_ (hawk moths) are insects often of large size (figs. - 46a, 47), with spindle-shaped feelers, elongate and powerful forewings - and the maxillae very well developed. The hindwing carries a frenulum - and has its sub-costal nervure connected with the radial by a short - bar. The caterpillars have the full number of prolegs, and, in many - genera, carry a prominent dorsal horn on the eighth abdominal segment - (fig. 46b). The pupa lies in an earthen cell. On account of their - powerful flight the moths of this family have a wide range; certain - species--like _Acherontia atropos_ and _Protoparce - convolvuli_--migrate into the British Islands in numbers almost every - summer. - - [Illustration: FIG. 46 A.--_Chlaenogramma jasminearum_ (Jessamine - Sphinx). N. America.] - - [Illustration: FIG. 46 B.--Larva.] - - [Illustration: FIG. 47.--_Smerinthus ocellatus_ (Eyed Hawk moth). - Europe.] - - A group of families in which the first maxillae are vestigial, the - feelers bipectinate and the pupa enclosed in a dense silken cocoon, - have been regarded as the most highly specialized of all the moths, - though according to other views the whole series of the Lepidoptera - culminates in the Syntomidae. Of these cocoon-spinning families may be - specially mentioned the _Eupterotidae_, large brown or yellow moths - inhabiting tropical Asia and Africa, and represented in Europe only by - the "processionary moth" (_Cnethocampa processionea_). In this family - the frenulum is present, and the larvae are protected with tufts of - long hair. The _Bombycidae_ have no frenulum, and the larvae are - smooth, with some of the segments humped and the eighth abdominal - often carrying a dorsal spine. The family is tropical in its - distribution, but the common silkworm (_Bombyx mori_, fig. 48) has - become acclimatized in southern Europe and is the source of most of - the silk used in manufacture and art. Of commercial value also is the - silk spun by the great moths of the family _Saturniidae_, well - represented in warm countries and contributing a single species - (_Saturnia pavonia-minor_) to the British fauna. These moths (fig. 49) - have but a single anal nervure in the hindwing and only three radial - nervures in the forewing. The wing-patterns are handsome and striking; - usually an unsealed "eyespot" is conspicuous at the end of each - discoidal areolet. The caterpillars are protected by remarkable - spine-bearing tubercles (fig. 10, B). - - [Illustration: After C.V. Riley, _Bull._ 14, _Div. Ent. U.S. Dept. - Agr._ - - FIG. 48.--_Bombyx mori._ China. a, Caterpillar (the common silkworm); - b, cocoon; c, male moth.] - - [Illustration: FIG. 49.--_Epiphora bouhiniae._ W. Africa.] - - _Grypocera._ - - [Illustration: FIG. 50.--_Tagiades sabadius._ S. Africa.] - - This group stands at the base of the series of families that are - usually distinguished as "butterflies." The feelers are recurved at - the tip, and thickened just before the extremity. The forewing has the - full number of radial nervures, distinct and evenly spaced, and two - anal nervures; the frenulum is usually absent. The larvae (fig. 51) - have prolegs with complete circles of hooklets, and often feed in - concealed situations, while the pupa is protected by a light cocoon. - The affinities of this group are clearly not with the higher groups of - moths just described, but with some of the lower families. According - to Meyrick they are most closely related to the Pyralidae, but Hampson - and most other students would derive them (through the Castniidae) - from a primitive Tineoid stock allied to the Cossidae and Zygaenidae. - - Three families are included in the section. The North American - _Megathymidae_ and the Australian _Euschemonidae_ have a frenulum and - are usually reckoned among the "moths." The _Hesperiidae_ in which the - frenulum is wanting form the large family of the skipper butterflies, - represented in our own fauna by several species. They are insects with - broad head--the feelers being widely separated--usually brown or grey - wings (fig. 50) and a peculiar jerky flight. The family has an - extensive range but is unknown in Greenland, New Zealand, and in many - oceanic islands. - - - _Rhopalocera._ - - [Illustration: FIG. 51.--Chrysalis and Larva of _Nisoniadestages_ - (dingy skipper). Europe.] - - This group comprises the typical butterflies which are much more - highly specialized than the Grypocera, and may be readily - distinguished by the knobbed or clubbed feelers and by the absence of - a frenulum. Two or more of the radial nervures in the forewing arise - from a common stalk or are suppressed. The egg is "upright." The - larvae have hooklets only on the inner edges of the prolegs. The pupa - is very highly modified, only two free abdominal segments are ever - recognizable, and in some genera even these have become consolidated. - The cocoon is reduced to a pad of silk, to which the pupa is attached, - suspended by the cremastral hooks; in some families there is also a - silken girdle around the waist-region. In correlation with the exposed - condition of the pupa, we find the presence of a specially developed - "head-piece" or "nose-horn" to protect the head-region of the - contained imago. Their bright colours and conspicuous flight in the - sunshine has made the Rhopalocera the most admired of all insects by - the casual observer. - - [Illustration: FIG. 52.--_Chrysophanus thoe._ N. America.] - - A modification that has taken place in several families of butterflies - is the reduction of the first pair of legs. H. W. Bates arranged the - families in a series depending on this character, but neurational and - pupal features must be taken into account as well, and the sequence - followed here is modified from that proposed by A. R. Grote and J. W. - Tutt. - - [Illustration: FIG. 53.--_Rathinda amor._ India.] - - [Illustration: FIG. 54.--_Cheritra freja._ India.] - - The _Lycaenidae_ are a large family including the small butterflies - (figs. 52, 53, 54) popularly known as blues, coppers and hairstreaks. - The forelegs in the female are normal, but in the male the tarsal - segments are shortened and the claws sometimes are absent. The - forewing has only three or four radial nervures (fig. 55), the last - two of which arise from a common stalk; the feelers are inserted close - together on the head. The larva is short and hairy, somewhat like a - woodlouse in shape, the broad sides concealing the legs and prolegs, - while the pupa, which is also hairy or bristly, is attached by the - cremaster to a silken pad and cinctured with a silken thread. The - upper surfaces of the wings of these insects are usually of a bright - metallic hue--blue or coppery--while beneath there are often numerous - dark centred "eye-spots." The family is widely distributed. Nearly - related are the _Lemoniidae_, a family abundantly represented in the - Neotropical Region, but scarce in the Old World and having only a - single European species (_Nemeobius lucinia_) which occurs also in - England. In the Lemoniidae (figs. 56, 57) the forelegs of the male are - reduced and useless for walking. The _Libytheidae_ may be recognized - by the elongate snout-like palps, the five-branched radial nervure of - the forewing, the cylindrical hairy larva, and the pupa attached only - by the cremaster. - - [Illustration: After Grote, _Natural Science_, vol. 12 (J. M. Dent & - Co.). - - FIG. 55.--Neuration of Wings in _Lycaena_. - - 2, Sub-costal. - 3, Radial. - 4, Median. - 5, Cubital. - 7, 8, Anal nervures.] - - [Illustration: FIG. 56.--_Eurybia carolina._ Brazil.] - - [Illustration: FIG. 57.--_Calephelis caenius._ N. America.] - - [Illustration: FIG. 58.--_Papilio machaon_ (Swallow-tail.). Europe.] - - [Illustration: FIG. 59.--_Parnassius apollo_ (Apollo). European Alps.] - - The _Papilionidae_ are large butterflies with ample wings, and all six - legs fully developed in both sexes. The forewing has five radial and - two anal nervures, the second of the latter being free from the first - and running to the dorsum of the wing, while the hindwing has but a - single anal, and is frequently prolonged into a "tail" at the third - median nervure (fig. 58). The larva is cylindrical, never hairy but - often tuberculate and provided with a dorsal retractile tentacle - (osmaterium) on the prothorax. The pupa, which has a double - "nose-horn," is attached by the cremaster and a waist-girdle to the - food-plant in the Papilioninae (fig. 58), but lies in a web on the - ground among the Parnasiinae (figs. 59, 60). The latter sub-family - includes the well-known Apollo butterflies of the Alps. The former is - represented in the British fauna by the East Anglian swallow-tail - (_Papilio machaon_), and is very abundant in the warmer regions of the - world, including some of the most magnificent and brilliant of - insects. - - [Illustration: FIG. 60.--_Thais medesicaste._ S. France.] - - [Illustration: FIG. 61.--_Colias hyale_ (Pale clouded Yellow - Butterfly). Europe.] - - Agreeing with the Papilionidae in the six perfect legs of both sexes - and the cincture-support of the pupa we find the _Pieridae_--the - family of the white and yellow butterflies (figs. 61, 62)--represented - by ten species in the British fauna and very widely spread over the - earth's surface. In the _Pieridae_ there are two anal nervures in the - hindwing, while the second anal nervure in the forewing runs into the - first; the larva is cylindrical and hairy without an osmaterium. The - pupa has a single "nose-horn," and in the more highly organized genera - there is no mobility whatever between its abdominal segments. The - wintering pupae of the common cabbage butterflies (_Pieris brassicae_ - and _P. rapae_) are common objects attached to walls and fences and - their colour harmonizes, to a great extent, with that of their - surroundings. - - [Illustration: FIG. 62.--_Appias nero_ (male). Malaya.] - - [Illustration: FIG. 63.--_Dione moneta._ Brazil.] - - [Illustration: FIG. 64.--Larva of _Argynnis paphia_ (Silver-washed - Fritillary). Europe.] - - [Illustration: FIG. 65.--_Vanessa io_ (Peacock) and its pupa.] - - [Illustration: FIG. 66.--_Euploea leucostictos_ (male). Malaya.] - - [Illustration: After A. R. Grote, _Natural Science_, vol. 12 (J. M. - Dent & Co.). - - FIG. 67.--Neuration of Wings in a Nymphaline Butterfly. - - 2, Sub-costal. - 3, Radial. - 4, Median. - 5, Cubital. - 6, 7, 8, Anal nervures.] - - [Illustration: FIG. 68.--_Nymphalis jason._ W. Africa. Upper and under - surface.] - - [Illustration: FIG. 69.--Larva and Pupa of _Apatura ilia_.] - - [Illustration: FIG. 70.--_Callithea sapphira._ Brazil.] - - The _Nymphalidae_ are by far the largest and most dominant family of - butterflies. In both sexes the forelegs are useless for walking (fig. - 63), the tarsal segments being absent and the short shins clothed with - long hairs, whence the name of brush-footed butterflies is often - applied to the family. The neuration of the wings resembles that found - among the Pieridae, but in the Nymphalidae the pupa, which has a - double nose-horn (fig. 65)--as in _Papilio_--is suspended from the - cremaster only, no girdling thread being present, or it lies simply on - the ground. The egg is elongate and sub-conical in form and ornamented - with numerous ribs, while the larva is usually protected by numerous - spines (fig. 64) arising from the segmental tubercles. To this family - belong our common gaily-coloured butterflies--the tortoiseshells, - peacock (fig. 65), admirals, fritillaries and emperors. In most cases - the bright colouring is confined to the upper surface of the wings, - the under-side being mottled and often inconspicuous. Most members of - the group Vanessidi--the peacock and tortoiseshells (_Vanessa_) and - the red admiral (_Pyrameis_) for example--hibernate in the imaginal - state. This large family is divided into several sub-families whose - characters may be briefly given, as they are considered to be distinct - families by many entomologists. The _Danainae_ (or _Euploeinae_, fig. - 66) have the anal nervures of the forewing arising from a common - stalk, the discoidal areolets in both wings closed, and the front feet - of the female thickened; their larvae are smooth with fleshy - processes. The danaine butterflies range over all the warmer parts of - the world, becoming most numerous in the eastern tropics, where - flourish the handsome purple _Euploeae_ whose males often have - "brands" on the wings; these insects are conspicuously marked and are - believed to be distasteful to birds and lizards. So are the South - American _Ithomiinae_, distinguished from the Danainae by the slender - feet of the females; the narrow winged, tawny _Acraeinae_, with simple - anal nervures, thick hairy palps and spiny larvae; and the - _Heliconiinae_ whose palps are compressed, scaly at the sides and - hairy in front. This last named sub-family is confined to the - Neotropical Region, while the Acraeinae are most numerous in the - Ethiopian. The _Nymphalinae_ include the British vanessids (fig. 65), - and a vast assemblage of exotic genera (figs. 68, 70), characterized - by the "open" discoidal areolets (fig. 67) owing to the absence of the - transverse "disco-cellular" nervules. In the _Morphinae_--including - some magnificent South American insects with deep or azure blue wings, - and a few rather dull-coloured Oriental genera--the areolets are - closed in the forewings and often in the hindwings. The larvae of the - Morphinae (fig. 71) are smooth or hairy with a curiously forked - tail-segment. A similar larva characterizes the South American - _Brassolinae_ or owl-butterflies--robust insects (figs. 72, 73) with - the areolets closed in both wings, which are adorned with large - "eye-spots" beneath. The _Satyrinae_, including our native browns and - the Alpine _Erebiae_, resemble the foregoing group in many respects of - structure, but the sub-costal nervure is greatly thickened at the base - (fig. 74). This sub-family is world-wide in its distribution. One - genus (_Oeneis_, fig. 75) is found in high northern latitudes, but - reappears in South America. The dark, spotted species of _Erebia_ are - familiar insects to travellers among the Alps; yet butterflies nearly - related to these Alpine insects occur in Patagonia, in South Africa - and in New Zealand. Such facts of distribution clearly show that - though the Nymphalidae have attained a high degree of specialization - among the Lepidoptera, some of their genera have a history which goes - back to a time when the distribution of land and water on the earth's - surface must have been very different from what it is to-day. - - [Illustration: FIG. 71.--Larva of _Amathusia phidippus_.] - - [Illustration: FIG. 72.--_Opsiphanes syme._ Brazil.] - - [Illustration: FIG. 73.--_Brassolis astyra._ Brazil.] - - [Illustration: After A. R. Grote, _Natural Science_, vol. 12 (J. M. - Dent & Co.). - - FIG. 74.--Neuration of wings in _Pararge_, a satyrid butterfly. - - 2, Sub-costal. - 3, Radial. - 4, Median. - 5, Cubital. - 7, 8, Anal nervures.] - - [Illustration: FIG. 75.--_Oeneis jutta._ Arctic Regions.] - - [Illustration: FIG. 76.--_Bia actorion._ Brazil.] - - BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The handsome Lepidoptera, with their interesting and - easily observed life-histories, have naturally attracted many - students, and the literature of the order is enormous. M. Malpighi's - treatise on the anatomy of the silkworm (_De Bombycibus_, London, - 1669) and P. Lyonnet's memoir on the Goat-caterpillar, are among the - earliest and most famous of entomological writings. W. F. Kirby's - _Handbook to the Order Lepidoptera_ (5 vols., London, 1894-1897) - should be consulted for references to the older systematic writers - such as Linnaeus, J. C. Fabricius, J. Hubner, P. Cramer, E. Doubleday - and W. C. Hewitson. Kirby's _Catalogues_ are also invaluable for the - systematist. For the jaws of the Lepidoptera see F. Darwin, _Quart. - Journ. Mic. Sci._ xv. (1875); E. Burgess, _Amer. Nat._ xiv. (1880); A. - Walter, _Jen. Zeits. f. Naturw._ xviii. (1885); W. Breitenbach, Ib. - xv. (1882); V. L. Kellogg, _Amer. Nat._ xxix. (1895). The last-named - deals also with wing structure, which is further described by A. - Spuler, _Zeits. wiss. Zool._ liii. (1892) and _Zool. Jahrb. Anat._ - viii. (1895); A. R. Grote, _Mitt. aus dem Roemer-Museum_ (Hildesheim, - 1896-1897); G. Enderlein, _Zool. Jahrb. Anat._ xvi. (1903), and many - others. For scales see A. G. Mayer, _Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool. Harvard_, - xxix. (1896). For internal anatomy W. H. Jackson, _Trans. Linn. Soc. - Zool._ (2) v. (1891), and W. Petersen, _Mem. Acad. Imp. Sci. St - Petersburg_ (8) ix. (1900). The early stages and transformations of - Lepidoptera are described by J. Gonin, _Bull. Soc. Vaud. Sci. Nat._ - xxx. (1894); E. B. Poulton, _Trans. Linn. Soc. Zool._ (2) v. (1891); - H. G. Dyar, _Ann. New York Acad. Sci._ viii. (1894); T. A. Chapman, - _Trans. Entom. Soc. Lond._ (1893), &c. For habits and life-relations - see A. Seitz, _Zool. Jahrb. Syst._ v., vii. (1890, 1894); A. Weismann, - _Studies in the Theory of Descent_ (London, 1882) and _Entomologist_, - xxix. (1896); F. Merrifield, _Trans. Entom. Soc. Lond._ (1890, 1893, - 1905); M. Standfuss, _Handbuch der palaarktischen - Gross-schmetterlinge_ (Jena, 1896); R. Trimen, _Proc. Ent. Soc. Lond._ - (1898); E. B. Poulton, _Colours of Animals_ (London, 1890); _Trans. - Entom. Soc._ (1892 and 1903), and _Journ. Linn. Soc. Zool._ xxvi. - (1898); F. E. Beddard, _Animal Coloration_ (London, 1892). For - distribution see H. J. Elwes, _Proc. Entom. Soc. Lond._ (1894); J. W. - Tutt, _Migration and Dispersal of Insects_ (London, 1902); Fossil - Lepidoptera, S. H. Scudder, _8th Rep. U.S. Geol. Survey_ (1889). Among - recent general works on the Lepidoptera, most of which contain - numerous references to the older literature, may be mentioned A. S. - Packard's unfinished work on the Bombycine Moths of N. America, _Mem. - Nat. Acad. Sci. Philadelphia_, vii. (1895), and _Mem. Acad. Sci. - Washington_, lx. (1905); D. Sharp's chapter in _Cambridge Nat. Hist._ - vi. (London, 1898); G. F. Hampson, _Moths of India_ (4 vols., London, - 1892-1896), and _Catalogue of the Lepidoptera Phalaenae_ (1895) and - onwards; S. H. Scudder, _Butterflies of New England_ (3 vols., - Cambridge, Mass., 1888-1889); W. J. Holland, _Butterfly Book_ (New - York, 1899). Works on the British Lepidoptera are numerous, for - example, those of H. T. Stainton (1851), C. G. Barrett (1893-1907), E. - Meyrick (1895), and J. W. Tutt (1899 and onwards). For recent general - systematic works, the student should consult the catalogues mentioned - above and the _Zoological Record_. The writings of O. Staudinger, E. - Schatz, C. Oberthur, K. Jordan, C. Aurivillius and P. Mabille may be - specially mentioned. (G. H. C.) - - - - -LEPIDUS, the name of a Roman patrician family in the Aemilian gens. - -1. MARCUS AEMILIUS LEPIDUS, one of the three ambassadors sent to Egypt -in 201 B.C. as guardians of the infant king Ptolemy V. He was consul in -187 and 175, censor 179, _pontifex maximus_ from 180 onwards, and was -six times chosen by the censors _princeps senatus_. He died in 152. He -distinguished himself in the war with Antiochus III. of Syria, and -against the Ligurians. He made the Via Aemilia from Ariminum to -Placentia, and led colonies to Mutina and Parma. - - Livy xl. 42-46, _epit._ 48; Polybius xvi. 34. - -2. MARCUS AEMILIUS LEPIDUS, surnamed PORCINA (probably from his personal -appearance), consul 137 B.C. Being sent to Spain to conduct the -Numantine war, he began against the will of the senate to attack the -Vaccaei. This enterprise was so unsuccessful that he was deprived of his -command in 136 and condemned to pay a fine. He was among the greatest of -the earlier Roman orators, and Cicero praises him for having introduced -the well-constructed sentence and even flow of language from Greek into -Roman oratory. - - Cicero, _Brutus_, 25, 27, 86, 97; Vell. Pat. ii. 10; Appian, _Hisp._ - 80-83; Livy, _epit._ 56. - -3. MARCUS AEMILIUS LEPIDUS, father of the triumvir. In 81 B.C. he was -praetor of Sicily, where he made himself detested by oppression and -extortion. In the civil wars he sided with Sulla and bought much of the -confiscated property of the Marian partisans. Afterwards he became -leader of the popular party, and with the help of Pompey was elected -consul for 78, in spite of the opposition of Sulla. When the dictator -died, Lepidus tried in vain to prevent the burial of his body in the -Campus Martius, and to alter the constitution established by him. His -colleague Lutatius Catulus found a tribune to place his veto on -Lepidus's proposals; and the quarrel between the two parties in the -state became so acute that the senate made the consuls swear not to take -up arms. Lepidus was then ordered by the senate to go to his province, -Transalpine Gaul; but he stopped in Etruria on his way from the city and -began to levy an army. He was declared a public enemy early in 77, and -forthwith marched against Rome. A battle took place in the Campus -Martius, Pompey and Catulus commanding the senatorial army, and Lepidus -was defeated. He sailed to Sardinia, in order to put himself into -connexion with Sertorius in Spain, but here also suffered a repulse, and -died shortly afterwards. - - Plutarch, _Sulla_, 34, 38, _Pompey_, 15; Appian, _B.C._ i. 105, 107; - Livy, _epit._ 90; Florus iii. 23; Cicero, _Balbus_, 15. - -4. MARCUS AEMILIUS LEPIDUS, the triumvir. He joined the party of Julius -Caesar in the civil wars, and was by the dictator thrice nominated -_magister equitum_ and raised to the consulship in 46 B.C. He was a man -of great wealth and influence, and it was probably more on this ground -than on account of his ability that Caesar raised him to such honours. -In the beginning of 44 B.C. he was sent to Gallia Narbonensis, but -before he had left the city with his army Caesar was murdered. Lepidus, -as commander of the only army near Rome, became a man of great -importance in the troubles which followed. Taking part with Marcus -Antonius (Mark Antony), he joined in the reconciliation which the latter -effected with the senatorial party, and afterwards sided with him when -open war broke out. Antony, after his defeat at Mutina, joined Lepidus -in Gaul, and in August 43 Octavian (afterwards the emperor Augustus), -who had forced the senate to make him consul, effected an arrangement -with Antony and Lepidus, and their triumvirate was organized at Bononia. -Antony and Octavian soon reduced Lepidus to an inferior position. His -province of Gaul and Spain was taken from him; and, though he was -included in the triumvirate when it was renewed in 37, his power was -only nominal. He made an effort in the following year to regain some -reality of power, conquered part of Sicily, and claimed the whole island -as his province, but Octavian found means to sap the fidelity of his -soldiers, and he was obliged to supplicate for his life. He was allowed -to retain his fortune and the office of _pontifex maximus_ to which he -had been appointed in 44, but had to retire into private life. According -to Suetonius (_Augustus_, 16) he died at Circeii in the year 13. - - See ROME: _History_ ii., "The Republic," Period C, _ad fin._; Appian, - _Bell. Civ._ ii.-v.; Dio Cassius xli.-xlix.; Vell. Pat. ii. 64, 80; - Orelli's _Onomasticon_ to Cicero. - - - - -LE PLAY, PIERRE GUILLAUME FREDERIC (1806-1882), French engineer and -economist, was born at La Riviere-Saint-Sauveur (Calvados) on the 11th -of April 1806, the son of a custom-house official. He was educated at -the Ecole Polytechnique, and from there passed into the State Department -of Mines. In 1834 he was appointed head of the permanent committee of -mining statistics, and in 1840 engineer-in-chief and professor of -metallurgy at the school of mines, where he became inspector in 1848. -For nearly a quarter of a century Le Play spent his vacations travelling -in the various countries of Europe, and collected a vast quantity of -material bearing upon the social condition of the working classes. In -1855 he published _Les Ouvriers europeens_, which comprised a series of -thirty-six monographs on the budgets of typical families selected from -the most diverse industries. The Academie des Sciences conferred on him -the Montyon prize. Napoleon III., who held him in high esteem, entrusted -him with the organization of the Exhibition of 1855, and appointed him -counsellor of state, commissioner general of the Exhibition of 1867, -senator of the empire and grand officer of the Legion of Honour. He died -in Paris on the 5th of April 1882. - - In 1856 Le Play founded the _Societe internationale des etudes - pratiques d'Economie sociale_, which has devoted its energies - principally to forwarding social studies on the lines laid down by its - founder. The journal of the society, _La Reforme sociale_, founded in - 1881, is published fortnightly. Other works of Le Play are _La Reforme - sociale_ (2 vols., 1864; 7th ed., 3 vols., 1887); _L'Organisation de - la famille_ (1871); _La Constitution de l'Angleterre_ (in - collaboration with M. Delaire, 1875). See article in _Harvard - Quarterly Journal of Economics_ (June 1890), by H. Higgs. - - - - -LEPROSY (_Lepra Arabum_, _Elephantiasis Graecorum_, _Aussatz_, -_Spedalskhed_), the greatest disease of medieval Christendom, -identified, on the one hand, with a disease endemic from the earliest -historical times (1500 B.C.) in the delta and valley of the Nile, and, -on the other hand, with a disease now common in Asia, Africa, South -America, the West Indies, and certain isolated localities of Europe. An -authentic representation of the leprosy of the middle ages exists in a -picture at Munich by Holbein, painted at Augsburg in 1516; St Elizabeth -gives bread and wine to a prostrate group of lepers, including a bearded -man whose face is covered with large round reddish knobs, an old woman -whose arm is covered with brown blotches, the leg swathed in bandages -through which matter oozes, the bare knee also marked with discoloured -spots, and on the head a white rag or plaster, and, thirdly, a young man -whose neck and face (especially round the somewhat hairless eyebrows) -are spotted with brown patches of various size. It is conjectured by -Virchow that the painter had made studies of lepers from the -leper-houses then existing at Augsburg. These external characters of -medieval leprosy agree with the descriptions of it by the ancients, and -with the pictures of modern leprosy given by Danielssen and Boeck for -Norway, by various authors for sporadic European cases, by Anderson for -Malacca, by Carter for India, by Wolff for Madeira and by Hillis for -British Guiana. There has been some confusion in the technical naming of -the disease; it is called _Elephantiasis_ (_Leontiasis_, _Satyriasis_) -by the Greek writers, and _Lepra_ by the Arabians. - -Leprosy is now included among the parasitic diseases (see PARASITIC -DISEASES). The cause is believed to be infection by the bacillus leprae, -a specific microbe discovered by Armauer Hansen in 1871. It is worthy of -note that tuberculosis is very common among lepers, and especially -attacks the serous membranes. The essential character of leprosy is a -great multiplication of cells, resembling the "granulation cells" of -lupus and syphilis, in the tissues affected, which become infiltrated -and thickened, with degeneration and destruction of their normal -elements. The new cells vary in size from ordinary leucocytes to giant -cells three or four times larger. The bacilli are found in these cells, -sometimes in small numbers, sometimes in masses. The structures most -affected are the skin, nerves, mucous membranes and lymphatic glands. - -The symptoms arise from the anatomical changes indicated, and they vary -according to the parts attacked. Three types of disease are usually -described--(1) nodular, (2) smooth or anaesthetic, (3) mixed. In the -first the skin is chiefly affected, in the second the nerves; the third -combines the features of both. It should be understood that this -classification is purely a matter of convenience, and is based on the -relative prominence of symptoms, which may be combined in all degrees. -The incubation period of leprosy--assuming it to be due to infection--is -unknown, but cases are on record which can only be explained on the -hypothesis that it may be many years. The invasion is usually slow and -intermittent. There are occasional feverish attacks, with the usual -constitutional disturbance and other slight premonitory signs, such as -changes in the colour of the skin and in its sensibility. Sometimes, but -rarely, the onset is acute and the characteristic symptoms develop -rapidly. These begin with an eruption which differs markedly according -to the type of disease. In the nodular form dark red or coppery patches -appear on the face, backs of the hands, and feet or on the body; they -are generally symmetrical, and vary from the size of a shilling upwards. -They come with one of the feverish attacks and fade away when it has -gone, but only to return. After a time infiltration and thickening of -the skin become noticeable, and the nodules appear. They are lumpy -excrescences, at first pink but changing to brown. Thickening of the -skin of the face produces a highly characteristic appearance, recalling -the aspect of a lion. The tissues of the eye undergo degenerative -changes; the mucous membrane of the nose and throat is thickened, -impairing the breathing and the voice; the eyebrows fall off; the ears -and nose become thickened and enlarged. As the disease progresses the -nodules tend to break down and ulcerate, leaving open sores. The -patient, whose condition is extremely wretched, gradually becomes -weaker, and eventually succumbs to exhaustion or is carried off by some -intercurrent disease, usually inflammation of the kidneys or -tuberculosis. A severe case may end fatally in two years, but, as a -rule, when patients are well cared for the illness lasts several years. -There is often temporary improvement, but complete recovery from this -form of leprosy rarely or never occurs. The smooth type is less severe -and more chronic. The eruption consists of patches of dry, slightly -discoloured skin, not elevated above the surface. These patches are the -result of morbid changes affecting the cutaneous nerves, and are -accompanied by diminished sensibility over the areas of skin affected. -At the same time certain nerve trunks in the arm and leg, and -particularly the ulnar nerve, are found to be thickened. In the further -stages the symptoms are those of increasing degeneration of the nerves. -Bullae form on the skin, and the discoloured patches become enlarged; -sensation is lost, muscular power diminished, with wasting, contraction -of tendons, and all the signs of impaired nutrition. The nails become -hard and clawed; perforating ulcers of the feet are common; portions of -the extremities, including whole fingers and toes, die and drop off. -Later, paralysis becomes more marked, affecting the muscles of the face -and limbs. The disease runs a very chronic course, and may last twenty -or thirty years. Recovery occasionally occurs. In the mixed form, which -is probably the most common, the symptoms described are combined in -varying degrees. Leprosy may be mistaken for syphilis, tuberculosis, -ainhum (an obscure disease affecting negroes, in which the little toe -drops off), and several affections of the skin. Diagnosis is established -by the presence of the bacillus leprae in the nodules or bullae, and by -the signs of nerve degeneration exhibited in the anaesthetic patches of -skin and the thickened nerve trunks. - -In former times leprosy was often confounded with other skin diseases, -especially psoriasis and leucoderma; the white leprosy of the Old -Testament was probably a form of the latter. But there is no doubt that -true leprosy has existed from time immemorial. Prescriptions for -treating it have been found in Egypt, to which a date of about 4600 B.C. -is assigned. The disease is described by Aristotle and by later Greek -writers, but not by Hippocrates, though leprosy derives its name from -his "lepra" or "scaly" disease, which was no doubt psoriasis. In ancient -times it was widely prevalent throughout Asia as well as in Egypt, and -among the Greeks and Romans. In the middle ages it became extensively -diffused in Europe, and in some countries--France, England, Germany and -Spain--every considerable town had its leper-house, in which the -patients were segregated. The total number of such houses has been -reckoned at 19,000. The earliest one in England was established at -Canterbury in 1096, and the latest at Highgate in 1472. At one time -there were at least 95 religious hospitals for lepers in Great Britain -and 14 in Ireland (Sir James Simpson). During the 15th century the -disease underwent a remarkable diminution. It practically disappeared in -the civilized parts of Europe, and the leper-houses were given up. It is -a singular fact that this diminution was coincident with the great -extension of syphilis (see PROSTITUTION). The general disappearance of -leprosy at this time is the more unintelligible because it did not take -effect everywhere. In Scotland the disease lingered until the 19th -century, and in some other parts it has never died out at all. At the -present time it still exists in Norway, Iceland, along the shores of the -Baltic, in South Russia, Greece, Turkey, several Mediterranean islands, -the Riviera, Spain and Portugal. Isolated cases occasionally occur -elsewhere, but they are usually imported. The Teutonic races seem to be -especially free from the taint. Leper asylums are maintained in Norway -and at two or three places in the Baltic, San Remo, Cyprus, -Constantinople, Alicante and Lisbon. Except in Spain, where some -increase has taken place, the disease is dying out. The number of lepers -in Norway was 3000 in 1856, but has now dwindled to a few hundreds. They -are no longer numerous in any part of Europe. On the other hand, leprosy -prevails extensively throughout Asia, from the Mediterranean to Japan, -and from Arabia to Siberia. It is also found in nearly all parts of -Africa, particularly on the east and west coasts near the equator. In -South Africa it has greatly increased, and attacks the Dutch as well as -natives. Leper asylums have been established at Robben Island near Cape -Town, and in Tembuland. In Australia, where it was introduced by -Chinese, it has also spread to Europeans. In New Zealand the Maoris are -affected; but the amount of leprosy is not large in either country. A -much more remarkable case is that of the Hawaiian Islands, where the -disease is believed to have been imported by Chinese. It was unknown -before 1848, but in 1866 the number of lepers had risen to 230 and in -1882 to 4000 (Liveing). All attempts to stop it by segregating lepers in -the settlement of Molokai appear to have been fruitless. In the West -Indies and on the American continent, again, leprosy has a wide -distribution. It is found in nearly all parts of South and Central -America, and in certain parts of North America--namely, Louisiana, -California (among Chinese), Minnesota, Wisconsin and North and South -Dakota (Norwegians), New Brunswick (French Canadians). - -It is difficult to find any explanation of the geographical distribution -and behaviour of leprosy. It seems to affect islands and the sea-coast -more than the interior, and to some extent this gives colour to the old -belief that it is caused or fostered by a fish diet, which has been -revived by Mr Jonathan Hutchinson, but is not generally accepted. -Leprosy is found in interiors where fish is not an article of diet. -Climate, again, has obviously little, if any, influence. The theory of -heredity is equally at fault, whether it be applied to account for the -spread of the disease by transmission or for its disappearance by the -elimination of susceptible persons. The latter is the manner in which -heredity might be expected to act, if at all, for lepers are remarkably -sterile. But we see the disease persisting among the Eastern races, who -have been continuously exposed to its selective influence from the -earliest times, while it has disappeared among the Europeans, who were -affected very much later. The opposite theory of hereditary transmission -from parents to offspring is also at variance with many observed facts. -Leprosy is very rarely congenital, and no cases have occurred among the -descendants to the third generation of 160 Norwegian lepers settled in -the United States. Again, if hereditary transmission were an effective -influence, the disease could hardly have died down so rapidly as it did -in Europe in the 15th century. Then we have the theory of contagion. -There is no doubt that human beings are inoculable with leprosy, and -that the disease may be communicated by close contact. Cases have been -recorded which prove it conclusively; for instance, that of a man who -had never been out of the British islands, but developed leprosy after -sharing for a time the bed and clothes of his brother, who had -contracted the disease in the West Indies. Some of the facts noted, such -as the extensive dissemination of the disease in Europe during the -middle ages, and its subsequent rapid decline, suggest the existence of -some unknown epidemic factor. Poverty and insanitation are said to go -with the prevalence of leprosy, but they go with every malady, and there -is nothing to show that they have any special influence. Vaccination has -been blamed for spreading it, and a few cases of communication by -arm-to-arm inoculation are recorded. The influence of this factor, -however, can only be trifling. Vaccination is a new thing, leprosy a -very old one; where there is most vaccination there is no leprosy, and -where there is most leprosy there is little or no vaccination. In India -78% of the lepers are unvaccinated, and in Canton since vaccination was -introduced leprosy has declined (Cantlie). On the whole we must conclude -that there is still much to be learnt about the conditions which govern -the prevalence of leprosy. - -With regard to prevention, the isolation of patients is obviously -desirable, especially in the later stages, when open sores may -disseminate the bacilli; but complete segregation, which has been urged, -is regarded as impracticable by those who have had most experience in -leprous districts. Scrupulous cleanliness should be exercised by persons -attending on lepers or brought into close contact with them. In -treatment the most essential thing is general care of the health, with -good food and clothing. The tendency of modern therapeutics to attach -increasing importance to nutrition in various morbid states, and notably -in diseases of degeneration, such as tuberculosis and affections of the -nervous system, is borne out by experience in leprosy, which has -affinities to both; and this suggests the application to it of modern -methods for improving local as well as general nutrition by physical -means. A large number of internal remedies have been tried with varying -results; those most recommended are chaulmoogra oil, arsenic, salicylate -of soda, salol and chlorate of potash. Vergueira uses Collargol -intravenously and subcutaneously, and states that in all the cases -treated there was marked improvement, and hair that had been lost grew -again. Calmette's Anterenene injected subcutaneously has been followed -by good results. Deycke together with R. Bey isolated from a -non-ulcerated leprous nodule a streptothrix which they call S. -leproides. Its relation to the bacillus is uncertain. They found that -injections of this organism had marked curative effects, due to a -neutral fat which they named "Nastin." Injections of Nastin together -with Benzoyl Chloride directly act on the lepra bacilli. Some cases were -unaffected by this treatment, but with others the effect was marvellous. -Dr W. A. Pusey of Chicago uses applications of carbon dioxide snow with -good effect. In the later stages of the disease there is a wide field -for surgery, which is able to give much relief to sufferers. - - LITERATURE.--For history and geographical distribution, see Hirsch, - _Handbuch der historisch-geographischen Pathologie_ (1st ed., - Erlangen, 1860, with exhaustive literature). For pathology, Virchow, - _Die krankhaften Geschwulste_ (Berlin, 1863-1867), vol. ii. For - clinical histories, R. Liveing, _Elephantiasis Graecorum or True - Leprosy_ (London, 1873), ch. iv. For medieval leprosy--in Germany, - Virchow, in _Virchow's Archiv_, five articles, vols. xviii.-xx. - (1860-1861); in the Netherlands, Israels, in _Nederl. Tijdschr. voor - Geneeskunde_, vol. i. (1857); in Britain, J. Y. Simpson, _Edin. Med. - and Surg. Journ._, three articles, vols. lxvi. and lxvii. (1846-1847). - Treatises on modern leprosy in particular localities: Danielssen and - Boeck (Norway), _Traite de la Spedalskhed_, with atlas of twenty-four - coloured plates (Paris, 1848); A. F. Anderson, _Leprosy as met with in - the Straits Settlements_, coloured photographs with explanatory notes - (London, 1872); H. Vandyke Carter (Bombay), _On Leprosy and - Elephantiasis_, with coloured plates (London, 1874); Hillis, _Leprosy - in British Guiana_, an account of West Indian leprosy, with twenty-two - coloured plates (London, 1882). See also the dermatological works of - Hebra, Erasmus Wilson, Bazin and Jonathan Hutchinson (also the - latter's letters to _The Times_ of the 11th of April and the 25th of - May 1903); _British Medical Journal_ (April 1, 1908); _American - Journal of Dermatology_ (Dec. 1907); _The Practitioner_ (February - 1910). An important early work is that of P. G. Hensler, _Vom - abendlandischen Aussatze im Mittelalter_ (Hamburg, 1790). - - - - -LEPSIUS, KARL RICHARD (1810-1884), German Egyptologist, was born at -Naumburg-am-Saale on the 23rd of December 1810, and in 1823 was sent to -the "Schulpforta" school near Naumburg, where he came under the -influence of Professor Lange. In 1829 he entered the university of -Leipzig, and one year later that of Gottingen, where, under the -influence of Otfried Muller, he finally decided to devote himself to the -archaeological side of philology. From Gottingen he proceeded to Berlin, -where he graduated in 1833 as doctor with the thesis _De tabulis -Eugubinis_. In the same year he proceeded to study in Paris, and was -commissioned by the duc de Luynes to collect material from the Greek and -Latin writers for his work on the weapons of the ancients. In 1834 he -took the Volney prize with his _Palaographie als Mittel der -Sprachforschung_. Befriended by Bunsen and Humboldt, Lepsius threw -himself with great ardour into Egyptological studies, which, since the -death of Champollion in 1832, had attracted no scholar of eminence and -weight. Here Lepsius found an ample field for his powers. After four -years spent in visiting the Egyptian collections of Italy, Holland and -England, he returned to Germany, where Humboldt and Bunsen united their -influence to make his projected visit to Egypt a scientific expedition -with royal support. For three years Lepsius and his party explored the -whole of the region in which monuments of ancient Egyptian and Ethiopian -occupation are found, from the Sudan above Khartum to the Syrian coast. -At the end of 1845 they returned home, and the results of the -expedition, consisting of casts, drawings and squeezes of inscriptions -and scenes, maps and plans collected with the utmost thoroughness, as -well as antiquities and papyri, far surpassed expectations. In 1846 he -married Elisabeth Klein, and his appointment to a professorship in -Berlin University in the following August afforded him the leisure -necessary for the completion of his work. In 1859 the twelve volumes of -his vast _Denkmaler aus Agypten und Athiopien_ were finished, -supplemented later by a text prepared from the note-books of the -expedition; they comprise its entire archaeological, palaeographical and -historical results. In 1866 Lepsius again went to Egypt, and discovered -the famous Decree of Tanis or Table of Canopus, an inscription of the -same character as the Rosetta Stone, in hieroglyphic, demotic and Greek. -In 1873 he was appointed keeper of the Royal Library, Berlin, which, -like the Berlin Museum, owes much to his care. About ten years later he -was appointed Geheimer Oberregierungsrath. He died at Berlin on the 10th -of July 1884. Besides the colossal _Denkmaler_ and other publications of -texts such as the _Todtenbuch der Agypter_ (_Book of the Dead_, 1842) -his other works, amongst which may be specially named his _Konigsbuch -der Agypter_ (1858) and _Chronologie der Agypter_ (1849), are -characterized by a quality of permanence that is very remarkable in a -subject of such rapid development as Egyptology. In spite of his -scientific training in philology Lepsius left behind few translations of -inscriptions or discussions of the meanings of words: by preference he -attacked historical and archaeological problems connected with the -ancient texts, the alphabet, the metrology, the names of metals and -minerals, the chronology, the royal names. On the other hand one of his -latest works, the _Nubische Grammatik_ (1880), is an elaborate grammar -of the then little-known Nubian language, preceded by a linguistic -sketch of the African continent. Throughout his life he profited by the -gift of attaching to himself the right men, whether as patrons or, like -Weidenbach and Stern, as assistants. Lepsius was a fine specimen of the -best type of German scholar. - - See _Richard Lepsius_, by Georg Ebers (New York, 1887), and art. - EGYPT, section _Exploration and Research_. - - - - -LEPTINES, an Athenian orator, known as the proposer of a law that no -Athenian, whether citizen or resident alien (with the sole exception of -the descendants of Harmodius and Aristogeiton), should be exempt from -the public charges ([Greek: leitourgiai]) for the state festivals. The -object was to provide funds for the festivals and public spectacles at a -time when both the treasury and the citizens generally were short of -money. It was further asserted that many of the recipients of immunity -were really unworthy of it. Against this law Demosthenes delivered (354 -B.C.) his well-known speech _Against Leptines_ in support of the -proposal of Ctesippus that all the cases of immunity should be carefully -investigated. Great stress is laid on the reputation for ingratitude and -breach of faith which the abolition of immunities would bring upon the -state. Besides, the law itself had been passed unconstitutionally, for -an existing law confirmed these privileges, and by the constitution of -Solon no law could be enacted until any existing law which it -contravened had been repealed. The law was probably condemned. Nothing -further is known of Leptines. - - See the edition of the speech by J. E. Sandys (1890). - - - - -LEPTIS, the name of two towns in ancient Africa. The first, Leptis Magna -([Greek: Leptimagna]), the modern Lebda, was in Tripolitana between -Tripolis and Mesrata at the mouth of the Cinyps; the second, Leptis -Parva ([Greek: Leptis he mikra]), known also as Leptiminus or Leptis -minor, the modern Lamta, was a small harbour of Byzacena between Ruspina -(Monastir) and Thapsus (Dimas). - -1. LEPTIS MAGNA was one of the oldest and most flourishing of the -Phoenician emporia established on the coasts of the greater Syrtis, the -chief commercial entrepot for the interior of the African continent. It -was founded by the Sidonians (Sallust, _Jug._ 78) who were joined later -by people of Tyre (Pliny, _Hist. Nat._ v. 17). Herodotus enlarges on the -fertility of its territory (iv. 175, v. 42). It was tributary to -Carthage to which it paid a contribution of a talent a day (Livy xxxiv. -62). After the Second Punic War Massinissa made himself master of it -(Sallust, _Jug._ 78; Livy xxxiv. 62; Appian viii. 106). During the -Jugurthine War it appealed for protection to Rome (Sallust, _Jug._ 78). -Though captured and plundered by Juba, it maintained its allegiance to -Rome, supported the senatorial cause, received Cato the younger with the -remains of the Pompeian forces after Pharsalus 48 B.C. After his victory -Julius Caesar imposed upon it an annual contribution of 300,000 measures -of oil. Nevertheless, it preserved its position as a free city governed -by its own magistrates (_C.I.L._ viii. 7). It received the title of -_municipium_ (_C.I.L._ viii. 8), and was subsequently made a _colonia_ -by Trajan (_C.I.L._ viii. 10). Septimius Severus, who was born there, -beautified the place and conferred upon it the _Ius Italicum_. Leptis -Magna was the limit of the Roman state, the last station of the _limes -Tripolitanus_; hence, especially during the last centuries of the -Empire, it suffered much from the Nomads of the desert, the Garamantes, -the Austuriani and the Levathae (Ammian. Marc. xxviii. 6; Procop. _De -Aedif._ vi. 4). Its commerce declined and its harbour silted up. -Justinian made a vain attempt to rebuild it (Procop. _ibid._; Ch. Diehl, -_L'Afrique byzantine_, p. 388). It was the seat of a bishopric, but no -mention is made of its bishops after 462. - -Leptis Magna had a citadel which protected the commercial city which was -generally called Neapolis, the situation of which may be compared with -that of Carthage at the foot of Byrsa. Its ruins are still imposing; -remains of ramparts and docks, a theatre, a circus and various buildings -of the Roman period still exist. Inscriptions show that the current -pronunciation of the name was Lepcis, Lepcitana, instead of Leptis, -Leptitana (Tissot, _Geogr. comp. de la prov. d'Afrique_, ii. 219; -Clermont-Ganneau, _Recueil d'archeologie orientale_, vi. 41; _Comptes -rendus de l'Acad. des Inscr. et B.-Lettres_, 1903, p. 333; Cagnat, _C.R. -Acad._, 1905, p. 531). The coins of Leptis Magna, like the majority of -the emporia in the neighbourhood, present a series from the Punic -period. They are of bronze with the legend [Hebrew: lepqi] (_Lepqi_). -They have on one side the head of Bacchus, Hercules or Cybele, and on -the other various emblems of these deities. From the Roman period we -have also coins bearing the heads of Augustus, Livia and Tiberius, which -still have the name of the town in Neo-Punic script (Lud. Muller, -_Numism. de l'anc. Afrique_, ii. 3). - - The ruins of Leptis Magna have been visited by numerous travellers - since the time of Frederick William and Henry William Beechey - (_Travels_, pp. 51 and 74) and Heinrich Barth (_Wanderungen_, pp. 306, - 360); they are described by Ch. Tissot (_Geogr. comp._ ii. 219 et - seq.); Cl. Perroud, _De Syrticis emporiis_, p. 33 (Paris, 1881, in - 8 deg.); see also a description in the New York journal, _The Nation_ - (1877), vol. xxvii. No. 683. M. Mehier de Mathuisieulx explored the - site afresh in 1901; his account is inserted in the _Nouvelles - Archives des missions_, x. 245-277; cf. vol. xii. See also J. Toutain, - "Le Limes Tripolitanus en Tripolitaine," in the _Bulletin - archeologique au comite des travaux historiques_ (1905). - -2. LEPTIS PARVA (Lamta), 7(1/2) m. from Monastir, which is often -confused by modern writers with Leptis Magna in their interpretations of -ancient texts (Tissot, _Geogr. comp._ ii. 169), was, according to the -_Tabula Peutingeriana_, 18 m. south of Hadrumetum. Evidently Phoenician -in origin like Leptis Magna, it was in the Punic period of comparatively -slight importance. Nevertheless, it had fortifications, and the French -engineer, A. Daux, has discovered a probable line of ramparts. Like its -neighbour Hadrumetum, Leptis Parva declared for Rome after the last -Punic War. Also after the fall of Carthage in 146 it preserved its -autonomy and was declared a _civitas libera et immunis_ (Appian, -_Punica_, 94; _C.I.L._ i. 200; _De bell. Afric._ c. xii.). Julius Caesar -made it the base of his operations before the battle of Thapsus in 46 -(Ch. Tissot, _Geogr. comp._ ii. 728). Under the Empire Leptis Parva -became extremely prosperous; its bishops appeared in the African -councils from 258 onwards. In Justinian's reorganization of Africa we -find that Leptis Parva was with Capsa one of the two residences of the -_Dux Byzacenae_ (Tissot, _op. cit._ p. 171). The town had coins under -Augustus and Tiberius. On the obverse is the imperial effigy with a -Latin legend, and on the reverse the Greek legend [Greek: LEPTIS] with -the bust of Mercury (Lud. Muller, _Numism. de l'anc. Afrique_, ii. 49). -The ruins extend along the sea-coast to the north-west of Lemta; the -remains of docks, the amphitheatre and the acropolis can be -distinguished; a Christian cemetery has furnished tombs adorned with -curious mosaics. - - See _Comptes rendus de l'Acad. des Inscrip. et B.-Lettres_ (1883), p. - 189; Cagnat and Saladin, "Notes d'archeol. tunisiennes," in the - _Bulletin monumental_ of 1884; _Archives des missions_, xii. 111; - Cagnat, _Explorations archeol. en Tunisie_, 3^me fasc. pp. 9-16, and - _Tour du monde_ (1881), i. 292; Saladin, _Rapport sur une mission en - Tunisie_ (1886), pp. 9-20; _Bulletin archeol. du comite de travaux - historiques_ (1895), pp. 69-71 (inscriptions of Lamta); _Bulletin de - la Soc. archeol. de Sousse_ (1905; plan of the ruins of Lamta). - (E. B.*) - - - - -LE PUY, or LE PUY EN VELAY, a town of south-eastern France, capital of -the department of Haute-Loire, 90 m. S.W. of Lyons on the Paris-Lyon -railway. Pop. (1906) town, 17,291; commune, 21,420. Le Puy rises in the -form of an amphitheatre from a height of 2050 ft. above sea-level upon -Mont Anis, a hill that divides the left bank of the Dolezon from the -right bank of the Borne (a rapid stream joining the Loire 3 m. below). -From the new town, which lies east and west in the valley of the -Dolezon, the traveller ascends the old feudal and ecclesiastical town -through narrow steep streets, paved with pebbles of lava, to the -cathedral commanded by the fantastic pinnacle of Mont Corneille. Mont -Corneille, which is 433 ft. above the Place de Breuil (in the lower -town), is a steep rock of volcanic breccia, surmounted by an iron statue -of the Virgin (53 ft. high) cast, after a model by Bonassieux, out of -guns taken at Sebastopol. Another statue, that of Msgr de Morlhon, -bishop of Le Puy, also sculptured by Bonassieux, faces that of the -Virgin. From the platform of Mont Corneille a magnificent panoramic view -is obtained of the town and of the volcanic mountains, which make this -region one of the most interesting parts of France. - -The Romanesque cathedral (Notre-Dame), dating chiefly from the first -half of the 12th century, has a particoloured facade of white sandstone -and black volcanic breccia, which is reached by a flight of sixty steps, -and consists of three tiers, the lowest composed of three high arcades -opening into the porch, which extends beneath the first bays of the -nave; above are three windows lighting the nave; and these in turn are -surmounted by three gables, two of which, those to the right and the -left, are of open work. The staircase continues within the porch, where -it divides, leading on the left to the cloister, on the right into the -church. The doorway of the south transept is sheltered by a fine -Romanesque porch. The isolated bell-tower (184 ft.), which rises behind -the choir in seven storeys, is one of the most beautiful examples of the -Romanesque transition period. The bays of the nave are covered in by -octagonal cupolas, the central cupola forming a lantern. The choir and -transepts are barrel-vaulted. Much veneration is paid to a small image -of the Virgin on the high altar, a modern copy of the medieval image -destroyed at the Revolution. The cloister, to the north of the choir, is -striking, owing to its variously-coloured materials and elegant shafts. -Viollet-le-Duc considered one of its galleries to belong to the oldest -known type of cathedral cloister (8th or 9th century). Connected with -the cloister are remains of fortifications of the 13th century, by which -it was separated from the rest of the city. Near the cathedral the -baptistery of St John (11th century), built on the foundations of a -Roman building, is surrounded by walls and numerous remains of the -period, partly uncovered by excavations. The church of St Lawrence (14th -century) contains the tomb and statue of Bertrand du Guesclin, whose -ashes were afterwards carried to St Denis. - -Le Puy possesses fragmentary remains of its old line of fortifications, -among them a machicolated tower, which has been restored, and a few -curious old houses dating from the 12th to the 17th century. In front of -the hospital there is a fine medieval porch under which a street passes. -Of the modern monuments the statue of Marie Joseph Paul, marquis of La -Fayette, and a fountain in the Place de Breuil, executed in marble, -bronze and syenite, may be specially mentioned. The museum, named after -Charles Crozatier, a native sculptor and metal-worker to whose -munificence it principally owes its existence, contains antiquities, -engravings, a collection of lace, and ethnographical and natural history -collections. Among the curiosities of Le Puy should be noted the church -of St Michel d'Aiguilhe, beside the gate of the town, perched on an -isolated rock like Mont Corneille, the top of which is reached by a -staircase of 271 steps. The church dates from the end of the 10th -century and its chancel is still older. The steeple is of the same type -as that of the cathedral. Three miles from Le Puy are the ruins of the -Chateau de Polignac, one of the most important feudal strongholds of -France. - -Le Puy is the seat of a bishopric, a prefect and a court of assizes, and -has tribunals of first instance and of commerce, a board of trade -arbitration, a chamber of commerce, and a branch of the Bank of France. -Its educational institutions include ecclesiastical seminaries, lycees -and training colleges for both sexes and municipal industrial schools of -drawing, architecture and mathematics applied to arts and industries. -The principal manufacture is that of lace and guipure (in woollen, -linen, cotton, silk and gold and silver threads), and distilling, -leather-dressing, malting and the manufacture of chocolate and cloth are -carried on. Cattle, woollens, grain and vegetables are the chief -articles of trade. - - It is not known whether Le Puy existed previously to the Roman - invasion. Towards the end of the 4th or beginning of the 5th century - it became the capital of the country of the Vellavi, at which period - the bishopric, originally at Revession, now St Paulien, was - transferred hither. Gregory of Tours speaks of it by the name of - Anicium, because a chapel "ad Deum" had been built on the mountain, - whence the name of Mont Adidon or Anis, which it still retains. In the - 10th century it was called Podium Sanctae Mariae, whence Le Puy. In - the middle ages there was a double enclosure, one for the cloister, - the other for the town. The sanctuary of Notre Dame was much - frequented by pilgrims, and the city grew famous and populous. - Rivalries between the bishops who held directly of the see of Rome and - had the right of coining money, and the lords of Polignac, revolts of - the town against the royal authority, and the encroachments of the - feudal superiors on municipal prerogatives often disturbed the quiet - of the town. The Saracens in the 8th century, the Routiers in the - 12th, the English in the 14th, the Burgundians in the 15th, - successively ravaged the neighbourhood. Le Puy sent the flower of its - chivalry to the Crusades in 1096, and Raymond d'Aiguille, called - d'Agiles, one of its sons, was their historian. Many councils and - various assemblies of the states of Languedoc met within its walls; - popes and sovereigns, among the latter Charlemagne and Francis I., - visited its sanctuary. Pestilence and the religious wars put an end to - its prosperity. Long occupied by the Leaguers, it did not submit to - Henry IV. until many years after his accession. - - - - -LERDO DE TEJADA, SEBASTIAN (1825-1889), president of Mexico, was born at -Jalapa on the 25th of April 1825. He was educated as a lawyer and became -a member of the supreme court. He became known as a liberal leader and a -supporter of President Juarez. He was minister of foreign affairs for -three months in 1857, and became president of the Chamber of Deputies in -1861. During the French intervention and the reign of the emperor -Maximilian he continued loyal to the patriotic party, and had an active -share in conducting the national resistance. He was minister of foreign -affairs to President Juarez, and he showed an implacable resolution in -carrying out the execution of Maximilian at Queretaro. When Juarez died -in 1872 Lerdo succeeded him in office in the midst of a confused civil -war. He achieved some success in pacifying the country and began the -construction of railways. He was re-elected on the 24th of July 1876, -but was expelled in January of the following year by Porfirio Diaz. He -had made himself unpopular by the means he took to secure his -re-election and by his disposition to limit state rights in favour of a -strongly centralized government. He fled to the United States and died -in obscurity at New York in 1889. - - See H. H. Bancroft, _Pacific States_, vol. 9 (San Francisco, - 1882-1890). - - - - -LERICI, a village of Liguria, Italy, situated on the N.E. side of the -Gulf of Spezia, about 12 m. E.S.E. of Spezia, and 4 m. W.S.W. of Sarzana -by road, 17 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901) 9326. Its small harbour is -guarded by an old castle, said to have been built by Tancred; in the -middle ages it was the chief place on the gulf. S. Terenzo, a hamlet -belonging to Lerici, was the residence of Shelley during his last days. -Farther north-west is the Bay of Pertusola, with its large lead-smelting -works. - - - - -LERIDA, a province of northern Spain, formed in 1833 of districts -previously included in the ancient province of Catalonia, and bounded on -the N. by France and Andorra, E. by Gerona and Barcelona, S. by -Tarragona and W. by Saragossa and Huesca. Pop. (1900) 274,590; area 4690 -sq. m. The northern half of Lerida belongs entirely to the Mediterranean -or eastern section of the Pyrenees, and comprises some of the finest -scenery in the whole chain, including the valleys of Aran and La -Cerdana, and large tracts of forest. It is watered by many rivers, the -largest of which is the Segre, a left-hand tributary of the Ebro. South -of the point at which the Segre is joined on the right by the Noguera -Pallaresa, the character of the country completely alters. The Llanos de -Urgel, which comprise the greater part of southern Lerida, are extensive -plains forming part of the Ebro valley, but redeemed by an elaborate -system of canals from the sterility which characterizes so much of that -region in Aragon. Lerida is traversed by the main railway from Barcelona -to Saragossa, and by a line from Tarragona to the city of Lerida. In -1904 the Spanish government agreed with France to carry another line to -the mouth of an international tunnel through the Pyrenees. Industries -are in a more backward condition than in any other province of -Catalonia, despite the abundance of water-power. There are, however, -many saw-mills, flour-mills, and distilleries of alcohol and liqueurs, -besides a smaller number of cotton and linen factories, paper-mills, -soap-works, and oil and leather factories. Zinc, lignite and common salt -are mined, but the output is small and of slight value. There is a -thriving trade in wine, oil, wool, timber, cattle, mules, horses and -sheep, but agriculture is far less prosperous than in the maritime -provinces of Catalonia. Lerida (q.v.) is the capital (pop. 21,432), and -the only town with more than 5000 inhabitants. Seo de Urgel, near the -headwaters of the Segre, is a fortified city which has been an episcopal -see since 840, and has had a close historical connexion with Andorra -(q.v.). Solsona, on a small tributary of the Cardoner, which flows -through Barcelona to the Mediterranean, is the _Setelix_ of the Romans, -and contains in its parish church an image of the Virgin said to possess -miraculous powers, and visited every year by many hundreds of pilgrims. -Cervera, on a small river of the same name, contains the buildings of a -university which Philip V. established here in 1717. This university had -originally been founded at Barcelona in the 15th century, and was -reopened there in 1842. In character, and especially in their industry, -intelligence and keen local patriotism, the inhabitants of Lerida are -typical Catalans. (See CATALONIA.) - - - - -LERIDA, the capital of the Spanish province of Lerida, on the river -Segre and the Barcelona-Saragossa and Lerida-Tarragona railways. Pop. -(1900) 21,432. The older parts of the city, on the right bank of the -river, are a maze of narrow and crooked streets, surrounded by ruined -walls and a moat, and commanded by the ancient citadel, which stands on -a height overlooking the plains of Noguera on the north and of Urgel on -the south. On the left bank, connected with the older quarters by a fine -stone bridge and an iron railway bridge, are the suburbs, laid out -after 1880 in broad and regular avenues of modern houses. The old -cathedral, last used for public worship in 1707, is a very interesting -late Romanesque building, with Gothic and Mauresque additions; but the -interior was much defaced by its conversion into barracks after 1717. It -was founded in 1203 by Pedro II. of Aragon, and consecrated in 1278. The -fine octagonal belfry was built early in the 15th century. A second -cathedral, with a Corinthian facade, was completed in 1781. The church -of San Lorenzo (1270-1300) is noteworthy for the beautiful tracery of -its Gothic windows; its nave is said to have been a Roman temple, -converted by the Moors into a mosque and by Ramon Berenguer IV., last -count of Barcelona, into a church. Other interesting buildings are the -Romanesque town hall, founded in the 13th century but several times -restored, the bishop's palace and the military hospital, formerly a -convent. The museum contains a good collection of Roman and Romanesque -antiquities; and there are a school for teachers, a theological seminary -and academies of literature and science. Leather, paper, glass, silk, -linen and cloth are manufactured in the city, which has also some trade -in agricultural produce. - -Lerida is the _Ilerda_ of the Romans, and was the capital of the people -whom they called _Ilerdenses_ (Pliny) or _Ilergetes_ (Ptolemy). By -situation the key of Catalonia and Aragon, it was from a very early -period an important military station. In the Punic wars it sided with -the Carthaginians and suffered much from the Roman arms. In its -immediate neighbourhood Hanno was defeated by Scipio in 216 B.C., and it -afterwards became famous as the scene of Caesar's arduous struggle with -Pompey's generals Afranius and Petreius in the first year of the civil -war (49 B.C.). It was already a _municipium_ in the time of Augustus, -and enjoyed great prosperity under later emperors. Under the Visigoths -it became an episcopal see, and at least one ecclesiastical council is -recorded to have met here (in 546). Under the Moors _Lareda_ became one -of the principal cities of the province of Saragossa; it became -tributary to the Franks in 793, but was reconquered in 797. In 1149 it -fell into the hands of Ramon Berenguer IV. In modern times it has come -through numerous sieges, having been taken by the French in November -1707 during the War of Succession, and again in 1810. In 1300 James II. -of Aragon founded a university at Lerida, which achieved some repute in -its day, but was suppressed in 1717, when the university of Cervera was -founded. - - - - -LERMA, FRANCISCO DE SANDOVAL Y ROJAS, DUKE OF (1552-1625), Spanish -minister, was born in 1552. At the age of thirteen he entered the royal -palace as a page. The family of Sandoval was ancient and powerful, but -under Philip II. (1556-1598) the nobles, with the exception of a few who -held viceroyalties or commanded armies abroad, had little share in the -government. The future duke of Lerma, who was by descent marquis of -Denia, passed his life as a courtier, and possessed no political power -till the accession of Philip III. in 1598. He had already made himself a -favourite with the prince, and was in fact one of the incapable men who, -as the dying king Philip II. foresaw, were likely to mislead the new -sovereign. The old king's fears were fully justified. No sooner was -Philip III. king than he entrusted all authority to his favourite, whom -he created duke of Lerma in 1599 and on whom he lavished an immense list -of offices and grants. The favour of Lerma lasted for twenty years, till -it was destroyed by a palace intrigue carried out by his own son. Philip -III. not only entrusted the entire direction of his government to Lerma, -but authorized him to affix the royal signature to documents, and to -take whatever presents were made to him. No royal favourite was ever -more amply trusted, or made a worse use of power. At a time when the -state was practically bankrupt, he encouraged the king in extravagance, -and accumulated for himself a fortune estimated by contemporaries at -forty-four millions of ducats. Lerma was pious withal, spending largely -on religious houses, and he carried out the ruinous measures for the -expulsion of the Moriscoes in 1610--a policy which secured him the -admiration of the clergy and was popular with the mass of the nation. He -persisted in costly and useless hostilities with England till, in 1604, -Spain was forced by exhaustion to make peace, and he used all his -influence against a recognition of the independence of the Low -Countries. The fleet was neglected, the army reduced to a remnant, and -the finances ruined beyond recovery. His only resources as a finance -minister were the debasing of the coinage, and foolish edicts against -luxury and the making of silver plate. Yet it is probable that he would -never have lost the confidence of Philip III., who divided his life -between festivals and prayers, but for the domestic treachery of his -son, the duke of Uceda, who combined with the king's confessor, Aliaga, -whom Lerma had introduced to the place, to turn him out. After a long -intrigue in which the king was all but entirely dumb and passive, Lerma -was at last compelled to leave the court, on the 4th of October 1618. As -a protection, and as a means of retaining some measure of power in case -he fell from favour, he had persuaded Pope Paul V. to create him -cardinal, in the year of his fall. He retired to the town of Lerma in -Old Castile, where he had built himself a splendid palace, and then to -Valladolid. Under the reign of Philip IV., which began in 1621 he was -despoiled of part of his wealth, and he died in 1625. - - The history of Lerma's tenure of office is in vol. xv. of the - _Historia General de Espana_ of Modesto Lafuente (Madrid, 1855)--with - references to contemporary authorities. - - - - -LERMONTOV, MIKHAIL YUREVICH (1814-1841), Russian poet and novelist, -often styled the poet of the Caucasus, was born in Moscow, of Scottish -descent, but belonged to a respectable family of the Tula government, -and was brought up in the village of Tarkhanui (in the Penzensk -government), which now preserves his dust. By his grandmother--on whom -the whole care of his childhood was devolved by his mother's early death -and his father's military service--no cost nor pains was spared to give -him the best education she could think of. The intellectual atmosphere -which he breathed in his youth differed little from that in which -Pushkin had grown up, though the domination of French had begun to give -way before the fancy for English, and Lamartine shared his popularity -with Byron. From the academic gymnasium in Moscow Lermontov passed in -1830 to the university, but there his career came to an untimely close -through the part he took in some acts of insubordination to an obnoxious -teacher. From 1830 to 1834 he attended the school of cadets at St -Petersburg, and in due course he became an officer in the guards. To his -own and the nation's anger at the loss of Pushkin (1837) the young -soldier gave vent in a passionate poem addressed to the tsar, and the -very voice which proclaimed that, if Russia took no vengeance on the -assassin of her poet, no second poet would be given her, was itself an -intimation that a poet had come already. The tsar, however, seems to -have found more impertinence than inspiration in the address, for -Lermontov was forthwith sent off to the Caucasus as an officer of -dragoons. He had been in the Caucasus with his grandmother as a boy of -ten, and he found himself at home by yet deeper sympathies than those of -childish recollection. The stern and rocky virtues of the mountaineers -against whom he had to fight, no less than the scenery of the rocks and -mountains themselves, proved akin to his heart; the emperor had exiled -him to his native land. He was in St Petersburg in 1838 and 1839, and in -the latter year wrote the novel, _A Hero of Our Time_, which is said to -have been the occasion of the duel in which he lost his life in July -1841. In this contest he had purposely selected the edge of a precipice, -so that if either combatant was wounded so as to fall his fate should be -sealed. - - Lermontov published only one small collection of poems in 1840. Three - volumes, much mutilated by the censorship, were issued in 1842 by - Glazounov; and there have been full editions of his works in 1860 and - 1863. To Bodenstedt's German translation of his poems (_Michail - Lermontov's poetischer Nachlass_, Berlin, 1842, 2 vols.), which indeed - was the first satisfactory collection, he is indebted for a wide - reputation outside of Russia. His novel has found several translators - (August Boltz, Berlin, 1852, &c.). Among his best-known pieces are - "Ismail-Bey," "Hadji Abrek," "Walerik," "The Novice," and, remarkable - as an imitation of the old Russian ballad, "The song of the tsar Ivan - Vasilivitch, his young bodyguard, and the bold merchant Kalashnikov." - - See Taillandier, "Le Poete du Caucase," in _Revue des deux mondes_ - (February 1855), reprinted in _Allemagne et Russie_ (Paris, 1856); - Duduishkin's "Materials for the Biography of Lermontov," prefixed to - the 1863 edition of his works. _The Demon_, translated by Sir - Alexander Condie Stephen (1875), is an English version of one of his - longer poems. (W. R. S. R.) - - - - -LEROUX, PIERRE (1798-1871), French philosopher and economist, was born -at Bercy near Paris on the 7th of April 1798, the son of an artisan. His -education was interrupted by the death of his father, which compelled -him to support his mother and family. Having worked first as a mason and -then as a compositor, he joined P. Dubois in the foundation of _Le -Globe_ which became in 1831 the official organ of the Saint-Simonian -community, of which he became a prominent member. In November of the -same year, when Enfantin preached the enfranchisement of women and the -functions of the _couple-pretre_, Leroux separated himself from the -sect. In 1838, with J. Regnaud, who had seceded with him, he founded the -_Encyclopedie nouvelle_ (eds. 1838-1841). Amongst the articles which he -inserted in it were _De l'egalite_ and _Refutation de l'eclectisme_, -which afterwards appeared as separate works. In 1840 he published his -treatise _De l'humanite_ (2nd ed. 1845), which contains the fullest -exposition of his system, and was regarded as the philosophical -manifesto of the Humanitarians. In 1841 he established the _Revue -independante_, with the aid of George Sand, over whom he had great -influence. Her _Spiridion_, which was dedicated to him, _Sept cordes de -la lyre_, _Consuelo_, and _La Comtesse de Rudolstadt_, were written -under the Humanitarian inspiration. In 1843 he established at Boussac -(Creuse) a printing association organized according to his systematic -ideas, and founded the _Revue sociale_. After the outbreak of the -revolution of 1848 he was elected to the Constituent Assembly, and in -1849 to the Legislative Assembly, but his speeches on behalf of the -extreme socialist wing were of so abstract and mystical a character that -they had no effect. After the _coup d'etat_ of 1851 he settled with his -family in Jersey, where he pursued agricultural experiments and wrote -his socialist poem _La Greve de Samarez_. On the definitive amnesty of -1869 he returned to Paris, where he died in April 1871, during the -Commune. - - The writings of Leroux have no permanent significance in the history - of thought. He was the propagandist of sentiments and aspirations - rather than the expounder of a systematic theory. He has, indeed, a - system, but it is a singular medley of doctrines borrowed, not only - from Saint-Simonian, but from Pythagorean and Buddhistic sources. In - philosophy his fundamental principle is that of what he calls the - "triad"--a triplicity which he finds to pervade all things, which in - God is "power, intelligence and love," in man "sensation, sentiment - and knowledge." His religious doctrine is Pantheistic; and, rejecting - the belief in a future life as commonly conceived, he substitutes for - it a theory of metempsychosis. In social economy his views are very - vague; he preserves the family, country and property, but finds in all - three, as they now are, a despotism which must be eliminated. He - imagines certain combinations by which this triple tyranny can be - abolished, but his solution seems to require the creation of families - without heads, countries without governments and property without - rights of possession. In politics he advocates absolute equality--a - democracy pushed to anarchy. - - See Raillard, _Pierre Leroux et ses oeuvres_ (Paris, 1899); Thomas, - _Pierre Leroux: sa vie, son oeuvre, sa doctrine_ (Paris, 1904); L. - Reybaud, _Etudes sur les reformateurs et socialistes modernes_; - article in R. H. Inglis Palgrave's _Dictionary of Pol. Econ._ - - - - -LEROY-BEAULIEU, HENRI JEAN BAPTISTE ANATOLE (1842- ), French publicist, -was born at Lisieux, on the 12th of February 1842. In 1866 he published -_Une troupe de comediens_, and afterwards _Essai sur la restauration de -nos monuments historiques devant l'art et devant le budget_, which deals -particularly with the restoration of the cathedral of Evreux. He visited -Russia in order to collect documents on the political and economic -organization of the Slav nations, and on his return published in the -_Revue des deux mondes_ (1882-1889) a series of articles, which appeared -shortly afterwards in book form under the title _L'Empire des tsars et -les Russes_ (4th ed., revised in 3 vols., 1897-1898). The work entitled -_Un empereur, un roi, un pape, une restauration_. published in 1879, was -an analysis and criticism of the politics of the Second Empire. _Un -homme d'etat russe_ (1884) gave the history of the emancipation of the -serfs by Alexander II. Other works are _Les Catholiques liberaux, -l'eglise et le liberalisme_ (1890), _La Papaute, le socialisme et la -democracie_ (1892), _Les Juifs et l'antisemitisme; Israel chez les -nations_ (1893), _Les Armeniens et la question armenienne_ (1896), -_L'Antisemitisme_ (1897), _Etudes russes et europeennes_ (1897). These -writings, mainly collections of articles and lectures intended for the -general public, display enlightened views and wide information. In 1881 -Leroy-Beaulieu was elected professor of contemporary history and eastern -affairs at the Ecole Libre des Sciences Politiques, becoming director of -this institution on the death of Albert Sorel in 1906, and in 1887 he -became a member of the Academie des Sciences Morales et Politiques. - - Two of Leroy-Beaulieu's works have been translated into English: one - as the _Empire of the Tsars and the Russians_, by Z. A. Regozin (New - York, 1893-1896), and another as _Papacy, Socialism, Democracy_, by B. - L. O'Donnell (1892). See W. E. H. Lecky, _Historical and Political - Essays_ (1908). - - - - -LEROY-BEAULIEU, PIERRE PAUL (1843- ), French economist, brother of the -preceding, was born at Saumur on the 9th of December 1843, and educated -in Paris at the Lycee Bonaparte and the Ecole de Droit. He afterwards -studied at Bonn and Berlin, and on his return to Paris began to write -for _Le Temps_, _Revue nationale_ and _Revue contemporaine_. In 1867 he -won a prize offered by the Academy of Moral Science with an essay -entitled "L'Influence de l'etat moral et intellectuel des populations -ouvrieres sur le taux des salaires." In 1870 he gained three prizes for -essays on "La Colonization chez les peuples modernes," "L'Administration -en France et en Angleterre," and "L'Impot foncier et ses consequences -economiques." In 1872 Leroy-Beaulieu became professor of finance at the -newly-founded Ecole Libre des Sciences Politiques, and in 1880 he -succeeded his father-in-law, Michel Chevalier, in the chair of political -economy in the College de France. Several of his works have made their -mark beyond the borders of his own country. Among these may be mentioned -his _Recherches economiques, historiques et statistiques sur les guerres -contemporaines_, a series of studies published between 1863 and 1869, in -which he calculated the loss of men and capital caused by the great -European conflicts. Other works by him are--_La Question monnaie au -dix-neuvieme siecle_ (1861), _Le Travail des femmes au dix-neuvieme -siecle_ (1873), _Traite de la science des finances_ (1877), _Essai sur -la repartition des richesses_ (1882), _L'Algerie et la Tunisie_ (1888), -_Precis d'economie politique_ (1888), and _L'Etat moderne et ses -fonctions_ (1889). He also founded in 1873 the _Economiste francais_, on -the model of the English _Economist_. Leroy-Beaulieu may be regarded as -the leading representative in France of orthodox political economy, and -the most pronounced opponent of protectionist and collectivist -doctrines. - - - - -LERWICK, a municipal and police burgh of Shetland, Scotland, the most -northerly town in the British Isles. Pop. (1901) 4281. It is situated on -Brassay Sound, a fine natural harbour, on the east coast of the island -called Mainland, 115 m. N.E. of Kirkwall, in Orkney, and 340 m. from -Leith by steamer. The town dates from the beginning of the 17th century, -and the older part consists of a flagged causeway called Commercial -Street, running for 1 m. parallel with the sea (in which the gable ends -of several of the quaint-looking houses stand), and so narrow in places -as not to allow of two vehicles passing each other. At right angles to -this street lanes ascend the hill-side to Hillhead, where the more -modern structures and villas have been built. At the north end stands -Fort Charlotte, erected by Cromwell, repaired in 1665 by Charles II. and -altered in 1781 by George III., after whose queen it was named. It is -now used as a depot for the Naval Reserve, for whom a large drill hall -was added. The Anderson Institute, at the south end, was constructed as -a secondary school in 1862 by Arthur Anderson, a native, who also -presented the Widows' Asylum in the same quarter, an institution -intended by preference for widows of Shetland sailors. The town-hall, -built in 1881, contains several stained-glass windows, two of which were -the gift of citizens of Amsterdam and Hamburg, in gratitude for services -rendered by the islanders to fishermen and seamen of those ports. -Lerwick's main industries are connected with the fisheries, of which it -is an important centre. Docks, wharves, piers, curing stations and -warehouses have been provided or enlarged to cope with the growth of the -trade, and an esplanade has been constructed along the front. The town -is also the chief distributing agency for the islands, and carries on -some business in knitted woollen goods. One mile west of Lerwick is -Clickimin Loch, separated from the sea by a narrow strip of land. On an -islet in the lake stands a ruined "broch" or round tower. - - - - -LE SAGE, ALAIN RENE (1668-1747), French novelist and dramatist, was born -at Sarzeau in the peninsula of Rhuys, between the Morbihan and the sea, -on the 13th of December 1668. Rhuys was a legal district, and Claude le -Sage, the father of the novelist, held the united positions of advocate, -notary and registrar of its royal court. His wife's name was Jeanne -Brenugat. Both father and mother died when Le Sage was very young, and -his property was wasted or embezzled by his guardians. Little is known -of his youth except that he went to school with the Jesuits at Vannes -until he was eighteen. Conjecture has it that he continued his studies -at Paris, and it is certain that he was called to the bar at the capital -in 1692. In August 1694 he married the daughter of a joiner, Marie -Elizabeth Huyard. She was beautiful but had no fortune, and Le Sage had -little practice. About this time he met his old schoolfellow, the -dramatist Danchet, and is said to have been advised by him to betake -himself to literature. He began modestly as a translator, and published -in 1695 a French version of the _Epistles_ of Aristaenetus, which was -not successful. Shortly afterwards he found a valuable patron and -adviser in the abbe de Lyonne, who bestowed on him an annuity of 600 -livres, and recommended him to exchange the classics for Spanish -literature, of which he was himself a student and collector. - -Le Sage began by translating plays chiefly from Rojas and Lope de Vega. -_Le Traitre puni_ and _Le Point d'honneur_ from the former, _Don Felix -de Mendoce_ from the latter, were acted or published in the first two or -three years of the 18th century. In 1704 he translated the continuation -of _Don Quixote_ by Avellaneda, and soon afterwards adapted a play from -Calderon, _Don Cesar Ursin_, which had a divided fate, being successful -at court and damned in the city. He was, however, nearly forty before he -obtained anything like decided success. But in 1707 his admirable farce -of _Crispin rival de son maitre_ was acted with great applause, and _Le -Diable boiteux_ was published. This latter went through several editions -in the same year, and was frequently reprinted till 1725, when Le Sage -altered and improved it considerably, giving it its present form. -Notwithstanding the success of _Crispin_, the actors did not like Le -Sage, and refused a small piece of his called _Les Etrennes_ (1707). He -thereupon altered it into _Turcaret_, his theatrical masterpiece, and -one of the best comedies in French literature. This appeared in 1709. -Some years passed before he again attempted romance writing, and then -the first two parts of _Gil Blas de Santillane_ appeared in 1715. -Strange to say, it was not so popular as _Le Diable boiteux_. Le Sage -worked at it for a long time, and did not bring out the third part till -1724, nor the fourth till 1735. For this last he had been part paid to -the extent of a hundred pistoles some years before its appearance. -During these twenty years he was, however, continually busy. -Notwithstanding the great merit and success of _Turcaret_ and _Crispin_, -the Theatre Francais did not welcome him, and in the year of the -publication of _Gil Blas_ he began to write for the Theatre de la -Foire--the comic opera held in booths at festival time. This, though not -a very dignified occupation, was followed by many writers of distinction -at this date, and by none more assiduously than by Le Sage. According to -one computation he produced, either alone or with others, about a -hundred pieces, varying from strings of songs with no regular dialogues, -to comediettas only distinguished from regular plays by the introduction -of music. He was also industrious in prose fiction. Besides finishing -_Gil Blas_ he translated the _Orlando innamorato_ (1721), rearranged -_Guzman d'Alfarache_ (1732), published two more or less original novels, -_Le Bachelier de Salamanque_ and _Estevanille Gonzales_, and in 1733 -produced the _Vie et aventures de M. de Beauchesne_, which is curiously -like certain works of Defoe. Besides all this, Le Sage was also the -author of _La Valise trouvee_, a collection of imaginary letters, and of -some minor pieces, of which _Une journee des parques_ is the most -remarkable. This laborious life he continued until 1740, when he was -more than seventy years of age. His eldest son had become an actor, and -Le Sage had disowned him, but the second was a canon at Boulogne in -comfortable circumstances. In the year just mentioned his father and -mother went to live with him. At Boulogne Le Sage spent the last seven -years of his life, dying on the 17th of November 1747. His last work, -_Melange amusant de saillies d'esprit et de traits historiques les plus -frappants_, had appeared in 1743. - -Not much is known of Le Sage's life and personality, and the foregoing -paragraph contains not only the most important but almost the only facts -available for it. The few anecdotes which we have of him represent him -as a man of very independent temper, declining to accept the -condescending patronage which in the earlier part of the century was -still the portion of men of letters. Thus it is said that, on being -remonstrated with, as he thought impolitely, for an unavoidable delay in -appearing at the duchess of Bouillon's house to read _Turcaret_, he at -once put the play in his pocket and retired, refusing absolutely to -return. It may, however, be said that as in time so in position he -occupies a place apart from most of the great writers of the 17th and -18th centuries respectively. He was not the object of royal patronage -like the first, nor the pet of _salons_ and coteries like the second. -Indeed, he seems all his life to have been purely domestic in his -habits, and purely literary in his interests. - -The importance of Le Sage in French and in European literature is not -entirely the same, and he has the rare distinction of being more -important in the latter than in the former. His literary work may be -divided into three parts. The first contains his Theatre de la Foire and -his few miscellaneous writings, the second his two remarkable plays -_Crispin_ and _Turcaret_, the third his prose fictions. In the first two -he swims within the general literary current in France; he can be and -must be compared with others of his own nation. But in the third he -emerges altogether from merely national comparison. It is not with -Frenchmen that he is to be measured. He formed no school in France; he -followed no French models. His work, admirable as it is from the mere -point of view of style and form, is a parenthesis in the general -development of the French novel. That product works its way from Madame -de la Fayette through Marivaux and Prevost, not through Le Sage. His -literary ancestors are Spaniards, his literary contemporaries and -successors are Englishmen. The position is almost unique; it is -certainly interesting and remarkable in the highest degree. - -Of Le Sage's miscellaneous work, including his numerous farce-operettas, -there is not much to be said except that they are the very best kind of -literary hack-work. The pure and original style of the author, his -abundant wit, his cool, humoristic attitude towards human life, which -wanted only greater earnestness and a wider conception of that life to -turn it into true humour, are discernible throughout. But this portion -of his work is practically forgotten, and its examination is incumbent -only on the critic. _Crispin_ and _Turcaret_ show a stronger and more -deeply marked genius, which, but for the ill-will of the actors, might -have gone far in this direction. But Le Sage's peculiar unwillingness to -attempt anything absolutely new discovered itself here. Even when he had -devoted himself to the Foire theatre, it seems that he was unwilling to -attempt, when occasion called for it, the absolute innovation of a piece -with only one actor, a crux which Alexis Piron, a lesser but a bolder -genius, accepted and carried through. _Crispin_ and _Turcaret_ are -unquestionably Molieresque, though they are perhaps more original in -their following of Moliere than any other plays that can be named. For -this also was part of Le Sage's idiosyncrasy that, while he was -apparently unable or unwilling to strike out an entirely novel line for -himself, he had no sooner entered upon the beaten path than he left it -to follow his own devices. _Crispin rival de son maitre_ is a farce in -one act and many scenes, after the earlier manner of motion. Its plot -is somewhat extravagant, inasmuch as it lies in the effort of a knavish -valet, not as usual to further his master's interests, but to supplant -that master in love and gain. But the charm of the piece consists first -in the lively bustling action of the short scenes which take each other -up so promptly and smartly that the spectator has not time to cavil at -the improbability of the action, and secondly in the abundant wit of the -dialogue. _Turcaret_ is a far more important piece of work and ranks -high among comedies dealing with the actual society of their time. The -only thing which prevents it from holding the very highest place is a -certain want of unity in the plot. This want, however, is compensated in -_Turcaret_ by the most masterly profusion of character-drawing in the -separate parts. Turcaret, the ruthless, dishonest and dissolute -financier, his vulgar wife as dissolute as himself, the harebrained -marquis, the knavish chevalier, the baroness (a coquette with the finer -edge taken off her fine-ladyhood, yet by no means unlovable), are each -and all finished portraits of the best comic type, while almost as much -may be said of the minor characters. The style and dialogue are also -worthy of the highest praise; the wit never degenerates into mere -"wit-combats." - -It is, however, as a novelist that the world has agreed to remember Le -Sage. A great deal of unnecessary labour has been spent on the -discussion of his claims to originality. What has been already said will -give a sufficient clue through this thorny ground. In mere form Le Sage -is not original. He does little more than adopt that of the Spanish -picaroon romance of the 16th and 17th century. Often, too, he prefers -merely to rearrange and adapt existing work, and still oftener to give -himself a kind of start by adopting the work of a preceding writer as a -basis. But it may be laid down as a positive truth that he never, in any -work that pretends to originality at all, is guilty of anything that can -fairly be called plagiarism. Indeed we may go further, and say that he -is very fond of asserting or suggesting his indebtedness when he is -really dealing with his own funds. Thus the _Diable boiteux_ borrows the -title, and for a chapter or two the plan and almost the words, of the -_Diablo Cojuelo_ of Luis Velez de Guevara. But after a few pages Le Sage -leaves his predecessor alone. Even the plan of the Spanish original is -entirely discarded, and the incidents, the episodes, the style, are as -independent as if such a book as the _Diablo Cojuelo_ had never existed. -The case of _Gil Blas_ is still more remarkable. It was at first alleged -that Le Sage had borrowed it from the _Marcos de Obregon_ of Vincent -Espinel, a curiously rash assertion, inasmuch as that work exists and is -easily accessible, and as the slightest consultation of it proves that, -though it furnished Le Sage with separate incidents and hints for more -than one of his books, _Gil Blas_ as a whole is not in the least -indebted to it. Afterwards Father Isla asserted that _Gil Blas_ was a -mere translation from an actual Spanish book--an assertion at once -incapable of proof and disproof, inasmuch as there is no trace whatever -of any such book. A third hypothesis is that there was some manuscript -original which Le Sage may have worked up in his usual way, in the same -way, for instance, as he professes himself to have worked up the -_Bachelor of Salamanca_. This also is in the nature of it incapable of -refutation, though the argument from the _Bachelor_ is strong against -it, for there could be no reason why Le Sage should be more reticent of -his obligations in the one case than in the other. Except, however, for -historical reasons, the controversy is one which may be safely -neglected, nor is there very much importance in the more impartial -indication of sources--chiefly works on the history of Olivares--which -has sometimes been attempted. That Le Sage knew Spanish literature well -is of course obvious; but there is as little doubt (with the limitations -already laid down) of his real originality as of that of any great -writer in the world. _Gil Blas_ then remains his property, and it is -admittedly the capital example of its own style. For Le Sage has not -only the characteristic, which Homer and Shakespeare have, of absolute -truth to human nature as distinguished from truth to this or that -national character, but he has what has been called the quality of -detachment, which they also have. He never takes sides with his -characters as Fielding (whose master, with Cervantes, he certainly was) -sometimes does. Asmodeus and Don Cleofas, Gil Blas and the Archbishop -and Doctor Sangrado, are produced by him with exactly the same -impartiality of attitude. Except that he brought into novel writing this -highest quality of artistic truth, it perhaps cannot be said that he did -much to advance prose fiction in itself. He invented, as has been said, -no new _genre_; he did not, as Marivaux and Prevost did, help on the -novel as distinguished from the romance. In form his books are -undistinguishable, not merely from the Spanish romances which are, as -has been said, their direct originals, but from the medieval _romans -d'aventures_ and the Greek prose romances. But in individual excellence -they have few rivals. Nor should it be forgotten, as it sometimes is, -that Le Sage was a great master of French style, the greatest -unquestionably between the classics of the 17th century and the classics -of the 18th. He is perhaps the last great writer before the decadence -(for since the time of Paul Louis Courier it has not been denied that -the _philosophe_ period is in point of style a period of decadence). His -style is perfectly easy at the same time that it is often admirably -epigrammatic. It has plenty of colour, plenty of flexibility, and may be -said to be exceptionally well fitted for general literary work. - - The dates of the original editions of Le Sage's most important works - have already been given. He published during his life a collection of - his regular dramatic works, and also one of his pieces for the Foire, - but the latter is far from exhaustive; nor is there any edition which - can be called so, though the _Oeuvres choisies_ of 1782 and 1818 are - useful, and there are so-called _Oeuvres completes_ of 1821 and 1840. - Besides critical articles by the chief literary critics and - historians, the work of Eugene Lintilhac, in the Grands _ecrivains - francais_ (1893), should be consulted. The _Diable boiteux_ and _Gil - Blas_ have been reprinted and translated numberless times. Both will - be found conveniently printed, together with _Estevanille Gonzales_ - and _Guzman d'Alfarache_, the best of the minor novels, in four - volumes of Garnier's _Bibliotheque amusante_ (Paris, 1865). _Turcaret_ - and _Crispin_ are to be found in all collected editions of the French - drama. There is a useful edition of them, with ample specimens of Le - Sage's work for the Foire, in two volumes (Paris, 1821). (G. Sa.) - - - - -LES ANDELYS, a town of northern France, capital of an arrondissement in -the department of Eure about 30 m. S.E. of Rouen by rail. Pop. (1906) -3955. Les Andelys is formed by the union of Le Grand Andely and Le Petit -Andely, the latter situated on the right bank of the Seine, the former -about half a mile from the river. Grand Andely, founded, according to -tradition, in the 6th century, has a church (13th, 14th and 15th -centuries) parts of which are of fine late Gothic and Renaissance -architecture. The works of art in the interior include beautiful stained -glass of the latter period. Other interesting buildings are the hotel du -Grand Cerf dating from the first half of the 16th century, and the -chapel of Sainte-Clotilde, close by a spring which, owing to its -supposed healing powers, is the object of a pilgrimage. Grand Andely has -a statue of Nicolas Poussin, a native of the place. Petit Andely sprang -up at the foot of the eminence on which stands the chateau Gaillard, now -in ruins, but formerly one of the strongest fortresses in France (see -FORTIFICATION AND SIEGECRAFT and CASTLE). It was built by Richard Coeur -de Lion at the end of the 12th century to protect the Norman frontier, -was captured by the French in 1204 and passed finally into their -possession in 1449. The church of St Sauveur at Petit Andely also dates -from the end of the 12th century. Les Andelys is the seat of a -sub-prefect and of a tribunal of first instance, has a preparatory -infantry school; it carries on silk milling, and the manufacture of -leather, organs and sugar. It has trade in cattle, grain, flour, &c. - - - - -LES BAUX, a village of south-eastern France, in the department of -Bouches-du-Rhone, 11 m. N.E. of Arles by road. Pop. (1906) 111. Les -Baux, which in the middle ages was a flourishing town, is now almost -deserted. Apart from a few inhabited dwellings, it consists of an -assemblage of ruined towers, fallen walls and other debris, which cover -the slope of a hill crowned by the remains of a huge chateau, once the -seat of a celebrated "court of love." The ramparts, a medieval church, -the chateau, parts of which date to the 11th century, and many of the -dwellings are, in great part, hollowed out of the white friable -limestone on which they stand. Here and there may be found houses -preserving carved facades of Renaissance workmanship. Les Baux has given -its name to the reddish rock (bauxite) which is plentiful in the -neighbourhood and from which aluminium is obtained. In the middle ages -Les Baux was the seat of a powerful family which owned the Terre -Baussenques, extensive domains in Provence and Dauphine. The influence -of the seigneurs de Baux in Provence declined before the power of the -house of Anjou, to which they abandoned many of their possessions. In -1632 the chateau and the ramparts were dismantled. - - - - -LESBONAX, of Mytilene, Greek sophist and rhetorician, flourished in the -time of Augustus. According to Photius (_cod._ 74) he was the author of -sixteen political speeches, of which two are extant, a hortatory speech -after the style of Thucydides, and a speech on the Corinthian War. In -the first he exhorts the Athenians against the Spartans, in the second -(the title of which is misleading) against the Thebans (edition by F. -Kiehr, _Lesbonactis quae supersunt_, Leipzig, 1907). Some erotic letters -are also attributed to him. - - The Lesbonax described in Suidas as the author of a large number of - philosophical works is probably of much earlier date; on the other - hand, the author of a small treatise [Greek: Peri Schematon] on - grammatical figures (ed. Rudolf Muller, Leipzig, 1900), is probably - later. - - - - -LESBOS (Mytilene, Turk. _Midullu_), an island in the Aegean sea, off the -coast of Mysia, N. of the entrance of the Gulf of Smyrna, forming the -main part of a sanjak in the archipelago vilayet of European Turkey. It -is divided into three districts, Mytilene or Kastro in the E., Molyvo in -the N., and Calloni in the W. Since the middle ages it has been known as -Mytilene, from the name of its principal town. Strabo estimated the -circumference of the island at 1100 stadia, or about 138 m., and Scylax -reckoned it seventh in size of the islands of the Mediterranean. The -width of the channel between it and the mainland varies from 7 to 10 m. -The island is roughly triangular in shape; the three points are Argennum -on the N.E., Sigrium (Sigri) on the W., and Malea (Maria) on the S.E. -The Euripus Pyrrhaeus (Calloni) is a deep gulf on the west between -Sigrium and Malea. The country though mountainous is very fertile, -Lesbos being celebrated in ancient times for its wine, oil and grain. -Homer refers to its wealth. Its chief produce now is olives, which also -form its principal export. Soap, skins and valonea are also exported, -and mules and cattle are extensively bred. The sardine fishery is an -important trade, and antimony, marble and coal are found on the island. -The surface is rugged and mountainous, the highest point, Mount Olympus -(Hagios Elias) being 3080 ft. The island has suffered from periodical -earthquakes. The roads were remade in 1889, and there is telegraphic -communication on the island, and to the mainland by cable. The ports are -Sigri and Mytilene. The Gulf of Calloni and Hiera or Olivieri can only -be entered by vessels of small draught. - -The chief town, called Mytilene, is built in amphitheatre shape round a -small hill crowned by remains of an ancient fortress. There are now 14 -mosques and 7 churches, including a cathedral. It was originally built -on an island close to the eastern coast of Lesbos, and afterwards when -the town became too large for the island, it was joined to Lesbos by a -causeway, and the city spread along the coast. There was a harbour on -each side of the small island. Maloeis, by some surmised to be the -northern of these, was not far away. Besides the five cities which gave -the island the name of Pentapolis (Mytilene, Methymna, Antissa, Eresus, -Pyrrha), there was a town called Arisba, destroyed by an earthquake in -the time of Herodotus. Professor Conze thinks that this is the site now -called Palaikastro, N.E. of Calloni. Pyrrha lay S.E. of Calloni, and is -now also called Palaikastro. Antissa was on the N. coast near Sigri. It -was destroyed by the Romans in 168 B.C. Eresus was also near Sigri on -the S. coast. Methymna was on the N. coast, on the site of Molyvo, still -the second city of the island. The name Methymna is derived from the -wine (Gr. [Greek: methy]) for which it was famous. Considerable remains -of town walls and other buildings are to be seen on all these sites. - (E. Gr.) - -_History._--Although the position of Lesbos near the old-established -trade-route to the Hellespont marks it out as an important site even in -pre-historic days, no evidence on the early condition of the island is -as yet obtainable, beyond the Greek tradition which represented it at -the time of the Trojan war as inhabited by an original stock of Pelasgi -and an immigrant population of Ionians. In historic times it was peopled -by an "Aeolian" race who reckoned Boeotia as their motherland and -claimed to have migrated about 1050 B.C.; its principal nobles traced -their pedigree to Orestes, son of Agamemnon. Lesbos was the most -prominent of Aeolian settlements, and indeed played a large part in the -early development of Greek life. Its commercial activity is attested by -several colonies in Thrace and the Troad, and by the participation of -its traders in the settlement of Naucratis in Egypt; hence also the town -of Mytilene, by virtue of its good harbour, became the political capital -of the island. The climax of its prosperity was reached about 600 B.C., -when a citizen named Pittacus was appointed as _aesymnetes_ (dictator) -to adjust the balance between the governing nobility and the insurgent -commons and by his wise administration and legislation won a place among -the Seven Sages of Greece. These years also constitute the golden age of -Lesbian culture. The lyric poetry of Greece, which owed much to two -Lesbians of the 7th century, the musician Terpander and the dithyrambist -Arion, attained the standard of classical excellence under Pittacus' -contemporaries Alcaeus and Sappho. In the 6th century the importance of -the island declined, partly through a protracted and unsuccessful -struggle with Athens for the possession of Sigeum near the Hellespont, -partly through a crushing naval defeat inflicted by Polycrates of Samos -(about 550). The Lesbians readily submitted to Persia after the fall of -Croesus of Lydia, and although hatred of their tyrant Coes, a Persian -protege, drove them to take part in the Ionic revolt (499-493), they -made little use of their large navy and displayed poor spirit at the -decisive battle of Lade. In the 5th century Lesbos for a long time -remained a privileged member of the Delian League (q.v.), with full -rights of self-administration, and under the sole obligation of -assisting Athens with naval contingents. Nevertheless at the beginning -of the Peloponnesian War the ruling oligarchy of Mytilene forced on a -revolt, which was ended after a two years' siege of that town (429-427). -The Athenians, who had intended to punish the rebels by a wholesale -execution, contented themselves with killing the ringleaders, -confiscating the land and establishing a garrison. In the later years of -the war Lesbos was repeatedly attacked by the Peloponnesians, and in 405 -the harbour of Mytilene was the scene of a battle between the admirals -Callicratidas and Conon. In 389 most of the island was recovered for the -Athenians by Thrasybulus; in 377 it joined the Second Delian League, and -remained throughout a loyal member, although in the second half of the -century the dominant democracy was for a while supplanted by a tyranny. -In 334 Lesbos served as a base for the Persian admiral Memnon against -Alexander the Great. During the Third Macedonian war the Lesbians sided -with Perseus against Rome; similarly in 88 they became eager allies of -Mithradates VI. of Pontus, and Mytilene stood a protracted siege on his -behalf. This town, nevertheless, was raised by Pompey to the status of a -free community, thanks no doubt to his confidant Theophanes, a native of -Mytilene. - -Of the other towns on the island, Antissa, Eresus and Pyrrha possess no -separate history. Methymna in the 5th and 4th centuries sometimes -figures as a rival of Mytilene, with an independent policy. Among the -distinguished Lesbians, in addition to those cited, may be mentioned the -cyclic poet Lesches, the historian Hellanicus and the philosophers -Theophrastus and Cratippus. - -During the Byzantine age the island, which now assumes the name of -Mytilene, continued to flourish. In 1091 it fell for a while into the -hands of the Seljuks, and in the following century was repeatedly -occupied by the Venetians. In 1224 it was recovered by the Byzantine -emperors, who in 1354 gave it as a dowry to the Genoese family -Gattilusio. After prospering under their administration Mytilene passed -in 1462 under Turkish control, and has since had an uneventful history. -The present population is about 130,000 of whom 13,000 are Turks and -Moslems and 117,000 Greeks. - - See Strabo xiii. pp. 617-619; Herodotus ii. 178, iii. 39, vi. 8, 14; - Thucydides iii. 2-50; Xenophon, _Hellenica_, i., ii.; S. Plehn, - _Lesbiacorum Liber_ (Berlin, 1828); C. T. Newton, _Travels and - Discoveries in the Levant_ (London, 1865); B. V. Head, _Historia - Numorum_ (Oxford, 1887), pp. 487-488; E. L. Hicks and G. F. Hill, - _Greek Historical Inscriptions_ (Oxford, 1901), Nos. 61, 94, 101, 139, - 164; Conze, _Reise auf der Insel Lesbos_ (1865); Koldewey, _Antike - Baureste auf Lesbos_ (Berlin, 1890). (M. O. B. C.) - - - - -LESCHES (Lescheos in Pausanias x. 25. 5), the reputed author of the -_Little Iliad_ ([Greek: Ilias mikra]), one of the "cyclic" poems. -According to the usually accepted tradition, he was a native of Pyrrha -in Lesbos, and flourished about 660 B.C. (others place him about 50 -years earlier). The _Little Iliad_ took up the story of the Homeric -_Iliad_, and, beginning with the contest between Ajax and Odysseus for -the arms of Achilles, carried it down to the fall of Troy (Aristotle, -_Poetics_, 23). According to the epitome in the _Chrestomathy_ of -Proclus, it ended with the admission of the wooden horse within the -walls of the city. Some ancient authorities ascribe the work to a -Lacedaemonian named Cinaethon, and even to Homer. - - See F. G. Welcker, _Der epische Cyclus_ (1865-1882); Muller and - Donaldson, _Hist. of Greek Literature_, i. ch. 6; G. H. Bode, - _Geschichte der hellenischen Dichtkunst_, i. - - - - -LESCURE, LOUIS MARIE JOSEPH, MARQUIS DE (1766-1793), French soldier and -anti-revolutionary, was born near Bressuire. He was educated at the -Ecole Militaire, which he left at the age of sixteen. He was in command -of a company of cavalry in the Regiment de Royal-Piemont, but being -opposed to the ideas of the Revolution he emigrated in 1791; he soon, -however, returned to France, and on the 10th of August 1792 took part in -the defence of the Tuileries against the mob of Paris. The day after, he -was forced to leave Paris, and took refuge in the chateau of Clisson -near Bressuire. On the outbreak of the revolt of Vendee against the -Republic, he was arrested and imprisoned with all his family, as one of -the promoters of the rising. He was set at liberty by the Royalists, and -became one of their leaders, fighting at Thouars, taking Fontenay and -Saumur (May-June 1793), and, after an unsuccessful attack on Nantes, -joining H. du Verger de la Rochejaquelein, another famous Vendean -leader. Their peasant troops, opposed to the republican general F. J. -Westermann, sustained various defeats, but finally gained a victory -between Tiffauges and Cholet on the 19th of September 1793. The struggle -was then concentrated round Chatillon, which was time after time taken -and lost by the Republicans. Lescure was killed on the 15th of October -1793 near the chateau of La Tremblaye between Einee and Fougeres. - - See Marquise de la Rochejaquelein (Lescure's widow, who afterwards - married La Rochejaquelein), _Memoires_ (Paris, 1817); Jullien de - Courcelles, _Dictionnaire des generaux francais_, tome vii. (1823); T. - Muret, _Histoire des guerres de l'ouest_ (Paris, 1848); and J. A. M. - Cretineau-Joly, _Guerres de Vendee_ (1834). - - - - -LESDIGUIERES, FRANCOIS DE BONNE, DUC DE (1543-1626), constable of -France, was born at Saint-Bonnet de Champsaur on the 1st of April 1543, -of a family of notaries with pretensions to nobility. He was educated at -Avignon under a Protestant tutor, and had begun the study of law in -Paris when he enlisted as an archer. He served under the -lieutenant-general of his native province of Dauphine, Bertrand de -Simiane, baron de Gordes, but when the Huguenots raised troops in -Dauphine Lesdiguieres threw in his lot with them, and under his kinsman -Antoine Rambaud de Furmeyer, whom he succeeded in 1570, distinguished -himself in the mountain warfare that followed by his bold yet prudent -handling of troops. He fought at Jarnac and Moncontour, and was a guest -at the wedding of Henry IV. of Navarre. Warned of the impending massacre -he retired hastily to Dauphine, where he secretly equipped and drilled a -determined body of Huguenots, and in 1575, after the execution of -Montbrun, became the acknowledged leader of the Huguenot resistance in -the district with the title of commandant general, confirmed in 1577 by -Marshal Damville, by Conde in 1580, and by Henry of Navarre in 1582. He -seized Gap by a lucky night attack on the 3rd of January 1577, -re-established the reformed religion there, and fortified the town. He -refused to acquiesce in the treaty of Poitiers (1578) which involved the -surrender of Gap, and after two years of fighting secured better terms -for the province. Nevertheless in 1580 he was compelled to hand the -place over to Mayenne and to see the fortifications dismantled. He took -up arms for Henry IV. in 1585, capturing Chorges, Embrun, Chateauroux -and other places, and after the truce of 1588-1589 secured the complete -submission of Dauphine. In 1590 he beat down the resistance of Grenoble, -and was now able to threaten the leaguers and to support the governor of -Provence against the raids of Charles Emmanuel I. of Savoy. He defeated -the Savoyards at Esparron in April 1591, and in 1592 began the -reconquest of the marquessate of Saluzzo which had been seized by -Charles Emmanuel. After his defeat of the Spanish allies of Savoy at -Salebertrano in June 1593 there was a truce, during which Lesdiguieres -was occupied in maintaining the royal authority against Eperon in -Provence. The war with Savoy proceeded intermittently until 1601, when -Henry IV. concluded peace, much to the dissatisfaction of Lesdiguieres. -The king regarded his lieutenant's domination in Dauphine with some -distrust, although he was counted among the best of his captains. -Nevertheless he made him a marshal of France in 1609, and ensured the -succession to the lieutenant-generalship of Dauphine, vested in -Lesdiguieres since 1597, to his son-in-law Charles de Crequy. Sincerely -devoted to the throne, Lesdiguieres took no part in the intrigues which -disturbed the minority of Louis XIII., and he moderated the political -claims made by his co-religionists under the terms of the Edict of -Nantes. After the death of his first wife, Claudine de Berenger, he -married the widow of Ennemond Matel, a Grenoble shopkeeper, who was -murdered in 1617. Lesdiguieres was then 73, and this lady, Marie Vignon, -had long been his mistress. He had two daughters, one of whom, -Francoise, married Charles de Crequy. In 1622 he formally abjured the -Protestant faith, his conversion being partly due to the influence of -Marie Vignon. He was already a duke and peer of France; he now became -constable of France, and received the order of the Saint Esprit. He had -long since lost the confidence of the Huguenots, but he nevertheless -helped the Vaudois against the duke of Savoy. Lesdiguieres had the -qualities of a great general, but circumstances limited him to the -mountain warfare of Dauphine, Provence and Savoy. He had almost -unvarying success through sixty years of fighting. His last campaign, -fought in alliance with Savoy to drive the Spaniards from the -Valtelline, was the least successful of his enterprises. He died of -fever at Valence on the 21st of September 1626. - - The life of the Huguenot captain has been written in detail by Ch. - Dufuyard, _Le Connetable de Lesdiguieres_ (Paris, 1892). His first - biographer was his secretary Louis Videl, _Histoire de la vie du - connestable de Lesdiguieres_ (Paris, 1638). Much of his official - correspondence, with an admirable sketch of his life, is contained in - _Actes et correspondance du connetable de Lesdiguieres_, edited by - Comte Douglas and J. Roman in _Documents historiques inedits pour - servir a l'histoire de Dauphine_ (Grenoble, 1878). Other letters are - in the _Lettres et memoires_ (Paris, 1647) of Duplessis-Mornay. - - - - -LESGHIANS, or LESGHIS (from the Persian _Leksi_, called Leki by the -Grusians or Georgians, Armenians and Ossetes), the collective name for a -number of tribes of the eastern Caucasus, who, with their kinsfolk the -Chechenzes, have inhabited Daghestan from time immemorial. They spread -southward into the Transcaucasian circles Kuba, Shemakha, Nukha and -Sakataly. They are mentioned as [Greek: Lechai] by Strabo and Plutarch -along with the [Greek: Gelai] (perhaps the modern Galgai, a Chechenzian -tribe), and their name occurs frequently in the chronicles of the -Georgians, whose territory was exposed to their raids for centuries, -until, on the surrender (1859) to Russia of the Chechenzian chieftain -Shamyl, they became Russian subjects. Moses of Chorene mentions a battle -in the reign of the Armenian king Baba (A.D. 370-377), in which Shagir, -king of the Lekians, was slain. The most important of the Lesghian -tribes are the Avars (q.v.), the Kasimukhians or Lakians, the Darghis -and the Kurins or Lesghians proper. Komarov[1] gives the total number -of the tribes as twenty-seven, all speaking distinct dialects. Despite -this, the Lesghian peoples, with the exception of the Udi and Kubatschi, -are held to be ethnically identical. The Lesghians are not usually so -good-looking as the Circassians or the Chechenzes. They are tall, -powerfully built, and their hybrid descent is suggested by the range of -colouring, some of the tribes exhibiting quite fair, others quite dark, -individuals. Among some there is an obvious mongoloid strain. In -disposition they are intelligent, bold and persistent, and capable of -reckless bravery, as was proved in their struggle to maintain their -independence. They are capable of enduring great physical fatigue. They -live a semi-savage life on their mountain slopes, for the most part -living by hunting and stock-breeding. Little agriculture is possible. -Their industries are mainly restricted to smith-work and cutlery and the -making of felt cloaks, and the women weave excellent shawls. They are -for the most part fanatical Mahommedans. - - See Moritz Wagner, _Schamyl_ (Leipzig, 1854); von Seidlitz, - "Ethnographie des Kaukasus," in _Petermann's Mitteilungen_ (1880); - Ernest Chantre, _Recherches anthropologiques dans le Caucase_ (Lyon, - 1885-1887); J. de Morgan, _Recherches sur les origines des peuples du - Caucase_ (Paris, 1889). - - -FOOTNOTE: - - [1] _Ethnological Map of Daghestan._ - - - - -LESINA (Serbo-Croatian, _Hvar_), an island in the Adriatic Sea, forming -part of Dalmatia, Austria. Lesina lies between the islands of Brazza on -the north and Curzola on the south; and is divided from the peninsula of -Sabbioncello by the Narenta channel. Its length is 41 m.; its greatest -breadth less than 4 m. It has a steep rocky coast with a chain of thinly -wooded limestone hills. The climate is mild, and not only the grape and -olive, but dates, figs and the carob or locust-bean flourish. The -cultivation of these fruits, boat-building, fishing and the preparation -of rosemary essence and liqueurs are the principal resources of the -islanders. Lesina (_Hvar_) and Cittavecchia (_Starigrad_) are the -principal towns and seaports, having respectively 2138 and 3120 -inhabitants. Lesina, the capital, contains an arsenal, an observatory -and some interesting old buildings of the 16th century. It is a Roman -Catholic bishopric, and the centre of an administrative district, which -includes Cittavecchia, Lissa, and some small neighbouring islands. Pop. -(1900) of island 18,091, of district 27,928. - -To the primitive "Illyrian" race, whose stone cists and bronze -implements have been disinterred from barrows near the capital, may -perhaps be attributed the "Cyclopean" walls at Cittavecchia. About 385 -B.C., a Greek colony from Paros built a city on the site of the present -Lesina, naming it _Paros_ or _Pharos_. The forms _Phara_, _Pharia_ -(common among Latin writers), and _Pityeia_, also occur. In 229 B.C. the -island was betrayed to the Romans by Demetrius, lieutenant of the -Illyrian queen Teuta; but in 219, as Demetrius proved false to Rome -also, his capital was razed by Lucius Aemilius Paullus. _Neos Pharos_, -now Cittavecchia, took its place, and flourished until the 6th century, -when the island was laid waste by barbarian invaders. Constantine -Porphyrogenitus mentions Lesina as a colony of pagan Slavs, in the 10th -century. Throughout the middle ages it remained a purely Slavonic -community; and its name, which appears in old documents as _Lisna_, -_Lesna_ or _Lyesena_, "wooded" is almost certainly derived from the -Slavonic _lyes_, "forest," not from the Italian _lesina_, "an awl." But -the old form Pharia persisted, as _Far_ or _Hvar_, with the curious -result that the modern Serbo-Croatian name is Greek, and the modern -Italian name Slavonic in origin. Lesina became a bishopric in 1145, and -received a charter from Venice in 1331. It was sacked by the enemies of -Venice in 1354 and 1358; ceded to Hungary in the same year; held by -Ragusa from 1413 to 1416; and incorporated in the Venetian dominions in -1420. During the 16th century Lesina city had a considerable maritime -trade, and, though sacked and partly burned by the Turks in 1571, it -remained the chief naval station of Venice, in these waters, until 1776, -when it was superseded by Curzola. Passing to Austria in 1797, and to -France in 1805, it withstood a Russian attack in 1807, but was -surrendered by the French in 1813, and finally annexed to Austria in -1815. - - - - -LESION (through Fr. from Lat. _laesio_, injury, _laedere_, to hurt), an -injury, hurt, damage. In Scots law the term is used of damage suffered -by a party in a contract sufficient to enable him to bring an action for -setting it aside. In pathology, the chief use, the word is applied to -any morbid change in the structure of an organ, whether shown by visible -changes or by disturbance of function. - - - - -LESKOVATS (LESKOVATZ or LESKOVAC), a town in Servia, between Nish and -Vranya, on the railway line from Nish to Salonica. Pop. (1901) 13,707. -It is the headquarters of the Servian hemp industry, the extensive plain -in which the town lies growing the best flax and hemp in all the Balkan -peninsula. The plain is not only the most fertile portion of Servia, but -also the best cultivated. Besides flax and hemp, excellent tobacco is -grown. Five valleys converge on the plain from different directions, and -the inhabitants of the villages in these valleys are all occupied in -growing flax and hemp, which they send to Leskovats to be stored or -manufactured into ropes. After Belgrade and Nish, Leskovats is the most -prosperous town in Servia. - - - - -LESLEY, JOHN (1527-1596), Scottish bishop and historian, was born in -1527. His father was Gavin Lesley, rector of Kingussie. He was educated -at the university of Aberdeen, where he took the degree of M.A. In 1538 -he obtained a dispensation permitting him to hold a benefice, -notwithstanding his being a natural son, and in June 1546 he was made an -acolyte in the cathedral church of Aberdeen, of which he was afterwards -appointed a canon and prebendary. He also studied at Poitiers, at -Toulouse and at Paris, where he was made doctor of laws in 1553. In 1558 -he took orders and was appointed Official of Aberdeen, and inducted into -the parsonage and prebend of Oyne. At the Reformation Lesley became a -champion of Catholicism. He was present at the disputation held in -Edinburgh in 1561, when Knox and Willox were his antagonists. He was one -of the commissioners sent the same year to bring over the young Queen -Mary to take the government of Scotland. He returned in her train, and -was appointed a privy councillor and professor of canon law in King's -College, Aberdeen, and in 1565 one of the senators of the college of -justice. Shortly afterwards he was made abbot of Lindores, and in 1565 -bishop of Ross, the election to the see being confirmed in the following -year. He was one of the sixteen commissioners appointed to revise the -laws of Scotland, and the volume of the _Actis and Constitutionis of the -Realme of Scotland_ known as the Black Acts was, chiefly owing to his -care, printed in 1566. - -The bishop was one of the most steadfast friends of Queen Mary. After -the failure of the royal cause, and whilst Mary was a captive in -England, Lesley (who had gone to her at Bolton) continued to exert -himself on her behalf. He was one of the commissioners at the conference -at York in 1568. He appeared as her ambassador at the court of Elizabeth -to complain of the injustice done to her, and when he found he was not -listened to, he laid plans for her escape. He also projected a marriage -for her with the duke of Norfolk, which ended in the execution of that -nobleman. For this he was put under the charge of the bishop of London, -and then of the bishop of Ely (in Holborn), and afterwards imprisoned in -the Tower of London. During his confinement he collected materials for -his history of Scotland, by which his name is now chiefly known. In 1571 -he presented the latter portion of this work, written in Scots, to Queen -Mary to amuse her in her captivity. He also wrote for her use his _Piae -Consolationes_, and the queen devoted some of the hours of her captivity -to translating a portion of it into French verse. - -In 1573 he was liberated from prison, but was banished from England. For -two years he attempted unsuccessfully to obtain the assistance of -Continental princes in favour of Queen Mary. While at Rome in 1578 he -published his Latin history _De Origine, Moribus, et Rebus Gestis -Scotorum_. In 1579 he went to France, and was made suffragan and -vicar-general of the archbishopric of Rouen. Whilst visiting his -diocese, however, he was thrown into prison, and had to pay 3000 -pistoles to prevent his being given up to Elizabeth. During the -remainder of the reign of Henry III. he lived unmolested, but on the -accession of the Protestant Henry IV. he again fell into trouble. In -1590 he was thrown into prison, and had to purchase his freedom at the -same expense as before. In 1593 he was made bishop of Coutances in -Normandy, and had licence to hold the bishopric of Ross till he should -obtain peaceable possession of the former see. He retired to an -Augustinian monastery near Brussels, where he died on the 31st of May -1596. - - The chief works of Lesley are as follows: _A Defence of the Honour of - ... Marie, Queene of Scotland, by Eusebius Dicaeophile_ (London, - 1569), reprinted, with alterations, at Liege in 1571, under the title, - _A Treatise concerning the Defence of the Honour of Marie, Queene of - Scotland, made by Morgan Philippes, Bachelar of Divinitie, Piae - afflicti animi consolationes, ad Mariam Scot. Reg._ (Paris, 1574); _De - origine, moribus et rebus gestis Scotorum libri decem_ (Rome, 1578; - re-issued 1675); _De illustrium feminarum in republica administranda - authoritate libellus_ (Reims, 1580; a Latin version of a tract on "The - Lawfulness of the Regiment of Women": cf. Knox's pamphlet); _De titulo - et jure Mariae Scot. Reg., quo regni Angliae successionem sibi juste - vindicat_ (Reims, 1580; translated in 1584). The history of Scotland - from 1436 to 1561 owes much, in its earlier chapters, to the accounts - of Hector Boece (q.v.) and John Major (q.v.), though no small portion - of the topographical matter is first-hand. In the later sections he - gives an independent account (from the Catholic point of view) which - is a valuable supplement and a corrective in many details, to the - works of Buchanan and Knox. A Scots version of the history was written - in 1596 by James Dalrymple of the Scottish Cloister at Regensburg. It - has been printed for the Scottish Text Society (2 vols., 1888-1895) - under the editorship of the Rev. E. G. Cody, O.S.B. A slight sketch by - Lesley of Scottish history from 1562 to 1571 has been translated by - Forbes-Leith in his _Narrative of Scottish Catholics_ (1885), from the - original MS. now in the Vatican. - - - - -LESLEY, J. PETER (1819-1903), American geologist, was born in -Philadelphia on the 17th of September 1819. It is recorded by Sir A. -Geikie that "He was christened Peter after his father and grandfather, -and at first wrote his name 'Peter Lesley, Jr.,' but disliking the -Christian appellation that had been given to him, he eventually -transformed his signature by putting the J. of 'Junior' at the -beginning." He was educated for the ministry at the university of -Pennsylvania, where he graduated in 1838; but the effects of close study -having told upon his health, he served for a time as sub-assistant on -the first geological survey of Pennsylvania under Professor H. D. -Rogers, and was afterwards engaged in a special examination of the coal -regions. On the termination of the survey in 1841 he entered Princeton -seminary and renewed his theological studies, at the same time giving -his leisure time to assist Professor Rogers in preparing the final -report and map of Pennsylvania. He was licensed to preach in 1844; he -then paid a visit to Europe and entered on a short course of study at -the university of Halle. Returning to America he worked during two years -for the American Tract Society, and at the close of 1847 he joined -Professor Rogers again in preparing geological maps and sections at -Boston. He then accepted the pastorate of the Congregational church at -Milton, a suburb of Boston, where he remained until 1851, when, his -views having become Unitarian, he abandoned the ministry and entered -into practice as a consulting geologist. In the course of his work he -made elaborate surveys of the Cape Breton coalfield, and of other coal -and iron regions. From 1855 to 1859 he was secretary of the American -Iron Association; for twenty-seven years (1858-1885) he was secretary -and librarian of the American Philosophical Society; from 1872 to 1878 -he was professor of geology and dean of the faculty of science in the -university of Pennsylvania, and from 1874-1893 he was in charge of the -second geological survey of the state. He then retired to Milton, Mass., -where he died on the 1st of June 1903. He published _Manual of Coal and -its Topography_ (1856); _The Iron Manufacturer's Guide to the Furnaces, -Forges and Rolling Mills of the United States_ (1859). - - See Memoir by Sir A. Geikie in _Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc._ (May 1904); - and Memoir (with portrait) by B. S. Lyman, printed in advance with - portrait, and afterwards in abstract only in _Trans. Amer. Inst. - Mining Engineers_, xxxiv. (1904) p. 726. - - - - - -LESLIE, CHARLES (1650-1722), Anglican nonjuring divine, son of John -Leslie (1571-1671), bishop of Raphoe and afterwards of Clogher, was born -in July 1650 in Dublin, and was educated at Enniskillen school and -Trinity College, Dublin. Going to England he read law for a time, but -soon turned his attention to theology, and took orders in 1680. In 1687 -he became chancellor of the cathedral of Connor and a justice of the -peace, and began a long career of public controversy by responding in -public disputation at Monaghan to the challenge of the Roman Catholic -bishop of Clogher. Although a vigorous opponent of Roman Catholicism, -Leslie was a firm supporter of the Stuart dynasty, and, having declined -at the Revolution to take the oath to William and Mary, he was on this -account deprived of his benefice. In 1689 the growing troubles in -Ireland induced him to withdraw to England, where he employed himself -for the next twenty years in writing various controversial pamphlets in -favour of the nonjuring cause, and in numerous polemics against the -Quakers, Jews, Socinians and Roman Catholics, and especially in that -against the Deists with which his name is now most commonly associated. -He had the keenest scent for every form of heresy and was especially -zealous in his defence of the sacraments. A warrant having been issued -against him in 1710 for his pamphlet _The Good Old Cause, or Lying in -Truth_, he resolved to quit England and to accept an offer made by the -Pretender (with whom he had previously been in frequent correspondence) -that he should reside with him at Bar-le-Duc. After the failure of the -Stuart cause in 1715, Leslie accompanied his patron into Italy, where he -remained until 1721, in which year, having found his sojourn amongst -Roman Catholics extremely unpleasant, he sought and obtained permission -to return to his native country. He died at Glaslough, Monaghan, on the -13th of April 1722. - - The _Theological Works_ of Leslie were collected and published by - himself in 2 vols. folio in 1721; a later edition, slightly enlarged, - appeared at Oxford in 1832 (7 vols. 8vo). Though marred by persistent - arguing in a circle they are written in lively style and show - considerable erudition. He had the somewhat rare distinction of making - several converts by his reasonings, and Johnson declared that "Leslie - was a reasoner, and a reasoner who was not to be reasoned against." An - historical interest in all that now attaches to his subjects and his - methods, as may be seen when the promise given in the title of his - best-known work is contrasted with the actual performance. The book - professes to be _A Short and Easy Method with the Deists, wherein the - certainty of the Christian Religion is Demonstrated by Infallible - Proof from Four Rules, which are incompatible to any imposture that - ever yet has been, or that can possibly be_ (1697). The four rules - which, according to Leslie, have only to be rigorously applied in - order to establish not the probability merely but the absolute - certainty of the truth of Christianity are simply these: (1) that the - matter of fact be such as that men's outward senses, their eyes and - ears, may be judges of it; (2) that it be done publicly, in the face - of the world; (3) that not only public monuments be kept up in memory - of it, but some outward actions be performed; (4) that such monuments - and such actions or observances be instituted and do commence from the - time that the matter of fact was done. Other publications of Leslie - are _The Snake in the Grass_ (1696), against the Quakers; _A Short - Method with the Jews_ (1689); _Gallienus Redivivus_ (an attack on - William III., 1695); _The Socinian Controversy Discussed_ (1697); _The - True Notion of the Catholic Church_ (1703); and _The Case Stated - between the Church of Rome and the Church of England_ (1713). - - - - -LESLIE, CHARLES ROBERT (1794-1859), English genre-painter, was born in -London on the 19th of October 1794. His parents were American, and when -he was five years of age he returned with them to their native country. -They settled in Philadelphia, where their son was educated and -afterwards apprenticed to a bookseller. He was, however, mainly -interested in painting and the drama, and when George Frederick Cooke -visited the city he executed a portrait of the actor, from recollection -of him on the stage, which was considered a work of such promise that a -fund was raised to enable the young artist to study in Europe. He left -for London in 1811, bearing introductions which procured for him the -friendship of West, Beechey, Allston, Coleridge and Washington Irving, -and was admitted as a student of the Royal Academy, where he carried off -two silver medals. At first, influenced by West and Fuseli, he essayed -"high art," and his earliest important subject depicted Saul and the -Witch of Endor; but he soon discovered his true aptitude and became a -painter of cabinet-pictures, dealing, not like those of Wilkie, with the -contemporary life that surrounded him, but with scenes from the great -masters of fiction, from Shakespeare and Cervantes, Addison and Moliere, -Swift, Sterne, Fielding and Smollett. Of individual paintings we may -specify "Sir Roger de Coverley going to Church" (1819); "May-day in the -Time of Queen Elizabeth" (1821); "Sancho Panza and the Duchess" (1824); -"Uncle Toby and the Widow Wadman" (1831); _La Malade Imaginaire_, act -iii. sc. 6 (1843); and the "Duke's Chaplain Enraged leaving the Table," -from _Don Quixote_ (1849). Many of his more important subjects exist in -varying replicas. He possessed a sympathetic imagination, which enabled -him to enter freely into the spirit of the author whom he illustrated, a -delicate perception for female beauty, an unfailing eye for character -and its outward manifestation in face and figure, and a genial and sunny -sense of humour, guided by an instinctive refinement which prevented it -from overstepping the bounds of good taste. In 1821 Leslie was elected -A.R.A., and five years later full academician. In 1833 he left for -America to become teacher of drawing in the military academy at West -Point, but the post proved an irksome one, and in some six months he -returned to England. He died on the 5th of May 1859. - - In addition to his skill as an artist, Leslie was a ready and pleasant - writer. His _Life_ of his friend Constable, the landscape painter, - appeared in 1843, and his _Handbook for Young Painters_, a volume - embodying the substance of his lectures as professor of painting to - the Royal Academy, in 1855. In 1860 Tom Taylor edited his - _Autobiography and Letters_, which contain interesting reminiscences - of his distinguished friends and contemporaries. - - - - -LESLIE, FRED [FREDERICK HOBSON] (1855-1892), English actor, was born at -Woolwich on the 1st of April 1855. He made his first stage appearance in -London as Colonel Hardy in _Paul Pry_ in 1878. He had a good voice, and -in 1882 made a great hit as Rip Van Winkle in Planquette's opera of that -name at the Comedy. In 1885 he appeared at the Gaiety as Jonathan Wild -in H. P. Stephens and W. Yardley's burlesque _Little Jack Sheppard_. His -extraordinary success in this part determined his subsequent career, and -for some years he and Nelly Farren, with whom he played in perfect -association, were the pillars of Gaiety burlesque. Leslie's "Don Caesar -de Bazan" in _Ruy Blas, or the Blase Roue_, was perhaps the most popular -of his later parts. In all of them it was his own versatility and -entertaining personality which formed the attraction; whether he sang, -danced, whistled or "gagged," his performance was an unending flow of -high spirits and ludicrous charm. Under the pseudonym of "A. C. Torr" he -was acknowledged on the programmes as part-author of these burlesques, -and while on occasion he acted in more serious comedy, for which he had -undoubted capacity, his fame rests on his connexion with them. In 1881 -and 1883 he played in America. He died on the 7th of December 1892. - - See W. T. Vincent, _Recollections of Fred Leslie_ (1894). - - - - -LESLIE, SIR JOHN (1766-1832), Scottish mathematician and physicist, was -born of humble parentage at Largo, Fifeshire, on the 16th of April 1766, -and received his early education there and at Leven. In his thirteenth -year, encouraged by friends who had even then remarked his aptitude for -mathematical and physical science, he entered the university of St -Andrews. On the completion of his arts course, he nominally studied -divinity at Edinburgh until 1787; in 1788-1789 he spent rather more than -a year as private tutor in a Virginian family, and from 1790 till the -close of 1792 he held a similar appointment at Etruria in Staffordshire, -with the family of Josiah Wedgwood, employing his spare time in -experimental research and in preparing a translation of Buffon's -_Natural History of Birds_, which was published in nine 8vo vols. in -1793, and brought him some money. For the next twelve years (passed -chiefly in London or at Largo, with an occasional visit to the continent -of Europe) he continued his physical studies, which resulted in numerous -papers contributed by him to Nicholson's _Philosophical Journal_, and in -the publication (1804) of the _Experimental Inquiry into the Nature and -Properties of Heat_, a work which gained him the Rumford Medal of the -Royal Society of London. In 1805 he was elected to succeed John -Playfair in the chair of mathematics at Edinburgh, not, however, without -violent though unsuccessful opposition on the part of a narrow-minded -clerical party who accused him of heresy in something he had said as to -the "unsophisticated notions of mankind" about the relation of cause and -effect. During his tenure of this chair he published two volumes of a -_Course of Mathematics_--the first, entitled _Elements of Geometry, -Geometrical Analysis and Plane Trigonometry_, in 1809, and the second, -_Geometry of Curve Lines_, in 1813; the third volume, on _Descriptive -Geometry and the Theory of Solids_ was never completed. With reference -to his invention (in 1810) of a process of artificial congelation, he -published in 1813 _A Short Account of Experiments and Instruments -depending on the relations of Air to Heat and Moisture_; and in 1818 a -paper by him "On certain impressions of cold transmitted from the higher -atmosphere, with an instrument (the aethrioscope) adapted to measure -them," appeared in the _Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh_. -In 1819, on the death of Playfair, he was promoted to the more congenial -chair of natural philosophy, which he continued to hold until his death, -and in 1823 he published, chiefly for the use of his class, the first -volume of his never-completed _Elements of Natural Philosophy_. Leslie's -main contributions to physics were made by the help of the "differential -thermometer," an instrument whose invention was contested with him by -Count Rumford. By adapting to this instrument various ingenious devices -he was enabled to employ it in a great variety of investigations, -connected especially with photometry, hygroscopy and the temperature of -space. In 1820 he was elected a corresponding member of the Institute of -France, the only distinction of the kind which he valued, and early in -1832 he was created a knight. He died at Coates, a small property which -he had acquired near Largo, on the 3rd of November 1832. - - - - -LESLIE, THOMAS EDWARD CLIFFE (1827-1882), English economist, was born in -the county of Wexford in (as is believed) the year 1827. He was the -second son of the Rev. Edward Leslie, prebendary of Dromore, and rector -of Annahilt, in the county of Down. His family was of Scottish descent, -but had been connected with Ireland since the reign of Charles I. -Amongst his ancestors were that accomplished prelate, John Leslie -(1571-1671), bishop first of Raphoe and afterwards of Clogher, who, when -holding the former see, offered so stubborn a resistance to the -Cromwellian forces, and the bishop's son Charles (see above), the -nonjuror. Cliffe Leslie received his elementary education from his -father, who resided in England, though holding church preferment as well -as possessing some landed property in Ireland; by him he was taught -Latin, Greek and Hebrew, at an unusually early age; he was afterwards -for a short time under the care of a clergyman at Clapham, and was then -sent to King William's College, in the Isle of Man, where he remained -until, in 1842, being then only fifteen years of age, he entered Trinity -College, Dublin. He was a distinguished student there, obtaining, -besides other honours, a classical scholarship in 1845, and a senior -moderatorship (gold medal) in mental and moral philosophy at his degree -examination in 1846. He became a law student at Lincoln's Inn, was for -two years a pupil in a conveyancer's chambers in London, and was called -to the English bar. But his attention was soon turned from the pursuit -of legal practice, for which he seems never to have had much -inclination, by his appointment, in 1853, to the professorship of -jurisprudence and political economy in Queen's College, Belfast. The -duties of this chair requiring only short visits to Ireland in certain -terms of each year, he continued to reside and prosecute his studies in -London, and became a frequent writer on economic and social questions in -the principal reviews and other periodicals. In 1870 he collected a -number of his essays, adding several new ones, into a volume entitled -_Land Systems and Industrial Economy of Ireland, England and Continental -Countries_. J. S. Mill gave a full account of the contents of this work -in a paper in the _Fortnightly Review_, in which he pronounced Leslie to -be "one of the best living writers on applied political economy." Mill -had sought his acquaintance on reading his first article in -_Macmillan's Magazine_; he admired his talents and took pleasure in his -society, and treated him with a respect and kindness which Leslie always -gratefully acknowledged. - -In the frequent visits which Leslie made to the continent, especially to -Belgium and some of the less-known districts of France and Germany, he -occupied himself much in economic and social observation, studying the -effects of the institutions and system of life which prevailed in each -region, on the material and moral condition of its inhabitants. In this -way he gained an extensive and accurate acquaintance with continental -rural economy, of which he made excellent use in studying parallel -phenomena at home. The accounts he gave of the results of his -observations were among his happiest efforts; "no one," said Mill, "was -able to write narratives of foreign visits at once so instructive and so -interesting." In these excursions he made the acquaintance of several -distinguished persons, amongst others of M. Leonce de Lavergne and M. -Emile de Laveleye. To the memory of the former of these he afterwards -paid a graceful tribute in a biographical sketch (_Fortnightly Review_, -February 1881); and to the close of his life there existed between him -and M. de Laveleye relations of mutual esteem and cordial intimacy. - -Two essays of Leslie's appeared in volumes published under the auspices -of the Cobden Club, one on the "Land System of France" (2nd ed., 1870), -containing an earnest defence of _la petite culture_ and still more of -_la petite propriete_; the other on "Financial Reform" (1871), in which -he exhibited in detail the impediments to production and commerce -arising from indirect taxation. Many other articles were contributed by -him to reviews between 1875 and 1879, including several discussions of -the history of prices and the movements of wages in Europe, and a sketch -of life in Auvergne in his best manner; the most important of them, -however, related to the philosophical method of political economy, -notably a memorable one which appeared in the Dublin University -periodical, _Hermathena_. In 1879 the provost and senior fellows of -Trinity College published for him a volume in which a number of these -articles were collected under the title of _Essays in Political and -Moral Philosophy_. These and some later essays, together with the -earlier volume on _Land Systems_, form the essential contribution of -Leslie to economic literature. He had long contemplated, and had in part -written, a work on English economic and legal history, which would have -been his _magnum opus_--a more substantial fruit of his genius and his -labours than anything he has left. But the MS. of this treatise, after -much pains had already been spent on it, was unaccountably lost at Nancy -in 1872; and, though he hoped to be able speedily to reproduce the -missing portion and finish the work, no material was left in a state fit -for publication. What the nature of it would have been may be gathered -from an essay on the "History and Future of Profit" in the _Fortnightly -Review_ for November 1881, which is believed to have been in substance -an extract from it. - -That he was able to do so much may well be a subject of wonder when it -is known that his labours had long been impeded by a painful and -depressing malady, from which he suffered severely at intervals, whilst -he never felt secure from its recurring attacks. To this disease he in -the end succumbed at Belfast, on the 27th of January 1882. - - Leslie's work may be distributed under two heads, that of applied - political economy and that of discussion on the philosophical method - of the science. The _Land Systems_ belonged principally to the former - division. The author perceived the great and growing importance for - the social welfare of both Ireland and England of what is called "the - land question," and treated it in this volume at once with breadth of - view and with a rich variety of illustrative detail. His general - purpose was to show that the territorial systems of both countries - were so encumbered with elements of feudal origin as to be altogether - unfitted to serve the purposes of a modern industrial society. The - policy he recommended is summed up in the following list of - requirements, "a simple jurisprudence relating to land, a law of equal - intestate succession, a prohibition of entail, a legal security for - tenants' improvements, an open registration of title and transfer and - a considerable number of peasant properties." The volume is full of - practical good sense, and exhibits a thorough knowledge of home and - foreign agricultural economy; and in the handling of the subject is - everywhere shown the special power which its author possessed of - making what he wrote interesting as well as instructive. The way in - which sagacious observation and shrewd comment are constantly - intermingled in the discussion not seldom reminds us of Adam Smith, - whose manner was more congenial to Leslie than the abstract and arid - style of Ricardo. - - But what, more than anything else, marks him as an original thinker - and gives him a place apart among contemporary economists, is his - exposition and defence of the historical method in political economy. - Both at home and abroad there has for some time existed a profound and - growing dissatisfaction with the method and many of the doctrines of - the hitherto dominant school, which, it is alleged, under a - "fictitious completeness, symmetry and exactness" disguises a real - hollowness and discordance with fact. It is urged that the attempt to - deduce the economic phenomena of a society from the so-called - universal principle of "the desire of wealth" is illusory, and that - they cannot be fruitfully studied apart from the general social - conditions and historic development of which they are the outcome. Of - this movement of thought Leslie was the principal representative, if - not the originator, in England. There is no doubt, for he has himself - placed it on record, that the first influence which impelled him in - the direction of the historical method was that of Sir Henry Maine, by - whose personal teaching of jurisprudence, as well as by the example of - his writings, he was led "to look at the present economic structure - and state of society as the result of a long evolution." The study of - those German economists who represent similar tendencies doubtless - confirmed him in the new line of thought on which he had entered, - though he does not seem to have been further indebted to any of them - except, perhaps, in some small degree to Roscher. And the writings of - Comte, whose "prodigious genius," as exhibited in the _Philosophie - Positive_, he admired and proclaimed, though he did not accept his - system as a whole, must have powerfully co-operated to form in him the - habit of regarding economic science as only a single branch of - sociology, which should always be kept in close relation to the - others. The earliest writing in which Leslie's revolt against the - so-called "orthodox school" distinctly appears is his _Essay on - Wages_, which was first published in 1868 and was reproduced as an - appendix to the volume on _Land Tenures_. In this, after exposing the - inanity of the theory of the wage-fund, and showing the utter want of - agreement between its results and the observed phenomena, he concludes - by declaring that "political economy must be content to take rank as - an inductive, instead of a purely deductive science," and that, by - this change of character, "it will gain in utility, interest and real - truth far more than a full compensation for the forfeiture of a - fictitious title to mathematical exactness and certainty." But it is - in the essays collected in the volume of 1879 that his attitude in - relation to the question of method is most decisively marked. In one - of these, on "the political economy of Adam Smith," he exhibits in a - very interesting way the co-existence in the _Wealth of Nations_ of - historical-inductive investigation in the manner of Montesquieu with a - priori speculation founded on theologico-metaphysical bases, and - points out the error of ignoring the former element, which is the - really characteristic feature of Smith's social philosophy, and places - him in strong contrast with his _soi-disant_ followers of the school - of Ricardo. The essay, however, which contains the most brilliant - polemic against the "orthodox school," as well as the most luminous - account and the most powerful vindication of the new direction, was - that of which we have above spoken as having first appeared in - _Hermathena_. It may be recommended as supplying the best extant - presentation of one of the two contending views of economic method. On - this essay mainly rests the claim of Leslie to be regarded as the - founder and first head of the English historical school of political - economy. Those who share his views on the philosophical constitution - of the science regard the work he did, notwithstanding its - unsystematic character, as in reality the most important done by any - English economists in the latter half of the 19th century. But even - the warmest partisans of the older school acknowledge that he did - excellent service by insisting on a kind of inquiry, previously too - much neglected, which was of the highest interest and value, in - whatever relation it might be supposed to stand to the establishment - of economic truth. The members of both groups alike recognized his - great learning, his patient and conscientious habits of investigation - and the large social spirit in which he treated the problems of his - science. (J. K. I.) - - - - -LESLIE, a police burgh of Fifeshire, Scotland. Pop. (1901) 3587. It lies -on the Leven, the vale of which is overlooked by the town, 4 m. W. of -Markinch by the North British railway. The industries include -paper-making, flax-spinning, bleaching and linen-weaving. The old church -claims to be the "Christ's Kirk on the Green" of the ancient ballads of -that name. A stone on the Green, called the Bull Stone, is said to have -been used when bull-baiting was a popular pastime. Leslie House, the -seat of the earl of Rothes, designed by Sir William Bruce, rivalled -Holyrood in magnificence. It was noted for its tapestry and its gallery -of family portraits and other pictures, including a portrait of -Rembrandt by himself. Daniel Defoe considered its park the glory of the -kingdom. The mansion sustained serious damage from fire in 1763. Norman -Leslie, master of Rothes, was concerned in the killing of Cardinal -Beaton (1546), and the dagger with which John Leslie, Norman's uncle, -struck the fatal blow is preserved in Leslie House. - -MARKINCH (pop. 1499), a police burgh situated between Conland Burn and -the Leven, 7(1/4) m. N. by E. of Kirkcaldy by the North British railway, -is a place of great antiquity. A cell of the Culdees was established -here by one of the last of the Celtic bishops, the site of which may -possibly be marked by the ancient cross of Balgonie. Markinch is also -believed to have been a residence of the earlier kings, where prior to -the 11th century they occasionally administered justice; and in the -reign of William the Lion (d. 1214) the warrantors of goods alleged to -have been stolen were required to appear here. Its industries comprise -bleaching, flax-spinning, paper-making, distilling and coal-mining. -Balgonie Castle, close by, the keep of which is 80 ft. high, was a -residence of Alexander Leslie, the first earl of Leven, and at Balfour -Castle were born Cardinal Beaton and his uncle and nephew the -archbishops of Glasgow. - - - - -LESPINASSE, JEANNE JULIE ELEONORE DE (1732-1776), French author, was -born at Lyons on the 9th of November 1732. A natural child of the -comtesse d'Albon, she was brought up as the daughter of Claude -Lespinasse of Lyons. On leaving her convent school she became governess -in the house of her mother's legitimate daughter, Mme de Vichy, who had -married the brother of the marquise du Deffand. Here Mme du Deffand made -her acquaintance, and, recognizing her extraordinary gifts, persuaded -her to come to Paris as her companion. The alliance lasted ten years -(1754-1764) until Mme du Deffand became jealous of the younger woman's -increasing influence, when a violent quarrel ensued. Mlle de Lespinasse -set up a salon of her own which was joined by many of the most brilliant -members of Mme du Deffand's circle. D'Alembert was one of the most -assiduous of her friends and eventually came to live under the same -roof. There was no scandal attached to this arrangement, which ensured -d'Alembert's comfort and lent influence to Mlle de Lespinasse's salon. -Although she had neither beauty nor rank, her ability as a hostess made -her reunions the most popular in Paris. She owes her distinction, -however, not to her social success, but to circumstances which remained -a secret during her lifetime from her closest friends. Two volumes of -_Lettres_ published in 1809 displayed her as the victim of a passion of -a rare intensity. In virtue of this ardent, intense quality Sainte Beuve -and other of her critics place her letters in the limited category to -which belong the Latin letters of Heloise and those of the Portuguese -Nun. Her first passion, a reasonable and serious one, was for the -marquis de Mora, son of the Spanish ambassador in Paris. De Mora had -come to Paris in 1765, and with some intervals remained there until 1772 -when he was ordered to Spain for his health. On the way to Paris in 1774 -to fulfil promises exchanged with Mlle de Lespinasse, he died at -Bordeaux. But her letters to the comte de Guibert, the worthless object -of her fatal infatuation, begin from 1773. From the struggle between her -affection for de Mora and her blind passion for her new lover they go on -to describe her partial disenchantment on Guibert's marriage and her -final despair. Mlle de Lespinasse died on the 23rd of May 1776, her -death being apparently hastened by the agitation and misery to which she -had been for the last three years of her life a prey. In addition to the -_Lettres_ she was the author of two chapters intended as a kind of -sequel to Sterne's _Sentimental Journey_. - - Her _Lettres_ ... were published by Mme de Guibert in 1809 and a - spurious additional collection appeared in 1820. Among modern editions - may be mentioned that of Eugene Asse (1876-1877). _Lettres inedites de - Mademoiselle de Lespinasse a Condorcet, a D'Alembert, a Guibert, au - comte de Crillon_, edited by M. Charles Henry (1887), contains copies - of the documents available for her biography. Mrs Humphry Ward's - novel, _Lady Rose's Daughter_, owes something to the character of Mlle - de Lespinasse. - - - - -LES SABLES D'OLONNE, a seaport of western France, capital of an -arrondissement of the department of Vendee, on an inlet of the Atlantic -seaboard, 23 m. S.W. of La Roche-sur-Yon by rail. Pop. (1906) 11,847. -The town stands between the sea on the south and the port on the north, -while on the west it is separated by a channel from the suburb of La -Chaume, built at the foot of a range of dunes 65 ft. high, which -terminates southwards in the rocky peninsula of L'Aiguille. The -beautiful smoothly sloping beach, 1 m. in length, is much frequented by -bathers. To the north of Sables extend salt-marshes and oyster-parks, -yielding 6,000,000 to 8,000,000 oysters per annum. Sables has a church -built in the Late Gothic style towards the middle of the 17th century. -The port, consisting of a tidal basin and a wet-dock, is accessible to -vessels of 2000 tons, but is dangerous when the winds are from the -south-west. The lighthouse of Barges, a mile out at sea to the west, is -visible for 17 to 18 nautical miles. The inhabitants are employed -largely in sardine and tunny fishing; there are imports of coal, wood, -petroleum and phosphates. Boat-building and sardine-preserving are -carried on. The town has a sub-prefecture and a tribunal of first -instance. - -Founded by Basque or Spanish sailors, Sables was the first place in -Poitou invaded by the Normans in 817. Louis XI., who went there in 1472, -granted the inhabitants various privileges, improved the harbour, and -fortified the entrance. Captured and recaptured during the Wars of -Religion, the town afterwards became a nursery of hardy sailors and -privateers, who harassed the Spaniards and afterwards the English. In -1696 Sables was bombarded by the combined fleets of England and Holland. -In the middle of the 18th century hurricanes caused grievous damage to -town and harbour. - - - - -LES SAINTES-MARIES, a coast village of south-eastern France in the -department of Bouches-du-Rhone, 24 m. S.S.W. of Arles by rail. Pop. -(1906) 544. Saintes-Maries is situated in the plain of the Camargue, -1(1/2) m. E. of the mouth of the Petit-Rhone. It is the object of an -ancient and famous pilgrimage due to the tradition that Mary, sister of -the Virgin, and Mary, mother of James and John, together with their -black servant Sara, Lazarus, Martha, Mary Magdalen and St Maximin fled -thither to escape persecution in Judaea. The relics of the two Maries, -who are said to have been buried at Saintes-Maries, are bestowed in the -upper storey of the apse of the fortress-church, a remarkable building -of the 12th century with crenelated and machicolated walls. Two -festivals are held in the town, a less important one in October, the -other, on the 24th and 25th of May, unique for its gathering of gipsies -who come in large numbers to do honour to the tomb of their patroness -Sara, contained in the crypt below the apse. - - - - -LESSE, one of the most romantic of the smaller rivers of Belgium. It -rises at Ochamps in the Ardennes, and flowing in a north-westerly course -reaches the Meuse at Anseremme, a few miles above Dinant. The river is -only 49 m. long, but its meandering course may be judged by the fact -that it is no more than 29 m. from Ochamps to Anseremme in a straight -line. There is a good deal of pretty scenery along this river, as, for -instance, at Ciergnon, but the most striking part of the valley is -contained in the last 12 m. from Houyet to Anseremme. In this section -the river is confined between opposing walls of cliff ranging from 300 -to 500 ft. above the river. Here were discovered in the caves near -Walzin the bones of prehistoric men, and other evidence of the primitive -occupants of this globe at a period practically beyond computation. -Another curious natural feature of the Lesse is that on reaching the -hill of Han it disappears underground, reappearing about 1 m. farther on -at the village of that name. Here are the curious and interesting Han -grottoes. The Lesse receives altogether in its short course the water of -thirteen tributaries. - - - - -LESSEPS, FERDINAND DE (1805-1894). French diplomatist and maker of the -Suez Canal, was born at Versailles on the 19th of November 1805. The -origin of his family has been traced back as far as the end of the 14th -century. His ancestors, it is believed, came from Scotland, and settled -at Bayonne when that region was occupied by the English. One of his -great-grandfathers was town clerk and at the same time secretary to -Queen Anne of Neuberg, widow of Charles II. of Spain, exiled to Bayonne -after the accession of Philip V. From the middle of the 18th century -the ancestors of Ferdinand de Lesseps followed the diplomatic career, -and he himself occupied with real distinction several posts in the same -calling from 1825 to 1849. His uncle was ennobled by King Louis XVI., -and his father was made a count by Napoleon I. His father, Mathieu de -Lesseps (1774-1832), was in the consular service; his mother, Catherine -de Grivegnee, was Spanish, and aunt of the countess of Montijo, mother -of the empress Eugenie. His first years were spent in Italy, where his -father was occupied with his consular duties. He was educated at the -College of Henry IV. in Paris. From the age of 18 years to 20 he was -employed in the commissary department of the army. From 1825 to 1827 he -acted as assistant vice-consul at Lisbon, where his uncle, Barthelemy de -Lesseps, was the French charge d'affaires. This uncle was an old -companion of La Perouse and a survivor of the expedition in which that -navigator perished. In 1828 Ferdinand was sent as an assistant -vice-consul to Tunis, where his father was consul-general. He -courageously aided the escape of Youssouff, pursued by the soldiers of -the bey, of whom he was one of the officers, for violation of the -seraglio law. Youssouff acknowledged this protection given by a -Frenchman by distinguishing himself in the ranks of the French army at -the time of the conquest of Algeria. Ferdinand de Lesseps was also -entrusted by his father with missions to Marshal Count Clausel, -general-in-chief of the army of occupation in Algeria. The marshal wrote -to Mathieu de Lesseps on the 18th of December 1830: "I have had the -pleasure of meeting your son, who gives promise of sustaining with great -credit the name he bears." In 1832 Ferdinand de Lesseps was appointed -vice-consul at Alexandria. To the placing in quarantine of the vessel -which took him to Egypt is due the origin of his great conception of a -canal across the isthmus of Suez. In order to help him to while away the -time at the lazaretto, M. Mimaut, consul-general of France at -Alexandria, sent him several books, among which was the memoir written -upon the Suez Canal, according to Bonaparte's instructions, by the civil -engineer Lapere, one of the scientific members of the French expedition. -This work struck de Lesseps's imagination, and gave him the idea of -piercing the African isthmus. This idea, moreover, was conceived in -circumstances that were to prepare the way for its realization. Mehemet -Ali, who was the viceroy of Egypt, owed his position, to a certain -extent, to the recommendations made in his behalf to the French -government by Mathieu de Lesseps, who was consul-general in Egypt when -Mehemet Ali was a simple colonel. The viceroy therefore welcomed -Ferdinand affectionately, while Said Pacha, Mehemet's son, began those -friendly relations that he did not forget later, when he gave him the -concession for making the Suez Canal. In 1833 Ferdinand de Lesseps was -sent as consul to Cairo, and soon afterwards given the management of the -consulate-general at Alexandria, a post that he held until 1837. While -he was there a terrible epidemic of the plague broke out and lasted for -two years, carrying off more than a third of the inhabitants of Cairo -and Alexandria. During this time he went from one city to the other, -according as the danger was more pressing, and constantly displayed an -admirable zeal and an imperturbable energy. Towards the close of the -year 1837 he returned to France, and on the 21st of December married -Mlle Agathe Delamalle, daughter of the government prosecuting attorney -at the court of Angers. By this marriage M. de Lesseps became the father -of five sons. In 1839 he was appointed consul at Rotterdam, and in the -following year transferred to Malaga, the place of origin of his -mother's family. In 1842 he was sent to Barcelona, and soon afterwards -promoted to the grade of consul-general. In the course of a bloody -insurrection in Catalonia, which ended in the bombardment of Barcelona, -Ferdinand de Lesseps showed the most persistent bravery, rescuing from -death, without distinction, the men belonging to the rival factions, and -protecting and sending away not only the Frenchmen who were in danger, -but foreigners of all nationalities. From 1848 to 1849 he was minister -of France at Madrid. In the latter year the government of the French -Republic confided to him a mission to Rome at the moment when it was a -question whether the expelled pope would return to the Vatican with or -without bloodshed. Following his interpretation of the instructions he -had received, de Lesseps began negotiations with the existing government -at Rome, according to which Pius IX. should peacefully re-enter the -Vatican and the independence of the Romans be assured at the same time. -But while he was negotiating, the elections in France had caused a -change in the foreign policy of the government. His course was -disapproved; he was recalled and brought before the council of state, -which blamed his conduct without giving him a chance to justify himself. -Rome, attacked by the French army, was taken by assault after a month's -sanguinary siege. M. de Lesseps then retired from the diplomatic -service, and never afterwards occupied any public office. In 1853 he -lost his wife and daughter at a few days' interval. Perhaps his energy -would not have been sufficient to sustain him against these repeated -blows of destiny if, in 1854, the accession to the viceroyalty of Egypt -of his old friend, Said Pacha, had not given a new impulse to the ideas -that had haunted him for the last twenty-two years concerning the Suez -Canal. Said Pacha invited M. de Lesseps to pay him a visit, and on the -7th of November 1854 he landed at Alexandria; on the 30th of the same -month Said Pacha signed the concession authorizing M. de Lesseps to -pierce the isthmus of Suez. - -A first scheme, indicated by him, was immediately drawn out by two -French engineers who were in the Egyptian service, MM. Linant Bey and -Mougel Bey. This project, differing from others that had been previously -presented or that were in opposition to it, provided for a direct -communication between the Mediterranean and the Red Sea. After being -slightly modified, the plan was adopted in 1856 by an international -commission of civil engineers to which it had been submitted. Encouraged -by this approval, de Lesseps no longer allowed anything to stop him. He -listened to no adverse criticism and receded before no obstacle. Neither -the opposition of Lord Palmerston, who considered the projected -disturbance as too radical not to endanger the commercial position of -Great Britain, nor the opinions entertained, in France as well as in -England, that the sea in front of Port Said was full of mud which would -obstruct the entrance to the canal, that the sands from the desert would -fill the trenches--no adverse argument, in a word, could dishearten -Ferdinand de Lesseps. His faith made him believe that his adversaries -were in the wrong; but how great must have been this faith, which -permitted him to undertake the work at a time when mechanical appliances -for the execution of such an undertaking did not exist, and when for the -utilization of the proposed canal there was as yet no steam mercantile -marine! Impelled by his convictions and talent, supported by the emperor -Napoleon III. and the empress Eugenie, he succeeded in rousing the -patriotism of the French and obtaining by their subscriptions more than -half of the capital of two hundred millions of francs which he needed in -order to form a company. The Egyptian government subscribed for eighty -millions' worth of shares. The company was organized at the end of 1858. -On the 25th of April 1859 the first blow of the pickaxe was given by -Lesseps at Port Said, and on the 17th of November 1869 the canal was -officially opened by the Khedive, Ismail Pacha (see SUEZ CANAL). While -in the interests of his canal Lesseps had resisted the opposition of -British diplomacy to an enterprise which threatened to give to France -control of the shortest route to India, he acted loyally towards Great -Britain after Lord Beaconsfield had acquired the Suez shares belonging -to the Khedive, by frankly admitting to the board of directors of the -company three representatives of the British government. The -consolidation of interests which resulted, and which has been developed -by the addition in 1884 of seven other British directors, chosen from -among shipping merchants and business men, has augmented, for the -benefit of all concerned, the commercial character of the enterprise. - -Ferdinand de Lesseps steadily endeavoured to keep out of politics. If in -1869 he appeared to deviate from this principle by being a candidate at -Marseilles for the Corps Legislatif, it was because he yielded to the -entreaties of the Imperial government in order to strengthen its -goodwill for the Suez Canal. Once this goodwill had been shown, he bore -no malice towards those who rendered him his liberty by preferring -Gambetta. He afterwards declined the other candidatures that were -offered him: for the Senate in 1876, and for the Chamber in 1877. In -1873 he became interested in a project for uniting Europe and Asia by a -railway to Bombay, with a branch to Peking. He subsequently encouraged -Major Roudaire, who wished to transform the Sahara desert into an inland -sea. The king of the Belgians having formed an International African -Society, de Lesseps accepted the presidency of the French committee, -facilitated M. de Brazza's explorations, and acquired stations that he -subsequently abandoned to the French government. These stations were the -starting-point of French Congo. In 1879 a congress assembled in the -rooms of the Geographical Society at Paris, under the presidency of -Admiral de la Ronciere le Noury, and voted in favour of the making of -the Panama Canal. Public opinion, it may be declared, designated -Ferdinand de Lesseps as the head of the enterprise. It was upon that -occasion that Gambetta bestowed upon him the title of _Le Grand -Francais_. He was not a man to shirk responsibility, and notwithstanding -that he had reached the age of 74, he undertook to carry out the Panama -Canal project (see PANAMA CANAL and FRANCE: _History_). Politics, which -de Lesseps had always avoided, was his greatest enemy in this matter. -The winding-up of the Panama Company having been declared in the month -of December 1888, the adversaries of the French Republic, seeking for a -scandal that would imperil the government, hoped to bring about the -prosecution of the directors of the Panama Company. Their attacks were -so vigorously made that the government was obliged, in self-defence, to -have judicial proceedings taken against Ferdinand de Lesseps, his son -Charles (b. 1849) and his co-workers Fontane and Cottu. Charles de -Lesseps, a victim offered to the fury of the politicians, tried to -divert the storm upon his head and prevent it from reaching his father. -He managed to draw down upon himself alone the burden of the -condemnations pronounced. One of the consequences of the persecutions of -which he was the object was to oblige him to spend three years, from -1896 to 1899, in England, where his participation in the management of -the Suez Canal had won for him some strong friendships, and where he was -able to see the great respect in which the memory and name of his father -were held by Englishmen. - -Ferdinand de Lesseps died at La Chenaie on the 7th of December 1894. He -had contracted a second marriage in 1869 with Mlle Autard de Bragard, -daughter of a former magistrate of Mauritius; and eleven out of twelve -children of this marriage survived him. M. de Lesseps was a member of -the French Academy, of the Academy of Sciences, of numerous scientific -societies, Grand Cross of the Legion of Honour and of the Star of India, -and had received the freedom of the City of London. According to some -accounts he was unconscious of the disastrous events that took place -during the closing months of his life. Others report that, feeling -himself powerless to scatter the gathered clouds, and aware of his -physical feebleness, he had had the moral courage to pass in the eyes of -his family, which he did not wish to afflict, as the dupe of the efforts -they employed to conceal the truth from him. This last version would not -be surprising if we relied upon the following portrait, sketched by a -person who knew him intimately:--"Simple in his tastes, never thinking -of himself, constantly preoccupied about others, supremely kind, he did -not and would not recognize such a thing as evil. Of a confiding nature, -he was inclined to judge others by himself. This naturally affectionate -abandonment that every one felt in him had procured him profound -attachments and rare devotions. He showed, while making the Suez Canal, -what a gift he possessed for levying the pacific armies he conducted. He -set duty above everything, had in the highest degree a reverence for -honour, and placed his indomitable courage at the service of everything -that was beneficial with an abnegation that nothing could tire. His -marvellous physical and moral equilibrium gave him an evenness of temper -which always rendered his society charming. Whatever his cares, his -work or his troubles, I have never noticed in him aught but generous -impulses and a love of humanity carried even to those heroic imprudences -of which they alone are capable who devote themselves to the -amelioration of humanity." No doubt this eulogy requires some -reservations. The striking and universal success which crowned his work -on the Suez Canal gave him an absoluteness of thought which brooked no -contradiction, a despotic temper before which every one must bow, and -against which, when he had once taken a resolution, nothing could -prevail, not even the most authoritative opposition or the most -legitimate entreaties. He had resolved to construct the Panama Canal -without locks, to make it an uninterrupted navigable way. All attempts -to dissuade him from this resolution failed before his tenacious will. -At his advanced age he went with his youngest child to Panama to see -with his own eyes the field of his new enterprise. He there beheld the -Culebra and the Chagres; he saw the mountain and the stream, those two -greatest obstacles of nature that sought to bar his route. He paid no -heed to them, but began the struggle against the Culebra and the -Chagres. It was against them that was broken his invincible will, -sweeping away in the defeat the work of Panama, his own fortune, his -fame and almost an atom of his honour. But this atom, only grazed by -calumny, has already been restored to him by posterity, for he died -poor, having been the first to suffer by the disaster to his illusions. -Political agitators, in order to sap the power of the Opportunist party, -did not hesitate to drag in the mud one of the greatest citizens of -France. But when the Panama "scandal" has been forgotten, for centuries -to come the traveller in saluting the statue of Ferdinand de Lesseps at -the entrance of the Suez Canal will pay homage to one of the most -powerful embodiments of the creative genius of the 19th century. - - See G. Barnett Smith, _The Life and Enterprises of Ferdinand de - Lesseps_ (London, 1893); and _Souvenirs de quarante ans_, by Ferdinand - de Lesseps (trans. by C. B. Pitman). (de B.) - - - - -LESSING, GOTTHOLD EPHRAIM (1729-1781), German critic and dramatist, was -born at Kamenz in Upper Lusatia (Oberlausitz), Saxony, on the 22nd of -January 1729. His father, Johann Gottfried Lessing, was a clergyman, -and, a few years after his son's birth, became _pastor primarius_ or -chief pastor of Kamenz. After attending the Latin school of his native -town, Gotthold was sent in 1741 to the famous school of St Afra at -Meissen, where he made such rapid progress, especially in classics and -mathematics, that, towards the end of his school career, he was -described by the rector as "a steed that needed double fodder." In 1746 -he entered the university of Leipzig as a theological student. The -philological lectures of Johann Friedrich Christ (1700-1756) and Johann -August Ernesti (1707-1781) proved, however, more attractive than those -on theology, and he attended the philosophical disputations presided -over by his friend A. G. Kastner, professor of mathematics and also an -epigrammatist of repute. Among Lessing's chief friends in Leipzig were -C. F. Weisse (1726-1804) the dramatist, and Christlob Mylius -(1722-1754), who had made some name for himself as a journalist. He was -particularly attracted by the theatre then directed by the talented -actress Karoline Neuber (1697-1760), who had assisted Gottsched in his -efforts to bring the German stage into touch with literature. Frau -Neuber even accepted for performance Lessing's first comedy, _Der junge -Gelehrte_ (1748), which he had begun at school. His father naturally did -not approve of these new interests and acquaintances, and summoned him -home. He was only allowed to return to Leipzig on the condition that he -would devote himself to the study of medicine. Some medical lectures he -did attend, but as long as Frau Neuber's company kept together the -theatre had an irresistible fascination for him. - -In 1748, however, the company broke up, and Lessing, who had allowed -himself to become surety for some of the actors' debts, was obliged to -leave Leipzig too, in order to escape their creditors. He went to -Wittenberg, and afterwards, towards the end of the year, to Berlin, -where his friend Mylius had established himself as a journalist. In -Berlin Lessing now spent three years, maintaining himself chiefly by -literary work. He translated three volumes of Charles Rollin's _Histoire -ancienne_, wrote several plays--_Der Misogyn_, _Der Freigeist_, _Die -Juden_--and in association with Mylius, began the _Beitrage zur Historie -und Aufnahine des Theaters_ (1750), a periodical--which soon came to an -end--for the discussion of matters connected with the drama. Early in -1751 he became literary critic to the _Vossische Zeitung_, and in this -position laid the foundation for his reputation as a reviewer of -learning, judgment and wit. At the end of 1751 he was in Wittenberg -again, where he spent about a year engaged in unremitting study and -research. He then returned to Berlin with a view to making literature -his profession; and the next three years were among the busiest of his -life. Besides translating for the booksellers, he issued several numbers -of the _Theatralische Bibliothek_, a periodical similar to that which he -had begun with Mylius; he also continued his work as critic to the -_Vossische Zeitung_. In 1754 he gave a particularly brilliant proof of -his critical powers in his _Vademecum fur Herrn S. G. Lange_; as a -retort to that writer's overbearing criticism, Lessing exposed with -scathing satire Lange's errors in his popular translation of Horace. - -By 1753 Lessing felt that his position was sufficiently assured to allow -of him issuing an edition of his collected writings (_Schriften_, 6 -vols., 1753-1755). They included his lyrics and epigrams, most of which -had already appeared during his first residence in Berlin in a volume of -_Kleinigkeiten_, published anonymously. Much more important were the -papers entitled _Rettungen_, in which he undertook to vindicate the -character of various writers--Horace and writers of the Reformation -period, such as Cochlaeus and Cardanus--who had been misunderstood or -falsely judged by preceding generations. The _Schriften_ also contained -Lessing's early plays, and one new one, _Miss Sara Sampson_ (1755). -Hitherto Lessing had, as a dramatist, followed the methods of -contemporary French comedy as cultivated in Leipzig; _Miss Sara -Sampson_, however, marks the beginning of a new period in the history of -the German drama. This play, based more or less on Lille's _Merchant of -London_, and influenced in its character-drawing by the novels of -Richardson, is the first _burgerliches Trauerspiel_, or "tragedy of -common life" in German. It was performed for the first time at -Frankfort-on-Oder in the summer of 1755, and received with great favour. -Among Lessing's chief friends during his second residence in Berlin were -the philosopher Moses Mendelssohn (1729-1786), in association with whom -he wrote in 1755 an admirable treatise, _Pope ein Metaphysiker!_ tracing -sharply the lines which separate the poet from the philosopher. He was -also on intimate terms with C. F. Nicolai (1733-1811), a Berlin -bookseller and rationalistic writer, and with the "German Horace" K. W. -Ramler (1725-1798); he had also made the acquaintance of J. W. L. Gleim -(1719-1803), the Halberstadt poet, and E. C. von Kleist (1715-1759), a -Prussian officer, whose fine poem. _Der Fruhling_, had won for him -Lessing's warm esteem. - -In October 1755 Lessing settled in Leipzig with a view to devoting -himself more exclusively to the drama. In 1756 he accepted the -invitation of Gottfried Winkler, a wealthy young merchant, to accompany -him on a foreign tour for three years. They did not, however, get beyond -Amsterdam, for the outbreak of the Seven Years' War made it necessary -for Winkler to return home without loss of time. A disagreement with his -patron shortly after resulted in Lessing's sudden dismissal; he demanded -compensation and, although in the end the court decided in his favour, -it was not until the case had dragged on for about six years. At this -time Lessing began the study of medieval literature to which attention -had been drawn by the Swiss critics, Bodmer and Breitinger, and wrote -occasional criticisms for Nicolai's _Bibliothek der schonen -Wissenschaften_. In Leipzig Lessing had also an opportunity of -developing his friendship with Kleist who happened to be stationed -there. The two men were mutually attracted, and a warm affection sprang -up between them. In 1758 Kleist's regiment being ordered to new -quarters, Lessing decided not to remain behind him and returned again to -Berlin. Kleist was mortally wounded in the following year at the battle -of Kunersdorf. - -Lessing's third residence in Berlin was made memorable by the _Briefe, -die neueste Literatur betreffend_ (1759-1765), a series of critical -essays--written in the form of letters to a wounded officer--on the -principal books that had appeared since the beginning of the Seven -Years' War. The scheme was suggested by Nicolai, by whom the _Letters_ -were published. In Lessing's share in this publication, his critical -powers and methods are to be seen at their best. He insisted especially -on the necessity of truth to nature in the imaginative presentation of -the facts of life, and in one letter he boldly proclaimed the -superiority of Shakespeare to Corneille, Racine and Voltaire. At the -same time he marked the immutable conditions to which even genius must -submit if it is to succeed in its appeal to our sympathies. While in -Berlin at this time, he edited with Ramler a selection from the writings -of F. von Logau, an epigrammatist of the 17th century, and introduced to -the German public the _Lieder eines preussischen Grenadiers_, by J. W. -L. Gleim. In 1759 he published _Philotas_, a prose tragedy in one act, -and also a complete collection of his fables, preceded by an essay on -the nature of the fable. The latter is one of his best essays on -criticism, defining with perfect lucidity what is meant by "action" in -works of the imagination, and distinguishing the action of the fable -from that of the epic and the drama. - -In 1760, feeling the need of some change of scene and work, Lessing went -to Breslau, where he obtained the post of secretary to General -Tauentzien, to whom Kleist had introduced him in Leipzig. Tauentzien was -not only a general in the Prussian army, but governor of Breslau, and -director of the mint. During the four years which Lessing spent in -Breslau, he associated chiefly with Prussian officers, went much into -society, and developed a dangerous fondness for the gaming table. He did -not, however, lose sight of his true goal; he collected a large library, -and, after the conclusion of the Seven Years' War, in 1763, he resumed -more enthusiastically than ever the studies which had been partially -interrupted. He investigated the early history of Christianity and -penetrated more deeply than any contemporary thinker into the -significance of Spinoza's philosophy. He also found time for the studies -which were ultimately to appear in the volume entitled _Laokoon_, and in -fresh spring mornings he sketched in a garden the plan of _Minna von -Barnhelm_. - -After resigning his Breslau appointment in 1765, he hoped for a time to -obtain a congenial appointment in Dresden, but nothing came of this and -he was again compelled, much against his will, to return to Berlin. His -friends there exerted themselves to obtain for him the office of keeper -of the royal library, but Frederick had not forgotten Lessing's quarrel -with Voltaire, and declined to consider his claims. During the two years -which Lessing now spent in the Prussian capital, he was restless and -unhappy, yet it was during this period that he published two of his -greatest works, _Laokoon, oder uber die Grenzen der Malerei und Poesie_ -(1766) and _Minna von Barnhelm_ (1767). The aim of Laokoon, which ranks -as a classic, not only in German but in European literature, is to -define by analysis the limitations of poetry and the plastic arts. Many -of his conclusions have been corrected and extended by later criticism; -but he indicated more decisively than any of his predecessors the -fruitful principle that each art is subject to definite conditions, and -that it can accomplish great results only by limiting itself to its -special function. The most valuable parts of the work are those which -relate to poetry, of which he had a much more intimate knowledge than of -sculpture and painting. His exposition of the methods of Homer and -Sophocles is especially suggestive, and he may be said to have marked an -epoch in the appreciation of these writers, and of Greek literature -generally. The power of _Minna von Barnhelm_, Lessing's greatest drama, -was also immediately recognized. Tellheim, the hero of the comedy, is an -admirable study of a manly and sensitive soldier, with somewhat -exaggerated ideas of conventional honour; and Minna, the heroine, is one -of the brightest and most attractive figures in German comedy. The -subordinate characters are conceived with even more force and vividness; -and the plot, which reflects precisely the struggles and aspirations of -the period that immediately followed the Seven Years' War, is simply and -naturally unfolded. - -In 1767 Lessing settled in Hamburg, where he had been invited to take -part in the establishment of a national theatre. The scheme promised -well, and, as he associated himself with Johann Joachim Christoph Bode -(1730-1793), a literary man whom he respected, in starting a printing -establishment, he hoped that he might at last look forward to a peaceful -and prosperous career. The theatre, however, was soon closed, and the -printing establishment failed, leaving behind it a heavy burden of debt. -In despair, Lessing determined towards the end of his residence in -Hamburg to quit Germany, believing that in Italy he might find congenial -labour that would suffice for his wants. The _Hamburgische Dramaturgie_ -(1767-1768), Lessing's commentary on the performances of the National -Theatre, is the first modern handbook of the dramatist's art. By his -original interpretation of Aristotle's theory of tragedy, he delivered -German dramatists from the yoke of the classic tragedy of France, and -directed them to the Greek dramatists and to Shakespeare. Another result -of Lessing's labours in Hamburg was the _Antiquarische Briefe_ (1768), a -series of masterly letters in answer to Christian Adolf Klotz -(1738-1771), a professor of the university of Halle, who, after -flattering Lessing, had attacked him, and sought to establish a kind of -intellectual despotism by means of critical journals which he directly -or indirectly controlled. In connexion with this controversy Lessing -wrote his brilliant little treatise, _Wie die Alten den Tod gebildet_ -(1769), contrasting the medieval representation of death as a skeleton -with the Greek conception of death as the twin-brother of sleep. - -Instead of settling in Italy, as he intended, Lessing accepted in 1770 -the office of librarian at Wolfenbuttel, a post which was offered to him -by the hereditary prince of Brunswick. In this position he passed his -remaining years. For a time he was not unhappy, but the debts which he -had contracted in Hamburg weighed heavily on him, and he missed the -society of his friends; his health, too, which had hitherto been -excellent, gradually gave way. In 1775 he travelled for nine months in -Italy with Prince Leopold of Brunswick, and in the following year he -married Eva Konig, the widow of a Hamburg merchant, with whom he had -been on terms of intimate friendship. But their happiness lasted only -for a brief period; in 1778 she died in childbed. - -Soon after settling in Wolfenbuttel, Lessing found in the library the -manuscript of a treatise by Berengarius of Tours on transubstantiation -in reply to Lanfranc. This was the occasion of Lessing's powerful essay -on Berengarius, in which he vindicated the latter's character as a -serious and consistent thinker. In 1771 he published his _Zerstreute -Anmerkungen uber das Epigramm, und einige der vornehmsten -Epigrammatisten_--a work which Herder described as "itself an epigram." -Lessing's theory of the origin of the epigram is somewhat fanciful, but -no other critic has offered so many pregnant hints as to the laws of -epigrammatic verse, or defended with so much force and ingenuity the -character of Martial. In 1772 he published _Emilia Galotti_, a tragedy -which he had begun many years before in Leipzig. The subject was -suggested by the Roman legend of Virginia, but the scene is laid in an -Italian court, and the whole play is conceived in the spirit of the -"tragedy of common life." Its defect is that its tragic conclusion does -not seem absolutely inevitable, but the characters--especially those of -the Grafin Orsina and Marinelli, the prince of Guastalla's chamberlain -who weaves the intrigue from which Emilia escapes by death, are -powerfully drawn. Having completed _Emilia Galotti_, which the younger -generation of playwrights at once accepted as a model, Lessing occupied -himself for some years almost exclusively with the treasures of the -Wolfenbuttel library. The results of these researches he embodied in a -series of volumes, _Zur Geschichte und Literatur_, the first being -issued in 1773, the last in the year of his death. - -The last period of Lessing's life was devoted chiefly to theological -controversy. H. S. Reimarus (1694-1768), professor of oriental -languages in Hamburg, who commanded general respect as a scholar and -thinker, wrote a book entitled _Apologie oder Schutzschrift fur die -vernunftigen Verehrer Gottes_. His standpoint was that of the English -deists, and he investigated, without hesitation, the evidence for the -miracles recorded in the Bible. The manuscript of this work was, after -the author's death, entrusted by his daughter to Lessing, who published -extracts from it in his _Zur Geschichte und Literatur_ in 1774-1778. -These extracts, the authorship of which was not publicly avowed, were -known as the _Wolfenbutteler Fragmente_. They created profound -excitement among orthodox theologians, and evoked many replies, in which -Lessing was bitterly condemned for having published writings of so -dangerous a tendency. His most formidable assailant was Johann Melchior -Goeze (1717-1786), the chief pastor of Hamburg, a sincere and earnest -theologian, but utterly unscrupulous in his choice of weapons against an -opponent. To him, therefore, Lessing addressed in 1778 his most -elaborate answers--_Eine Parabel_, _Axiomata_, eleven letters with the -title _Anti-Goeze_, and two pamphlets in reply to an inquiry by Goeze as -to what Lessing meant by Christianity. These papers are not only full of -thought and learning; they are written with a grace, vivacity and energy -that make them hardly less interesting to-day than they were to -Lessing's contemporaries. He does not undertake to defend the -conclusions of Reimarus; his immediate object is to claim the right of -free criticism in regard even to the highest subjects of human thought. -The argument on which he chiefly relies is that the Bible cannot be -considered necessary to a belief in Christianity, since Christianity was -a living and conquering power before the New Testament in its present -form was recognized by the church. The true evidence for what is -essential in Christianity, he contends, is its adaptation to the wants -of human nature; hence the religious spirit is undisturbed by the -speculations of the boldest thinkers. The effect of this controversy was -to secure wider freedom for writers on theology, and to suggest new -problems regarding the growth of Christianity, the formation of the -canon and the essence of religion. The Brunswick government having, in -deference to the consistory, confiscated the _Fragments_ and ordered -Lessing to discontinue the controversy, he resolved, as he wrote to -Elise Reimarus, to try "whether they would let him preach undisturbed -from his old pulpit, the stage." In _Nathan der Weise_, written in the -winter of 1778-1779, he gave poetic form to the ideas which he had -already developed in prose. Its governing conception is that noble -character may be associated with the most diverse creeds, and that there -can, therefore, be no good reason why the holders of one sect of -religious principles should not tolerate those who maintain wholly -different doctrines. The play, which is written in blank verse, is too -obviously a continuation of Lessing's theological controversy to rank -high as poetry, but the representatives of the three religions--the -Mahommedan Saladin, the Jew Nathan and the Christian Knight Templar--are -finely conceived, and show that Lessing's dramatic instinct had, in -spite of other interests, not deserted him. In 1780 appeared _Die -Erziehung des Menschengeschlechts_, the first half of which he had -published in 1777 with one of the _Fragments_. This work, composed a -hundred brief paragraphs, was the last, and is one of the most -suggestive of Lessing's writings. The doctrine on which its argument is -based is that no dogmatic creed can be regarded as final, but that every -historical religion had its share in the development of the spiritual -life of mankind. Lessing also maintains that history reveals a definite -law of progress, and that occasional retrogression may be necessary for -the advance of the world towards its ultimate goal. These ideas formed a -striking contrast to the principles both of orthodox and of sceptical -writers in Lessing's day, and gave a wholly new direction to religious -philosophy. Another work of Lessing's last years, _Ernst und Falk_ (a -series of five dialogues, of which the first three were published in -1777, the last two in 1780), also set forth many new points of view. Its -nominal subject is freemasonry, but its real aim is to plead for a -humane and charitable spirit in opposition to a narrow patriotism, an -extravagant respect for rank, and exclusive devotion to any particular -church. - -Lessing's theological opinions exposed him to much petty persecution, -and he was in almost constant straits for money. Nothing, however, broke -his manly and generous spirit. To the end he was always ready to help -those who appealed to him for aid, and he devoted himself with growing -ardour to the search for truth. He formed many new plans of work, but in -the course of 1780 it became evident to his friends that he would not be -able much longer to continue his labours. His health had been undermined -by excessive work and anxiety, and after a short illness he died at -Brunswick on the 15th of February 1781. "We lose much in him," wrote -Goethe after Lessing's death, "more than we think." It may be questioned -whether there is any other writer to whom the Germans owe a deeper debt -of gratitude. He was succeeded by poets and philosophers who gave -Germany for a time the first place in the intellectual life of the -world, and it was Lessing, as they themselves acknowledged, who prepared -the way for their achievements. Without attaching himself to any -particular system of philosophical doctrine, he fought error -incessantly, and in regard to art, poetry and the drama and religion, -suggested ideas which kindled the enthusiasm of aspiring minds, and -stimulated their highest energies. - - BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The first edition of Lessing's collected works, edited - by his brother Karl Gotthelf Lessing (1740-1812), J. J. Eschenburg and - F. Nicolai, appeared in 26 vols. between 1791 and 1794, as a - continuation of the _Vermischte Schriften_, edited by Lessing himself - in 4 vols. (1771-1785); the _Samtliche Schriften_, edited by Karl - Lachmann, were published in 13 vols. (1825-1828), this edition being - subsequently re-edited by W. von Maltzahn (1853-1857) and by F. - Muncker (21 vols., 1886 ff.), the last mentioned being the standard - edition of Lessing's works. Other editions are _Lessings Werke_, - published by Hempel, under the editorship of various scholars (23 - vols., 1868-1877); an illustrated edition published by Grote in 8 - vols. (1875, new ed., 1882); _Lessings Werke_, edited by R. Boxberger - and H. Blumner, in Kurschner's _Deutsche Nationalliteratur_, vols. - 58-71 (1883-1890). There are also many popular editions. Lessing's - correspondence is included in the Lachmann editions and in that of - Hempel (edited by C. C. Redlich, 1879; _Nachtrage und Berichtigungen_, - 1886); his correspondence with his wife was published as early as 1789 - (2 vols., new edition by A. Schone, 1885). The chief biographies of - Lessing are by K. G. Lessing (his brother), (1793-1795, a reprint in - Reclam's _Universalbibliothek_); by J. F. Schink (1825); T. W. Danzel - and G. E. Guhrauer (1850-1853, 2nd ed. by W. von Maltzahn and R. - Boxberger, 2 vols., 1880-1881); A. Stahr (2 vols., 1859, 9th ed., - 1887); J. Sime, _Lessing, his Life and Works_ (2 vols., 1877); H. - Zimmern, _Lessing's Life and Works_ (1878); H. Duntzer, _Lessings - Leben_ (1882); E. Schmidt, _Lessing, Geschichte seines Lebens und - seiner Schriften_ (2 vols., 1884-1892, 3rd ed., 1910)--this is the - most complete biography; T. W. Rolleston, _Lessing_ (in "Great - Writers," 1889); K. Borinski, _Lessing_ (2 vols., 1900). Cf. also C. - Hebler, _Lessing-Studien_ (1862); A. Lehmann, _Forschungen uber - Lessings Sprache_ (1875); W. Cosack, _Materialien zu Lessings - Hamburgischer Dramaturgie_ (1876, 2nd ed., 1891); H. Blumner, - _Lessings Laokoon_ (1876, 2nd ed., 1880); H. Blumner, - _Laokoon-Studien_ (2 vols., 1881-1882); K. Fischer, _Lessing als - Reformator der deutschen Literatur dargestellt_ (2 vols., 1881, 2nd - ed., 1888); B. A. Wagner, _Lessing-Forschungen_ (1881); J. W. Braun, - _Lessing im Urteile seiner Zeitgenossen_ (2 vols., 1884); P. Albrecht, - _Lessings Plagiate_ (6 vols., 1890 ff.); K. Werder, _Vorlesungen uber - Lessings Nathan_ (1892); G. Kettner, _Lessings Dramen im Lichte ihrer - und unsrer Zeit_ (1904). Translations of Lessing's _Dramatic Works_ (2 - vols., 1878), edited by E. Bell, and of _Laokoon, Dramatic Notes and - the Representation of Death by the Ancients_, by E. C. Beasley and H. - Zimmern (1 vol., 1879), will be found in Bohn's "Standard Library." - (J. Si.; J. G. R.) - - - - -LESSON (through Fr. _lecon_ from Lat. _lectio_, reading; _legere_, to -read), properly a certain portion of a book appointed to be read aloud, -or learnt for repetition, hence anything learnt or studied, a course of -instruction or study. A specific meaning of the word is that of a -portion of Scripture or other religious writings appointed to be read at -divine service, in accordance with a table known as a "lectionary." In -the Church of England the lectionary is so ordered that most of the Old -Testament is read through during the year as the First Lesson at Morning -and Evening Prayer, and as the Second Lesson the whole of the New -Testament, except Revelation, of which only portions are read. (See -LECTION and LECTIONARY.) - - - - -LESTE, a desert wind, similar to the Leveche (q.v.), observed in -Madeira. It blows from an easterly direction in autumn, winter and -spring, rarely in summer, and is of intense dryness, sometimes reducing -the relative humidity at Funchal to below 20%. The Leste is commonly -accompanied by clouds of fine red sand. - - - - -L'ESTRANGE, SIR ROGER (1616-1704), English pamphleteer on the royalist -and court side during the Restoration epoch, but principally remarkable -as the first English man of letters of any distinction who made -journalism a profession, was born at Hunstanton in Norfolk on the 17th -of December 1616. In 1644, during the civil war, he headed a conspiracy -to seize the town of Lynn for the king, under circumstances which led to -his being condemned to death as a spy. The sentence, however, was not -executed, and after four years' imprisonment in Newgate he escaped to -the Continent. He was excluded from the Act of Indemnity, but in 1653 -was pardoned by Cromwell upon his personal solicitation, and lived -quietly until the Restoration, when after some delay his services and -sufferings were acknowledged by his appointment as licenser of the -press. This office was administered by him in the spirit which might be -expected from a zealous cavalier. He made himself notorious, not merely -by the severity of his literary censorship, but by his vigilance in the -suppression of clandestine printing. In 1663 (see NEWSPAPERS) he -commenced the publication of the _Public Intelligencer_ and the _News_, -from which eventually developed the famous official paper the _London -Gazette_ in 1665. In 1679 he again became prominent with the -_Observator_, a journal specially designed to vindicate the court from -the charge of a secret inclination to popery. He discredited the Popish -Plot, and the suspicion he thus incurred was increased by the conversion -of his daughter to Roman Catholicism, but there seems no reason to -question the sincerity of his own attachment to the Church of England. -In 1687 he gave a further proof of independence by discontinuing the -_Observator_ from his unwillingness to advocate James II.'s Edict of -Toleration, although he had previously gone all lengths in support of -the measures of the court. The Revolution cost him his office as -licenser, and the remainder of his life was spent in obscurity. He died -in 1704. It is to L'Estrange's credit that among the agitations of a -busy political life he should have found time for much purely literary -work as a translator of Josephus, Cicero, Seneca, Quevedo and other -standard authors. - - - - -LESUEUR, DANIEL, the pseudonym of JEANNE LAPANZE, _nee_ Loiseau (1860- -), French poet and novelist, who was born in Paris in 1860. She -published a volume of poems, _Fleurs d'avril_ (1882), which was crowned -by the Academy. She also wrote some powerful novels dealing with -contemporary life: _Le Mariage de Gabrielle_ (1882); _Un Mysterieux -Amour_ (1892), with a series of philosophical sonnets; _L'Amant de -Genevieve_ (1883); _Marcelle_ (1885); _Une Vie tragique_ (1890); -_Justice de femme_ (1893); _Comedienne Haine d'amour_ (1894); _Honneur -d'une femme_ (1901); _La Force du passe_ (1905). Her poems were -collected in 1895. She published in 1905 a book on the economic status -of women, _L'Evolution feminine_; and in 1891-1893 a translation (2 -vols.) of the works of Lord Byron, which was awarded a prize by the -Academy. Her _Masque d'amour_, a five-act play based on her novel (1904) -of the same name, was produced at the Theatre Sarah Bernhardt in 1905. -She received the ribbon of the Legion of Honour in 1900, and the prix -Vitet from the French Academy in 1905. She married in 1904 Henry Lapanze -(b. 1867), a well-known writer on art. - - - - -LE SUEUR, EUSTACHE (1617-1655), one of the founders of the French -Academy of painting, was born on the 19th of November 1617 at Paris, -where he passed his whole life, and where he died on the 30th of April -1655. His early death and retired habits have combined to give an air of -romance to his simple history, which has been decorated with as many -fables as that of Claude. We are told that, persecuted by Le Brun, who -was jealous of his ability, he became the intimate friend and -correspondent of Poussin, and it is added that, broken-hearted at the -death of his wife, Le Sueur retired to the monastery of the Chartreux -and died in the arms of the prior. All this, however, is pure fiction. -The facts of Le Sueur's life are these. He was the son of Cathelin Le -Sueur, a turner and sculptor in wood, who placed his son with Vouet, in -whose studio he rapidly distinguished himself. Admitted at an early age -into the guild of master-painters, he left them to take part in -establishing the academy of painting and sculpture, and was one of the -first twelve professors of that body. Some paintings, illustrative of -the Hypnerotomachia Polyphili, which were reproduced in tapestry, -brought him into notice, and his reputation was further enhanced by a -series of decorations (Louvre) in the mansion of Lambert de Thorigny, -which he left uncompleted, for their execution was frequently -interrupted by other commissions. Amongst these were several pictures -for the apartments of the king and queen in the Louvre, which are now -missing, although they were entered in Bailly's inventory (1710); but -several works produced for minor patrons have come down to us. In the -gallery of the Louvre are the "Angel and Hagar," from the mansion of De -Tonnay Charente; "Tobias and Tobit," from the Fieubet collection; -several pictures executed for the church of Saint Gervais; the -"Martyrdom of St Lawrence," from Saint Germain de l'Auxerrois; two very -fine works from the destroyed abbey of Marmoutiers; "St Paul preaching -at Ephesus," one of Le Sueur's most complete and thorough performances, -painted for the goldsmith's corporation in 1649; and his famous series -of the "Life of St Bruno," executed in the cloister of the Chartreux. -These last have more personal character than anything else which Le -Sueur produced, and much of their original beauty survives in spite of -injuries and restorations and removal from the wall to canvas. The -Louvre also possesses many fine drawings (reproduced by Braun), of which -Le Sueur left an incredible quantity, chiefly executed in black and -white chalk His pupils, who aided him much in his work, were his wife's -brother, Th. Gousse, and three brothers of his own, as well as Claude -Lefebvre and Patel the landscape painter. - - Most of his works have been engraved, chiefly by Picart, B. Audran, - Seb. Leclerc, Drevet, Chauveau, Poilly and Desplaces. Le Sueur's work - lent itself readily to the engraver's art, for he was a charming - draughtsman; he had a truly delicate perception of varied shades of - grave and elevated sentiment, and possessed the power to render them. - His graceful facility in composition was always restrained by a very - fine taste, but his works often fail to please completely, because, - producing so much, he had too frequent recourse to conventional types, - and partly because he rarely saw colour except with the cold and - clayey quality proper to the school of Vouet; yet his "St Paul at - Ephesus" and one or two other works show that he was not naturally - deficient in this sense, and whenever we get direct reference to - nature--as in the monks of the St Bruno series--we recognize his - admirable power to read and render physiognomy of varied and serious - type. - - See Guillet de St Georges, _Mem. ined._; C. Blanc, _Histoire des - peintres_; Vitet, _Catalogue des tableaux du Louvre_; d'Argenville, - _Vies des peintres._ - - - - -LESUEUR, JEAN FRANCOIS (1760 or 1763-1837), French musical composer, was -born on the 15th of January 1760 (or 1763) at Drucat-Plessiel, near -Abbeville. He was a choir boy in the cathedral of Amiens, and then -became musical director at various churches. In 1786 he obtained by open -competition the musical directorship of the cathedral of Notre-Dame in -Paris, where he gave successful performances of sacred music with a full -orchestra. This place he resigned in 1787; and, after a retirement of -five years in a friend's country house, he produced _La Caverne_ and two -other operas at the Theatre Feydeau in Paris. At the foundation of the -Paris Conservatoire (1795) Lesueur was appointed one of its inspectors -of studies, but was dismissed in 1802, owing to his disagreements with -Mehul. Lesueur succeeded G. Paisiello as _Maestro di cappella_ to -Napoleon, and produced (1804) his _Ossian_ at the Opera. He also -composed for the emperor's coronation a mass and a Te Deum. Louis -XVIII., who had retained Lesueur in his court, appointed him (1818) -professor of composition at the Conservatoire; and at this institution -he had, among many other pupils, Hector Berlioz, Ambroise Thomas, Louis -Desire, Besozzi and Charles Gounod. He died on the 6th of October 1837. -Lesueur composed eight operas and several masses, and other sacred -music. All his works are written in a style of rigorous simplicity. - - See Raoul Rochette, _Les Ouvrages de M. Lesueur_ (Paris, 1839). - - - - - -LE TELLIER, MICHEL (1603-1685), French statesman, was born in Paris on -the 19th of April 1603. Having entered the public service he became -maitre des requetes and in 1640 intendant of Piedmont; in 1643, owing to -his friendship with Mazarin, he became secretary of state for military -affairs, being an efficient administrator. In 1677 he was made -chancellor of France and he was one of those who influenced Louis XIV. -to revoke the Edict of Nantes. He died on the 30th of October 1685, a -few days after the revocation had been signed. Le Tellier, who amassed -great wealth, left two sons, one the famous statesman Louvois and -another who became archbishop of Reims. His correspondence is in the -Bibliotheque nationale in Paris. - - See L. Caron, _Michel Le Tellier, intendant d'armee au Piemont_ - (Paris, 1881). - -Another MICHEL LE TELLIER (1643-1719) Was confessor of the French king -Louis XIV. Born at Vire on the 16th of December 1643 he entered the -Society of Jesus and later became prominent in consequence of his -violent attacks on the Jansenists. He was appointed provincial of his -order in France, but it was not until 1709 that he became the king's -confessor. In this capacity all his influence was directed towards -urging Louis to further persecutions of the Protestants. He was exiled -by the regent Orleans, but he had returned to France when he died at La -Fleche on the 2nd of September 1719. - - - - -LETHAL (Lat. _lethalis_, for _letalis_, deadly, from _letum_, death; the -spelling is due to a confusion with Gr. [Greek: lethe], forgetfulness), -an adjective meaning "deadly," "fatal," especially as applied to -weapons, drugs, &c. A "lethal chamber" is a room or receptacle in which -animals may be put to death painlessly, by the admission of poisonous -gases. - - - - -LETHARGY (Gr. [Greek: lethargia], from [Greek: lethe], forgetfulness), -drowsiness, torpor. In pathology the term is used of a morbid condition -of deep and lasting sleep from which the sufferer can be with difficulty -and only temporarily aroused. The term Negro or African lethargy was -formerly applied to the disease now generally known as "sleeping -sickness" (q.v.). - - - - -LETHE ("Oblivion"), in Greek mythology, the daughter of Eris (Hesiod, -_Theog._ 227) and the personification of forgetfulness. It is also the -name of a river in the infernal regions. Those initiated in the -mysteries were taught to distinguish two streams in the lower world, one -of memory and one of oblivion. Directions for this purpose, written on a -gold plate, have been found in a tomb at Petilia, and near Lebadeia, at -the oracle of Trophonius, which was counted an entrance to the lower -world, the two springs Mnemosyne and Lethe were shown (Pausanias ix. 39. -8). This thought begins to appear in literature in the end of the 5th -century B.C., when Aristophanes (_Frogs_, 186) speaks of the plain of -Lethe. Plato (_Rep._ x.) embodies the idea in one of his finest myths. - - - - -LE TREPORT, a maritime town of northern France in the department of -Seine-Inferieure, on the English Channel, at the mouth of the Bresle, -114 m. N.N.W. of Paris on the Northern railway. Pop. (1906) 4619. Owing -to its nearness to the capital, Le Treport is a favourite watering-place -of the Parisians. A good view is obtained from Mont Huon, which rises to -the south-west of the town. The mouth of the Bresle forms a small port, -comprising an outer tidal harbour and an inner dock accessible to -vessels drawing from 13 to 16 ft. The fisheries and oyster parks with -their dependent industries, shipbuilding and glass manufacture, furnish -the chief occupations of the inhabitants. Coal, timber, ice and jute are -imported; _articles de Paris_, sugar, &c., are exported. The chief -buildings are the church of St Jacques (16th century), which has finely -carved vaulting and good modern stained glass, and the casino erected -1896-1897. About 1 m. north-east of Le Treport is the small bathing -resort of Mers. The Eu-Treport canal, uniting the two towns, has a -length of about 3 m., and is navigable by vessels drawing 14 ft. Le -Treport (the ancient _Ulterior Portus_) was a port of some note in the -middle ages and suffered from the English invasions. Louis Philippe -twice received Queen Victoria here. - - - - -LETRONNE, JEAN ANTOINE (1787-1848), French archaeologist, was born at -Paris on the 25th of January 1787. His father, a poor engraver, sent him -to study art under the painter David, but his own tastes were literary, -and he became a student in the College de France, where it is said he -used to exercise his already strongly developed critical faculty by -correcting for his own amusement old and bad texts of Greek authors, -afterwards comparing the results with the latest and most approved -editions. From 1810 to 1812 he travelled in France, Switzerland and -Italy, and on his return to Paris published an _Essai critique sur la -topographie de Syracuse_ (1812), designed to elucidate Thucydides. Two -years later appeared his _Recherches geographiques et critiques on the -De Mensura Orbis Terrae_ of Dicuil. In 1815 he was commissioned by -government to complete the translation of Strabo which had been begun by -Laporte-Dutheil, and in March 1816 he was one of those who were admitted -to the Academy of Inscriptions by royal ordinance, having previously -contributed a _Memoire_, "On the Metrical System of the Egyptians," -which had been crowned. Further promotion came rapidly; in 1817 he was -appointed director of the Ecole des Chartes, in 1819 inspector-general -of the university, and in 1831 professor of history in the College de -France. This chair he exchanged in 1838 for that of archaeology, and in -1840 he succeeded Pierre C. Francois Daunou (1761-1840) as keeper of the -national archives. Meanwhile he had published, among other works, -_Considerations generales sur l'evaluation des monnaies grecques et -romaines et sur la valeur de l'or et de l'argent avant la decouverte de -l'Amerique_ (1817), _Recherches pour servir a l'histoire d'Egypte -pendant la domination des Grecs et des Romains_ (1823), and _Sur -l'origine grecque des zodiaques pretendus egyptiens_ (1837). By the -last-named he finally exploded a fallacy which had up to that time -vitiated the chronology of contemporary Egyptologists. His _Diplomes et -Chartres de l'epoque Merovingienne sur papyrus et sur velin_ were -published in 1844. The most important work of Letronne is the _Recueil -des inscriptions grecques et latines de l'Egypte_, of which the first -volume appeared in 1842, and the second in 1848. He died at Paris on the -14th of December 1848. - - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th -Edition, Volume 16, Slice 4, by Various - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA *** - -***** This file should be named 42048.txt or 42048.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/4/2/0/4/42048/ - -Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net - - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions -will be renamed. - -Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no -one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation -(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without -permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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