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| committer | nfenwick <nfenwick@pglaf.org> | 2025-03-08 04:59:17 -0800 |
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diff --git a/42048-0.txt b/42048-0.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..f7ba0ef --- /dev/null +++ b/42048-0.txt @@ -0,0 +1,18662 @@ +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 42048 *** + +Transcriber's notes: + +(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally + printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an + underscore, like C_n. + +(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript. + +(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective + paragraphs. + +(4) Macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not + inserted. + +(5) [root] stands for the root symbol; [alpha], [beta], etc. for greek + letters. + +(6) The following typographical errors have been corrected: + + ARTICLE LEGGE, HENRY: "Twelve months later he returned to his post + at the exchequer in the administration of Pitt and the 4th duke of + Devonshire, retaining office until April 1757 when he shared both + the dismissal and the ensuing popularity of Pitt." 'Twelve' amended + from 'Twleve'. + + ARTICLE LEGUMINOSAE: "... Wisteria sinensis, a native of China, is + a well-known climbing shrub; ..." 'Wisteria' amended from + 'Wistaria'. + + ARTICLE LEIBNITZ, GOTTFRIED WILHELM: "... R. Zimmermann, Leibnitz + und Herbart: eine Vergleichung ihrer Monadologien (Vienna, 1849); + ..." 'Monadologien' amended from 'Monadologieen'. + + ARTICLE LENS: "The question now arises as to how far this + assumption is justified for spherical lenses." 'as' amended from + 'so'. + + ARTICLE LEO: "Leo at another synod held in Rome in 810 admitted the + dogmatic correctness of the filioque, but deprecated its + introduction into the creed." 'filioque' amended from 'filoque'. + + ARTICLE LEONIDAS: "Our knowledge of the circumstances is too slight + to enable us to judge of Leonidas's strategy, but his heroism and + devotion secured him an almost unique place in the imagination not + only of his own but also of succeeding times." 'is' amended from + 'it'. + + ARTICLE LESSING, GOTTHOLD EPHRAIM: "The two men were mutually + attracted, and a warm affection sprang up between them." 'between' + amended from 'betweem'. + + + + + ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA + + A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE + AND GENERAL INFORMATION + + ELEVENTH EDITION + + + VOLUME XVI, SLICE IV + + Lefebvre, Tanneguy to Letronne, Jean Antoine + + + + +ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE: + + + LEFEBVRE, TANNEGUY LENS (town of France) + LEFEBVRE-DESNOËTTES, CHARLES LENS (in optics) + LE FÈVRE, JEAN LENT + LEG LENTHALL, WILLIAM + LEGACY LENTIL + LE GALLIENNE, RICHARD LENTULUS + LEGARÉ, HUGH SWINTON LENZ, JAKOB MICHAEL REINHOLD + LEGAS LEO (popes) + LEGATE, BARTHOLOMEW LEO (emperors of the East) + LEGATE LEO (disciple of St Francis) + LEGATION LEO, HEINRICH + LEGEND LEO, JOHANNES + LEGENDRE, ADRIEN MARIE LEO, LEONARDO + LEGENDRE, LOUIS LEO (sign of the zodiac) + LEGERDEMAIN LEOBEN + LEGGE, HENRY LEOBSCHÜTZ + LEGGE, JAMES LEOCHARES + LEGHORN LEOFRIC + LEGION LEOMINSTER (Herefordshire, England) + LEGITIM LEOMINSTER (Massachusetts, U.S.A.) + LEGITIMACY, and LEGITIMATION LEÓN, LUIS PONCE DE + LEGITIMISTS LEON, MOSES DE + LEGNAGO (town of Venetia) LEON OF MODENA + LEGNANO (town of Lombardy) LEÓN (Mexico) + LEGOUVÉ, GABRIEL ERNEST WILFRID LEON (Nicaragua) + LEGROS, ALPHONSE LEON (Spanish province) + LEGUMINOSAE LEON (Spanish city) + LÈGYA LEONARDO DA VINCI + LEH LEONARDO OF PISA + LEHMANN, JOHANN GOTTLOB LEONCAVALLO, RUGGIERO + LEHMANN, PETER MARTIN ORLA LEONIDAS + LEHNIN LEONTIASIS OSSEA + LEHRS, KARL LEONTINI + LEIBNITZ, GOTTFRIED WILHELM LEONTIUS + LEICESTER, EARLS OF LEOPARD + LEICESTER, ROBERT DUDLEY LEOPARDI, GIACOMO + LEICESTER, ROBERT SIDNEY LEOPARDO, ALESSANDRO + LEICESTER, THOMAS WILLIAM COKE LEOPOLD + LEICESTER LEOPOLD I. (Roman emperor) + LEICESTERSHIRE LEOPOLD II. (Roman emperor) + LEIDEN LEOPOLD I. (king of the Belgians) + LEIDY, JOSEPH LEOPOLD II. (king of the Belgians) + LEIF ERICSSON LEOPOLD II. (of Habsburg-Lorraine) + LEIGH, EDWARD LEOPOLD II. (lake) + LEIGH LEOTYCHIDES + LEIGHTON, FREDERICK LEIGHTON LEOVIGILD + LEIGHTON, ROBERT LEPANTO, BATTLE OF + LEIGHTON BUZZARD LE PAUTRE, JEAN + LEININGEN LEPCHA + LEINSTER LE PELETIER, LOUIS MICHE + LEIPZIG LEPIDOLITE + LEIRIA LEPIDOPTERA + LEISLER, JACOB LEPIDUS + LEISNIG LE PLAY, PIERRE GUILLAUME FRÉDÉRIC + LEITH LEPROSY + LEITMERITZ LEPSIUS, KARL RICHARD + LEITNER, GOTTLIEB WILHELM LEPTINES + LEITRIM LEPTIS + LEIXÕES LE PUY + LEJEUNE, LOUIS FRANÇOIS LERDO DE TEJADA, SEBASTIAN + LEKAIN LERICI + LELAND, CHARLES GODFREY LÉRIDA (province of Spain) + LELAND, JOHN (English antiquary) LÉRIDA (city of Spain) + LELAND, JOHN (English divine) LERMA, FRANCISCO DE SANDOVAL Y ROJAS + LELAND STANFORD JR. UNIVERSITY LERMONTOV, MIKHAIL YUREVICH + LELEGES LEROUX, PIERRE + LELEWEL, JOACHIM LEROY-BEAULIEU, BAPTISTE ANATOLE + LELONG, JACQUES LEROY-BEAULIEU, PIERRE PAUL + LELY, SIR PETER LERWICK + LE MAÇON, ROBERT LE SAGE, ALAIN RENÉ + LE MAIRE DE BELGES, JEAN LES ANDELYS + LEMAÎTRE, FRANÇOIS ÉLIE JULES LES BAUX + LE MANS LESBONAX + LE MARCHANT, JOHN GASPARD LESBOS + LEMBERG LESCHES + LEMERCIER, LOUIS JEAN NÉPOMUCÉNE LESCURE, LOUIS MARIE JOSEPH + LEMERY, NICOLAS LESDIGUIÈRES, FRANÇOIS DE BONNE + LEMERY LESGHIANS + LEMGO LESINA + LEMIERRE, ANTOINE MARIN LESION + LEMIRE, JULES AUGUSTE LESKOVATS + LEMMING LESLEY, JOHN + LEMNISCATE LESLEY, J. PETER + LEMNOS LESLIE, CHARLES + LEMOINNE, JOHN ÉMILE LESLIE, CHARLES ROBERT + LEMON, MARK LESLIE, FRED + LEMON LESLIE, SIR JOHN + LEMONNIER, ANTOINE LOUIS CAMILLE LESLIE, THOMAS EDWARD CLIFFE + LEMONNIER, PIERRE CHARLES LESLIE (Scotland) + LEMOYNE, JEAN BAPTISTE LESPINASSE, JEANNE JULIE ÉLÉONORE DE + LEMPRIÈRE, JOHN LES SABLES D'OLONNE + LEMUR LES SAINTES-MARIES + LENA LESSE + LE NAIN LESSEPS, FERDINAND DE + LENAU, NIKOLAUS LESSING, GOTTHOLD EPHRAIM + LENBACH, FRANZ VON LESSON + LENCLOS, NINON DE LESTE + LENFANT, JACQUES L'ESTRANGE, SIR ROGER + LENKORAN LESUEUR, DANIEL + LENNEP, JACOB VAN LE SUEUR, EUSTACHE + LENNEP LESUEUR, JEAN FRANÇOIS + LENNOX LE TELLIER, MICHEL + LENNOX, CHARLOTTE LETHAL + LENNOX, MARGARET LETHARGY + LENO, DAN LETHE + LENORMANT, FRANÇOIS LE TRÉPORT + LENOX LETRONNE, JEAN ANTOINE + + + + +LEFEBVRE, TANNEGUY (TANAQUILLUS FABER) (1615-1672), French classical +scholar, was born at Caen. After completing his studies in Paris, he was +appointed by Cardinal Richelieu inspector of the printing-press at the +Louvre. After Richelieu's death he left Paris, joined the Reformed +Church, and in 1651 obtained a professorship at the academy of Saumur, +which he filled with great success for nearly twenty years. His +increasing ill-health and a certain moral laxity (as shown in his +judgment on Sappho) led to a quarrel with the consistory, as a result of +which he resigned his professorship. Several universities were eager to +obtain his services, and he had accepted a post offered him by the +elector palatine at Heidelberg, when he died suddenly on the 12th of +September, 1672. One of his children was the famous Madame Dacier. +Lefebvre, who was by no means a typical student in dress or manners, was +a highly cultivated man and a thorough classical scholar. He brought out +editions of various Greek and Latin authors--Longinus, Anacreon and +Sappho, Virgil, Horace, Lucretius and many others. His most important +original works are: _Les Vies des poètes Grecs_ (1665); _Méthode pour +commencer les humanités Grecques et Latines_ (2nd ed., 1731), of which +several English adaptations have appeared; _Epistolae Criticae_ (1659). + + In addition to the _Mémoires pour ... la vie de Tanneguy Lefebvre_, by + F. Graverol (1686), see the article in the _Nouvelle biographie + générale_, based partly on the MS. registers of the Saumur Académie. + + + + +LEFEBVRE-DESNOËTTES, CHARLES, COMTE (1773-1822), French cavalry general, +joined the army in 1792 and served with the armies of the North, of the +Sambre-and-Meuse and Rhine-and-Moselle in the various campaigns of the +Revolution. Six years later he had become captain and aide-de-camp to +General Bonaparte. At Marengo he won further promotion, and at +Austerlitz became colonel, serving also in the Prussian campaigns of +1806-1807. In 1808 he was made general of brigade and created a count of +the Empire. Sent with the army into Spain, he conducted the first and +unsuccessful siege of Saragossa. The battlefield of Tudela showed his +talents to better advantage, but towards the end of 1808 he was taken +prisoner in the action of Benavente by the British cavalry under Paget +(later Lord Uxbridge, and subsequently Marquis of Anglesey). For over +two years he remained a prisoner in England, living on parole at +Cheltenham. In 1811 he escaped, and in the invasion of Russia in 1812 +was again at the head of his cavalry. In 1813 and 1814 his men +distinguished themselves in most of the great battles, especially La +Rothière and Montmirail. He joined Napoleon in the Hundred Days and was +wounded at Waterloo. For his part in these events he was condemned to +death, but he escaped to the United States, and spent the next few years +farming in Louisiana. His frequent appeals to Louis XVIII. eventually +obtained his permission to return, but the "Albion," the vessel on which +he was returning to France, went down off the coast of Ireland with all +on board on the 22nd of May 1822. + + + + +LE FÈVRE, JEAN (c. 1395-1468), Burgundian chronicler and seigneur of +Saint Remy, is also known as Toison d'or from his long connexion with +the order of the Golden Fleece. Of noble birth, he adopted the +profession of arms and with other Burgundians fought in the English +ranks at Agincourt. In 1430, on the foundation of the order of the +Golden Fleece by Philip III. the Good, duke of Burgundy, Le Fèvre was +appointed its king of arms and he soon became a very influential person +at the Burgundian court. He frequently assisted Philip in conducting +negotiations with foreign powers, and he was an arbiter in tournaments +and on all questions of chivalry, where his wide knowledge of heraldry +was highly useful. He died at Bruges on the 16th of June 1468. + + Le Fèvre wrote a _Chronique_, or _Histoire de Charles VI., roy de + France_. The greater part of this chronicle is merely a copy of the + work of Enguerrand de Monstrelet, but Le Fèvre is an original + authority for the years between 1428 and 1436 and makes some valuable + additions to our knowledge, especially about the chivalry of the + Burgundian court. He is more concise than Monstrelet, but is equally + partial to the dukes of Burgundy. The _Chronique_ has been edited by + F. Morand for the Société de l'histoire de France (Paris, 1876). Le + Fèvre is usually regarded as the author of the _Livre des faites de + Jacques de Lalaing_. + + + + +LEG (a word of Scandinavian origin, from the Old Norwegian _leggr_, cf. +Swed. _lägg_, Dan. _laég_; the O. Eng. word was _sceanca_, shank), the +general name for those limbs in animals which support and move the body, +and in man for the lower limbs of the body (see ANATOMY, _Superficial +and Artistic_; Skeleton, _Appendicular_; MUSCULAR SYSTEM). The word is +in common use for many objects which resemble the leg in shape or +function. As a slang term, "leg," a shortened form of "blackleg," has +been in use since the end of the 18th century for a swindler, especially +in connexion with racing or gambling. The term "blackleg" is now also +applied by trade-unionists to a workman who, during a strike or lockout, +continues working or is brought to take the place of the withdrawn +workers. + + + + +LEGACY (Lat. _legatum_), in English law, some particular thing or things +given or left by a testator in his will, to be paid or performed by his +executor or administrator. The word is primarily applicable to gifts of +personalty or gifts charged upon real estate; but if there is nothing +else to which it can refer it may refer to realty; the proper word, +however, for gifts of realty is _devise_. + +Legacies may be either specific, general or demonstrative. A _specific +legacy_ is "something which a testator, identifying it by a sufficient +description and manifesting an intention that it should be enjoyed in +the state and condition indicated by that description, separates in +favour of a particular legatee from the general mass of his personal +estate," e.g. a gift of "my portrait by X," naming the artist. A +_general legacy_ is a gift not so distinguished from the general mass of +the personal estate, e.g. a gift of £100 or of a gold ring. A +_demonstrative legacy_ partakes of the nature of both the preceding +kinds of legacies, e.g. a gift of £100 payable out of a named fund is a +specific legacy so far as the fund named is available to pay the legacy; +after the fund is exhausted the balance of the legacy is a general +legacy and recourse must be had to the general estate to satisfy such +balance. Sometimes a testator bequeaths two or more legacies to the same +person; in such a case it is a question whether the later legacies are +in substitution for, or in addition to, the earlier ones. In the latter +case they are known as _cumulative_. In each case the intention of the +testator is the rule of construction; this can often be gathered from +the terms of the will or codicil, but in the absence of such evidence +the following rules are followed by the courts. Where the same specific +thing is bequeathed twice to the same legatee or where two legacies of +equal amount are bequeathed by the same instrument the second bequest is +mere repetition; but where legacies of equal amounts are bequeathed by +different instruments or of unequal amounts by the same instruments they +are considered to be cumulative. + +If the estate of the testator is insufficient to satisfy all the +legacies these must abate, i.e. be reduced rateably; as to this it +should be noticed that specific and demonstrative legacies have a prior +claim to be paid in full out of the specific fund before general +legacies, and that general legacies abate rateably _inter se_ in the +absence of any provision to the contrary by the testator. Specific +legacies are liable to ademption where the specific thing perishes or +ceases to belong to the testator, e.g. in the instance given above if +the testator sells the portrait the legatee will get nothing by virtue +of the legacy. As a general rule, legacies given to persons who +predecease the testator do not take effect; they are said to lapse. This +is so even if the gift be to A and his executors, administrators and +assigns, but this is not so if the testator has shown a contrary +intention, thus, a gift to A _or_ his personal representative will be +effective even though A predecease the testator; further, by the Wills +Act 1837, devises of estates tail and gifts to a child or other issue of +the testator will not lapse if any issue of the legatee survive the +testator. Lapsed legacies fall into and form part of the residuary +estate. In the absence of any indication to the contrary a legacy +becomes due on the day of the death of the testator, though for the +convenience of the executor it is not payable till a year after that +date; this delay does not prevent the legacy vesting on the testator's +death. It frequently happens, however, that a legacy is given payable at +a future date; in such a case, if the legatee dies after the testator +but prior to the date when the legacy is payable it is necessary to +discover whether the legacy was vested or contingent, as in the former +case it becomes payable to the legatee's representative; in the latter, +it lapses. In this, as in other cases, the test is the intention of the +testator as expressed in the will; generally it may be said that a gift +"payable" or "to be paid" at a certain fixed time confers a vested +interest on the legatee, while a gift to A "at" a fixed time, e.g. +twenty-one years of age, only confers on A an interest contingent on his +attaining the age of twenty-one. + +_Legacy Duty_ is a duty charged by the state upon personal property +devolving upon the legatees or next of kin of a dead person, either by +virtue of his will or upon his intestacy. The duty was first imposed in +England in 1780, but the principal act dealing with the subject is the +Legacy Duty Act 1796. The principal points as to the duty are these. The +duty is charged on personalty only. It is payable only where the person +on whose death the property passes was domiciled in the United Kingdom. +The rate of duty varies from 1 to 10% according to the relationship +between the testator and legatee. As between husband and wife no duty is +payable. The duty is payable by the executors and deducted from the +legacy unless the testator directs otherwise. Special provisions as to +valuation are in force where the gift is of an annuity or is settled on +various persons in succession, or the legacy is given in joint tenancy +and other cases. In some cases the duty is payable by instalments which +carry interest at 3%. In various cases legacies are exempt from +duty--the more important are gifts to a member of the royal family, +specific legacies under £20 (pecuniary legacies under £20 pay duty), +legacies of books, prints, &c., given to a body corporate for +preservation, not for sale, and legacies given out of an estate the +principal value of which is less than £100. Further, by the Finance Act +1894, payment of the estate duty thereby created absorbs the 1% duty +paid by lineal ancestors or descendants of the deceased[1] and the duty +on a settled legacy, and, lastly, in the event of estate duty being paid +on an estate the total value of which is under £1000, no legacy duty is +payable. The legacy duty payable in Ireland is now for all practical +purposes assimilated to that in Great Britain. The principal statute in +that country is an act of 1814. + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] The Finance Bill 1909-1910 re-imposed this duty, and extended it + to husbands and wives as well as descendants and ancestors. + + + + +LE GALLIENNE, RICHARD (1866- ), English poet and critic, was born in +Liverpool on the 20th of January 1866. He started life in a business +office in Liverpool, but abandoned this to turn author. _My Lady's +Sonnets_ appeared at Liverpool in 1887, and in 1889 he became for a +short time literary secretary to Wilson Barrett. In the same year he +published _Volumes in Folio_, _The Book Bills_ of Narcissus and _George +Meredith: some Characteristics_ (new ed., 1900). He joined the staff of +the _Star_ in 1891, and wrote for various papers over the signature of +"Logroller." _English Poems_ (1892), _R. L. Stevenson and other Poems_ +(1895), a paraphrase (1897) of the _Rubáiyát_ of Omar Khayyám, and _Odes +from the Divan of Hafiz_ (1903), contained some light, graceful verse, +but he is best known by the fantastic prose essays and sketches of +_Prose Fancies_ (2 series, 1894-1896), _Sleeping Beauty and other Prose +Fancies_ (1900), _The Religion of a Literary Man_ (1893), _The Quest of +the Golden Girl_ (1897), _The Life Romantic_ (1901), &c. His first wife, +Mildred Lee, died in 1894, and in 1897 he married Julie Norregard, +subsequently taking up his residence in the United States. In 1906 he +translated, from the Danish, Peter Nansen's _Love's Trilogy_. + + + + +LEGARÉ, HUGH SWINTON (1797-1843), American lawyer and statesman, was +born in Charleston, South Carolina, on the 2nd of January 1797, of +Huguenot and Scotch stock. Partly on account of his inability to share +in the amusements of his fellows by reason of a deformity due to vaccine +poisoning before he was five (the poison permanently arresting the +growth and development of his legs), he was an eager student, and in +1814 he graduated at the College of South Carolina with the highest rank +in his class and with a reputation throughout the state for scholarship +and eloquence. He studied law for three years in South Carolina, and +then spent two years abroad, studying French and Italian in Paris and +jurisprudence at Edinburgh. In 1820-1822 and in 1824-1830 he was a +member of the South Carolina legislature. In 1827, with Stephen Elliott +(1771-1830), the naturalist, he founded the _Southern Review_, of which +he was the sole editor after Elliott's death until 1834, when it was +discontinued, and to which he contributed articles on law, travel, and +modern and classical literature. In 1830-1832 he was attorney-general of +South Carolina, and, although a State's Rights man, he strongly opposed +nullification. During his term of office he appeared in a case before +the United States Supreme Court, where his knowledge of civil law so +strongly impressed Edward Livingston, the secretary of state, who was +himself an admirer of Roman Law, that he urged Legaré to devote himself +to the study of this subject with the hope that he might influence +American law toward the spirit and philosophy and even the forms and +processes of Roman jurisprudence. Through Livingston, Legaré was +appointed American _chargé d'affaires_ at Brussels, where from 1833 to +1836 he perfected himself in civil law and in the German commentaries on +civil law. In 1837-1839, as a Union Democrat, he was a member of the +national House of Representatives, and there ably opposed Van Buren's +financial policy in spite of the enthusiasm in South Carolina for the +sub-treasury project. He supported Harrison in the presidential campaign +of 1840, and when the cabinet was reconstructed by Tyler in 1841, Legaré +was appointed attorney-general of the United States. On the 9th of May +1843 he was appointed secretary of state _ad interim_, after the +resignation of Daniel Webster. On the 20th of June 1843 he died suddenly +at Boston. His great work, the forcing into common law of the principles +of civil law, was unaccomplished; but Story says "he seemed about to +accomplish [it]; for his arguments before the Supreme Court were crowded +with the principles of the Roman Law, wrought into the texture of the +Common Law with great success." As attorney-general he argued the famous +cases, the _United States_ v. _Miranda_, _Wood_ v. _the United States_, +and _Jewell_ v. _Jewell_. + + See _The Writings of Hugh Swinton Legaré_ (2 vols., Charleston, S.C., + 1846), edited by his sister, Mrs Mary Bullen, who contributed a + biographical sketch; and two articles by B. J. Ramage in _The Sewanee + Review_, vol. x. (New York, 1902). + + + + +LEGAS, one of the Shangalla group of tribes, regarded as among the +purest types of the Galla race. They occupy the upper Yabus valley, S.W. +Abyssinia, near the Sudan frontier. The Legas are physically distinct +from the Negro Shangalla. They are of very light complexion, tall and +thin, with narrow hollow-cheeked faces, small heads and high foreheads. +The chiefs' families are of more mixed blood, with perceptible Negro +strain. The Legas are estimated to number upwards of a hundred thousand, +of whom some 20,000 are warriors. They are, however, a peaceful race, +kind to their women and slaves, and energetic agriculturists. Formerly +independent, they came about 1900 under the sway of Abyssinia. The Legas +are pagans, but Mahommedanism has gained many converts among them. + + + + +LEGATE, BARTHOLOMEW (c. 1575-1612), English fanatic, was born in Essex +and became a dealer in cloth. About the beginning of the 17th century he +became a preacher among a sect called the "Seekers," and appears to have +held unorthodox opinions about the divinity of Jesus Christ. Together +with his brother Thomas he was put in prison for heresy in 1611. Thomas +died in Newgate gaol, London, but Bartholomew's imprisonment was not a +rigorous one. James I. argued with him, and on several occasions he was +brought before the Consistory Court of London, but without any definite +result. Eventually, after having threatened to bring an action for +wrongful imprisonment, Legate was tried before a full Consistory Court +in February 1612, was found guilty of heresy, and was delivered to the +secular authorities for punishment. Refusing to retract his opinions he +was burned to death at Smithfield on the 18th of March 1612. Legate was +the last person burned in London for his religious opinions, and Edward +Wightman, who was burned at Lichfield in April 1612, was the last to +suffer in this way in England. + + See T. Fuller, _Church History of Britain_ (1655); and S. R. Gardiner, + _History of England_, vol. ii. (London, 1904). + + + + +LEGATE (Lat. _legatus_, past part. of _legare_, to send as deputy), a +title now generally confined to the highest class of diplomatic +representatives of the pope, though still occasionally used, in its +original Latin sense, of any ambassador or diplomatic agent. According +to the _Nova Compilatio Decretalium_ of Gregory IX., under the title "De +officio legati" the canon law recognizes two sorts of legate, the +_legatus natus_ and the _legatus datus_ or _missus_. The _legatus datus_ +(_missus_) may be either (1) _delegatus_, or (2) _nuncius apostolicus_, +or (3) _legatus a latere_ (_lateralis, collateralis_). The rights of the +_legatus natus_, which included concurrent jurisdiction with that of all +the bishops within his province, have been much curtailed since the 16th +century; they were altogether suspended in presence of the higher claims +of a _legatus a latere_, and the title is now almost quite honorary. It +was attached to the see of Canterbury till the Reformation and it still +attaches to the sees of Seville, Toledo, Aries, Reims, Lyons, Gran, +Prague, Gnesen-Posen, Cologne, Salzburg, among others. The commission of +the _legatus delegatus_ (generally a member of the local clergy) is of a +limited nature, and relates only to some definite piece of work. The +_nuncius apostolicus_ (who has the privilege of red apparel, a white +horse and golden spurs) possesses ordinary jurisdiction within the +province to which he has been sent, but his powers otherwise are +restricted by the terms of his mandate. The _legatus a latere_ (almost +invariably a cardinal, though the power can be conferred on other +prelates) is in the fullest sense the plenipotentiary representative of +the pope, and possesses the high prerogative implied in the words of +Gregory VII., "nostra vice quae corrigenda sunt corrigat, quae statuend +constituat." He has the power of suspending all the bishops in his +province, and no judicial cases are reserved from his judgment. Without +special mandate, however, he cannot depose bishops or unite or separate +bishoprics. At present _legati a latere_ are not sent by the holy see, +but diplomatic relations, where they exist, are maintained by means of +nuncios, internuncios and other agents. + +The history of the office of papal legate is closely involved with that +of the papacy itself. If it were proved that papal legates exercised the +prerogatives of the primacy in the early councils, it would be one of +the strongest points for the Roman Catholic view of the papal history. +Thus it is claimed that Hosius of Cordova presided over the council of +Nicaea (325) in the name of the pope. But the claim rests on slender +evidence, since the first source in which Hosius is referred to as +representative of the pope is Gelasius of Cyzicus in the Propontis, who +wrote toward the end of the 5th century. It is even open to dispute +whether Hosius was president at Nicaea, and though he certainly presided +over the council of Sardica in 343, it was probably as representative of +the emperors Constans and Constantius, who had summoned the council. +Pope Julius I. was represented at Sardica by two presbyters. Yet the +fifth canon, which provides for appeal by a bishop to Rome, sanctions +the use of embassies _a latere_. If the appellant wishes the pope to +send priests from his own household, the pope shall be free to do so, +and to furnish them with full authority from himself ("ut de latere suo +presbyteros mittat ... habentes ejus auctoritatem a quo destinati +sunt"). The decrees of Sardica, an obscure council, were later confused +with those of Nicaea and thus gained weight. In the synod of Ephesus in +431, Pope Celestine I. instructed his representatives to conduct +themselves not as disputants but as judges, and Cyril of Alexandria +presided not only in his own name but in that of the pope (and of the +bishop of Jerusalem). Instances of delegation of the papal authority in +various degrees become numerous in the 5th century, especially during +the pontificate of Leo I. Thus Leo writes in 444 (_Ep._ 6) to Anastasius +of Thessalonica, appointing him his vicar for the province of Illyria; +the same arrangement, he informs us, had been made by Pope Siricius in +favour of Anysius, the predecessor of Anastasius. Similar vicarial or +legatine powers had been conferred in 418 by Zosimus upon Patroclus, +bishop of Arles. In 449 Leo was represented at the "Robber Synod," from +which his legates hardly escaped with life; at Chalcedon, in 451, they +were treated with singular honour, though the imperial commissioners +presided. Again, in 453 the same pope writes to the empress Pulcheria, +naming Julianus of Cos as his representative in the defence of the +interests of orthodoxy and ecclesiastical discipline at Constantinople +(_Ep._ 112); the instructions to Julianus are given in _Ep._ 113 ("hanc +specialem curam vice mea functus assumas"). The designation of +Anastasius as vicar apostolic over Illyria may be said to mark the +beginning of the custom of conferring, _ex officio_, the title of +_legatus_ upon the holders of important sees, who ultimately came to be +known as _legati nati_, with the rank of primate; the appointment of +Julianus at Constantinople gradually developed into the long permanent +office of _apocrisiarius_ or _responsalis_. Another sort of delegation +is exemplified in Leo's letter to the African bishops (_Ep._ 12), in +which he sends Potentius, with instructions to inquire in his name, and +to report ("vicem curae nostrae fratri et consacerdoti nostro Potentio +delegantes qui de episcopis, quorum culpabilis ferebatur electio, quid +veritas haberet inquireret, nobisque omnia fideliter indicaret"). +Passing on to the time of Gregory the Great, we find him sending two +representatives to Gaul in 599, to suppress simony, and one to Spain in +603. Augustine of Canterbury is sometimes spoken of as legate, but it +does not appear that in his case this title was used in any strictly +technical sense, although the archbishop of Canterbury afterwards +attained the permanent dignity of a _legatus natus_. Boniface, the +apostle of Germany, was in like manner constituted, according to Hincmar +(_Ep._ 30), a legate of the apostolic see by Popes Gregory II. and +Gregory III. According to Hefele (_Conc._ iv. 239), Rodoald of Porto and +Zecharias of Anagni, who were sent by Pope Nicolas to Constantinople in +860, were the first actually called _legati a latere_. The policy of +Gregory VII. naturally led to a great development of the legatine as +distinguished from the ordinary episcopal function. From the creation of +the medieval papal monarchy until the close of the middle ages, the +papal legate played a most important rôle in national as well as church +history. The further definition of his powers proceeded throughout the +12th and 13th centuries. From the 16th century legates a latere give way +almost entirely to nuncios (q.v.). + + See P. Hinschius, _Kirchenrecht_, i. 498 ff.; G. Phillips, + _Kirchenrecht_, vol. vi. 680 ff. + + + + +LEGATION (Lat. _legatio_, a sending or mission), a diplomatic mission of +the second rank. The term is also applied to the building in which the +minister resides and to the area round it covered by his diplomatic +immunities. See DIPLOMACY. + + + + +LEGEND (through the French from the med. Lat. _legenda_, things to be +read, from _legere_, to read), in its primary meaning the history or +life-story of a saint, and so applied to portions of Scripture and +selections from the lives of the saints as read at divine service. The +statute of 3 and 4 Edward VI. dealing with the abolition of certain +books and images (1549), cap. 10, sect. 1, says that "all bookes ... +called processionalles, manuelles, _legends_ ... shall be ... +abolished." The "Golden Legend," or _Aurea Legenda_, was the name given +to a book containing lives of the saints and descriptions of festivals, +written by Jacobus de Voragine, archbishop of Genoa, in the 13th +century. From the original application of the word to stories of the +saints containing wonders and miracles, the word came to be applied to a +story handed down without any foundation in history, but popularly +believed to be true. "Legend" is also used of a writing, inscription, or +motto on coins or medals, and in connexion with coats of arms, shields, +monuments, &c. + + + + +LEGENDRE, ADRIEN MARIE (1752-1833), French mathematician, was born at +Paris (or, according to some accounts, at Toulouse) in 1752. He was +brought up at Paris, where he completed his studies at the _Collège +Mazarin_. His first published writings consist of articles forming part +of the _Traité de mécanique_ (1774) of the Abbé Marie, who was his +professor; Legendre's name, however, is not mentioned. Soon afterwards +he was appointed professor of mathematics in the _École Militaire_ at +Paris, and he was afterwards professor in the _École Normale_. In 1782 +he received the prize from the Berlin Academy for his "Dissertation sur +la question de balistique," a memoir relating to the paths of +projectiles in resisting media. He also, about this time, wrote his +"Recherches sur la figure des planètes," published in the _Mémoires_ of +the French Academy, of which he was elected a member in succession to J. +le Rond d'Alembert in 1783. He was also appointed a commissioner for +connecting geodetically Paris and Greenwich, his colleagues being P. F. +A. Méchain and C. F. Cassini de Thury; General William Roy conducted the +operations on behalf of England. The French observations were published +in 1792 (_Exposé des opérations faites en France in 1787 pour la +jonction des observatoires de Paris et de Greenwich_). During the +Revolution, he was one of the three members of the council established +to introduce the decimal system, and he was also a member of the +commission appointed to determine the length of the metre, for which +purpose the calculations, &c., connected with the arc of the meridian +from Barcelona to Dunkirk were revised. He was also associated with G. +C. F. M. Prony (1755-1839) in the formation of the great French tables +of logarithms of numbers, sines, and tangents, and natural sines, called +the _Tables du Cadastre_, in which the quadrant was divided +centesimally; these tables have never been published (see LOGARITHMS). +He was examiner in the _École Polytechnique_, but held few important +state offices. He died at Paris on the 10th of January 1833, and the +discourse at his grave was pronounced by S. D. Poisson. The last of the +three supplements to his _Traité des fonctions elliptiques_ was +published in 1832, and Poisson in his funeral oration remarked: "M. +Legendre a eu cela de commun avec la plupart des géomètres qui l'ont +précédé, que ses travaux n'ont fini qu'avec sa vie. Le dernier volume de +nos mémoires renferme encore un mémoire de lui, sur une question +difficile de la théorie des nombres; et peu de temps avant la maladie +qui l'a conduit au tombeau, il se procura les observations les plus +récentes des comètes à courtes périodes, dont il allait se servir pour +appliquer et perfectionner ses méthodes." + + It will be convenient, in giving an account of his writings, to + consider them under the different subjects which are especially + associated with his name. + + _Elliptic Functions._--This is the subject with which Legendre's name + will always be most closely connected, and his researches upon it + extend over a period of more than forty years. His first published + writings upon the subject consist of two papers in the _Mémoires de + l'Académie Française_ for 1786 upon elliptic arcs. In 1792 he + presented to the Academy a memoir on elliptic transcendents. The + contents of these memoirs are included in the first volume of his + _Exercices de calcul intégral_ (1811). The third volume (1816) + contains the very elaborate and now well-known tables of the elliptic + integrals which were calculated by Legendre himself, with an account + of the mode of their construction. In 1827 appeared the _Traité des + fonctions elliptiques_ (2 vols., the first dated 1825, the second + 1826), a great part of the first volume agrees very closely with the + contents of the _Exercices_; the tables, &c., are given in the second + volume. Three supplements, relating to the researches of N. H. Abel + and C. G. J. Jacobi, were published in 1828-1832, and form a third + volume. Legendre had pursued the subject which would now be called + elliptic integrals alone from 1786 to 1827, the results of his labours + having been almost entirely neglected by his contemporaries, but his + work had scarcely appeared in 1827 when the discoveries which were + independently made by the two young and as yet unknown mathematicians + Abel and Jacobi placed the subject on a new basis, and revolutionized + it completely. The readiness with which Legendre, who was then + seventy-six years of age, welcomed these important researches, that + quite overshadowed his own, and included them in successive + supplements to his work, does the highest honour to him (see + FUNCTION). + + _Eulerian Integrals and Integral Calculus._--The _Exercices de calcul + intégral_ consist of three volumes, a great portion of the first and + the whole of the third being devoted to elliptic functions. The + remainder of the first volume relates to the Eulerian integrals and to + quadratures. The second volume (1817) relates to the Eulerian + integrals, and to various integrals and series, developments, + mechanical problems, &c., connected with the integral calculus; this + volume contains also a numerical table of the values of the gamma + function. The latter portion of the second volume of the _Traité des + fonctions elliptiques_ (1826) is also devoted to the Eulerian + integrals, the table being reproduced. Legendre's researches connected + with the "gamma function" are of importance, and are well known; the + subject was also treated by K. F. Gauss in his memoir _Disquisitiones + generales circa series infinitas_ (1816), but in a very different + manner. The results given in the second volume of the _Exercices_ are + of too miscellaneous a character to admit of being briefly described. + In 1788 Legendre published a memoir on double integrals, and in 1809 + one on definite integrals. + + _Theory of Numbers._--Legendre's _Théorie des nombres_ and Gauss's + _Disquisitiones arithmeticae_ (1801) are still standard works upon + this subject. The first edition of the former appeared in 1798 under + the title _Essai sur la théorie des nombres_; there was a second + edition in 1808; a first supplement was published in 1816, and a + second in 1825. The third edition, under the title _Théorie des + nombres_, appeared in 1830 in two volumes. The fourth edition appeared + in 1900. To Legendre is due the theorem known as the law of quadratic + reciprocity, the most important general result in the science of + numbers which has been discovered since the time of P. de Fermat, and + which was called by Gauss the "gem of arithmetic." It was first given + by Legendre in the _Mémoires_ of the Academy for 1785, but the + demonstration that accompanied it was incomplete. The symbol (a/p) + which is known as Legendre's symbol, and denotes the positive or + negative unit which is the remainder when a^[½p(-1)] is divided by a + prime number p, does not appear in this memoir, but was first used in + the _Essai sur la théorie des nombres_. Legendre's formula x: (log x - + 1.08366) for the approximate number of forms inferior to a given + number x was first given by him also in this work (2nd ed., p. 394) + (see NUMBER). + + _Attractions of Ellipsoids._--Legendre was the author of four + important memoirs on this subject. In the first of these, entitled + "Recherches sur l'attraction des sphéroides homogènes," published in + the _Mémoires_ of the Academy for 1785, but communicated to it at an + earlier period, Legendre introduces the celebrated expressions which, + though frequently called Laplace's coefficients, are more correctly + named after Legendre. The definition of the coefficients is that if (1 + - 2h cos [phi] + h²)^(-½) be expanded in ascending powers of h, and if + the general term be denoted by P_n h^n, then P_n is of the Legendrian + coefficient of the nth order. In this memoir also the function which + is now called the potential was, at the suggestion of Laplace, first + introduced. Legendre shows that Maclaurin's theorem with respect to + confocal ellipsoids is true for any position of the external point + when the ellipsoids are solids of revolution. Of this memoir Isaac + Todhunter writes: "We may affirm that no single memoir in the history + of our subject can rival this in interest and importance. During forty + years the resources of analysis, even in the hands of d'Alembert, + Lagrange and Laplace, had not carried the theory of the attraction of + ellipsoids beyond the point which the geometry of Maclaurin had + reached. The introduction of the coefficients now called Laplace's, + and their application, commence a new era in mathematical physics." + Legendre's second memoir was communicated to the _Académie_ in 1784, + and relates to the conditions of equilibrium of a mass of rotating + fluid in the form of a figure of revolution which does not deviate + much from a sphere. The third memoir relates to Laplace's theorem + respecting confocal ellipsoids. Of the fourth memoir Todhunter writes: + "It occupies an important position in the history of our subject. The + most striking addition which is here made to previous researches + consists in the treatment of a planet supposed entirely fluid; the + general equation for the form of a stratum is given for the first time + and discussed. For the first time we have a correct and convenient + expression for Laplace's nth coefficient." (See Todhunter's _History + of the Mathematical Theories of Attraction and the Figure of the + Earth_ (1873), the twentieth, twenty-second, twenty-fourth, and + twenty-fifth chapters of which contain a full and complete account of + Legendre's four memoirs. See also SPHERICAL HARMONICS.) + + _Geodesy._--Besides the work upon the geodetical operations connecting + Paris and Greenwich, of which Legendre was one of the authors, he + published in the _Mémoires de l'Académie_ for 1787 two papers on + trigonometrical operations depending upon the figure of the earth, + containing many theorems relating to this subject. The best known of + these, which is called Legendre's theorem, is usually given in + treatises on spherical trigonometry; by means of it a small spherical + triangle may be treated as a plane triangle, certain corrections being + applied to the angles. Legendre was also the author of a memoir upon + triangles drawn upon a spheroid. Legendre's theorem is a fundamental + one in geodesy, and his contributions to the subject are of the + greatest importance. + + _Method of Least Squares._--In 1806 appeared Legendre's _Nouvelles + Méthodes pour la détermination des orbites des comètes_, which is + memorable as containing the first published suggestion of the method + of least squares (see PROBABILITY). In the preface Legendre remarks: + "La méthode qui me paroît la plus simple et la plus générale consiste + à rendre minimum la somme des quarrés des erreurs, ... et que + j'appelle méthode des moindres quarrés"; and in an appendix in which + the application of the method is explained his words are: "De tous les + principes qu'on peut proposer pour cet objet, je pense qu'il n'en est + pas de plus général, de plus exact, ni d'une application plus facile + que celui dont nous avons fait usage dans les recherches précédentes, + et qui consiste à rendre minimum la somme des quarrés des erreurs." + The method was proposed by Legendre only as a convenient process for + treating observations, without reference to the theory of probability. + It had, however, been applied by Gauss as early as 1795, and the + method was fully explained, and the law of facility for the first time + given by him in 1809. Laplace also justified the method by means of + the principles of the theory of probability; and this led Legendre to + republish the part of his _Nouvelles Méthodes_ which related to it in + the _Mémoires de l'Académie_ for 1810. Thus, although the method of + least squares was first formally proposed by Legendre, the theory and + algorithm and mathematical foundation of the process are due to Gauss + and Laplace. Legendre published two supplements to his _Nouvelles + Méthodes_ in 1806 and 1820. + + _The Elements of Geometry._--Legendre's name is most widely known on + account of his _Eléments de géométrie_, the most successful of the + numerous attempts that have been made to supersede Euclid as a + text-book on geometry. It first appeared in 1794, and went through + very many editions, and has been translated into almost all languages. + An English translation, by Sir David Brewster, from the eleventh + French edition, was published in 1823, and is well known in England. + The earlier editions did not contain the trigonometry. In one of the + notes Legendre gives a proof of the irrationality of [pi]. This had + been first proved by J. H. Lambert in the Berlin _Memoirs_ for 1768. + Legendre's proof is similar in principle to Lambert's, but much + simpler. On account of the objections urged against the treatment of + parallels in this work, Legendre was induced to publish in 1803 his + _Nouvelle Théorie des parallèles_. His _Géométrie_ gave rise in + England also to a lengthened discussion on the difficult question of + the treatment of the theory of parallels. + + It will thus be seen that Legendre's works have placed him in the very + foremost rank in the widely distinct subjects of elliptic functions, + theory of numbers, attractions, and geodesy, and have given him a + conspicuous position in connexion with the integral calculus and other + branches of mathematics. He published a memoir on the integration of + partial differential equations and a few others which have not been + noticed above, but they relate to subjects with which his name is not + especially associated. A good account of the principal works of + Legendre is given in the _Bibliothèque universelle de Genève_ for + 1833, pp. 45-82. + + See Élie de Beaumont, "Memoir de Legendre," translated by C. A. + Alexander, _Smithsonian Report_ (1874). (J. W. L. G.) + + + + +LEGENDRE, LOUIS (1752-1797), French revolutionist, was born at +Versailles on the 22nd of May 1752. When the Revolution broke out, he +kept a butcher's shop in Paris, in the rue des Boucheries St Germain. He +was an ardent supporter of the ideas of the Revolution, a member of the +Jacobin Club, and one of the founders of the club of the Cordeliers. In +spite of the incorrectness of his diction, he was gifted with a genuine +eloquence, and well knew how to carry the populace with him. He was a +prominent actor in the taking of the Bastille (14th of July 1789), in +the massacre of the Champ de Mars (July 1791), and in the attack on the +Tuileries (10th of August 1792). Deputy from Paris to the Convention, he +voted for the death of Louis XVI., and was sent on mission to Lyons +(27th of February 1793) before the revolt of that town, and was on +mission from August to October 1793 in Seine-Inférieure. He was a member +of the _Comité de Sûreté Générale_, and contributed to the downfall of +the Girondists. When Danton was arrested, Legendre at first defended +him, but was soon cowed and withdrew his defence. After the fall of +Robespierre, Legendre took part in the reactionary movement, undertook +the closing of the Jacobin Club, was elected president of the +Convention, and helped to bring about the impeachment of J. B. Carrier, +the perpetrator of the _noyades_ of Nantes. He was subsequently elected +a member of the Council of Ancients, and died on the 13th of December +1797. + + See F. A. Aulard, _Les Orateurs de la Législative et de la Convention_ + (2nd ed., Paris, 1906, 2 vols.); "Correspondance de Legendre" in the + _Révolution française_ (vol. xl., 1901). + + + + +LEGERDEMAIN (Fr. _léger-de-main_, i.e. light or sleight of hand), the +name given specifically to that form of conjuring in which the performer +relies on dexterity of manipulation rather than on mechanical apparatus. +See CONJURING. + + + + +LEGGE, afterwards BILSON-LEGGE, HENRY (1708-1764), English statesman, +fourth son of William Legge, 1st earl of Dartmouth (1672-1750), was born +on the 29th of May 1708. Educated at Christ Church, Oxford, he became +private secretary to Sir Robert Walpole, and in 1739 was appointed +secretary of Ireland by the lord-lieutenant, the 3rd duke of Devonshire; +being chosen member of parliament for the borough of East Looe in 1740, +and for Orford, Suffolk, at the general election in the succeeding year. +Legge only shared temporarily in the downfall of Walpole, and became in +quick succession surveyor-general of woods and forests, a lord of the +admiralty, and a lord of the treasury. In 1748 he was sent as envoy +extraordinary to Frederick the Great, and although his conduct in Berlin +was sharply censured by George II., he became treasurer of the navy soon +after his return to England. In April 1754 he joined the ministry of the +duke of Newcastle as chancellor of the exchequer, the king consenting to +this appointment although refusing to hold any intercourse with the +minister; but Legge shared the elder Pitt's dislike of the policy of +paying subsidies to the landgrave of Hesse, and was dismissed from +office in November 1755. Twelve months later he returned to his post at +the exchequer in the administration of Pitt and the 4th duke of +Devonshire, retaining office until April 1757 when he shared both the +dismissal and the ensuing popularity of Pitt. When in conjunction with +the duke of Newcastle Pitt returned to power in the following July, +Legge became chancellor of the exchequer for the third time. He imposed +new taxes upon houses and windows, and he appears to have lost to some +extent the friendship of Pitt, while the king refused to make him a +peer. In 1759 he obtained the sinecure position of surveyor of the petty +customs and subsidies in the port of London, and having in consequence +to resign his seat in parliament he was chosen one of the members for +Hampshire, a proceeding which greatly incensed the earl of Bute, who +desired this seat for one of his friends. Having thus incurred Bute's +displeasure Legge was again dismissed from the exchequer in March 1761, +but he continued to take part in parliamentary debates until his death +at Tunbridge Wells on the 23rd of August 1764. Legge appears to have +been a capable financier, but the position of chancellor of the +exchequer was not at that time a cabinet office. He took the additional +name of Bilson on succeeding to the estates of a relative, Thomas +Bettersworth Bilson, in 1754. Pitt called Legge, "the child, and +deservedly the favourite child, of the Whigs." Horace Walpole said he +was "of a creeping, underhand nature, and aspired to the lion's place by +the manoeuvre of the mole," but afterwards he spoke in high terms of his +talents. Legge married Mary, daughter and heiress of Edward, 4th and +last Baron Stawel (d. 1755). This lady, who in 1760 was created Baroness +Stawel of Somerton, bore him an only child, Henry Stawel Bilson-Legge +(1757-1820), who became Baron Stawel on his mother's death in 1780. When +Stawel died without sons his title became extinct. His only daughter, +Mary (d. 1864), married John Dutton, 2nd Baron Sherborne. + + See John Butier, bishop of Hereford, _Some Account of the Character of + the late Rt. Hon. H. Bilson-Legge_ (1765); Horace Walpole, _Memoirs of + the Reign of George II._ (London, 1847); and _Memoirs of the Reign of + George III._, edited by G. F. R. Barker (London, 1894); W. E. H. + Lecky, _History of England_, vol. ii. (London, 1892); and the memoirs + and collections of correspondence of the time. + + + + +LEGGE, JAMES (1815-1897), British Chinese scholar, was born at Huntly, +Aberdeenshire, in 1815, and educated at King's College, Aberdeen. After +studying at the Highbury Theological College, London, he went in 1839 as +a missionary to the Chinese, but, as China was not yet open to +Europeans, he remained at Malacca three years, in charge of the +Anglo-Chinese College there. The College was subsequently moved to +Hong-Kong, where Legge lived for thirty years. Impressed with the +necessity of missionaries being able to comprehend the ideas and culture +of the Chinese, he began in 1841 a translation in many volumes of the +Chinese classics, a monumental task admirably executed and completed a +few years before his death. In 1870 he was made an LL.D. of Aberdeen and +in 1884 of Edinburgh University. In 1875 several gentlemen connected +with the China trade suggested to the university of Oxford a Chair of +Chinese Language and Literature to be occupied by Dr Legge. The +university responded liberally, Corpus Christi College contributed the +emoluments of a fellowship, and the chair was constituted in 1876. In +addition to his other work Legge wrote _The Life and Teaching of +Confucius_ (1867); _The Life and Teaching of Mencius_ (1875); _The +Religions of China_ (1880); and other books on Chinese literature and +religion. He died at Oxford on the 29th of November 1897. + + + + +LEGHORN (Ital. _Livorno_, Fr. _Livourne_), a city of Tuscany, Italy, +chief town of the province of the same name, which consists of the +commune of Leghorn and the islands of Elba and Gorgona. The town is the +seat of a bishopric and of a large naval academy--the only one in +Italy--and the third largest commercial port in the kingdom, situated on +the west coast, 12 m. S.W. of Pisa by rail, 10 ft. above sea-level. Pop. +(1901) 78,308 (town), 96,528 (commune). It is built along the seashore +upon a healthy and fertile tract of land, which forms, as it were, an +oasis in a zone of Maremma. Behind is a range of hills, the most +conspicuous of which, the Monte Nero, is crowned by a frequented +pilgrimage church and also by villas and hotels, to which a funicular +railway runs. The town itself is almost entirely modern. The +16th-century Fortezza Vecchia, guarding the harbour, is picturesque, and +there is a good bronze statue of the grand duke Ferdinand I. by Pietro +Tacca (1577-1640), a pupil of Giovanni da Bologna. The lofty Torre del +Marzocco, erected in 1423 by the Florentines, is fine. The façade of the +cathedral was designed by Inigo Jones. The old Protestant cemetery +contains the tombs of Tobias Smollett (d. 1771) and Francis Horner (d. +1817). There is also a large synagogue founded in 1581. The exchange, +the chamber of commerce and the clearing-house (one of the oldest in the +world, dating from 1764) are united under one roof in the Palazzo del +Commercio, opened in 1907. Several improvements have been carried out in +the city and port, and the place is developing rapidly as an industrial +centre. The naval academy, formerly established partly at Naples and +partly at Genoa, has been transferred to Leghorn. Some of the navigable +canals which connected the harbour with the interior of the city have +been either modified or filled up. Several streets have been widened, +and a road along the shore has been transformed into a fine and shady +promenade. Leghorn is the principal sea-bathing resort in this part of +Italy, the season lasting from the end of June to the end of August. A +spa for the use of the Acque della Salute has been constructed. Leghorn +is on the main line from Pisa to Rome; another line runs to Colle +Salvetti. A considerable number of important steamship lines call here. +The new rectilinear mole, sanctioned in 1881, has been built out into +the sea for a distance of 600 yds. from the old Vegliaia lighthouse, and +the docking basin has been lengthened to 490 ft. Inside the breakwater +the depth varies from 10 to 26 ft. The total trade of the port increased +from £3,853,593 in 1897 to £5,675,285 in 1905 and £7,009,758 in 1906 +(the large increase being mainly due to a rise of over £1,000,000 in +imports--mainly of coal, building materials and machinery), the average +ratio of imports to exports being as three to two. The imports consist +principally of machinery, coal, grain, dried fish, tobacco and hides, +and the exports of hemp, hides, olive oil, soap, coral, candied fruit, +wine, straw hats, boracic acid, mercury, and marble and alabaster. In +1885 the total number of vessels that entered the port was 4281 of +1,434,000 tons; of these, 1251 of 750,000 tons were foreign; 688,000 +tons of merchandise were loaded and unloaded. In 1906, after +considerable fluctuations during the interval, the total number that +entered was 4623 vessels of 2,372,551 tons; of these, 935 of 1,002,119 +tons were foreign; British ships representing about half this tonnage. +In 1906 the total imports and exports amounted to 1,470,000 tons +including coasting trade. A great obstacle to the development of the +port is the absence of modern mechanical appliances for loading and +unloading vessels, and of quay space and dock accommodation. The older +shipyards have been considerably extended, and shipbuilding is actively +carried on, especially by the Orlando yard which builds large ships for +the Italian navy, while new industries--namely, glass-making and copper +and brass-founding, electric power works, a cement factory, porcelain +factories, flour-mills, oil-mills, a cotton yarn spinning factory, +electric plant works, a ship-breaking yard, a motor-boat yard, &c.--have +been established. Other important firms, Tuscan wine-growers, +oil-growers, timber traders, colour manufacturers, &c., have their head +offices and stores at Leghorn, with a view to export. The former British +"factory" here was of great importance for the trade with the Levant, +but was closed in 1825. The two villages of Ardenza and Antignano, which +form part of the commune, have acquired considerable importance, the +former in part for sea-bathing. + +The earliest mention of Leghorn occurs in a document of 891, relating to +the first church here; in 1017 it is called a castle. In the 13th +century the Pisans tried to attract a population to the spot, but it was +not till the 14th that Leghorn became a rival of Porto Pisano at the +mouth of the Arno, which it was destined ultimately to supplant. It was +at Leghorn that Urban V. and Gregory XI. landed on their return from +Avignon. When in 1405 the king of France sold Pisa to the Florentines he +kept possession of Leghorn; but he afterwards (1407) sold it for 26,000 +ducats to the Genoese, and from the Genoese the Florentines purchased it +in 1421. In 1496 the city showed its devotion to its new masters by a +successful defence against Maximilian and his allies, but it was still a +small place; in 1551 there were only 749 inhabitants. With the rise of +the Medici came a rapid increase of prosperity; Cosmo, Francis and +Ferdinand erected fortifications and harbour works, warehouses and +churches, with equal liberality, and the last especially gave a stimulus +to trade by inviting "men of the East and the West, Spanish and +Portuguese, Greeks, Germans, Italians, Hebrews, Turks, Moors, Armenians, +Persians and others," to settle and traffic in the city, as it became in +1606. Declared free and neutral in 1691, Leghorn was permanently +invested with these privileges by the Quadruple Alliance in 1718; but in +1796 Napoleon seized all the hostile vessels in its port. It ceased to +be a free city by the law of 1867. (T. As.) + + + + +LEGION (Lat. _legio_), in early Rome, the levy of citizens marching out +_en masse_ to war, like the citizen-army of any other primitive state. +As Rome came to need more than one army at once and warfare grew more +complex, _legio_ came to denote a unit of 4000-6000 heavy infantry +(including, however, at first some light infantry and at various times a +handful of cavalry) who were by political status Roman citizens and were +distinct from the "allies," _auxilia_, and other troops of the second +class. The legionaries were regarded as the best and most characteristic +Roman soldiers, the most trustworthy and truly Roman; they enjoyed +better pay and conditions of service than the "auxiliaries." In A.D. 14 +(death of Augustus) there were 25 such legions: later, the number was +slightly increased; finally about A.D. 290 Diocletian reduced the size +and greatly increased the number of the legions. Throughout, the +dominant features of the legions were heavy infantry and Roman +citizenship. They lost their importance when the Barbarian invasions +altered the character of ancient warfare and made cavalry a more +important arm than infantry, in the late 3rd and 4th centuries A.D. In +the middle ages the word "legion" seems not to have been used as a +technical term. In modern times it has been employed for organizations +of an unusual or exceptional character, such as a corps of foreign +volunteers or mercenaries. See further ROMAN ARMY. (F. J. H.) + + The term legion has been used to designate regiments or corps of all + arms in modern times, perhaps the earliest example of this being the + Provincial Legions formed in France by Francis I. (see INFANTRY). + Napoleon, in accordance with this precedent, employed the word to + designate the second-line formations which he maintained in France and + which supplied the Grande Armée with drafts. The term "Foreign Legion" + is often used for irregular volunteer corps of foreign sympathizers + raised by states at war, often by smaller states fighting for + independence. Unlike most foreign legions the "British Legion" which, + raised in Great Britain and commanded by Sir de Lacy Evans (q.v.), + fought in the Carlist wars, was a regularly enlisted and paid force. + The term "foreign legion" is colloquially but incorrectly applied + to-day to the _Régiments étrangers_ in the French service, which are + composed of adventurous spirits of all nationalities and have been + employed in many arduous colonial campaigns. + + The most famous of the corps that have borne the name of legion in + modern times was the King's German Legion (see Beamish's history of + the corps). The electorate of Hanover being in 1805 threatened by the + French, and no effective resistance being considered possible, the + British government wished to take the greater part of the Hanoverian + army into its service. But the acceptance by the Hanoverian government + of this offer was delayed until too late, and it was only after the + French had entered the country and the army as a unit had been + disbanded that the formation of the "King's German Regiment," as it + was at first called, was begun in England. This enlisted not only + ex-Hanoverian soldiers, but other Germans as well, as individuals. + Lieut.-Colonel von der Decken and Major Colin Halkett were the + officers entrusted with the formation of the new corps, which in + January 1805 had become a corps of all arms with the title of King's + German Legion. It then consisted of a dragoon and a hussar regiment, + five batteries, two light and four line battalions and an engineer + section, all these being afterwards increased. Its services included + the abortive German expedition of November 1805, the expedition to + Copenhagen in 1807, the minor sieges and combats in Sicily 1808-14, + the Walcheren expedition of 1809, the expedition to Sweden under Sir + John Moore in 1808, and the campaign of 1813 in north Germany. But its + title to fame is its part in the Peninsular War, in which from first + to last it was an acknowledged _corps d'élite_--its cavalry + especially, whose services both on reconnaissance and in battle were + of the highest value. The exploit of the two dragoon regiments of the + Legion at Garcia Hernandez after the battle of Salamanca, where they + charged and broke up two French infantry squares and captured some + 1400 prisoners, is one of the most notable incidents in the history of + the cavalry arm (see Sir E. Wood's _Achievements of Cavalry)_. A + general officer of the Legion, Charles Alten (q.v.), commanded the + British Light Division in the latter part of the war. It should be + said that the Legion was rarely engaged as a unit. It was considered + rather as a small army of the British type, most of which served + abroad by regiments and battalions while a small portion and depot + units were at home, the total numbers under arms being about 25,000. + In 1815 the period of service of the corps had almost expired when + Napoleon returned from Elba, but its members voluntarily offered to + prolong their service. It lost heavily at Waterloo, in which Baring's + battalion of the light infantry distinguished itself by its gallant + defence of La Haye Sainte. The strength of the Legion at the time of + its disbandment was 1100 officers and 23,500 men. A short-lived + "King's German Legion" was raised by the British government for + service in the Crimean War. Certain Hanoverian regiments of the German + army to-day represent the units of the Legion and carry Peninsular + battle-honours on their standards and colours. + + + + +LEGITIM, or BAIRN'S PART, in Scots law, the legal share of the movable +property of a father due on his death to his children. If a father dies +leaving a widow and children, the movable property is divided into three +equal parts; one-third part is divided equally among all the children +who survive, although they may be of different marriages (the issue of +predeceased children do not share); another third goes to the widow as +her _jus relictae_, and the remaining third, called "dead's part," may +be disposed of by the father by will as he pleases. If the father die +intestate the dead's part goes to the children as next of kin. Should +the father leave no widow, one-half of the movable estate is legitim and +one-half dead's part. In claiming legitim, however, credit must be given +for any advance made by the father out of his movable estate during his +lifetime. + + + + +LEGITIMACY, and LEGITIMATION, the status derived by individuals in +consequence of being born in legal wedlock, and the means by which the +same status is given to persons not so born. Under the Roman or civil +law a child born before the marriage of the parents was made legitimate +by their subsequent marriage. This method of legitimation was accepted +by the canon law, by the legal systems of the continent of Europe, of +Scotland and of some of the states of the United States. The early +Germanic codes, however, did not recognize such legitimation, nor among +the Anglo-Saxons had the natural-born child any rights of inheritance, +or possibly any right other than that of protection, even when +acknowledged by its father. The principle of the civil and canon law was +at one time advocated by the clergy of England, but was summarily +rejected by the barons at the parliament of Merton in 1236, when they +replied _Nolumus leges Angliae mutare_. + +English law takes account solely of the fact that marriage precedes the +birth of the child; at whatever period the birth happens after the +marriage, the offspring is prima facie legitimate. The presumption of +law is always in favour of the legitimacy of the child of a married +woman, and at one time it was so strong that Sir Edward Coke held that +"if the husband be within the four seas, i.e. within the jurisdiction of +the king of England, and the wife hath issue, no proof shall be admitted +to prove the child a bastard unless the husband hath an apparent +impossibility of procreation." It is now settled, however, that the +presumption of legitimacy may be rebutted by evidence showing non-access +on the part of the husband, or any other circumstance showing that the +husband could not in the course of nature have been the father of his +wife's child. If the husband had access, or the access be not clearly +negatived, even though others at the same time were carrying on an +illicit intercourse with the wife, a child born under such circumstances +is legitimate. If the husband had access intercourse must be presumed, +unless there is irresistible evidence to the contrary. Neither husband +or wife will be permitted to prove the non-access directly or +indirectly. Children born after a divorce _a mensa et thoro_ will, +however, be presumed to be bastards unless access be proved. A child +born so long after the death of a husband that he could not in the +ordinary course of nature have been the father is illegitimate. The +period of gestation is presumed to be _about_ nine calendar months; and +if there were any circumstances from which an unusually long or short +period of gestation could be inferred, special medical testimony would +be required. + +A marriage between persons within the prohibited degrees of affinity was +before 1835 not void, but only voidable, and the ecclesiastical courts +were restrained from bastardizing the issue after the death of either of +the parents. Lord Lyndhurst's act (1835) declared all such existing +marriages valid, but all subsequent marriages between persons within the +prohibited degrees of consanguinity or affinity were made null and void +and the issue illegitimate (see MARRIAGE). By the Legitimacy Declaration +Act 1858, application may be made to the Probate, Divorce and Admiralty +Court (in Scotland, to the Court of Session by action of declarator) for +a declaration of legitimacy and of the validity of a marriage. The +status of legitimacy in any country depending upon the fact of the child +having been born in wedlock, it may be concluded that any question as to +the legitimacy of a child turns either on the validity of the marriage +or on whether the child has been born in wedlock. + +_Legitimation_ effected by the subsequent marriage of the parents of the +illegitimate child is technically known as legitimation _per subsequens +matrimonium_. This adoption of the Roman law principle is followed by +most of the states of the continent of Europe (with distinctions, of +course, as to _certain_ illegitimate children, or as to the forms of +acknowledgment by the parent or parents), in the Isle of Man, Guernsey, +Jersey, Lower Canada, St Lucia, Trinidad, Demerara, Berbice, Cape +Colony, Ceylon, Mauritius; it has been adopted in New Zealand +(Legitimation Act 1894), South Australia (Legitimation Act 1898, amended +1902), Queensland (Legitimation Act 1899), New South Wales (Legitimation +Act 1902), and Victoria (Registration of Births, Deaths and Marriages +Act 1903). It is to be noted, however, that in these states the mere +fact of the parents marrying does not legitimate the child; indeed, the +parents may marry, yet the child remain illegitimate. In order to +legitimate the child it is necessary for the father to make application +for its registration; in South Australia, the application must be made +by both parents; so also in Victoria, if the mother is living, if not, +application by the father will suffice. In New Zealand, Queensland and +New South Wales, registration may be made at any time after the +marriage; in Victoria, within six months from the date of the marriage; +in South Australia, by the act of 1898, registration was permissible +only within thirty days before or after the marriage, but by the +amending act of 1902 it is allowed at any time more than thirty days +after the marriage, provided the applicants prove before a magistrate +that they are the parents of the child. In all cases the legitimation is +retrospective, taking effect from the birth of the child. Legitimation +by subsequent marriage exists also in the following states of the +American Union: Maine, Pennsylvania, Illinois, Michigan, Iowa, +Minnesota, California, Oregon, Nevada, Washington, N. and S. Dakota, +Idaho, Montana and New Mexico. In Massachusetts, Vermont, Illinois, +Indiana, Wisconsin, Nebraska, Maryland, Virginia, West Virginia, +Kentucky, Missouri, Arkansas, Texas, Colorado, Idaho, Wyoming, Georgia, +Alabama, Mississippi and Arizona, in addition to the marriage the father +must recognize or acknowledge the illegitimate child as his. In New +Hampshire, Connecticut and Louisiana both parents must acknowledge the +child, either by an authentic act before marriage or by the contract of +marriage. In some states (California, Nevada, N. and S. Dakota and +Idaho) if the father of an illegitimate child receives it into his house +(with the consent of his wife, if married), and treats it as if it were +legitimate, it becomes legitimate for all purposes. In other states (N. +Carolina, Tennessee, Georgia and New Mexico) the putative father can +legitimize the child by process in court. Those states of the United +States which have not been mentioned follow the English common law, +which also prevails in Ireland, some of the West Indies and part of +Canada. In Scotland, on the other hand, the principle of the civil law +is followed. In Scotland, bastards could be legitimized in two ways: +either by the subsequent intermarriage of the mother of the child with +the father, or by letters of legitimation from the sovereign. With +respect to the last, however, it is to be observed that letters of +legitimation, be their clauses ever so strong, could not enable the +bastard to succeed to his natural father; for the sovereign could not, +by any prerogative, cut off the private right of third parties. But by a +special clause in the letters of legitimation, the sovereign could +renounce his right to the bastard's succession, failing legitimate +descendants, in favour of him who would have been the bastard's heir had +he been born in lawful wedlock, such renunciation encroaching upon no +right competent to any third person. + +The question remains, how far, if at all, English law recognizes the +legitimacy of a person born out of wedlock. Strictly speaking, English +law does not recognize any such person as legitimate (though the supreme +power of an act of parliament can, of course, confer the rights of +legitimacy), but under certain circumstances it will recognize, for +purposes of succession to property, a legitimated person as legitimate. +The general maxim of law is that the status of legitimacy must be tried +by the law of the country where it originates, and where the law of the +father's domicile at the time of the child's birth, and of the father's +domicile at the time of the subsequent marriage, taken together, +legitimize the child, English law will recognize the legitimacy. For +purposes of succession to real property, however, legitimacy must be +determined by the _lex loci rei sitae_; so that, for example, a +legitimized Scotsman would be recognized as legitimate in England, but +not legitimate so far as to take lands as heir (_Birtwhistle_ v. +_Vardill_, 1840). The conflict of laws on the subject yields some +curious results. Thus, a domiciled Scotsman had a son born in Scotland +and then married the mother in Scotland. The son died possessed of land +in England, and it was held that the father could not inherit from the +son. On the other hand, where an unmarried woman, domiciled in England +died intestate there, it was held that her brother's daughter, born +before marriage, but whilst the father was domiciled in Holland, and +legitimized by the parents' marriage while they were still domiciled in +Holland, was entitled to succeed to the personal property of her aunt +(_In re Goodman's Trusts_, 1880). _In re Grey's Trusts_ (1892) decided +that, where _real estate_ was bequeathed to the children of a person +domiciled in a foreign country and these children were legitimized by +the subsequent marriage in that country of their father with their +mother, that they were entitled to share as legitimate children in a +devise of English realty. It is to be noted that this decision does not +clash with that of _Birtwhistle_ v. _Vardill_. + + See J. A. Foote, _Private International Law_; A. V. Dicey, _Conflict + of Laws_; L. von Bar, _Private International Law_; Story, _Conflict of + Laws_; J. Westlake, _International Law_. + + + + +LEGITIMISTS (Fr. _légitimistes_, from _légitime_, lawful, legitimate), +the name of the party in France which after the revolution of 1830 +continued to support the claims of the elder line of the house of +Bourbon as the legitimate sovereigns "by divine right." The death of the +comte de Chambord in 1883 dissolved the _parti légitimiste_, only an +insignificant remnant, known as the _Blancs d'Espagne_, repudiating the +act of renunciation of Philip V. of Spain and upholding the rights of +the Bourbons of the line of Anjou. The word _légitimiste_ was not +admitted by the French Academy until 1878; but meanwhile it had spread +beyond France, and the English word legitimist is now applied to any +supporter of monarchy by hereditary right as against a parliamentary or +other title. + + + + +LEGNAGO, a fortified town of Venetia, Italy, in the province of Verona, +on the Adige, 29 m. by rail E. of Mantua, 52 ft. above sea-level. Pop. +(1906) 2731 (town), 17,000 (commune). Legnago is one of the famous +Quadrilateral fortresses. The present fortifications were planned and +made in 1815, the older defences having been destroyed by Napoleon I. in +1801. The situation is low and unhealthy, but the territory is fertile, +rice, cereals and sugar being grown. Legnago is the birthplace of G. B. +Cavalcaselle, the art historian (1827-1897). A branch line runs hence to +Rovigo. + + + + +LEGNANO, a town of Lombardy, Italy, in the province of Milan, 17 m. N.W. +of that city by rail, 682 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1881) 7153, (1901) +18,285. The church of S. Magno, built in the style of Bramante by G. +Lampugnano (1504-1529), contains an altar-piece considered one of +Luini's best works. There are also remains of a castle of the Visconti. +Legnano is the seat of important cotton and silk industries, with +machine-shops, boiler-works, and dyeing and printing of woven goods, and +thread. Close by, the Lombard League defeated Frederick Barbarossa in +1176; a monument in commemoration of the battle was erected on the field +in 1876, while there is another by Butti erected in 1900 in the Piazza +Federico Barbarossa. + + + + +LEGOUVÉ, GABRIEL JEAN BAPTISTE ERNEST WILFRID (1807-1903), French +dramatist, son of the poet Gabriel Legouvé (1764-1812), who wrote a +pastoral _La Mort d'Abel_ (1793) and a tragedy of _Epicharis et Néron_, +was born in Paris on the 5th of February 1807. His mother died in 1810, +and almost immediately afterwards his father was removed to a lunatic +asylum. The child, however, inherited a considerable fortune, and was +carefully educated. Jean Nicolas Bouilly (1763-1842) was his tutor, and +early instilled into the young Legouvé a passion for literature, to +which the example of his father and of his grandfather, J. B. Legouvé +(1729-1783), predisposed him. As early as 1829 he carried away a prize +of the French Academy for a poem on the discovery of printing; and in +1832 he published a curious little volume of verses, entitled _Les Morts +Bizarres_. In those early days Legouvé brought out a succession of +novels, of which _Edith de Falsen_ enjoyed a considerable success. In +1847 he began the work by which he is best remembered, his contributions +to the development and education of the female mind, by lecturing at the +College of France on the moral history of women: these discourses were +collected into a volume in 1848, and enjoyed a great success. Legouvé +wrote considerably for the stage, and in 1849 he collaborated with A. E. +Scribe in _Adrienne Lecouvreur_. In 1855 he brought out his tragedy of +_Médée_, the success of which had much to do with his election to the +French Academy. He succeeded to the fauteuil of J. A. Ancelot, and was +received by Flourens, who dwelt on the plays of Legouvé as his principal +claim to consideration. As time passed on, however, he became less +prominent as a playwright, and more so as a lecturer and propagandist on +woman's rights and the advanced education of children, in both of which +directions he was a pioneer in French society. His _La Femme en France +au XIX^me siècle_ (1864), reissued, much enlarged, in 1878; his +_Messieurs les enfants_ (1868), his _Conférences Parisiennes_ (1872), +his _Nos filles et nos fils_ (1877), and his _Une Éducation de jeune +fille_ (1884) were works of wide-reaching influence in the moral order. +In 1886-1887 he published, in two volumes, his _Soixante ans de +souvenirs_, an excellent specimen of autobiography. He was raised in +1887 to the highest grade of the Legion of Honour, and held for many +years the post of inspector-general of female education in the national +schools. Legouvé was always an advocate of physical training. He was +long accounted one of the best shots in France, and although, from a +conscientious objection, he never fought a duel, he made the art of +fencing his life-long hobby. After the death of Désiré Nisard in 1888, +Legouvé became the "father" of the French Academy. He died on the 14th +of March 1903. + + + + +LEGROS, ALPHONSE (1837- ), painter and etcher, was born at Dijon on the +8th of May 1837. His father was an accountant, and came from the +neighbouring village of Veronnes. Young Legros frequently visited the +farms of his relatives, and the peasants and landscapes of that part of +France are the subjects of many of his pictures and etchings. He was +sent to the art school at Dijon with a view to qualifying for a trade, +and was apprenticed to Maître Nicolardo, house decorator and painter of +images. In 1851 Legros left for Paris to take another situation; but +passing through Lyons he worked for six months as journeyman +wall-painter under the decorator Beuchot, who was painting the chapel of +Cardinal Bonald in the cathedral. In Paris he studied with Cambon, +scene-painter and decorator of theatres, an experience which developed a +breadth of touch such as Stanfield and Cox picked up in similar +circumstances. At this time he attended the drawing-school of Lecoq de +Boisbaudran. In 1855 Legros attended the evening classes of the École +des Beaux Arts, and perhaps gained there his love of drawing from the +antique, some of the results of which may be seen in the Print Room of +the British Museum. He sent two portraits to the Salon of 1857: one was +rejected, and formed part of the exhibition of protest organized by +Bonvin in his studio; the other, which was accepted, was a profile +portrait of his father. This work was presented to the museum at Tours +by the artist when his friend Cazin was curator. Champfleury saw the +work in the Salon, and sought out the artist to enlist him in the small +army of so-called "Realists," comprising (round the noisy glory of +Courbet) all those who raised protest against the academical trifles of +the degenerate Romantics. In 1859 Legros's "Angelus" was exhibited, the +first of those quiet church interiors, with kneeling figures of patient +women, by which he is best known as a painter. "Ex Voto," a work of +great power and insight, painted in 1861, now in the museum at Dijon, +was received by his friends with enthusiasm, but it only obtained a +mention at the Salon. Legros came to England in 1863, and in 1864 +married Miss Frances Rosetta Hodgson. At first he lived by his etching +and teaching. He then became teacher of etching at the South Kensington +School of Art, and in 1876 Slade Professor at University College, +London. He was naturalized as an Englishman in 1881, and remained at +University College seventeen years. His influence there was exerted to +encourage a certain distinction, severity and truth of character in the +work of his pupils, with a simple technique and a respect for the +traditions of the old masters, until then somewhat foreign to English +art. He would draw or paint a torso or a head before the students in an +hour or even less, so that the attention of the pupils might not be +dulled. As students had been known to take weeks and even months over a +single drawing, Legros ordered the positions of the casts in the Antique +School to be changed once every week. In the painting school he insisted +upon a good outline, preserved by a thin rub in of umber, and then the +work was to be finished in a single painting, "_premier coup_." +Experiments in all varieties of art work were practised; whenever the +professor saw a fine example in the museum, or when a process interested +him in a workshop, he never rested until he had mastered the technique +and his students were trying their 'prentice hands at it. As he had +casually picked up the art of etching by watching a comrade in Paris +working at a commercial engraving, so he began the making of medals +after a walk in the British Museum, studying the masterpieces of +Pisanello, and a visit to the Cabinet des Médailles in Paris. Legros +considered the traditional journey to Italy a very important part of +artistic training, and in order that his students should have the +benefit of such study he devoted a part of his salary to augment the +income available for a travelling studentship. His later works, after he +resigned his professorship in 1892, were more in the free and ardent +manner of his early days--imaginative landscapes, castles in Spain, and +farms in Burgundy, etchings like the series of "The Triumph of Death," +and the sculptured fountains for the gardens of the duke of Portland at +Welbeck. + + Pictures and drawings by Legros, besides those already mentioned, may + be seen in the following galleries and museums: "Amende Honorable," + "Dead Christ," bronzes, medals and twenty-two drawings, in the + Luxembourg, Paris; "Landscape," "Study of a Head," and portraits of + Browning, Burne-Jones, Cassel, Huxley and Marshall, at the Victoria + and Albert Museum, Kensington; "Femmes en prière," National Gallery of + British Art; "The Tinker," and six other works from the Ionides + Collection, bequeathed to South Kensington; "Christening," + "Barricade," "The Poor at Meat," two portraits and several drawings + and etchings, collection of Lord Carlisle; "Two Priests at the Organ," + "Landscape" and etchings, collection of Rev. Stopford Brooke; "Head of + a Priest," collection of Mr Vereker Hamilton; "The Weed-burner," some + sculpture and a large collection of etchings and drawings, Mr Guy + Knowles; "Psyche," collection of Mr L. W. Hodson; "Snow Scene," + collection of Mr G. F. Watts, R.A.; thirty-five drawings and etchings, + the Print Room, British Museum; "Jacob's Dream" and twelve drawings of + the antique, Cambridge; "Saint Jerome," two studies of heads and some + drawings, Manchester; "The Pilgrimage" and "Study made before the + Class," Liverpool Walker Art Gallery; "Study of Heads," Peel Park + Museum, Salford. + + See Dr Hans W. Singer, "Alphonse Legros," _Die graphischen Künste_ + (1898); Léonce Bénédite, "Alphonse Legros," _Revue de l'art_ (Paris, + 1900); Cosmo Monkhouse, "Professor Legros," _Magazine of Art_ (1882). + (C. H.*) + + + + +LEGUMINOSAE, the second largest family of seed-plants, containing about +430 genera with 7000 species. It belongs to the series Rosales of the +Dicotyledons, and contains three well-marked suborders, Papilionatae, +Mimosoideae and Caesalpinioideae. The plants are trees, shrubs or herbs +of very various habit. The British representatives, all of which belong +to the suborder Papilionatae, include a few shrubs, such as _Ulex_ +(gorse, furze), _Cytisus_ (broom) and _Genista_, but the majority, and +this applies to the suborder as a whole, are herbs, such as the clovers, +_Medicago_, _Melilotus_, &c., sometimes climbing by aid of tendrils +which are modified leaf-structures, as in _Lathyrus_ and the vetches +(_Vicia_). Scarlet runner (_Phaseolus multiflorus_) has a herbaceous +twining stem. Woody climbers (lianes) are represented by species of +_Bauhinia_ (Caesalpinioideae), which with their curiously flattened +twisted stems are characteristic features of tropical forests, and +_Entada scandens_ (Mimosoideae) also common in the tropics; these two +suborders, which are confined to the warmer parts of the earth, consist +chiefly of trees and shrubs such as _Acacia_ and _Mimosa_ belonging to +the Mimosoideae, and the Judas tree of southern Europe (_Cercis_) and +tamarind belonging to the Caesalpinioideae. The so-called acacia of +European gardens (_Robinia Pseudacacia_) and laburnum are examples of +the tree habit in the Papilionatae. Water plants are rare, but are +represented by _Aeschynomene_ and _Neptunia_, tropical genera. The roots +of many species bear nodular swellings (tubercles), the cells of which +contain bacterium-like bodies which have the power of fixing the +nitrogen of the atmosphere in such a form as to make it available for +plant food. Hence the value of these plants as a crop on poor soil or as +a member of a series of rotation of crops, since they enrich the soil by +the nitrogen liberated by the decay of their roots or of the whole plant +if ploughed in as green manure. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Leaf of an Acacia (_A. heterophylla_) showing +flattened leaf-like petiole (phyllode), p, and bipinnate blade.] + +The leaves are alternate in arrangement and generally compound and +stipulate. A common form is illustrated by the trefoil or clovers, which +have three leaflets springing from a common point (digitately +trifoliate); pinnate leaves are also frequent as in laburnum and +_Robinia_. In Mimosoideae the leaves are generally bipinnate (figs. 1, +2, 3). Rarely are the leaves simple as in _Bauhinia_. Various departures +from the usual leaf-type occur in association with adaptations to +different functions or environments. In leaf-climbers, such as pea or +vetch, the end of the rachis and one or more pairs of leaflets are +changed into tendrils. In gorse the leaf is reduced to a slender +spine-like structure, though the leaves of the seedling have one to +three leaflets. In many Australian acacias the leaf surface in the adult +plant is much reduced, the petiole being at the same time flattened and +enlarged (fig. 1), frequently the leaf is reduced to a petiole flattened +in the vertical plane; by this means a minimum surface is exposed to the +intense sunlight. In the garden pea the stipules are large and +foliaceous, replacing the leaflets, which are tendrils; in _Robinia_ the +stipules are spiny and persist after leaf-fall. In some acacias (q.v.) +the thorns are hollow, and inhabited by ants as in _A. sphaerocephala_, +a central American plant (fig. 2) and others. In some species of +_Astragalus_, _Onobrychis_ and others, the leaf-stalk persists after the +fall of the leaf and becomes hard and spiny. + +[Illustration: From Strasburger's _Lehrbuch der Botanik_, by permission +of Gustav Fischer. + +FIG. 2.--_Acacia sphaerocephala._ + + I, Leaf and part of stem; D, hollow thorns in which the ants live; F, + food bodies at the apices of the lower pinnules; N, nectary on the + petiole. (Reduced.) + II, Single pinnule with food-body, F. (Somewhat enlarged.)] + + Leaf-movements occur in many of the genera. Such are the + sleep-movement in the clovers, runner bean (_Phaseolus_), _Robinia_ + and acacia, where the leaflets assume a vertical position at + nightfall. Spontaneous movements are exemplified in the + telegraph-plant (_Desmodium gyrans_), native of tropical Asia, where + the small lateral leaflets move up and down every few minutes. The + sensitive plant (_Mimosa pudica_) is an example of movement in + response to contact, the leaves assuming a sleep-position if touched. + The seat of the movement is the swollen base of the leaf-stalk, the + so-called pulvinus (fig. 3). + + [Illustration: FIG. 3.--Branch with two leaves of the Sensitive Plant + (_Mimosa pudica_), showing the petiole in its erect state, a, and in + its depressed state, b; also the leaflets closed, c, and the leaflets + expanded, d; p, pulvinus, the seat of the movement of the petiole.] + + The stem of the lianes shows some remarkable deviations from the + normal in form and structure. In Papilionatae anomalous secondary + thickening arises from the production of new cambium zones outside the + original ring (_Mucuna_, _Wistaria_) forming concentric rings or + transverse or broader strands; where, as in _Rhyncosia_ the successive + cambiums are active only at two opposite points, a flat ribbon-like + stem is produced. The climbing _Bauhinias_ (Caesalpinioideae) have a + flattened stem with basin-like undulations; in some growth in + thickness is normal, in others new cambium-zones are found + concentrically, while in others new and distinct growth-centres, each + with its cambium-zone, arise outside the primary zone. The climbing + Mimosoideae show no anomalous growth in thickness, but in some cases + the stem becomes strongly winged. Gum passages in the pith and + medullary rays occur, especially in species of acacia and + _Astragalus_; gum-arabic is an exudation from the branches of _Acacia + Senegal_, gum-tragacanth from _Astragalus gummifer_ and other species. + Logwood is the coloured heartwood of _Haematoxylon campechianum_; red + sandalwood of _Pterocarpus santalinus_. + +The flowers are arranged in racemose inflorescences, such as the simple +raceme (_Laburnum_, _Robinia_), which is condensed to a head in +_Trifolium_; in _Acacia_ and _Mimosa_ the flowers are densely crowded +(fig. 4). The flower is characterized by a hypogynous or slightly +perigynous arrangement of parts, the anterior position of the odd sepal, +the free petals, and the single median carpel with a terminal style, +simple stigma and two alternating rows of ovules on the ventral suture +of the ovary which faces the back of the flower. + +[Illustration: FIG. 4.--_Acacia obscura_, flowering branch about 1/3 +natural size. + + 1, Part of stem with leaf and its subtended inflorescence, about + natural size. + 2, Flower, much enlarged. + 3, Floral diagram of _Acacia latifolia_. (After Eichler.)] + + The arrangement of the petals and the number and cohesion of the + stamens vary in the three suborders. In Mimosoideae, the smallest of + the three, the flower is regular (fig. 4 [3]), and the sepals and + petals have a valvate aestivation, and are generally pentamerous, but + 3-6-merous flowers also occur. The sepals are more or less united into + a cup (fig. 4 [2]), and the petals sometimes cohere at the base. The + stamens vary widely in number and cohesion; in _Acacia_ (fig. 4) they + are indefinite and free, in the tribe _Ingeae_, indefinite and + monadelphous, in other tribes as many or twice as many as the petals. + Frequently, as in _Mimosa_, the long yellow stamens are the most + conspicuous feature of the flower. In Caesalpinioideae (fig. 5) the + flowers are zygomorphic in a median plane and generally pentamerous. + The sepals are free, or the two upper ones united as in tamarind, and + imbricate in aestivation, rarely as in the Judas-tree (fig. 5 [2]), + valvate. The corolla shows great variety in form; it is imbricate in + aestivation, the posterior petal being innermost. In _Cercis_ (fig. 5) + it clearly resembles the papilionaceous type; the odd petal stands + erect, the median pair are reflexed and wing-like, and the lower pair + enclose the essential organs. In _Cassia_ all five petals are subequal + and spreading; in _Amherstia_ the anterior pair are small or absent + while the three upper ones are large; in _Krameria_, the anterior pair + are represented by glandular scales, and in _Tamarindus_ are + suppressed. Apetalous flowers occur in _Copaifera_ and _Ceratonia_. + The stamens, generally ten in number, are free, as in _Cercis_ (fig. + 5) or more or less united as in _Amherstia_, where the posterior one + is free and the rest are united. In tamarind only three stamens are + fertile. The largest suborder, Papilionatae, has a flower zygomorphic + in the median plane (figs. 6, 7). The five sepals are generally united + (figs. 7, 9), and have an ascending imbricate arrangement (fig. 6); + the calyx is often two-lipped (fig. 9 [1]). The corolla has five + unequal petals with a descending imbricate arrangement; the upper and + largest, the standard (_vexillum_), stands erect, the lateral pair, + the wings or _alae_, are long-clawed, while the anterior pair cohere + to form the keel or _carina_, in which are enclosed the stamens and + pistil. The ten stamens are monadelphous as in gorse or broom (fig. + 9), or diadelphous as in sweet pea (fig. 8) (the posterior one being + free), or almost or quite free; these differences are associated with + differences in the methods of pollination. The ten stamens here, as in + the last suborder, though arranged in a single whorl, arise in two + series, the five opposite the sepals arising first. + + The carpel is sometimes stalked and often surrounded at the base by a + honey-secreting disk; the style is terminal and in the zygomorphic + flowers is often curved and somewhat flattened with a definite back + and front. Sometimes as in species of _Trifolium_ and _Medicago_ the + ovules are reduced to one. The pod or legume splits along both sutures + (fig. 10) into a pair of membranous, leathery or sometimes fleshy + valves, bearing the seeds on the ventral suture. Dehiscence is often + explosive, the valves separating elastically and twisting spirally, + thus shooting out the seeds, as in gorse, broom and others. In + _Desmodium_, _Entada_ and others the pod is constricted between each + seed, and breaks up into indehiscent one-seeded parts; it is then + called a lomentum (fig. 11); in _Astragalus_ it is divided by a + longitudinal septum. + + [Illustration: FIG. 5.--Flowering branch of Judas-tree (_Cercis + siliquastrum_) reduced. 1, Flower, natural size. 2, Floral diagram.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 6.--Diagram of Flower of Sweet Pea (_Lathyrus_), + showing five sepals, s, two are superior, one inferior, and two + lateral; five petals, p, one superior, two inferior, and two lateral; + ten stamens in two rows, a, and one carpel, c.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 7.--Flower of Pea (_Pisum sativum_), showing a + papilionaceous corolla, with one petal superior, st, the standard + (vexillum), two inferior, _car_, the keel (carina), and two lateral, + a, wings (alae). The calyx is marked c.] + + The pods show a very great variety in form and size. Thus in the + clovers they are a small fraction of an inch, while in the common + tropical climber _Entada scandens_ they are woody structures more than + a yard long and several inches wide. They are generally more or less + flattened, but sometimes round and rod-like, as in species of + _Cassia_, or are spirally coiled as in _Medicago_. Indehiscent + one-seeded pods occur in species of clover and in _Medicago_, also in + _Dalbergia_ and allied genera, where they are winged. In _Colutea_, + the bladder-senna of gardens, the pod forms an inflated bladder which + bursts under pressure; it often becomes detached and is blown some + distance before bursting. An arillar outgrowth is often developed on + the funicle, and is sometimes brightly coloured, rendering the seed + conspicuous and favouring dissemination by birds; in such cases the + seed-coat is hard. In other cases the hard seed-coat itself is + bright-coloured as in the scarlet seeds of _Abrus precatorius_, the + so-called weather-plant. Animals also act as the agents of + distribution in the case of fleshy edible pods containing seeds with a + hard smooth testa, which will pass uninjured through the body, as in + tamarind and the fruit of the carob-tree (_Ceratonia_). In the + ground-nut (_Arachis hypogaea_), _Trifolium subterraneum_ and others, + the flower-stalks grow downwards after fertilization of the ovules and + bury the fruit in the earth. In the suborders Mimosoideae and + Papilionatae the embryo fills the seed or a small quantity of + endosperm occurs, chiefly round the radicle. In Caesalpinioideae + endosperm is absent, or present forming a thin layer round the embryo + as in the tribe _Bauhinieae_, or copious and cartilaginous as in the + _Cassieae_. The embryo has generally flat leaf-like or fleshy + cotyledons with a short radicle. + +Insects play an important part in the pollination of the flowers. In the +two smaller suborders the stamens and stigma are freely exposed and the +conspicuous coloured stamens serve as well as the petals to attract +insects; in _Mimosa_ and _Acacia_ the flowers are crowded in conspicuous +heads or spikes. The relation of insects to the flower has been +carefully studied in the Papilionatae, chiefly in European species. +Where honey is present it is secreted on the inside of the base of the +stamens and accumulated in the base of the tube formed by the united +filaments round the ovary. It is accessible only to insects with long +probosces, such as bees. In these cases the posterior stamen is free, +allowing access to the honey. The flowers stand more or less +horizontally; the large erect white or coloured standard renders them +conspicuous, the wings form a platform on which the insect rests and the +keel encloses the stamens and pistil, protecting them from rain and the +attacks of unbidden pollen-eating insects. In his book on the +fertilization of flowers, Hermann Müller distinguishes four types of +papilionaceous flowers according to the way in which the pollen is +applied to the bee: + +[Illustration: FIG. 8.--Stamens and Pistil of Sweet Pea (_Lathyrus_). +The stamens are diadelphous, nine of them being united by their +filaments f, while the uppermost one (e) is free; st, stigma, c, calyx.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 9.--Broom (_Cytisus scoparius_). (2-7 slightly +reduced.) + + 1, Calyx. + 2, Standard. + 3, Wing. + 4, Keel. + 5, Monadelphous stamens and style. + 6, Pistil. + 7, Pod.] + + (1) Those in which the stamens and stigma return within the carina and + thus admit of repeated visits, such are the clovers, _Melilotus_ and + laburnum. (2) Explosive flowers where stamens and style are confined + within the keel under tension and the pressure of the insect causes + their sudden release and the scattering of the pollen, as in broom and + _Genista_; these contain no honey but are visited for the sake of the + pollen. (3) The piston-mechanism as in bird's-foot trefoil (_Lotus + corniculatus_), _Anthyllis_, _Ononis_ and _Lupinus_, where the + pressure of the bee upon the carina while probing for honey squeezes a + narrow ribbon of pollen through the opening at the tip. The pollen has + been shed into the cone-like tip of the carina, and the heads of the + five outer stamens form a piston beneath it, pushing it out at the tip + when pressure is exerted on the keel; a further pressure causes the + protrusion of the stigma, which is thus brought in contact with the + insect's belly. (4) The style bears a brush of hairs which sweeps + small quantities of pollen out of the tip of the carina, as in + _Lathyrus_, _Pisum_, _Vicia_ and _Phaseolus_. + +[Illustration: From Vines's _Students' Text-Book of Botany_, by +permission of Swan, Sonnenschein & Co. + +FIG. 10.--Dry dehiscent Fruit. The pod (legume) of the Pea. r, The +dorsal suture; b, the ventral; c, calyx; s, seeds.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 11.--Lomentum or lomentaceous legume of a species of +_Desmodium_. Each seed is contained in a separate cavity by the folding +inwards of the walls of the legume at equal intervals; the legume, when +ripe, separates transversely into single-seeded portions or mericarps.] + +Leguminosae is a cosmopolitan order, and often affords a characteristic +feature of the vegetation. Mimosoideae and Caesalpinioideae are richly +developed in the tropical rain forests, where Papilionatae are less +conspicuous and mostly herbaceous; in subtropical forests arborescent +forms of all three suborders occur. In the temperate regions, tree-forms +are rare--thus Mimosoideae are unrepresented in Europe; Caesalpinioideae +are represented by species of _Cercis_, _Gymnocladus_ and _Gleditschia_; +Papilionatae by _Robinia_; but herbaceous Papilionatae abound and +penetrate to the limit of growth of seed-plants in arctic and high +alpine regions. Shrubs and undershrubs, such as _Ulex_, _Genista_, +_Cytisus_ are a characteristic feature in Europe and the Mediterranean +area. Acacias are an important component of the evergreen +bush-vegetation of Australia, together with genera of the tribe +_Podalyrieae_ of Papilionatae (_Chorizema_, _Oxylobium_, &c.). +_Astragalus_, _Oxytropis_, _Hedysarum_, _Onobrychis_, and others are +characteristic of the steppe-formations of eastern Europe and western +Asia. + + The order is a most important one economically. The seeds, which are + rich in starch and proteids, form valuable foods, as in pea, the + various beans, vetch, lentil, ground-nut (_Arachis_) and others; seeds + of _Arachis_ and others yield oils; those of _Physostigma venenosum_, + the Calabar ordeal bean, contain a strong poison. Many are useful + fodder-plants, as the clovers (_Trifolium_) (q.v.), Medicago (e.g. _M. + sativa_, lucerne (q.v.), or alfalfa); _Melilotus_, _Vicia_, + _Onobrychis_ (_O. sativa_ is sainfoin, q.v.); species of _Trifolium_, + lupine and others are used as green manure. Many of the tropical trees + afford useful timber; _Crotalaria_, _Sesbania_, _Aeschynomene_ and + others yield fibre; species of _Acacia_ and _Astragalus_ yield gum; + _Copaifera_, _Hymenaea_ and others balsams and resins; dyes are + obtained from _Genista_ (yellow), _Indigofera_ (blue) and others; + _Haematoxylon campechianum_ is logwood; of medicinal value are species + of _Cassia_ (senna leaves) and _Astragalus_; _Tamarindus indica_ is + tamarind, _Glycyrrhiza glabra_ yields liquorice root. Well-known + ornamental trees and shrubs are _Cercis_ (_C. siliquastrum_ is the + Judas-tree), _Gleditschia_, _Genista_, _Cytisus_ (broom), _Colutea_ + (_C. arborescens_ is bladder-senna), _Robinia_ and _Acacia_; _Wisteria + sinensis_, a native of China, is a well-known climbing shrub; + _Phaseolus multiflorus_ is the scarlet runner; _Lathyrus_ (sweet and + everlasting peas), _Lupinus_, _Galega_ (goat's-rue) and others are + herbaceous garden plants. _Ceratonia Siliqua_ is the carob-tree of the + Mediterranean, the pods of which (algaroba or St John's bread) contain + a sweet juicy pulp and are largely used for feeding stock. + + The order is well represented in Britain. Thus _Genista tinctoria_ is + dyers' greenweed, yielding a yellow dye; _G. anglica_ is needle furze; + other shrubs are _Ulex_ (_U. europaeus_, gorse, furze or whin, _U. + nanus_, a dwarf species) and _Cytisus scoparius_, broom. Herbaceous + plants are _Ononis spinosa_ (rest-harrow), _Medicago_ (medick), + _Melilotus_ (melilot), _Trifolium_ (the clovers), _Anthyllis + Vulneraria_ (kidney-vetch), _Lotus corniculatus_ (bird's-foot + trefoil), _Astragalus_ (milk-vetch), _Vicia_ (vetch, tare) and + _Lathyrus_. + + + + +LÈGYA, called by the Shans LAI-HKA, a state in the central division of +the southern Shan States of Burma, lying approximately between 20° 15´ +and 21° 30´ N. and 97° 50´ and 98° 30´ E., with an area of 1433 sq. m. +The population was estimated at 30,000 in 1881. On the downfall of King +Thibaw civil war broke out, and reduced the population to a few +hundreds. In 1901 it had risen again to 25,811. About seven-ninths of +the land under cultivation consists of wet rice cultivation. A certain +amount of upland rice is also cultivated, and cotton, sugar-cane and +garden produce make up the rest; recently large orange groves have been +planted in the west of the state. Laihka, the capital, is noted for its +iron-work, both the iron and the implements made being produced at Pang +Long in the west of the state. This and lacquer-ware are the chief +exports, as also a considerable amount of pottery. The imports are +chiefly cotton piece-goods and salt. The general character of the state +is that of an undulating plateau, with a broad plain near the capital +and along the Nam Teng, which is the chief river, with a general +altitude of a little under 3000 ft. + + + + +LEH, the capital of Ladakh, India, situated 4 m. from the right bank of +the upper Indus 11,500 ft. above the sea, 243 m. from Srinagar and 482 +m. from Yarkand. It is the great emporium of the trade which passes +between India, Chinese Turkestan and Tibet. Here meet the routes leading +from the central Asian khanates, Kashgar, Yarkand, Khotan and Lhasa. The +two chief roads from Leh to India pass via Srinagar and through the Kulu +valley respectively. Under a commercial treaty with the maharaja of +Kashmir, a British officer is deputed to Leh to regulate and control the +traders and the traffic, conjointly with the governor appointed by the +Kashmir state. Lying upon the western border of Tibet, Leh has formed +the starting-point of many an adventurous journey into that country, the +best-known route being that called the Janglam, the great trade route to +Lhasa and China, passing by the Manasarowar lakes and the Mariam La pass +into the valley of the Tsanpo. Pop. (1901) 2079. A Moravian mission has +long been established here, with an efficient little hospital. There is +also a meteorological observatory, the most elevated in Asia, where the +average mean temperature ranges from 19.3° in January to 64.4° in July. +The annual rainfall is only 3 in. + + + + +LEHMANN, JOHANN GOTTLOB (?-1767), German mineralogist and geologist, was +educated at Berlin where he took his degree of doctor of medicine. He +became a teacher of mineralogy and mining in that city, and was +afterwards (1761) appointed professor of chemistry and director of the +imperial museum at St Petersburg. While distinguished for his chemical +and mineralogical researches, he may also be regarded as one of the +pioneers in geological investigation. Although he accepted the view of a +universal deluge, he gave in 1756 careful descriptions of the rocks and +stratified formations in Prussia, and introduced the now familiar terms +Zechstein and Rothes Todtliegendes (Rothliegende) for subdivisions of +the strata since grouped as Permian. His chief observations were +published in _Versuch einer Geschichte von Flötz-Geburgen, betreffend +deren Entstehung, Lage, darinne befindliche Metallen, Mineralien und +Fossilien_ (1756). He died at St Petersburg on the 22nd of January 1767. + + + + +LEHMANN, PETER MARTIN ORLA (1810-1870), Danish statesman, was born at +Copenhagen on the 15th of May 1810. Although of German extraction his +sympathies were with the Danish national party and he contributed to the +liberal journal the _Kjöbenhavnsposten_ while he was a student of law at +the university of Copenhagen, and from 1839 to 1842 edited, with +Christian N. David, the _Fädrelandet_. In 1842 he was condemned to three +months' imprisonment for a radical speech. He took a considerable part +in the demonstrations of 1848, and was regarded as the leader of the +"Eiderdänen," that is, of the party which regarded the Eider as the +boundary of Denmark, and the duchy of Schleswig as an integral part of +the kingdom. He entered the cabinet of Count A. W. Moltke in March 1848, +and was employed on diplomatic missions to London and Berlin in +connexion with the Schleswig-Holstein question. He was for some months +in 1849 a prisoner of the Schleswig-Holsteiners at Gottorp. A member of +the Folkething from 1851 to 1853, of the Landsthing from 1854 to 1870, +and from 1856 to 1866 of the Reichsrat, he became minister of the +interior in 1861 in the cabinet of K. C. Hall, retiring with him in +1863. He died at Copenhagen on the 13th of September 1870. His book _On +the Causes of the Misfortunes of Denmark_ (1864) went through many +editions, and his posthumous works were published in 4 vols., 1872-1874. + + See Reinhardt, _Orla Lehmann og hans samtid_ (Copenhagen, 1871); J. + Clausen, _Af O. Lehmanns Papirer_ (Copenhagen, 1903). + + + + +LEHNIN, a village and health resort of Germany, in the Prussian province +of Brandenburg, situated between two lakes, which are connected by the +navigable Emster with the Havel, 12 m. S.W. from Potsdam, and with a +station on the main line Berlin-Magdeburg, and a branch line to +Grosskreuz. Pop. (1900) 2379. It contains the ruins of a Cistercian +monastery called Himmelpfort am See, founded in 1180 and dissolved in +1542; a handsome parish church, formerly the monasterial chapel, +restored in 1872-1877; and a fine statue of the emperor Frederick III. +Boat-building and saw-milling are the chief industries. + + See Heffter, _Geschichte des Klosters Lehnin_ (Brandenburg, 1851); and + Sello, _Lehnin, Beiträge zur Geschichte von Kloster und Amt_ (Berlin, + 1881). + +The LEHNIN PROPHECY (_Lehninsche Weissagung, Vaticinium Lehninense_), a +poem in 100 Leonine verses, reputed to be from the pen of a monk, +Hermann of Lehnin, who lived about the year 1300, made its appearance +about 1690 and caused much controversy. This so-called prophecy bewails +the extinction of the Ascanian rulers of Brandenburg and the rise of the +Hohenzollern dynasty to power; each successive ruler of the latter house +down to the eleventh generation is described, the date of the extinction +of the race fixed, and the restoration of the Roman Catholic Church +foretold. But as the narrative is only exact in details down to the +death of Frederick William, the great elector, in 1688, and as all +prophecies of the period subsequent to that time were falsified by +events, the poem came to be regarded as a compilation and the date of +its authorship placed about the year 1684. Andreas Fromm (d. 1685), +rector of St Peter's church in Berlin, an ardent Lutheran, is commonly +believed to have been the forger. This cleric, resisting certain +measures taken by the great elector against the Lutheran pastors, fled +the country in 1668 to avoid prosecution, and having been received at +Prague into the Roman Catholic Church was appointed canon of Leitmeritz +in Bohemia, where he died. During the earlier part of the 19th century +the poem was eagerly scanned by the enemies of the Hohenzollerns, some +of whom believed that the race would end with King Frederick William +III., the representative of the eleventh generation of the family. + + The "Vaticinium" was first published in Lilienthal's _Gelehrtes + Preussen_ (Königsberg, 1723), and has been many times reprinted. See + Boost, _Die Weissagungen des Mönchs Hermann zu Lehnin_ (Augsburg, + 1848); Hilgenfeld, _Die Lehninische Weissagung_ (Leipzig, 1875); + Sabell, _Literatur der sogenannten Lehninschen Weissagung_ (Heilbronn, + 1879) and Kampers, _Die Lehninsche Weissagung über das Haus + Hohenzollern_ (Münster, 1897). + + + + +LEHRS, KARL (1802-1878), German classical scholar, was born at +Königsberg on the 2nd of June 1802. He was of Jewish extraction, but in +1822 he embraced Christianity. In 1845 he was appointed professor of +ancient Greek philology in Königsberg University, which post he held +till his death on the 9th of June 1878. His most important works are: +_De Aristarchi Studiis Homericis_ (1833, 2nd ed. by A. Ludwich, 1882), +which laid a new foundation for Homeric exegesis (on the Aristarchean +lines of explaining Homer from the text itself) and textual criticism; +_Quaestiones Epicae_ (1837); _De Asclepiade Myrleano_ (1845); _Herodiani +Scripta Tria emendatiora_ (1848); _Populäre Aufsätze aus dem Altertum_ +(1856, 2nd much enlarged ed., 1875), his best-known work; _Horatius +Flaccus_ (1869), in which, on aesthetic grounds, he rejected many of the +odes as spurious; _Die Pindarscholien_ (1873). Lehrs was a man of very +decided opinions, "one of the most masculine of German scholars"; his +enthusiasm for everything Greek led him to adhere firmly to the +undivided authorship of the _Iliad_; comparative mythology and the +symbolical interpretation of myths he regarded as a species of +sacrilege. + + See the exhaustive article by L. Friedländer in _Allgemeine Deutsche + Biographie_, xviii.; E. Kammer in C. Bursian's _Jahresbericht_ (1879); + A. Jung, _Zur Erinnerung an Karl Lehrs_ (progr. Meseritz, 1880); A. + Ludwich edited Lehrs' select correspondence (1894) and his _Kleine + Schriften_ (1902). + + + + +LEIBNITZ (LEIBNIZ), GOTTFRIED WILHELM (1646-1716), German philosopher, +mathematician and man of affairs, was born on the 1st of July 1646 at +Leipzig, where his father was professor of moral philosophy. Though the +name Leibniz, Leibnitz or Lubeniecz was originally Slavonic, his +ancestors were German, and for three generations had been in the +employment of the Saxon government. Young Leibnitz was sent to the +Nicolai school at Leipzig, but, from 1652 when his father died, seems to +have been for the most part his own teacher. From his father he had +acquired a love of historical study. The German books at his command +were soon read through, and with the help of two Latin books--the +_Thesaurus Chronologicus_ of Calvisius and an illustrated edition of +Livy--he learned Latin at the age of eight. His father's library was now +thrown open to him, to his great joy, with the permission, "Tolle, +lege." Before he was twelve he could read Latin easily and had begun +Greek; he had also remarkable facility in writing Latin verse. He next +turned to the study of logic, attempting already to reform its +doctrines, and zealously reading the scholastics and some of the +Protestant theologians. + +At the age of fifteen, he entered the university of Leipzig as a law +student. His first two years were devoted to philosophy under Jakob +Thomasius, a Neo-Aristotelian, who is looked upon as having founded the +scientific study of the history of philosophy in Germany. It was at this +time probably that he first made acquaintance with the modern thinkers +who had already revolutionized science and philosophy, Francis Bacon, +Cardan and Campanella, Kepler, Galileo and Descartes; and he began to +consider the difference between the old and new ways of regarding +nature. He resolved to study mathematics. It was not, however, till the +summer of 1663, which he spent at Jena under E. Weigel, that he obtained +the instructions of a mathematician of repute; nor was the deeper study +of mathematics entered upon till his visit to Paris and acquaintance +with Huygens many years later. + +The next three years he devoted to legal studies, and in 1666 applied +for the degree of doctor of law, with a view to obtaining the post of +assessor. Being refused on the ground of his youth he left his native +town for ever. The doctor's degree refused him there was at once +(November 5, 1666) conferred on him at Altdorf--the university town of +the free city of Nuremberg--where his brilliant dissertation procured +him the immediate offer of a professor's chair. This, however, he +declined, having, as he said, "very different things in view." + +Leibnitz, not yet twenty-one years of age, was already the author of +several remarkable essays. In his bachelor's dissertation _De principio +individui_ (1663), he defended the nominalistic doctrine that +individuality is constituted by the whole entity or essence of a thing; +his arithmetical tract _De complexionibus_, published in an extended +form under the title _De arte combinatoria_ (1666), is an essay towards +his life-long project of a re-formed symbolism and method of thought; +and besides these there are our juridical essays, including the _Nova +methodus docendi discendique juris_, written in the intervals of his +journey from Leipzig to Altdorf. This last essay is remarkable, not only +for the reconstruction it attempted of the _Corpus Juris_, but as +containing the first clear recognition of the importance of the +historical method in law. Nuremberg was a centre of the Rosicrucians, +and Leibnitz, busying himself with writings of the alchemists, soon +gained such a knowledge of their tenets that he was supposed to be one +of the secret brotherhood, and was even elected their secretary. A more +important result of his visit to Nuremberg was his acquaintance with +Johann Christian von Boyneburg (1622-1672), formerly first minister to +the elector of Mainz, and one of the most distinguished German statesmen +of the day. By his advice Leibnitz printed his _Nova methodus_ in 1667, +dedicated it to the elector, and, going to Mainz, presented it to him in +person. It was thus that Leibnitz entered the service of the elector of +Mainz, at first as an assistant in the revision of the statute-book, +afterwards on more important work. + +The policy of the elector, which the pen of Leibnitz was now called upon +to promote, was to maintain the security of the German empire, +threatened on the west by the aggressive power of France, on the east by +Turkey and Russia. Thus when in 1669 the crown of Poland became vacant, +it fell to Leibnitz to support the claims of the German candidate, which +he did in his first political writing, _Specimen demonstrationum +politicarum pro rege Polonorum eligendo_, attempting, under the guise of +a Catholic Polish nobleman, to show by mathematical demonstration that +it was necessary in the interest of Poland that it should have the count +palatine of Neuburg as its king. But neither the diplomatic skill of +Boyneburg, who had been sent as plenipotentiary to the election at +Warsaw, nor the arguments of Leibnitz were successful, and a Polish +prince was elected to fill the vacant throne. + +A greater danger threatened Germany in the aggressions of Louis XIV. +(see FRANCE: _History_). Though Holland was in most immediate danger, +the seizure of Lorraine in 1670 showed that Germany too was threatened. +It was in this year that Leibnitz wrote his _Thoughts on Public +Safety_,[1] in which he urged the formation of a new "Rheinbund" for the +protection of Germany, and contended that the states of Europe should +employ their power, not against one another, but in the conquest of the +non-Christian world, in which Egypt, "one of the best situated lands in +the world," would fall to France. The plan thus proposed of averting the +threatened attack on Germany by a French expedition to Egypt was +discussed with Boyneburg, and obtained the approval of the elector. +French relations with Turkey were at the time so strained as to make a +breach imminent, and at the close of 1671, about the time when the war +with Holland broke out, Louis himself was approached by a letter from +Boyneburg and a short memorial from the pen of Leibnitz, who attempted +to show that Holland itself, as a mercantile power trading with the +East, might be best attacked through Egypt, while nothing would be +easier for France or would more largely increase her power than the +conquest of Egypt. On February 12, 1672, a request came from the French +secretary of state, Simon Arnauld de Pomponne (1618-1699), that Leibnitz +should go to Paris. Louis seems still to have kept the matter in view, +but never granted Leibnitz the personal interview he desired, while +Pomponne wrote, "I have nothing against the plan of a holy war, but such +plans, you know, since the days of St Louis, have ceased to be the +fashion." Not yet discouraged, Leibnitz wrote a full account of his +project for the king,[2] and a summary of the same[3] evidently intended +for Boyneburg. But Boyneburg died in December 1672, before the latter +could be sent to him. Nor did the former ever reach its destination. The +French quarrel with the Porte was made up, and the plan of a French +expedition to Egypt disappeared from practical politics till the time of +Napoleon. The history of this scheme, and the reason of Leibnitz's +journey to Paris, long remained hidden in the archives of the Hanoverian +library. It was on his taking possession of Hanover in 1803 that +Napoleon learned, through the _Consilium Aegyptiacum_, that the idea of +a French conquest of Egypt had been first put forward by a German +philosopher. In the same year there was published in London an account +of the _Justa dissertatio_[4] of which the British Government had +procured a copy in 1799. But it was only with the appearance of the +edition of Leibnitz's works begun by Onno Klopp in 1864 that the full +history of the scheme was made known. + +Leibnitz had other than political ends in view in his visit to France. +It was as the centre of literature and science that Paris chiefly +attracted him. Political duties never made him lose sight of his +philosophical and scientific interests. At Mainz he was still busied +with the question of the relation between the old and new methods in +philosophy. In a letter to Jakob Thomasius (1669) he contends that the +mechanical explanation of nature by magnitude, figure and motion alone +is not inconsistent with the doctrines of Aristotle's _Physics_, in +which he finds more truth than in the _Meditations_ of Descartes. Yet +these qualities of bodies, he argues in 1668 (in an essay published +without his knowledge under the title _Confessio naturae contra +atheistas_), require an incorporeal principle, or God, for their +ultimate explanation. He also wrote at this time a defence of the +doctrine of the Trinity against Wissowatius (1669), and an essay on +philosophic style, introductory to an edition of the _Anti-barbarus_ of +Nizolius (1670). Clearness and distinctness alone, he says, are what +makes a philosophic style, and no language is better suited for this +popular exposition than the German. In 1671 he issued a _Hypothesis +physica nova_, in which, agreeing with Descartes that corporeal +phenomena should be explained from motion, he carried out the mechanical +explanation of nature by contending that the original of this motion is +a fine aether, similar to light, or rather constituting it, which, +penetrating all bodies in the direction of the earth's axis, produces +the phenomena of gravity, elasticity, &c. The first part of the essay, +on concrete motion, was dedicated to the Royal Society of London, the +second, on abstract motion, to the French Academy. + +At Paris Leibnitz met with Arnauld, Malebranche and, more important +still, with Christian Huygens. This was pre-eminently the period of his +mathematical and physical activity. Before leaving Mainz he was able to +announce[5] an imposing list of discoveries, and plans for discoveries, +arrived at by means of his new logical art, in natural philosophy, +mathematics, mechanics, optics, hydrostatics, pneumatics and nautical +science, not to speak of new ideas in law, theology and politics. Chief +among these discoveries was that of a calculating machine for performing +more complicated operations than that of Pascal--multiplying, dividing +and extracting roots, as well as adding and subtracting. This machine +was exhibited to the Academy of Paris and to the Royal Society of +London, and Leibnitz was elected a fellow of the latter society in April +1673.[6] In January of this year he had gone to London as an attaché on +a political mission from the elector of Mainz, returning in March to +Paris, and while in London had become personally acquainted with +Oldenburg, the secretary of the Royal Society, with whom he had already +corresponded, with Boyle the chemist and Pell the mathematician. It is +from this period that we must date the impulse that directed him anew to +mathematics. By Pell he had been referred to Mercator's +_Logarithmotechnica_ as already containing some numerical observations +which Leibnitz had thought original on his own part; and, on his return +to Paris, he devoted himself to the study of higher geometry under +Huygens, entering almost at once upon the series of investigations which +culminated in his discovery of the differential and integral calculus +(see INFINITESIMAL CALCULUS). + +Shortly after his return to Paris in 1673, Leibnitz ceased to be in the +Mainz service any more than in name, but in the same year entered the +employment of Duke John Frederick of Brunswick-Lüneburg, with whom he +had corresponded for some time. In 1676 he removed at the duke's request +to Hanover, travelling thither by way of London and Amsterdam. At +Amsterdam he saw and conversed with Spinoza, and carried away with him +extracts from the latter's unpublished _Ethica_. + +For the next forty years, and under three successive princes, Leibnitz +was in the service of the Brunswick family, and his headquarters were at +Hanover, where he had charge of the ducal library. Leibnitz thus passed +into a political atmosphere formed by the dynastic aims of the typical +German state (see HANOVER; BRUNSWICK). He supported the claim of Hanover +to appoint an ambassador at the congress of Nimeguen (1676)[7] to defend +the establishment of primogeniture in the Lüneburg branch of the +Brunswick family; and, when the proposal was made to raise the duke of +Hanover to the electorate, he had to show that this did not interfere +with the rights of the duke of Württemberg. In 1692 the duke of Hanover +was made elector. Before, and with a view to this, Leibnitz had been +employed by him to write the history of the Brunswick-Lüneburg family, +and, to collect material for his history, had undertaken a journey +through Germany and Italy in 1687-1690, visiting and examining the +records in Marburg, Frankfort-on-the-Main, Munich, Vienna (where he +remained nine months), Venice, Modena and Rome. At Rome he was offered +the custodianship of the Vatican library on condition of his joining the +Catholic Church. + +About this time, too, his thoughts and energies were partly taken up +with the scheme for the reunion of the Catholic and Protestant Churches. +At Mainz he had joined in an attempt made by the elector and Boyneburg +to bring about a reconciliation, and now, chiefly through the energy and +skill of the Catholic Royas de Spinola, and from the spirit of +moderation which prevailed among the theologians he met with at Hanover +in 1683, it almost seemed as if some agreement might be arrived at. In +1686 Leibnitz wrote his _Systema theologicum_,[8] in which he strove to +find common ground for Protestants and Catholics in the details of their +creeds. But the English revolution of 1688 interfered with the scheme in +Hanover, and it was soon found that the religious difficulties were +greater than had at one time appeared. In the letters to Leibnitz from +Bossuet, the landgrave of Hessen-Rheinfels, and Madame de Brinon, the +aim is obviously to make converts to Catholicism, not to arrive at a +compromise with Protestantism, and when it was found that Leibnitz +refused to be converted the correspondence ceased. A further scheme of +church union in which Leibnitz was engaged, that between the Reformed +and Lutheran Churches, met with no better success. + +Returning from Italy in 1690, Leibnitz was appointed librarian at +Wolfenbüttel by Duke Anton of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel. Some years +afterwards began his connexion with Berlin through his friendship with +the electress Sophie Charlotte of Brandenburg and her mother the +princess Sophie of Hanover. He was invited to Berlin in 1700, and on the +11th July of that year the academy (Akademie der Wissenschaften) he had +planned was founded, with himself as its president for life. In the same +year he was made a privy councillor of justice by the elector of +Brandenburg. Four years before he had received a like honour from the +elector of Hanover, and twelve years afterwards the same distinction was +conferred upon him by Peter the Great, to whom he gave a plan for an +academy at St Petersburg, carried out after the czar's death. After the +death of his royal pupil in 1705 his visits to Berlin became less +frequent and less welcome, and in 1711 he was there for the last time. +In the following year he undertook his fifth and last journey to Vienna, +where he stayed till 1714. An attempt to found an academy of science +there was defeated by the opposition of the Jesuits, but he now attained +the honour he had coveted of an imperial privy councillorship (1712), +and, either at this time or on a previous occasion (1709), was made a +baron of the empire (_Reichsfreiherr_). Leibnitz returned to Hanover in +September 1714, but found the elector George Louis had already gone to +assume the crown of England. Leibnitz would gladly have followed him to +London, but was bidden to remain at Hanover and finish his history of +Brunswick. + +During the last thirty years Leibnitz had been busy with many matters. +Mathematics, natural science,[9] philosophy, theology, history +jurisprudence, politics (particularly the French wars with Germany, and +the question of the Spanish succession), economics and philology, all +gained a share of his attention; almost all of them he enriched with +original observations. + +His genealogical researches in Italy--through which he established the +common origin of the families of Brunswick and Este--were not only +preceded by an immense collection of historical sources, but enabled him +to publish materials for a code of international law.[10] The history of +Brunswick itself was the last work of his life, and had covered the +period from 768 to 1005 when death ended his labours. But the +government, in whose service and at whose order the work had been +carried out, left it in the archives of the Hanover library till it was +published by Pertz in 1843. + +It was in the years between 1690 and 1716 that Leibnitz's chief +philosophical works were composed, and during the first ten of these +years the accounts of his system were, for the most part, preliminary +sketches. Indeed, he never gave a full and systematic account of his +doctrines. His views have to be gathered from letters to friends, from +occasional articles in the _Acta Eruditorum_, the _Journal des Savants_, +and other journals, and from one or two more extensive works. It is +evident, however, that philosophy had not been entirely neglected in the +years in which his pen was almost solely occupied with other matters. A +letter to the duke of Brunswick, and another to Arnauld, in 1671, show +that he had already reached his new notion of substance; but it is in +the correspondence with Antoine Arnauld, between 1686 and 1690, that his +fundamental ideas and the reasons for them are for the first time made +clear. The appearance of Locke's _Essay_ in 1690 induced him (1696) to +note down his objections to it, and his own ideas on the same subjects. +In 1703-1704 these were worked out in detail and ready for publication, +when the death of the author whom they criticized prevented their +appearance (first published by Raspe, 1765). In 1710 appeared the only +complete and systematic philosophical work of his lifetime, _Essais de +Théodicée sur la bonté de Dieu, la liberté de l'homme, et l'origine du +mal_, originally undertaken at the request of the late queen of Prussia, +who had wished a reply to Bayle's opposition of faith and reason. In +1714 he wrote, for Prince Eugene of Savoy, a sketch of his system under +the title of _La Monadologie_, and in the same year appeared his +_Principes de la nature et de la grâce_. The last few years of his life +were perhaps more occupied with correspondence than any others, and, in +a philosophical regard, were chiefly notable for the letters, which, +through the desire of the new queen of England, he interchanged with +Clarke, _sur Dieu, l'âme, l'espace, la durée_. + +Leibnitz died on the 14th of November 1716, his closing years enfeebled +by disease, harassed by controversy, embittered by neglect; but to the +last he preserved the indomitable energy and power of work to which is +largely due the position he holds as, more perhaps than any one in +modern times, a man of almost universal attainments and almost universal +genius. Neither at Berlin, in the academy which he had founded, nor in +London, whither his sovereign had gone to rule, was any notice taken of +his death. At Hanover, Eckhart, his secretary, was his only mourner; "he +was buried," says an eyewitness, "more like a robber than what he really +was, the ornament of his country."[11] Only in the French Academy was +the loss recognized, and a worthy eulogium devoted to his memory +(November 13, 1717). The 200th anniversary of his birth was celebrated +in 1846, and in the same year were opened the Königlichsächsische +Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften and the Kaiserliche Akademie der +Wissenschaften in Leipzig and Vienna respectively. In 1883, a statue was +erected to him at Leipzig. + +Leibnitz possessed a wonderful power of rapid and continuous work. Even +in travelling his time was employed in solving mathematical problems. He +is described as moderate in his habits, quick of temper but easily +appeased, charitable in his judgments of others, and tolerant of +differences of opinion, though impatient of contradiction on small +matters. He is also said to have been fond of money to the point of +covetousness; he was certainly desirous of honour, and felt keenly the +neglect in which his last years were passed. + + _Philosophy._--The central point in the philosophy of Leibnitz was + only arrived at after many advances and corrections in his opinions. + This point is his new doctrine of substance (p. 702),[12] and it is + through it that unity is given to the succession of occasional + writings, scattered over fifty years, in which he explained his views. + More inclined to agree than to differ with what he read (p. 425), and + borrowing from almost every philosophical system, his own standpoint + is yet most closely related to that of Descartes, partly as + consequence, partly by way of opposition. Cartesianism, Leibnitz often + asserted, is the ante-room of truth, but the ante-room only. + Descartes's separation of things into two heterogeneous substances + only connected by the omnipotence of God, and the more logical + absorption of both by Spinoza into the one divine substance, followed + from an erroneous conception of what the true nature of substance is. + Substance, the ultimate reality, can only be conceived as force. Hence + Leibnitz's metaphysical view of the monads as simple, percipient, + self-active beings, the constituent elements of all things, his + physical doctrines of the reality and constancy of force at the same + time that space, matter and motion are merely phenomenal, and his + psychological conception of the continuity and development of + consciousness. In the closest connexion with the same stand his + logical principles of consistency and sufficient reason, and the + method he developed from them, his ethical end of perfection, and his + crowning theological conception of the universe as the best possible + world, and of God both as its efficient cause and its final harmony. + + The ultimate elements of the universe are, according to Leibnitz, + individual centres of force or monads. Why they should be individual, + and not manifestations of one world-force, he never clearly + proves.[13] His doctrine of individuality seems to have been arrived + at, not by strict deduction from the nature of force, but rather from + the empirical observation that it is by the manifestation of its + activity that the separate existence of the individual becomes + evident; for his system individuality is as fundamental as activity. + "The monads," he says, "are the very atoms of nature--in a word, the + elements of things," but, as centres of force, they have neither + parts, extension nor figure (p. 705). Hence their distinction from the + atoms of Democritus and the materialists. They are metaphysical points + or rather spiritual beings whose very nature it is to act. As the bent + bow springs back of itself, so the monads naturally pass and are + always passing into action without any aid but the absence of + opposition (p. 122). Nor do they, like the atoms, act upon one another + (p. 680); the action of each excludes that of every other. The + activity of each is the result of its own past state, the determinator + of its own future (pp. 706, 722). "The monads have no windows by which + anything may go in or out" (p. 705). + + Further, since all substances are of the nature of force, it follows + that--"in imitation of the notion which we have of souls"--they must + contain something analogous to feeling and appetite. It is the nature + of the monad to represent the many in one, and this is perception, by + which external events are mirrored internally (p. 438). Through their + own activity the monads mirror the universe (p. 725), but each in its + own way and from its own point of view, that is, with a more or less + perfect perception (p. 127); for the Cartesians were wrong in ignoring + the infinite grades of perception, and identifying it with the reflex + cognizance of it which may be called apperception. Every monad is thus + a microcosm, the universe in little,[14] and according to the degree + of its activity is the distinctness of its representation of the + universe (p. 709). Thus Leibnitz, borrowing the Aristotelian term, + calls the monads _entelechies_, because they have a certain perfection + ([Greek: to enteles]) and sufficiency ([Greek: autarkeia]) which make + them sources of their internal actions and, so to speak, incorporeal + automata (p. 706). That the monads are not pure entelechies is shown + by the differences amongst them. Excluding all external limitation, + they are yet limited by their own nature. All created monads contain a + passive element or _materia prima_ (pp. 440, 687, 725), in virtue of + which their perceptions are more or less confused. As the activity of + the monad consists in perception, this is inhibited by the passive + principle, so that there arises in the monad an appetite or tendency + to overcome the inhibition and become more perceptive, whence follows + the change from one perception to another (pp. 706, 714). By the + proportion of activity to passivity in it one monad is differentiated + from another. The greater the amount of activity or of distinct + perceptions the more perfect is the monad; the stronger the element of + passivity, the more confused its perceptions, the less perfect is it + (p. 709). The soul would be a divinity had it nothing but distinct + perceptions (p. 520). + + The monad is never without a perception; but, when it has a number of + little perceptions with no means of distinction, a state similar to + that of being stunned ensues, the _monade nue_ being perpetually in + this state (p. 707). Between this and the most distinct perception + there is room for an infinite diversity of nature among the monads + themselves. Thus no one monad is exactly the same as another; for, + were it possible that there should be two identical, there would be no + sufficient reason why God, who brings them into actual existence, + should put one of them at one definite time and place, the other at a + different time and place. This is Leibnitz's principle of the + _identity of indiscernibles_ (pp. 277, 755); by it his early problem + as to the principle of individuation is solved by the distinction + between genus and individual being abolished, and every individual + made _sui generis_. The principle thus established is formulated in + Leibnitz's law of continuity, founded, he says, on the doctrine of the + mathematical infinite, essential to geometry, and of importance in + physics (pp. 104, 105), in accordance with which there is neither + vacuum nor break in nature, but "everything takes place by degrees" + (p. 392), the different species of creatures rising by insensible + steps from the lowest to the most perfect form (p. 312). + + As in every monad each succeeding state is the consequence of the + preceding, and as it is of the nature of every monad to mirror or + represent the universe, it follows (p. 774) that the perceptive + content of each monad is in "accord" or correspondence with that of + every other (cf. p. 127), though this content is represented with + infinitely varying degrees of perfection. This is Leibnitz's famous + doctrine of pre-established harmony, in virtue of which the infinitely + numerous independent substances of which the world is composed are + related to each other and form one universe. It is essential to notice + that it proceeds from the very nature of the monads as percipient, + self-acting beings, and not from an arbitrary determination of the + Deity. + + From this harmony of self-determining percipient units Leibnitz has to + explain the world of nature and mind. As everything that really exists + is of the nature of spiritual or metaphysical points (p. 126), it + follows that space and matter in the ordinary sense can only have a + phenomenal existence (p. 745), being dependent not on the nature of + the monads themselves but on the way in which they are perceived. + Considering that several things exist at the same time and in a + certain order of co-existence, and mistaking this constant relation + for something that exists outside of them, the mind forms the confused + perception of space (p. 768). But space and time are merely relative, + the former an order of coexistences, the latter of successions (pp. + 682, 752). Hence not only the secondary qualities of Descartes and + Locke, but their so-called primary qualities as well, are merely + phenomenal (p. 445). The monads are really without position or + distance from each other; but, as we perceive several simple + substances, there is for us an aggregate or extended mass. Body is + thus active extension (pp. 110, 111). The unity of the aggregate + depends entirely on our perceiving the monads composing it together. + There is no such thing as an absolute vacuum or empty space, any more + than there are indivisible material units or atoms from which all + things are built up (pp. 126, 186, 277). Body, corporeal mass, or, as + Leibnitz calls it, to distinguish it from the _materia prima_ of which + every monad partakes (p. 440), _materia secunda_, is thus only a + "phenomenon bene fundatum" (p. 436). It is not a _substantia_ but + _substantiae_ or _substantiatum_ (p. 745). While this, however, is the + only view consistent with Leibnitz's fundamental principles, and is + often clearly stated by himself, he also speaks at other times of the + _materia secunda_ as itself a composite substance, and of a real + metaphysical bond between soul and body. But these expressions occur + chiefly in the letters to des Bosses, in which Leibnitz is trying to + reconcile his views with the doctrines of the Roman Catholic Church, + especially with that of the real presence in the Eucharist, and are + usually referred to by him as doctrines of faith or as hypothetical + (see especially p. 680). The true vinculum _substantiale_ is not the + _materia secunda_, which a consistent development of Leibnitz's + principles can only regard as phenomenal, but the _materia prima_, + through which the monads are individualized and distinguished and + their connexion rendered possible. And Leibnitz seems to recognize + that the opposite assumption is inconsistent with his cardinal + metaphysical view of the monads as the only realities. + + From Leibnitz's doctrine of force as the ultimate reality it follows + that his view of nature must be throughout dynamical. And though his + project of a _dynamic_, or theory of natural philosophy, was never + carried out, the outlines of his own theory and his criticism of the + mechanical physics of Descartes are known to us. The whole distinction + between the two lies in the difference between the mechanical and the + dynamical views of nature. Descartes started from the reality of + extension as constituting the nature of material substance, and found + in magnitude, figure and motion the explanation of the material + universe. Leibnitz, too, admitted the mechanical view of nature as + giving the laws of corporeal phenomena (p. 438), applying also to + everything that takes place in animal organisms,[15] even the human + body (p. 777). But, as phenomenal, these laws must find their + explanation in metaphysics, and thus in final causes (p. 155). All + things, he says (in his _Specimen Dynamicum_), can be explained either + by efficient or by final causes. But the latter method is not + appropriate to individual occurrences,[16] though it must be applied + when the laws of mechanism themselves need explanation (p. 678). For + Descartes's doctrine of the constancy of the quantity of motion (i.e. + momentum) in the world Leibnitz substitutes the principle of the + conservation of _vis viva_, and contends that the Cartesian position + that motion is measured by velocity should be superseded by the law + that moving force (_vis motrix_) is measured by the square of the + velocity (pp. 192, 193). The long controversy raised by this criticism + was really caused by the ambiguity of the terms employed. The + principles held by Descartes and Leibnitz were both correct, though + different, and their conflict only apparent. Descartes's principle is + now enunciated as the conservation of momentum, that of Leibnitz as + the conservation of energy. Leibnitz further criticizes the Cartesian + view that the mind can alter the direction of motion though it cannot + initiate it, and contends that the quantity of "_vis directiva_," + estimated between the same parts, is constant (p. 108)--a position + developed in his statical theorem for determining geometrically the + resultant of any number of forces acting at a point. + + Like the monad, body, which is its analogue, has a passive and an + active element. The former is the capacity of resistance, and includes + impenetrability and inertia; the latter is active force (pp. 250, + 687). Bodies, too, like the monads, are self-contained activities, + receiving no impulse from without--it is only by an accommodation to + ordinary language that we speak of them as doing so--but moving + themselves in harmony with each other (p. 250). + + The psychology of Leibnitz is chiefly developed in the _Nouveaux + essais sur l'entendement humain_, written in answer to Locke's famous + _Essay_, and criticizing it chapter by chapter. In these essays he + worked out a theory of the origin and development of knowledge in + harmony with his metaphysical views, and thus without Locke's implied + assumption of the mutual influence of soul and body. When one monad in + an aggregate perceives the others so clearly that they are in + comparison with it bare monads (_monades nues_), it is said to be the + ruling monad of the aggregate, not because it actually does exert an + influence over the rest, but because, being in close correspondence + with them, and yet having so much clearer perception, it seems to do + so (p. 683). This monad is called the entelechy or soul of the + aggregate or body, and as such mirrors the aggregate in the first + place and the universe through it (p. 710). Each soul or entelechy is + surrounded by an infinite number of monads forming its body (p. 714); + soul and body together make a living being, and, as their laws are in + perfect harmony--a harmony established between the whole realm of + final causes and that of efficient causes (p. 714)--we have the same + result as if one influenced the other. This is further explained by + Leibnitz in his well-known illustration of the different ways in which + two clocks may keep exactly the same time. The machinery of the one + may actually move that of the other, or whenever one moves the + mechanician may make a similar alteration in the other, or they may + have been so perfectly constructed at first as to continue to + correspond at every instant without any further influence (pp. 133, + 134). The first way represents the common (Locke's) theory of mutual + influence, the second the method of the occasionalists, the third that + of pre-established harmony. Thus the body does not act on the soul in + the production of cognition, nor the soul on the body in the + production of motion. The body acts just as if it had no soul, the + soul as if it had no body (p. 711). Instead, therefore, of all + knowledge coming to us directly or indirectly through the bodily + senses, it is all developed by the soul's own activity, and sensuous + perception is itself but a confused kind of cognition. Not a certain + select class of our ideas only (as Descartes held), but all our ideas, + are innate, though only worked up into actual cognition in the + development of knowledge (p. 212). To the aphorism made use of by + Locke, "Nihil est in intellectu quod non prius fuerit in sensu," must + be added the clause, "nisi intellectus ipse" (p. 223). The soul at + birth is not comparable to a _tabula rasa_, but rather to an unworked + block of marble, the hidden veins of which already determine the form + it is to assume in the hands of the sculptor (p. 196). Nor, again, can + the soul ever be without perception; for it has no other nature than + that of a percipient active being (p. 246). Apparently dreamless sleep + is to be accounted for by unconscious perception (p. 223); and it is + by such insensible perceptions that Leibnitz explains his doctrine of + pre-established harmony (p. 197). + + In the human soul perception is developed into thought, and there is + thus an infinite though gradual difference between it and the mere + monad (p. 464). As all knowledge is implicit in the soul, it follows + that its perfection depends on the efficiency of the instrument by + which it is developed. Hence the importance, in Leibnitz's system, of + the logical principles and method, the consideration of which occupied + him at intervals throughout his whole career. + + There are two kinds of truths--(1) truths of reasoning, and (2) truths + of fact (pp. 83, 99, 707). The former rest on the principle of + identity (or contradiction) or of possibility, in virtue of which that + is false which contains a contradiction, and that true which is + contradictory to the false. The latter rest on the principle of + sufficient reason or of reality (_compossibilité_), according to which + no fact is true unless there be a sufficient reason why it should be + so and not otherwise (agreeing thus with the _principium melioris_ or + final cause). God alone, the purely active monad, has an _a priori_ + knowledge of the latter class of truths; they have their source in the + human mind only in so far as it mirrors the outer world, i.e. in its + passivity, whereas the truths of reason have their source in our mind + in itself or in its activity. + + Both kinds of truths fall into two classes, primitive and derivative. + The primitive truths of fact are, as Descartes held, those of internal + experience, and the derivative truths are inferred from them in + accordance with the principle of sufficient reason, by their agreement + with our perception of the world as a whole. They are thus reached by + probable arguments--a department of logic which Leibnitz was the first + to bring into prominence (pp. 84, 164, 168, 169, 343). The primitive + truths of reasoning are identical (in later terminology, analytical) + propositions, the derivative truths being deduced from them by the + principle of contradiction. The part of his logic on which Leibnitz + laid the greatest stress was the separation of these rational + cognitions into their simplest elements--for he held that the + root-notions (_cogitationes primae_) would be found to be few in + number (pp. 92, 93)--and the designation of them by universal + characters or symbols,[17] composite notions being denoted by the + formulae formed by the union of several definite characters, and + judgments by the relation of aequipollence among these formulae, so as + to reduce the syllogism to a calculus. This is the main idea of + Leibnitz's "universal characteristic," never fully worked out by him, + which he regarded as one of the greatest discoveries of the age. An + incidental result of its adoption would be the introduction of a + universal symbolism of thought comparable to the symbolism of + mathematics and intelligible in all languages (cf. p. 356). But the + great revolution it would effect would chiefly consist in this, that + truth and falsehood would be no longer matters of opinion but of + correctness or error in calculation,[18] (pp. 83, 84, 89, 93). The old + Aristotelian analytic is not to be superseded; but it is to be + supplemented by this new method, for of itself it is but the ABC of + logic. + + But the logic of Leibnitz is an art of discovery (p. 85) as well as of + proof, and, as such, applies both to the sphere of reasoning and to + that of fact. In the former it has by attention to render explicit + what is otherwise only implicit, and by the intellect to introduce + order into the _a priori_ truths of reason, so that one may follow + from another and they may constitute together a _monde intellectuel_. + To this art of orderly combination Leibnitz attached the greatest + importance, and to it one of his earliest writings was devoted. + Similarly, in the sphere of experience, it is the business of the art + of discovery to find out and classify the primitive facts or data, + referring every other fact to them as its sufficient reason, so that + new truths of experience may be brought to light. + + As the perception of the monad when clarified becomes thought, so the + appetite of which all monads partake is raised to will, their + spontaneity to freedom, in man (p. 669). The will is an effort or + tendency to that which one finds good (p. 251), and is free only in + the sense of being exempt from external control[19] (pp. 262, 513, + 521), for it must always have a sufficient reason for its action + determined by what seems good to it. The end determining the will is + pleasure (p. 269), and pleasure is the sense of an increase of + perfection (p. 670). A will guided by reason will sacrifice transitory + and pursue constant pleasures or happiness, and in this weighing of + pleasures consists true wisdom. Leibnitz, like Spinoza, says that + freedom consists in following reason, servitude in following the + passions (p. 669), and that the passions proceed from confused + perceptions (pp. 188, 269). In love one finds joy in the happiness of + another; and from love follow justice and law. "Our reason," says + Leibnitz,[20] "illumined by the spirit of God, reveals the law of + nature," and with it positive law must not conflict. Natural law rises + from the strict command to avoid offence, through the maxim of equity + which gives to each his due, to that of probity or piety (_honeste + vivere_),--the highest ethical perfection,--which presupposes a belief + in God, providence and a future life.[21] Moral immortality--not + merely the simple continuity which belongs to every monad--comes from + God having provided that the changes of matter will not make man lose + his individuality (pp. 126, 466). + + Leibnitz thus makes the existence of God a postulate of morality as + well as necessary for the realization of the monads. It is in the + _Théodicée_ that his theology is worked out and his view of the + universe as the best possible world defended. In it he contends that + faith and reason are essentially harmonious (pp. 402, 479), and that + nothing can be received as an article of faith which contradicts an + eternal truth, though the ordinary physical order may be superseded by + a higher.[22] + + The ordinary arguments for the being of God are retained by Leibnitz + in a modified form (p. 375). Descartes's ontological proof is + supplemented by the clause that God as the _ens a se_ must either + exist or be impossible (pp. 80, 177, 708); in the cosmological proof + he passes from the infinite series of finite causes to their + sufficient reason which contains all changes in the series necessarily + in itself (pp. 147, 708); and he argues teleologically from the + existence of harmony among the monads without any mutual influence to + God as the author of this harmony (p. 430). + + In these proofs Leibnitz seems to have in view an extramundane power + to whom the monads owe their reality, though such a conception + evidently breaks the continuity and harmony of his system, and can + only be externally connected with it. But he also speaks in one place + at any rate[23] of God as the "universal harmony"; and the historians + Erdmann and Zeller are of opinion that this is the only sense in which + his system can be consistently theistic. Yet it would seem that to + assume a purely active and therefore perfect monad as the source of + all things is in accordance with the principle of continuity and with + Leibnitz's conception of the gradation of existences. In this sense he + sometimes speaks of God as the first or highest of the monads (p. + 678), and of created substances proceeding from Him continually by + "fulgurations" (p. 708) or by "a sort of emanation as we produce our + thoughts."[24] + + The positive properties or perfections of the monads, Leibnitz holds, + exist _eminenter_, i.e. without the limitation that attaches to + created monads (p. 716), in God--their perception as His wisdom or + intellect, and their appetite as His absolute will or goodness (p. + 654); while the absence of all limitation is the divine independence + or power, which again consists in this, that the possibility of things + depends on His intellect, their reality on His will (p. 506). The + universe in its harmonious order is thus the realization of the divine + end, and as such must be the best possible (p. 506). The teleology of + Leibnitz becomes necessarily a _Théodicée_. God created a world to + manifest and communicate His perfection (p. 524), and, in choosing + this world out of the infinite number that exist in the region of + ideas (p. 515), was guided by the _principium melioris_ (p. 506). With + this thorough-going optimism Leibnitz has to reconcile the existence + of evil in the best of all possible worlds.[25] With this end in view + he distinguishes (p. 655) between (1) metaphysical evil or + imperfection, which is unconditionally willed by God as essential to + created beings; (2) physical evil, such as pain, which is + conditionally willed by God as punishment or as a means to greater + good (cf. p. 510); and (3) moral evil, in which the great difficulty + lies, and which Leibnitz makes various attempts to explain. He says + that it was merely permitted not willed by God (p. 655), and, that + being obviously no explanation, adds that it was permitted because it + was foreseen that the world with evil would nevertheless be better + than any other possible world (p. 350). He also speaks of the evil as + a mere set-off to the good in the world, which it increases by + contrast (p. 149), and at other times reduces moral to metaphysical + evil by giving it a merely negative existence, or says that their evil + actions are to be referred to men alone, while it is only the power of + action that comes from God, and the power of action is good (p. 658). + + The great problem of Leibnitz's _Théodicée_ thus remains unsolved. The + suggestion that evil consists in a mere imperfection, like his idea of + the monads proceeding from God by a continual emanation, was too bold + and too inconsistent with his immediate apologetic aim to be carried + out by him. Had he done so his theory would have transcended the + independence of the monads with which it started, and found a deeper + unity in the world than that resulting from the somewhat arbitrary + assertion that the monads reflect the universe. + + The philosophy of Leibnitz, in the more systematic and abstract form + it received at the hands of Wolf, ruled the schools of Germany for + nearly a century, and largely determined the character of the critical + philosophy by which it was superseded. On it Baumgarten laid the + foundations of a science of aesthetic. Its treatment of theological + questions heralded the German _Aufklärung_. And on many special + points--in its physical doctrine of the conservation of force, its + psychological hypothesis of unconscious perception, its attempt at a + logical symbolism--it has suggested ideas fruitful for the progress of + science. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--(1) Editions: Up to 1900 no attempt had been made to + publish the complete works. Several editions existed, but a vast mass + of MSS. (letters, &c.) remained only roughly classified in the Hanover + library. The chief editions were: (1) L. Dutens (Geneva, 1768), called + _Opera Omnia_, but far from complete; (2) G. H. Pertz, _Leibnizens + gesammelte Werke_ (Berlin, 1843-1863) (1st ser. History, 4 vols.; 2nd + ser. Philosophy, vol. i. correspondence with Arnauld, &c., ed. C. L. + Grotefend; 3rd ser. Mathematics, 7 vols., ed. C. J. Gerhardt); (3) + Foucher de Careil (planned in 20 vols., 7 published, Paris, + 1859-1875), the same editor having previously published _Lettres et + opuscules inédits de Leibniz_ (Paris, 1854-1857); (4) Onno Klopp, _Die + Werke von Leibniz gemäss seinem Handschriftlichen Nachlasse in der + Königlichen Bibliothek zu Hannover_ (1st series, Historico-Political + and Political, 10 vols., 1864-1877). The _Oeuvres de Leibnitz_, by A. + Jacques (2 vols., Paris, 1846) also deserves mention. The + philosophical writings had been published by Raspe (Amsterdam and + Leipzig, 1765), by J. E. Erdmann, _Leibnitii opera philos. quae extant + Latina, Gallica, Germanica, omnia_ (Berlin, 1840), by P. Janet (2 + vols., Paris, 1866, 2nd ed. 1900), and the fullest by C. J. Gerhardt, + _Die Philosophischen Schriften von G. W. Leibniz_ (7 vols., + 1875-1890); cf. also _Die kleineren philos. wichtigeren Schriften_ + (trans. with commentary, J. H. von Kirchmann, 1879). The German works + had also been partly published separately; G. E. Guhrauer (Berlin, + 1838-1840). Of the letters various collections had been published up + to 1900, e.g.: C. J. Gerhardt (Halle, 1860) and _Der Briefwechsel von + G. W. Leibnitz mit Mathematikern_ (1899); _Corrispondenza tra L. A. + Muratori e G. Leibnitz_ (1899); and cf. _Neue Beiträge zum + Briefwechsel zwischen D. E. Jablonsky und G. W. Leibnitz_ (1899). + + In 1900 it was decided by scholars in Berlin and Paris that a really + complete edition should be published, and with this object four German + and four French critics were entrusted with the preliminary task of + correlating the MSS. in the royal library at Hanover. This process + resulted in the preparation of the _Kritischer Katalog der + Leibnitz-Handschriften zur Vorbereitung der interakademischen + Leibnitz-Ausgabe unternommen_ (1908), and also in certain other + preliminary publications, e.g. L. Couturat, _Opuscules et fragments + inédits_ (1903); E. Gerland, _Leibnizens nachgelassene Schriften + physikalischen, mechanischen und technischen Inhalts_ (1906); Jean + Baruzi, _Leibniz_ (1909), containing unedited MSS. and a + sketch-biography; cf. the same author's _Leibniz et l'organisation + religieuse de la terre_ (1907). + + _Translations._--Of the _Systema Theologicum_ (1850, C. W. Russell), + of the correspondence with Clarke (1717); _Works_, by G. M. Duncan + (New Haven, 1890); of the _Nouveaux Essais_, by A. G. Langley (London, + 1894); the _Monadology and other Writings_, by R. Latta (Oxford, + 1898). + + _Biographical._--The materials for the life of Leibnitz, in addition + to his own works, are the notes of Eckhart (not published till 1779), + the _Éloge_ by Fontenelle (read to the French Academy in 1717), the + "Eulogium," by Wolf, in the _Acta Eruditorium_ for July 1717, and the + "Supplementum" to the same by Feller, published in his _Otium + Hannoveranum_ (Leipzig, 1718). The best biography is that of G. E. + Guhrauer, _G. W. Freiherr von Leibnitz_ (2 vols., Breslau, 1842; + _Nachträge_, Breslau, 1846). A shorter _Life of G. W. von Leibnitz, on + the Basis of the German Work of Guhrauer_, has been published by J. M. + Mackie (Boston, 1845). More recent works are those of L. Grote, + _Leibniz und seine Zeit_ (Hanover, 1869); E. Pfleiderer, _Leibniz als + Patriot, Staatsmann, und Bildungsträger_ (Leipzig, 1870); the slighter + volume of F. Kirchner, _G. W. Leibniz: sein Leben und Denken_ (Köthen, + 1876); Kuno Fischer, vol. iii. in _Gesch. der neuern Philosophie_ (4th + ed., 1902). + + _Critical._--The monographs and essays on Leibnitz are too numerous to + mention, but reference may be made to Feuerbach, _Darstellung, + Entwicklung, und Kritik der Leibnitz'schen Phil._ (2nd ed., Leipzig, + 1844); Nourrisson, _La Philosophie de Leibniz_ (Paris, 1860); R. + Zimmermann, _Leibnitz und Herbart: eine Vergleichung ihrer + Monadologien_ (Vienna, 1849); O. Caspari, _Leibniz' Philosophie + beleuchtet vom Gesichtspunkt der physikalischen Grundbegriffe von + Kraft und Stoff_ (Leipzig, 1870); G. Hartenstein, "Locke's Lehre von + der menschl. Erk. in Vergl. mit Leibniz's Kritik derselben + dargestellt," in the _Abhandl. d. philol.-hist. Cl. d. K. Sächs. + Gesells. d. Wiss._, vol. iv. (Leipzig, 1865); G. Class, _Die metaph. + Voraussetzungen des Leibnitzischen Determinismus_ (Tübingen, 1874); F. + B. Kvet, _Leibnitzens Logik_ (Prague, 1857); the essays on Leibnitz in + Trendelenburg's _Beiträge_, vols. ii. and iii. (Berlin, 1855, 1867); + L. Neff, _Leibniz als Sprachforscher_ (Heidelberg, 1870-1871); J. + Schmidt, _Leibniz und Baumgarten_ (Halle, 1875); D. Nolen, _La + Critique de Kant et la Métaphysique de Leibniz_ (Paris, 1875); and the + exhaustive work of A. Pichler, _Die Theologie des Leibniz_ (Munich, + 1869-1870). Among the more recent works are: C. Braig, _Leibniz: sein + Leben und die Bedeutung seiner Lehre_ (1907); E. Cassirer, _Leibniz' + System in seinem wissenschaftlichen Grundlagen_ (1902); L. Couturat, + _La Logique de Leibniz d'après des documents inédits_ (1901); L. + Davillé, _Leibniz historien_ (1909); Kuno Fischer, _G. W. Leibniz_ + (1889); R. B. Frenzel, _Der Associationsbegriff bei Leibniz_ (1898); + R. Herbertz, _Die Lehre vom Unbewussten im System des Leibniz_ (1905); + H. Hoffmann, _Die Leibniz'sche Religions-philosophie in ihrer + geschichtlichen Stellung_ (1903); W. Kabitz, _Die Philosophie des + jungen Leibniz_ (1909), a study of the development of the Leibnitzian + system; H. L. Koch, _Materie und Organismus bei Leibniz_ (1908); G. + Niel, _L'Optimisme de Leibniz_ (1888); Bertrand A. W. Russell, _A + Critical Exposition of the Philosophy of Leibniz_ (1900); F. Schmöger, + _Leibniz in seiner Stellung zur tellurischen Physik_ (1901); A. + Silberstein, _Leibnizens Apriorismus in Verhältnis zu seiner + Metaphysik_ (1904); Stein, _Leibniz und Spinoza_ (1890); F. Thilly, + _Leibnizens Streit gegen Locke in Ansehung der angeborenen Ideen_ + (1891); R. Urbach, _Leibnizens Rechtfertigung des Uebels in der besten + Welt_ (1901); W. Werckmeister, _Der Leibnizsche Substanzbegriff_ + (1899); F. G. F. Wernicke, _Leibniz' Lehre von der Freiheit des + menschlichen Willens_ (1890). (W. R. So.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] _Bedenken, welchergestalt securitas publica interna et externa + und status praesens jetzigen Umständen nach im Reich auf festen Fuss + zu stellen._ + + [2] _De expeditione Aegyptiaca regi Franciae proponenda justa + dissertatio._ + + [3] _Consilium Aegyptiacum._ + + [4] _A Summary Account of Leibnitz's Memoir addressed to Lewis the + Fourteenth_, &c. [edited by Granville Penn], (London, 1803). + + [5] In a letter to the duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg (autumn 1671), + _Werke_, ed. Klopp, iii. 253 sq. + + [6] He was made a foreign member of the French Academy in 1700. + + [7] _Caesarini Furstenerii tractatus de jure suprematus ac legationis + principum Germaniae_ (Amsterdam, 1677); _Entretiens de Philarète et + d'Eugène sur le droit d'ambassade_ (Duisb., 1677). + + [8] Not published till 1819. It is on this work that the assertion + has been founded that Leibnitz was at heart a Catholic--a supposition + clearly disproved by his correspondence. + + [9] In his _Protogaea_ (1691) he developed the notion of the + historical genesis of the present condition of the earth's surface. + Cf. O. Peschel, _Gesch. d. Erdkunde_ (Munich, 1865), pp. 615 sq. + + [10] _Codex juris gentium diplomaticus_ (1693); _Mantissa codicis + juri gentium diplomatici_ (1700). + + [11] _Memoirs of John Ker of Kersland_, by himself (1726), i. 118. + + [12] When not otherwise stated, the references are to Erdmann's + edition of the _Opera philosophica_. + + [13] See _Considérations sur la doctrine d'un esprit universel_ + (1702). + + [14] Cf. _Opera_, ed. Dutens, II. ii. 20. + + [15] The difference between an organic and an inorganic body + consists, he says, in this, that the former is a machine even in its + smallest parts. + + [16] _Opera_, ed. Dutens, iii. 321. + + [17] Different symbolic systems were proposed by Leibnitz at + different periods; cf. Kvet, _Leibnitzens Logik_ (1857), p. 37. + + [18] The places at which Leibnitz anticipated the modern theory of + logic mainly due to Boole are pointed out in Mr Venn's _Symbolic + Logic_ (1881). + + [19] Hence the difference of his determinism from that of Spinoza, + though Leibnitz too says in one place that "it is difficult enough to + distinguish the actions of God from those of the creatures" (_Werke_, + ed. Pertz, 2nd ser. vol. i. p. 160). + + [20] _Opera omnia_, ed. Dutens, IV. iii. 282. + + [21] Ibid. IV. iii. 295. Cf. Bluntschli, _Gesch. d. allg. + Staatsrechts u. Politik_ (1864), pp. 143 sqq. + + [22] P. 480; cf. _Werke_, ed. Pertz, 2nd ser. vol. i. pp. 158, 159. + + [23] Werke, ed. Klopp, iii. 259; cf. Op. phil., p. 716. + + [24] Werke, ed. Pertz, 2nd ser. vol. i. p. 167. + + [25] "Si c'est ici le meilleur des mondes possibles, que sont donc + les autres?"--Voltaire, _Candide_, ch. vi. + + + + +LEICESTER, EARLS OF. The first holder of this English earldom belonged +to the family of Beaumont, although a certain Saxon named Edgar has been +described as the 1st earl of Leicester. Robert de Beaumont (d. 1118) is +frequently but erroneously considered to have received the earldom from +Henry I., about 1107; he had, however, some authority in the county of +Leicester and his son Robert was undoubtedly earl of Leicester in 1131. +The 3rd Beaumont earl, another Robert, was also steward of England, a +dignity which was attached to the earldom of Leicester from this time +until 1399. The earldom reverted to the crown when Robert de Beaumont, +the 4th earl, died in January 1204. + +In 1207 Simon IV., count of Montfort (q.v.), nephew and heir of Earl +Robert, was confirmed in the possession of the earldom by King John, but +it was forfeited when his son, the famous Simon de Montfort, was +attainted and was killed at Evesham in August 1265. Henry III.'s son +Edmund, earl of Lancaster, was also earl of Leicester and steward of +England, obtaining these offices a few months after Earl Simon's death. +Edmund's sons, Thomas and Henry, both earls of Lancaster, and his +grandson Henry, duke of Lancaster, in turn held the earldom, which then +passed to a son-in-law of Duke Henry, William V., count of Holland (c. +1327-1389), and then to another and more celebrated son-in-law, John of +Gaunt, duke of Lancaster. When in 1399 Gaunt's son became king as Henry +IV. the earldom was merged in the crown. + +In 1564 Queen Elizabeth created her favourite, Lord Robert Dudley, earl +of Leicester. The new earl was a son of John Dudley, duke of +Northumberland; he left no children, or rather none of undoubted +legitimacy, and when he died in September 1588 the title became extinct. + +In 1618 the earldom of Leicester was revived in favour of Robert Sidney, +Viscount Lisle, a nephew of the late earl and a brother of Sir Philip +Sidney; it remained in this family until the death of Jocelyn +(1682-1743), the 7th earl of this line, in July 1743. Jocelyn left no +legitimate children, but a certain John Sidney claimed to be his son and +consequently to be 8th earl of Leicester. + +In 1744, the year after Jocelyn's death, Thomas Coke, Baron Lovel (c. +1695-1759), was made earl of Leicester, but the title became extinct on +his death in April 1759. The next family to hold the earldom was that of +Townshend, George Townshend (1755-1811) being created earl of Leicester +in 1784. In 1807 George succeeded his father as 2nd marquess Townshend, +and when his son George Ferrars Townshend, the 3rd marquess (1778-1855), +died in December 1855 the earldom again became extinct. Before this +date, however, another earldom of Leicester was in existence. This was +created in 1837 in favour of Thomas William Coke, who had inherited the +estates of his relative Thomas Coke, earl of Leicester. To distinguish +his earldom from that held by the Townshends Coke was ennobled as earl +of Leicester of Holkham; his son Thomas William Coke (1822-1909) became +2nd earl of Leicester in 1842, and the latter's son Thomas William (b. +1848) became 3rd earl. + + See G. E. C(okayne), _Complete Peerage_, vol. v. (1893). + + + + +LEICESTER, ROBERT DUDLEY, EARL OF (c. 1531-1588). This favourite of +Queen Elizabeth came of an ambitious family. They were not, indeed, such +mere upstarts as their enemies loved to represent them; for Leicester's +grandfather--the notorious Edmund Dudley who was one of the chief +instruments of Henry VII.'s extortions--was descended from a younger +branch of the barons of Dudley. But the love of power was a passion +which seems to have increased in them with each succeeding generation, +and though the grandfather was beheaded by Henry VIII. for his too +devoted services in the preceding reign, the father grew powerful enough +in the days of Edward VI. to trouble the succession to the crown. This +was that John Dudley, duke of Northumberland, who contrived the marriage +of Lady Jane Grey with his own son Guildford Dudley, and involved both +her and her husband in a common ruin with himself. Robert Dudley, the +subject of this article, was an elder brother of Guildford, and shared +at that time in the misfortunes of the whole family. Having taken up +arms with them against Queen Mary, he was sent to the Tower, and was +sentenced to death; but the queen not only pardoned and restored him to +liberty, but appointed him master of the ordnance. On the accession of +Elizabeth he was also made master of the horse. He was then, perhaps, +about seven-and-twenty, and was evidently rising rapidly in the queen's +favour. At an early age he had been married to Amy, daughter of Sir John +Robsart. The match had been arranged by his father, who was very +studious to provide in this way for the future fortunes of his children, +and the wedding was graced by the presence of King Edward. But if it was +not a love match, there seems to have been no positive estrangement +between the couple. Amy visited her husband in the Tower during his +imprisonment; but afterwards when, under the new queen, he was much at +court, she lived a good deal apart from him. He visited her, however, at +times, in different parts of the country, and his expenses show that he +treated her liberally. In September 1560 she was staying at Cumnor Hall +in Berkshire, the house of one Anthony Forster, when she met her death +under circumstances which certainly aroused suspicions of foul play. It +is quite clear that her death had been surmised some time before as a +thing that would remove an obstacle to Dudley's marriage with the queen, +with whom he stood in so high favour. We may take it, perhaps, from +Venetian sources, that she was then in delicate health, while Spanish +state papers show further that there were scandalous rumours of a design +to poison her; which were all the more propagated by malice after the +event. The occurrence, however, was explained as owing to a fall down +stairs in which she broke her neck; and the explanation seems perfectly +adequate to account for all we know about it. Certain it is that Dudley +continued to rise in the queen's favour. She made him a Knight of the +Garter, and bestowed on him the castle of Kenilworth, the lordship of +Denbigh and other lands of very great value in Warwickshire and in +Wales. In September 1564 she created him baron of Denbigh, and +immediately afterwards earl of Leicester. In the preceding month, when +she visited Cambridge, she at his request addressed the university in +Latin. The honours shown him excited jealousy, especially as it was well +known that he entertained still more ambitious hopes, which the queen +apparently did not altogether discourage. The earl of Sussex, in +opposition to him, strongly favoured a match with the archduke Charles +of Austria. The court was divided, and, while arguments were set forth +on the one side against the queen's marrying a subject, the other party +insisted strongly on the disadvantages of a foreign alliance. The queen, +however, was so far from being foolishly in love with him that in 1564 +she recommended him as a husband for Mary Queen of Scots. But this, it +was believed, was only a blind, and it may be doubted how far the +proposal was serious. After his creation as earl of Leicester great +attention was paid to him both at home and abroad. The university of +Oxford made him their chancellor, and Charles IX. of France sent him the +order of St Michael. A few years later he formed an ambiguous connexion +with the baroness dowager of Sheffield, which was maintained by the +lady, if not with truth at least with great plausibility, to have been a +valid marriage, though it was concealed from the queen. Her own +subsequent conduct, however, went far to discredit her statements; for +she married again during Leicester's life, when he, too, had found a new +conjugal partner. Long afterwards, in the days of James I., her son, Sir +Robert Dudley, a man of extraordinary talents, sought to establish his +legitimacy; but his suit was suddenly brought to a stop, the witnesses +discredited and the documents connected with it sealed up by an order of +the Star Chamber. + +In 1575 Queen Elizabeth visited the earl at Kenilworth, where she was +entertained for some days with great magnificence. The picturesque +account of the event given by Sir Walter Scott has made every one +familiar with the general character of the scene. Next year Walter, earl +of Essex, died in Ireland, and Leicester's subsequent marriage with his +widow again gave rise to very serious imputations against him. For +report said that he had had two children by her during her husband's +absence in Ireland, and, as the feud between the two earls was +notorious, Leicester's many enemies easily suggested that he had +poisoned his rival. This marriage, at all events, tended to Leicester's +discredit and was kept secret at first; but it was revealed to the queen +in 1579 by Simier, an emissary of the duke of Alençon, to whose +projected match with Elizabeth the earl seemed to be the principal +obstacle. The queen showed great displeasure at the news, and had some +thought, it is said, of committing Leicester to the Tower, but was +dissuaded from doing so by his rival the earl of Sussex. He had not, +indeed, favoured the Alençon marriage, but otherwise he had sought to +promote a league with France against Spain. He and Burleigh had listened +to proposals from France for the conquest and division of Flanders, and +they were in the secret about the capture of Brill. When Alençon +actually arrived, indeed, in August 1579, Dudley being in disgrace, +showed himself for a time anti-French; but he soon returned to his +former policy. He encouraged Drake's piratical expeditions against the +Spaniards and had a share in the booty brought home. In February 1582 +he, with a number of other noblemen and gentlemen, escorted the duke of +Alençon on his return to Antwerp to be invested with the government of +the Low Countries. In 1584 he inaugurated an association for the +protection of Queen Elizabeth against conspirators. About this time +there issued from the press the famous pamphlet, supposed to have been +the work of Parsons the Jesuit, entitled _Leicester's Commonwealth_, +which was intended to suggest that the English constitution was +subverted and the government handed over to one who was at heart an +atheist and a traitor, besides being a man of infamous life and morals. +The book was ordered to be suppressed by letters from the privy council, +in which it was declared that the charges against the earl were to the +queen's certain knowledge untrue; nevertheless they produced a very +strong impression, and were believed in by some who had no sympathy with +Jesuits long after Leicester's death. In 1585 he was appointed commander +of an expedition to the Low Countries in aid of the revolted provinces, +and sailed with a fleet of fifty ships to Flushing, where he was +received with great enthusiasm. In January following he was invested +with the government of the provinces, but immediately received a strong +reprimand from the queen for taking upon himself a function which she +had not authorized. Both he and the states general were obliged to +apologize; but the latter protested that they had no intention of giving +him absolute control of their affairs, and that it would be extremely +dangerous to them to revoke the appointment. Leicester accordingly was +allowed to retain his dignity; but the incident was inauspicious, nor +did affairs prosper greatly under his management. The most brilliant +achievement of the war was the action at Zutphen, in which his nephew +Sir Philip Sidney was slain. But complaints were made by the states +general of the conduct of the whole campaign. He returned to England for +a time, and went back in 1587, when he made an abortive effort to raise +the siege of Sluys. Disagreements increasing between him and the states, +he was recalled by the queen, from whom he met with a very good +reception; and he continued in such favour that in the following summer +(the year being that of the Armada, 1588) he was appointed +lieutenant-general of the army mustered at Tilbury to resist Spanish +invasion. After the crisis was past he was returning homewards from the +court to Kenilworth, when he was attacked by a sudden illness and died +at his house at Cornbury in Oxfordshire, on the 4th September. + +Such are the main facts of Leicester's life. Of his character it is more +difficult to speak with confidence, but some features of it are +indisputable. Being in person tall and remarkably handsome, he improved +these advantages by a very ingratiating manner. A man of no small +ability and still more ambition, he was nevertheless vain, and presumed +at times upon his influence with the queen to a degree that brought upon +him a sharp rebuff. Yet Elizabeth stood by him. That she was ever really +in love with him, as modern writers have supposed, is extremely +questionable; but she saw in him some valuable qualities which marked +him as the fitting recipient of high favours. He was a man of princely +tastes, especially in architecture. At court he became latterly the +leader of the Puritan party. and his letters were pervaded by +expressions of religious feeling which it is hard to believe were +insincere. Of the darker suspicions against him it is enough to say that +much was certainly reported beyond the truth; but there remain some +facts sufficiently disagreeable, and others, perhaps, sufficiently +mysterious, to make a just estimate of the man a rather perplexing +problem. + + No special biography of Leicester has yet been written except in + biographical dictionaries and encyclopaedias. A general account of him + will be found in the Memoirs of the Sidneys prefixed to Collins's + _Letters and Memorials of State_; but the fullest yet published is Mr + Sidney Lee's article in the _Dictionary of National Biography_ + (London, 1888) where the sources are given. Leicester's career has to + be made out from documents and state papers, especially from the + Hatfield MSS. and Major Hume's _Calendar_ of documents from the + Spanish archives bearing on the history of Queen Elizabeth. This last + is the most recent source. Of others the principal are Digges's + _Compleat Ambassador_ (1655), John Nichols's _Progresses of Queen + Elizabeth_ and the _Leycester Correspondence_ edited by J. Bruce for + the Camden Society. The death of Dudley's first wife has been a + fruitful source of literary controversy. The most recent addition to + the evidences, which considerably alters their complexion, will be + found in the _English Historical Review_, xiii. 83, giving the full + text (in English) of De Quadra's letter of Sept. 11, 1560, on which so + much has been built. (J. Ga.) + + + + +LEICESTER, ROBERT SIDNEY, EARL OF (1563-1626), second son of Sir Henry +Sidney (q.v.), was born on the 19th of November 1563, and was educated +at Christ Church, Oxford, afterwards travelling on the Continent for +some years between 1578 and 1583. In 1585 he was elected member of +parliament for Glamorganshire; and in the same year he went with his +elder brother Sir Philip Sidney (q.v.) to the Netherlands, where he +served in the war against Spain under his uncle Robert Dudley, earl of +Leicester. He was present at the engagement where Sir Philip Sidney was +mortally wounded, and remained with his brother till the latter's death +in October 1586. After visiting Scotland on a diplomatic mission in +1588, and France on a similar errand in 1593, he returned to the +Netherlands in 1596, where he rendered distinguished service in the war +for the next two years. He had been appointed governor of Flushing in +1588, and he spent much time there till 1603, when, on the accession of +James I., he returned to England. James raised him at once to the +peerage as Baron Sidney of Penshurst, and he was appointed chamberlain +to the queen consort. In 1605 he was created Viscount Lisle, and in 1618 +earl of Leicester, the latter title having become extinct in 1588 on the +death of his uncle, whose property he had inherited (see LEICESTER, +EARLS OF). Leicester was a man of taste and a patron of literature, +whose cultured mode of life at his country seat, Penshurst, was +celebrated in verse by Ben Jonson. The earl died at Penshurst on the +13th of July 1626. He was twice married; first to Barbara, daughter of +John Gamage, a Glamorganshire gentleman; and secondly to Sarah, daughter +of William Blount, and widow of Sir Thomas Smythe. By his first wife he +had a large family. His eldest son having died unmarried in 1613, +Robert, the second son (see below), succeeded to the earldom; one of his +daughters married Sir John Hobart, ancestor of the earls of +Buckinghamshire. + +ROBERT SIDNEY, 2nd earl of Leicester of the 1618 creation (1595-1677), +was born on the 1st of December 1595, and was educated at Christ Church, +Oxford; he was called to the bar in in 1618, having already served in +the army in the Netherlands during his father's governorship of +Flushing, and having entered parliament as member for Wilton in 1614. In +1616 he was given command of an English regiment in the Dutch service; +and having succeeded his father as earl of Leicester in 1626, he was +employed on diplomatic business in Denmark in 1632, and in France from +1636 to 1641. He was then appointed lord-lieutenant of Ireland in place +of the earl of Strafford, but he waited in vain for instructions from +the king, and in 1643 he was compelled to resign the office without +having set foot in Ireland. He shared the literary and cultivated tastes +of his family, without possessing the statesmanship of his uncle Sir +Philip Sidney; his character was lacking in decision, and, as commonly +befalls men of moderate views in times of acute party strife, he failed +to win the confidence of either of the opposing parties. His sincere +protestantism offended Laud, without being sufficiently extreme to +please the puritans of the parliamentary faction; his fidelity to the +king restrained him from any act tainted with rebellion, while his +dislike for arbitrary government prevented him giving whole-hearted +support to Charles I. When, therefore, the king summoned him to Oxford +in November 1642, Leicester's conduct bore the appearance of +vacillation, and his loyalty of uncertainty. Accordingly, after his +resignation of the lord-lieutenancy of Ireland at the end of 1643, he +retired into private life. In 1649 the younger children of the king were +for a time committed to his care at Penshurst. He took no part in public +affairs during the Commonwealth; and although at the Restoration he took +his seat in the House of Lords and was sworn of the privy council, he +continued to live for the most part in retirement at Penshurst, where he +died on the 2nd of November 1677. Leicester married, in 1616, Dorothy, +daughter of Henry Percy, 9th earl of Northumberland, by whom he had +fifteen children. Of his nine daughters, the eldest, Dorothy, the +"Sacharissa" of the poet Waller, married Robert Spencer, 2nd earl of +Sunderland; and Lucy married John Pelham, by whom she was the ancestress +of the 18th-century statesmen, Henry Pelham, and Thomas Pelham, duke of +Newcastle. Algernon Sidney (q.v.), and Henry Sidney, earl of Romney +(q.v.), were younger sons of the earl. + +Leicester's eldest son, Philip, 3rd earl (1619-1698), known for most of +his life as Lord Lisle, took a somewhat prominent part during the civil +war. Being sent to Ireland in 1642 in command of a regiment of horse, he +became lieutenant-general under Ormonde; he strongly favoured the +parliamentary cause, and in 1647 he was appointed lord-lieutenant of +Ireland by the parliament. Named one of Charles I.'s judges, he refused +to take part in the trial; but he afterwards served in Cromwell's +Council of State, and sat in the Protector's House of Lords. Lisle stood +high in Cromwell's favour, but nevertheless obtained a pardon at the +Restoration. He carried on the Sidney family tradition by his patronage +of men of letters; and, having succeeded to the earldom on his father's +death in 1677, he died in 1698, and was succeeded in the peerage by his +son Robert, 4th earl of Leicester (1649-1702), whose mother was +Catherine, daughter of William Cecil, 2nd earl of Salisbury. + + See _Sydney Papers_, edited by A. Collins (2 vols., London, 1746); + _Sydney Papers_, edited by R. W. Blencowe (London, 1825) containing + the 2nd earl of Leicester's journal; Lord Clarendon _History of the + Rebellion and Civil Wars in England_ (8 vols, Oxford, 1826); S. R. + Gardiner, _History of the Great Civil War_ (3 vols., London, + 1886-1891). (R. J. M.) + + + + +LEICESTER, THOMAS WILLIAM COKE, EARL OF (1754-1842), English +agriculturist, known as Coke of Norfolk, was the eldest son of Wenman +Roberts, who assumed the name of Coke in 1750. In 1759 Wenman Coke's +maternal uncle Thomas Coke, earl of Leicester, died leaving him his +estates, subject, however, to the life-interest of his widow, Margaret, +Baroness de Clifford in her own right. This lady's death in 1775 was +followed by that of Wenman Coke in 1776, when the latter's son, Thomas +William, born on the 6th of May 1754, succeeded to his father's estates +at Holkham and elsewhere. From 1776 to 1784, from 1790 to 1806, and +again from 1807 to 1832 Coke was member of parliament for Norfolk; he +was a friend and supporter of Charles James Fox and a sturdy and +aggressive Whig, acting upon the maxim taught him by his father "never +to trust a Tory." Coke's chief interests, however, were in the country, +and his fame is that of an agriculturist. His land around Holkham in +Norfolk was poor and neglected, but he introduced many improvements, +obtained the best expert advice, and in a few years wheat was grown upon +his farms, and the breed of cattle, sheep and pigs greatly improved. It +has been said that "his practice is really the basis of every treatise +on modern agriculture." Under his direction the rental of the Holkham +estate is said to have increased from £2200 to over £20,000 a year. In +1837 Coke was created earl of Leicester of Holkham. Leicester, who was a +strong and handsome man and a fine sportsman, died at Longford Hall in +Derbyshire on the 30th of June 1842. He was twice married, and Thomas +William, his son by his second marriage, succeeded to his earldom. + + See A. M. W. Stirling, _Coke of Norfolk and his Friends_ (1907). + + + + +LEICESTER, a municipal county and parliamentary borough, and the county +town of Leicestershire, England; on the river Soar, a southern tributary +of the Trent. Pop. (1891) 174,624, (1901) 211,579. It is 99 m. N.N.W. +from London by the Midland railway, and is served by the Great Central +and branches of the Great Northern and London and North-Western +railways, and by the Leicester canal. + +This was the Roman _Ratae_ (_Ratae Coritanorum_), and Roman remains of +high interest are preserved. They include a portion of Roman masonry +known as the Jewry Wall; several pavements have been unearthed; and in +the museum, among other remains, is a milestone from the Fosse Way, +marking a distance of 2 m. from Ratae. St Nicholas church is a good +example of early Norman work, in the building of which Roman bricks are +used. St Mary de Castro church, with Norman remains, including sedilia, +shows rich Early English work in the tower and elsewhere, and has a +Decorated spire and later additions. All Saints church has Norman +remains. St Martin's is mainly Early English, a fine cruciform +structure. St Margaret's, with Early English nave, has extensive +additions of beautiful Perpendicular workmanship. North of the town are +slight remains of an abbey of Black Canons founded in 1143. There are a +number of modern churches. Of the Castle there are parts of the Norman +hall, modernized, two gateways and other remains, together with the +artificial Mount on which the keep stood. The following public buildings +and institutions may be mentioned--municipal buildings (1876), old town +hall, formerly the gild-hall of Corpus Christi; market house, free +library, opera house and other theatres and museum. The free library has +several branches; there are also a valuable old library founded in the +17th century, a permanent library and a literary and philosophical +society. Among several hospitals are Trinity hospital, founded in 1331 +by Henry Plantagenet, earl of Lancaster and of Leicester, and +Wyggeston's hospital (1513). The Wyggeston schools and Queen Elizabeth's +grammar school are amalgamated, and include high schools for boys and +girls; there are also Newton's greencoat school for boys, and municipal +technical and art schools. A memorial clock tower was erected in 1868 to +Simon de Montfort and other historical figures connected with the town. +The Abbey Park is a beautiful pleasure ground; there are also Victoria +Park, St Margaret's Pasture and other grounds. The staple trade is +hosiery, an old-established industry; there are also manufactures of +elastic webbing, cotton and lace, iron-works, makings and brick-works. +Leicester became a county borough in 1888, and the bounds were extended +and constituted one civil parish in 1892. It is a suffragan bishopric in +the diocese of Peterborough. The parliamentary borough returns two +members. Area, 8586 acres. + +The Romano-British town of _Ratae Coritanorum_, on the Fosse Way, was a +municipality in A.D. 120-121. Its importance, both commercial and +military, was considerable, as is attested by the many remains found +here. Leicester (_Ledecestre_, _Legecestria_, _Leyrcestria_) was called +a "burh" in 918, and a city in Domesday. Until 874 it was the seat of a +bishopric. In 1086 both the king and Hugh de Grantmesnil had much land +in Leicester; by 1101 the latter's share had passed to Robert of Meulan, +to whom the rest of the town belonged before his death. Leicester thus +became the largest mesne borough. Between 1103 and 1118 Robert granted +his first charter to the burgesses, confirming their merchant gild. The +portmanmote was confirmed by his son. In the 13th century the town +developed its own form of government by a mayor and 24 jurats. In 1464 +Edward IV. made the mayor and 4 of the council justices of the peace. In +1489 Henry VII. added 48 burgesses to the council for certain purposes, +and made it a close body; he granted another charter in 1505. In 1589 +Elizabeth incorporated the town, and gave another charter in 1599. James +I. granted charters in 1605 and 1610; and Charles I. in 1630. In 1684 +the charters were surrendered; a new one granted by James II. was +rescinded by proclamation in 1688. + +Leicester has been represented in parliament by two members since 1295. +It has had a prescriptive market since the 13th century, now held on +Wednesday and Saturday. Before 1228-1229 the burgesses had a fair from +July 31 to August 14; changes were made in its date, which was fixed in +1360 at September 26 to October 2. It is now held on the second Thursday +in October and three following days. In 1473 another fair was granted on +April 27 to May 4. It is now held on the second Thursday in May and the +three following days. Henry VIII. granted two three-day fairs beginning +on December 8 and June 26; the first is now held on the second Friday in +December; the second was held in 1888 on the last Tuesday in June. In +1307 Edward III. granted a fair for seventeen days after the feast of +the Holy Trinity. This would fall in May or June, and may have merged in +other fairs. In 1794 the corporation sanctioned fairs on January 4, June +1, August 1, September 13 and November 2. Other fairs are now held on +the second Fridays in March and July and the Saturdays next before +Easter and in Easter week. Leicester has been a centre for brewing and +the manufacture of woollen goods since the 13th century. Knitting frames +for hosiery were introduced about 1680. Boot manufacture became +important in the 19th century. + + See _Victoria County History_, Leicester; M. Bateson, _Records of + Borough of Leicester_ (Cambridge, 1899). + + + + +LEICESTERSHIRE, a midland county of England, bounded N. by +Nottinghamshire, E. by Lincolnshire and Rutland, S.E. by +Northamptonshire, S.W. by Warwickshire, and N.W. by Derbyshire, also +touching Staffordshire on the W. The area is 823.6 sq. m. The surface of +the county is an undulating tableland, the highest eminences being the +rugged hills of Charnwood Forest (q.v.) in the north-west, one of which, +Bardon Hill, has an elevation of 912 ft. The county belongs chiefly to +the basin of the Trent, which forms for a short distance its boundary +with Derbyshire. The principal tributary of the Trent in Leicestershire +is the Soar, from whose old designation the _Leire_ the county is said +to derive its name, and which rises near Hinckley in the S.E., and forms +the boundary with Nottinghamshire for some distance above its junction +with the Trent. The Wreak, which, under the name of the Eye, rises on +the borders of Rutland, flows S.W. to the Soar. Besides the Soar the +other tributaries of the Trent are the Anker, touching the boundary with +Warwickshire, the Devon and the Mease. A portion of the county in the S. +drains to the Avon, which forms part of the boundary with +Northamptonshire, and receives the Swift. The Welland forms for some +distance the boundary with Northamptonshire. + + _Geology._--The oldest rocks in the county belong to the Charnian + System, a Pre-Cambrian series of volcanic ashes, grits and slates, + into which porphyroid and syenite were afterwards intruded. These + rocks emerge from the plain formed by the Keuper Marls of the Triassic + System as a group of isolated hills and peaks (known as Charnwood + Forest); these are the tops of an old mountain-range, the lower slopes + of which are still buried under the surrounding Keuper Marls. West of + this district lies the Leicestershire coalfield, where the poor state + of development of the Carboniferous Limestone shows that the Charnian + rocks formed shoals or islands in the Carboniferous Limestone sea. The + Millstone Grit just enters the county to the north of the same region, + while the Coal Measures occupy a considerable area round + Ashby-de-la-Zouch and contain valuable coal-seams. The rest of the + county is almost equally divided between the red Keuper Marls of the + Trias on the west and the grey limestones and shales of the Lias on + the east. The former were deposited in lagoons into which the land was + gradually lowered after a prolonged period of desert conditions. The + Rhaetic beds which follow the Keuper mark the incoming of the sea and + introduce the fossiliferous Liassic deposits. On the eastern margin of + the county a few small outliers of the Inferior Oolite sands and + limestones are present. The Glacial Period has left boulder-clay, + gravel and erratic blocks scattered over the surface, while later + gravels, with remains of mammoth, reindeer, &c., border some of the + present streams. + + Slates, honestones, setts and roadstone from the Charnian rocks, + limestone and cement from the Carboniferous and Lias, and coal from + the Coal Measures are the chief mineral products. + + _Agriculture._--The climate is mild, and, on account of the inland + position of the county, and the absence of any very high elevations, + the rainfall is very moderate. The soil is of a loamy character, the + richest district being that east of the Soar, which is occupied by + pasture, while the corn crops are grown chiefly on a lighter soil + resting above the Red Sandstone formation. About nine-tenths of the + total area is under cultivation. The proportion of pasture land is + large and increasing. It is especially rich along the river-banks. + Dairy-farming is extensively carried on, the famous Stilton cheese + being produced near Melton Mowbray. Cattle are reared in large + numbers, while of sheep the New Leicester breed is well known. It was + introduced by Robert Bakewell the agriculturist, who was born near + Loughborough in 1725. He also improved the breed of horses by the + importation of mares from Flanders. + + The county is especially famed for fox-hunting, Leicester and Melton + Mowbray being favourite centres, while the kennels of the Quorn hunt + are located at Quorndon near Mount Sorrel. For this reason + Leicestershire is rich in good riding horses. + + _Other Industries._--Coal is worked in the districts about Moira, + Coleorton and Coalville. Limestone is worked in various parts, + freestone is plentiful, gypsum is found, and a kind of granite, + extensively used for paving, is obtained in the Charnwood district, as + at Bardon and Mount Sorrel, and at Sapcote and Stoney Stanton in the + south-west. Apart from the mining industries, the staple manufacture + of Leicestershire is hosiery, for which the wool is obtained + principally from home-bred sheep. Its principal seats are Leicester, + Loughborough, Hinckley and Castle Donington. Cotton hose are likewise + made, and other industries include the manufacture of boots and shoes, + as at Market Harborough, elastic webbing, and bricks, also iron + founding. Melton Mowbray gives name to a well-known manufacture of + pork pies. + + _Communications._--The main line of the Midland railway serves Market + Harborough, Leicester, and Loughborough, having an important junction + at Trent (on that river) for Derby and Nottingham. Branches radiate + from Leicester to Melton Mowbray, to Coalville, Ashby-de-la-Zouch, + Moira and Burton-upon-Trent, with others through the mining district + of the N.W., which is also served by the branch of the London & + North-Western railway from Nuneaton to Market Bosworth, Coalville and + Loughborough. This company serves Market Harborough from Rugby, and + branches of the Great Northern serve Market Harborough, Leicester and + Melton Mowbray. The main line of the Great Central railway passes + through Lutterworth, Leicester and Loughborough. The principal canals + are the Union and Grand Union, with which various branches are + connected with the Grand Junction, and the Ashby-de-la-Zouch canal, + which joins the Coventry canal at Nuneaton. The Loughborough canal + serves that town, connecting with the river Soar. + + _Population and Administration._--The area of the ancient county is + 527,123 acres; pop. (1891) 373,584, (1901) 434,019. The area of the + administrative county is 532,788 acres. The county contains six + hundreds. The municipal boroughs are: Leicester, the county town and a + county borough (pop. 211,579), Loughborough (21,508). The urban + districts are: Ashby-de-la-Zouch (4726), Ashby Woulds (2799), + Coalville (15,281), Hinckley (11,304), Market Harborough (7735), + Melton Mowbray (7454), Quorndon (2173), Shepshed (5293). Thurmaston + (1732), Wigston Magna (8404). The county is in the Midland circuit, + has one court of quarter sessions, and is divided into 9 petty + sessional divisions. The county borough of Leicester has a separate + court of quarter sessions and a separate commission of the peace. + There are 327 civil parishes. The county is divided into four + parliamentary divisions (Eastern or Melton, Mid or Loughborough, + Western or Bosworth, Southern or Harborough), each returning one + member; and the parliamentary borough of Leicester returns 2 members. + The county is in the diocese of Peterborough, with the exception of + small parts in those of Southwell and Worcester; and contains 255 + ecclesiastical parishes or districts, wholly or in part. + +_History._--The district which is now Leicestershire was reached in the +6th century by Anglian invaders who, making their way across the Trent, +penetrated Charnwood Forest as far as Leicester, the fall of which may +be dated at about 556. In 679 the district formed the kingdom of the +Middle Angles within the kingdom of Mercia, and on the subdivision of +the Mercian see in that year was formed into a separate bishopric having +its see at Leicester. In the 9th century the district was subjugated by +the Danes, and Leicester became one of the five Danish boroughs. It was +recovered by Æthelflaed in 918, but the Northmen regained their +supremacy shortly after, and the prevalence of Scandinavian place-names +in the county bears evidence of the extent of their settlement. + +Leicestershire probably originated as a shire in the 10th century, and +at the time of the Domesday Survey was divided into the four wapentakes +of Guthlaxton, Framland, Goscote and Gartree. The Leicestershire Survey +of the 12th century shows an additional grouping of the vills into small +local hundreds, manorial rather than administrative divisions, which +have completely disappeared. In the reign of Edward I. the divisions +appear as hundreds, and in the reign of Edward III. the additional +hundred of Sparkenhoe was formed out of Guthlaxton. Before the 17th +century Goscote was divided into East and West Goscote, and since then +the hundreds have undergone little change. Until 1566 Leicestershire and +Warwickshire had a common sheriff, the shire-court for the former being +held at Leicester. + +Leicestershire constituted an archdeaconry within the diocese of Lincoln +from 1092 until its transference to Peterborough in 1837. In 1291 it +comprised the deaneries of Akeley, Leicester (now Christianity), +Framland, Gartree, Goscote, Guthlaxton and Sparkenhoe. The deaneries +remained unaltered until 1865. Since 1894 they have been as follows: +East, South and West Akeley, Christianity, Framland (3 portions), +Sparkenhoe (2 portions), Gartree (3 portions), Goscote (2 portions), +Guthlaxton (3 portions). + +Among the earliest historical events connected with the county were the +siege and capture of Leicester by Henry II. in 1173 on the rebellion of +the earl of Leicester; the surrender of Leicester to Prince Edward in +1264; and the parliament held at Leicester in 1414. During the Wars of +the Roses Leicester was a great Lancastrian stronghold. In 1485 the +battle of Bosworth was fought in the county. In the Civil War of the +17th century the greater part of the county favoured the parliament, +though the mayor and some members of the corporation of Leicester sided +with the king, and in 1642 the citizens of Leicester on a summons from +Prince Rupert lent Charles £500. In 1645 Leicester was twice captured by +the Royalist forces. + +Before the Conquest large estates in Leicestershire were held by Earls +Ralf, Morcar, Waltheof and Harold, but the Domesday Survey of 1086 +reveals an almost total displacement of English by Norman landholders, +only a few estates being retained by Englishmen as under-tenants. The +first lay-tenant mentioned in the survey is Robert, count of Meulan, +ancestor of the Beaumont family and afterwards earl of Leicester, to +whose fief was afterwards annexed the vast holding of Hugh de +Grantmesnil, lord high steward of England. Robert de Toeni, another +Domesday tenant, founded Belvoir Castle and Priory. The fief of Robert +de Buci was bestowed on Richard Basset, founder of Laund Abbey, in the +reign of Henry I. Loughborough was an ancient seat of the Despenser +family, and Brookesby was the seat of the Villiers and the birthplace of +George Villiers, the famous duke of Buckingham. Melton Mowbray was named +from its former lords, the Mowbrays, descendants of Nigel de Albini, the +founder of Axholme Priory. Lady Jane Grey was born at Bradgate near +Leicester, and Bishop Latimer was born at Thurcaston. + +The woollen industry flourished in Leicestershire in Norman times, and +in 1343 Leicestershire wool was rated at a higher value than that of +most other counties. Coal was worked at Coleorton in the early 15th +century and at Measham in the 17th century. The famous blue slate of +Swithland has been quarried from time immemorial, and the limestone +quarry at Barrow-on-Soar is also of very ancient repute, the monks of +the abbey of St Mary de Pré formerly enjoying the tithe of its produce. +The staple manufacture of the county, that of hosiery, originated in the +17th century, the chief centres being Leicester, Hinckley and +Loughborough, and before the development of steam-driven frames in the +19th century hand framework knitting of hose and gloves was carried on +in about a hundred villages. Wool-carding was also an extensive industry +before 1840. + +In 1290 Leicestershire returned two members to parliament, and in 1295 +Leicester was also represented by two members. Under the Reform Act of +1832 the county returned four members in two divisions until the +Redistribution of Seats Act of 1885, under which it returned four +members in four divisions. + + _Antiquities._--Remains of monastic foundations are slight, though + there were a considerable number of these. There are traces of + Leicester Abbey and of Gracedieu near Coalville, while at Ulverscroft + in Charnwood, where there was an Augustinian priory of the 12th + century, there are fine Decorated remains, including a tower. The most + noteworthy churches are found in the towns, as at Ashby-de-la-Zouch, + Hinckley, Leicester, Loughborough, Lutterworth, Market Bosworth, + Market Harborough, and Melton Mowbray (qq.v.). The principal old + castle is that of Ashby-de-la-Zouch, while at Kirby Muxloe there is a + picturesque fortified mansion of Tudor date. There are several good + Elizabethan mansions, as that at Laund in the E. of the county. Among + modern mansions that of the dukes of Rutland, Belvoir Castle in the + extreme N.E., is a massive mansion of the early 19th century, finely + placed on the summit of a hill. + + See _Victoria County History, Leicestershire_; W. Burton, _Description + of Leicestershire_ (London, 1622; 2nd ed., Lynn, 1777); John Nicholls, + _History and Antiquities of The County of Leicester_ (4 vols., London, + 1795-1815); John Curtis, _A Topographical History of the County of + Leicester_ (Ashby-de-la-Zouch, 1831). + + + + +LEIDEN or LEYDEN, a city in the province of South Holland, the kingdom +of the Netherlands, on the Old Rhine, and a junction station 18 m. by +rail S.S.W. of Haarlem. It is connected by steam tramway with Haarlem +and The Hague respectively, and with the seaside resorts of Katwyk and +Noordwyk. There is also regular steamboat connexion with Katwyk, +Noordwyk, Amsterdam and Gouda. The population of Leiden which, it is +estimated, reached 100,000 in 1640, had sunk to 30,000 between 1796 and +1811, and in 1904 was 56,044. The two branches of the Rhine which enter +Leiden on the east unite in the centre of the town, which is further +intersected by numerous small and sombre canals, with tree-bordered +quays and old houses. On the south side of the town pleasant gardens +extend along the old Singel, or outer canal, and there is a large open +space, the Van der Werf Park, named after the burgomaster, Pieter +Andriaanszoon van der Werf, who defended the town against the Spaniards +in 1574. This open space was formed by the accidental explosion of a +powdership in 1807, hundreds of houses being demolished, including that +of the Elzevir family of printers. At the junction of the two arms of +the Rhine stands the old castle (De Burcht), a circular tower built on +an earthen mound. Its origin is unknown, but some connect it with Roman +days and others with the Saxon Hengist. Of Leiden's old gateways only +two--both dating from the end of the 17th century--are standing. Of the +numerous churches the chief are the Hooglandsche Kerk, or the church of +St Pancras, built in the 15th century and restored in 1885-1902, +containing the monument of Pieter Andriaanszoon van der Werf, and the +Pieterskerk (1315) with monuments to Scaliger, Boerhaave and other +famous scholars. The most interesting buildings are the town hall +(Stadhuis), a fine example of 16th-century Dutch building; the +Gemeenlandshuis van Rynland (1596, restored 1878); the weight-house +built by Pieter Post (1658); the former court-house, now a military +storehouse; and the ancient gymnasium (1599) and the so-called city +timber-house (Stads Timmerhuis) (1612), both built by Lieven de Key (c. +1560-1627). + +In spite of a certain industrial activity and the periodical bustle of +its cattle and dairy markets, Leiden remains essentially an academic +city. The university is a flourishing institution. It was founded by +William of Orange in 1575 as a reward for the heroic defence of the +previous year, the tradition being that the citizens were offered the +choice between a university and a certain exemption from taxes. +Originally located in the convent of St Barbara, the university was +removed in 1581 to the convent of the White Nuns, the site of which it +still occupies, though that building was destroyed in 1616. The presence +within half a century of the date of its foundation of such scholars as +Justus Lipsius, Joseph Scaliger, Francis Gomarus, Hugo Grotius, Jacobus +Arminius, Daniel Heinsius and Guardas Johannes Vossius at once raised +Leiden university to the highest European fame, a position which the +learning and reputation of Jacobus Gronovius, Hermann Boerhaave, +Tiberius Hemsterhuis and David Ruhnken, among others, enabled it to +maintain down to the end of the 18th century. The portraits of many +famous professors since the earliest days hang in the university _aula_, +one of the most memorable places, as Niebuhr called it, in the history +of science. The university library contains upwards of 190,000 volumes +and 6000 MSS. and pamphlet portfolios, and is very rich in Oriental and +Greek MSS. and old Dutch travels. Among the institutions connected with +the university are the national institution for East Indian languages, +ethnology and geography; the fine botanical gardens, founded in 1587; +the observatory (1860); the natural history museum, with a very complete +anatomical cabinet; the museum of antiquities (Museum van Oudheden), +with specially valuable Egyptian and Indian departments; a museum of +Dutch antiquities from the earliest times; and three ethnographical +museums, of which the nucleus was P. F. von Siebold's Japanese +collections. The anatomical and pathological laboratories of the +university are modern, and the museums of geology and mineralogy have +been restored. The university has now five faculties, of which those of +law and medicine are the most celebrated, and is attended by about 1200 +students. + +The municipal museum, founded in 1869 and located in the old cloth-hall +(Laeckenhalle) (1640), contains a varied collection of antiquities +connected with Leiden, as well as some paintings including works by the +elder van Swanenburgh, Cornelius Engelbrechtszoon, Lucas van Leiden and +Jan Steen, who were all natives of Leiden. Jan van Goyen, Gabriel Metsu, +Gerard Dou and Rembrandt were also natives of this town. There is also a +small collection of paintings in the Meermansburg. The Thysian library +occupies an old Renaissance building of the year 1655, and is especially +rich in legal works and native chronicles. Noteworthy also are the +collection of the Society of Dutch Literature (1766); the collections of +casts and of engravings; the seamen's training school; the Remonstrant +seminary, transferred hither from Amsterdam in 1873; the two hospitals +(one of which is private); the house of correction; and the court-house. + + Leiden is an ancient town, although it is not the _Lugdunum Batavorum_ + of the Romans. Its early name was Leithen, and it was governed until + 1420 by burgraves, the representatives of the courts of Holland. The + most celebrated event in its history is its siege by the Spaniards in + 1574. Besieged from May until October, it was at length relieved by + the cutting of the dikes, thus enabling ships to carry provisions to + the inhabitants of the flooded town. The weaving establishments + (mainly broadcloth) of Leiden at the close of the 15th century were + very important, and after the expulsion of the Spaniards Leiden cloth, + Leiden baize and Leiden camlet were familiar terms. These industries + afterwards declined, and in the beginning of the 19th century the + baize manufacture was altogether given up. Linen and woollen + manufactures are now the most important industries, while there is a + considerable transit trade in butter and cheese. + + Katwyk, or Katwijk, 6 m. N.W. of Leiden, is a popular seaside resort + and fishing village. Close by are the great locks constructed in 1807 + by the engineer, F. W. Conrad (d. 1808), through which the Rhine (here + called the Katwyk canal) is admitted into the sea at low tide. The + shore and the entrance to the canal are strengthened by huge dikes. In + 1520 an ancient Roman camp known as the Brittenburg was discovered + here. It was square in shape, each side measuring 82 yds., and the + remains stood about 10 ft. high. By the middle of the 18th century it + had been destroyed and covered by the sea. + + See P. J. Blok, _Eine hollandsche stad in de middeleeuwen_ (The Hague, + 1883); and for the siege see J. L. Motley, _The Rise of the Dutch + Republic_ (1896). + + + + +LEIDY, JOSEPH (1823-1891), American naturalist and palaeontologist, was +born in Philadelphia on the 9th of September 1823. He studied mineralogy +and botany without an instructor, and graduated in medicine at the +university of Pennsylvania in 1844. Continuing his work in anatomy and +physiology, he visited Europe in 1848, but both before and after this +period of foreign study lectured and taught in American medical +colleges. In 1853 he was appointed professor of anatomy in the +university of Pennsylvania, paying special attention to comparative +anatomy. In 1884 he promoted the establishment in the same institution +of the department of biology, of which he became director, and meanwhile +taught natural history in Swarthmore College, near Philadelphia. His +papers on biology and palaeontology were very numerous, covering both +fauna and flora, and ranging from microscopic forms of animal life to +the higher vertebrates. He wrote also occasional papers on minerals. He +was an active member of the Boston Society of Natural History and of the +American Philosophical Society; and was the recipient of various +American and foreign degrees and honours. His _Cretaceous Reptiles of +the United States_ (1865) and _Contributions to the Extinct Vertebrate +Fauna of the Western Territories_ (1873) were the most important of his +larger works; the best known and most widely circulated was an +_Elementary Treatise on Human Anatomy_ (1860, afterwards revised in +new editions). He died in Philadelphia on the 30th of April 1891. + + See Memoir and portrait in _Amer. Geologist_, vol. ix. (Jan. 1892) and + Bibliography in vol. viii. (Nov. 1891) and Memoir by H. C. Chapman in + _Proc. Acad. Nat. Sc._ (Philadelphia, 1891), p. 342. + + + + +LEIF ERICSSON [LEIFR EIRIKSSON] (fl. 999-1000), Scandinavian explorer, +of Icelandic family, the first known European discoverer of "Vinland," +"Vineland" or "Wineland, the Good," in North America. He was a son of +Eric the Red (Eirikr hinn raudi Thorvaldsson), the founder of the +earliest Scandinavian settlements--from Iceland--in Greenland (985). In +999 he went from Greenland to the court of King Olaf Tryggvason in +Norway, stopping in the Hebrides on the way. On his departure from +Norway in 1000, the king commissioned him to proclaim Christianity in +Greenland. As on his outward voyage, Leif was again driven far out of +his course by contrary weather--this time to lands (in America) "of +which he had previously had no knowledge," where "self-sown" wheat grew, +and vines, and "mösur" (maple?) wood. Leif took specimens of all these, +and sailing away came home safely to his father's home in Brattahlid on +Ericsfiord in Greenland. On his voyage from this Vineland to Greenland, +Leif rescued some shipwrecked men, and from this, and his discoveries, +gained his name of "The Lucky" (_hinn heppni_). On the subsequent +expedition of Thorfinn Karlsefni for the further exploration and +settlement of the Far Western vine-country, it is recorded that certain +Gaels, incredibly fleet of foot, who had been given to Leif by Olaf +Tryggvason, and whom Leif had offered to Thorfinn, were put on shore to +scout. + +Such is the account of the _Saga of Eric the Red_, supported by a number +of briefer references in early Icelandic and other literature. The less +trustworthy history of the _Flatey Book_ makes Biarni Heriulfsson in 985 +discover Helluland (Labrador?) as well as other western lands which he +does not explore, not even permitting his men to land; while Leif +Ericsson follows up Biarni's discoveries, begins the exploration of +Helluland, Markland and Vinland, and realizes some of the charms of the +last named, where he winters. But this secondary authority (the _Flatey +Book_ narrative), which till lately formed the basis of all general +knowledge as to Vinland, abounds in contradictions and difficulties from +which _Eric the Red Saga_ is comparatively free. Thus (in _Flatey_) the +grapes of Vinland are found in winter and gathered in spring; the man +who first finds them, Leif's foster-father Tyrker the German, gets drunk +from eating the fruit; and the vines themselves are spoken of as big +trees affording timber. Looking at the record in _Eric the Red Saga_, it +would seem probable that Leif's Vinland answers to some part of southern +Nova Scotia. See VINLAND. (As to Helluland and Markland see THORFINN +KARLSEFNI.) + + The MSS. of _Eric the Red's Saga_ are Nos. 544 and 557 of the + Arne-Magnaean collection in Copenhagen; the MS. of the _Flatey Book_, + so called because it was long the property of a family living on Flat + Island in Broad Firth (Flatey in Breiðafjord [B-eidafj-d]), on the + north-west coast of Iceland, was presented in 1662 to the Royal + Library of Denmark, of which it is still one of the chief treasures. + These leading narratives are supplemented by Adam of Bremen, _Gesta + Hammaburgensis ecclesiae pontificum_, chap. 38 (247 Lappenberg) of + book iv. (often separately entitled _Descriptio Insularum Aquilonis_; + Adam's is the earliest extant reference to Vinland, c. 1070): we have + also notices of Vinland in the _Libellus Islandorum_ of Ari Frodi (c. + 1120), the oldest Icelandic historian; in the _Kristni Saga_ (repeated + in Snorri Sturlason's _Heimskringla_); in _Eyrbyggia Saga_ (c. 1250); + in _Gretti Saga_ (c. 1290); and in an Icelandic chorography of the + 14th century, or earlier, partly derived from the famous traveller + Abbot Nicolas of Thing-eyrar ([+]1159). + + See Gustav Storm, "Studies on the Vineland Voyages," in the _Mémoires + de la Société royale des Antiquaires du Nord_ (Copenhagen, 1888); and + _Eiriks Saga Raudha_ (Copenhagen, 1891); A. M. Reeves, _Finding of + Wineland the Good: the History of the Icelandic Discovery of America_ + (London, 1890); in this work the original authorities are given in + full, with photographic facsimiles, English translations and adequate + commentary; Rafn's _Antiquitates Americanae_ (Copenhagen, 1837) + contains all the sources, but the editor's personal views have in many + cases failed to satisfy criticism; the _Flatey_ text is printed also + by Vigfusson and Unger in _Flateyjar-bok_, vol. i. (Christiania, + 1860). There are also translations of _Flatey_ and _Red Eric Saga_ in + Beamish, _Discovery of North America, by the Northmen_ (Lond., 1841); + E. F. Slafter, _Voyages of the Northmen_ (Boston, 1877); B. F. de + Costa, _Pre-Columbian Discovery of America by the Northmen_ (Albany, + 1901); and _Original Narratives of Early American History; The + Northmen, Columbus and Cabot_, pp. 1-66 (New York, 1906). See also C. + Raymond Beazley, _Dawn of Modern Geography_ ii. 48-83 (London, 1901); + Josef Fischer, _Die Entdeckungen der Normannen in Amerika_ (Freiburg + i. B., 1902); John Fiske, _Discovery of America_, vol. i.; Juul + Dieserud, "Norse Discoveries in America," in the _Bulletin of the + American Geographical Society_ (February, 1901); G. Vigfusson, + _Origines Islandicae_ (1905), which strangely expresses a preference + for the _Flatey Book_ "account of the first sighting of the American + continent" by the Norsemen. (C. R. B.) + + + + +LEIGH, EDWARD (1602-1671), English Puritan and theologian, was born at +Shawell, Leicestershire. He was educated at Magdalen Hall, Oxford, from +1616, and subsequently became a member of the Middle Temple. In 1636 he +entered parliament as member for Stafford, and during the Civil War held +a colonelcy in the parliamentary army. He has sometimes been confounded +with John Ley (1583-1662), and so represented as having sat in the +Westminster Assembly. The public career of Leigh terminated with his +expulsion from parliament with the rest of the Presbyterian party in +1648. From an early age he had studied theology and produced numerous +compilations, the most important being the _Critica Sacra, containing +Observations on all the Radices of the Hebrew Words of the Old and the +Greek of the New Testament_ (1639-1644; new ed., with supplement, 1662), +for which the author received the thanks of the Westminster Assembly, to +whom it was dedicated. His other works include _Select and Choice +Observations concerning the First Twelve Caesars_ (1635); _A Treatise of +Divinity_ (1646-1651); _Annotations upon the New Testament_ (1650), of +which a Latin translation by Arnold was published at Leipzig in 1732; _A +Body of Divinity_ (1654); _A Treatise of Religion and Learning_ (1656); +_Annotations of the Five Poetical Books of the Old Testament_ (1657). +Leigh died in Staffordshire in June 1671. + + + + +LEIGH, a market town and municipal borough in the Leigh parliamentary +division of Lancashire, England, 11 m. W. by N. from Manchester by the +London & North-Western railway. Pop. (1891) 30,882, (1901) 40,001. The +ancient parish church of St Mary the Virgin was, with the exception of +the tower, rebuilt in 1873 in the Perpendicular style. The grammar +school, the date of whose foundation is unknown, received its principal +endowments in 1655, 1662 and 1681. The staple manufactures are silk and +cotton; there are also glass works, foundries, breweries, and flour +mills, with extensive collieries. Though the neighbourhood is +principally an industrial district, several fine old houses are left +near Leigh. The town was incorporated in 1899, and the corporation +consists of a mayor, 8 aldermen and 24 councillors. Area, 6358 acres. + + + + +LEIGHTON, FREDERICK LEIGHTON, BARON (1830-1896), English painter and +sculptor, the son of a physician, was born at Scarborough on the 3rd of +December 1830. His grandfather, Sir James Leighton, also a physician, was +long resident at the court of St Petersburg. Frederick Leighton was taken +abroad at a very early age. In 1840 he learnt drawing at Rome under +Signor Meli. The family moved to Dresden and Berlin, where he attended +classes at the Academy. In 1843 he was sent to school at Frankfort, and +in the winter of 1844 accompanied his family to Florence, where his +future career as an artist was decided. There he studied under Bezzuoli +and Segnolini at the Accademia delle Belle Arti, and attended anatomy +classes under Zanetti; but he soon returned to complete his general +education at Frankfort, receiving no further direct instruction in art +for five years. He went to Brussels in 1848, where he met Wiertz and +Gallait, and painted some pictures, including "Cimabue finding Giotto," +and a portrait of himself. In 1849 he studied for a few months in Paris, +where he copied Titian and Correggio in the Louvre, and then returned to +Frankfort, where he settled down to serious art work under Edward +Steinle, whose pupil he declared he was "in the fullest sense of the +term." Though his artistic training was mainly German, and his master +belonged to the same school as Cornelius and Overbeck, he loved Italian +art and Italy and the first picture by which he became known to the +British public was "Cimabue's Madonna carried in Procession through the +Streets of Florence," which appeared at the Royal Academy in 1855. At +this time the works of the Pre-Raphaelites almost absorbed public +interest in art--it was the year of Holman Hunt's "Light of the World," +and the "Rescue," by Millais. Yet Leighton's picture, painted in quite a +different style, created a sensation, and was purchased by Queen +Victoria. Although, since his infancy, he had only visited England once +(in 1851, when he came to see the Great Exhibition), he was not quite +unknown in the cultured and artistic world of London, as he had made many +friends during a residence in Rome of some two years or more after he +left Frankfort in 1852. Amongst these were Giovanni Costa, Robert +Browning, James Knowles, George Mason and Sir Edward Poynter, then a +youth, whom he allowed to work in his studio. He also met Thackeray, who +wrote from Rome to the young Millais: "Here is a versatile young dog, who +will run you close for the presidentship one of these days." During these +years he painted several Florentine subjects--"Tybalt and Romeo," "The +Death of Brunelleschi," a cartoon of "The Pest in Florence according to +Boccaccio," and "The Reconciliation of the Montagues and the Capulets." +He now turned his attention to themes of classic legend, which at first +he treated in a "Romantic spirit." His next picture, exhibited in 1856, +was "The Triumph of Music: Orpheus by the Power of his Art redeems his +Wife from Hades." It was not a success, and he did not again exhibit till +1858, when he sent a little picture of "The Fisherman and the Syren" to +the Royal Academy, and "Samson and Delilah" to the Society of British +Artists in Suffolk Street. In 1858 he visited London and made the +acquaintance of the leading Pre-Raphaelites--Rossetti, Holman Hunt and +Millais. In the spring of 1859 he was at Capri, always a favourite resort +of his, and made many studies from nature, including a very famous +drawing of a lemon tree. It was not till 1860 that he settled in London, +when he took up his quarters at 2 Orme Square, Bayswater, where he stayed +till, in 1860, he moved to his celebrated house in Holland Park Road, +with its Arab hall decorated with Damascus tiles. There he lived till his +death. He now began to fulfil the promise of his "Cimabue," and by such +pictures as "Paolo e Francesca," "The Star of Bethlehem," "Jezebel and +Ahab taking Possession of Naboth's Vineyard," "Michael Angelo musing over +his Dying Servant," "A Girl feeding Peacocks," and "The Odalisque," all +exhibited in 1861-1863, rose rapidly to the head of his profession. The +two latter pictures were marked by the rhythm of line and luxury of +colour which are among the most constant attributes of his art, and may +be regarded as his first dreams of Oriental beauty, with which he +afterwards showed so great a sympathy. In 1864 he exhibited "Dante in +Exile" (the greatest of his Italian pictures), "Orpheus and Eurydice" and +"Golden Hours." In the winter of the same year he was elected an +Associate of the Royal Academy. After this the main effort of his life +was to realize visions of beauty suggested by classic myth and history. +If we add to pictures of this class a few Scriptural subjects, a few +Oriental dreams, one or two of tender sentiment like "Wedded" (one of the +most popular of his pictures, and well known by not only an engraving, +but a statuette modelled by an Italian sculptor), a number of studies of +very various types of female beauty, "Teresina," "Biondina," "Bianca," +"Moretta," &c., and an occasional portrait, we shall nearly exhaust the +two classes into which Lord Leighton's work (as a painter) can be +divided. + +Amongst the finest of his classical pictures were--"Syracusan Bride +leading Wild Beasts in Procession to the Temple of Diana" (1866), "Venus +disrobing for the Bath" (1867), "Electra at the Tomb of Agamemnon," and +"Helios and Rhodos" (1869), "Hercules wrestling with Death for the Body +of Alcestis" (1871), "Clytemnestra" (1874), "The Daphnephoria" (1876), +"Nausicaa" (1878), "An Idyll" (1881), two lovers under a spreading oak +listening to the piping of a shepherd and gazing on the rich plain +below; "Phryne" (1882), a nude figure standing in the sun; "Cymon and +Iphigenia" (1884), "Captive Andromache" (1888), now in the Manchester +Art Gallery; with the "Last Watch of Hero" (1887), "The Bath of Psyche" +(1890), now in the Chantrey Bequest collection; "The Garden of the +Hesperides" (1892), "Perseus and Andromeda" and "The Return of +Persephone," now in the Leeds Gallery (1891); and "Clytie," his last +work (1896). All these pictures are characterized by nobility of +conception, by almost perfect draughtsmanship, by colour which, if not +of the highest quality, is always original, choice and effective. They +often reach distinction and dignity of attitude and gesture, and +occasionally, as in the "Hercules and Death," the "Electra" and the +"Clytemnestra," a noble intensity of feeling. Perhaps, amidst the great +variety of qualities which they possess, none is more universal and more +characteristic than a rich elegance, combined with an almost fastidious +selection of beautiful forms. It is the super-eminence of these +qualities, associated with great decorative skill, that make the +splendid pageant of the "Daphnephoria" the most perfect expression of +his individual genius. Here we have his composition, his colour, his +sense of the joy and movement of life, his love of art and nature at +their purest and most spontaneous, and the result is a work without a +rival of its kind in the British School. + +Leighton was one of the most thorough draughtsmen of his day. His +sketches and studies for his pictures are numerous and very highly +esteemed. They contain the essence of his conceptions, and much of their +spiritual beauty and subtlety of expression was often lost in the +elaboration of the finished picture. He seldom succeeded in retaining +the freshness of his first idea more completely than in his last +picture--"Clytie"--which was left unfinished on his easel. He rarely +painted sacred subjects. The most beautiful of his few pictures of this +kind was the "David musing on the Housetop" (1865). Others were "Elijah +in the Wilderness" (1879), "Elisha raising the Son of the Shunammite" +(1881) and a design intended for the decoration of the dome of St Paul's +Cathedral, "And the Sea gave up the Dead which were in it" (1892), now +in the Tate Gallery, and the terrible "Rizpah" of 1893. His diploma +picture was "St Jerome," exhibited in 1869. Besides these pictures of +sacred subjects, he made some designs for Dalziel's Bible, which for +force of imagination excel the paintings. The finest of these are "Cain +and Abel," and "Samson with the Gates of Gaza." + +Not so easily to be classed, but among the most individual and beautiful +of his pictures, are a few of which the motive was purely aesthetic. +Amongst these may specially be noted "The Summer Moon," two Greek girls +sleeping on a marble bench, and "The Music Lesson," in which a lovely +little girl is seated on her lovely young mother's lap learning to play +the lute. With these, as a work produced without any literary +suggestion, though very different in feeling, may be associated the +"Eastern Slinger scaring Birds in the Harvest-time: Moon-rise" (1875), a +nude figure standing on a raised platform in a field of wheat. + +Leighton also painted a few portraits, including those of Signor Costa, +the Italian landscape painter, Mr F. P. Cockerell, Mrs Sutherland Orr +(his sister), Amy, Lady Coleridge, Mrs Stephen Ralli and (the finest of +all) Sir Richard Burton, the traveller and Eastern scholar, which was +exhibited in 1876 and is now in the National Portrait Gallery. + +Like other painters of the day, notably G. F. Watts, Lord Leighton +executed a few pieces of sculpture. His "Athlete struggling with a +Python" was exhibited at the Royal Academy in 1877, and was purchased +for the Chantrey Bequest collection. Another statue, "The Sluggard," of +equal merit, was exhibited in 1886; and a charming statuette of a nude +figure of a girl looking over her shoulder at a frog, called "Needless +Alarms," was completed in the same year, and presented by the artist to +Sir John Millais in acknowledgment of the gift by the latter of his +picture, "Shelling Peas." He made the beautiful design for the reverse +of the Jubilee Medal of 1887. It was also his habit to make sketch +models in wax for the figures in his pictures, many of which are in the +possession of the Royal Academy. As an illustrator in black and white he +also deserves to be remembered, especially for the cuts to Dalziel's +Bible, already mentioned, and his illustrations to George Eliot's +_Romola_, which appeared in the _Cornhill Magazine_. The latter are full +of the spirit of Florence and the Florentines, and show a keen sense of +humour, elsewhere excluded from his work. Of his decorative paintings, +the best known are the elegant compositions (in spirit fresco) on the +walls of the Victoria and Albert Museum, representing "The Industrial +Arts of War and Peace." There, also, is the refined and spirited figure +of "Cimabue" in mosaic. In Lyndhurst church are mural decorations to the +memory of Mr Pepys Cockerell, illustrating "The Parable of the Wise and +Foolish Virgins." + +Leighton's life was throughout marked by distinction, artistic and +social. Though not tall, he had a fine presence and manners, at once +genial and courtly. He was welcomed in all societies, from the palace to +the studio. He spoke German, Italian and French, as well as English. He +had much taste and love for music, and considerable gifts as an orator +of a florid type. His Presidential Discourses (published, London, 1896) +were full of elegance and culture. For seven years (1876-1883) he +commanded the 20th Middlesex (Artists) Rifle Volunteers, retiring with +the rank of honorary colonel, and subsequently receiving the Volunteer +Decoration. Yet no social attractions or successes diverted him from his +devotion to his profession, the welfare of his brethren in art or of the +Royal Academy. As president he was punctilious in the discharge of his +duties, ready to give help and encouragement to artists young and old, +and his tenure of the office was marked by some wise and liberal +reforms. He frequently went abroad, generally to Italy, where he was +well known and appreciated. He visited Spain in 1866, Egypt in 1868, +when he went up the Nile with Ferdinand de Lesseps in a steamer lent by +the Khedive. He was at Damascus for a short time in 1873. It was his +custom on all these trips to make little lively sketches of landscape +and buildings. These fresh little flowers of his leisure used to +decorate the walls of his studio, and at the sale of its contents after +his death realized considerable prices. It was when he was in the full +tide of his popularity and success, and apparently in the full tide of +his personal vigour also, that he was struck with _angina pectoris_. For +a long time he struggled bravely with this cruel disease, never omitting +except from absolute necessity any of his official duties except during +a brief period of rest abroad, which failed to produce the desired +effect. His death occurred on the 25th of January 1896. + +Leighton was elected an Academician in 1868, and succeeded Sir Francis +Grant as President in 1878, when he was knighted. He was created a +baronet in 1886, and was raised to the peerage in 1896, a few days +before his death. He held honorary degrees at the universities of +Oxford, Cambridge, Dublin, Edinburgh and Durham, was an Associate of the +Institute of France; a Commander of the Legion of Honour, and of the +Order of Leopold. He was a Knight of the Coburg Order, "Dem Verdienste," +and of the Prussian Order, "Pour le Mérite," and a member of at least +ten foreign Academies. In 1859 he won a medal of the second class at the +Paris Salon, and at the Exposition Universelle of 1889 a gold medal. As +a sculptor he was awarded a medal of the first class in 1878 and the +Grand Prix in 1889. + + See _Art Annual_ (Mrs A. Lang), 1884; Royal Academy Catalogue, Winter + Exhibition, 1897; National Gallery of British Art Catalogue; C. + Monkhouse, _British Contemporary Artists_ (London, 1899); Ernest Rhys, + _Frederick, Lord Leighton_ (London, 1898, 1900). (C. Mo.) + + + + +LEIGHTON, ROBERT (1611-1684), archbishop of Glasgow, was born, probably +in London (others say at Ulishaven, Forfarshire), in 1611, the eldest +son of Dr Alexander Leighton, the author of _Zion's Plea against the +Prelacie_, whose terrible sufferings for having dared to question the +divine right of Episcopacy, under the persecution of Laud, form one of +the most disgraceful incidents of the reign of Charles I. Dr Leighton is +said to have been of the old family of Ulishaven in Forfarshire. From +his earliest childhood, according to Burnet, Robert Leighton was +distinguished for his saintly disposition. In his sixteenth year (1627) +he was sent to the university of Edinburgh, where, after studying with +distinguished success for four years, he took the degree of M.A. in +1631. His father then sent him to travel abroad, and he is understood to +have spent several years in France, where he acquired a complete mastery +of the French language. While there he passed a good deal of time with +relatives at Douai who had become Roman Catholics, and with whom he kept +up a correspondence for many years afterwards. Either at this time or on +some subsequent visit he had also a good deal of intercourse with +members of the Jansenist party. This intercourse contributed to the +charity towards those who differed from him in religious opinion, which +ever afterwards formed a feature in his character. The exact period of +his return to Scotland has not been ascertained; but in 1641 he was +ordained Presbyterian minister of Newbattle in Midlothian. In 1652 he +resigned his charge and went to reside in Edinburgh. What led him to +take this step does not distinctly appear. The account given is that he +had little sympathy with the fiery zeal of his brother clergymen on +certain political questions, and that this led to severe censures on +their part. + +Early in 1653 he was appointed principal of the university of Edinburgh, +and primarius professor of divinity. In this post he continued for seven +or eight years. A considerable number of his Latin prelections and other +addresses (published after his death) are remarkable for the purity and +elegance of their Latinity, and their subdued and meditative eloquence. +They are valuable instructions in the art of living a holy life rather +than a body of scientific divinity. Throughout, however, they bear the +marks of a deeply learned and accomplished mind, saturated with both +classical and patristic reading, and like all his works they breathe the +spirit of one who lived very much above the world. His mental temper was +too unlike the temper of his time to secure success as a teacher. + +In 1661, when Charles II. had resolved to force Episcopacy once more +upon Scotland, he fixed upon Leighton for one of his bishops (see +SCOTLAND, CHURCH OF). Leighton, living very much out of the world, and +being somewhat deficient in what may be called the political sense, was +too open to the persuasions used to induce him to enter a sphere for +which he instinctively felt he was ill qualified. The Episcopacy which +he contemplated was that modified form which had been suggested by +Archbishop Ussher, and to which Baxter and many of the best of the +English Nonconformists would have readily given their adherence. It is +significant that he always refused to be addressed as "my lord," and it +is stated that when dining with his clergy on one occasion he wished to +seat himself at the foot of the table. + +Leighton soon began to discover the sort of men with whom he was to be +associated in the episcopate. He travelled with them in the same coach +from London towards Scotland, but having become, as he told Burnet, very +weary of their company (as he doubted not they were of his), and having +found that they intended to make a kind of triumphal entrance into +Edinburgh, he left them at Morpeth and retired to the earl of Lothian's +at Newbattle. He very soon lost all hope of being able to build up the +church by the means which the government had set on foot, and his work, +as he confessed to Burnet, "seemed to him a fighting against God." He +did, however, what he could, governing his diocese (that of Dunblane) +with the utmost mildness, as far as he could, preventing the persecuting +measures in active operation elsewhere, and endeavouring to persuade the +Presbyterian clergy to come to an accommodation with their Episcopal +brethren. After a hopeless struggle of three or four years to induce the +government to put a stop to their fierce persecution of the Covenanters, +he determined to resign his bishopric, and went up to London in 1665 for +this purpose. He so far worked upon the mind of Charles that he promised +to enforce the adoption of milder measures, but it does not appear that +any material improvement took place. In 1669 Leighton again went to +London and made fresh representations on the subject, but little result +followed. The slight disposition, however, shown by the government to +accommodate matters appears to have inspired Leighton with so much hope +that in the following year he agreed, though with a good deal of +hesitation, to accept the archbishopric of Glasgow. In this higher +sphere he redoubled his efforts with the Presbyterians to bring about +some degree of conciliation with Episcopacy, but the only result was to +embroil himself with the hot-headed Episcopal party as well as with the +Presbyterians. In utter despair, therefore, of being able to be of any +further service to the cause of religion, he resigned the archbishopric +in 1674 and retired to the house of his widowed sister, Mrs Lightmaker, +at Broadhurst in Sussex. Here he spent the remaining ten years, probably +the happiest of his life, and died suddenly on a visit to London in +1684. + + It is difficult to form a just or at least a full estimate of + Leighton's character. He stands almost alone in his age. In some + respects he was immeasurably superior both in intellect and in piety + to most of the Scottish ecclesiastics of his time; and yet he seems to + have had almost no influence in moulding the characters or conduct of + his contemporaries. So intense was his absorption in the love of God + that little room seems to have been left in his heart for human + sympathy or affection. Can it be that there was after all something to + repel in his outward manner? Burnet tells us that he had never seen + him laugh, and very seldom even smile. In other respects, too, he + gives the impression of standing aloof from human interests and ties. + It may go for little that he never married, but it was surely a + curious idiosyncrasy that he habitually cherished the wish (which was + granted him) that he might die in an inn. In fact, holy meditation + seems to have been the one absorbing interest of his life. At Dunblane + tradition preserved the memory of "the good bishop," silent and + companionless, pacing up and down the sloping walk by the river's bank + under the beautiful west window of his cathedral. And from a letter of + the earl of Lothian to his countess it appears that, whatever other + reasons Leighton might have had for resigning his charge at Newbattle, + the main object which he had in view was to be left to his own + thoughts. It is therefore not very wonderful that he was completely + misjudged and even disliked both by the Presbyterian and by the + Episcopal party. + + It was characteristic of him that he could never be made to understand + that anything which he wrote possessed the smallest value. None of his + works were published by himself, and it is stated that he left orders + that all his MSS. should be destroyed after his death. But fortunately + for the world this charge was disregarded. Like all the best writing, + it seems to flow without effort; it is the easy unaffected outcome of + his saintly nature. Throughout, however, it is the language of a + scholar and a man of perfect literary taste; and with all its + spirituality of thought there are no mystical raptures, such as are + often found mingled with the Scottish practical theology of the 17th + century. It was a common reproach against Leighton that he had + leanings towards Roman Catholicism, and perhaps this is so far true + that he had formed himself in some degree upon the model of some of + the saintly persons of that faith, such as Pascal and Thomas à Kempis. + + The best account of Leighton's character is that of Bishop Burnet in + _Hist. of his Own Times_ (1723-1734). No perfectly satisfactory + edition of Leighton's works exists. After his death his _Commentary on + Peter_ and several of his other works were published under the + editorship of his friend Dr Fall, and those early editions may be said + to be, with some drawbacks, by far the best. His later editors have + been possessed by the mania of reducing his good archaic and nervous + language to the bald feebleness of modern phraseology. It is + unfortunately impossible to exempt from this criticism even the + edition, in other respects very valuable and meritorious, published + under the superintendence of the Rev. W. West (7 vols., London, + 1869-1875); see also volume of selections (with biography) by Dr Blair + of Dunblane (1883), who also contributed "Bibliography of Archbishop + Leighton" to the _British and Foreign Evangelical Review_ (July 1883); + Andrew Lang, _History of Scotland_ (1902). (J. T. Br.; D. Mn.) + + + + +LEIGHTON BUZZARD, a market town in the southern parliamentary division +of Bedfordshire, England, 40 m. N.W. of London by the London & +North-Western railway. Pop. of urban district (1901) 6331. It lies in +the flat valley of the Ouzel, a tributary of the Ouse, sheltered to east +and west by low hills. The river here forms the county boundary with +Buckinghamshire. The Grand Junction canal follows its course, and gives +the town extensive water-communications. The church of All Saints is +cruciform, with central tower and spire. It is mainly Early English, and +a fine example of the style; but some of the windows including the nave +clerestory, and the beautiful carved wooden roof, are Perpendicular. The +west door has good early iron-work; and on one of the tower-arch pillars +are some remarkable early carvings of jocular character, one of which +represents a man assaulted by a woman with a ladle. The market cross is +of the 14th century, much restored, having an open arcade supporting a +pinnacle, with flying buttresses. The statues in its niches are modern, +but the originals are placed on the exterior of the town hall. Leighton +has a considerable agricultural trade, and some industry in +straw-plaiting. Across the Ouzel in Buckinghamshire, where Leighton +railway station is situated, is the urban district of Linslade (pop. +2157). + + + + +LEININGEN, the name of an old German family, whose lands lay principally +in Alsace and Lorraine. The first count of Leiningen about whom anything +certain is known was a certain Emicho (d. 1117), whose family became +extinct in the male line when Count Frederick, a Minnesinger, died about +1220. Frederick's sister, Liutgarde, married Simon, count of +Saarbrücken, and Frederick, one of their sons, inheriting the lands of +the counts of Leiningen, took their arms and their name. Having +increased its possessions the Leiningen family was divided about 1317 +into two branches; the elder of these, whose head was a landgrave, died +out in 1467. On this event its lands fell to a female, the last +landgrave's sister Margaret, wife of Reinhard, lord of Westerburg, and +their descendants were known as the family of Leiningen-Westerburg. +Later this family was divided into two branches, those of +Alt-Leiningen-Westerburg and Neu-Leiningen-Westerburg, both of which are +represented to-day. + +Meanwhile the younger branch of the Leiningens, known as the family of +Leiningen-Dagsburg, was flourishing, and in 1560 this was divided into +the lines of Leiningen-Dagsburg-Hartenburg, founded by Count John Philip +(d. 1562), and Leiningen-Dagsburg-Heidesheim or Falkenburg, founded by +Count Emicho (d. 1593). In 1779 the head of the former line was raised +to the rank of a prince of the Empire. In 1801 this family was deprived +of its lands on the left bank of the Rhine by France, but in 1803 it +received ample compensation for these losses. A few years later its +possessions were mediatized, and they are now included mainly in Baden, +but partly in Bavaria and in Hesse. A former head of this family, Prince +Emich Charles, married Maria Louisa Victoria, princess of Saxe-Coburg; +after his death in 1814 the princess married George III.'s son, the duke +of Kent, by whom she became the mother of Queen Victoria. In 1910 the +head of the family was Prince Emich (b. 1866). + +The family of Leiningen-Dagsburg-Heidesheim was divided into three +branches, the two senior of which became extinct during the 18th century. +At present it is represented by the counts of Leiningen-Guntersblum and +Leiningen-Heidesheim, called also Leiningen-Billigheim and +Leiningen-Neidenau. + + See Brinckmeier, _Genealogische Geschichte des Hauses Leiningen_ + (Brunswick, 1890-1891). + + + + +LEINSTER, a province of Ireland, occupying the middle and south-eastern +portion of the island, and extending to the left bank of the Shannon. It +includes counties Longford, Westmeath, Meath, Louth, King's County, +Kildare, Dublin, Queen's County, Carlow, Wicklow, Kilkenny and Wexford +(q.v. for topography, &c.). Leinster (_Laighen_) was one of the early +Milesian provinces of Ireland. Meath, the modern county of which is +included in Leinster, was the name of a separate province created in the +2nd century A.D. The kings of Leinster retained their position until +1171, and their descendants maintained independence within a +circumscribed territory as late as the 16th century. In 1170 Richard +Strongbow married Aoife, daughter of the last king Diarmid, and thus +acquired the nominal right to the kingdom of Leinster. Henry II. +confirmed him in powers of jurisdiction equivalent to those of a +palatinate. His daughter Isabel married William Marshal, earl of +Pembroke. Their five daughters shared the territory of Leinster, which +was now divided into five liberties carrying the same extensive +privileges as the undivided territory, namely, Carlow, Kilkenny, +Wexford, Kildare and Leix. The history of Leinster thereafter passes to +the several divisions which were gradually organized into the present +counties. + + + + +LEIPZIG, a city of Germany, the second town of the kingdom of Saxony in +size and the first in commercial importance, 70 m. N.W. of Dresden and +111 m. S.W. of Berlin by rail, and 6 m. from the Prussian frontier. It +lies 350 ft. above the sea-level, In a broad and fertile plain, just +above the junction of three small rivers, the Pleisse, the Parthe and +the Elster, which flow in various branches through or round the town and +afterwards under the name of the Elster, discharge themselves into the +Saale. The climate, though not generally unhealthy, may be inclement in +winter and hot in summer. + +Leipzig is one of the most enterprising and prosperous of German towns, +and in point of trade and industries ranks among German cities +immediately after Berlin and Hamburg. It possesses the third largest +German university, is the seat of the supreme tribunal of the German +empire and the headquarters of the XIX. (Saxon) army corps, and forms +one of the most prominent literary and musical centres in Europe. Its +general aspect is imposing, owing to the number of new public buildings +erected during the last 20 years of the 19th century. It consists of the +old, or inner city, surrounded by a wide and pleasant promenade laid out +on the site of the old fortifications, and of the very much more +extensive inner and outer suburbs. Many thriving suburban villages, such +as Reudnitz, Volkmarsdorf, Gohlis, Eutritzsch, Plagwitz and Lindenau, +have been incorporated with the city, and with these accretions the +population in 1905 amounted to 502,570. On the north-west the town is +bordered by the fine public park and woods of the Rosenthal, and on the +west by the Johanna Park and by pleasant groves leading along the banks +of the Pleisse. + +The old town, with its narrow streets and numerous houses of the 16th +and 17th centuries, with their high-pitched roofs, preserves much of its +quaint medieval aspect. The market square, lying almost in its centre, +is of great interest. Upon it the four main business streets, the +Grimmaische-, the Peters-, the Hain- and the Katharinen-strassen, +converge, and its north side is occupied by the beautiful old Rathaus, a +Gothic edifice built by the burgomaster Hieronymus Lotter in 1556, and +containing life-size portraits of the Saxon rulers. Superseded by the +new Rathaus, it has been restored and accommodates a municipal museum. +Behind the market square and the main street lie a labyrinth of narrow +streets interconnected by covered courtyards and alleys, with extensive +warehouses and cellars. The whole, in the time of the great fairs, when +every available place is packed with merchandise and thronged with a +motley crowd, presents the semblance of an oriental bazaar. Close to the +old Rathaus is Auerbach's _Hof_, built about 1530 and interesting as +being immortalized in Goethe's _Faust_. It has a curious old wine vault +(Keller) which contains a series of mural paintings of the 16th century, +representing the legend on which the play is based. Near by is the +picturesque Königshaus, for several centuries the palace of the Saxon +monarchs in Leipzig and in which King Frederick Augustus I. was made +prisoner by the Allies after the battle of Leipzig in October 1813. At +the end of the Petersstrasse, in the south-west corner of the inner town +and on the promenade, lay the Pleissenburg, or citadel, modelled, +according to tradition, on that of Milan, and built early in the 13th +century. Here Luther in 1519 held his momentous disputation. The round +tower was long used as an observatory and the building as a barrack. +With the exception of the tower, which has been encased and raised to +double its former height--to 300 ft.--the citadel has been removed and +its site is occupied by the majestic pile of the new Rathaus in +Renaissance style, with the tower as its central feature. The business +of Leipzig is chiefly concentrated in the inner city, but the +headquarters of the book trade lie in the eastern suburb. Between the +inner town and the latter lies the magnificent Augustusplatz, one of the +most spacious squares in Europe. Upon it, on the side of the inner town +and included within it, is the Augusteum, or main building of the +university, a handsome edifice containing a splendid hall (1900), +lecture rooms and archaeological collections; adjoining it is the +Paulinerkirche, the university church. The other sides of the square are +occupied by the new theatre, an imposing Renaissance structure, designed +by C. F. Langhans, the post office and the museum of sculpture and +painting, the latter faced by the Mende fountain. The churches of +Leipzig are comparatively uninteresting. The oldest, in its present +form, is the Paulinerkirche, built in 1229-1240, and restored in 1900, +with a curiously grooved cloister; the largest in the inner town is the +Thomaskirche, with a high-pitched roof dating from 1496, and memorable +for its association with J. Sebastian Bach, who was organist here. Among +others may be mentioned the new Gothic Petrikirche, with a lofty spire, +in the south suburb. On the east is the Johanniskirche, round which +raged the last conflict in the battle of 1813, when it suffered severely +from cannon shot. In it is the tomb of Bach, and outside that of the +poet Gellert. Opposite its main entrance is the Reformation monument, +with bronze statues of Luther and Melanchthon, by Johann Schilling, +unveiled in 1883. In the Johanna Park is the Lutherkirche (1886), and +close at hand the Roman Catholic and English churches. To the south-west +of the new Rathaus, lying beyond the Pleisse and between it and the +Johanna Park, is the new academic quarter. Along the fine thoroughfares, +noticeable among which is the Karl Tauchnitz Strasse, are closely +grouped many striking buildings. Here is the new Gewandhaus, or +Konzerthaus, built in 1880-1884, in which the famous concerts called +after its name are given, the old Gewandhaus, or Drapers' Hall, in the +inner town having again been devoted to commercial use as a market hall +during the fairs. Immediately opposite to it is the new university +library, built in 1891, removed hither from the old monasterial +buildings behind the Augusteum, and containing some 500,000 volumes and +5000 MSS. Behind that again is the academy of art, one wing of which +accommodates the industrial art school; and close beside it are the +school of technical arts and the conservatoire of music. Between the +university library and the new Gewandhaus stands a monument of +Mendelssohn (1892). Immediately to the east of the school of arts rises +the grand pile of the supreme tribunal of the German empire, the +Reichsgericht, which compares with the Reichstag building in Berlin. It +was built in 1888-1895 from plans by Ludwig Hoffmann, and is +distinguished for the symmetry and harmony of its proportions. It bears +an imposing dome, 225 ft. high, crowned by a bronze figure of Truth by +O. Lessing, 18 ft. high. Opposite, on the outer side of the Pleisse, are +the district law-courts, large and substantial, though not specially +imposing edifices. In the same quarter stands the Grassi Museum +(1893-1896) for industrial art and ethnology, and a short distance away +are the palatial buildings of the Reichs and Deutsche Banks. Farther +east and lying in the centre of the book-trade quarter stand close +together the Buchhändlerhaus (booksellers' exchange), the great hall +decorated with allegorical pictures by Sascha Schneider, and the +Buchgewerbehaus, a museum of the book trade, both handsome red brick +edifices in the German Renaissance style, erected in 1886-1890. +South-west of these buildings, on the other side of the Johannisthal +Park, are clustered the medical institutes and hospitals of the +university--the infirmary, clinical and other hospitals, the +physico-chemical institute, pathological institute, physiological +institute, ophthalmic hospital, pharmacological institute, the schools +of anatomy, the chemical laboratory, the zoological institute, the +physico-mineralogical institute, the botanical garden and also the +veterinary schools, deaf and dumb asylum, agricultural college and +astronomical observatory. Among other noteworthy buildings in this +quarter must be noted the Johannisstift, an asylum for the relief of the +aged poor, with a handsome front and slender spire. On the north side of +the inner town and on the promenade are the handsome exchange with +library, and the reformed church, a pleasing edifice in late Gothic. + +Leipzig has some interesting monuments; the Siegesdenkmal, commemorative +of the wars of 1866 and 1870, on the market square, statues of Goethe, +Leibnitz, Gellert, J. Sebastian Bach, Robert Schumann, Hahnemann, the +homeopathist, and Bismarck. There are also many memorials of the battle +of Leipzig, including an obelisk on the Randstädter-Steinweg, on the +site of the bridge which was prematurely blown up, when Prince +Poniatowski was drowned; a monument of cannon balls collected after the +battle; a "relief" to Major Friccius, who stormed the outer Grimma gate; +while on the battle plain itself and close to "Napoleonstein," which +commemorates Napoleon's position on the last day of the battle, a +gigantic obelisk surrounded by a garden has been planned for dedication +on the hundredth anniversary of the battle (October 19, 1913). + +_The University and Education._--The university of Leipzig, founded in +1409 by a secession of four hundred German students from Prague, is one +of the most influential universities in the world. It was a few years +since the most numerously attended of any university in Germany, but it +has since been outstripped by those of Berlin and of Munich. Its large +revenues, derived to a great extent from house property in Leipzig and +estates in Saxony, enable it, in conjunction with a handsome state +subvention, to provide rich endowments for the professorial chairs. To +the several faculties also belong various collegiate buildings, notably, +to the legal, that of the _Collegium beatae Virginis_ in the +Petersstrasse, and to the philosophical the _Rothe Haus_ on the +promenade facing the theatre. The other educational institutions of +Leipzig include the Nicolai and Thomas gymnasia, several "Realschulen," +a commercial academy (_Handelsschule_), high schools for girls, and a +large number of public and private schools of all grades. + +_Art and Literature._--The city has a large number of literary, +scientific and artistic institutions. One of the most important is the +museum, which contains about four hundred modern paintings, a large +number of casts, a few pieces of original sculpture and a well-arranged +collection of drawings and engravings. The collection of the historical +society and the ethnographical and art-industrial collections in the +Grassi Museum are also of considerable interest. The museum was erected +with part of the munificent bequest made to the city by Dominic Grassi +in 1881. As a musical centre Leipzig is known all over the world for its +excellent conservatorium, founded in 1843 by Mendelssohn. The series of +concerts given annually in the Gewandhaus is also of world-wide +reputation, and the operatic stage of Leipzig is deservedly ranked among +the finest in Germany. There are numerous vocal and orchestral +societies, some of which have brought their art to a very high pitch of +perfection. The prominence of the publishing interest has attracted to +Leipzig a large number of gifted authors, and made it a literary centre +of considerable importance. Over five hundred newspapers and periodicals +are published here, including several of the most widely circulated in +Germany. Intellectual interests of a high order have always +characterized Leipzig, and what Karl von Holtei once said of it is true +to-day: "There is only one city in Germany that represents Germany; only +a single city where one can forget that he is a Hessian, a Bavarian, a +Swabian, a Prussian or a Saxon; only one city where, amid the opulence +of the commercial world with which science is so gloriously allied, even +the man who possesses nothing but his personality is honoured and +esteemed; only one city, in which, despite a few narrownesses, all the +advantages of a great, I may say a world-metropolis, are conspicuous! +This city is, in my opinion, and in my experience, Leipzig." + +_Commerce, Fairs._--The outstanding importance of Leipzig as a +commercial town is mainly derived from its three great fairs, which +annually attract an enormous concourse of merchants from all parts of +Europe, and from Persia, Armenia and other Asiatic countries. The most +important fairs are held at Easter and Michaelmas, and are said to have +been founded as markets about 1170. The smaller New Year's fair was +established in 1458. Under the fostering care of the margraves of +Meissen, and then of the electors of Saxony they attained great +popularity. In 1268 the margrave of Meissen granted a safe-conduct to +all frequenters of the fairs, and in 1497 and 1507 the emperor +Maximilian I. greatly increased their importance by prohibiting the +holding of annual markets at any town within a wide radius of Leipzig. +During the Thirty Years' War, the Seven Years' War and the troubles +consequent upon the French Revolution, the trade of the Leipzig fairs +considerably decreased, but it recovered after the accession of Saxony +to the German Customs Union (_Zollverein_) in 1834, and for the next +twenty years rapidly and steadily increased. Since then, owing to the +greater facilities of communication, the transactions at the fairs have +diminished in relative, though they have increased in actual, value. +Wares that can be safely purchased by sample appear at the fairs in +steadily diminishing quantities, while others, such as hides, furs and +leather, which require to be actually examined, show as marked an +increase. The value of the sales considerably exceeds £10,000,000 +sterling per annum. The principal commodity is furs (chiefly American +and Russian), of which about one and a quarter million pounds worth are +sold annually; other articles disposed of are leather, hides, wool, +cloth, linen and glass. The Leipzig wool-market, held for two days in +June, is also important. + +In the trades of bookselling and publishing Leipzig occupies a unique +position, not only taking the first place in Germany, but even surpassing +London and Paris in the number and total value of its sales. There are +upwards of nine hundred publishers and booksellers in the town, and about +eleven thousand firms in other parts of Europe are represented here. +Several hundred booksellers assemble in Leipzig every year, and settle +their accounts at their own exchange (_Buchhändler-Börse_). Leipzig also +contains about two hundred printing-works, some of great extent, and a +corresponding number of type-foundries, binding-shops and other kindred +industries. + +The book trades give employment to over 15,000 persons, and since 1878 +Leipzig has grown into an industrial town of the first rank. The iron +and machinery trades employ 4500 persons; the textile industries, cotton +and yarn spinning and hosiery, 6000; and the making of scientific and +musical instruments, including pianos, 2650. Other industries include +the manufacture of artificial flowers, wax-cloth, chemicals, ethereal +oils and essences, beer, mineral waters, tobacco and cigars, lace, +india-rubber wares, rush-work and paper, the preparation of furs and +numerous other branches. These industries are mostly carried on in the +suburbs of Plagwitz, Reudnitz, Lindenau, Gohlis, Eutritzsch, Konnewitz +and the neighbouring town of Markranstädt. + +_Communications._--Leipzig lies at the centre of a network of railways +giving it direct communication with all the more important cities of +Germany. There are six main line railway stations, of which the Dresden +and the Magdeburg lie side by side in the north-east corner of the +promenade, the Thuringian and Berlin stations further away in the +northern suburb; in the eastern is the Eilenburg station (for Breslau +and the east) and in the south the Bavarian station. The whole traffic +of these stations is to be directed into a vast central station (the +largest in the world), lying on the sites of the Dresden, Magdeburg and +Thuringian stations. The estimated cost, borne by Prussia, Saxony and +the city of Leipzig, is estimated at 6 million pounds sterling. The city +has an extensive electric tramway system, bringing all the outlying +suburbs into close connexion with the business quarters of the town. + +_Population._--The population of Leipzig was quintupled within the 19th +century, rising from 31,887 in 1801 to 153,988 in 1881, to 455,089 in +1900 and to 502,570 in 1905. + + _History._--Leipzig owes its origin to a Slav settlement between the + Elster and the Pleisse, which was in existence before the year 1000, + and its name to the Slav word _lipa_, a lime tree. There was also a + German settlement near this spot, probably round a castle erected + early in the 10th century by the German king, Henry the Fowler. The + district was part of the mark of Merseburg, and the bishops of + Merseburg were the lords of extensive areas around the settlements. In + the 11th century Leipzig is mentioned as a fortified place and in the + 12th it came into the possession of the margrave of Meissen, being + granted some municipal privileges by the margrave, Otto the Rich, + before 1190. Its favourable situation in the midst of a plain + intersected by the principal highways of central Europe, together with + the fostering care of its rulers, now began the work of raising + Leipzig to the position of a very important commercial town. Its + earliest trade was in the salt produced at Halle, and its enterprising + inhabitants constructed roads and bridges to lighten the journey of + the traders and travellers whose way led to the town. Soon Leipzig was + largely used as a depot by the merchants of Nuremberg, who carried on + a considerable trade with Poland. Powers of self-government were + acquired by the council (_Rat_) of the town, the importance of which + was enhanced during the 15th century by several grants of privileges + from the emperors. When Saxony was divided in 1485 Leipzig fell to the + Albertine, or ducal branch of the family, whose head Duke George gave + new rights to the burghers. This duke, however, at whose instigation + the famous discussion between Luther and Johann von Eck took place in + the Pleissenburg of Leipzig, inflicted some injury upon the town's + trade and also upon its university by the harsh treatment which he + meted out to the adherents of the new doctrines; but under the rule of + his successor, Henry, Leipzig accepted the teaching of the reformers. + In 1547 during the war of the league of Schmalkalden the town was + besieged by the elector of Saxony, John Frederick I. It was not + captured, although its suburbs were destroyed. These and the + Pleissenburg were rebuilt by the elector Maurice, who also + strengthened the fortifications. Under the elector Augustus I. + emigrants from the Netherlands were encouraged to settle in Leipzig + and its trade with Hamburg and with England was greatly extended. + + During the Thirty Years' War Leipzig suffered six sieges and on four + occasions was occupied by hostile troops, being retained by the Swedes + as security for the payment of an indemnity from 1648 to 1650. After + 1650 its fortifications were strengthened; its finances were put on a + better footing; and its trade, especially with England, began again to + prosper; important steps being taken with regard to its organization. + Towards the end of the 17th century the publishing trade began to + increase very rapidly, partly because the severity of the censorship + at Frankfort-on-the-Main caused many booksellers to remove to Leipzig. + During the Seven Years' War Frederick the Great exacted a heavy + contribution from Leipzig, but this did not seriously interfere with + its prosperity. In 1784 the fortifications were pulled down. The wars + in the first decade of the 19th century were not on the whole + unfavourable to the commerce of Leipzig, but in 1813 and 1814, owing + to the presence of enormous armies in the neighbourhood, it suffered + greatly. Another revival, however, set in after the peace of 1815, and + this was aided by the accession of Saxony to the German Zollverein in + 1834, and by the opening of the first railway a little later. In 1831 + the town was provided with a new constitution, and in 1837 a scheme + for the reform of the university was completed. A riot in 1845, the + revolutionary movement of 1848 and the Prussian occupation of 1866 + were merely passing shadows. In 1879 Leipzig acquired a new importance + by becoming the seat of the supreme court of the German empire. + + The immediate neighbourhood of Leipzig has been the scene of several + battles, two of which are of more than ordinary importance. These are + the battles of Breitenfeld, fought on the 17th of September 1631, + between the Swedes under Gustavus Adolphus and the imperialists, and + the great battle of Leipzig, known in Germany as the Völkerschlacht, + fought in October 1813 between Napoleon and the allied forces of + Russia, Prussia and Austria. + + Towards the middle of the 18th century Leipzig was the seat of the + most influential body of literary men in Germany, over whom Johann + Christoph Gottsched, like his contemporary, Samuel Johnson, in + England, exercised a kind of literary dictatorship. Then, if ever, + Leipzig deserved the epithet of a "Paris in miniature" (_Klein Paris_) + assigned to it by Goethe in his _Faust_. The young Lessing produced + his first play in the Leipzig theatre, and the university counts + Goethe, Klopstock, Jean Paul Richter, Fichte and Schelling among its + alumni. Schiller and Gellert also resided for a time in Leipzig, and + Sebastian Bach and Mendelssohn filled musical posts here. Among the + celebrated natives of the town are the philosopher Leibnitz and the + composer Wagner. + + AUTHORITIES.--For the history of Leipzig see E. Hasse, _Die Stadt + Leipzig und ihre Umgebung, geographisch und statistisch beschrieben_ + (Leipzig, 1878); K. Grosse, _Geschichte der Stadt Leipzig_ (Leipzig, + 1897-1898); Rachel, _Verwaltungsorganisation und Ämterwesen der Stadt + Leipzig bis 1627_ (Leipzig, 1902); G. Wustmann, _Aus Leipzigs + Vergangenheit_ (Leipzig, 1898); _Bilderbuch aus der Geschichte der + Stadt Leipzig_ (Leipzig, 1897); _Leipzig durch drei Jahrhunderte, + Atlas zur Geschichte des Leipziger Stadtbildes_ (Leipzig, 1891); + _Quellen zur Geschichte Leipzigs_ (Leipzig, 1889-1895); and + _Geschichte der Stadt Leipzig_ (Leipzig, 1905); F. Seifert, _Die + Reformation in Leipzig_ (Leipzig, 1883); G. Buchwald, + _Reformationsgeschichte der Stadt Leipzig_ (Leipzig, 1900); Geffcken + and Tykocinski, _Stiftungsbuch der Stadt Leipzig_ (Leipzig, 1905); the + _Urkundenbuch der Stadt Leipzig_, edited by C. F. Posern-Klett and + Förstemann (Leipzig, 1870-1895); and the _Schriften des Vereins für + die Geschichte Leipzigs_ (Leipzig, 1872-1904). For other aspects of + the town's life see Hirschfeld, _Leipzigs Grossindustrie und + Grosshandel_ (Leipzig, 1887); Hassert, _Die geographische Lage und + Entwickelung Leipzigs_ (Leipzig, 1899); Helm, _Heimatkunde von + Leipzig_ (Leipzig, 1903); E. Friedberg, _Die Universität Leipzig in + Vergangenheit und Gegenwart_ (Leipzig, 1897); F. Zarncke, _Die + Statutenbücher der Universität Leipzig_ (Leipzig, 1861); E. Hasse, + _Geschichte der Leipziger Messen_ (Leipzig, 1885); Tille, _Die Anfänge + der hohen Landstrasse_ (Gotha, 1906); Biedermann, _Geschichte der + Leipziger Kramerinnung_ (Leipzig, 1881); and Moltke, _Die Leipziger + Kramerinnung im 15 und 16 Jahrhundert_ (Leipzig, 1901). + + + + +LEIRIA, an episcopal city and the capital of the district of Leiria, +formerly included in Estremadura, Portugal; on the river Liz and on the +Lisbon-Figueria da Foz railway. Pop. (1900) 4459. The principal +buildings of Leiria are the ruined citadel, which dates from 1135, and +the cathedral, a small Renaissance building erected in 1571 but +modernized in the 18th century. The main square of the city is named +after the poet Francisco Rodrigues Lobo, who was born here about 1500. +Between Leiria and the Atlantic there are extensive pine woods known as +the Pinhal de Leiria, which were planted by King Diniz (1279-1325) with +trees imported from the Landes in France, in order to give firmness to +the sandy soil. In the neighbourhood there are glass and iron foundries, +oil wells and mineral springs. Leiria, the Roman Calippo, was taken from +the Moors in 1135 by Alphonso I. (Affonso Henriques). King Diniz made it +his capital. In 1466 the first Portuguese printing-press was established +here; in 1545 the city was made an episcopal see. The administrative +district of Leiria coincides with the north and north-west of the +ancient province of Estremadura (q.v.); pop. (1900) 238,755; area 1317 +sq. m. + + + + +LEISLER, JACOB (c. 1635-1691), American political agitator, was born +probably at Frankfort-on-Main, Germany, about 1635. He went to New +Netherland (New York) in 1660, married a wealthy widow, engaged in +trade, and soon accumulated a fortune. The English Revolution of 1688 +divided the people of New York into two well-defined factions. In +general the small shop-keepers, small farmers, sailors, poor traders and +artisans were arrayed against the patroons, rich fur-traders, merchants, +lawyers and crown officers. The former were led by Leisler, the latter +by Peter Schuyler (1657-1724), Nicholas Bayard (c. 1644-1707), Stephen +van Cortlandt (1643-1700), William Nicolls (1657-1723) and other +representatives of the aristocratic Hudson Valley families. The +"Leislerians" pretended greater loyalty to the Protestant succession. +When news of the imprisonment of Gov. Andros in Massachusetts was +received, they took possession on the 31st of May 1689 of Fort James (at +the southern end of Manhattan Island), renamed it Fort William and +announced their determination to hold it until the arrival of a governor +commissioned by the new sovereigns. The aristocrats also favoured the +Revolution, but preferred to continue the government under authority +from James II. rather than risk the danger of an interregnum. +Lieutenant-Governor Francis Nicholson sailed for England on the 24th of +June, a committee of safety was organized by the popular party, and +Leisler was appointed commander-in-chief. Under authority of a letter +from the home government addressed to Nicholson, "or in his absence, to +such as for the time being takes care for preserving the peace and +administering the laws in His Majesty's province of New York," he +assumed the title of lieutenant-governor in December 1689, appointed a +council and took charge of the government of the entire province. He +summoned the first Intercolonial Congress in America, which met in New +York on the 1st of May 1690 to plan concerted action against the French +and Indians. Colonel Henry Sloughter was commissioned governor of the +province on the 2nd of September 1689 but did not reach New York until +the 19th of March 1691. In the meantime Major Richard Ingoldsby and two +companies of soldiers had landed (January 28, 1691) and demanded +possession of the fort. Leisler refused to surrender it, and after some +controversy an attack was made on the 17th of March in which two +soldiers were killed and several wounded. When Sloughter arrived two +days later Leisler hastened to give over to him the fort and other +evidences of authority. He and his son-in-law, Jacob Milborne, were +charged with treason for refusing to submit to Ingoldsby, were +convicted, and on the 16th of May 1691 were executed. There has been +much controversy among historians with regard both to the facts and to +the significance of Leisler's brief career as ruler in New York. + + See J. R. Brodhead, _History of the State of New York_ (vol. 2, New + York, 1871). For the documents connected with the controversy see E. + B. O'Callaghan, _Documentary History of the State of New York_ (vol. + 2, Albany, 1850). + + + + +LEISNIG, a town in the kingdom of Saxony, prettily situated on the +Freiberger Mulde, 7 m. S. of Grimma by the railway from Leipzig to +Dresden via Döbeln. Pop. (1905) 8147. On a high rock above the town lies +the old castle of Mildenstein, now utilized as administrative offices. +The industries include the manufacture of cloth, furniture, boots, +buttons, cigars, beer, machinery and chemicals. Leisnig is a place of +considerable antiquity. About 1080 it passed into the possession of the +counts of Groitzsch, but was purchased in 1157 by the emperor Frederick +I., who committed it to the charge of counts. It fell to Meissen in +1365, and later to Saxony. + + + + +LEITH, a municipal and police burgh, and seaport, county of Midlothian, +Scotland. Pop. (1901) 77,439. It is situated on the south shore of the +Firth of Forth, 1½ m. N.N.E. of Edinburgh, of which it is the port and +with which it is connected by Leith Walk, practically a continuous +street. It has stations on the North British and Caledonian railways, +and a branch line (N.B.R.) to Portobello. Lying at the mouth of the +Water of Leith, which is crossed by several bridges and divides it into +the parishes of North and South Leith, it stretches for 3¼ m. along the +shore of the Firth from Seafield in the east to near Granton in the +west. There is tramway communication with Edinburgh and Newhaven. + +The town is a thriving centre of trade and commerce. St Mary's in +Kirkgate, the parish church of South Leith, was founded in 1483, and was +originally cruciform but, as restored in 1852, consists of an aisled +nave and north-western tower. Here David Lindsay (1531-1613), its +minister, James VI.'s chaplain and afterwards bishop of Ross, preached +before the king the thanksgiving sermon on the Gowrie conspiracy (1600). +John Logan, the hymn-writer and reputed author of "The Ode to the +Cuckoo," was minister for thirteen years; and in its graveyard lies the +Rev. John Home, author of _Douglas_, a native of Leith. Near it in +Constitution Street is St James's Episcopal church (1862-1869), in the +Early English style by Sir Gilbert Scott, with an apsidal chancel and a +spire 160 ft. high. The parish church of North Leith, in Madeira Street, +with a spire 158 ft. high, is one of the best livings in the Established +Church of Scotland. St Thomas's, at the head of Shirra Brae, in the +Gothic style, was built in 1843 by Sir John Gladstone of Fasque, +who--prior to his removal to Liverpool, where his son, W. E. Gladstone, +was born--had been a merchant in Leith. The public buildings are wholly +modern, the principal being of classic design. They include the custom +house (1812) in the Grecian style; Trinity House (1817), also Grecian, +containing Sir Henry Raeburn's portrait of Admiral Lord Duncan, David +Scott's "Vasco da Gama Rounding the Cape" and other paintings; the +markets (1818); the town hall (1828), with an Ionic façade on +Constitution Street and a Doric porch on Charlotte Street; the corn +exchange (1862) in the Roman style; the assembly rooms; exchange +buildings; the public institute (1867) and Victoria public baths (1899). +Trinity House was founded in 1555 as a home for old and disabled +sailors, but on the decline of its revenues it became the licensing +authority for pilots, its humane office being partly fulfilled by the +sailors' home, established about 1840 in a building adjoining the Signal +Tower, and rehoused in a handsome structure in the Scottish Baronial +style in 1883-1884. Other charitable institutions include the hospital, +John Watt's hospital and the smallpox hospital. The high school, built +in 1806, for many years a familiar object on the west margin of the +Links, gave way to the academy, a handsome and commodious structure, to +which are drafted senior pupils from the numerous board schools for free +education in the higher branches. Here also is accommodated the +technical college. Secondary instruction is given also in Craighall Road +school. A bronze statue of Robert Burns was unveiled in 1898. Leith +Links, one of the homes of golf in Scotland, is a popular resort, on +Lochend Road are situated Hawkhill recreation grounds, and Lochend Loch +is used for skating and curling. There are small links at Newhaven, and +in Trinity are Starbank Park and Cargilfield playing ground. The east +pier (1177 yds. long) and the west pier (1041 yds.) are favourite +promenades. The waterway between them is the entrance to the harbour. +Leith cemetery is situated at Seafield and the Eastern cemetery in +Easter Road. + +The oldest industry is shipbuilding, which dates from 1313. Here in 1511 +James IV. built the "St Michael," "ane verrie monstruous great ship, +whilk tuik sae meikle timber that schee waisted all the woodis in Fyfe, +except Falkland wood, besides the timber that cam out of Norroway." +Other important industries are engineering, sugar-refining (established +1757), meat-preserving, flour-milling, sailcloth-making, soap-boiling, +rope and twine-making, tanning, chemical manures-making, wood-sawing, +hosiery, biscuit-baking, brewing, distilling and lime-juice making. Of +the old trade of glass-making, which began in 1682, scarcely a trace +survives. As a distributing centre, Leith occupies a prominent place. It +is the headquarters of the whisky business in Great Britain, and stores +also large quantities of wine from Spain, Portugal and France. This +pre-eminence is due to its excellent dock and harbour accommodation and +capacious warehouses. The two old docks (1801-1807) cover 10½ acres; +Victoria Dock (1852) 5 acres; Albert Dock (1863-1869) 10¾ acres; +Edinburgh Dock (1874-1881) 16(2/3) acres; and the New Dock (1892-1901) +60 acres. There are several dry docks, of which the Prince of Wales +Graving Dock (1858), the largest, measures 370 ft. by 60 ft. Space can +always be had for more dock room by reclaiming the east sands, where in +the 17th and 18th centuries Leith Races were held, the theme of a +humorous descriptive poem by Robert Fergusson. Apart from coasting trade +there are constant sailings to the leading European ports, the United +States and the British colonies. In 1908 the tonnage of ships entering +the harbour was (including coastwise trade) 1,975,457; that of ships +clearing the harbour 1,993,227. The number of vessels registered at the +port was 213 (net tonnage 146,799). The value of imports was +£12,883,890, of exports £5,377,188. In summer there are frequent +excursions to the Bass Rock and the Isle of May, North Berwick, Elie, +Aberdour, Alloa and Stirling. Leith Fort, built in North Leith in 1779 +for the defence of the harbour, is now the headquarters of the Royal +Artillery in Scotland. Leith is the head of a fishery district. The +town, which is governed by a provost, bailies and council, unites with +Musselburgh and Portobello to send one member to parliament. + + Leith figures as Inverleith in the foundation charter of Holyrood + Abbey (1128). In 1329 Robert I. granted the harbour to the magistrates + of Edinburgh, who did not always use their power wisely. They forbade, + for example, the building of streets wide enough to admit a cart, a + regulation that accounted for the number of narrow wynds and alleys in + the town. Had the overlords been more considerate incorporation with + Edinburgh would not have been so bitterly resisted. Several of the + quaint bits of ancient Leith yet remain, and the appearance of the + shore as it was in the 17th and 18th centuries, and even at a later + date, was picturesque in the extreme. During the centuries of strife + between Scotland and England its situation exposed the port to attack + both by sea and land. At least twice (in 1313 and 1410) its shipping + was burned by the English, who also sacked the town in 1544--when the + 1st earl of Hertford destroyed the first wooden pier--and 1547. In the + troublous times that followed the death of James V., Leith became the + stronghold of the Roman Catholic and French party from 1548 to 1560, + Mary of Guise, queen regent, not deeming herself secure in Edinburgh. + In 1549 the town was walled and fortified by Montalembert, sicur + d'Essé, the commander of the French troops, and endured an ineffectual + siege in 1560 by the Scots and their English allies. A house in + Coalhill is thought to be the "handsome and spacious edifice" erected + for her privy council by Mary of Guise. D'Essé's wall, pierced by six + gates, was partly dismantled on the death of the queen regent, but + although rebuilt in 1571, not a trace of it exists. The old tolbooth, + in which William Maitland of Lethington, Queen Mary's secretary, + poisoned himself in 1573, to avoid execution for adhering to Mary's + cause, was demolished in 1819. Charles I. is said to have received the + first tidings of the Irish rebellion while playing golf on the links + in 1641. Cromwell in his Scottish campaign built the Citadel in 1650 + and the mounds on the links, known as "Giant's Brae" and "Lady Fife's + Brae," were thrown up by the Protector as batteries. In 1698 the + sailing of the first Darien expedition created great excitement. In + 1715 William Mackintosh of Borlum (1662-1743) and his force of + Jacobite Highlanders captured the Citadel, of which only the name of + Citadel Street and the archway in Couper Street have preserved the + memory. + + A mile S.E. of the links lies the ancient village of RESTALRIG, the + home of the Logans, from whom the superiority of Leith was purchased + in 1553 by the queen regent. Sir Robert Logan (d. 1606) was alleged to + have been one of the Gowrie conspirators and to have arranged to + imprison the king in Fast Castle. This charge, however, was not made + until three years after his death, when his bones were exhumed for + trial. He was then found guilty of high treason and sentence of + forfeiture pronounced; but there is reason to suspect that the whole + case was trumped up. The old church escaped demolition at the + Reformation and even the fine east window was saved. In the vaults + repose Sir Robert and other Logans, besides several of the lords + Balmerino, and Lord Brougham's father lies in the kirkyard. The well + of St Triduana, which was reputed to possess wonderful curative + powers, vanished when the North British railway was constructed. + + + + +LEITMERITZ (Czech, _Litomerice_), a town and episcopal see of Bohemia, +45 m. N. of Prague by rail. Pop. (1900) 13,075, mostly German. It lies +on the right bank of the Elbe, which becomes here navigable for steamers +and is spanned by an iron bridge 1700 ft. in length. The fine cathedral, +founded in 1057, was built in 1671 and contains some valuable paintings. +The library of the episcopal palace, built between 1694 and 1701, +possesses the oldest maps of Bohemia made in 1518 by Nicolaus Claudianus +of Jung-Bunzlau. Of the other churches that of All Saints dates from the +13th century. The town-hall, with its remarkable bell tower, dates from +the 15th century. Leitmeritz is situated in the midst of a very fertile +country, called the "Bohemian Paradise," which produces great quantities +of corn, fruit, hops and wines. The beer brewed here enjoys a high +reputation. On the opposite bank of the river, where the Eger discharges +itself into the Elbe, lies Theresienstadt (pop. 7046), an important +garrison town. It was formerly an important fortress, erected in 1780 by +the emperor Joseph II. and named after his mother Maria Theresa, but the +fortress was dismantled in 1882. + + Leitmeritz was originally the castle of a royal count and is first + mentioned, in 993, in the foundation charter of the convent of St + Margaret near Prague. In 1248 it received a town charter, and was + governed by the laws of Magdeburg until the time of Ferdinand I., + having a special court of jurisdiction over all the royal towns where + this law obtained. The town reached its highest degree of prosperity + under Charles IV., who bestowed upon it large tracts of forest, + agricultural land and vineyards. In the Hussite wars, after its + capture by the utraquist, Leitmeritz remained true to "the Chalice," + shared also in the revolt against Ferdinand I., and suffered in + consequence. It was still more unfortunate during the Thirty Years' + War, in the course of which most of the Protestant inhabitants left + it; the property of the Bohemian refugees being given to German + immigrants. The present bishopric was established in 1655. + + + + +LEITNER, GOTTLIEB WILHELM (1840-1899), Anglo-Hungarian orientalist, was +born at Budapest in 1840. He was the son of a physician, and was +educated at Malta Protestant college. At the age of fifteen he acted as +an interpreter in the Crimean War. He entered King's College, London, in +1858, and in 1861 was appointed professor of Arabic and Mahommedan law. +He became principal of the government college at Lahore in 1864, and +there originated the term "Dardistan" for a portion of the mountains on +the north-west frontier, which was subsequently recognized to be a +purely artificial distinction. He collected much valuable information on +Graeco-Buddhist art and the origins of Indian art. He spoke, read and +wrote twenty-five languages. He founded an oriental institute at Woking, +and for some years edited the _Asiatic Quarterly Review_. He died at +Bonn in 1899. + + See J. H. Stocqueler, _Life and Labours of Dr Leitner_ (1875). + + + + +LEITRIM, a county of Ireland in the province of Connaught, bounded N.W. +by Donegal Bay, N.E. by Fermanagh, E. by Cavan, S.E. by Longford, S.W. +by Roscommon and W. by Sligo. The area is 392,381 acres, or about 613 +sq. m. The northern portion of the county consists of an elevated +tableland, of which the highest summits belong to the Truskmore Hills, +reaching 1712 ft.; with Benbo, 1365 ft. and Lackagh, 1446 ft. In the +southern part the country is comparatively level, and is generally +richly wooded. The county touches the south coast of Donegal Bay, but +the coast-line is only about 3 m. The principal river is the Shannon, +which, issuing from Lough Allen, forms the south-western boundary of the +county with Roscommon. The Bonnet rises in the north-west and flows to +Lough Gill, and the streams of Drones and Duff separate Leitrim from +Donegal and Sligo. Besides Lough Allen, which has an area of 8900 acres, +the other principal lakes in the county are Lough Macnean, Lough Scur, +Lough Garadice and Lough Melvin. The scenery of the north is wild and +attractive, while in the neighbourhood of the Shannon it is of great +beauty. Lough Melvin and the coast rivers afford rod fishing, the lough +being noted for its gillaroo trout. + +This varied county has in general a floor of Carboniferous Limestone, +which forms finely scarped hills as it reaches the sea in Donegal Bay. +The underlying sandstone appears at Lough Melvin, and again on the +margin of a Silurian area in the extreme south. The Upper Carboniferous +series, dipping gently southward, form mountainous country round Lough +Allen, where the name of Slieve Anierin records the abundance of +clay-ironstone beneath the coal seams. The sandstones and shales of this +series scarp boldly towards the valley of the Bonnet, across which +rises, in picturesque contrast, the heather-clad ridge of ancient gneiss +which forms, in Benbo, the north-east end of the Ox Mountains. The +ironstone was smelted in the upland at Creevelea down to 1859, and the +coal is worked in a few thin seams. + +The climate is moist and unsuitable for grain crops. On the higher +districts the soil is stiff and cold, and, though abounding in stones, +retentive of moisture, but in the valleys there are some fertile +districts. Lime, marl and similar manures are abundant, and on the coast +seaweed is plentiful. The proportion of tillage to pasture is roughly as +1 to 3. Potatoes are grown, but oats, the principal grain crop, are +scanty. The live stock consists chiefly of cattle, pigs and poultry. +Coarse linens for domestic purposes are manufactured and coarse pottery +is also made. The Sligo, Leitrim and Northern Counties railway, +connecting Sligo with Enniskillen, crosses the northern part of the +county, by way of Manor Hamilton; the Mullingar and Sligo line of the +Midland Great Western touches the south-western boundary of the county, +with a station at Carrick-on-Shannon; while connecting with this line at +Dromod is the Cavan and Leitrim railway to Ballinamore and Arigna, and +to Belturbet in county Cavan. + +The population (78,618 in 1891; 69,343 in 1901) decreases owing to +emigration, the decrease being one of the most serious shown by any +Irish county. It includes nearly 90% of Roman Catholics. The only towns +are Carrick-on-Shannon (pop. 1118) and Manor Hamilton (993). The county +is divided into five baronies. It is within the Connaught circuit, and +assizes are held at Carrick-on-Shannon, and quarter sessions at +Ballinamore, Carrick-on-Shannon and Manor Hamilton. It is in the +Protestant diocese of Kilmore, and the Roman Catholic dioceses of Ardagh +and Kilmore. In the Irish House of Commons two members were returned for +the county and two for the boroughs of Carrick-on-Shannon and Jamestown, +but at the Union the boroughs were disfranchised. The county divisions +are termed the North and South, each returning one member. + +With the territory which afterwards became the county Cavan, Leitrim +formed part of Brenny or Breffny, which was divided into two +principalities, of which Leitrim, under the name of Hy Bruin-Brenny, +formed the western. Being for a long time in the possession of the +O'Rourkes, descendants of Roderick, king of Ireland, it was also called +Brenny O'Rourke. This family long maintained its independence; even in +1579, when the other existing counties of Connaught were created, the +creation of Leitrim was deferred, and did not take place until 1583. +Large confiscations were made in the reigns of Elizabeth and James I., +in the Cromwellian period, and after the Revolution of 1688. + +There are "druidical" remains near Fenagh and at Letterfyan, and +important monastic ruins at Creevelea near the Bonnet, with several +antique monuments, and in the parish of Fenagh. There was a flourishing +Franciscan friary at Jamestown. The abbeys of Mohill, Annaduff and +Drumlease are converted into parish churches. Among the more notable old +castles are Manor Hamilton Castle, originally very extensive, but now in +ruins, and Castle John on an island in Lough Scur. There is a small +village named Leitrim about 4 m. N. of Carrick-on-Shannon, which was +once of enough importance to give its name to a barony and to the +county, and is said to have been the seat of an early bishopric. + + + + +LEIXÕES, a seaport and harbour of refuge of northern Portugal; in 41° 9´ +10´´ N., 8° 40´ 35´´ W., 3 m. N. of the mouth of the Douro. Leixões is +included in the parish of Matozinhos (pop. 1900, 7690) and constitutes +the main port of the city of Oporto (q.v.), with which it is connected +by an electric tramway. The harbour, of artificial construction, has an +area of over 220 acres, and admits vessels of any size, the depth at the +entrance being nearly 50 ft. The transference of cargo to and from ships +lying in the Leixões basin is effected entirely by means of lighters +from Oporto. In addition to wine, &c., from Oporto, large numbers of +emigrants to South America are taken on board here. The trade of the +port is mainly in British hands, and large numbers of British ships call +at Leixões on the voyage between Lisbon and Liverpool, London or +Southampton. + + + + +LEJEUNE, LOUIS FRANÇOIS, BARON (1776-1848), French general, painter, and +lithographer, was born at Versailles. As aide-de-camp to General +Berthier he took an active part in many of the Napoleonic campaigns, +which he made the subjects of an important series of battle-pictures. +The vogue he enjoyed is due to the truth and vigour of his work, which +was generally executed from sketches and studies made on the +battlefield. When his battle-pictures were shown at the Egyptian Hall in +London, a rail had to be put up to protect them from the eager crowds of +sightseers. Among his chief works are "The Entry of Charles X. into +Paris, 6 June 1825" at Versailles; "Episode of the Prussian War, October +1807" at Douai Museum; "Marengo" (1801); "Lodi," "Thabor," "Aboukir" +(1804); "The Pyramids" (1806); "Passage of the Rhine in 1795" (1824), +and "Moskawa" (1812). The German campaign of 1806 brought him to Munich, +where he visited the workshop of Senefelder, the inventor of +lithography. Lejeune was so fascinated by the possibilities of the new +method that he then and there made the drawing on stone of his famous +"Cossack" (printed by C. and T. Senefelder, 1806). Whilst he was taking +his dinner, and with his horses harnessed and waiting to take him back +to Paris, one hundred proofs were printed, one of which he subsequently +submitted to Napoleon. The introduction of lithography into France was +greatly due to the efforts of Lejeune. Many of his battle-pictures were +engraved by Coiny and Bovinet. + + See Fournier-Sarlovèze, _Le Général Lejeune_ (Paris, _Libraire de + l'art_). + + + + +LEKAIN, the stage name of Henri Louis Cain (1728-1778), French actor, +who was born in Paris on the 14th of April 1728, the son of a +silversmith. He was educated at the Collège Mazarin, and joined an +amateur company of players against which the Comédie Française obtained +an injunction. Voltaire supported him for a time and enabled him to act +in his private theatre and also before the duchess of Maine. Owing to +the hostility of the actors it was only after a struggle of seventeen +months that, by the command of Louis XV., he was received at the Comédie +Française. His success was immediate. Among his best parts were Herod in +_Mariamne_, Nero in _Britannicus_ and similar tragic rôles, in spite of +the fact that he was short and stout, with irregular and rather common +features. His name is connected with a number of important scenic +reforms. It was he who had the benches removed on which privileged +spectators formerly sat encumbering the stage, Count Lauragais paying +for him an excessive indemnity demanded. Lekain also protested against +the method of sing-song declamation prevalent, and endeavoured to +correct the costuming of the plays, although unable to obtain the +historic accuracy at which Talma aimed. He died in Paris on the 8th of +February 1778. + + His eldest son published his _Mémoires_ (1801) with his correspondence + with Voltaire, Garrick and others. They were reprinted with a preface + by Talma in _Mémoires sur l'art dramatique_ (1825). + + + + +LELAND, CHARLES GODFREY (1824-1903), American author, son of a merchant, +was born at Philadelphia on the 15th of August 1824, and graduated at +Princeton in 1845. He afterwards studied at Heidelberg, Munich and +Paris. He was in Paris during the revolution of 1848, and took an active +part in it. He then returned to Philadelphia, and after being admitted +to the bar in 1851, devoted himself to contributing to periodicals, +editing various magazines and writing books. At the opening of the Civil +War he started at Boston the _Continental Magazine_, which advocated +emancipation. In 1868 he became known as the humorous author of _Hans +Breitmann's Party and Ballads_, which was followed by other volumes of +the same kind, collected in 1871 with the title of _Hans Breitmann's +Ballads_. These dialect poems, burlesquing the German American, at once +became popular. In 1869 he went to Europe, and till 1880 was occupied, +chiefly in London, with literary work; after returning to Philadelphia +for six years, he again made his home in Europe, generally at Florence, +where he died on the 20th of March 1903. Though his humorous verses were +most attractive to the public, Leland was a serious student of +folk-lore, particularly of the gipsies, his writings on the latter (_The +English Gypsies and their Language_, 1872; _The Gypsies_, 1882; _Gypsy +Sorcery and Fortune-telling_ ..., 1891, &c.) being recognized as +valuable contributions to the literature of the subject. He was +president of the first European folk-lore congress, held in Paris in +1889. + +His other publications include _Poetry and Mystery of Dreams_ (1855), +_Meister Karl's Sketch-book_ (1855), _Pictures of Travel_ (1856), +_Sunshine in Thought_ (1862), _Heine's Book of Songs_ (1862), _The Music +Lesson of Confucius_ (1870), _Egyptian Sketch-book_ (1873), _Abraham +Lincoln_ (1879), _The Minor Arts_ (1880), _Algonquin Legends of New +England_ (1884), _Songs of the Sea and Lays of the Land_ (1895), _Hans +Breitmann in Tyrol_ (1895), _One Hundred Profitable Acts_ (1897), +_Unpublished Legends of Vergil_ (1899), _Kuloskap the Master, and other +Algonquin Poems_ (1903, with J. Dyneley Prince). + + See his _Memoirs_ (2 vols., 1893), and E. R. Pennell, _C. G. Leland_ + (1906). + + + + +LELAND (LEYLAND or LAYLONDE), JOHN (c. 1506-1552), English antiquary, +was born in London on the 13th of September, probably in 1506. He owed +his education at St Paul's school under William Lilly, and at Christ's +College, Cambridge, to the kindness of a patron, Thomas Myles. He +graduated at Cambridge in 1521, and subsequently studied at All Souls +College, Oxford, and in Paris under François Dubois (Sylvius). On his +return to England he took holy orders. He had been tutor to Lord Thomas +Howard, son of the 3rd duke of Norfolk, and to Francis Hastings, +afterwards earl of Huntingdon. Meanwhile his learning had recommended +him to Henry VIII., who presented him to the rectory of Peuplingues in +the marches of Calais in 1530. He was already librarian and chaplain to +the king, and in 1533 he received a novel commission under the great +seal as king's antiquary, with power to search for records, manuscripts +and relics of antiquity in all the cathedrals, colleges and religious +houses of England. Probably from 1534, and definitely from 1536 onwards +to 1542, he was engaged on an antiquarian tour through England and +Wales. He sought to preserve the MSS. scattered at the dissolution of +the monasteries, but his powers did not extend to the actual collection +of MSS. Some valuable additions, however, he did procure for the king's +library, chiefly from the abbey of St Augustine at Canterbury. He had +received a special dispensation permitting him to absent himself from +his rectory of Peuplingues in 1536, and on his return from his itinerary +he received the rectory of Haseley in Oxfordshire; his support of the +church policy of Henry and Cranmer being further rewarded by a canonry +and prebend of King's College (now Christ Church), Oxford, and a prebend +of Salisbury. In a _Strena Henrico_[1] (pr. 1546), addressed to Henry +VIII. in 1545, he proposed to execute from the materials which he had +collected in his journeys a topography of England, an account of the +adjacent islands, an account of the British nobility, and a great +history of the antiquities of the British Isles. He toiled over his +papers at his house in the parish of St Michael le Querne, Cheapside, +London, but he was not destined to complete these great undertakings, +for he was certified insane in March 1550, and died on the 18th of April +1552. + + Leland was an exact observer, and a diligent student of local + chronicles. The bulk of his work remained in MS. at the time of his + death, and various copies were made, one by John Stowe in 1576. After + passing through various hands the greater part of Leland's MSS. were + deposited by William Burton, the historian of Leicestershire, in the + Bodleian at Oxford. They had in the meantime been freely used by other + antiquaries, notably by John Bale, William Camden and Sir William + Dugdale. The account of his journey in England and Wales in eight MS. + quarto volumes received its name _The Itinerary of John Leland_ from + Thomas Burton and was edited by Thomas Hearne (9 vols., Oxford, + 1710-1712; other editions in 1745 and 1770). The scattered portions + dealing with Wales were re-edited by Miss L. Toulmin Smith in 1907. + His other most important work, the _Collectanea_, in four folio MS. + volumes, was also published by Hearne (6 vols., Oxford, 1715). His + _Commentarii de scriptoribus Britannicis_, which had been used and + distorted by his friend John Bale, was edited by Anthony Hall (2 + vols., Oxford, 1709). Some of Leland's MSS., which formerly belonged + to Sir Robert Cotton, passed into the possession of the British + Museum. He was a Latin poet of some merit, his most famous piece being + the _Cygneo Cantio_ (1545) in honour of Henry VIII. Many of his minor + works are included in Hearne's editions of the _Itinerary_ and the + _Collectanea_. + + For accounts of Leland see John Bale, _Catalogus_ (1557); Anthony à + Wood, _Athenae Oxonienses_; W. Huddesford, _Lives of those eminent + Antiquaries John Leland, Thomas Hearne and Anthony à Wood_ (Oxford, + 1772). A life of Leland, attributed to Edward Burton (c. 1750), from + the library of Sir Thomas Phillipps, printed in 1896 contains a + bibliography. See also the biography by Sidney Lee, in the _Dict. Nat. + Biog._ + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] Re-edited in 1549 by John Bale as _The laboryeuse Journey and + Serche of J. Leylande for Englandes Antiquitees geven of him for a + Neu Yeares Gifte, &c._, modern edition by W. A. Copinger (Manchester, + 1895). + + + + +LELAND, JOHN (1691-1766), English Nonconformist divine, was born at +Wigan, Lancashire, and educated in Dublin, where he made such progress +that in 1716, without having attended any college or hall, he was +appointed first assistant and afterwards sole pastor of a congregation +of Presbyterians in New Row. This office he continued to fill until his +death on the 16th of January 1766. He received the degree of D.D. from +Aberdeen in 1739. His first publication was _A Defence of Christianity_ +(1733), in reply to Matthew Tindal's _Christianity as old as the +Creation_; it was succeeded by his _Divine Authority of the Old and New +Testaments asserted_ (1738), in answer to _The Moral Philosopher_ of +Thomas Morgan; in 1741 he published two volumes, in the form of two +letters, being _Remarks on_ [H. Dodwell's] _Christianity not founded on +Argument_; and in 1753 _Reflexions on the late Lord Bolingbroke's +Letters on the Study and Use of History_. His _View of the Principal +Deistical Writers that have appeared in England_ was published in +1754-1756. This is the chief work of Leland--"most worthy, painstaking +and commonplace of divines," as Sir Leslie Stephen called him--and in +spite of many defects and inconsistencies is indispensable to every +student of the deistic movement of the 18th century. + + His _Discourses on various Subjects_, with a _Life_ prefixed, was + published posthumously (4 vols., 1768-1789). + + + + +LELAND STANFORD JR. UNIVERSITY, near Palo Alto, California, U.S.A., in +the beautiful Santa Clara valley, was founded in 1885 by Leland +Stanford[1] (1824-1893), and by his wife Jane Lathrop Stanford +(1825-1905), as a memorial to their only child, Leland Stanford, Jr., +who died in 1884 in his seventeenth year. The doors were opened in 1891 +to 559 students. The university campus consists of Stanford's former +Palo Alto farm, which comprises about 9000 acres. From the campus there +are charming views of San Francisco Bay, of the Coast Range, +particularly of Mount Hamilton some 30 m. E. with the Lick Observatory +on its summit, of mountain foothills, and of the magnificent redwood +forests toward Santa Cruz. + +The buildings, designed originally by H. H. Richardson and completed by +his successors, Shepley, Rutan and Coolidge, are of soft buff sandstone +in a style adapted from the old California mission (Moorish-Romanesque) +architecture, being long and low with wide colonnades, open arches and +red tiled roofs. An outer surrounds an inner quadrangle of buildings. +The inner quadrangle, about a court which is 586 by 246 ft. and is +faced by a continuous open arcade and adorned with large circular beds +of tropical plants and flowers, consists of twelve one-storey buildings +and a beautiful memorial church. Of the fourteen buildings of the outer +quadrangle some are two storeys high. A magnificent memorial arch (100 +ft. high), adorned with a frieze designed by John Evans, representing +the "Progress of Civilization in America," and forming the main gateway, +was destroyed by the earthquake of 1906. Outside the quadrangles are +other buildings--a museum of art and archaeology, based on collections +made by Leland Stanford, Jr., chemical laboratories, engineering +work-shops, dormitories, a mausoleum of the founders, &c. There is a +fine arboretum (300 acres) and a cactus garden. The charming views, the +grace and harmonious colours of the buildings, and the tropic vegetation +make a campus of wonderful beauty. The students in 1907-1908 numbered +1738, of whom 126 were graduates, 99 special students, and 500 women.[2] +The university library (with the library of the law department) +contained in 1908 about 107,000 volumes. A marine biological laboratory, +founded by Timothy Hopkins, is maintained at Pacific Grove on the Bay of +Monterey. The university has an endowment from its founders estimated at +$30,000,000, including three great estates with 85,000 acres of farm and +vineyard lands, and several smaller tracts; but the endowment was very +largely in interest-bearing securities, income from which was +temporarily cut off in the early years of the university's life by +litigation. The founders wished the university "to qualify students for +personal success and direct usefulness in life; to promote the public +welfare by exercising an influence in behalf of humanity and +civilization, teaching the blessings of liberty regulated by law, and +inculcating love and reverence for the great principles of government as +derived from the inalienable rights of man to life, liberty and the +pursuit of happiness." There are no inflexible entrance requirements as +to particular studies except English composition to ensure a degree of +mental maturity, the minimum amount of preparation is fixed as that +which should be given by four years in a secondary school, leaving to +the applicants a wide choice of subjects (35 in 1906) ranging from +ancient history to woodworking and machine shop. In the curriculum, +liberty perhaps even greater than at Harvard is allowed as to +"electives." Work on some one major subject occupies about one-third of +the undergraduate course; the remaining two-thirds (or more) is purely +elective. The influence of sectarianism and politics is barred from the +university by its charter, and by its private origin and private +support. At the same time in its policy it is practically a state +university of the most liberal type. Instruction is entirely free. The +president of the university has the initiative in all appointments and +in all matters of general policy. Within the university faculty power +lies in an academic council, and, more particularly, in an advisory +board of nine professors, elected by the academic council, to which all +propositions of the president are submitted. The growth of the +university has been steady, and its conduct careful. David Starr +Jordan[3] was its first president. + + See O. H. Elliot and O. V. Eaton, _Stanford University and + thereabouts_ (San Francisco, 1896), and the official publications of + the university. + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] Stanford was born in Watervliet, New York; studied law in Albany; + removed to California in 1852 and went into business at Michigan + Bluff, Placer county, whence he removed to Sacramento in 1856; was + made president in 1861 of the Central Pacific railroad company, which + built the first trans-continental railway line over the Sierra + Nevada; was governor of California in 1862-1863, and United States + senator in 1885-1893; and was owner of the great Vina farm (55,000 + acres) in Tehama county, containing the largest vineyard in the world + (13,400 acres), the Gridley tract (22,000 acres) in Butte county, and + the Palo Alto breeding farm, which was the home of his famous + thoroughbred racers, Electioneer, Arion, Sunol, Palo Alto and + Advertiser. + + [2] The number of women attending the university as students in any + semester is limited by the founding grant to 500. + + [3] President Jordan was born in 1851 at Gainesville, New York; was + educated at Cornell, where he taught botany for a time; became an + assistant to the United States fish commission in 1872; in 1885-1891 + was president of the university of Indiana, where from 1879 he had + been professor of zoology; and in 1891 was elected president of + Leland Stanford Jr. University. An eminent ichthyologist, he wrote, + with Barton Warren Evermann (b. 1853), of the United States Bureau of + Fisheries, _Fishes of North and Middle America_ (4 vols., 1896-1900), + and _Food and Game Fishes of North America_ (1902); and prepared _A + Guide to the Study of Fishes_ (1905). + + + + +LELEGES, the name applied by Greek writers to an early people or peoples +of which traces were believed to remain in Greek lands. + +1. _In Asia Minor._--In Homer the Leleges are allies of the Trojans, but +they do not occur in the formal catalogue in _Iliad_, bk. ii., and +their habitat is not specified. They are distinguished from the Carians, +with whom some later writers confused them; they have a king Altes, and +a town Pedasus which was sacked by Achilles. The name Pedasus occurs +(i.) near Cyzicus, (ii.) in the Troad on the Satnioeis river, (iii.) in +Caria, as well as (iv.) in Messenia. Alcaeus (7th-6th centuries B.C.) +calls Antandrus in the Troad Lelegian, but Herodotus (5th century) +substitutes Pelasgian (q.v.). Gargara in the Troad also counted as +Lelegian. Pherecydes (5th century) attributed to Leleges the coast land +of Caria from Ephesus to Phocaea, with the islands of Samos and Chios, +placing the "true Carians" farther south from Ephesus to Miletus. If +this statement be from Pherecydes of Leros (c. 480) it has great weight. +In the 4th century, however, Philippus of Theangela in south Caria +describes Leleges still surviving as serfs of the true Carians, and +Strabo, in the 1st century B.C., attributes to the Leleges a well-marked +group of deserted forts, tombs and dwellings which ranged (and can still +be traced) from the neighbourhood of Theangela and Halicarnassus as far +north as Miletus, the southern limit of the "true Carians" of +Pherecydes. Plutarch also implies the historic existence of Lelegian +serfs at Tralles in the interior. + +2. _In Greece and the Aegean._--A single passage in the Hesiodic +catalogue (fr. 136 Kinkel) places Leleges "in Deucalion's time," i.e. as +a primitive people, in Locris in central Greece. Not until the 4th +century B.C. does any other writer place them anywhere west of the +Aegean. But the confusion of the Leleges with the Carians (immigrant +conquerors akin to Lydians and Mysians, and probably to Phrygians) which +first appears in a Cretan legend (quoted by Herodotus, but repudiated, +as he says, by the Carians themselves) and is repeated by Callisthenes, +Apollodorus and other later writers, led easily to the suggestion of +Callisthenes, that Leleges joined the Carians in their (half legendary) +raids on the coasts of Greece. Meanwhile other writers from the 4th +century onwards claimed to discover them in Boeotia, west Acarnania +(Leucas), and later again in Thessaly, Euboea, Megara, Lacedaemon and +Messenia. In Messenia they were reputed immigrant founders of Pylos, and +were connected with the seafaring Taphians and Teleboans of Homer, and +distinguished from the Pelasgians; in Lacedaemon and in Leucas they were +believed to be aboriginal. These European Leleges must be interpreted in +connexion with the recurrence of place names like Pedasus, Physcus, +Larymna and Abae, (a) in Caria, and (b) in the "Lelegian" parts of +Greece; perhaps this is the result of some early migration; perhaps it +is also the cause of these Lelegian theories. + + Modern speculations (mainly corollaries of Indo-Germanic theory) add + little of value to the Greek accounts quoted above. H. Kiepert ("Über + den Volksstamm der Leleges," in _Monatsber. Berl. Akad._, 1861, p. + 114) makes the Leleges an aboriginal people akin to Albanians and + Illyrians; K. W. Deimling, _Die Leleger_ (Leipzig, 1862), starts them + in south-west Asia Minor, and brings them thence to Greece + (practically the Greek view); G. F. Unger, "Hellas in Thessalien," in + _Philologus_, Suppl. ii. (1863), makes them Phoenician, and derives + their name from [Greek: lalazein] (cf. the names [Greek: barbaros], + _Wälsche_). E. Curtius (_History of Greece_, i.) distinguished a + "Lelegian" phase of nascent Aegean culture. Most later writers follow + Deimling. For Strabo's "Lelegian" monuments, cf. Paton and Myres, + _Journal of Hellenic Studies_, xvi. 188-270. (J. L. M.) + + + + +LELEWEL, JOACHIM (1786-1861), Polish historian, geographer and +numismatist, was born at Warsaw on the 22nd of March 1786. His family +came from Prussia in the early part of the 18th century; his grandfather +was appointed physician to the reigning king of Poland, and his father +caused himself to be naturalized as a Polish citizen. The original form +of the name appears to have been Lölhöffel. Joachim was educated at the +university of Vilna, and became in 1807 a teacher in a school at +Krzemieniec in Volhynia, in 1814 teacher of history at Vilna, and in +1818 professor and librarian at the university of Warsaw. He returned to +Vilna in 1821. His lectures enjoyed great popularity, and enthusiasm +felt for him by the students is shown in the beautiful lines addressed +to him by Mickiewicz. But this very circumstance made him obnoxious to +the Russian government, and at Vilna Novosiltsev was then all-powerful. +Lelewel was removed from his professorship in 1824, and returned to +Warsaw, where he was elected a deputy to the diet in 1829. He joined the +revolutionary movement with more enthusiasm than energy, and though the +emperor Nicholas I. distinguished him as one of the most dangerous +rebels, did not appear to advantage as a man of action. On the +suppression of the rebellion he made his way in disguise to Germany, and +subsequently reached Paris in 1831. The government of Louis Philippe +ordered him to quit French territory in 1833 at the request of the +Russian ambassador. The cause of this expulsion is said to have been his +activity in writing revolutionary proclamations. He went to Brussels, +where for nearly thirty years he earned a scanty livelihood by his +writings. He died on the 29th of May 1861 in Paris, whither he had +removed a few days previously. + +Lelewel, a man of austere character, simple tastes and the loftiest +conception of honour, was a lover of learning for its own sake. His +literary activity was enormous, extending from his _Edda Skandinawska_ +(1807) to his _Géographie des Arabes_ (2 vols., Paris, 1851). One of his +most important publications was _La Géographie du moyen âge_ (5 vols., +Brussels, 1852-1857), with an atlas (1849) of plates entirely engraved +by himself, for he rightly attached such importance to the accuracy of +his maps that he would not allow them to be executed by any one else. +His works on Polish history are based on minute and critical study of +the documents; they were collected under the title _Polska, dzieje i +rzeczy jej rozpatrzywane_ (_Poland, her History and Affairs surveyed_), +in 20 vols. (Posen, 1853-1876). He intended to write a complete history +of Poland on an extensive scale, but never accomplished the task. His +method is shown in the little history of Poland, first published at +Warsaw in Polish in 1823, under the title _Dzieje Polski_, and +afterwards almost rewritten in the _Histoire de Pologne_ (2 vols., +Paris, 1844). Other works on Polish history which may be especially +mentioned are _La Pologne au moyen âge_ (3 vols., Posen, 1846-1851), an +edition of the _Chronicle of Matthew Cholewa_[1] (1811) and _Ancient +Memorials of Polish Legislation_ (_Ksiegi ustaw polskich i +mazowieckich_). He also wrote on the trade of Carthage, on Pytheas of +Marseilles, the geographer, and two important works on numismatics (_La +Numismatique du moyen âge_, Paris, 2 vols., 1835; _Études +numismatiques_, Brussels, 1840). While employed in the university +library of Warsaw he studied bibliography, and the fruits of his labours +may be seen in his _Bibliograficznych Ksiag dwoje_ (_A Couple of Books +on Bibliography_) (2 vols., Vilna, 1823-1826). The characteristics of +Lelewel as an historian are great research and power to draw inferences +from his facts; his style is too often careless, and his narrative is +not picturesque, but his expressions are frequently terse and incisive. + + He left valuable materials for a just comprehension of his career in + the autobiography (_Adventures while Prosecuting Researches and + Inquiries on Polish Matters_) printed in his _Polska_. + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] I.e. the three first books of the _Historia Polonica_ of + Vincentius (Kadlbek), bishop of Cracow (d. 1223), wrongly ascribed by + Lelewel to Matthaeus Cholewa, bishop of Cracow. See Potthast, + _Bibliotheca hist, med. aev., s.v._ "Vincentius." + + + + +LELONG, JACQUES (1665-1721), French bibliographer, was born at Paris on +the 19th of April 1665. He was a priest of the Oratory, and was +librarian to the establishment of the Order in Paris, where he spent his +life in seclusion. He died at Paris on the 13th of August 1721. He first +published a _Bibliotheca sacra_ (1709), an index of all the editions of +the Bible, then a _Bibliothèque historique de la France_ (1719), a +volume of considerable size, containing 17,487 items to which Lelong +sometimes appends useful notes. His work is far from complete. He vainly +hoped that his friend and successor Father Desmolets, would continue it; +but it was resumed by Charles-Marie Fevret de Fontette, a councillor of +the parlement of Dijon, who spent fifteen years of his life and a great +deal of money in rewriting the _Bibliothèque historique_. The first two +volumes (1768 and 1769) contained as many as 29,143 items. Fevret de +Fontette died on the 16th of February 1772, leaving the third volume +almost finished. It appeared in 1772, thanks to Barbaud de La Bruyère, +who later brought out the 4th and 5th volumes (1775 and 1778). In this +new edition the _Bibliothèque historique_ is a work of reference of the +highest order; it is still of great value. + + + + +LELY, SIR PETER (1617-1680) English painter, was born at Soest, +Westphalia, in 1617. His father, a military captain and a native of +Holland, was originally called van der Vaes; the nickname of Le Lys or +Lely, by which he was generally known, was adopted by his son as a +surname. After studying for two years under Peter de Grebber, an artist +of some note at Haarlem, Lely, induced by the patronage of Charles I. +for the fine arts, removed to England in 1641. There he at first painted +historical subjects and landscape; he soon became so eminent in his +profession as to be employed by Charles to paint his portrait shortly +after the death of Vandyck. He afterwards portrayed Cromwell. At the +Restoration his genius and agreeable manners won the favour of Charles +II., who made him his state-painter, and afterwards knighted him. He +formed a famous collection, the best of his time, containing drawings, +prints and paintings by the best masters; it sold by auction for no less +than £26,000. His great example, however, was Vandyck, whom, in some of +his most successful pieces, he almost rivals. Lely's paintings are +carefully finished, warm and clear in colouring, and animated in design. +The graceful posture of the heads, the delicate rounding of the hands, +and the broad folds of the draperies are admired in many of his +portraits. The eyes of the ladies are drowsy with languid sentiment, and +allegory of a commonplace sort is too freely introduced. His most famous +work is a collection of portraits of the ladies of the court of Charles +II., known as "the Beauties," formerly at Windsor Castle, and now +preserved at Hampton Court Palace. Of his few historical pictures, the +best is "Susannah and the Elders," at Burleigh House. His "Jupiter and +Europa," in the duke of Devonshire's collection, is also worthy of note. +Lely was nearly as famous for crayon work as for oil-painting. Towards +the close of his life he often retired to an estate which he had bought +at Kew. He died of apoplexy in the Piazza, Covent Garden, London, and +was buried in Covent Garden church, where a monument was afterwards +erected to his memory. Pepys characterized Lely as "a mighty proud man +and full of state." The painter married an English lady of family, and +left a son and daughter, who died young. His only disciples were J. +Greenhill and J. Buckshorn; he did not, however, allow them to obtain an +insight into his special modes of work. (W. M. R.) + + + + +LE MAÇON (or LE MASSON), ROBERT (c. 1365-1443), chancellor of France, +was born at Château du Loir, Sarthe. He was ennobled in March 1401, and +became six years later a councillor of Louis II., duke of Anjou and king +of Sicily. A partisan of the house of Orleans, he was appointed +chancellor to Isabella of Bavaria on the 29th of January 1414, on the +20th of July commissary of the mint, and in June 1416 chancellor to the +count of Ponthieu, afterwards Charles VII. On the 16th of August he +bought the barony of Trèves in Anjou, and henceforward bore the title of +seigneur of Trèves. When Paris was surprised by the Burgundians on the +night of the 29th of May 1418 he assisted Tanguy Duchâtel in saving the +dauphin. His devotion to the cause of the latter having brought down on +him the wrath of John the Fearless, duke of Burgundy, he was excluded +from the political amnesty known as the peace of Saint Maur des Fossés, +though he retained his seat on the king's council. He was by the +dauphin's side when John the Fearless was murdered at the bridge of +Montereau on the 10th of September 1419. He resigned the seals at the +beginning of 1422; but he continued to exercise great influence, and in +1426 he effected a reconciliation between the king and the duke of +Brittany. Having been captured by Jean de Langeac, seneschal of +Auvergne, in August of the same year, he was shut up for three months in +the château of Usson. When set at liberty he returned to court, where he +staunchly supported Joan of Arc against all the cabals that menaced her. +It was he who signed the patent of nobility for the Arc family in +December 1429. In 1430 he was once more entrusted with an embassy to +Brittany. Having retired from political life in 1436, he died on the +28th of January 1443, and was interred at Trèves, where his epitaph may +still be seen. + + See C. Bourcier, "Robert le Masson," in the _Revue historique de + l'Anjou_ (1873); and the _Nouvelle biographie générale_, vol. xxx. + (J. V.*) + + + + +LE MAIRE DE BELGES, JEAN (1473-c. 1525), French poet and +historiographer, was born at Bavai in Hainault. He was a nephew of Jean +Molinet, and spent some time with him at Valenciennes, where the elder +writer held a kind of academy of poetry. Le Maire in his first poems +calls himself a disciple of Molinet. In certain aspects he does belong +to the school of the _grands rhétoriqueurs_, but his great merit as a +poet is that he emancipated himself from the affectations and +puerilities of his masters. This independence of the Flemish school he +owed in part perhaps to his studies at the university of Paris and to +the study of the Italian poets at Lyons, a centre of the French +renascence. In 1503 he was attached to the court of Margaret of Austria, +duchess of Savoy, afterwards regent of the Netherlands. For this +princess he undertook more than one mission to Rome; he became her +librarian and a canon of Valenciennes. To her were addressed his most +original poems, _Epistres de l'amand verd_, the _amant vert_ being a +green parrot belonging to his patroness. Le Maire gradually became more +French in his sympathies, eventually entering the service of Anne of +Brittany. His prose _Illustrations des Gaules et singularitez de Troye_ +(1510-1512), largely adapted from Benoît de Sainte More, connects the +Burgundian royal house with Hector. Le Maire probably died before 1525. +Étienne Pasquier, Ronsard and Du Bellay all acknowledged their +indebtedness to him. In his love for antiquity, his sense of rhythm, and +even the peculiarities of his vocabulary he anticipated the _Pléiade_. + + His works were edited in 1882-1885 by J. Stecher, who wrote the + article on him in the _Biographie nationale de Belgique_. + + + + +LEMAÎTRE, FRANÇOIS ÉLIE JULES (1853- ), French critic and dramatist, +was born at Vennecy (Loiret) on the 27th of April 1853. He became a +professor at the university of Grenoble, but he had already become known +by his literary criticisms, and in 1884 he resigned his position to +devote himself entirely to literature. He succeeded J. J. Weiss as +dramatic critic of the _Journal des Débats_, and subsequently filled the +same office on the _Revue des Deux Mondes_. His literary studies were +collected under the title of _Les Contemporains_ (7 series, 1886-1899), +and his dramatic _feuilletons as Impressions de théâtre_ (10 series, +1888-1898). His sketches of modern authors are interesting for the +insight displayed in them, the unexpectedness of the judgments and the +gaiety and originality of their expression. He published two volumes of +poetry: _Les Médaillons_ (1880) and _Petites orientales_ (1883); also +some volumes of _contes_, among them _En marge des vieux livres_ (1905). +His plays are: _Révoltée_ (1889), _Le député Leveau_, and _Le Mariage +blanc_ (1891), _Les Rois_ (1893), _Le Pardon_ and _L'Age difficile_ +(1895), _La Massière_ (1905) and _Bertrade_ (1906). He was admitted to +the French Academy on the 16th of January 1896. His political views were +defined in _La Campagne nationaliste_ (1902), lectures delivered in the +provinces by him and by G. Cavaignac. He conducted a nationalist +campaign in the _Écho de Paris_, and was for some time president of the +Ligue de la Patrie Française, but resigned in 1904, and again devoted +himself to literature. + + + + +LE MANS, a town of north-western France, capital of the department of +Sarthe, 77 m. S.W. of Chartres on the railway from Paris to Brest. Pop. +(1906) town, 54,907, commune, 65,467. It is situated just above the +confluence of the Sarthe and the Huisne, on an elevation rising from the +left bank of the Sarthe. Several bridges connect the old town and the +new quarters which have sprung up round it with the more extensive +quarter of Pré on the right bank. Modern thoroughfares are gradually +superseding the winding and narrow streets of old houses; a tunnel +connects the Place des Jacobins with the river side. The cathedral, +built in the highest part of the town, was originally founded by St +Julian, to whom it is dedicated. The nave dates from the 11th and 12th +centuries. In the 13th century the choir was enlarged in the grandest +and boldest style of that period. The transepts, which are higher than +the nave, were rebuilt in the 15th century, and the bell-tower of the +south transept, the lower part of which is Romanesque, was rebuilt in +the 15th and 16th centuries. Some of the stained glass in the nave, +dating from the first half of the 12th century, is the oldest in France; +the west window, representing the legend of St Julian, is especially +interesting. The south lateral portal (12th century) is richly +decorated, and its statuettes exhibit many costumes of the period. The +austere simplicity of the older part of the building is in striking +contrast with the lavish richness of the ornamentation in the choir, +where the stained glass is especially fine. The rose-window (15th +century) of the north transept, representing the Last Judgment, contains +many historical figures. The cathedral also has curious tapestries and +some remarkable tombs, including that of Berengaria, queen of Richard +Coeur de Lion. Close to the western wall is a megalithic monument nearly +15 ft. in height. The church of La Couture, which belonged to an old +abbey founded in the 7th century by St Bertrand, has a porch of the 13th +century with fine statuary; the rest of the building is older. The +church of Notre-Dame du Pré, on the right bank of the Sarthe, is +Romanesque in style. The hôtel de ville was built in 1756 on the site of +the former castle of the counts of Maine; the prefecture (1760) occupies +the site of the monastery of La Couture, and contains the library, the +communal archives, and natural history and art collections; there is +also an archaeological museum. Among the old houses may be mentioned the +Hôtel du Grabatoire of the Renaissance, once a hospital for the canons +and the so-called house of Queen Berengaria (16th century), meeting +place of the historical and archaeological society of Maine. A monument +to General Chanzy commemorates the battle of Le Mans (1871). Le Mans is +the seat of a bishopric dating from the 3rd century, of a prefect, and +of a court of assizes, and headquarters of the IV. army corps. It has +also tribunals of first instance and of commerce, a council of +trade-arbitrators, a chamber of commerce, a branch of the Bank of +France, an exchange, a lycée for boys, training colleges, a higher +ecclesiastical seminary and a school of music. The town has a great +variety of industries, carried on chiefly in the southern suburb of +Pontlieue. The more important are the state manufacture of tobacco, the +preparation of preserved vegetables, fish, &c., tanning, hemp-spinning, +bell-founding, flour-milling, the founding of copper and other metals, +and the manufacture of railway wagons, machinery and engineering +material, agricultural implements, rope, cloth and stained glass. The +fattening of poultry is an important local industry, and there is trade +in cattle, wine, cloth, farm-produce, &c. The town is an important +railway centre. + +As the capital of the Aulerci Cenomanni, Le Mans was called Suindinum or +Vindinum. The Romans built walls round it in the 3rd century, and traces +of them are still to be seen close to the left bank of the river near +the cathedral. In the same century the town was evangelized by St +Julian, who became its first bishop. Ruled at first by his +successors--notably St Aldric--Le Mans passed in the middle ages to the +counts of Maine (q.v.), whose capital and residence it became. About the +middle of the 11th century the citizens secured a communal charter, but +in 1063 the town was seized by William the Conqueror, who deprived them +of their liberties, which were recovered when the countship of Maine had +passed to the Plantagenet kings of England. Le Mans was taken by Philip +Augustus in 1189, recaptured by John, subsequently confiscated and later +ceded to Queen Berengaria, who did much for its prosperity. It was +several times besieged in the 15th and 16th centuries. In 1793 it was +seized by the Vendeans, who were expelled by the Republican generals +Marceau and Westermann after a stubborn battle in the streets. In 1799 +it was again occupied by the Chouans. + +The battle of Le Mans (10th-12th January 1871) was the culminating point +of General Chanzy's fighting retreat into western France after the +winter campaign in Beauce and Perche (see FRANCO-GERMAN WAR). The +numerous, but ill-trained and ill-equipped, levies of the French were +followed up by Prince Frederick Charles with the German II. Army, now +very much weakened but consisting of soldiers who had in six months' +active warfare acquired the self-confidence of veterans. The Germans +advanced with three army corps in first line and one in reserve. On the +9th of January the centre corps (III.) drove an advanced division of the +French from Ardenay (13 m. E. of Le Mans). On the 10th of January +Chanzy's main defensive position was approached. Its right wing was east +of the Sarthe and 3-5 m. from Le Mans, its centre on the heights of +Anvours with the river Huisne behind it, and its left scattered along +the western bank of the same river as far as Montfort (12 m. E.N.E. of +Le Mans) and thence northward for some miles. On the 10th there was a +severe struggle for the villages along the front of the French centre. +On the 11th Chanzy attempted a counter-offensive from many points, but +owing to the misbehaviour of certain of his rawest levies, the Germans +were able to drive him back, and as their cavalry now began to appear +beyond his extreme left flank, he retreated in the night of the 11th on +Laval, the Germans occupying Le Mans after a brief rearguard fight on +the 12th. + + + + +LE MARCHANT, JOHN GASPARD (1766-1812), English major-general, was the +son of an officer of dragoons, John Le Marchant, a member of an old +Guernsey family. After a somewhat wild youth, Le Marchant, who entered +the army in 1781, attained the rank of lieutenant-colonel in 1797. Two +years before this he had designed a new cavalry sword; and in 1801 his +scheme for establishing at High Wycombe and Great Marlow schools for the +military instruction of officers was sanctioned by Parliament, and a +grant of £30,000 was voted for the "royal military college," the two +original departments being afterwards combined and removed to Sandhurst. +Le Marchant was the first lieutenant-governor, and during the nine years +that he held this appointment he trained many officers who served with +distinction under Wellington in the Peninsula. Le Marchant himself was +given the command of a cavalry brigade in 1810, and greatly +distinguished himself in several actions, being killed at the battle of +Salamanca on the 22nd of July 1812, after the charge of his brigade had +had an important share in the English victory. He wrote several +treatises on cavalry tactics and other military subjects, but few of +them were published. By his wife, Mary, daughter of John Carey of +Guernsey, Le Marchant had four sons and six daughters. + +His second son, SIR DENIS LE MARCHANT, Bart. (1795-1874), was educated +at Eton and Trinity College, Cambridge, and was called to the bar in +1823. In 1830 he became secretary to Lord Chancellor Brougham, and in +the Reform Bill debates made himself exceedingly useful to the +ministers. Having been secretary to the board of trade from 1836 to +1841, he was created a baronet in 1841. He entered the House of Commons +in 1846, and was under secretary for the home department in the +government of Lord John Russell. He was chief clerk of the House of +Commons from 1850 to 1871. He published a _Life_ of his father in 1841, +and began a _Life_ of Lord Althorpe which was completed after his death +by his son; he also edited Horace Walpole's _Memoirs of the Reign of +George III._ (1845). Sir Denis Le Marchant died in London on the 30th of +October 1874. + +The third son of General Le Marchant, SIR JOHN GASPARD LE MARCHANT +(1803-1874), entered the English army, and saw service in Spain in the +Carlist War of 1835-37. He was afterwards lieutenant-governor of +Newfoundland (1847-1852) and of Nova Scotia (1852-1857); governor of +Malta (1859-1864); commander-in-chief at Madras (1865-1868). He was made +K.C.B. in 1865, and died on the 6th of February 1874. + + See Sir Denis Le Marchant, _Memoirs of General Le Marchant_ (1841); + Sir William Napier, _History of the War in the Peninsula_ (6 vols., + 1828-1840). + + + + +LEMBERG (Pol. _Lwów_, Lat. _Leopolis_), the capital of the crownland of +Galicia, Austria, 468 m. N.W. of Vienna by rail. Pop. (1900) 159,618, of +whom over 80% were Poles, 10% Germans, and 8% Ruthenians; nearly 30% of +the population were Jews. According to population Lemberg is the fourth +city in the Austrian empire, coming after Vienna, Prague and Trieste. +Lemberg is situated on the small river Peltew, an affluent of the Bug, +in a valley in the Sarmatian plateau, and is surrounded by hills. It is +composed of the inner town and of four suburbs. The inner town was +formerly fortified, but the fortifications were transformed into +pleasure grounds in 1811. Lemberg is the residence of Roman Catholic, +Greek Catholic and Armenian archbishops, and contains three cathedrals. +The Roman Catholic cathedral was finished by Casimir IV. in 1480 in +Gothic style; near it is a chapel (1609) remarkable for its architecture +and sculpture. The Greek cathedral, built in 1740-1779 in the Basilica +style, is situated on a height which dominates the town. The Armenian +cathedral was built in 1437 in the Armenian-Byzantine style. The +Dominican church, built in 1749 after the model of St Peter's at Rome, +contains a monument by Thorvaldsen to the Countess Dunin-Borkowska; the +Greek St Nicholas church was built in 1292; and the Roman Catholic St +Mary church was built in 1363 by the first German settlers. The town +hall (1828-1837) with a tower 250 ft. high is situated in the middle of +a square. Also notable are the hall of the estates (1877-1881), the +industrial museum, the theatre, the palace of the Roman Catholic +archbishop and several educational establishments. There are many +beautiful private buildings, broad and well-paved streets, numerous +squares and public gardens. At the head of the educational institutions +stands the university, founded in 1784 by Joseph II., transformed into a +lycée in 1803, and restored and reorganized in 1817. Since 1871 the +language of instruction has been Polish, and in 1901 the university had +110 lecturers, and was attended by 2060 students. There are also a +polytechnic, gymnasia--for Poles, Ruthenians and Germans +respectively--seminaries for priests, training colleges for teachers, +and other special and technical schools. In Lemberg is the National +Institute founded by Count Ossolinski, which contains a library of books +and manuscripts relating chiefly to the history and literature of +Poland, valuable antiquarian and scientific collections, and a printing +establishment; also the Dzieduszycki museum with collections of natural +history and ethnography relating chiefly to Galicia. Industrially and +commercially Lemberg is the most important city in Galicia, its +industries including the manufacture of machinery and iron wares, +matches, stearin candles and naphtha, arrack and liqueurs, chocolate, +chicory, leather and plaster of Paris, as well as brewing, corn-milling +and brick and tile making. It has important commerce in linen, flax, +hemp, wool and seeds, and a considerable transit trade. Of the +well-wooded hills which surround Lemberg, the most important is the +Franz-Josef-Berg to the N.E., with an altitude of 1310 ft. Several +beautiful parks have been laid out on this hill. + +Leopolis was founded about 1259 by the Ruthenian prince Leo Danilowicz, +who moved here his residence from Halicz in 1270. From Casimir the +Great, who captured it in 1340, it received the Magdeburg rights, and +for almost two hundred years the public records were kept in German. In +1412 it became the see of a Roman Catholic archbishopric, and from 1432 +until 1772 it was the capital of the Polish province of Reussen (_Terra +Russia_). During the whole period of Polish supremacy it was a most +important city, and after the fall of Constantinople it greatly +developed its trade with the East. In 1648 and 1655 it was besieged by +the Cossacks, and in 1672 by the Turks. Charles XII. of Sweden captured +it in 1704. In 1848 it was bombarded. + + + + +LEMERCIER, LOUIS JEAN NÉPOMUCÉNE (1771-1840), French poet and dramatist, +was born in Paris on the 21st of April 1771. His father had been +intendant successively to the duc de Penthièvre, the comte de Toulouse +and the unfortunate princesse de Lamballe, who was the boy's godmother. +Lemercier showed great precocity; before he was sixteen his tragedy of +_Méléagre_ was produced at the _Théâtre Français_. _Clarissa Harlowe_ +(1792) provoked the criticism that the author was not _assez roué pour +peindre les roueries_. _Le Tartufe révolutionnaire_, a parody full of +the most audacious political allusions, was suppressed after the fifth +representation. In 1795 appeared Lemercier's masterpiece _Agamemnon_, +called by Charles Labitte the last great antique tragedy in French +literature. It was a great success, but was violently attacked later by +Geoffroy, who stigmatized it as a bad caricature of Crébillon. _Quatre +métamorphoses_ (1799) was written to prove that the most indecent +subjects might be treated without offence. The _Pinto_ (1800) was the +result of a wager that no further dramatic innovations were possible +after the comedies of Beaumarchais. It is a historical comedy on the +subject of the Portuguese revolution of 1640. This play was construed as +casting reflections on the first consul, who had hitherto been a firm +friend of Lemercier. His extreme freedom of speech finally offended +Napoleon, and the quarrel proved disastrous to Lemercier's fortune for +the time. None of his subsequent work fulfilled the expectations raised +by _Agamemnon_, with the exception perhaps of _Frédégonde et Brunéhaut_ +(1821). In 1810 he was elected to the Academy, where he consistently +opposed the romanticists, refusing to give his vote to Victor Hugo. In +spite of this, he has some pretensions to be considered the earliest of +the romantic school. His _Christophe Colomb_ (1809), advertised on the +playbill as a _comédie shakespirienne_ (sic), represented the interior +of a ship, and showed no respect for the unities. Its numerous +innovations provoked such violent disturbances in the audience that one +person was killed and future representations had to be guarded by the +police. Lemercier wrote four long and ambitious epic poems: _Homère_, +_Alexandre_ (1801), _L'Atlantiade, ou la théogonie newtonienne_ (1812) +and _Moïse_ (1823), as well as an extraordinary _Panhypocrisiade_ +(1819-1832), a distinctly romantic production in twenty cantos, which +has the sub-title _Spectacle infernal du XVI^e siècle_. In it +16th-century history, with Charles V. and Francis I. as principal +personages, is played out on an imaginary stage by demons in the +intervals of their sufferings. Lemercier died on the 7th of June 1840 in +Paris. + + + + +LEMERY, NICOLAS (1645-1715), French chemist, was born at Rouen on the +17th of November 1645. After learning pharmacy in his native town he +became a pupil of C. Glaser's in Paris, and then went to Montpellier, +where he began to lecture on chemistry. He next established a pharmacy +in Paris, still continuing his lectures, but in 1683, being a Calvinist, +he was obliged to retire to England. In the following year he returned +to France, and turning Catholic in 1686 was able to reopen his shop and +resume his lectures. He died in Paris on the 19th of June 1715. Lemery +did not concern himself much with theoretical speculations, but holding +chemistry to be a demonstrative science, confined himself to the +straightforward exposition of facts and experiments. In consequence, his +lecture-room was thronged with people of all sorts, anxious to hear a +man who shunned the barren obscurities of the alchemists, and did not +regard the quest of the philosopher's stone and the elixir of life as +the sole end of his science. Of his _Cours de chymie_ (1675) he lived to +see 13 editions, and for a century it maintained its reputation as a +standard work. His other publications included _Pharmacopée universelle_ +(1697), _Traité universel des drogues simples_ (1698), _Traité de +l'antimoine_ (1707), together with a number of papers contributed to the +French Academy, one of which offered a chemical and physical explanation +of underground fires, earthquakes, lightning and thunder. He discovered +that heat is evolved when iron filings and sulphur are rubbed together +to a paste with water, and the artificial _volcan de Lemery_ was +produced by burying underground a considerable quantity of this mixture, +which he regarded as a potent agent in the causation of volcanic action. + +His son LOUIS (1677-1743) was appointed physician at the Hôtel Dieu in +1710, and became demonstrator of chemistry at the Jardin du Roi in 1731. +He was the author of a _Traité des aliments_ (1702), and of a +_Dissertation sur la nature des os_ (1704), as well as of a number of +papers on chemical topics. + + + + +LEMERY, a town of the province of Batangas, Luzon, Philippine Islands, +on the Gulf of Balayan and the Pansipit river, opposite Taal (with which +it is connected by a bridge), and about 50 m. S. of Manila. Pop. of the +municipality (1903) 11,150. It has a fine church and convent. Lemery is +situated on a plain in a rich agricultural district, which produces +rice, Indian corn, sugar and cotton, and in which horses and cattle are +bred. It is also a port for coasting vessels, and has an important trade +with various parts of the archipelago. The language is Tagalog. + + + + +LEMGO, a town of Germany, in the principality of Lippe, in a broad and +fertile plain, 9 m. N. from Detmold and on the railway Hameln-Lage. Pop. +(1900) 8840. Its somewhat gloomy aspect, enhanced by the tortuous narrow +lanes flanked by gabled houses of the 15th century, has gained for it +among countryfolk the sobriquet of the "Witches' nest" (_Hexen-Nest_). +It is replete with interest for the antiquarian. It has four Evangelical +churches, two with curiously leaning, lead-covered spires; an old +town-hall; a gymnasium; and several philanthropic and religious +institutions. Among the latter is the Jungfrauenstift, of which a +princess of the reigning house of Lippe-Detmold has always been lady +superior since 1306. The chief industry of Lemgo is the manufacture of +meerschaum pipes, which has attained here a high pitch of excellence; +other industries are weaving, brewing and the manufacture of leather and +cigars. The town was a member of the Hanseatic league. + + + + +LEMIERRE, ANTOINE MARIN (1733-1793), French dramatist and poet, was born +in Paris on the 12th of January 1733. His parents were poor, but +Lemierre found a patron in the collector-general of taxes, Dupin, whose +secretary he became. Lemierre gained his first success on the stage with +_Hypermnestre_ (1758); _Térée_ (1761) and _Idoménée_ (1764) failed on +account of the subjects. _Artaxerce_, modelled on Metastasio, and +_Guillaume Tell_ were produced in 1766; other successful tragedies were +_La Veuve de Malabar_ (1770) and _Barnavelt_ (1784). Lemierre revived +_Guillaume Tell_ in 1786 with enormous success. After the Revolution he +professed great remorse for the production of a play inculcating +revolutionary principles, and there is no doubt that the horror of the +excesses he witnessed hastened his death, which took place on the 4th of +July 1793. He had been admitted to the Academy in 1781. Lemierre +published _La Peinture_ (1769), based on a Latin poem by the abbé de +Marsy, and a poem in six cantos, _Les Fastes, ou les usages de l'année_ +(1779), an unsatisfactory imitation of Ovid's _Fasti_. + + His _Oeuvres_ (1810) contain a notice of Lemierre by R. Perrin and his + _Oeuvres choisies_ (1811) one by F. Fayolle. + + + + +LEMIRE, JULES AUGUSTE (1853- ), French priest and social reformer, was +born at Vieux-Berquin (Nord) on the 23rd of April 1853. He was educated +at the college of St Francis of Assisi, Hazebrouck, where he +subsequently taught philosophy and rhetoric. In 1897 he was elected +deputy for Hazebrouck and was returned unopposed at the elections of +1898, 1902 and 1906. He organized a society called _La Ligue du coin de +terre et du foyer_, the object of which was to secure, at the expense of +the state, a piece of land for every French family desirous of +possessing one. The abbé Lemire sat in the chamber of deputies as a +conservative republican and Christian Socialist. He protested in 1893 +against the action of the Dupuy cabinet in closing the Bourse du +Travail, characterizing it as the expression of "a policy of disdain of +the workers." In December 1893 he was seriously injured by the bomb +thrown by the anarchist Vaillant from the gallery of the chamber. + + + + +LEMMING, the native name of a small Scandinavian rodent mammal _Lemmus +norvegicus_ (or _L. lemmus_), belonging to the mouse tribe, or +_Muridae_, and nearly related, especially in the structure of its +cheek-teeth, to the voles. Specimens vary considerably in size and +colour, but the usual length is about 5 in., and the soft fur +yellowish-brown, marked with spots of dark brown and black. It has a +short, rounded head, obtuse muzzle, small bead-like eyes, and short +rounded ears, nearly concealed by the fur. The tail is very short. The +feet are small, each with five claws, those of the fore feet strongest, +and fitted for scratching and digging. The usual habitat of lemmings is +the high lands or fells of the great central mountain chain of Norway +and Sweden, from the southern branches of the Langfjeldene in +Christiansand _stift_ to the North Cape and the Varangerfjord. South of +the Arctic circle they are, under ordinary circumstances, confined to +the plateaus covered with dwarf birch and juniper above the +conifer-region, though in Tromsö _amt_ and in Finmarken they occur in +all suitable localities down to the level of the sea. The nest, under a +tussock of grass or a stone, is constructed of short dry straws, and +usually lined with hair. The number of young in each nest is generally +five, sometimes only three occasionally seven or eight, and at least two +broods are produced annually. Their food is entirely vegetable, +especially grass roots and stalks, shoots of dwarf birch, reindeer +lichens and mosses, in search of which they form, in winter, long +galleries through the turf or under the snow. They are restless, +courageous and pugnacious little animals. When suddenly disturbed, +instead of trying to escape they sit upright, with their back against a +stone, hissing and showing fight in a determined manner. + +[Illustration: The Norwegian Lemming (_Lemmus Norvegicus_).] + +The circumstance which has given popular interest to the lemming is that +certain districts of the cultivated lands of Norway and Sweden, where in +ordinary circumstances they are unknown, are, at uncertain intervals +varying from five to twenty or more years, overrun by an army of these +little creatures, which steadily and slowly advance, always in the same +direction, and regardless of all obstacles, swimming streams and even +lakes of several miles in breadth, and committing considerable +devastation on their line of march by the quantity of food they consume. +In their turn they are pursued and harassed by crowds of beasts and +birds of prey, as bears, wolves, foxes, dogs, wild cats, stoats, +weasels, eagles, hawks and owls, and never spared by man; even domestic +animals, as cattle, goats and reindeer, join in the destruction, +stamping them to the ground with their feet, and even eating their +bodies. Numbers also die from diseases produced apparently from +overcrowding. None returns, and the onward march of the survivors never +ceases until they reach the sea, into which they plunge, and swimming +onwards in the same direction perish in the waves. These sudden +appearances of vast bodies of lemmings, and their singular habit of +persistently pursuing the same onward course of migration, have given +rise to various speculations, from the ancient belief of the Norwegian +peasants, shared by Olaus Magnus, that they fall down from the clouds, +to the hypothesis that they are acting in obedience to an instinct +inherited from ancient times, and still seeking the congenial home in +the submerged Atlantis, to which their ancestors of the Miocene period +were wont to resort when driven from their ordinary dwelling-places by +crowding or scarcity of food. The principal facts regarding these +migrations seem to be as follows. When any combination of circumstances +has occasioned an increase of the numbers of the lemmings in their +ordinary dwelling-places, impelled by the restless or migratory instinct +possessed in a less developed degree by so many of their congeners, a +movement takes place at the edge of the elevated plateau, and a +migration towards the lower-lying land begins. The whole body moves +forward slowly, always advancing in the same general direction in which +they originally started, but following more or less the course of the +great valleys. They only travel by night; and, staying in congenial +places for considerable periods, with unaccustomed abundance of +provender, notwithstanding the destructive influences to which they are +exposed, they multiply excessively during their journey, having families +more numerous and frequent than in their usual homes. The progress may +last from one to three years, according to the route taken, and the +distance to be traversed until the sea-coast is reached, which in a +country so surrounded by water as the Scandinavian peninsula must be the +ultimate goal of such a journey. This may be either the Atlantic or the +Gulf of Bothnia, according as the migration has commenced from the west +or the east side of the central elevated plateau. Those that finally +perish in the sea, committing what appears to be a voluntary suicide, +are only acting under the same blind impulse which has led them +previously to cross shallower pieces of water with safety. In Eastern +Europe, Northern Asia and North America the group is represented by the +allied _L. obensis_, and in Alaska, by _L. nigripes_; while the +circumpolar banded lemming, _Dicrostonyx torquatus_, which turns white +in winter, represents a second genus taking its name from the double +claws on one of the toes of the forefeet. + + For habits of lemmings, see R. Collett, _Myodes lemmus, its habits and + migrations in Norway_ (Christiania Videnskabs-Selskabs Forhandlinger, + 1895). (W. H. F.; R. L.*) + + + + +LEMNISCATE (from Gr. [Greek: lêmniskos], ribbon), a quartic curve +invented by Jacques Bernoulli (_Acta Eruditorum_, 1694) and afterwards +investigated by Giulio Carlo Fagnano, who gave its principal properties +and applied it to effect the division of a quadrant into 2.2^m, 3.2^m +and 5.2^m equal parts. Following Archimedes, Fagnano desired the curve +to be engraved on his tombstone. The complete analytical treatment was +first given by Leonhard Euler. The lemniscate of Bernoulli may be +defined as the locus of a point which moves so that the product of its +distances from two fixed points is constant and is equal to the square +of half the distance between these points. It is therefore a particular +form of Cassini's oval (see OVAL). Its cartesian equation, when the line +joining the two fixed points is the axis of x and the middle point of +this line is the origin, is (x² + y²)² = 2a²(x² - y²) and the polar +equation is r² = 2a² cos 2[theta]. The curve (fig. 1) consists of two +loops symmetrically placed about the coordinate axes. The pedal equation +is r³ = a²p, which shows that it is the first positive pedal of a +rectangular hyperbola with regard to the centre. It is also the inverse +of the same curve for the same point. It is the envelope of circles +described on the central radii of an ellipse as diameters. The area of +the complete curve is 2a², and the length of any arc may be expressed in +the form [int](1 - x^4)^(-½)dx, an elliptic integral sometimes termed +the _lemniscatic integral_. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 3.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 4.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 5.] + + The name lemniscate is sometimes given to any crunodal quartic curve + having only one real finite branch which is symmetric about the axis. + Such curves are given by the equation x² - y² = ax^4 + bx²y² + cy^4. + If a be greater than b the curve resembles fig. 2 and is sometimes + termed the _fishtail-lemniscate_; if a be less than b, the curve + resembles fig. 3. The same name is also given to the first positive + pedal of any central conic. When the conic is a rectangular hyperbola, + the curve is the lemniscate of Bernoulli previously described. The + _elliptic lemniscate_ has for its equation (x² + y²)² = a²x² + b²y² or + r² = a² cos²[theta] + b² sin²[theta] (a > b). The centre is a + conjugate point (or acnode) and the curve resembles fig. 4. The + _hyperbolic lemniscate_ has for its equation (x² + y²)² = a²x² - b²y² + or r² = a² cos²[theta] - b² sin²[theta]. In this case the centre is a + crunode and the curve resembles fig. 5. These curves are instances of + unicursal bicircular quartics. + + + + +LEMNOS (mod. _Limnos_), an island in the northern part of the Aegean +Sea. The Italian form of the name, Stalimene, i.e. [Greek: es tên +Lêmnon], is not used in the island itself, but is commonly employed in +geographical works. The island, which belongs to Turkey, is of +considerable size: Pliny says that the coast-line measured 112½ Roman +miles, and the area has been estimated at 150 sq. m. Great part is +mountainous, but some very fertile valleys exist, to cultivate which +2000 yoke of oxen are employed. The hill-sides afford pasture for 20,000 +sheep. No forests exist on the island; all wood is brought from the +coast of Rumelia or from Thasos. A few mulberry and fruit trees grow, +but no olives. The population is estimated by some as high as 27,000, of +whom 2000 are Turks and the rest Greeks, but other authorities doubt +whether it reaches more than half this number. The chief towns are +Kastro on the western coast, with a population of 4000 Greeks and 800 +Turks, and Mudros on the southern coast. Kastro possesses an excellent +harbour, and is the seat of all the trade carried on with the island. +Greek, English and Dutch consuls or consular agents were formerly +stationed there; but the whole trade is now in Greek hands. The +archbishops of Lemnos and Ai Strati, a small neighbouring island with +2000 inhabitants, resides in Kastro. In ancient times the island was +sacred to Hephaestus, who as the legend tells fell on Lemnos when his +father Zeus hurled him headlong out of Olympus. This tale, as well as +the name Aethaleia, sometimes applied to it, points to its volcanic +character. It is said that fire occasionally blazed forth from +Mosychlos, one of its mountains; and Pausanias (viii. 33) relates that a +small island called Chryse, off the Lemnian coast, was swallowed up by +the sea. All volcanic action is now extinct. + + The most famous product of Lemnos is the medicinal earth, which is + still used by the natives. At one time it was popular over western + Europe under the name _terra sigillata_. This name, like the Gr. + [Greek: Lêmnia sphragis], is derived from the stamp impressed on each + piece of the earth; in ancient times the stamp was the head of + Artemis. The Turks now believe that a vase of this earth destroys the + effect of any poison drunk from it--a belief which the ancients + attached rather to the earth from Cape Kolias in Attica. Galen went to + see the digging up of this earth (see Kuhn, _Medic. Gr. Opera_, xii. + 172 sq.); on one day in each year a priestess performed the due + ceremonies, and a waggon-load of earth was dug out. At the present + time the day selected is the 6th of August, the feast of Christ the + Saviour. Both the Turkish _hodja_ and the Greek priest are present to + perform the necessary ceremonies; the whole process takes place before + daybreak. The earth is sold by apothecaries in stamped cubical blocks. + The hill from which the earth is dug is a dry mound, void of + vegetation, beside the village of Kotschinos, and about two hours from + the site of Hephaestia. The earth was considered in ancient times a + cure for old festering wounds, and for the bite of poisonous snakes. + +The name Lemnos is said by Hecataeus (ap. Steph. Byz.) to have been a +title of Cybele among the Thracians, and the earliest inhabitants are +said to have been a Thracian tribe, called by the Greeks Sinties, i.e. +"the robbers." According to a famous legend the women were all deserted +by their husbands, and in revenge murdered every man on the island. From +this barbarous act, the expression Lemnian deeds, [Greek: Lêmnia erga], +became proverbial. The Argonauts landing soon after found only women in +the island, ruled over by Hypsipyle, daughter of the old king Thoas. +From the Argonauts and the Lemnian women were descended the race called +Minyae, whose king Euneus, son of Jason and Hypsipyle, sent wine and +provisions to the Greeks at Troy. The Minyae were expelled by a +Pelasgian tribe who came from Attica. The historical element underlying +these traditions is probably that the original Thracian people were +gradually brought into communication with the Greeks as navigation began +to unite the scattered islands of the Aegean (see JASON); the Thracian +inhabitants were barbarians in comparison with the Greek mariners. The +worship of Cybele was characteristic of Thrace, whither it spread from +Asia Minor at a very early period, and it deserves notice that Hypsipyle +and Myrina (the name of one of the chief towns) are Amazon names, which +are always connected with Asiatic Cybele-worship. Coming down to a +better authenticated period, we find that Lemnos was conquered by +Otanes, one of the generals of Darius Hystaspis; but was soon +reconquered by Miltiades, the tyrant of the Thracian Chersonese. +Miltiades afterwards returned to Athens, and Lemnos continued an +Athenian possession till the Macedonian empire absorbed it. On the +vicissitudes of its history in the 3rd century B.C. see Köhler in +_Mittheil. Inst. Athen._ i. 261. The Romans declared it free in 197 +B.C., but gave it over in 166 to Athens, which retained nominal +possession of it till the whole of Greece was made a Roman province. A +colony of Attic cleruchs was established by Pericles, and many +inscriptions on the island relate to Athenians. After the division of +the empire, Lemnos passed under the Byzantine emperors; it shared in the +vicissitudes of the eastern provinces, being alternately in the power of +Greeks, Italians and Turks, till finally the Turkish sultans became +supreme in the Aegean. In 1476 the Venetians successfully defended +Kotschinos against a Turkish siege; but in 1657 Kastro was captured by +the Turks from the Venetians after a siege of sixty-three days. Kastro +was again besieged by the Russians in 1770. + +Homer speaks as if there were one town in the island called Lemnos, but +in historical times there was no such place. There were two towns, +Myrina, now Kastro, and Hephaestia. The latter was the chief town; its +coins are found in considerable number, the types being sometimes the +Athenian goddess and her owl, sometimes native religious symbols, the +caps of the Dioscuri, Apollo, &c. Few coins of Myrina are known. They +belong to the period of Attic occupation, and bear Athenian types. A few +coins are also known which bear the name, not of either city, but of the +whole island. Conze was the first to discover the site of Hephaestia, at +a deserted place named Palaeokastro on the east coast. It had once a +splendid harbour, which is now filled up. Its situation on the east +explains why Miltiades attacked it first when he came from the +Chersonese. It surrendered at once, whereas Myrina, with its very strong +citadel built on a perpendicular rock, sustained a siege. It is said +that the shadow of Mount Athos fell at sunset on a bronze cow in the +agora of Myrina. Pliny says that Athos was 87 m. to the north-west; but +the real distance is about 40 English miles. One legend localized in +Lemnos still requires notice. Philoctetes was left there by the Greeks +on their way to Troy; and there he suffered ten years' agony from his +wounded foot, until Ulysses and Neoptolemus induced him to accompany +them to Troy. He is said by Sophocles to have lived beside Mount +Hermaeus, which Aeschylus (_Agam._ 262) makes one of the beacon points +to flash the news of Troy's downfall home to Argos. + + See Rhode, _Res Lemnicae_; Conze, _Reise auf den Inseln des + Thrakischen Meeres_ (from which the above-mentioned facts about the + present state of the island are taken); also Hunt in Walpole's + _Travels_; Belon du Mans, _Observations de plusieurs singularitez_, + &c.; Finlay, _Greece under the Romans_; von Hammer, _Gesch. des Osman. + Reiches; Gött. Gel. Anz._ (1837). The chief references in ancicnt + writers are _Iliad_ i. 593, v. 138, xiv. 229, &c.; Herod. iv. 145; + Str. pp. 124, 330; Plin. iv. 23, xxxvi. 13. + + + + +LEMOINNE, JOHN ÉMILE (1815-1892), French journalist, was born of French +parents, in London, on the 17th of October 1815. He was educated first +at an English school and then in France. In 1840 he began writing for +the _Journal des débats_, on English and other foreign questions, and +under the empire he held up to admiration the free institutions of +England by contrast with imperial methods. After 1871 he supported +Thiers, but his sympathies rather tended towards a liberalized monarchy, +until the comte de Chambord's policy made such a development an +impossibility, and he then ranged himself with the moderate Republicans. +In 1875 Lemoinne was elected to the French Academy, and in 1880 he was +nominated a life senator. Distinguished though he was for a real +knowledge of England among the French journalists who wrote on foreign +affairs, his tone towards English policy greatly changed in later days, +and though he never shared the extreme French bitterness against England +as regards Egypt, he maintained a critical attitude which served to +stimulate French Anglophobia. He was a frequent contributor to the +_Revue des deux mondes_, and published several books, the best known of +which is his _Études critiques et biographiques_ (1862). He died in +Paris on the 14th of December 1892. + + + + +LEMON, MARK (1809-1870), editor of _Punch_, was born in London on the +30th of November 1809. He had a natural talent for journalism and the +stage, and, at twenty-six, retired from less congenial business to +devote himself to the writing of plays. More than sixty of his +melodramas, operettas and comedies were produced in London. At the same +time he contributed to a variety of magazines and newspapers, and +founded and edited the _Field_. In 1841 Lemon and Henry Mayhew conceived +the idea of a humorous weekly paper to be called _Punch_, and when the +first number was issued, in July 1841, were joint-editors and, with the +printer and engraver, equal owners. The paper was for some time +unsuccessful, Lemon keeping it alive out of the profits of his plays. On +the sale of _Punch_ Lemon became sole editor for the new proprietors, +and it remained under his control until his death, achieving remarkable +popularity and influence. Lemon was an actor of ability, a pleasing +lecturer and a successful impersonator of Shakespearian characters. He +also wrote a host of novelettes and lyrics, over a hundred songs, a few +three-volume novels, several Christmas fairy tales and a volume of +jests. He died at Crawley, Sussex, on the 23rd of May 1870. + + + + +LEMON, the fruit of _Citrus Limonum_, which is regarded by some +botanists as a variety of _Citrus medica_. The wild stock of the lemon +tree is said to be a native of the valleys of Kumaon and Sikkim in the +North-West provinces of India, ascending to a height of 4000 ft., and +occurring under several forms. Sir George Watt (_Dictionary of Economic +Products of India_, ii. 352) regards the wild plants as wild forms of +the lime or citron and considers it highly probable that the wild form +of the lemon has not yet been discovered. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Lemon--_Citrus Limonum_. + + 1, Flowering shoot. + 2, Flower with two petals and two bundles of stamens removed; slightly + enlarged. + 3, Fruit. + 4, Same cut across. + 5, Seed. + 6, Same cut lengthwise.] + +The lemon seems to have been unknown to the ancient Greeks and Romans, +and to have been introduced by the Arabs into Spain between the 12th and +13th centuries. In 1494 the fruit was cultivated in the Azores, and +largely shipped to England, but since 1838 the exportation has ceased. +As a cultivated plant the lemon is now met with throughout the +Mediterranean region, in Spain and Portugal, in California and Florida, +and in almost all tropical and subtropical countries. Like the apple and +pear, it varies exceedingly under cultivation. Risso and Poiteau +enumerate forty-seven varieties of this fruit, although they maintain as +distinct the sweet lime, _C. Limetta_, with eight varieties, and the +sweet lemon, _C. Lumia_, with twelve varieties, which differ only in the +fruit possessing an insipid instead of an acid juice. + + The lemon is more delicate than the orange, although, according to + Humboldt, both require an annual mean temperature of 62° Fahr. Unlike + the orange, which presents a fine close head of deep green foliage, it + forms a straggling bush, or small tree, 10 to 12 ft. high, with paler, + more scattered leaves, and short angular branches with sharp spines in + the axils. The flowers, which possess a sweet odour quite distinct + from that of the orange, are in part hermaphrodite and in part + unisexual, the outside of the corolla having a purplish hue. The + fruit, which is usually crowned with a nipple, consists of an outer + rind or peel, the surface of which is more or less rough from the + convex oil receptacles imbedded in it, and of a white inner rind, + which is spongy and nearly tasteless, the whole of the interior of the + fruit being filled with soft parenchymatous tissue, divided into about + ten to twelve compartments, each generally containing two or three + seeds. The white inner rind varies much in thickness in different + kinds, but is never so thick as in the citron. As lemons are much more + profitable to grow than oranges, on account of their keeping + properties, and from their being less liable to injury during voyages, + the cultivation of the lemon is preferred in Italy wherever it will + succeed. In damp valleys it is liable like the orange (q.v.) to be + attacked by a fungus sooty mould, the stem, leaves, and fruit becoming + covered with a blackish dust. This is coincident with or subsequent to + the attacks of a small oval brown insect, _Chermes hesperidum_. Trees + not properly exposed to sunlight and air suffer most severely from + these pests. Syringing with resin-wash or milk of lime when the young + insects are hatched, and before they have fixed themselves to the + plant, is a preventive. Since 1875 this fungoid disease has made great + ravages in Sicily among the lemon and citron trees, especially around + Catania and Messina. Heritte attributes the prevalence of the disease + to the fact that the growers have induced an unnatural degree of + fertility in the trees, permitting them to bear enormous crops year + after year. This loss of vitality is in some measure met by grafting + healthy scions of the lemon on the bitter orange, but trees so grafted + do not bear fruit until they are eight or ten years old. + +The lemon tree is exceedingly fruitful, a large one in Spain or Sicily +ripening as many as three thousand fruits in favourable seasons. In the +south of Europe lemons are collected more or less during every month of +the year, but in Sicily the chief harvest takes place from the end of +October to the end of December, those gathered during the last two +months of the year being considered the best for keeping purposes. The +fruit is gathered while still green. After collection the finest +specimens are picked out and packed in cases, each containing about four +hundred and twenty fruits, and also in boxes, three of which are equal +to two cases, each lemon being separately packed in paper. The +remainder, consisting of ill-shaped or unsound fruits, are reserved for +the manufacture of essential oil and juice. The whole of the sound +lemons are usually packed in boxes, but those which are not exported +immediately are carefully picked over and the unsound ones removed +before shipment. The exportation is continued as required until April +and May. The large lemons with a rougher rind, which appear in the +London market in July and August, are grown at Sorrento near Naples, and +are allowed to remain on the trees until ripe. + +Candied lemon peel is usually made in England from a larger variety of +the lemon cultivated in Sicily on higher ground than the common kind, +from which it is distinguished by its thicker rind and larger size. This +kind, known as the Spadaforese lemon, is also allowed to remain on the +trees until ripe, and when gathered the fruit is cut in half +longitudinally and pickled in brine, before being exported in casks. +Before candying the lemons are soaked in fresh water to remove the salt. +Citrons are also exported from Sicily in the same way, but these are +about six times as expensive as lemons, and a comparatively small +quantity is shipped. Besides those exported from Messina and Palermo, +lemons are also imported into England to a less extent from the Riviera +of Genoa, and from Malaga in Spain, the latter being the most esteemed. +Of the numerous varieties the wax lemon, the imperial lemon and the +Gaeta lemon are considered to be the best. Lemons are also extensively +grown in California and Florida. + + Lemons of ordinary size contain about 2 oz. of juice, of specific + gravity 1.039-1.046, yielding on an average 32.5 to 42.53 grains of + citric acid per oz. The amount of this acid, according to Stoddart, + varies in different seasons, decreasing in lemons kept from February + to July, at first slowly and afterwards rapidly, until at the end of + that period it is all split up into glucose and carbonic acid--the + specific gravity of the juice being in February 1.046, in May 1.041 + and in July 1.027, while the fruit is hardly altered in appearance. It + has been stated that lemons may be kept for some months with scarcely + perceptible deterioration by varnishing them with an alcoholic + solution of shellac--the coating thus formed being easily removed when + the fruit is required for household use by gently kneading it in the + hands. Besides citric acid, lemon juice contains 3 to 4% of gum and + sugar, albuminoid matters, malic acid and 2.28% of inorganic salts. + Cossa has determined that the ash of dried lemon juice contains 54% of + potash, besides 15% of phosphoric acid. In the white portion of the + peel (in common with other fruits of the genus) a bitter principle + called _hesperidin_ has been found. It is very slightly soluble in + boiling water, but is soluble in dilute alcohol and in alkaline + solutions, which it soon turns of a yellow or reddish colour. It is + also darkened by tincture of perchloride of iron. Another substance + named _lemonin_, crystallizing in lustrous plates, was discovered in + 1879 by Palerno and Aglialoro in the seeds, in which it is present in + very small quantity, 15,000 grains of seed yielding only 80 grains of + it. It differs from hesperidin in dissolving in potash without + alteration. It melts at 275° F. + + The simplest method of preserving lemon juice in small quantities for + medicinal or domestic use is to keep it covered with a layer of olive + or almond oil in a closed vessel furnished with a glass tap, by which + the clear liquid may be drawn off as required. Lemon juice is largely + used on shipboard as a preventive of scurvy. By the Merchant Shipping + Act 1867 every British ship going to other countries where lemon or + lime juice cannot be obtained was required to take sufficient to give + 1 oz. to every member of the crew daily. Of this juice it requires + about 13,000 lemons to yield l pipe (108 gallons). Sicilian juice in + November yields about 9 oz. of crude citric acid per gallon, but only + 6 oz. if the fruit is collected in April. The crude juice was formerly + exported to England, and was often adulterated with sea-water, but is + now almost entirely replaced by lime juice. A concentrated lemon juice + for the manufacture of citric acid is prepared in considerable + quantities, chiefly at Messina and Palermo, by boiling down the crude + juice in copper vessels over an open fire until its specific gravity + is about 1.239, seven to ten pipes of raw making only one of + concentrated lemon juice. "Lemon juice" for use on shipboard is + prepared also from the fruits of limes and Bergamot oranges. It is + said to be sometimes adulterated with sulphuric acid on arrival in + England. + + The lemon used in medicine is described in the British pharmacopoeia + as being the fruit of _Citrus medica_, var. Limonum. The preparations + of lemon peel are of small importance. From the fresh peel is obtained + the _oleum limonis_ (dose ½-3 minims), which has the characters of its + class. It contains a terpene known as citrene or limonene, which also + occurs in orange peel: and citral, the aldehyde of geraniol, which is + the chief constituent of oil of roses. Of much importance is the + _succus limonis_ or lemon juice, 1 oz. of which contains about 40 + grains of free citric acid, besides the citrate of potassium (.25%) + and malic acid, free and combined. Ten per cent. of alcohol must be + added to lemon juice if it is to be kept. From it are prepared the + _syrupus limonis_ (dose ½-2 drachms), which consists of sugar, lemon + juice and an alcoholic extract of lemon peel, and also citric acid + itself. Lemon juice is practically impure citric acid (q.v.). + + _Essence or Essential Oil of Lemon._--The essential oil contained in + the rind of the lemon occurs in commerce as a distinct article. It is + manufactured chiefly in Sicily, at Reggio in Calabria, and at Mentone + and Nice in France. The small and irregularly shaped fruits are + employed while still green, in which state the yield of oil is greater + than when they are quite ripe. In Sicily and Calabria the oil is + extracted in November and December as follows. A workman cuts three + longitudinal slices off each lemon, leaving a three-cornered central + core having a small portion of rind at the apex and base. These pieces + are then divided transversely and cast on one side, and the strips of + peel are thrown in another place. Next day the pieces of peel are + deprived of their oil by pressing four or five times successively the + outer surface of the peel (zest or flavedo) bent into a convex shape, + against a flat sponge held in the palm of the left hand and wrapped + round the forefinger. The oil vesicles in the rind, which are ruptured + more easily in the fresh fruit than in the state in which lemons are + imported, yield up their oil to the sponge, which when saturated is + squeezed into an earthen vessel furnished with a spout and capable of + holding about three pints. After a time the oil separates from the + watery liquid which accompanies it, and is then decanted. By this + process four hundred fruits yield 9 to 14 oz. of essence. The prisms + of pulp are afterwards expressed to obtain lemon juice, and then + distilled to obtain the small quantity of volatile oil they contain. + At Mentone and Nice a different process is adopted. The lemons are + placed in an _écuelle à piquer_, a shallow basin of pewter about 8½ + in. in diameter, having i a lip for pouring on one side and a closed + tube at the bottom about 5 in. long and 1 in. in diameter. A number of + stout brass pins stand up about half an inch from the bottom of the + vessel. The workman rubs a lemon over these pins, which rupture the + oil vesicles, and the oil collects in the tube, which when it becomes + full is emptied into another vessel that it may separate from the + aqueous liquid mixed with it. When filtered it is known as _Essence de + citron au zeste_, or, in the English market, as perfumers' essence of + lemon, inferior qualities being distinguished as druggists' essence of + lemon. An additional product is obtained by immersing the scarified + lemons in warm water and separating the oil which floats off. _Essence + de citron distillée_ is obtained by rubbing the surface of fresh + lemons (or of those which have been submitted to the action of the + _écuelle à piquer_) on a coarse grater of tinned iron, and distilling + the grated peel. The oil so obtained is colourless, and of inferior + fragrance, and is sold at a lower price, while that obtained by the + cold processes has a yellow colour and powerful odour. + + Essence of lemon is chiefly brought from Messina and Palermo packed in + copper bottles holding 25 to 50 kilogrammes or more, and sometimes in + tinned bottles of smaller size. It is said to be rarely found in a + state of purity in commerce, almost all that comes into the market + being diluted with the cheaper distilled oil. This fact may be + considered as proved by the price at which the essence of lemon is + sold in England, this being less than it costs the manufacturer to + make it. When long kept the essence deposits a white greasy + stearoptene, apparently identical with the bergaptene obtained from + the essential oil of the Bergamot orange. The chief constituent of oil + of lemon is the terpene, C10H16, boiling at 348°.8 Fahr., which, like + oil of turpentine, readily yields crystals of terpin, C10H163OH2, but + differs in yielding the crystalline compound, C10H16 + 2Cl, oil of + turpentine forming one having the formula C10H16 + HCl. Oil of lemons + also contains, according to Tilden, another hydrocarbon, C10H16, + boiling at 3.20° Fahr., a small amount of _cymene_, and a compound + acetic ether, C2H3O·C10H17O. The natural essence of lemon not being + wholly soluble in rectified spirit of wine, an essence for culinary + purposes is sometimes prepared by digesting 6 oz of lemon peel in one + pint of pure alcohol of 95%, and, when the rind has become brittle, + which takes place in about two and a half hours, powdering it and + percolating the alcohol through it. This article is known as "lemon + flavour." + +The name lemon is also applied to some other fruits. The Java lemon is +the fruit of _Citrus javanica_, the pear lemon of a variety of _C. +Limetta_, and the pearl lemon of _C. margarita_. The fruit of a +passion-flower, _Passiflora laurifolia_, is sometimes known as the +water-lemon, and that of a Berberidaceous plant, _Podophyllum peltatum_, +as the wild lemon. In France and Germany the lemon is known as the +citron, and hence much confusion arises concerning the fruits referred +to in different works. The essential oil known as oil of cedrat is +usually a factitious article instead of being prepared, as its name +implies, from the citron (Fr. _cédratier_). An essential oil is also +prepared from _C. Lumia_, at Squillace in Calabria, and has an odour +like that of Bergamot but less powerful. + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Lime--_Citrus medica_, var. _acida_. + + 1, Flowering shoot. + 2, Fruit. + 3, Same cut transversely. + 4, Seed. + 5, Seed cut lengthwise. + 6, Seed cut transversely. + 7, Superficial view of portion of rind showing oil glands.] + +The sour lime is _Citrus acida_, generally regarded as a var. (_acida_) +of _C. medica_. It is a native of India, ascending to about 4000 ft. in +the mountains, and occurring as a small, much-branched thorny bush. The +small flowers are white or tinged with pink on the outside; the fruit is +small and generally round, with a thin, light green or lemon-yellow +bitter rind, and a very sour, somewhat bitter juicy pulp. It is +extensively cultivated throughout the West Indies, especially in +Dominica, Montserrat and Jamaica, the approximate annual value of the +exports from these islands being respectively £45,000, £6000 and £6000. +The plants are grown from seed in nurseries and planted out about 200 to +the acre. They begin to bear from about the third year, but full crops +are not produced until the trees are six or seven years old. The ripe +yellow fruit is gathered as it falls. The fruit is bruised by hand in a +funnel-shaped vessel known as an _écuelle_, with a hollow stem; by +rolling the fruit on a number of points on the side of the funnel the +oil cells in the rind are broken and the oil collects in the hollow +stem--this is the essential oil or essence of limes. The fruits are then +taken to the mill, sorted, washed and passed through rollers and exposed +to two squeezings. Two-thirds of the juice is expressed by the first +squeezing, is strained at once, done up in puncheons and exported as raw +juice. The product of the second squeezing, together with the juice +extracted by a subsequent squeezing in a press, is strained and +evaporated down to make concentrated juice; ten gallons of the raw juice +yield one gallon of the concentrated juice. The raw juice is used for +preparations of lime juice cordial, the concentrated for manufactures of +citric acid. + + On some estates citrate of lime is now manufactured in place of + concentrated acid. Distilled oil of limes is prepared by distilling + the juice, but its value is low in comparison with the expressed oil + obtained by hand as described above. Green limes and pickled limes + preserved in brine are largely exported to the United States, and more + recently green limes have been exported to the United Kingdom. + Limalade or preserved limes is an excellent substitute for marmalade. + A spineless form of the lime appeared as a sport in Dominica in 1892, + and is now grown there and elsewhere on a commercial scale. A form + with seedless fruits has also recently been obtained in Dominica and + Trinidad independently. The young leaves of the lime are used for + perfuming the water in finger-glasses, a few being placed in the water + and bruised before use. + + + + +LEMONNIER, ANTOINE LOUIS CAMILLE (1844- ), Belgian poet, was born at +Ixelles, Brussels, on the 24th of March 1844. He studied law, and then +took a clerkship in a government office, which he resigned after three +years. Lemonnier inherited Flemish blood from both parents, and with it +the animal force and pictorial energy of the Flemish temperament. He +published a _Salon de Bruxelles_ in 1863, and again in 1866. His early +friendships were chiefly with artists; and he wrote art criticisms with +recognized discernment. Taking a house in the hills near Namur, he +devoted himself to sport, and developed the intimate sympathy with +nature which informs his best work. _Nos Flamands_ (1869) and _Croquis +d'automne_ (1870) date from this time. _Paris-Berlin_ (1870), a pamphlet +pleading the cause of France, and full of the author's horror of war, +had a great success. His capacity as a novelist, in the fresh, humorous +description of peasant life, was revealed in _Un Coin de village_ +(1879). In _Un Mâle_ (1881) he achieved a different kind of success. It +deals with the amours of a poacher and a farmer's daughter, with the +forest as a background. Cachaprès, the poacher, seems the very +embodiment of the wild life around him. The rejection of _Un Mâle_ by +the judges for the quinquennial prize of literature in 1883 made +Lemonnier the centre of a school, inaugurated at a banquet given in his +honour on the 27th of May 1883. _Le Mort_ (1882), which describes the +remorse of two peasants for a murder they have committed, is a +masterpiece in its vivid representation of terror. It was remodelled as +a tragedy in five acts (Paris, 1899) by its author. _Ceux de la glèbe_ +(1889), dedicated to the "children of the soil," was written in 1885. He +turned aside from local subjects for some time to produce a series of +psychological novels, books of art criticism, &c., of considerable +value, but assimilating more closely to French contemporary literature. +The most striking of his later novels are: _L'Hystérique_ (1885); +_Happe-chair_ (1886), often compared with Zola's _Germinal_; _Le +Possédé_ (1890); _La Fin des bourgeois_ (1892); _L'Arche, journal d'une +maman_ (1894), a quiet book, quite different from his usual work; _La +Faute de Mme Charvet_ (1895); _L'Homme en amour_ (1897); and, with a +return to Flemish subjects, _Le Vent dans les moulins_ (1901); _Petit +Homme de Dieu_ (1902), and _Comme va le ruisseau_ (1903). In 1888 +Lemonnier was prosecuted in Paris for offending against public morals by +a story in _Gil Blas_, and was condemned to a fine. In a later +prosecution at Brussels he was defended by Edmond Picard, and acquitted; +and he was arraigned for a third time, at Bruges, for his _Homme en +amour_, but again acquitted. He represents his own case in _Les Deux +consciences_ (1902), _L'Île vierge_ (1897) was the first of a trilogy to +be called _La Légende de la vie_, which was to trace, under the fortunes +of the hero, the pilgrimage of man through sorrow and sacrifice to the +conception of the divinity within him. In _Adam et Ève_ (1899), and _Au +Coeur frais de la forêt_ (1900), he preached the return to nature as the +salvation not only of the individual but of the community. Among his +other more important works are _G. Courbet, et ses oeuvres_ (1878); +_L'Histoire des Beaux-Arts en Belgique_ 1830-1887 (1887); _En Allemagne_ +(1888), dealing especially with the Pinakothek at Munich; _La Belgique_ +(1888), an elaborate descriptive work with many illustrations; _La Vie +belge_ (1905); and _Alfred Stevens et son oeuvre_ (1906). + +Lemonnier spent much time in Paris, and was one of the early +contributors to the _Mercure de France_. He began to write at a time +when Belgian letters lacked style; and with much toil, and some initial +extravagances, he created a medium for the expression of his ideas. He +explained something of the process in a preface contributed to Gustave +Abel's _Labeur de la prose_ (1902). His prose is magnificent and +sonorous, but abounds in neologisms and strange metaphors. + + See the _Revue de Belgique_ (15th February 1903), which contains the + syllabus of a series of lectures on Lemonnier by Edmond Picard, a + bibliography of his works, and appreciations by various writers. + + + + +LEMONNIER, PIERRE CHARLES (1715-1799), French astronomer, was born on +the 23rd of November 1715 in Paris, where his father was professor of +philosophy at the collège d'Harcourt. His first recorded observation was +made before he was sixteen, and the presentation of an elaborate lunar +map procured for him admission to the Academy, on the 21st of April +1736, at the early age of twenty. He was chosen in the same year to +accompany P. L. Maupertuis and Alexis Clairault on their geodetical +expedition to Lapland. In 1738, shortly after his return, he explained, +in a memoir read before the Academy, the advantages of J. Flamsteed's +mode of determining right ascensions. His persistent recommendation, in +fact, of English methods and instruments contributed effectively to the +reform of French practical astronomy, and constituted the most eminent +of his services to science. He corresponded with J. Bradley, was the +first to represent the effects of nutation in the solar tables, and +introduced, in 1741, the use of the transit-instrument at the Paris +observatory. He visited England in 1748, and, in company with the earl +of Morton and James Short the optician, continued his journey to +Scotland, where he observed the annular eclipse of July 25. The +liberality of Louis XV., in whose favour he stood high, furnished him +with the means of procuring the best instruments, many of them by +English makers. Amongst the fruits of his industry may be mentioned a +laborious investigation of the disturbances of Jupiter by Saturn, the +results of which were employed and confirmed by L. Euler in his prize +essay of 1748; a series of lunar observations extending over fifty +years; some interesting researches in terrestrial magnetism and +atmospheric electricity, in the latter of which he detected a regular +diurnal period; and the determination of the places of a great number of +stars, including twelve separate observations of Uranus, between 1765 +and its discovery as a planet. In his lectures at the collège de France +he first publicly expounded the analytical theory of gravitation, and +his timely patronage secured the services of J. J. Lalande for +astronomy. His temper was irritable, and his hasty utterances exposed +him to retorts which he did not readily forgive. Against Lalande, owing +to some trifling pique, he closed his doors "during an entire revolution +of the moon's nodes." His career was arrested by paralysis late in 1791, +and a repetition of the stroke terminated his life. He died at Héril +near Bayeux on the 31st of May 1799. By his marriage with Mademoiselle +de Cussy he left three daughters, one of whom became the wife of J. L. +Lagrange. He was admitted in 1739 to the Royal Society, and was one of +the one hundred and forty-four original members of the Institute. + + He wrote _Histoire céleste_ (1741); _Théorie des comètes_ (1743), a + translation, with additions of Hailey's _Synopsis; Institutions + astronomiques_ (1746), an improved translation of J. Keill's + text-book; _Nouveau zodiaque_ (1755); _Observations de la lune, du + soleil, et des étoiles fixes_ (1751-1775); _Lois du magnétisme_ + (1776-1778), &c. + + See J. J. Lalande, _Bibl. astr._, p. 819 (also in the _Journal des + savants_ for 1801); F. X. von Zach, _Allgemeine geog. Ephemeriden_ + iii. 625; J. S. Bailly, _Hist. de l'astr. moderne_, iii.; J. B. J. + Delambre. _Hist. de l'astr. au XVIII^e. siècle_, p. 179; J. Mädler, + _Geschichte der Himmelskunde_, ii. 6; R. Wolf, _Geschichte der + Astronomie_, p. 480. + + + + +LEMOYNE, JEAN BAPTISTE (1704-1778), French sculptor, was the pupil of +his father, Jean Louis Lemoyne, and of Robert le Lorrain. He was a great +figure in his day, around whose modest and kindly personality there +waged opposing storms of denunciation and applause. Although his +disregard of the classic tradition and of the essentials of dignified +sculpture, as well as his lack of firmness and of intellectual grasp of +the larger principles of his art, lay him open to stringent criticism, +de Clarac's charge that he had delivered a mortal blow at sculpture is +altogether exaggerated. Lemoyne's more important works have for the most +part been destroyed or have disappeared. The equestrian statue of "Louis +XV." for the military school, and the composition of "Mignard's +daughter, Mme Feuquières, kneeling before her father's bust" (which bust +was from the hand of Coysevox) were subjected to the violence by which +Bouchardon's equestrian monument of Louis XIV. (q.v.) was destroyed. The +panels only have been preserved. In his busts evidence of his riotous +and florid imagination to a great extent disappears, and we have a +remarkable series of important portraits, of which those of women are +perhaps the best. Among Lemoyne's leading achievements in this class are +"Fontenelle" (at Versailles), "Voltaire," "Latour" (all of 1748), "Duc +de la Valière" (Versailles), "Comte de St Florentin," and "Crébillon" +(Dijon Museum); "Mlle Chiron" and "Mlle Dangeville," both produced in +1761 and both at the Théâtre Français in Paris, and "Mme de Pompadour," +the work of the same year. Of the Pompadour he also executed a statue in +the costume of a nymph, very delicate and playful in its air of grace. +Lemoyne was perhaps most successful in his training of pupils, one of +the leaders of whom was Falconnet. + + + + +LEMPRIÈRE, JOHN (c. 1765-1824), English classical scholar, was born in +Jersey, and educated at Winchester and Pembroke College, Oxford. He is +chiefly known for his _Bibliotheca Classica_ or _Classical Dictionary_ +(1788), which, edited by various later scholars, long remained a +readable if not very trustworthy reference book in mythology and +classical history. In 1792, after holding other scholastic posts, he was +appointed to the head-mastership of Abingdon grammar school, and later +became the vicar of that parish. While occupying this living, he +published a _Universal Biography of Eminent Persons in all Ages and +Countries_ (1808). In 1809 he succeeded to the head-mastership of Exeter +free grammar school. On retiring from this, in consequence of a +disagreement with the trustees, he was given the living of Meeth in +Devonshire, which, together with that of Newton Petrock, he held till +his death in London on the 1st of February 1824. + + + + +LEMUR (from Lat. _lemures_, "ghosts"), the name applied by Linnaeus to +certain peculiar Malagasy representatives of the order PRIMATES (q.v.) +which do not come under the designation of either monkeys or apes, and, +with allied animals from the same island and tropical Asia and Africa, +constitute the suborder _Prosimiae_, or _Lemuroidea_, the +characteristics of which are given in the article just mentioned. The +typical lemurs include species like _Lemur mongoz_ and _L. catta_, but +the English name "lemur" is often taken to include all the members of +the suborder, although the aberrant forms are often conveniently termed +"lemuroids." All the Malagasy lemurs, which agree in the structure of +the internal ear, are now included in the family _Lemuridae_, confined +to Madagascar and the Comoro Islands, which comprises the great majority +of the group. The other families are the _Nycticebidae_, common to +tropical Asia and Africa, and the _Tarsiidae_, restricted to the Malay +countries. In the more typical _Lemuridae_ there are two pairs of upper +incisor teeth, separated by a gap in the middle line; the premolars may +be either two or three, but the molars, as in the lower jaw, are always +three on each side. In the lower jaw the incisors and canines are +directed straight forwards, and are of small size and nearly similar +form; the function of the canine being discharged by the first premolar, +which is larger than the other teeth of the same series. With the +exception of the second toe of the hind-foot, the digits have +well-formed, flattened nails as in the majority of monkeys. In the +members of the typical genus _Lemur_, as well as in the allied +_Hapalemur_ and _Lepidolemur_, none of the toes or fingers are connected +by webs, and all have the hind-limbs of moderate length, and the tail +long. The maximum number of teeth is 36, there being typically two pairs +of incisors and three of premolars in each jaw. In habits some of the +species are nocturnal and others diurnal; but all subsist on a mixed +diet, which includes birds, reptiles, eggs, insects and fruits. Most are +arboreal, but the ring-tailed lemur (_L. catta_) often dwells among +rocks. The species of the genus _Lemur_ are diurnal, and may be +recognized by the length of the muzzle, and the large tufted ears. In +some cases, as in the black lemur (_L. macaco_) the two sexes are +differently coloured; but in others, especially the ruffed lemur (_L. +varius_), there is much individual variation in this respect, scarcely +any two being alike. The gentle lemurs (_Hapalemur_) have a rounder +head, with smaller ears and a shorter muzzle, and also a bare patch +covered with spines on the fore-arm. The sportive lemurs (_Lepidolemur_) +are smaller than the typical species of _Lemur_, and the adults +generally lose their upper incisors. The head is short and conical, the +ears large, round and mostly bare, and the tail shorter than the body. +Like the gentle lemurs they are nocturnal. (See AVAHI, AYE-AYE, GALAGO, +INDRI, LORIS, POTTO, SIFAKA and TARSIER.) (R. L.*) + + + + +LENA, a river of Siberia, rising in the Baikal Mountains, on the W. side +of Lake Baikal, in 54° 10´ N. and 107° 55´ E. Wheeling round by the S., +it describes a semicircle, then flows N.N.E. and N.E., being joined by +the Kirenga and the Vitim, both from the right; from 113° E. it flows +E.N.E as far as Yakutsk (62° N., 127° 40´ E.), where it enters the +lowlands, after being joined by the Olekma, also from the right. From +Yakutsk it goes N. until joined by its right-hand affluent the Aldan, +which deflects it to the north-west; then, after receiving its most +important left-hand tributary, the Vilyui, it makes its way nearly due +N. to the Nordenskjöld Sea, a division of the Arctic, disemboguing S.W. +of the New Siberian Islands by a delta 10,800 sq. m. in area, and +traversed by seven principal branches, the most important being Bylov, +farthest east. The total length of the river is estimated at 2860 m. The +delta arms sometimes remain blocked with ice the whole year round. At +Yakutsk navigation is generally practicable from the middle of May to +the end of October, and at Kirensk, at the confluence of the Lena and +the Kirenga, from the beginning of May to about the same time. Between +these two towns there is during the season regular steamboat +communication. The area of the river basin is calculated at 895,500 sq. +m. Gold is washed out of the sands of the Vitim and the Olekma, and +tusks of the mammoth are dug out of the delta. + + See G. W. Melville, _In the Lena Delta_ (1885). + + + + +LE NAIN, the name of three brothers, LOUIS, ANTOINE and MATHIEU, who +occupy a peculiar position in the history of French art. Although they +figure amongst the original members of the French Academy, their works +show no trace of the influences which prevailed when that body was +founded. Their sober execution and choice of colour recall +characteristics of the Spanish school, and when the world of Paris was +busy with mythological allegories, and the "heroic deeds" of the king, +the three Le Nain devoted themselves chiefly to subjects of humble life +such as "Boys Playing Cards," "The Forge," or "The Peasants' Meal." +These three paintings are now in the Louvre; various others may be found +in local collections, and some fine drawings may be seen in the British +Museum; but the Le Nain signature is rare, and is never accompanied by +initials which might enable us to distinguish the work of the brothers. +Their lives are lost in obscurity; all that can be affirmed is that they +were born at Laon in Picardy towards the close of the 16th century. +About 1629 they went to Paris; in 1648 the three brothers were received +into the Academy, and in the same year both Antoine and Louis died. +Mathieu lived on till August 1677; he bore the title of chevalier, and +painted many portraits. Mary of Medici and Mazarin were amongst his +sitters, but these works seem to have disappeared. + + See Champfleury, _Essai sur la vie et l'oeuvre des Le Nain_ (1850), + and _Catalogue des tableaux des Le Nain_ (1861). + + + + +LENAU, NIKOLAUS, the pseudonym of NIKOLAUS FRANZ NIEMBSCH VON STREHLENAU +(1802-1850), Austrian poet, who was born at Csatád near Temesvar in +Hungary, on the 15th of August 1802. His father, a government official, +died at Budapest in 1807, leaving his children to the care of an +affectionate, but jealous and somewhat hysterical, mother, who in 1811 +married again. In 1819 the boy went to the university of Vienna; he +subsequently studied Hungarian law at Pressburg and then spent the best +part of four years in qualifying himself in medicine. But he was unable +to settle down to any profession. He had early begun to write verses; +and the disposition to sentimental melancholy acquired from his mother, +stimulated by love disappointments and by the prevailing fashion of the +romantic school of poetry, settled into gloom after his mother's death +in 1829. Soon afterwards a legacy from his grandmother enabled him to +devote himself wholly to poetry. His first published poems appeared in +1827, in J. G. Seidl's _Aurora_. In 1831 he went to Stuttgart, where he +published a volume of _Gedichte_ (1832) dedicated to the Swabian poet +Gustav Schwab. Here he also made the acquaintance of Uhland, Justinus +Kerner, Karl Mayer[1] and others; but his restless spirit longed for +change, and he determined to seek for peace and freedom in America. In +October 1832 he landed at Baltimore and settled on a homestead in Ohio. +But the reality of life in "the primeval forest" fell lamentably short +of the ideal he had pictured; he disliked the Americans with their +eternal "English lisping of dollars" (_englisches Talergelispel_); and +in 1833 he returned to Germany, where the appreciation of his first +volume of poems revived his spirits. From now on he lived partly in +Stuttgart and partly in Vienna. In 1836 appeared his _Faust_, in which +he laid bare his own soul to the world; in 1837, _Savonarola_, an epic +in which freedom from political and intellectual tyranny is insisted +upon as essential to Christianity. In 1838 appeared his _Neuere +Gedichte_, which prove that _Savonarola_ had been but the result of a +passing exaltation. Of these new poems, some of the finest were inspired +by his hopeless passion for Sophie von Löwenthal, the wife of a friend, +whose acquaintance he had made in 1833 and who "understood him as no +other." In 1842 appeared _Die Albigenser_, and in 1844 he began writing +his _Don Juan_, a fragment of which was published after his death. Soon +afterwards his never well-balanced mind began to show signs of +aberration, and in October 1844 he was placed under restraint. He died +in the asylum at Oberdöbling near Vienna on the 22nd of August 1850. +Lenau's fame rests mainly upon his shorter poems; even his epics are +essentially lyric in quality. He is the greatest modern lyric poet of +Austria, and the typical representative in German literature of that +pessimistic _Weltschmerz_ which, beginning with Byron, reached its +culmination in the poetry of Leopardi. + + Lenau's _Sämtliche Werke_ were published in 4 vols. by A. Grün (1855); + but there are several more modern editions, as those by M. Koch in + Kürschner's _Deutsche Nationalliteratur_, vols. 154-155 (1888), and by + E. Castle (2 vols., 1900). See A. Schurz, _Lenaus Leben, grösstenteils + aus des Dichters eigenen Briefen_ (1855); L. A. Frankl, _Zu Lenaus + Biographie_ (1854, 2nd ed., 1885); A. Marchand, _Les Poètes lyriques + de l'Autriche_ (1881); L. A. Frankl, _Lenaus Tagebuch und Briefe an + Sophie Löwenthal_ (1891); A. Schlossar, _Lenaus Briefe an die Familie + Reinbeck_ (1896); L. Roustan, _Lenau et son temps_ (1898); E. Castle, + _Lenau und die Familie Löwenthal_ (1906). + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] Karl Friedrich Hartmann Mayer (1786-1870), poet, and biographer + of Uhland, was by profession a lawyer and government official in + Württemberg. + + + + +LENBACH, FRANZ VON (1836-1904), German painter, was born at +Schrobenhausen, in Bavaria, on the 13th of December 1836. His father was +a mason, and the boy was intended to follow his father's trade or be a +builder. With this view he was sent to school at Landsberg, and then to +the polytechnic at Augsburg. But after seeing Hofner, the animal +painter, executing some studies, he made various attempts at painting, +which his father's orders interrupted. However, when he had seen the +galleries of Augsburg and Munich, he finally obtained his father's +permission to become an artist, and worked for a short time in the +studio of Gräfle, the painter; after this he devoted much time to +copying. Thus he was already accomplished in technique when he became +the pupil of Piloty, with whom he set out for Italy in 1858. A few +interesting works remain as the outcome of this first journey--"A +Peasant seeking Shelter from Bad Weather" (1855), "The Goatherd" (1860, +in the Schack Gallery, Munich), and "The Arch of Titus" (in the Palfy +collection, Budapest). On returning to Munich, he was at once called to +Weimar to take the appointment of professor at the Academy. But he did +not hold it long, having made the acquaintance of Count Schack, who +commissioned a great number of copies for his collection. Lenbach +returned to Italy the same year, and there copied many famous pictures. +He set out in 1867 for Spain, where he copied not only the famous +pictures by Velasquez in the Prado, but also some landscapes in the +museums of Granada and the Alhambra (1868). In the previous year he had +exhibited at the great exhibition at Paris several portraits, one of +which took a third-class medal. Thereafter he exhibited frequently both +at Munich and at Vienna, and in 1900 at the Paris exhibition was awarded +a Grand Prix for painting. Lenbach, who died in 1904, painted many of +the most remarkable personages of his time. + + See Berlepsch, "Lenbach," _Velhagen und Klasings Monatshefte_ (1891); + Bégouen, _Les Portraits de Lenbach à l'exposition de Munich_ (1899); + K. Knackfuss, _Lenbach_, and _Franz von Lenbach Bildnisse_ (1900). + + + + +LENCLOS, NINON DE (1615-1705), the daughter of a gentleman of good +position in Touraine, was born in Paris in November 1615. Her long and +eventful life divides into two periods, during the former of which she +was the typical Frenchwoman of the gayest and most licentious society of +the 17th century, during the latter the recognized leader of the fashion +in Paris, and the friend of wits and poets. All that can be pleaded in +defence of her earlier life is that she had been educated by her father +in epicurean and sensual beliefs, and that she retained throughout the +frank demeanour, and disregard of money, which won from Saint Évremond +the remark that she was an _honnête homme_. She had a succession of +distinguished lovers, among them being Gaspard de Coligny, the marquis +d'Éstrées, La Rochefoucauld, Condé and Saint Évremond. Queen Christina +of Sweden visited her, and Anne of Austria was powerless against her. +After she had continued her career for a preposterous length of time, +she settled down to the social leadership of Paris. Among her friends +she counted Mme de la Sablière, Mme de la Fayette and Mme de Maintenon. +It became the fashion for young men as well as old to throng round her, +and the best of all introductions for a young man who wished to make a +figure in society was an introduction to Mlle de Lenclos. Her long +friendship with Saint Évremond must be briefly noticed. They were of the +same age, and had been lovers in their youth, and throughout his long +exile the wit seems to have kept a kind remembrance of her. The few +really authentic letters of Ninon are those addressed to her old friend, +and the letters of both in the last few years of their equally long +lives are exceptionally touching, and unique in the polite compliments +with which they try to keep off old age. If Ninon owes part of her +posthumous fame to Saint Évremond, she owes at least as much to +Voltaire, who was presented to her as a promising boy poet by the abbé +de Chateauneuf. To him she left 2000 francs to buy books, and his letter +on her was the chief authority of many subsequent biographers. Her +personal appearance is, according to Sainte-Beuve, best described in +_Clélie_, a novel by Mlle de Scudéry, in which she figures as Clarisse. +Her distinguishing characteristic was neither beauty nor wit, but high +spirits and perfect evenness of temperament. + + The letters of Ninon published after her death were, according to + Voltaire, all spurious, and the only authentic ones are those to Saint + Évremond, which can be best studied in Dauxmesnil's edition of _Saint + Évremond_, and his notice on her. Sainte-Beuve has an interesting + notice of these letters in the _Causeries du Lundi_, vol. iv. The + _Correspondance authentique_ was edited by E. Colombey in 1886. See + also Helen K. Hayes, _The Real Ninon de l'Enclos_ (1908); and Mary C. + Rowsell, _Ninon de l'Enclos and her century_ (1910). + + + + +LENFANT, JACQUES (1661-1728), French Protestant divine, was born at +Bazoche in La Beauce on the 13th of April 1661, son of Paul Lenfant, +Protestant pastor at Bazoche and afterwards at Châtillon-sur-Loing until +the revocation of the edict of Nantes, when he removed to Cassel. After +studying at Saumur and Geneva, Lenfant completed his theological course +at Heidelberg, where in 1684 he was ordained minister of the French +Protestant church, and appointed chaplain to the dowager electress +palatine. When the French invaded the Palatinate in 1688 Lenfant +withdrew to Berlin, as in a recent book he had vigorously attacked the +Jesuits. Here in 1689 he was again appointed one of the ministers of the +French Protestant church; this office he continued to hold until his +death, ultimately adding to it that of chaplain to the king, with the +dignity of _Consistorialrath_. He visited Holland and England in 1707, +preached before Queen Anne, and, it is said, was invited to become one +of her chaplains. He was the author of many works, chiefly on church +history. In search of materials he visited Helmstädt in 1712, and +Leipzig in 1715 and 1725. He died at Berlin on the 7th of August 1728. + + An exhaustive catalogue of his publications, thirty-two in all, will + be found in J. G. de Chauffepié's _Dictionnaire_. See also E. and S. + Haag's _France Protestante_. He is now best known by his _Histoire du + concile de Constance_ (Amsterdam, 1714; 2nd ed., 1728; English trans., + 1730). It is of course largely dependent upon the laborious work of + Hermann von der Hardt (1660-1746), but has literary merits peculiar to + itself, and has been praised on all sides for its fairness. It was + followed by _Histoire du concile de Pise_ (1724), and (posthumously) + by _Histoire de la guerre des Hussites et du concile de Basle_ + (Amsterdam, 1731; German translation, Vienna, 1783-1784). Lenfant was + one of the chief promoters of the _Bibliothèque Germanique_, begun in + 1720; and he was associated with Isaac Beausobre (1659-1738) in the + preparation of the new French translation of the New Testament with + original notes, published at Amsterdam in 1718. + + + + +LENKORAN, a town in Russian Transcaucasia, in the government of Baku, +stands on the Caspian Sea, at the mouth of a small stream of its own +name, and close to a large lagoon. The lighthouse stands in 38° 45´ 38´´ +N. and 48° 50´ 18´´ E. Taken by storm on New Year's day 1813 by the +Russians, Lenkoran was in the same year formally surrendered by Persia +to Russia by the treaty of Gulistan, along with the khanate of Talysh, +of which it was the capital. Pop. (1867) 15,933, (1897) 8768. The fort +has been dismantled; and in trade the town is outstripped by Astara, the +customs station on the Persian frontier. + +The DISTRICT OF LENKORAN (2117 sq. m.) is a thickly wooded mountainous +region, shut off from the Persian plateau by the Talysh range (7000-8000 +ft. high), and with a narrow marshy strip along the coast. The climate +is exceptionally moist and warm (annual rainfall 52.79 in; mean +temperature in summer 75° F., in winter 40°), and fosters the growth of +even Indian species of vegetation. The iron tree (_Parrotia persica_), +the silk acacia, _Carpinus betulus_, _Quercus iberica_, the box tree and +the walnut flourish freely, as well as the sumach, the pomegranate, and +the _Gleditschia caspica_. The Bengal tiger is not unfrequently met +with, and wild boars are abundant. Of the 131,361 inhabitants in 1897 +the Talyshes (35,000) form the aboriginal element, belonging to the +Iranian family, and speaking an independently developed language closely +related to Persian. They are of middle height and dark complexion, with +generally straight nose, small round skull, small sharp chin and large +full eyes, which are expressive, however, rather of cunning than +intelligence. They live exclusively on rice. In the northern half of the +district the Tatar element predominates (40,000) and there are a number +of villages occupied by Russian Raskolniks (Nonconformists). +Agriculture, bee-keeping, silkworm-rearing and fishing are the principal +occupations. + + + + +LENNEP, JACOB VAN (1802-1868), Dutch poet and novelist, was born on the +24th of March 1802 at Amsterdam, where his father, David Jacob van +Lennep (1774-1853), a scholar and poet, was professor of eloquence and +the classical languages in the Athenaeum. Lennep took the degree of +doctor of laws at Leiden, and then settled as an advocate in Amsterdam. +His first poetical efforts had been translations from Byron, of whom he +was an ardent admirer, and in 1826 he published a collection of original +_Academische Idyllen_, which had some success. He first attained genuine +popularity by the _Nederlandsche Legenden_ (2 vols., 1828) which +reproduced, after the manner of Sir Walter Scott, some of the more +stirring incidents in the early history of his fatherland. His fame was +further raised by his patriotic songs at the time of the Belgian revolt, +and by his comedies _Het Dorp aan de Grenzen_ (1830) and _Het Dorp over +de Grenzen_ (1831), which also had reference to the political events of +1830. In 1833 he broke new ground with the publication of _De Pleegzoon +(The Adopted Son)_, the first of a series of historical romances in +prose, which have acquired for him in Holland a position somewhat +analogous to that of Sir Walter Scott in Great Britain. The series +included _De Roos van Dekama_ (2 vols., 1836), _Onze Voorouders_ (5 +vols., 1838), _De Lotgevallen van Ferdinand Huyck_ (2 vols., 1840), +_Elizabeth Musch_ (3 vols., 1850), and _De Lotgevallen van Klaasje +Zevenster_ (5 vols., 1865), several of which have been translated into +German and French, and two--_The Rose of Dekama_ (1847) and _The Adopted +Son_ (New York, 1847)--into English. His Dutch history for young people +(_Voornaamste Geschiedenissen van Noord-Nederland aan mijne Kindern +verhaald_, 4 vols., 1845) is attractively written. Apart from the two +comedies already mentioned, Lennep was an indefatigable journalist and +literary critic, the author of numerous dramatic pieces, and of an +excellent edition of Vondel's works. For some years Lennep held a +judicial appointment, and from 1853 to 1856 he was a member of the +second chamber, in which he voted with the conservative party. He died +at Oosterbeek near Arnheim on the 25th of August 1868. + + There is a collective edition of his _Poetische Werken_ (13 vols., + 1859-1872), and also of his _Romantische Werken_ (23 vols., + 1855-1872). See also a bibliography by P. Knoll (1869); and Jan ten + Brink, _Geschiedenis der Noord-Nederlandsche Letteren in de XIX^e + Eeuw_ (No. iii.). + + + + +LENNEP, a town of Germany, in the Prussian Rhine province, 18 m. E. of +Düsseldorf, and 9 m. S. of Barmen by rail, at a height of 1000 ft. above +the level of the sea. Pop. (1905) 10,323. It lies in the heart of one of +the busiest industrial districts in Germany, and carries on important +manufactures of the finer kinds of cloth, wool, yarn and felt, and also +of iron and steel goods. It has an Evangelical and a Protestant church, +a modern school and a well-equipped hospital. Lennep, which was the +residence of the counts of Berg from 1226 to 1300, owes the foundation +of its prosperity to an influx of Cologne weavers during the 14th +century. + + + + +LENNOX, a name given to a large district in Dumbartonshire and +Stirlingshire, which was erected into an earldom in the latter half of +the 12th century. It embraced the ancient sheriffdom of Dumbarton and +nineteen parishes with the whole of the lands round Loch Lomond, +formerly Loch Leven, and the river of that name which glides into the +estuary of the Clyde at the ancient castle of Dumbarton. + +On this river Leven, at Balloch, was the seat of Alwin, first earl of +Lennox. It is probable that he was of Celtic descent, but the records +are silent as to his part in history; that he was earl at all is only +proved from the charters of his son, another Alwin, and he died some +time before 1217. The second Alwin was father of ten sons, one of whom +founded the clan Macfarlane, famous in the annals of the district, while +another was ancestor of Walter of Farlane, who married the heiress of +the 6th earl of Lennox. Maldouen, the 3rd earl, eldest of the sons of +Alwin the younger, is an historical personage; he was a witness to the +treaty between Alexander II., king of Scotland, and his brother-in-law +the English king Henry III., at Newcastle in 1237, concerning the much +disputed northern counties of England. His grandson, Malcolm, successor +to the title, swore fealty to Edward I. in 1296; it was apparently his +son, another Malcolm, the 5th earl, who was summoned by Edward to +parliament and entrusted with the important post of guarding the fords +of the river Forth. But the 5th earl soon after gave his services to the +party of Bruce, the cause of that family having been embraced by his +father as early as 1292. As a result the English king bestowed the +earldom on Sir John Menteith, who was holding it in 1307 while the real +earl was with King Robert Bruce in his wanderings in the Lennox country. +For his services he was rewarded with a renewal of the earldom and the +keeping of Dumbarton Castle; he fell fighting for his country at Halidon +Hill in 1333. His son Donald, the 6th earl, an adherent of King David +II., left a daughter, Margaret, countess of Lennox, who was married to +her kinsman the above-mentioned Walter of Farlane, nearest heir male of +the Lennox family. + +In 1392, on the marriage of their grand-daughter Isabella, eldest +daughter of Duncan, 8th earl, with Sir Murdoch Stewart, afterwards duke +of Albany, the earldom was resigned into the hands of the king, who +re-granted it to Earl Duncan, with remainder to the heirs male of his +body, with remainder to Murdoch and Isabella and the heirs of their +bodies begotten between them, with eventual remainder to Earl Duncan's +nearest and lawful heirs. In 1424, when Murdoch, then duke of Albany, +succeeded in ransoming the poet king James I. from his long English +captivity, the aged Earl Duncan went with the Scottish party to Durham. +The next year, however, he suffered the fate of Albany, being executed +perhaps for no other reason than that he was his father-in-law. The +earldom was not forfeited, and the widowed duchess of Albany, now also +countess of Lennox, lived secure in her island castle of Inchmurrin on +Loch Lomond until her death. Of her four sons, none of whom left +legitimate issue, the eldest died in 1421, the two next suffered their +father's fate at Stirling, while the youngest had to flee for his life +to Ireland. Her daughter Isobel appears to have been the wife of Sir +Walter Buchanan of that ilk. + +It was from Elizabeth, sister of the countess, that the next holders of +the title descended. She was married to Sir John Stewart of Darnley +(distinguished in the military history of France as seigneur d'Aubigny), +whose immediate ancestor was brother of James, 5th high steward of +Scotland. Their grandson, another Sir John Stewart, created a lord of +parliament as Lord Darnley, was served heir to his great-grandfather +Duncan, earl of Lennox, in 1473, and was designated as earl of Lennox in +a charter under the great seal in the same year. Thereafter followed +disputes with John of Haldane, whose wife's great-grandmother had been +another of the three daughters of Duncan, 8th earl of Lennox, and in her +right he contested the succession. Lord Darnley, however, appears to +have silenced all opposition and for the last seven years of his life +maintained his right to the earldom undisputed. Three of his younger +sons were greatly distinguished in the French service, one being captain +of Scotsmen-at-arms, another _premier homme d'armes_, and a third +_maréchal de France_. Their elder brother Matthew, 2nd earl of this +line, fell on Flodden Field, leaving by his wife Elizabeth, daughter of +James, earl of Arran, and niece of James III., a son and successor John, +who became one of the guardians of James V. and was murdered in 1526. +His son Matthew, the 4th earl, played a great part in the intrigues of +his time, and by his marriage with Margaret Douglas allied himself to +the royal house of England as well as strengthening the ties which bound +his family to that of Scotland; because Margaret was the daughter and +heir of the 6th earl of Angus by his wife, Margaret Tudor, sister of +King Henry VIII. and widow of King James IV. Though his estates were +forfeited in 1545, Earl Matthew in 1564 not only had them restored but +had the satisfaction of getting his eldest son Henry married to Mary, +queen of Scots. The murder of Lord Darnley, now created earl of Rosse, +lord of Ardmanoch and duke of Albany, took place in February 1567, and +in July his only son James, by Mary's abdication, became king of +Scotland. The old earl of Lennox, now grandfather of his sovereign, +obtained the regency in 1570, but in the next year was killed in the +attack made on the parliament at Stirling, being the third earl in +succession to meet with a violent death. + +The title was now merged in the crown in the person of James VI. the +next heir, but was soon after granted to the king's uncle Charles, who +died in 1576, leaving an only child, the unfortunate Lady Arabella +Stewart. + +Two years later the title was granted to Robert Stewart, the king's +grand-uncle, second son of John, the 3rd earl, but he in 1580 exchanged +it for that of earl of March. On the same day the earldom of Lennox was +given to Esme Stewart, first cousin of the king and grandson of the 3rd +earl, he being son of John Stewart (adopted heir of the maréchal +d'Aubigny) and his French wife, Anne de la Queulle. In the following +year Esme was created duke of Lennox, earl of Darnley, Lord Aubigny, +Tarboulton and Dalkeith, and other favours were heaped upon him, but the +earl of Ruthven sent him back to France where he died soon after. His +elder son, Ludovic, was thereupon summoned to Scotland by James, who +invested him with all his father's honours and estates, and after his +accession to the English throne created him Lord Settrington and earl of +Richmond (1613), and earl of Newcastle-upon-Tyne and duke of Richmond +(1623), all these titles being in the peerage of England. After holding +many appointments the 2nd duke died without issue in 1624, being +succeeded in his Scottish titles by his brother Esme, who had already +been created earl of March and Lord Clifton of Leighton Bromswold in the +peerage of England (1619) and was seigneur d'Aubigny in France. Of his +sons, Henry succeeded to Aubigny and died young at Venice; Ludovic, +seigneur d'Aubigny, entered the Roman Catholic Church and received a +cardinal's hat just before his death; while the three other younger +sons, George, seigneur d'Aubigny, John and Bernard, were all +distinguished as royalists in the Civil war. Each met a soldier's death, +George at Edgehill, John at Alresford and Bernard at Rowton Heath. +James, the eldest son and 4th duke of Lennox, was created duke of +Richmond in 1641, being like his brother a devoted adherent of Charles +I. + +With the death of his little son Esme, the 5th duke, in 1660, the +titles, including that of Richmond, passed to his first cousin Charles, +who had already been created Lord Stuart of Newbury and earl of +Lichfield, being likewise now seigneur d'Aubigny. Disliked by Charles +II., principally because of his marriage with "la belle Stuart"--"the +noblest romance and example of a brave lady that ever I read in my +life," writes Pepys--he was sent into exile as ambassador to Denmark, +where he was drowned in 1672. His wife had had the Lennox estates +granted to her for life, but his only sister Katharine, wife of Henry +O'Brien, heir apparent of the 7th earl of Thomond, was served heir to +him. Her only daughter, the countess of Clarendon, was mother of +Theodosia Hyde, ancestress of the present earls of Darnley. + +The Lennox dukedom, being to heirs male, now devolved upon Charles II., +who bestowed it with the titles of earl of Darnley and Lord Tarbolton +upon one of his bastards, Charles Lennox, son of the celebrated duchess +of Portsmouth, he having previously been created duke of Richmond, earl +of March and Lord Settrington in the peerage of England. The ancient +lands of the Lennox title were also granted to him, but these he sold to +the duke of Montrose. + +His son Charles, who inherited his grandmother's French dukedom of +Aubigny, was a soldier of distinction, as were the 3rd and 4th dukes. +The wife of the last, Lady Charlotte Gordon, as heir of her brother +brought the ancient estates of her family to the Lennoxes; the +additional name of Gordon being taken by the 5th duke of Richmond and of +Lennox on the death of his uncle, the 5th duke of Gordon. In the next +generation further honours were granted to the family in the person of +the 6th duke, who was rewarded for his great public services with the +titles of duke of Gordon and earl of Kinrara in the peerage of the +United Kingdom (1876). + + _See Scots Peerage_, vol. v., for excellent accounts of these peerages + by the Rev. John Anderson, curator Historical Dept. H.M. Register + House; A. Francis Steuart and Francis J. Grant, Rothesay Herald. See + also _The Lennox_ by William Fraser. + + + + +LENNOX, CHARLOTTE (1720-1804), British writer, daughter of Colonel James +Ramsay, lieutenant-governor of New York, was born in 1720. She went to +London in 1735, and, being left unprovided for at her father's death, +she began to earn her living by writing. She made some unsuccessful +appearances on the stage and married in 1748. Samuel Johnson had an +exaggerated admiration for her. "Three such women," he said, speaking of +Elizabeth Carter, Hannah More and Fanny Burney, "are not to be found; I +know not where to find a fourth, except Mrs Lennox, who is superior to +them all." Her chief works are: _The Female Quixote; or the Adventures +of Arabella_ (1752), a novel; _Shakespear illustrated; or the novels and +histories on which the plays ... are founded_ (1753-1754), in which she +argued that Shakespeare had spoiled the stories he borrowed for his +plots by interpolating unnecessary intrigues and incidents; _The Life of +Harriot Stuart_ (1751), a novel; and _The Sister_, a comedy produced at +Covent Garden (18th February 1769). This last was withdrawn after the +first night, after a stormy reception, due, said Goldsmith, to the fact +that its author had abused Shakespeare. + + + + +LENNOX, MARGARET, COUNTESS OF (1515-1578), daughter of Archibald +Douglas, 6th earl of Angus, and Margaret Tudor, daughter of Henry VII. +of England and widow of James IV. of Scotland, was born at Harbottle +Castle, Northumberland, on the 8th of October 1515. On account of her +nearness to the English crown, Lady Margaret Douglas was brought up +chiefly at the English court in close association with the Princess +Mary, who remained her fast friend throughout life. She was high in +Henry VIII.'s favour, but was twice disgraced; first for an attachment +to Lord Thomas Howard, who died in the Tower in 1537, and again in 1541 +for a similar affair with Sir Charles Howard, brother of Queen Catherine +Howard. In 1544 she married a Scottish exile, Matthew Stewart, 4th earl +of Lennox (1516-1571), who was regent of Scotland in 1570-1571. During +Mary's reign the countess of Lennox had rooms in Westminster Palace; but +on Elizabeth's accession she removed to Yorkshire, where her home at +Temple Newsam became a centre for Catholic intrigue. By a series of +successful manoeuvres she married her son Henry Stewart, Lord Darnley, +to Mary, queen of Scots. In 1566 she was sent to the Tower, but after +the murder of Darnley in 1567 she was released. She was at first loud in +her denunciations of Mary, but was eventually reconciled with her +daughter-in-law. In 1574 she again aroused Elizabeth's anger by the +marriage of her son Charles, earl of Lennox, with Elizabeth Cavendish, +daughter of the earl of Shrewsbury. She was sent to the Tower with Lady +Shrewsbury, and was only pardoned after her son's death in 1577. Her +diplomacy largely contributed to the future succession of her grandson +James to the English throne. She died on the 7th of March 1578. + + The famous Lennox jewel, made for Lady Lennox as a memento of her + husband, was bought by Queen Victoria in 1842. + + + + +LENO, DAN, the stage-name of George Galvin (1861-1904), English +comedian, who was born at Somers Town, London, in February 1861. His +parents were actors, known as Mr and Mrs Johnny Wilde. Dan Leno was +trained to be an acrobat, but soon became a dancer, travelling with his +brother as "the brothers Leno," and winning the world's championship in +clog-dancing at Leeds in 1880. Shortly afterwards he appeared in London +at the Oxford, and in 1886-1887 at the Surrey Theatre. In 1888-1889 he +was engaged by Sir Augustus Harris to play the Baroness in the _Babes in +the Wood_, and from that time he was a principal figure in the Drury +Lane pantomimes. He was the wittiest and most popular comedian of his +day, and delighted London music-hall audiences by his shop-walker, +stores-proprietor, waiter, doctor, beef-eater, bathing attendant, "Mrs +Kelly," and other impersonations. In 1900 he engaged to give his entire +services to the Pavilion Music Hall, where he received £100 per week. In +November 1901 he was summoned to Sandringham to do a "turn" before the +king, and was proud from that time to call himself the "king's jester." +Dan Leno's generosity endeared him to his profession, and he was the +object of much sympathy during the brain failure which recurred during +the last eighteen months of his life. He died on the 31st of October +1904. + + + + +LENORMANT, FRANÇOIS (1837-1883), French Assyriologist and archaeologist, +was born in Paris on the 17th of January 1837. His father, Charles +Lenormant, distinguished as an archaeologist, numismatist and +Egyptologist, was anxious that his son should follow in his steps. He +made him begin Greek at the age of six, and the child responded so well +to this precocious scheme of instruction, that when he was only fourteen +an essay of his, on the Greek tablets found at Memphis, appeared in the +_Revue archéologique_. In 1856 he won the numismatic prize of the +Académie des Inscriptions with an essay entitled _Classification des +monnaies des Lagides_. In 1862 he became sub-librarian of the Institute. +In 1859 he accompanied his father on a journey of exploration to Greece, +during which Charles Lenormant succumbed to fever at Athens (24th +November). Lenormant returned to Greece three times during the next six +years, and gave up all the time he could spare from his official work to +archaeological research. These peaceful labours were rudely interrupted +by the war of 1870, when Lenormant served with the army and was wounded +in the siege of Paris. In 1874 he was appointed professor of archaeology +at the National Library, and in the following year he collaborated with +Baron de Witte in founding the _Gazette archéologique_. As early as 1867 +he had turned his attention to Assyrian studies; he was among the first +to recognize in the cuneiform inscriptions the existence of a +non-Semitic language, now known as Accadian. Lenormant's knowledge was +of encyclopaedic extent, ranging over an immense number of subjects, and +at the same time thorough, though somewhat lacking perhaps in the strict +accuracy of the modern school. Most of his varied studies were directed +towards tracing the origins of the two great civilizations of the +ancient world, which were to be sought in Mesopotamia and on the shores +of the Mediterranean. He had a perfect passion for exploration. Besides +his early expeditions to Greece, he visited the south of Italy three +times with this object, and it was while exploring in Calabria that he +met with an accident which ended fatally in Paris on the 9th of December +1883, after a long illness. The amount and variety of Lenormant's work +is truly amazing when it is remembered that he died at the early age of +forty-six. Probably the best known of his books are _Les Origines de +l'histoire d'après la Bible_, and his ancient history of the East and +account of Chaldean magic. For breadth of view, combined with +extraordinary subtlety of intuition, he was probably unrivalled. + + + + +LENOX, a township of Berkshire county, Massachusetts, U.S.A. Pop. (1900) +2942, (1905) 3058; (1910) 3060. Area, 19.2 sq. m. The principal village, +also named Lenox (or Lenox-on-the-Heights), lies about 2 m. W. of the +Housatonic river, at an altitude of about 1000 ft., and about it are +high hills--Yokun Seat (2080 ft.), South Mountain (1200 ft.), Bald Head +(1583 ft.), and Rattlesnake Hill (1540 ft.). New Lenox and Lenoxdale are +other villages in the township. Lenox is a fashionable summer and autumn +resort, much frequented by wealthy people from Washington, Newport and +New York. There are innumerable lovely walks and drives in the +surrounding region, which contains some of the most beautiful country of +the Berkshires--hills, lakes, charming intervales and woods. As early as +1835 Lenox began to attract summer residents. In the next decade began +the creation of large estates, although the great holdings of the +present day, and the villas scattered over the hills, are comparatively +recent features. The height of the season is in the autumn, when there +are horse-shows, golf, tennis, hunts and other outdoor amusements. The +Lenox library (1855) contained about 20,000 volumes in 1908. Lenox was +settled about 1750, was included in Richmond township in 1765, and +became an independent township in 1767. The names were those of Sir +Charles Lennox, third duke of Richmond and of Lennox (1735-1806), one of +the staunch friends of the American colonies during the War of +Independence. Lenox was the county-seat from 1787 to 1868. It has +literary associations with Catherine M. Sedgwick (1789-1867), who passed +here the second half of her life; with Nathaniel Hawthorne, whose brief +residence here (1850-1851) was marked by the production of the _House +of the Seven Gables_ and the _Wonder Book_; with Fanny Kemble, a summer +resident from 1836-1853; and with Henry Ward Beecher (see his _Star +Papers_). Elizabeth (Mrs Charles) Sedgwick, the sister-in-law of +Catherine Sedgwick, maintained here from 1828 to 1864 a school for +girls, in which Harriet Hosmer, the sculptor, and Maria S. Cummins +(1827-1866), the novelist, were educated; and in Lenox academy (1803), a +famous classical school (now a public high school) were educated W. L. +Yancey, A. H. Stephens, Mark Hopkins and David Davis (1815-1886), a +circuit judge of Illinois from 1848 to 1862, a justice (1862-1877) of +the United States Supreme Court, a Republican member of the United +States Senate from Illinois in 1877-1883, and president of the Senate +from the 31st of October 1881, when he succeeded Chester A. Arthur, +until the 3rd of March 1883. There is a statue commemorating General +John Paterson (1744-1808) a soldier from Lenox in the War of +Independence. + + See R. de W. Mallary, _Lenox and the Berkshire Highlands_ (1902); J. + C. Adams, _Nature Studies in Berkshire_; C. F. Warner, _Picturesque + Berkshire_ (1890); and Katherine M. Abbott, _Old Paths and Legends of + the New England Border_ (1907). + + + + +LENS, a town of Northern France, in the department of Pas-de-Calais, 13 +m. N.N.E. of Arras by rail on the Déûle and on the Lens canal. Pop. +(1906) 27,692. Lens has important iron and steel foundries, and +engineering works and manufactories of steel cables, and occupies a +central position in the coalfields of the department. Two and a half +miles W.S.W. lies Liévin (pop. 22,070), likewise a centre of the +coalfield. In 1648 the neighbourhood of Lens was the scene of a +celebrated victory gained by Louis II. of Bourbon, prince of Condé, over +the Spaniards. + + + + +LENS (from Lat. _lens_, lentil, on account of the similarity of the form +of a lens to that of a lentil seed), in optics, an instrument which +refracts the luminous rays proceeding from an object in such a manner as +to produce an image of the object. It may be regarded as having four +principal functions: (1) to produce an image larger than the object, as +in the magnifying glass, microscope, &c.; (2) to produce an image +smaller than the object, as in the ordinary photographic camera; (3) to +convert rays proceeding from a point or other luminous source into a +definite pencil, as in lighthouse lenses, the engraver's globe, &c.; (4) +to collect luminous and heating rays into a smaller area, as in the +burning glass. A lens made up of two or more lenses cemented together or +very close to each other is termed "composite" or "compound"; several +lenses arranged in succession at a distance from each other form a +"system of lenses," and if the axes be collinear a "centred system." +This article is concerned with the general theory of lenses, and more +particularly with spherical lenses. For a special part of the theory of +lenses see ABERRATION; the instruments in which the lenses occur are +treated under their own headings. + +The most important type of lens is the spherical lens, which is a piece +of transparent material bounded by two spherical surfaces, the boundary +at the edge being usually cylindrical or conical. The line joining the +centres, C1, C2 (fig. 1), of the bounding surfaces is termed the _axis_; +the points S1, S2, at which the axis intersects the surfaces, are termed +the "vertices" of the lens; and the distance between the vertices is +termed the "thickness." If the edge be everywhere equidistant from the +vertex, the lens is "centred." + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.] + +Although light is really a wave motion in the aether, it is only +necessary, in the investigation of the optical properties of systems of +lenses, to trace the rectilinear path of the waves, i.e. the direction +of the normal to the wave front, and this can be done by purely +geometrical methods. It will be assumed that light, so long as it +traverses the same medium, always travels in a straight line; and in +following out the geometrical theory it will always be assumed that the +light travels from left to right; accordingly all distances measured in +this direction are positive, while those measured in the opposite +direction are negative. + + _Theory of Optical Representation._--If a pencil of rays, i.e. the + totality of the rays proceeding from a luminous point, falls on a lens + or lens system, a section of the pencil, determined by the dimensions + of the system, will be transmitted. The emergent rays will have + directions differing from those of the incident rays, the alteration, + however, being such that the transmitted rays are convergent in the + "image-point," just as the incident rays diverge from the + "object-point." With each incident ray is associated an emergent ray; + such pairs are termed "conjugate ray pairs." Similarly we define an + object-point and its image-point as "conjugate points"; all + object-points lie in the "object-space," and all image-points lie in + the "image-space." + + [Illustration: FIG. 2.] + + The laws of optical representations were first deduced in their most + general form by E. Abbe, who assumed (1) that an optical + representation always exists, and (2) that to every point in the + object-space there corresponds a point in the image-space, these + points being mutually convertible by straight rays; in other words, + with each object-point is associated one, and only one, image-point, + and if the object-point be placed at the image-point, the conjugate + point is the original object-point. Such a transformation is termed a + "collineation," since it transforms points into points and straight + lines into straight lines. Prior to Abbe, however, James Clerk Maxwell + published, in 1856, a geometrical theory of optical representation, + but his methods were unknown to Abbe and to his pupils until O. + Eppenstein drew attention to them. Although Maxwell's theory is not so + general as Abbe's, it is used here since its methods permit a simple + and convenient deduction of the laws. + + [Illustration] + + Maxwell assumed that two object-planes perpendicular to the axis are + represented sharply and similarly in two image-planes also + perpendicular to the axis (by "sharply" is meant that the assumed + ideal instrument unites all the rays proceeding from an object-point + in one of the two planes in its image-point, the rays being generally + transmitted by the system). The symmetry of the axis being premised, + it is sufficient to deduce laws for a plane containing the axis. In + fig. 2 let O1, O2 be the two points in which the perpendicular + object-planes meet the axis; and since the axis corresponds to itself, + the two conjugate points O´1, O´2, are at the intersections of the two + image-planes with the axis. We denote the four planes by the letters + O1, O2, and O´1, O´2. If two points A, C be taken in the plane O1, + their images are A´, C´ in the plane O´1, and since the planes are + represented similarly, we have O´1A´:O1A = O´1C´1:O1C = [beta]1 (say), + in which [beta]1 is easily seen to be the _linear magnification_ of + the plane-pair O1, O´1. Similarly, if two points B, D be taken in the + plane O2 and their images B´, D´ in the plane O´2, we have O´2B´:O2B = + O´2D´:O2D = [beta]2 (say), [beta]2 being the linear magnification of + the plane-pair O2, O´2. The joins of A and B and of C and D intersect + in a point P, and the joins of the conjugate points similarly + determine the point P´. + + If P´ is the only possible image-point of the object-point P, then the + conjugate of every ray passing through P must pass through P´. To + prove this, take a third line through P intersecting the planes O1, O2 + in the points E, F, and by means of the magnifications [beta]1, + [beta]2 determine the conjugate points E´, F´ in the planes O´1, O´2. + Since the planes O1, O2 are parallel, then AC/AE = BD/BF; and since + these planes are represented similarly in O´1, O´2, then A´C´/A´E´ = + B´D´/B´F´. This proportion is only possible when the straight line + E´F´ contains the point P´. Since P was any point whatever, it follows + that every point of the object-space is represented in one and only + one point in the image-space. + + Take a second object-point P1, vertically under P and defined by the + two rays CD1, and EF1, the conjugate point P´1 will be determined by + the intersection of the conjugate rays C´D´1 and E´F´1, the points + D´1, F´1, being readily found from the magnifications [beta]1, + [beta]2. Since PP1 is parallel to CE and also to DF, then DF = D1F1. + Since the plane O2 is similarly represented in O´2, D´F´ = D´1F´1; + this is impossible unless P´P´1 be parallel to C´E´. Therefore every + perpendicular object-plane is represented by a perpendicular + image-plane. + + Let O be the intersection of the line PP1 with the axis, and let O´ be + its conjugate; then it may be shown that a fixed magnification [beta]3 + exists for the planes O and O´. For PP1/FF1 = OO1/O1O2, P´P´1/F´F´1 = + O´O´/O´1O´2, and F´F´1 = [beta]2FF1. Eliminating FF1 and F´F´1 between + these ratios, we have P´P´1/PP1[beta]2 = O´O´1·O1O2/OO1. O´1O´2, or + [beta]3 = [beta]2·O´O´1·O1O2/OO1·O´1O´2, i.e. [beta]3 = [beta]2 × a + product of the axial distances. + + The determination of the image-point of a given object-point is + facilitated by means of the so-called "cardinal points" of the optical + system. To determine the image-point O´1 (fig. 3) corresponding to the + object-point O1, we begin by choosing from the ray pencil proceeding + from O1, the ray parallel with the axis, i.e. intersecting the axis at + infinity. Since the axis is its own conjugate, the parallel ray + through O1 must intersect the axis after refraction (say at F´). Then + F´ is the image-point of an object-point situated at infinity on the + axis, and is termed the "second principal focus" (German _der + bildseitige Brennpunkt_, the image-side focus). Similarly if O´4 be on + the parallel through O1 but in the image-space, then the conjugate ray + must intersect the axis at a point (say F), which is conjugate with + the point at infinity on the axis in the image-space. This point is + termed the "first principal focus" (German _der objektseitige + Brennpunkt_, the object-side focus). + + Let H1, H´1 be the intersections of the focal rays through F and F´ + with the line O1O´4. These two points are in the position of object + and image, since they are each determined by two pairs of conjugate + rays (O1H1 being conjugate with H´1F´, and O´4H´1 with H1F). It has + already been shown that object-planes perpendicular to the axis are + represented by image-planes also perpendicular to the axis. Two + vertical planes through H1 and H´1, are related as object- and + image-planes; and if these planes intersect the axis in two points H + and H´, these points are named the "principal," or "Gauss points" of + the system, H being the "object-side" and H´ the "image-side principal + point." The vertical planes containing H and H´ are the "principal + planes." It is obvious that conjugate points in these planes are + equidistant from the axis; in other words, the magnification [beta] of + the pair of planes is unity. An additional characteristic of the + principal planes is that the object and image are direct and not + inverted. The distances between F and H, and between F´ and H´ are + termed the focal lengths; the former may be called the "object-side + focal length" and the latter the "image-side focal length." The two + focal points and the two principal points constitute the so-called + four cardinal points of the system, and with their aid the image of + any object can be readily determined. + + _Equations relating to the Focal Points._--We know that the ray + proceeding from the object point O1, parallel to the axis and + intersecting the principal plane H in H1, passes through H´1 and F´. + Choose from the pencil a second ray which contains F and intersects + the principal plane H in H2; then the conjugate ray must contain + points corresponding to F and H2. The conjugate of F is the point at + infinity on the axis, i.e. on the ray parallel to the axis. The image + of H2 must be in the plane H´ at the same distance from, and on the + same side of, the axis, as in H´2. The straight line passing through + H´2 parallel to the axis intersects the ray H´1F´ in the point O´1, + which must be the image of O1. If O be the foot of the perpendicular + from O1 to the axis, then OO1 is represented by the line O´O´1 also + perpendicular to the axis. + + [Illustration: FIG. 3.] + + This construction is not applicable if the object or image be + infinitely distant. For example, if the object OO1 be at infinity (O + being assumed to be on the axis for the sake of simplicity), so that + the object appears under a constant angle w, we know that the second + principal focus is conjugate with the infinitely distant axis-point. + If the object is at infinity in a plane perpendicular to the axis, the + image must be in the perpendicular plane through the focal point F´ + (fig. 4). + + The size y´ of the image is readily deduced. Of the parallel rays from + the object subtending the angle w, there is one which passes through + the first principal focus F, and intersects the principal plane H in + H1. Its conjugate ray passes through H´ parallel to, and at the same + distance from the axis, and intersects the image-side focal plane in + O´1; this point is the image of O1, and y´ is its magnitude. From the + figure we have tan w = HH1/FH = y´/f, or f = y´/tan w; this equation + was used by Gauss to define the focal length. + + [Illustration: FIG. 4.] + + Referring to fig. 3, we have from the similarity of the triangles OO1F + and HH2F, HH2/OO1 = FH/FO, or O´O´1/OO1 = FH/FO. Let y be the + magnitude of the object OO1, y´ that of the image O´O´1, x the focal + distance FO of the object, and f the object-side focal distance FH; + then the above equation may be written y´/y = f/x. From the similar + triangles H´1H´F´ and O´1O´F´, we obtain O´O´1/OO1 = F´O´/F´H´. Let x´ + be the focal distance of the image F´O´, and f´ the image-side focal + length F´H´; then y´/y = x´/f´. The ratio of the size of the image to + the size of the object is termed the _lateral magnification_. Denoting + this by [beta], we have + + [beta] = y´/y = f/x = x´/f´, (1) + + and also + + xx´ = ff´. (2) + + By differentiating equation (2) we obtain + + dx´= -(ff´/x²)dx or dx´/dx = -ff´/x². (3) + + The ratio of the displacement of the image dx´ to the displacement of + the object dx is the axial magnification, and is denoted by [alpha]. + Equation (3) gives important information on the displacement of the + image when the object is moved. Since f and f´ always have contrary + signs (as is proved below), the product -ff´ is invariably positive, + and since x² is positive for all values of x, it follows that dx and + dx´ have the same sign, i.e. the object and image always move in the + same direction, either both in the direction of the light, or both in + the opposite direction. This is shown in fig. 3 by the object O3O2 and + the image O´3O´2. + + If two conjugate rays be drawn from two conjugate points on the axis, + making angles u and u´ with the axis, as for example the rays OH1, + O´H´1, in fig. 3, u is termed the "angular aperture for the object," + and u´ the "angular aperture for the image." The ratio of the tangents + of these angles is termed the "convergence" and is denoted by [gamma], + thus [gamma] = tan u´/tan u. Now tan u´= H´H´1/O´H´ = H´H´1/(O´F´+ + F´H´) = H´H´1/(F´H´- F´O´). Also tan u = HH1/OH = HH1/(OF + FH) = + HH1/(FH-FO). Consequently [gamma] = (FH - FO)/(F´H´-F´O´), or, in our + previous notation, [gamma] = (f - x)/(f´- x´). + + From equation (1) f/x = x´/f´, we obtain by subtracting unity from + both sides (f-x)/x = (x´-f´)/f´, and consequently + + f - x x f + ------- = - -- = - -- = [gamma]. (4) + f´ - x´ f´ x´ + + From equations (1), (3) and (4), it is seen that a simple relation + exists between the lateral magnification, the axial magnification and + the convergence, viz. [alpha][gamma] = [beta]. + + [Illustration: FIG. 5.] + + In addition to the four cardinal points F, H, F´, H´, J. B. Listing, + "Beiträge aus physiologischen Optik," _Göttinger Studien_ (1845) + introduced the so-called "nodal points" (_Knotenpunkte_) of the + system, which are the two conjugate points from which the object and + image appear under the same angle. In fig. 5 let K be the nodal point + from which the object y appears under the same angle as the image y´ + from the other nodal point K´. Then OO1/KO = O´O´1/K´O´, or OO1/(KF + + FO) = O´O´1/(K´F´+ F´O´), or OO1/(FO - FK) = O´O´1/(F´O´- F´K´). + Calling the focal distances FK and F´K´, X and X´, we have y/(x - X) = + y´/(x´- X´), and since y´/y = [beta], it follows that 1/(x - X) = + [beta]/(x´- X´). Replace x´ and X´ by the values given in equation + (2), and we obtain + + 1 /ff´ ff´\ xX + ----- = [beta]/( --- - --- ) or 1 = -[beta]---. + x - X \ x X / ff´ + + Since [beta] = f/x = x´/f´, we have f´ = -X, f = -X´. + + These equations show that to determine the nodal points, it is only + necessary to measure the focal distance of the second principal focus + from the first principal focus, and vice versa. In the special case + when the initial and final medium is the same, as for example, a lens + in air, we have f = -f´, and the nodal points coincide with the + principal points of the system; we then speak of the "nodal point + property of the principal points," meaning that the object and + corresponding image subtend the same angle at the principal points. + + _Equations Relating to the Principal Points._--It is sometimes + desirable to determine the distances of an object and its image, not + from the focal points, but from the principal points. Let A (see fig. + 3) be the principal point distance of the object and A´ that of the + image, we then have + + A = HO = HF + FO = FO - FH = x - f, + A´ = H´O´ = H´F´ + F´O´ = F´O´ - F´H´ = x´ - f´, + + whence + + x = A + f and x´ = A´ + f´. + + Using xx´ = ff´, we have (A + f)(A´ + f´) = ff´, which leads to AA´ + + Af´ + A´f = O, or + + f´ f + 1 + -- + - = O; + A´ A + + this becomes in the special case when f = -f´, + + 1 1 1 + -- - -- = --. + A´ A f + + To express the linear magnification in terms of the principal point + distances, we start with equation (4) (f - x)/(f´ - x´) = -x/f´. From + this we obtain A/A´ = -x/f´, or x = -f´A/A´; and by using equation (1) + we have [beta] = -fA´/f´A. + + In the special case of f = -f´, this becomes [beta] = A´/A = y´/y, + from which it follows that the ratio of the dimensions of the object + and image is equal to the ratio of the distances of the object and + image from the principal points. + + The convergence can be determined in terms of A and A´ by substituting + x = -f´A/A´ in equation (4), when we obtain [gamma] = A/A´. + + _Compound Systems._--In discussing the laws relating to compound + systems, we assume that the cardinal points of the component systems + are known, and also that the combinations are centred, i.e. that the + axes of the component lenses coincide. If some object be represented + by two systems arranged one behind the other, we can regard the + systems as co-operating in the formation of the final image. + + [Illustration: FIG. 6.] + + Let such a system be represented in fig. 6. The two single systems are + denoted by the suffixes 1 and 2; for example, F1 is the first + principal focus of the first, and F´2 the second principal focus of + the second system. A ray parallel to the axis at a distance y passes + through the second principal focus F´1 of the first system, + intersecting the axis at an angle w´1. The point F´1 will be + represented in the second system by the point F´, which is therefore + conjugate to the point at infinity for the entire system, i.e. it is + the second principal focus of the compound system. The representation + of F´1 in F´ by the second system leads to the relations F2F´1 = x2, + and F´2F´ = x´2, whence x2x´2 = f2f´2. Denoting the distance between + the adjacent focal planes F´1, F2 by [Delta], we have [Delta] = F´1F2 + = -F2F´1, so that x´2 = -f2f´2/[Delta]. A similar ray parallel to the + axis at a distance y proceeding from the image-side will intersect the + axis at the focal point F2; and by finding the image of this point in + the first system, we determine the first principal focus of the + compound system. Equation (2) gives x1x´1 = f1f´1, and since x´1 = + F´1F2 = [Delta], we have x1 = f1f´1/[Delta] as the distance of the + first principal focus F of the compound system from the first + principal focus F1 of the first system. + + To determine the focal lengths f and f´ of the compound system and the + principal points H and H´, we employ the equations defining the focal + lengths, viz. f = y´/tan w, and f´ = y/tan w´. From the construction + (fig. 6) tan w´1 = y/f´1. The variation of the angle w´1 by the second + system is deduced from the equation to the convergence, viz. [gamma] = + tan w´2/tan w2 = -x2/f´2 = [Delta]/f´2, and since w2 = w´1, we have + tan w´2 = ([Delta]/f´2) tan w´1. Since w´ = w´2 in our system of + notation, we have + + y yf´2 f´1. + f´ = ------ = --------------- = -----------. (5) + tan w´ [Delta] tan w´1 f´2/[Delta] + + By taking a ray proceeding from the image-side we obtain for the first + principal focal distance of the combination + + f = -f1f2/[Delta]. + + In the particular case in which [Delta] = 0, the two focal planes F´1, + F2 coincide, and the focal lengths f, f´ are infinite. Such a system + is called a telescopic system, and this condition is realized in a + telescope focused for a normal eye. + + So far we have assumed that all the rays proceeding from an + object-point are exactly united in an image-point after transmission + through the ideal system. The question now arises as to how far this + assumption is justified for spherical lenses. To investigate this it + is simplest to trace the path of a ray through one spherical + refracting surface. Let such a surface divide media of refractive + indices n and n´, the former being to the left. The point where the + axis intersects the surface is the vertex S (fig. 7). Denote the + distance of the axial object-point O from S by s; the distance from O + to the point of incidence P by p; the radius of the spherical surface + by r; and the distance OC by c, C being the centre of the sphere. Let + u be the angle made by the ray with the axis, and i the angle of + incidence, i.e. the angle between the ray and the normal to the sphere + at the point of incidence. The corresponding quantities in the + image-space are denoted by the same letters with a dash. From the + triangle O´PC we have sin u = (r/c) sin i, and from the triangle O´PC + we have sin u´ = (r/c´) sin i´. By Snell's law we have n´/n = sin + i/sin i´, and also [phi] = u´ + i´. Consequently c´ and the position + of the image may be found. + + [Illustration: FIG. 7.] + + To determine whether all the rays proceeding from O are refracted + through O´, we investigate the triangle OPO´. We have p/p´ = sin + u´/sin u. Substituting for sin u and sin u´ the values found above, we + obtain p´/p = c´ sin i/c sin i´ = n´c´/nc. Also c = OC = CS + SO = -SC + + SO = s - r, and similarly c´ = s´ - r. Substituting these values we + obtain + + p´ n´(s´ - r) n(s - r) n´(s´ - r) + -- = ----------, or -------- = ----------. (6) + p n(s - r) p p´ + + To obtain p and p´ we use the triangles OPC and O´PC; we have p² = (s + - r)² + r² + 2r(s - r) cos [phi], p´² = (s´ - r)² + r² + 2r(s´ - r) + cos [phi]. Hence if s, r, n and n´ be constant, s´ must vary as [phi] + varies. The refracted rays therefore do not reunite in a point, and + the deflection is termed the spherical aberration (see ABERRATION). + + Developing cos [phi] in powers of [phi], we obtain + + / [phi]² [phi]^4 [phi]^6 \ + p² = (s - r)² + r² + 2r(s - r) ( 1 - ------ + ------- - ------- + ...), + \ 2! 4! 6! / + + and therefore for such values of [phi] for which the second and higher + powers may be neglected, we have p² = (s - r)² + r² + 2r(s - r), i.e. + p = s, and similarly p´ = s´. Equation (6) then becomes n(s - r)/s = + n´(s´ - r)/s´ or + + n´ n n´- n + -- = -- + -----. (7) + s´ s r + + This relation shows that in a very small central aperture in which the + equation p = s holds, all rays proceeding from an object-point are + exactly united in an image-point, and therefore the equations + previously deduced are valid for this aperture. K. F. Gauss derived + the equations for thin pencils in his _Dioptrische Untersuchungen_ + (1840) by very elegant methods. More recently the laws relating to + systems with finite aperture have been approximately realized, as for + example, in well-corrected photographic objectives. + + _Position of the Cardinal Points of a Lens._--Taking the case of a + single spherical refracting surface, and limiting ourselves to the + small central aperture, it is seen that the second principal focus F´ + is obtained when s is infinitely great. Consequently s´ = -f´; the + difference of sign is obvious, since s´ is measured from S, while f´ + is measured from F´. The focal lengths are directly deducible from + equation (7):-- + + f´ = -n´r/(n´ - n) (8) + + f = nr/(n´ - n). (9) + + By joining this simple refracting system with a similar one, so that + the second spherical surface limits the medium of refractive index n´, + we derive the spherical lens. Generally the two spherical surfaces + enclose a glass lens, and are bounded on the outside by air of + refractive index 1. + + The deduction of the cardinal points of a spherical glass lens in air + from the relations already proved is readily effected if we regard the + lens as a combination of two systems each having one refracting + surface, the light passing in the first system from air to glass, and + in the second from glass to air. If we know the refractive index of + the glass n, the radii r1, r2 of the spherical surfaces, and the + distances of the two lens-vertices (or the thickness of the lens d) we + can determine all the properties of the lens. A biconvex lens is shown + in fig. 8. Let F1 be the first principal focus of the first system of + radius r1, and F1´ the second principal focus; and let S1 be its + vertex. Denote the distance F1 S1 (the first principal focal length) + by f1, and the corresponding distance F´1 S1 by f´1. Let the + corresponding quantities in the second system be denoted by the same + letters with the suffix 2. + + By equations (8) and (9) we have + + r1 nr1 nr2 r2 + f1 = -----, f´1 = - -----, f2 = - -----, f´2 = -----, + n - 1 n - 1 n - 1 n - 1 + + f2 having the opposite sign to f1. Denoting the distance F´1F2 by + [Delta], we have [Delta] = F´1F2 = F´1S1 + S1S2 + S2F2 = F´1S1 + S1S2 + - F2S2 = f´1 + d - f2. + + Substituting for f´1 and f2 we obtain + + nr1 nr2 + [Delta] = ----- + d + -----. + n - 1 n - 1 + + Writing R = [Delta](n - 1), this relation becomes + + R = n(r2 - r1) + d(n - 1). + + We have already shown that f (the first principal focal length of a + compound system) = -f1f2/[Delta]. Substituting for f1, f2 and [Delta] + the values found above, we obtain + + r1r2n r1r2n + f = --------- = ------------------------------, (10) + (n - 1)R} (n - 1){n(r2 - r1) + d(n - 1)} + + which is equivalent to + + 1 /1 1 \ (n-1)²d + -- = (n - 1)( -- - -- ) + -------. + f \r1 r2/ r1r2n + + If the lens be infinitely thin, i.e. if d be zero, we have for the + first principal focal length. + + 1 /1 1 \ + -- = (n - 1)( -- - -- ). + f \r1 r2/ + + By the same method we obtain for the second principal focal length + + f´1f´2 nr1r2 + f´ = ------- = - --------- = -f. + [Delta] (n - 1)R + + [Illustration: FIG. 8.] + + The reciprocal of the focal length is termed the _power_ of the lens + and is denoted by [phi]. In formulae involving [phi] it is customary + to denote the reciprocal of the radii by the symbol [rho]; we thus + have [phi] = 1/f, [rho] = 1/r. Equation (10) thus becomes + + (n - 1)²d[rho]1[rho]2 + [phi] = (n - 1)([rho]1 - [rho]2) + ---------------------. + n + + The unit of power employed by spectacle-makers is termed the _diopter_ + or _dioptric_ (see SPECTACLES). + + We proceed to determine the distances of the focal points from the + vertices of the lens, i.e. the distances FS1 and F´S2. Since F is + represented by the first system in F2, we have by equation (2) + + f1f´1 f1f´1 nr1² + x1 = ----- = ------- = --------, + x´1 [Delta] (n - 1)R + + where x1 = F1F, and x´1 = F´1F2 = [Delta]. The distance of the first + principal focus from the vertex S, i.e. S1F, which we denote by s_F + is given by s_F = S1F = S1F1 + F1F = -F1S1 + F1F. Now F1S1 is the + distance from the vertex of the first principal focus of the first + system, i.e. f1 and F1F = x1. Substituting these values, we obtain + + r1 nr1² r1(nr1 + R) + s_F = - ----- - -------- = -----------. + n - 1 (n - 1)R (n - 1)R + + The distance F´2F´ or x´2 is similarly determined by considering F´1 + to be represented by the second system in F´. + + We have + + f2f´2 f2f´2 nr2² + x´2 = ----- = ------- = --------, + x2 [Delta] (n - 1)R + + so that + + r2(nr2 - R) + s_F´ = x´2 - f´2 = -----------, + (n - 1)R + + where s_F´ denotes the distance of the second principal focus from + the vertex S2. + + The two focal lengths and the distances of the foci from the vertices + being known, the positions of the remaining cardinal points, i.e. the + principal points H and H´, are readily determined. Let s_H = S1H, i.e. + the distance of the object-side principal point from the vertex of the + first surface, and s_H´ = S2H´, i.e. the distance of the image-side + principal point from the vertex of the second surface, then f = FH = + FS1 + S1H = -S1F + S1H = -s_F + s_H; hence s_H = s_F + f = -dr1/R. + Similarly s_H´ = s_F´ + f´ = -dr2/R. It is readily seen that the + distances s_H and s_H´ are in the ratio of the radii r1 and r2. + + The distance between the two principal planes (the interstitium) is + deduced very simply. We have S1S2 = S1H + HH´ + H´S2, or HH´ = S1S2 - + S1H + S2H´. Substituting, we have + + HH´ = d - s_H + s_H´ = d(n - 1)(r2 - r1 + d)/R. + + The interstitium becomes zero, or the two principal planes coincide, + if d = r1 - r2. + + We have now derived all the properties of the lens in terms of its + elements, viz. the refractive index, the radii of the surfaces, and + the thickness. + + _Forms of Lenses._--By varying the signs and relative magnitude of the + radii, lenses may be divided into two groups according to their + action, and into four groups according to their form. + + According to their action, lenses are either collecting, convergent + and condensing, or divergent and dispersing; the term positive is + sometimes applied to the former, and the term negative to the latter. + Convergent lenses transform a parallel pencil into a converging one, + and increase the convergence, and diminish the divergence of any + pencil. Divergent lenses, on the other hand, transform a parallel + pencil into a diverging one, and diminish the convergence, and + increase the divergence of any pencil. In convergent lenses the first + principal focal distance is positive and the second principal focal + distance negative; in divergent lenses the converse holds. + + The four forms of lenses are interpretable by means of equation (10). + + r1r2n + f = -------------------------------. + (n - 1) {n(r2 - r1) + d(n - 1)} + + [Illustration: FIG. 9.] + + (1) If r1 be positive and r2 negative. This type is called biconvex + (fig. 9, 1). The first principal focus is in front of the lens, and + the second principal focus behind the lens, and the two principal + points are inside the lens. The order of the cardinal points is + therefore FS1HH´S2F´. The lens is convergent so long as the thickness + is less than n(r1 - r2)/(n - 1). The special case when one of the + radii is infinite, in other words, when one of the bounding surfaces + is plane is shown in fig. 9, 2. Such a collective lens is termed + _plano-convex_. As d increases, F and H move to the right and F´ and + H´ to the left. If d = n(r1 - r2)/(n - 1), the focal length is + infinite, i.e. the lens is telescopic. If the thickness be greater + than n(r1 - r2)/(n - 1), the lens is dispersive, and the order of the + cardinal points is HFS1S2F´H´. + + (2) If r1 is negative and r2 positive. This type is called _biconcave_ + (fig. 9, 4). Such lenses are dispersive for all thicknesses. If d + increases, the radii remaining constant, the focal lengths diminish. + It is seen from the equations giving the distances of the cardinal + points from the vertices that the first principal focus F is always + behind S1, and the second principal focus F´ always in front of S2, + and that the principal points are within the lens, H´ always following + H. If one of the radii becomes infinite, the lens is _plano-concave_ + (fig. 9, 5). + + (3) If the radii are both positive. These lenses are called + _convexo-concave_. Two cases occur according as r2 > r1, or < r1. (a) + If r2 > r1, we obtain the _mensicus_ (fig. 9, 3). Such lenses are + always collective; and the order of the cardinal points is FHH´F´. + Since s_F and s_H are always negative, the object-side cardinal + points are always in front of the lens. H´ can take up different + positions. Since s_H´ = -dr2/R = -dr2/{n(r2 - r1) + d(n - 1)}, s_H´ + is greater or less than d, i.e. H´ is either in front of or inside the + lens, according as d < or > {r2 - n(r2 - r1)}/(n - 1). (b) If r2 < r1 the + lens is dispersive so long as d < n(r1 - r2)/(n-1). H is always behind + S1 and H´ behind S2, since s_H and s_H´ are always positive. The + focus F is always behind S1 and F´ in front of S2. If the thickness be + small, the order of the cardinal points is F´HH´F; a dispersive lens + of this type is shown in fig. 9, 6. As the thickness increases, H, H´ + and F move to the right, F more rapidly than H, and H more rapidly + than H´; F´, on the other hand, moves to the left. As with biconvex + lenses, a telescopic lens, having all the cardinal points at infinity, + results when d = n(r1 - r2)/(n - 1). If d > n(r1 - r2)/(n - 1), f is + positive and the lens is collective. The cardinal points are in the + same order as in the mensicus, viz. FHH´F´; and the relation of the + principal points to the vertices is also the same as in the mensicus. + + (4) If r1 and r2 are both negative. This case is reduced to (3) above, + by assuming a change in the direction of the light, or, in other + words, by interchanging the object- and image-spaces. + + The six forms shown in fig. 9 are all used in optical constructions. + It may be stated fairly generally that lenses which are thicker at the + middle are collective, while those which are thinnest at the middle + are dispersive. + + [Illustration: FIG. 10.] + + _Different Positions of Object and Image._--The principal points are + always near the surfaces limiting the lens, and consequently the lens + divides the direct pencil containing the axis into two parts. The + object can be either in front of or behind the lens as in fig. 10. If + the object point be in front of the lens, and if it be realized by + rays passing from it, it is called _real_. If, on the other hand, the + object be behind the lens, it is called _virtual_; it does not + actually exist, and can only be realized as an image. + + [Illustration: FIG. 11.] + + When we speak of "object-points," it is always understood that the + rays from the object traverse the first surface of the lens before + meeting the second. In the same way, images may be either real or + virtual. If the image be behind the second surface, it is _real_, and + can be intercepted on a screen. If, however, it be in front of the + lens, it is visible to an eye placed behind the lens, although the + rays do not actually intersect, but only appear to do so, but the + image cannot be intercepted on a screen behind the lens. Such an image + is said to be _virtual_. These relations are shown in fig. 11. + + [Illustration: FIG. 12.] + + By referring to the equations given above, it is seen that a thin + convergent lens produces both real and virtual images of real objects, + but only a real image of a virtual object, whilst a divergent lens + produces a virtual image of a real object and both real and virtual + images of a virtual object. The construction of a real image of a real + object by a convergent lens is shown in fig. 3; and that of a virtual + image of a real object by a divergent lens in fig. 12. + + [Illustration: FIG. 13.] + + _The optical centre of a lens_ is a point such that, for any ray which + passes through it, the incident and emergent rays are parallel. The + idea of the optical centre was originally due to J. Harris (_Treatise + on Optics_, 1775); it is not properly a cardinal point, although it + has several interesting properties. In fig. 13, let C1P1 and C2P2 be + two parallel radii of a biconvex lens. Join P1P2 and let O1P1 and O2P2 + be incident and emergent rays which have P1P2 for the path through the + lens. Then if M be the intersection of P1P2 with the axis, we have + angle C1P1M = angle C2P2M; these two angles are--for a ray travelling + in the direction O1P1P2O2--the angles of emergence and of incidence + respectively. From the similar triangles C2P2M and C1P1M we have + + C1M : C2M = C1P1 : C2P2 = r1 : r2. (11) + + Such rays as P1P2 therefore divide the distance C1C2 in the ratio of + the radii, i.e. at the fixed point M, the optical centre. Calling S1M + = s1, S2M = s2, then C1S1 = C1M + MS1 = C1M - S1M, i.e. since C1S1 = + r1, C1M = r1 + s1, and similarly C2M = r2 + s2. Also S1S2 = S1M + MS2 + = S1M - S2M, i.e. d = s1 - s2. Then by using equation (11) we have s1 + = r1d/(r - r2) and s2 = r2d/(r1 - r2), and hence s1/s2 = r1/r2. The + vertex distances of the optical centre are therefore in the ratio of + the radii. + + The values of s1 and s2 show that the optical centre of a biconvex or + biconcave lens is in the interior of the lens, that in a plano-convex + or plano-concave lens it is at the vertex of the curved surface, and + in a concavo-convex lens outside the lens. + + _The Wave-theory Derivation of the Focal Length._--The formulae above + have been derived by means of geometrical rays. We here give an + account of Lord Rayleigh's wave-theory derivation of the focal length + of a convex lens in terms of the aperture, thickness and refractive + index (_Phil. Mag._ 1879 (5) 8, p. 480; 1885, 20, p. 354); the + argument is based on the principle that the optical distance from + object to image is constant. + + [Illustration: FIG. 14.] + + "Taking the case of a convex lens of glass, let us suppose that + parallel rays DA, EC, GB (fig. 14) fall upon the lens ACB, and are + collected by it to a focus at F. The points D, E, G, equally distant + from ACB, lie upon a front of the wave before it impinges upon the + lens. The focus is a point at which the different parts of the wave + arrive at the same time, and that such a point can exist depends upon + the fact that the propagation is slower in glass than in air. The ray + ECF is retarded from having to pass through the thickness (d) of glass + by the amount (n - 1)d. The ray DAF, which traverses only the extreme + edge of the lens, is retarded merely on account of the crookedness of + its path, and the amount of the retardation is measured by AF - CF. If + F is a focus these retardations must be equal, or AF - CF = (n - 1)d. + Now if y be the semi-aperture AC of the lens, and f be the focal + length CF, AF - CF = [root](f² + y²) - f = ½y²/f approximately, whence + + f = ½y²/(n - 1)d. (12) + + In the case of plate-glass (n - 1) = ½ (nearly), and then the rule + (12) may be thus stated: _the semi-aperture is a mean proportional + between the focal length and the thickness_. The form (12) is in + general the more significant, as well as the more practically useful, + but we may, of course, express the thickness in terms of the + curvatures and semi-aperture by means of d = ½y²[r1^(-1) - r2^(-1)]. + In the preceding statement it has been supposed for simplicity that + the lens comes to a sharp edge. If this be not the case we must take + as the thickness of the lens the difference of the thicknesses at the + centre and at the circumference. In this form the statement is + applicable to concave lenses, and we see that the focal length is + positive when the lens is thickest at the centre, but negative when + the lens is thickest at the edge." + + +_Regulation of the Rays._ + +The geometrical theory of optical instruments can be conveniently +divided into four parts: (1) The relations of the positions and sizes of +objects and their images (see above); (2) the different aberrations from +an ideal image (see ABERRATION); (3) the intensity of radiation in the +object- and image-spaces, in other words, the alteration of brightness +caused by physical or geometrical influences; and (4) the regulation of +the rays (_Strahlenbegrenzung_). + +[Illustration: FIG. 15.] + + The regulation of rays will here be treated only in systems free from + aberration. E. Abbe first gave a connected theory; and M. von Rohr has + done a great deal towards the elaboration. The Gauss cardinal points + make it simple to construct the image of a given object. No account is + taken of the size of the system, or whether the rays used for the + construction really assist in the reproduction of the image or not. + The diverging cones of rays coming from the object-points can only + take a certain small part in the production of the image in + consequence of the apertures of the lenses, or of diaphragms. It often + happens that the rays used for the construction of the image do not + pass through the system; the image being formed by quite different + rays. If we take a luminous point of the object lying on the axis of + the system then an eye introduced at the image-point sees in the + instrument several concentric rings, which are either the fittings of + the lenses or their images, or the real diaphragms or their images. + The innermost and smallest ring is completely lighted, and forms the + origin of the cone of rays entering the image-space. Abbe called it + the _exit pupil_. Similarly there is a corresponding smallest ring in + the object-space which limits the entering cone of rays. This is + called the _entrance pupil_. The real diaphragm acting as a limit at + any part of the system is called the _aperture-diaphragm_. These + diaphragms remain for all practical purposes the same for all points + lying on the axis. It sometimes happens that one and the same + diaphragm fulfils the functions of the entrance pupil and the + aperture-diaphragm or the exit pupil and the aperture-diaphragm. + + Fig. 15 shows the general but simplified case of the different + diaphragms which are of importance for the regulation of the rays. S1, + S2 are two centred systems. A´ is a real diaphragm lying between them. + B1 and B´2 are the fittings of the systems. Then S1 produces the + virtual image A of the diaphragm A´ and the image B2 of the fitting + B´2, whilst the system S2 makes the virtual image A´´ of the diaphragm + A´ and the virtual image B´1 of the fitting B1. The object-point O is + reproduced really through the whole system in the point O´. From the + object-point O three diaphragms can be seen in the object-space, viz. + the fitting B1, the image of the fitting B2 and the image A of the + diaphragm A´ formed by the system S1. The cone of rays nearest to B2 + is not received to its total extent by the fitting B1, and the cone + which has entered through B1 is again diminished in its further + course, when passing through the diaphragm A´, so that the cone of + rays really used for producing the image is limited by A, the + diaphragm which seen from O appears to be the smallest. A is therefore + the entrance pupil. The real diaphragm A´ which limits the rays in the + centre of the system is the aperture diaphragm. Similarly three + diaphragms lying in the image-space are to be seen from the + image-point O´--namely B´, A´´, and B´2. A´´ limits the rays in the + image-space, and is therefore the exit pupil. As A is conjugate to the + diaphragm A´ in the system S1, and A´´ to the same diaphragm A´ in the + system S2, the entrance pupil A is conjugate to the exit pupil A´´ + throughout the instrument. This relation between entrance and exit + pupils is general. + + The apices of the cones of rays producing the image of points near the + axis thus lie in the object-points, and their common base is the + entrance pupil. The axis of such a cone, which connects the object + point with the centre of the entrance pupil, is called the _principal + ray_. Similarly, the principal rays in the image-space join the centre + of the exit pupil with the image-points. The centres of the entrance + and exit pupils are thus the intersections of the principal rays. + + [Illustration: FIG. 16.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 17a.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 17b.] + + For points lying farther from the axis, the entrance pupil no longer + alone limits the rays, the other diaphragms taking part. In fig. 16 + only one diaphragm L is present besides the entrance pupil A, and the + object-space is divided to a certain extent into four parts. The + section M contains all points rendered by a system with a complete + aperture; N contains all points rendered by a system with a gradually + diminishing aperture; but this diminution does not attain the + principal ray passing through the centre C. In the section O are those + points rendered by a system with an aperture which gradually decreases + to zero. No rays pass from the points of the section P through the + system and no image can arise from them. The second diaphragm L + therefore limits the three-dimensional object-space containing the + points which can be rendered by the optical system. From C through + this diaphragm L this three-dimensional object-space can be seen as + through a window. L is called by M von Rohr the _entrance luke_. If + several diaphragms can be seen from C, then the entrance _luke_ is the + diaphragm which seen from C appears the smallest. In the sections N + and O the entrance _luke_ also takes part in limiting the cones of + rays. This restriction is known as the "vignetting" action of the + entrance _luke_. The base of the cone of rays for the points of this + section of the object-space is no longer a circle but a two-cornered + curve which arises from the object-point by the projection of the + entrance _luke_ on the entrance pupil. Fig. 17a shows the base of such + a cone of rays. It often happens that besides the entrance _luke_, + another diaphragm acts in a vignetting manner, then the operating + aperture of the cone of rays is a curve made up of circular arcs + formed out of the entrance pupil and the two projections of the two + acting diaphragms (fig. 17b). + + If the entrance pupil is narrow, then the section NO, in which the + vignetting is increasing, is diminished, and there is really only one + division of the section M which can be reproduced, and of the section + P which cannot be reproduced. The angle w + w = 2w, comprising the + section which can be reproduced, is called the angle of the field of + view on the object-side. The field of view 2w retains its importance + if the entrance pupil is increased. It then comprises all points + reached by principal rays. The same relations apply to the + image-space, in which there is an exit _luke_, which, seen from the + middle of the exit pupil, appears under the smallest angle. It is the + image of the entrance _luke_ produced by the whole system. The + image-side field of view 2w´ is the angle comprised by the principal + rays reaching the edge of the exit _luke_. + + [Illustration: FIG. 18.] + + Most optical instruments are used to observe object-reliefs + (three-dimensional objects), and generally an image-relief (a + three-dimensional image) is conjugate to this object-relief. It is + sometimes required, however, to represent by means of an optical + instrument the object-relief on a plane or on a ground-glass as in the + photographic camera. For simplicity we shall assume the intercepting + plane as perpendicular to the axis and shall call it, after von Rohr, + the "ground glass plane." All points of the image not lying in this + plane produce circular spots (corresponding to the form of the pupils) + on it, which are called "circles of confusion." The ground-glass plane + (fig. 18) is conjugate to the object-plane E in the object-space, + perpendicular to the axis, and called the "plane focused for." All + points lying in this plane are reproduced exactly on the ground-glass + plane as the points OO. The circle of confusion Z on the plane focused + for corresponds to the circle of confusion Z´ on the ground-glass + plane. The figure formed on the plane focused for by the cones of rays + from all of the object-points of the total object-space directed to + the entrance pupil, was called "object-side representation" (_imago_) + by M von Rohr. This representation is a central projection. If, for + instance, the entrance pupil is imagined so small that only the + principal rays pass through, then they project directly, and the + intersections of the principal rays represent the projections of the + points of the object lying off the plane focused for. The centre of + the projection or the perspective centre is the middle point of the + entrance pupil C. If the entrance pupil is opened, in place of points, + circles of confusion appear, whose size depends upon the size of the + entrance pupil and the position of the object-points and the plane + focused for. The intersection of the principal ray is the centre of + the circle of confusion. The clearness of the representation on the + plane focused for is of course diminished by the circles of confusion. + This central projection does not at all depend upon the instrument, + but is entirely geometrical, arising when the position and the size of + the entrance pupil, and the position of the plane focused for have + been fixed. The instrument then produces an image on the ground-glass + plane of this perspective representation on the plane focused for, and + on account of the exact likeness which this image has to the + object-side representation it is called the "representation copy." By + moving it round an angle of 180°, this representation can be brought + into a perspective position to the objects, so that all rays coming + from the middle of the entrance pupil and aiming at the object-points, + would always meet the corresponding image-points. This representation + is accessible to the observer in different ways in different + instruments. If the observer desires a perfectly correct perspective + impression of the object-relief the distance of the pivot of the eye + from the representation copy must be equal to the nth part of the + distance of the plane focused for from the entrance pupil, if the + instrument has produced a nth diminution of the object-side + representation. The pivot of the eye must coincide with the centre of + the perspective, because all images are observed in direct vision. It + is known that the pivot of the eye is the point of intersection of all + the directions in which one can look. Thus all these points + represented by circles of confusion which are less than the angular + sharpness of vision appear clear to the eye; the space containing all + these object-points, which appear clear to the eye, is called the + _depth_. The depth of definition, therefore, is not a special property + of the instrument, but depends on the size of the entrance pupil, the + position of the plane focused for and on the conditions under which + the representation can be observed. + + If the distance of the representation from the pivot of the eye be + altered from the correct distance already mentioned, the angles of + vision under which various objects appear are changed; perspective + errors arise, causing an incorrect idea to be given of the depth. A + simple case is shown in fig. 19. A cube is the object, and if it is + observed as in fig. 19a with the representation copy at the correct + distance, a correct idea of a cube will be obtained. If, as in figs. + 19b and 19c, the distance is too great, there can be two results. If + it is known that the farthest section is just as high as the nearer + one then the cube appears exceptionally deepened, like a long + parallelepipedon. But if it is known to be as deep as it is high then + the eye will see it low at the back and high at the front. The reverse + occurs when the distance of observation is too short, the body then + appears either too flat, or the nearer sections seem too low in + relation to those farther off. These perspective errors can be seen in + any telescope. In the telescope ocular the representation copy has to + be observed under too large an angle or at too short a distance: all + objects therefore appear flattened, or the more distant objects appear + too large in comparison with those nearer at hand. + + [Illustration: FIG. 19. After von Rohr.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 20. After von Rohr.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 21. After von Rohr.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 22. After von Rohr.] + + From the above the importance of experience will be inferred. But it + is not only necessary that the objects themselves be known to the + observer but also that they are presented to his eye in the customary + manner. This depends upon the way in which the principal rays pass + through the system--in other words, upon the special kind of + "transmission" of the principal rays. In ordinary vision the pivot of + the eye is the centre of the perspective representation which arises + on the very distant plane standing perpendicular to the mean direction + of sight. In this kind of central projection all objects lying in + front of the plane focused for are diminished when projected on this + plane, and those lying behind it are magnified. (The distances are + always given in the direction of light.) Thus the objects near to the + eye appear large and those farther from it appear small. This + perspective has been called by M von Rohr[1] "entocentric + transmission" (fig. 20). If the entrance pupil of the instrument lies + at infinity, then all the principal rays are parallel and the + projections of all objects on the plane focused for are exactly as + large as the objects themselves. After E. Abbe, this course of rays is + called "telecentric transmission" (fig. 21). The exit pupil then lies + in the image-side focus of the system. If the perspective centre lies + in front of the plane focused for, then the objects lying in front of + this plane are magnified and those behind it are diminished. This is + just the reverse of perspective representation in ordinary sight, so + that the relations of size and the arrangements for space must be + quite incorrectly indicated (fig. 22); this representation is called + by M von Rohr a "hypercentric transmission." (O. Hr.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] M von Rohr, _Zeitschr. für Sinnesphysiologie_ (1907), xli. 408-429. + + + + +LENT (O. Eng. _lencten_, "spring," M. Eng. _lenten_, _lente_, _lent_; +cf. Dut. _lente_, Ger. _Lenz_, "spring," O. H. Ger. _lenzin_, +_lengizin_, _lenzo_, probably from the same root as "long" and referring +to "the lengthening days"), in the Christian Church, the period of +fasting preparatory to the festival of Easter. As this fast falls in the +early part of the year, it became confused with the season, and +gradually the word Lent, which originally meant spring, was confined to +this use. The Latin name for the fast, _Quadragesima_ (whence Ital. +_quaresima_, Span. _cuaresma_ and Fr. _carême_), and its Gr. equivalent +[Greek: tessarakostê] (now superseded by the term [Greek: hê nêsteia] +"the fast"), are derived from the Sunday which was the fortieth day +before Easter, as _Quinquagesima_ and _Sexagesima_ are the fiftieth and +sixtieth, Quadragesima being until the 7th century the _caput jejunii_ +or first day of the fast. + +The length of this fast and the rigour with which it has been observed +have varied greatly at different times and in different countries (see +FASTING). In the time of Irenaeus the fast before Easter was very short, +but very severe; thus some ate nothing for forty hours between the +afternoon of Good Friday and the morning of Easter. This was the only +authoritatively prescribed fast known to Tertullian (_De jejunio_, 2, +13, 14; _De oratione_, 18). In Alexandria about the middle of the 3rd +century it was already customary to fast during Holy Week; and earlier +still the Montanists boasted that they observed a two weeks' fast +instead of one. Of the Lenten fast or Quadragesima, the first mention is +in the fifth canon of the council of Nicaea (325), and from this time it +is frequently referred to, but chiefly as a season of preparation for +baptism, of absolution of penitents or of retreat and recollection. In +this season fasting played a part, but it was not universally nor +rigorously enforced. At Rome, for instance, the whole period of fasting +was but three weeks, according to the historian Socrates (_Hist. eccl._ +v. 22), these three weeks, in Mgr. Duchesne's opinion, being not +continuous but, following the primitive Roman custom, broken by +intervals. Gradually, however, the fast as observed in East and West +became more rigorously defined. In the East, where after the example of +the Church of Antioch the Quadragesima fast had been kept distinct from +that of Holy Week, the whole fast came to last for seven weeks, both +Saturdays and Sundays (except Holy Saturday) being, however, excluded. +In Rome and Alexandria, and even in Jerusalem, Holy Week was included in +Lent and the whole fast lasted but six weeks, Saturdays, however, not +being exempt. Both at Rome and Constantinople, therefore, the actual +fast was but thirty-six days. Some Churches still continued the three +weeks' fast, but by the middle of the 5th century most of these +divergences had ceased and the usages of Antioch-Constantinople and +Rome-Alexandria had become stereotyped in their respective spheres of +influence. + +The thirty-six days, as forming a tenth part of the year and therefore a +perfect number, at first found a wide acceptance (so Cassianus, _Coll._ +xxi. 30); but the inconsistency of this period with the name +Quadragesima, and with the forty days' fast of Christ, came to be noted, +and early in the 7th century four days were added, by what pope is +unknown, Lent in the West beginning henceforth on Ash Wednesday (q.v.). +About the same time the cycle of paschal solemnities was extended to the +ninth week before Easter by the institution of stational masses for +Septuagesima, Sexagesima and Quinquagesima Sundays. At Constantinople, +too, three Sundays were added and associated with the Easter festival in +the same way as the Sundays in Lent proper. These three Sundays were +added in the Greek Church also, and the present custom of keeping an +eight weeks' fast (i.e. exactly 8×5 days), now universal in the Eastern +Church, originated in the 7th century. The Greek Lent begins on the +Monday of Sexagesima, with a week of preparatory fasting, known as +[Greek: turophagia], or the "butter-week"; the actual fast, however, +starts on the Monday of Quinquagesima (Estomihi), this week being known +as "the first week of the fast" ([Greek: hebdomas tôn nêsteiôn]). The +period of Lent is still described as "the six weeks of the fast" +([Greek: hex hebdomades tôn nêsteiôn]), Holy Week ([Greek: hê hagia kai +megalê hebdomas]) not being reckoned in. The Lenten fast was retained at +the Reformation in some of the reformed Churches, and is still observed +in the Anglican and Lutheran communions. In England a Lenten fast was +first ordered to be observed by Earconberht, king of Kent (640-664). In +the middle ages, meat, eggs and milk were forbidden in Lent not only by +ecclesiastical but by statute law; and this rule was enforced until the +reign of william III. The chief Lenten food from the earliest days was +fish, and entries in the royal household accounts of Edward III. show +the amount of fish supplied to the king. Herring-pies were a great +delicacy. Charters granted to seaports often stipulated that the town +should send so many herrings or other fish to the king annually during +Lent. How severely strict medieval abstinence was may be gauged from the +fact that armies and garrisons were sometimes, in default of +dispensations, as in the case of the siege of Orleans in 1429, reduced +to starvation for want of Lenten food, though in full possession of meat +and other supplies. The battle of the Herrings (February 1429) was +fought in order to cover the march of a convoy of Lenten food to the +English army besieging Orleans. Dispensations from fasting were, +however, given in case of illness. + +During the religious confusion of the Reformation, the practice of +fasting was generally relaxed and it was found necessary to reassert the +obligation of keeping Lent and the other periods and days of abstinence +by a series of proclamations and statutes. In these, however, the +religious was avowedly subordinate to a political motive, viz. to +prevent the ruin of the fisheries, which were the great nursery of +English seamen. Thus the statute of 2 and 3 Edward VI., cap. 9 (1549), +while inculcating that "due and godly abstinence from flesh is a means +to virtue," adds that "by the eating of fish much flesh is saved to the +country," and that thereby, too, the fishing trade is encouraged. The +statute, however, would not seem to have had much effect; for in spite +of a proclamation of Queen Elizabeth in 1560 imposing a fine of £20 for +each offence on butchers slaughtering animals during Lent, in 1563 Sir +William Cecil, in _Notes upon an Act for the Increase of the Navy_, says +that "in old times no flesh at all was eaten on fish days; even the king +himself could not have license; which was occasion of eating so much +fish as now is eaten in flesh upon fish days." The revolt against fish +had ruined the fisheries and driven the fishermen to turn pirates, to +the great scandal and detriment of the realm. Accordingly, in the +session of 1562-1563, Cecil forced upon an unwilling parliament "a +politic ordinance on fish eating," by which the eating of flesh on fast +days was made punishable by a fine of three pounds or three months' +imprisonment, one meat dish being allowed on Wednesdays on condition +that three fish dishes were present on the table. The kind of argument +by which Cecil overcame the Protestant temper of the parliament is +illustrated by a clause which he had meditated adding to the statute, a +draft of which in his own handwriting is preserved: "Because no person +should misjudge the intent of the statute," it runs, "which is politicly +meant only for the increase of fishermen and mariners, and not for any +superstition for choice of meats; whoever shall preach or teach that +eating of fish or forbearing of flesh is for the saving of the soul of +man, or for the service of God, shall be punished as the spreader of +false news" (Dom. MSS., Elizabeth, vol. xxvii.). But in spite of +statutes and proclamations, of occasional severities and of the +patriotic example of Queen Elizabeth, the practice of fasting fell more +and more into disuse. Ostentatious avoidance of a fish-diet became, +indeed, one of the outward symbols of militant Protestantism among the +Puritans. "I have often noted," writes John Taylor, the water-poet, in +his _Jack a Lent_ (1620), "that if any superfluous feasting or +gormandizing, paunch-cramming assembly do meet, it is so ordered that it +must be either in Lent, upon a Friday, or a fasting: for the meat does +not relish well except it be sauced with disobedience and comtempt of +authority." The government continued to struggle against this spirit of +defiance; proclamations of James I. in 1619 and 1625, and of Charles I. +in 1627 and 1631, again commanded abstinence from all flesh during Lent, +and the High Church movement of the 17th century lent a fresh religious +sanction to the official attitude. So late as 1687, James II. issued a +proclamation ordering abstention from meat; but, after the Revolution, +the Lenten laws fell obsolete, though they remained on the statute-book +till repealed by the Statute Law Revision Act 1863. But during the 18th +century, though the strict observance of the Lenten fast was generally +abandoned, it was still observed and inculcated by the more earnest of +the clergy, such as William Law and John Wesley; and the custom of women +wearing mourning in Lent, which had been followed by Queen Elizabeth and +her court, survived until well into the 19th century. With the growth of +the Oxford Movement in the English Church, the practice of observing +Lent was revived; and, though no rules for fasting are authoritatively +laid down, the duty of abstinence is now very generally inculcated by +bishops and clergy, either as a discipline or as an exercise in +self-denial. For the more "advanced" Churches, Lenten practice tends to +conform to that of the pre-Reformation Church. + +Mid-Lent, or the fourth Sunday in Lent, was long known as _Mothering +Sunday_, in allusion to the custom for girls in service to be allowed a +holiday on that day to visit their parents. They usually took as a +present for their mother a small cake known as a _simnel_. In shape it +resembled a pork-pie but in materials it was a rich plum-pudding. The +word is derived through M. Lat. _simenellus_, _simella_, from Lat. +_simila_, wheat flour. In Gloucestershire simnel cakes are still +common; and at Usk, Monmouth, the custom of mothering is still +scrupulously observed. + + + + +LENTHALL, WILLIAM (1591-1662), English parliamentarian, speaker of the +House of Commons, second son of William Lenthall, of Lachford, +Oxfordshire, a descendent of an old Herefordshire family, was born at +Henley-on-Thames in June 1591. He left Oxford without taking a degree in +1609, and was called to the bar at Lincoln's Inn in 1616, becoming a +bencher in 1633. He represented Woodstock in the Short Parliament (April +1640), and was chosen by King Charles I. to be speaker of the Long +Parliament, which met on the 3rd of November 1640. According to +Clarendon, a worse choice could not have been made, for Lenthall was of +a "very timorous nature." He was treated with scanty respect in the +chair, and seems to have had little control over the proceedings. On the +4th of January 1642, however, when the king entered the House of Commons +to seize the five members, Lenthall behaved with great prudence and +dignity. Having taken the speaker's chair and looked round in vain to +discover the offending members, Charles turned to Lenthall standing +below, and demanded of him "whether any of those persons were in the +House, whether he saw any of them and where they were." Lenthall fell on +his knees and replied: "May it please your Majesty, I have neither eyes +to see nor tongue to speak in this place but as the House is pleased to +direct me, whose servant I am here." On the outbreak of the great +rebellion, Lenthall threw in his lot with the parliament. He had already +called attention to the inadequacy of his salary and been granted a sum +of £6000 (9th of April 1642); and he was now appointed master of the +rolls (22nd of November 1643), and one of the commissioners of the great +seal (Oct. 1646-March 1648). + +He carried on his duties as speaker without interruption till 1647, when +the power of the parliament had been transferred to the army. On the +26th of July a mob invaded the House of Commons and obliged it to +rescind the ordinance re-establishing the old parliamentary committee of +militia; Lenthall was held in the chair by main force and compelled to +put to the vote a resolution inviting the king to London. Threats of +worse things came subsequently to Lenthall's ears, and, taking the mace +with him, he left London on the 29th to join the army and Fairfax. +Lenthall and Manchester, the speaker of the Lords, headed the fugitive +members at the review on Hounslow Heath on the 3rd of August, being +received by the soldiers "as so many angels sent from heaven for their +good." Returning to London with the army, he was installed again by +Fairfax in the chair (6th August), and all votes passed during his +absence were annulled. He adhered henceforth to the army party, but with +a constant bias in favour of the king. + +At the Restoration he claimed to have sent money to the king at Oxford, +to have provided the queen with comforts and necessaries and to have +taken care of the royal children. But he put the question for the king's +trial from the chair, and continued to act as speaker after the king's +execution. He still continued to use his influence in favour of the +royalists, whenever this was possible without imperilling his own +interests, and he saved the lives of both the earl of Norwich (8th March +1649) and Sir W. D'Avenant (3rd July 1650) by his casting vote. The +removal of the king had left the parliament supreme; and Lenthall as its +representative, though holding little real power, was the first man in +the state. + +His speakership continued till the 20th of April 1653, when the Long +Parliament was summarily expelled. Cromwell directed Colonel Harrison, +on the refusal of Lenthall to quit the chair, to pull him out--and +Lenthall submitted to the show of force. He took no part in politics +till the assembling of the first protectorate parliament, on the 3rd of +September 1654, in which he sat as member for Oxfordshire. He was again +chosen speaker, his former experience and his pliability of character +being his chief recommendations. In the second protectorate parliament, +summoned by Cromwell on the 17th of September 1656, Lenthall was again +chosen member for Oxfordshire, but had some difficulty in obtaining +admission, and was not re-elected speaker. He supported Cromwell's +administration, and was active in urging the protector to take the title +of king. In spite of his services, Lenthall was not included by Cromwell +in his new House of Lords, and was much disappointed and crestfallen at +his omission. The protector, hearing of his "grievous complaint," sent +him a writ, and Lenthall was elated at believing he had secured a +peerage. After Cromwell's death, the officers, having determined to +recall the "Rump" Parliament, assembled at Lenthall's house at the Rolls +(6th May 1659), to desire him to send out the writs. Lenthall, however, +had no wish to resume his duties as speaker, preferring the House of +Lords, and made various excuses for not complying. Nevertheless, upon +the officers threatening to summon the parliament without his aid, and +hearing the next morning that several members had assembled, he led the +procession to the parliament house. Lenthall was now restored to the +position of dignity which he had filled before. He was temporarily made +keeper of the new great seal (14th of May). On the 6th of June it was +voted that all commissions should be signed by Lenthall and not by the +commander-in-chief. His exalted position, however, was not left long +unassailed. On the 13th of October Lambert placed soldiers round the +House and prevented the members from assembling. Lenthall's coach was +stopped as he was entering Palace Yard, the mace was seized and he was +obliged to return. The army, however, soon returned to their allegiance +to the parliament. On the 24th of December they marched to Lenthall's +house, and expressed their sorrow. On the 29th the speaker received the +thanks of the reassembled parliament. + +Lenthall now turned his attention to bring about the Restoration. He +"very violently" opposed the oath abjuring the house of Stuart, now +sought to be imposed by the republican faction on the parliament, and +absented himself from the House for ten days, to avoid, it was said, any +responsibility for the bill. He had been in communication with Monk for +some time, and on Monk entering London with his army (3rd February 1660) +Lenthall met him in front of Somerset House. On the 6th of February Monk +visited the House of Commons, when Lenthall pronounced a speech of +thanks. On the 28th of March Lenthall forwarded to the king a paper +containing "Heads of Advice." According to Monk, he "was very active for +the restoring of His Majesty and performed many services ... which could +not have been soe well effected without his helpe." Lenthall +notwithstanding found himself in disgrace at the Restoration. In spite +of Monk's recommendation, he was not elected by Oxford University for +the Convention Parliament, nor was he allowed by the king, though he had +sent him a present of £3000, to remain master of the rolls. On the 11th +of June he was included by the House of Commons, in spite of a +recommendatory letter from Monk, among the twenty persons excepted from +the act of indemnity and subject to penalties not extending to life. In +the House of Lords, however, Monk's testimony and intercession were +effectual, and Lenthall was only declared incapable of holding for the +future any public office. His last public act was a disgraceful one. +Unmindful now of the privileges of parliament, he consented to appear as +a witness against the regicide Thomas Scot, for words spoken in the +House of Commons while Lenthall was in the chair. It was probably after +this that he was allowed to present himself at court, and his +contemporaries took a malicious glee in telling how "when, with some +difficulty, he obtained leave to kiss the king's hand he, out of guilt, +fell backward, as he was kneeling." + +Lenthall died on the 3rd of September 1662. In his will he desired to be +buried without any state and without a monument, "but at the utmost a +plain stone with this superscription only, _Vermis sum_, acknowledging +myself to be unworthy of the least outward regard in this world and +unworthy of any remembrance that hath been so great a sinner." He was +held in little honour by his contemporaries, and was universally +regarded as a time-server. He was, however, a man of good intentions, +strong family affections and considerable ability. Unfortunately he was +called by the irony of fate to fill a great office, in which governed +constantly by fears for his person and estate, he was seduced into a +series of unworthy actions. He left one son, Sir John Lenthall, who had +descendants. His brother, Sir John Lenthall, who, it was said, had too +much influence with him, was notorious for his extortions as keeper of +the King's Bench prison. + + See C. H. Firth in the _Dict. Nat. Biog._; Wood (ed. Bliss), _Ath. + Oxon._ iii. 603, who gives a list of his printed speeches and letters; + Foss, _Lives of the Judges_, vi. 447; and J. A. Manning, _Lives of the + Speakers of the House of Commons_. There are numerous references to + Lenthall in his official capacity, and letters written by and to him, + in the Calendar of State Papers, Domestic Series, and in various MSS. + calendared in the Hist. MSS. Commission Series. See also D'Ewes's + _Diary_, in the Harleian Collection, British Museum, some extracts + from which have been given by J. Forster, _Case of the Five Members_, + 233 sq.; and _Notes and Queries_, ser. iii., vii. 45 ("Lenthall's + Lamentation"), viii., i. 165, 338, 2, ix., xi. 57. + + + + +LENTIL, the seed of _Lens esculenta_ (also known as _Ervum Lens_), a +small annual of the vetch tribe. The plant varies from 6 to 18 in. in +height, and has many long ascending branches. The leaves are alternate, +with six pairs of oblong-linear, obtuse, mucronate leaflets. The +flowers, two to four in number, are of a pale blue colour, and are borne +in the axils of the leaves, on a slender footstalk nearly equalling the +leaves in length; they are produced in June or early in July. The pods +are about ½ in. long, broadly oblong, slightly inflated, and contain two +seeds, which are of the shape of a doubly convex lens, and about 1/6 +in. in diameter. There are several cultivated varieties of the plant, +differing in size, hairiness and colour of the leaves, flowers and +seeds. The last may be more or less compressed in shape, and in colour +may vary from yellow or grey to dark brown; they are also sometimes +mottled or speckled. In English commerce two kinds of lentils are +principally met with, French and Egyptian. The former are usually sold +entire, and are of an ash-grey colour externally and of a yellow tint +within; the latter are usually sold like split peas, without the seed +coat, and consist of the reddish-yellow cotyledons, which are smaller +and rounder than those of the French lentil; the seed coat when present +is of a dark brown colour. Considerable quantities of lentils are also +imported into the United States. + +The native country of the lentil is not known. It was probably one of +the first plants brought under cultivation by mankind; lentils have been +found in the lake dwellings of St Peter's Island, Lake of Bienne, which +are of the Bronze age. The name 'adas (Heb. [Hebrew: adash]) appears to +be an original Semitic word, and the red pottage of lentils for which +Esau sold his birthright (Gen. xxv. 34) was apparently made from the red +Egyptian lentil. This lentil is cultivated in one or other variety in +India, Persia, Syria, Egypt, Nubia and North Africa, and in Europe, +along the coast of the Mediterranean, and as far north as Germany, +Holland and France. In Egypt, Syria and other Eastern countries the +parched seeds are exposed for sale in shops, and esteemed the best food +to carry on long journeys. Lentils form a chief ingredient in the +Spanish puchero, and are used in a similar way in France and other +countries. For this purpose they are usually sold in the shelled state. + + The reddish variety of the lentil (_lentillon d'hiver_) is the kind + most esteemed in Paris on account of the superior flavour of its + smaller seeds. It is sown in autumn either with a cereal crop or + alone, and is cultivated chiefly in the north and east of France. The + large or common variety, _lentille large blonde_, cultivated in + Lorraine and at Gallardon (Eure-et-Loir), and largely in Germany, is + the most productive, but is less esteemed. This kind has very small + whitish flowers, two or rarely three on a footstalk, and the pods are + generally one-seeded, the seeds being of a whitish or cream colour, + about 3/8 of an inch broad and 1/8 in. thick. A single plant produces + from 100 to 150 pods, which are flattened, about ¾ in. long and ½ in. + broad. Another variety, with seeds similar in form and colour to the + last, but of much smaller size, is known as the _lentillon de Mars_. + It is sown in spring. This variety and the _lentille large_ are both + sometimes called the _lentille à la reine_. A small variety, _lentille + verte du Puy_, cultivated chiefly in the departments of Haute Loire + and Cantal, is also grown as a vegetable and for forage. The Egyptian + lentil was introduced into Britain in 1820. It has blue flowers. + Another species of lentil, _Ervum monanthos_, is grown in France about + Orleans and elsewhere under the name of _jarosse_ and _jarande_. It + is, according to Vilmorin, one of the best kinds of green food to grow + on a poor dry sandy soil; on calcareous soil it does not succeed so + well. It is usually sown in autumn with a little rye or winter oats, + at the rate of a hectolitre to a hectare. + + The lentil prefers a light warm sandy soil; on rich land it runs to + leaf and produces but few pods. The seeds are sown in March or April + or early in May, according to the climate of the country, as they + cannot endure night frosts. If for fodder they are sown broadcast, but + in drills if the ripe seeds are required. The pods are gathered in + August or September, as soon as they begin to turn brown--the plants + being pulled up like flax while the foliage is still green, and on a + dry day lest the pods split in drying and loss of seed takes place. + Lentils keep best in the husk so far as flavour is concerned, and will + keep good in this way for two years either for sowing or for food. An + acre of ground yields on an average about 11 cwt. of seed and 30 cwt. + of straw. The amount and character of the mineral matter requisite in + the soil may be judged from the analysis of the ash, which in the + seeds has as its chief ingredients--potash 34.6%, soda 9.5, lime 6.3, + phosphoric acid 36.2, chloride of sodium 7.6, while in the straw the + percentages are--potash 10.8, lime 52.3, silica 17.6, phosphoric acid + 12.3, chloride of sodium 2.1. + + Lentils have attracted considerable notice among vegetarians as a food + material, especially for soup. A Hindu proverb says, "Rice is good, + but lentils are my life." The husk of the seed is indigestible, and to + cook lentils properly requires at least two and a half hours, but they + are richer in nutritious matter than almost any other kind of pulse, + containing, according to Payen's analysis, 25.2% of nitrogenous matter + (legumin), 56% of starch and 2.6% of fatty matter. Fresenius's + analysis differs in giving only 35% of starch; Einhoff gives 32.81 of + starch and 37.82% of nitrogenous matter. Lentils are more properly the + food of the poor in all countries where they are grown, and have often + been spurned when better food could be obtained, hence the proverb + _Dives factus jam desiit gaudere lente_. The seeds are said to be good + for pigeons, or mixed in a ground state with potatoes or barley for + fattening pigs. The herbage is highly esteemed as green food for + suckling ewes and all kinds of cattle (being said to increase the + yield of milk), also for calves and lambs. Haller says that lentils + are so flatulent as to kill horses. They were also believed to be the + cause of severe scrofulous disorders common in Egypt. This bad + reputation may possibly be due to the substitution of the seeds of the + bitter vetch or tare lentil, _Ervum Ervilia_, a plant which closely + resembles the true lentil in height, habit, flower and pod, but whose + seeds are without doubt possessed of deleterious properties--producing + weakness or even paralysis of the extremities in horses which have + partaken of them. The poisonous principle seems to reside chiefly in + the bitter seed coat, and can apparently be removed by steeping in + water, since Gerard, speaking of the "bitter vetch" (_E. Ervilia_), + says "kine in Asia and in most other countries do eat thereof, being + made sweet by steeping in water." The seed of _E. Ervilia_ is about + the same size and almost exactly of the same reddish-brown colour as + that of the Egyptian lentil, and when the seed coat is removed they + are both of the same orange red hue, but the former is not so bright + as the latter. The shape is the best means of distinguishing the two + seeds, that of E. _Ervilia_ being obtusely triangular. + + Sea-lentil is a name sometimes applied to the gulfweed _Sargassum + vulgare_. + + + + +LENTULUS, the name of a Roman patrician family of the Cornelian gens, +derived from _lentes_ ("lentils"), which its oldest members were fond of +cultivating (according to Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ xviii. 3, 10). The word +_Lentulitas_ ("Lentulism"; cf. _Appietas_) is coined by Cicero (_Ad +Fam._ iii. 7, 5) to express the attributes of a pronounced aristocrat. +The three first of the name were L. Cornelius Lentulus (consul 327 +B.C.), Servius Cornelius Lentulus (consul 303) and L. Cornelius Lentulus +Caudinus (consul 275). Their connexion with the later Lentuli +(especially those of the Ciceronian period) is very obscure and +difficult to establish. The following members of the family deserve +mention. + +PUBLIUS CORNELIUS LENTULUS, nicknamed SURA, one of the chief figures in +the Catilinarian conspiracy. When accused by Sulla (to whom he had been +quaestor in 81 B.C.) of having squandered the public money, he refused +to render any account, but insolently held out the calf of his leg +(_sura_), on which part of the person boys were punished when they made +mistakes in playing ball. He was praetor in 75, governor of Sicily 74, +consul 71. In 70, being expelled from the senate with a number of others +for immorality, he joined Catiline. Relying upon a Sibylline oracle that +three Cornelii should be rulers of Rome, Lentulus regarded himself as +the destined successor of Cornelius Sulla and Cornelius Cinna. When +Catiline left Rome after Cicero's first speech _In Catilinam_, Lentulus +took his place as chief of the conspirators in the city. In conjunction +with C. Cornelius Cethegus, he undertook to murder Cicero and set fire +to Rome, but the plot failed owing to his timidity and indiscretion. +Ambassadors from the Allobroges being at the time in Rome, the bearers +of a complaint against the oppressions of provincial governors, Lentulus +made overtures to them, with the object of obtaining armed assistance. +Pretending to fall in with his views, the ambassadors obtained a written +agreement signed by the chief conspirators, and informed Q. Fabius +Sanga, their "patron" in Rome, who in his turn acquainted Cicero. The +conspirators were arrested and forced to admit their guilt. Lentulus was +compelled to abdicate his praetorship, and, as it was feared that there +might be an attempt to rescue him, he was put to death in the Tullianum +on the 5th of December 63. + + See Dio Cassius xxxvii. 30, xlvi. 20; Plutarch, _Cicero_, 17; Sallust, + _Catilina_; Cicero, _In Catilinam_, iii., iv.; _Pro Sulla_, 25; also + CATILINE. + +PUBLIUS CORNELIUS LENTULUS, called SPINTHER from his likeness to an +actor of that name, one of the chief adherents of the Pompeian party. In +63 B.C. he was curule aedile, assisted Cicero in the suppression of the +Catilinarian conspiracy, and distinguished himself by the splendour of +the games he provided. Praetor in 60, he obtained the governorship of +Hispania Citerior (59) through the support of Caesar, to whom he was +also indebted for his election to the consulship (57). Lentulus played a +prominent part in the recall of Cicero from exile, and although a +temporary coolness seems to have arisen between them, Cicero speaks of +him in most grateful terms. From 56-53 Lentulus was governor of the +province of Cilicia (with Cyprus) and during that time was commissioned +by the senate to restore Ptolemy XI. Auletes to his kingdom (see +PTOLEMIES). The Sibylline books, however, declared that the king must +not be restored by force of arms, at the risk of peril to Rome. As a +provincial governor, Lentulus appears to have looked after the interests +of his subjects, and did not enrich himself at their expense. In spite +of his indebtedness to Caesar, Lentulus joined the Pompeians on the +outbreak of civil war (49). The generosity with which he was treated by +Caesar after the capitulation of Corfinium made him hesitate, but he +finally decided in favour of Pompey. After the battle of Pharsalus, +Lentulus escaped to Rhodes, where he was at first refused admission, +although he subsequently found an asylum there (Cicero, _Ad Att._ xi. +13. 1). According to Aurelius Victor (_De vir. ill._ lxxviii., 9, if the +reading be correct), he subsequently fell into Caesar's hands and was +put to death. + + See Caesar, _Bell. Civ._ i. 15-23, iii. 102; Plutarch, _Pomp._ 49; + Valerius Maximus ix. 14, 4; many letters of Cicero, especially _Ad + Fam._ i. 1-9. + +LUCIUS CORNELIUS LENTULUS, surnamed CRUS or CRUSCELLO (for what reason +is unknown), member of the anti-Caesarian party. In 61 B.C. he was the +chief accuser of P. Clodius (q.v.) in the affair of the festival of Bona +Dea. When consul (49) he advised the rejection of all peace terms +offered by Caesar, and declared that, if the senate did not at once +decide upon opposing him by force of arms, he would act upon his own +responsibility. There seems no reason to doubt that Lentulus was mainly +inspired by selfish motives, and hoped to find in civil war an +opportunity for his own aggrandizement. But in spite of his brave words +he fled in haste from Rome as soon as he heard of Caesar's advance, and +crossed over to Greece. After Pharsalus, he made his way to Rhodes (but +was refused admission), thence, by way of Cyprus, to Egypt. He landed at +Pelusium the day after the murder of Pompey, was immediately seized by +Ptolemy, imprisoned, and put to death. + + See Caesar, _Bell. Civ._ i. 4, iii. 104; Plutarch, _Pompey_, 80. + + A full account of the different Cornelii Lentuli, with genealogical + table, will be found in Pauly-Wissowa's _Realencyclopädie_, iv. pt. 1, + p. 1355 (1900) (s.v. "Cornelius"); see also V. de Vit, _Onomasticon_, + ii. 433. + + + + +LENZ, JAKOB MICHAEL REINHOLD (1751-1792), German poet, was born at +Sesswegen in Livonia, the son of the village pastor, on the 12th of +January 1751. He removed with his parents to Dorpat in 1759, and soon +began to compose sacred odes, in the manner of Klopstock. In 1768 he +entered the university of Königsberg as a student of theology, and in +1771 accompanied, as tutor, two young German nobles, named von Kleist, +to Strassburg, where they were to enter the French army. In Strassburg +Lenz was received into the literary circle that gathered round Friedrich +Rudolf Salzmann (1749-1821) and became acquainted with Goethe, at that +time a student at the university. In order to be close to his young +pupils, Lenz had to remove to Fort Louis in the neighbourhood, and while +here became deeply enamoured of Goethe's friend, Friederike Elisabeth +Brion (1752-1813), daughter of the pastor of Sesenheim. Lenz +endeavoured, after Goethe's departure from Strassburg, to replace the +great poet in her affections, and to her he poured out songs and poems +(_Die Liebe auf dem Lande_) which were long attributed to Goethe +himself, as was also Lenz's first drama, the comedy, _Der Hofmeister, +oder Vorteile der Privaterziehung_ (1774). In 1776 he visited Weimar and +was most kindly received by the duke; but his rude, overbearing manner +and vicious habits led to his expulsion. In 1777 he became insane, and +in 1779 was removed from Emmendingen, where J. G. Schlosser (1739-1799), +Goethe's brother-in-law, had given him a home, to his native village. +Here he lived in great poverty for several years, and then was given, +more out of charity than on account of his merits, the appointment of +tutor in a pension school near Moscow, where he died on the 24th of May +1792. Lenz, though one of the most talented poets of the _Sturm und +Drang_ period, presented a strange medley of genius and childishness. +His great, though neglected and distorted, abilities found vent in +ill-conceived imitations of Shakespeare. His comedies, _Der Hofmeister_; +_Der neue Menoza_ (1774); _Die Soldaten_ (1776); _Die Freunde machen den +Philosophen_ (1776), though accounted the best of his works, are +characterized by unnatural situations and an incongruous mixture of +tragedy and comedy. + + Lenz's _Gesammelte Schriften_ were published by L. Tieck in three + volumes (1828); supplementary to these volumes are E. Dorer-Egloff, + _J. M. R. Lenz und seine Schriften_ (1857) and K. Weinhold, + _Dramatischer Nachlass von J. M. R. Lenz_ (1884); a selection of + Lenz's writings will be found in A. Sauer, _Stürmer und Dränger_, ii.; + Kürschner's _Deutsche Nationalliteratur_, vol. lxxx., (1883). See + further E. Schmidt, _Lenz und Klinger_ (1878); J. Froitzheim, _Lenz + und Goethe_ (1891); H. Rauch, _Lenz und Shakespeare_ (1892); F. + Waldmann, _Lenz in Briefen_ (1894). + + + + +LEO, the name of thirteen popes. + +LEO I., who alone of Roman pontiffs shares with Gregory I. the surname +of THE GREAT, pope from 440 to 461, was a native of Rome, or, according +to a less probable account, of Volterra in Tuscany. Of his family or +early life nothing is known; that he was highly cultivated according to +the standards of his time is obvious, but it does not appear that he +could write Greek, or even that he understood that language. In one of +the letters (_Ep._ 104) of Augustine, an acolyte named Leo is mentioned +as having been in 418 the bearer of a communication from Sixtus of Rome +(afterwards pope) to Aurelius of Carthage against the Pelagians. In 429, +when the first unmistakable reference to Pope Leo occurs, he was still +only a deacon, but already a man of commanding influence; it was at his +suggestion that the _De incarnatione_ of the aged Cassianus, having +reference to the Nestorian heresy, was composed in that year, and about +431 we find Cyril of Alexandria writing to him that he might prevent the +Roman Church from lending its support in any way to the ambitious +schemes of Juvenal of Jerusalem. In 440, while Leo was in Gaul, whither +he had been sent to compose some differences between Aetius and another +general named Albinus, Pope Sixtus III. died. The absent deacon, or +rather archdeacon, was unanimously chosen to succeed him, and received +consecration on his return six weeks afterwards (September 29). In 443 +he began to take measures against the Manichaeans (who since the capture +of Carthage by Genseric in 439 had become very numerous at Rome), and in +the following year he was able to report to the Italian bishops that +some of the heretics had returned to Catholicism, while a large number +had been sentenced to perpetual banishment "in accordance with the +constitutions of the Christian emperors," and others had fled; in +seeking these out the help of the provincial clergy was sought. It was +during the earlier years of Leo's pontificate that the events in Gaul +occurred which resulted in this triumph over Hilarius of Arles, +signalized by the edict of Valentinian III. (445), denouncing the +contumacy of the Gallic bishop, and enacting "that nothing should be +done in Gaul, contrary to ancient usage, without the authority of the +bishop of Rome, and that the decree of the apostolic see should +henceforth be law." In 447 Leo held the correspondence with Turribus of +Astorga which led to the condemnation of the Priscillianists by the +Spanish national church. In 448 he received with commendation a letter +from Eutyches, the Constantinopolitan monk, complaining of the revival +of the Nestorian heresy there; and in the following year Eutyches wrote +his circular, appealing against the sentence which at the instance of +Eusebius of Dorylaeum had been passed against him at a synod held in +Constantinople under the presidency of the patriarch Flavian, and asking +papal support at the oecumenical council at that time under summons to +meet at Ephesus. The result of a correspondence was that Leo by his +legates sent to Flavian that famous epistle in which he sets forth with +great fulness of detail the doctrine ever since recognized as orthodox +regarding the union of the two natures in the one person of Jesus +Christ. The events at the "robber" synod at Ephesus belong to general +church history rather than to the biography of Leo; his letter, though +submitted, was not read by the assembled fathers, and the papal legates +had some difficulty in escaping with their lives from the violence of +the theologians who, not content with deposing Flavian and Eusebius, +shouted for the dividing of those who divided Christ. When the news of +the result of this oecumenical council (oecumenical in every +circumstance except that it was not presided over by the pope) reached +Rome, Leo wrote to Theodosius "with groanings and tears," requesting the +emperor to sanction another council, to be held this time, however, in +Italy. In this petition he was supported by Valentinian III., by the +empress-mother Galla Placidia and by the empress Eudoxia, but the appeal +was made in vain. A change, however, was brought about by the accession +in the following year of Marcian, who three days after coming to the +throne published an edict bringing within the scope of the penal laws +against heretics the supporters of the dogmas of Apollinaris and +Eutyches. To convoke a synod in which greater orthodoxy might reasonably +be expected was in these circumstances no longer difficult, but all +Leo's efforts to secure that the meeting should take place on Italian +soil were unavailing. When the synod of Chalcedon assembled in 451, the +papal legates were treated with great respect, and Leo's former letter +to Flavian was adopted by acclamation as formulating the creed of the +universal church on the subject of the person of Christ. Among the +reasons urged by Leo for holding this council in Italy had been the +threatening attitude of the Huns; the dreaded irruption took place in +the following year (452). After Aquileia had succumbed to Attila's long +siege, the conqueror set out for Rome. Near the confluence of the Mincio +and the Po he was met by Leo, whose eloquence persuaded him to turn +back. Legend has sought to enhance the impressiveness of the occurrence +by an unnecessarily imagined miracle. The pope was less successful with +Genseric when the Vandal chief arrived under the walls of Rome in 455, +but he secured a promise that there should be no incendiarism or murder, +and that three of the oldest basilicas should be exempt from plunder--a +promise which seems to have been faithfully observed. Leo died on the +10th of November 461, the liturgical anniversary being the 11th of +April. His successor was Hilarius or Hilarus, who had been one of the +papal legates at the "robber" synod in 449. + +The title of _doctor ecclesiae_ was given to Leo by Benedict XIV. As +bishop of the diocese of Rome, Leo distinguished himself above all his +predecessors by his preaching, to which he devoted himself with great +zeal and success. From his short and pithy _Sermones_ many of the +lessons now to be found in the Roman breviary have been taken. Viewed in +conjunction with his voluminous correspondence, the sermons sufficiently +explain the secret of his greatness, which chiefly lay in the +extraordinary strength and purity of his convictions as to the primacy +of the successors of St Peter at a time when the civil and +ecclesiastical troubles of the civilized world made men willing enough +to submit themselves to any authority whatsoever that could establish +its right to exist by courage, honesty and knowledge of affairs. + + The works of Leo I. were first collectively edited by Quesnel (Lyons, + 1700), and again, on the basis of this, in what is now the standard + edition by Ballerini (Venice, 1753-1756). Ninety-three Sermones and + one hundred and seventy-three _Epistolae_ occupy the first volume; the + second contains the _Liber Sacramentorum_, usually attributed to Leo, + and the _De Vocatione Omnium Gentium_, also ascribed, by Quesnel and + others, to him, but more probably the production of a certain Prosper, + of whom nothing further is known. The works of Hilary of Arles are + appended. + +LEO II., pope from August 682 to July 683, was a Sicilian by birth, and +succeeded Agatho I. Agatho had been represented at the sixth oecumenical +council (that of Constantinople in 681), where Pope Honorius I. was +anathematized for his views in the Monothelite controversy as a favourer +of heresy, and the only fact of permanent historical interest with +regard to Leo is that he wrote once and again in approbation of the +decision of the council and in condemnation of Honorius, whom he +regarded as one who _profana proditione immaculatam fidem subvertere +conatus est_. In their bearing upon the question of papal infallibility +these words have excited considerable attention and controversy, and +prominence is given to the circumstance that in the Greek text of the +letter to the emperor in which the phrase occurs the milder expression +[Greek: parechôrêsen] (_subverti permisit_) is used for subvertere +conatus est. This Hefele in his _Conciliengeschichte_ (iii. 294) regards +as alone expressing the true meaning of Leo. It was during Leo's +pontificate that the dependence of the see of Ravenna upon that of Rome +was finally settled by imperial edict. Benedict II. succeeded him. + +LEO III., whose pontificate (795-816) covered the last eighteen years of +the reign of Charlemagne, was a native of Rome, and having been chosen +successor of Adrian I. on the 26th of December 795, was consecrated to +the office on the following day. His first act was to send to Charles as +patrician the standard of Rome along with the keys of the sepulchre of +St Peter and of the city; a gracious and condescending letter in reply +made it still more clear where all real power at that moment lay. For +more than three years his term of office was uneventful; but at the end +of that period the feelings of disappointment which had secretly been +rankling in the breasts of Paschalis and Campulus, nephews of Adrian I., +who had received from him the offices of _primicerius_ and _sacellarius_ +respectively, suddenly manifested themselves in an organized attack upon +Leo as he was riding in procession through the city on the day of the +Greater Litany (25th April 799); the object of his assailants was, by +depriving him of his eyes and tongue, to disqualify him for the papal +office, and, although they were unsuccessful in this attempt, he found +it necessary to accept the protection of Winegis, the Frankish duke of +Spoleto, who came to the rescue. Having vainly requested the presence of +Charles in Rome, Leo went beyond the Alps to meet the king at Paderborn; +he was received with much ceremony and respect, but his enemies having +sent in serious written charges, of which the character is not now +known, Charles decided to appoint both the pope and his accusers to +appear as parties before him when he should have arrived in Rome. Leo +returned in great state to his diocese, and was received with honour; +Charles, who did not arrive until November in the following year, lost +no time in assuming the office of a judge, and the result of his +investigation was the acquittal of the pope, who at the same time, +however, was permitted or rather required to clear himself by the oath +of compurgation. The coronation of the emperor followed two days +afterwards; its effect was to bring out with increased clearness the +personally subordinate position of Leo. The decision of the emperor, +however, secured for Leo's pontificate an external peace which was only +broken after the accession of Louis the Pious. His enemies began to +renew their attacks; the violent repression of a conspiracy led to an +open rebellion at Rome; serious charges were once more brought against +him, when he was overtaken by death in 816. It was under this +pontificate that Felix of Urgel, the adoptianist, was anathematized +(798) by a Roman synod. Leo at another synod held in Rome in 810 +admitted the dogmatic correctness of the _filioque_, but deprecated its +introduction into the creed. On this point, however, the Frankish Church +persevered in the course it had already initiated. Leo's successor was +Stephen IV. + +LEO IV., pope from 847 to 855, was a Roman by birth, and succeeded +Sergius II. His pontificate was chiefly distinguished by his efforts to +repair the damage done by the Saracens during the reign of his +predecessor to various churches of the city, especially those of St +Peter and St Paul. It was he who built and fortified the suburb on the +right bank of the Tiber still known as the Civitas Leonina. A frightful +conflagration, which he is said to have extinguished by his prayers, is +the subject of Raphael's great work in the Sala dell' Incendio of the +Vatican. He held three synods, one of them (in 850) distinguished by the +presence of Louis II., who was crowned emperor on the occasion, but none +of them otherwise of importance. The history of the papal struggle with +Hincmar of Reims, which began during Leo's pontificate, belongs rather +to that of Nicholas I. Benedict III. was Leo's immediate successor. + +LEO V., a native of Ardea, was pope for two months in 903 after the +death of Benedict IV. He was overthrown and cast into prison by the +priest Christopher, who installed himself in his place. + +LEO VI. succeeded John X. in 928, and reigned seven months and a few +days. He was succeeded by Stephen VIII. + +LEO VII., pope from 936 to 939, was preceded by John XI., and followed +by Stephen IX. + +LEO VIII., pope from 963 to 965, a Roman by birth, held the lay office +of _protoscrinius_ when he was elected to the papal chair at the +instance of Otto the Great by the Roman synod which deposed John XII. in +December 963. Having been hurried with unseemly haste through all the +intermediate orders, he received consecration two days after his +election, which was unacceptable to the people. In February 964, the +emperor having withdrawn from the city, Leo found it necessary to seek +safety in flight, whereupon he was deposed by a synod held under the +presidency of John XII. On the sudden death of the latter, the populace +chose Benedict V. as his successor; but Otto, returning and laying siege +to the city, compelled their acceptance of Leo. It is usually said that, +at the synod which deposed Benedict, Leo conceded to the emperor and his +successors as sovereign of Italy full rights of investiture, but the +genuineness of the document on which this allegation rests is more than +doubtful. Leo VIII. was succeeded by John XIII. + +LEO IX., pope from 1049 to 1054, was a native of Upper Alsace, where he +was born on the 21st of June 1002. His proper name was Bruno; the family +to which he belonged was of noble rank, and through his father he was +related to the emperor Conrad II. He was educated at Toul, where he +successively became canon and (1026) bishop; in the latter capacity he +rendered important political services to his relative Conrad II., and +afterwards to Henry III., and at the same time he became widely known as +an earnest and reforming ecclesiastic by the zeal he showed in spreading +the rule of the order of Cluny. On the death of Damasus II., Bruno was +in December 1048, with the concurrence both of the emperor and of the +Roman delegates, selected his successor by an assembly at Worms; he +stipulated, however, as a condition of his acceptance that he should +first proceed to Rome and be canonically elected by the voice of clergy +and people. Setting out shortly after Christmas, he had a meeting with +abbot Hugo of Cluny at Besançon, where he was joined by the young monk +Hildebrand, who afterwards became Pope Gregory VII.; arriving in pilgrim +garb at Rome in the following February, he was received with much +cordiality, and at his consecration assumed the name of Leo IX. One of +his first public acts was to hold the well-known Easter synod of 1049, +at which celibacy of the clergy (down to the rank of subdeacon) was anew +enjoined, and where he at least succeeded in making clear his own +convictions against every kind of simony. The greater part of the year +that followed was occupied in one of those progresses through Italy, +Germany and France which form a marked feature in Leo's pontificate. +After presiding over a synod at Pavia, he joined the emperor Henry III. +in Saxony, and accompanied him to Cologne and Aix-la-Chapelle; to Reims +he also summoned a meeting of the higher clergy, by which several +important reforming decrees were passed. At Mainz also he held a +council, at which the Italian and French as well as the German clergy +were represented, and ambassadors of the Greek emperor were present; +here too simony and the marriage of the clergy were the principal +matters dealt with. After his return to Rome he held (29th April 1050) +another Easter synod, which was occupied largely with the controversy +about the teachings of Berengarius of Tours; in the same year he +presided over provincial synods at Salerno, Siponto and Vercelli, and in +September revisited Germany, returning to Rome in time for a third +Easter synod, at which the question of the reordination of those who had +been ordained by simonists was considered. In 1052 he joined the emperor +at Pressburg, and vainly sought to secure the submission of the +Hungarians; and at Regensburg, Bamberg and Worms the papal presence was +marked by various ecclesiastical solemnities. After a fourth Easter +synod in 1053 Leo set out against the Normans in the south with an army +of Italians and German volunteers, but his forces sustained a total +defeat at Astagnum near Civitella (18th June 1053); on going out, +however, from the city to meet the enemy he was received with every +token of submission, relief from the pressure of his ban was implored +and fidelity and homage were sworn. From June 1053 to March 1054 he was +nevertheless detained at Benevento in honourable captivity; he did not +long survive his return to Rome, where he died on the 19th of April +1054. He was succeeded by Victor II. + +LEO X. [Giovanni de' Medici] (1475-1521), pope from the 11th of March +1513 to the 1st of December 1521, was the second son of Lorenzo de' +Medici, called the Magnificent, and was born at Florence on the 11th of +December 1475. Destined from his birth for the church, he received the +tonsure at the age of seven and was soon loaded with rich benefices and +preferments. His father prevailed on Innocent VIII. to name him +cardinal-deacon of Sta Maria in Dominica in March 1489, although he was +not allowed to wear the insignia or share in the deliberations of the +college until three years later. Meanwhile he received a careful +education at Lorenzo's brilliant humanistic court under such men as +Angelo Poliziano, the classical scholar, Pico della Mirandola, the +philosopher and theologian, the pious Marsilio Ficino who endeavoured to +unite the Platonic cult with Christianity and the poet Bernardo Dovizio +Bibbiena. From 1489 to 1491 he studied theology and canon law at Pisa +under Filippo Decio and Bartolomeo Sozzini. On the 23rd of March 1492 he +was formally admitted into the sacred college and took up his residence +at Rome, receiving a letter of advice from his father which ranks among +the wisest of its kind. The death of Lorenzo on the 8th of April, +however, called the seventeen-year-old cardinal to Florence. He +participated in the conclave which followed the death of Innocent VIII. +in July 1492 and opposed the election of Cardinal Borgia. He made his +home with his elder brother Piero at Florence throughout the agitation +of Savonarola and the invasion of Charles VIII. of France, until the +uprising of the Florentines and the expulsion of the Medici in November +1494. While Piero found refuge at Venice and Urbino, Cardinal Giovanni +travelled in Germany, in the Netherlands and in France. In May 1500 he +returned to Rome, where he was received with outward cordiality by +Alexander VI., and where he lived for several years immersed in art and +literature. In 1503 he welcomed the accession of Julius II. to the +pontificate; the death of Piero de' Medici in the same year made +Giovanni head of his family. On the 1st of October 1511 he was appointed +papal legate of Bologna and the Romagna, and when the Florentine +republic declared in favour of the schismatic Pisans Julius II. sent him +against his native city at the head of the papal army. This and other +attempts to regain political control of Florence were frustrated, until +a bloodless revolution permitted the return of the Medici on the 14th of +September 1512. Giovanni's younger brother Giuliano was placed at the +head of the republic, but the cardinal actually managed the government. +Julius II. died in February 1513, and the conclave, after a stormy seven +day's session, united on Cardinal de' Medici as the candidate of the +younger cardinals. He was ordained to the priesthood on the 15th of +March, consecrated bishop on the 17th, and enthroned with the name of +Leo X. on the 19th. There is no evidence of simony in the conclave, and +Leo's election was hailed with delight by the Romans on account of his +reputation for liberality, kindliness and love of peace. Following the +example of many of his predecessors, he promptly repudiated his election +"capitulation" as an infringement on the divinely bestowed prerogatives +of the Holy See. + +Many problems confronted Leo X. on his accession. He must preserve the +papal conquests which he had inherited from Alexander VI. and Julius II. +He must minimize foreign influence, whether French, Spanish or German, +in Italy. He must put an end to the Pisan schism and settle the other +troubles incident to the French invasion. He must restore the French +Church to Catholic unity, abolish the pragmatic sanction of Bourges, and +bring to a successful close the Lateran council convoked by his +predecessor. He must stay the victorious advance of the Turks. He must +quiet the disagreeable wranglings of the German humanists. Other +problems connected with his family interests served to complicate the +situation and eventually to prevent the successful consummation of many +of his plans. At the very time of Leo's accession Louis XII. of France, +in alliance with Venice, was making a determined effort to regain the +duchy of Milan, and the pope, after fruitless endeavours to maintain +peace, joined the league of Mechlin on the 5th of April 1513 with the +emperor Maximilian I., Ferdinand I. of Spain and Henry VIII. of England. +The French and Venetians were at first successful, but on the 6th of +June met overwhelming defeat at Novara. The Venetians continued the +struggle until October. On the 19th of December the fifth Lateran +council, which had been reopened by Leo in April, ratified the peace +with Louis XII. and registered the conclusion of the Pisan schism. While +the council was engaged in planning a crusade and in considering the +reform of the clergy, a new crisis occurred between the pope and the +king of France. Francis I., who succeeded Louis XII. on the 1st of +January 1515, was an enthusiastic young prince, dominated by the +ambition of recovering Milan and Naples. Leo at once formed a new league +with the emperor and the king of Spain, and to ensure English support +made Wolsey a cardinal. Francis entered Italy in August and on the 14th +of September won the battle of Marignano. The pope in October signed an +agreement binding him to withdraw his troops from Parma and Piacenza, +which had been previously gained at the expense of the duchy of Milan, +on condition of French protection at Rome and Florence. The king of +Spain wrote to his ambassador at Rome "that His Holiness had hitherto +played a double game and that all his zeal to drive the French from +Italy had been only a mask"; this reproach seemed to receive some +confirmation when Leo X. held a secret conference with Francis at +Bologna in December 1515. The ostensible subjects under consideration +were the establishment of peace between France, Venice and the Empire, +with a view to an expedition against the Turks, and the ecclesiastical +affairs of France. Precisely what was arranged is unknown. During these +two or three years of incessant political intrigue and warfare it was +not to be expected that the Lateran council should accomplish much. Its +three main objects, the peace of Christendom, the crusade and the reform +of the church, could be secured only by general agreement among the +powers, and Leo or the council failed to secure such agreement. Its most +important achievements were the registration at its eleventh sitting +(19th December 1516) of the abolition of the pragmatic sanction, which +the popes since Pius II. had unanimously condemned, and the confirmation +of the concordat between Leo X. and Francis I., which was destined to +regulate the relations between the French Church and the Holy See until +the Revolution. Leo closed the council on the 16th of March 1517. It had +ended the schism, ratified the censorship of books introduced by +Alexander VI. and imposed tithes for a war against the Turks. It raised +no voice against the primacy of the pope. + +The year which marked the close of the Lateran council was also +signalized by Leo's unholy war against the duke of Urbino. The pope was +naturally proud of his family and had practised nepotism from the +outset. His cousin Giulio, who subsequently became Clement VII., he had +made the most influential man in the curia, naming him archbishop of +Florence, cardinal and vice-chancellor of the Holy See. Leo had intended +his younger brother Giuliano and his nephew Lorenzo for brilliant +secular careers. He had named them Roman patricians; the latter he had +placed in charge of Florence; the former, for whom he planned to carve +out a kingdom in central Italy of Parma, Piacenza, Ferrara and Urbino, +he had taken with himself to Rome and married to Filiberta of Savoy. The +death of Giuliano in March 1516, however, caused the pope to transfer +his ambitions to Lorenzo. At the very time (December 1516) that peace +between France, Spain, Venice and the Empire seemed to give some promise +of a Christendom united against the Turk, Leo was preparing an +enterprise as unscrupulous as any of the similar exploits of Cesare +Borgia. He obtained 150,000 ducats towards the expenses of the +expedition from Henry VIII. of England, in return for which he entered +the imperial league of Spain and England against France. The war lasted +from February to September 1517 and ended with the expulsion of the duke +and the triumph of Lorenzo; but it revived the nefarious policy of +Alexander VI., increased brigandage and anarchy in the States of the +Church, hindered the preparations for a crusade and wrecked the papal +finances. Guicciardini reckoned the cost of the war to Leo at the +prodigious sum of 800,000 ducats. The new duke of Urbino was the Lorenzo +de' Medici to whom Machiavelli addressed _The Prince_. His marriage in +March 1518 was arranged by the pope with Madeleine la Tour d'Auvergne, a +royal princess of France, whose daughter was the Catherine de' Medici +celebrated in French history. The war of Urbino was further marked by a +crisis in the relations between pope and cardinals. The sacred college +had grown especially worldly and troublesome since the time of Sixtus +IV., and Leo took advantage of a plot of several of its members to +poison him, not only to inflict exemplary punishments by executing one +and imprisoning several others, but also to make a radical change in the +college. On the 3rd of July 1517 he published the names of thirty-one +new cardinals, a number almost unprecedented in the history of the +papacy. Some of the nominations were excellent, such as Lorenzo +Campeggio, Giambattista Pallavicini, Adrian of Utrecht, Cajetan, +Cristoforo Numai and Egidio Canisio. The naming of seven members of +prominent Roman families, however, reversed the wise policy of his +predecessor which had kept the dangerous factions of the city out of the +curia. Other promotions were for political or family considerations or +to secure money for the war against Urbino. The pope was accused of +having exaggerated the conspiracy of the cardinals for purposes of +financial gain, but most of such accusations appear to be +unsubstantiated. + +Leo, meanwhile, felt the need of staying the advance of the warlike +sultan, Selim I., who was threatening western Europe, and made elaborate +plans for a crusade. A truce was to be proclaimed throughout +Christendom; the pope was to be the arbiter of disputes; the emperor and +the king of France were to lead the army; England, Spain and Portugal +were to furnish the fleet; and the combined forces were to be directed +against Constantinople. Papal diplomacy in the interests of peace +failed, however; Cardinal Wolsey made England, not the pope, the arbiter +between France and the Empire; and much of the money collected for the +crusade from tithes and indulgences was spent in other ways. In 1519 +Hungary concluded a three years' truce with Selim I., but the succeeding +sultan, Suliman the Magnificent, renewed the war in June 1521 and on the +28th of August captured the citadel of Belgrade. The pope was greatly +alarmed, and although he was then involved in war with France he sent +about 30,000 ducats to the Hungarians. Leo treated the Uniate Greeks +with great loyalty, and by bull of the 18th of May 1521 forbade Latin +clergy to celebrate mass in Greek churches and Latin bishops to ordain +Greek clergy. These provisions were later strengthened by Clement VII. +and Paul III. and went far to settle the chronic disputes between the +Latins and Uniate Greeks. + +Leo was disturbed throughout his pontificate by heresy and schism. The +dispute between Reuchlin and Pfefferkorn relative to the Talmud and +other Jewish books was referred to the pope in September 1513. He in +turn referred it to the bishops of Spires and Worms, who gave decision +in March 1514 in favour of Reuchlin. After the appeal of the +inquisitor-general, Hochstraten, and the appearance of the _Epistolae +obscurorum virorum_, however, Leo annulled the decision (June 1520) and +imposed silence on Reuchlin. The pope had already authorized the +extensive grant of indulgences in order to secure funds for the crusade +and more particularly for the rebuilding of St Peter's at Rome. Against +the attendant abuses the Augustinian monk Martin Luther (q.v.) posted +(31st October 1517) on the church door at Wittenberg his famous +ninety-five theses, which were the signal for widespread revolt against +the church. Although Leo did not fully comprehend the import of the +movement, he directed (3rd February 1518) the vicar-general of the +Augustinians to impose silence on the monks. On the 30th of May Luther +sent an explanation of his theses to the pope; on the 7th of August he +was cited to appear at Rome. An arrangement was effected, however, +whereby that citation was cancelled, and Luther betook himself in +October 1518 to Augsburg to meet the papal legate, Cardinal Cajetan, who +was attending the imperial diet convened by the emperor Maximilian to +impose the tithes for the Turkish war and to elect a king of the Romans; +but neither the arguments of the learned cardinal, nor the dogmatic +papal bull of the 9th of November to the effect that all Christians must +believe in the pope's power to grant indulgences, moved Luther to +retract. A year of fruitless negotiation followed, during which the +pamphlets of the reformer set all Germany on fire. A papal bull of the +15th of June 1520, which condemned forty-one propositions extracted from +Luther's teachings, was taken to Germany by Eck in his capacity of +apostolic nuncio, published by him and the legates Alexander and +Caracciola, and burned by Luther on the 10th of December at Wittenberg. +Leo then formally excommunicated Luther by bull of the 3rd of January +1521; and in a brief directed the emperor to take energetic measures +against heresy. On the 26th of May 1521 the emperor signed the edict of +the diet of Worms, which placed Luther under the ban of the Empire; on +the 21st of the same month Henry VIII. of England sent to Leo his book +against Luther on the seven sacraments. The pope, after careful +consideration, conferred on the king of England the title "Defender of +the Faith" by bull of the 11th of October 1521. Neither the imperial +edict nor the work of Henry VIII. stayed the Lutheran movement, and +Luther himself, safe in the solitude of the Wartburg, survived Leo X. It +was under Leo X. also that the Protestant movement had its beginning in +Scandinavia. The pope had repeatedly used the rich northern benefices to +reward members of the Roman curia, and towards the close of the year +1516 he sent the grasping and impolitic Arcimboldi as papal nuncio to +Denmark to collect money for St Peter's. King Christian II. took +advantage of the growing dissatisfaction on the part of the native +clergy toward the papal government, and of Arcimboldi's interference in +the Swedish revolt, in order to expel the nuncio and summon (1520) +Lutheran theologians to Copenhagen. Christian approved a plan by which a +formal state church should be established in Denmark, all appeals to +Rome should be abolished, and the king and diet should have final +jurisdiction in ecclesiastical causes. Leo sent a new nuncio to +Copenhagen (1521) in the person of the Minorite Francesco de Potentia, +who readily absolved the king and received the rich bishopric of Skara. +The pope or his legate, however, took no steps to remove abuses or +otherwise reform the Scandinavian churches. + +That Leo did not do more to check the tendency toward heresy and schism +in Germany and Scandinavia is to be partially explained by the political +complications of the time, and by his own preoccupation with schemes of +papal and Medicean aggrandizement in Italy. The death of the emperor +Maximilian on the 12th of January 1519 had seriously affected the +situation. Leo vacillated between the powerful candidates for the +succession, allowing it to appear at first that he favoured Francis I. +while really working for the election of some minor German prince. He +finally accepted Charles I. of Spain as inevitable, and the election of +Charles (28th of June 1519) revealed Leo's desertion of his French +alliance, a step facilitated by the death at about the same time of +Lorenzo de' Medici and his French wife. Leo was now anxious to unite +Ferrara, Parma and Piacenza to the States of the Church. An attempt late +in 1519 to seize Ferrara failed, and the pope recognized the need of +foreign aid. In May 1521 a treaty of alliance was signed at Rome between +him and the emperor. Milan and Genoa were to be taken from France and +restored to the Empire, and Parma and Piacenza were to be given to the +Church on the expulsion of the French. The expense of enlisting 10,000 +Swiss was to be borne equally by pope and emperor. Charles took Florence +and the Medici family under his protection and promised to punish all +enemies of the Catholic faith. Leo agreed to invest Charles with Naples, +to crown him emperor, and to aid in a war against Venice. It was +provided that England and the Swiss might join the league. Henry VIII. +announced his adherence in August. Francis I. had already begun war with +Charles in Navarre, and in Italy, too, the French made the first hostile +movement (23rd June 1521). Leo at once announced that he would +excommunicate the king of France and release his subjects from their +allegiance unless Francis laid down his arms and surrendered Parma and +Piacenza. The pope lived to hear the joyful news of the capture of Milan +from the French and of the occupation by papal troops of the +long-coveted provinces (November 1521). Leo X. died on the 1st of +December 1521, so suddenly that the last sacraments could not be +administered; but the contemporary suspicions of poison were unfounded. +His successor was Adrian VI. + +Several minor events of Leo's pontificate are worthy of mention. He was +particularly friendly with King Emmanuel of Portugal on account of the +latter's missionary enterprises in Asia and Africa. His concordat with +Florence (1516) guaranteed the free election of the clergy in that city. +His constitution of the 1st of March 1519 condemned the king of Spain's +claim to refuse the publication of papal bulls. He maintained close +relations with Poland because of the Turkish advance and the Polish +contest with the Teutonic Knights. His bull of the 1st of July 1519, +which regulated the discipline of the Polish Church, was later +transformed into a concordat by Clement VII. Leo showed special favours +to the Jews and permitted them to erect a Hebrew printing-press at Rome. +He approved the formation of the Oratory of Divine Love, a group of +pious men at Rome which later became the Theatine Order, and he +canonized Francesco di Paola. + +As patron of learning Leo X. deserves a prominent place among the popes. +He raised the church to a high rank as the friend of whatever seemed to +extend knowledge or to refine and embellish life. He made the capital of +Christendom the centre of culture. Every Italian artist and man of +letters in an age of singular intellectual brilliancy tasted or hoped to +taste of his bounty, while yet a cardinal, he had restored the church of +Sta Maria in Domnica after Raphael's designs; and as pope he built S. +Giovanni on the Via Giulia after designs by Jacopo Sansovino and pressed +forward the work on St Peter's and the Vatican under Raphael and Chigi. +His constitution of the 5th of November 1513 reformed the Roman +university, which had been neglected by Julius II. He restored all its +faculties, gave larger salaries to the professors, and summoned +distinguished teachers from afar; and, although it never attained to the +importance of Padua or Bologna, it nevertheless possessed in 1514 an +excellent faculty of eighty-eight professors. Leo called Theodore +Lascaris to Rome to give instruction in Greek, and established a Greek +printing-press from which the first Greek book printed at Rome appeared +in 1515. He made Raphael custodian of the classical antiquities of Rome +and the vicinity. The distinguished Latinists Pietro Bembo (1470-1547) +and Jacopo Sadoleto (1477-1547) were papal secretaries, as well as the +famous poet Bernardo Accolti (d. 1534). Writers of poetry like Vida +(1490-1566), Trissino (1478-1550), and Bibbiena (1470-1520), writers of +_novelle_ like Bandello, and a hundred other _literati_ of the time were +bishops, or papal scriptors or abbreviators, or in other papal employ. +Leo's lively interest in art and literature, to say nothing of his +natural liberality, his nepotism, his political ambitions and +necessities, and his immoderate personal luxury, exhausted within two +years the hard savings of Julius II., and precipitated a financial +crisis from which he never emerged and which was a direct cause of most +of the calamities of his pontificate. He created many new offices and +shamelessly sold them. He sold cardinals' hats. He sold membership in +the "Knights of Peter." He borrowed large sums from bankers, curials, +princes and Jews. The Venetian ambassador Gradenigo estimated the paying +number of offices on Leo's death at 2150, with a capital value of nearly +3,000,000 ducats and a yearly income of 328,000 ducats. Marino Giorgi +reckoned the ordinary income of the pope for the year 1517 at about +580,000 ducats, of which 420,000 came from the States of the Church, +100,000 from annates, and 60,000 from the composition tax instituted by +Sixtus IV. These sums, together with the considerable amounts accruing +from indulgences, jubilees, and special fees, vanished as quickly as +they were received. Then the pope resorted to pawning palace furniture, +table plate, jewels, even statues of the apostles. Several banking firms +and many individual creditors were ruined by the death of the pope. + +In the past many conflicting estimates were made of the character and +achievements of the pope during whose pontificate Protestantism first +took form. More recent studies have served to produce a fairer and more +honest opinion of Leo X. A report of the Venetian ambassador Marino +Giorgi bearing date of March 1517 indicates some of his predominant +characteristics:--"The pope is a good-natured and extremely free-hearted +man, who avoids every difficult situation and above all wants peace; he +would not undertake a war himself unless his own personal interests were +involved; he loves learning; of canon law and literature he possesses +remarkable knowledge; he is, moreover, a very excellent musician." Leo +was dignified in appearance and elegant in speech, manners and writing. +He enjoyed music and the theatre, art and poetry, the masterpieces of +the ancients and the wonderful creations of his contemporaries, the +spiritual and the witty--life in every form. It is by no means certain +that he made the remark often attributed to him, "Let us enjoy the +papacy since God has given it to us," but there is little doubt that he +was by nature devoid of moral earnestness or deep religious feeling. On +the other hand, in spite of his worldliness, Leo was not an unbeliever; +he prayed, fasted, and participated in the services of the church with +conscientiousness. To the virtues of liberality, charity and clemency he +added the Machiavellian qualities of falsehood and shrewdness, so highly +esteemed by the princes of his time. Leo was deemed fortunate by his +contemporaries, but an incurable malady, wars, enemies, a conspiracy of +cardinals, and the loss of all his nearest relations darkened his days; +and he failed entirely in his general policy of expelling foreigners +from Italy, of restoring peace throughout Europe, and of prosecuting war +against the Turks. He failed to recognize the pressing need of reform +within the church and the tremendous dangers which threatened the papal +monarchy; and he unpardonably neglected the spiritual needs of the time. +He was, however, zealous in firmly establishing the political power of +the Holy See; he made it unquestionably supreme in Italy; he +successfully restored the papal power in France; and he secured a +prominent place in the history of culture. + + AUTHORITIES.--The life of Leo X. was written shortly after his death + by Paolo Giovio, bishop of Nocera, who had known him intimately. Other + important contemporary sources are the Italian _History_ of the + Florentine writer Guicciardini, covering the period 1492-1530 (4 + vols., Milan, 1884); the reports of the Venetian ambassadors, Marino + Giorgi (1517), Marco Minio (1520) and Luigi Gradenigo (1523), in vol. + iii. of the 2nd series of _Le Relazioni degli ambasciatori Veneti_, + edited by Alberi (Florence, 1846); and the _Diarii_ of the Venetian + Marino Sanuto (58 vols., 1879-1903). Other materials for the biography + are to be found in the incomplete _Regesta_ edited by Joseph Cardinal + Hergenröther (Freiburg-i-B., 1884 ff.); in the Turin collection of + papal bulls (1859, &c.); in _Il Diario di Leone X. dai volumi + manoscritti degli archivi Vaticani della S. Sede connote di M. + Armellini_ (Rome, 1884); and in "Documenti risguardanti Giovanni de' + Medici e il pontifice Leone X.," appendix to vol. 1 of the _Archivio + storico Italiano_ (Florence, 1842). + + See L. Pastor, _Geschichte der Päpste im Zeitalter der Renaissance u. + der Glaubensspaltung von der Wahl Leos X. bis zum Tode Klemens VII._ + part 1 (Freiburg-i.-B., 1906); M. Creighton, _History of the Papacy_, + vol. 6 (1901); F. Gregorovius, _Rome in the Middle Ages_, trans. by + Mrs G. W. Hamilton, vol. viii., part 1 (1902); L. von Ranke, _History + of the Popes_, vol. i., trans. by E. Foster in the Bohn Library; + _Histoire de France_, ed. by E. Lavisse, vol. 5, part 1 (1903); Walter + Friedensburg, "Ein rotulus familiae Papst Leos X.," in _Quellen u. + Forschungen aus italienischen Archiven u. Bibliotheken_, vol. vi. + (1904); W. Roscoe, _Life and Pontificate of Leo X._ (6th ed., 2 vols., + 1853), a celebrated biography but considerably out of date in spite of + the valuable notes of the German and Italian translators, Henke and + Bossi; F. S. Nitti, _Leone X. e la sua politica secondo documenti e + carteggi inediti_ (Florence, 1892); A. Schulte, _Die Fugger in Rom + 1495-1523_ (2 vols., Leipzig, 1906); and H. M. Vaughan, _The Medici + Popes_ (1908). (C. H. Ha.) + +LEO XI. (Alessandro de' Medici) was elected pope on the 1st of April +1605, at the age of seventy. He had long been archbishop of Florence and +nuncio to Tuscany; and was entirely pro-French in his sympathies. He +died on the 27th day of his pontificate, and was succeeded by Paul V. + + See the contemporary life by Vitorelli, continuator of Ciaconius, + _Vitae et res gestae summorum Pontiff. Rom._; Ranke, _Popes_ (Eng. + trans., Austin), ii. 330; v. Reumont, _Gesch. der Stadt Rom._ iii. 2, + 604; Brosch, _Gesch. des Kirchenstaates_ (1880), i. 350. + +LEO XII. (Annibale della Genga), pope from 1823 to 1829, was born of a +noble family, near Spoleto, on the 22nd of August 1760. Educated at the +Accademia dei Nobili ecclesiastici at Rome, he was ordained priest in +1783, and in 1790 attracted favourable attention by a tactful sermon +commemorative of the emperor Joseph II. In 1792 Pius VI. made him his +private secretary, in 1793 creating him titular archbishop of Tyre and +despatching him to Lucerne as nuncio. In 1794 he was transferred to the +nunciature at Cologne, but owing to the war had to make his residence in +Augsburg. During the dozen or more years he spent in Germany he was +entrusted with several honourable and difficult missions, which brought +him into contact with the courts of Dresden, Vienna, Munich and +Württemberg, as well as with Napoleon. It is, however, charged at one +time during this period that his finances were disordered, and his +private life not above suspicion. After the abolition of the States of +the Church, he was treated by the French as a state prisoner, and lived +for some years at the abbey of Monticelli, solacing himself with music +and with bird-shooting, pastimes which he did not eschew even after his +election as pope. In 1814 he was chosen to carry the pope's +congratulations to Louis XVIII.; in 1816 he was created cardinal-priest +of Santa Maria Maggiore, and appointed to the see of Sinigaglia, which +he resigned in 1818. In 1820 Pius VII. gave him the distinguished post +of cardinal vicar. In the conclave of 1823, in spite of the active +opposition of France, he was elected pope by the _zelanti_ on the 28th +of September. His election had been facilitated because he was thought +to be on the edge of the grave; but he unexpectedly rallied. His foreign +policy, entrusted at first to Della Somaglia and then to the more able +Bernetti, moved in general along lines laid down by Consalvi; and he +negotiated certain concordats very advantageous to the papacy. +Personally most frugal, Leo reduced taxes, made justice less costly, and +was able to find money for certain public improvements; yet he left the +finances more confused than he had found them, and even the elaborate +jubilee of 1825 did not really mend matters. His domestic policy was one +of extreme reaction. He condemned the Bible societies, and under Jesuit +influence reorganized the educational system. Severe ghetto laws led +many of the Jews to emigrate. He hunted down the _Carbonari_ and the +Freemasons; he took the strongest measures against political agitation +in theatres. A well-nigh ubiquitous system of espionage, perhaps most +fruitful when directed against official corruption, sapped the +foundations of public confidence. Leo, temperamentally stern, +hard-working in spite of bodily infirmity, died at Rome on the 10th of +February 1829. The news was received by the populace with unconcealed +joy. He was succeeded by Pius VIII. + + AUTHORITIES.--Artaud de Montor, _Histoire du Pape Léon XII._ (2 vols., + 1843; by the secretary of the French embassy in Rome); Brück, "Leo + XII.," in Wetzer and Welte's _Kirchenlexikon_, vol. vii. (Freiburg, + 1891); F. Nippold, _The Papacy in the 19th Century_ (New York, 1900), + chap. 5; Benrath, "Leo XII.," in Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyklopädie_, + vol. xi.-(Leipzig, 1902), 390-393, with bibliography; F. Nielsen, _The + History of the Papacy in the 19th century_ (1906), vol. ii. 1-30; Lady + Blennerhassett, in the _Cambridge Modern History_, vol. x. (1907), + 151-154. (W. W. R.*) + +LEO XIII. (Gioacchino Pecci) (1810-1903), pope from 1878 to 1903, +reckoned the 257th successor of St Peter, was born at Carpineto on the +2nd of March 1810. His family was Sienese in origin, and his father, +Colonel Domenico Pecci, had served in the army of Napoleon. His mother, +Anna Prosperi, is said to have been a descendant of Rienzi, and was a +member of the third order of St Francis. He and his elder brother +Giuseppe (known as Cardinal Pecci) received their earliest education +from the Jesuits at Viterbo, and completed their education in Rome. In +the jubilee year 1825 he was selected by his fellow-students at the +Collegium Romanum to head a deputation to Pope Leo XII., whose memory he +subsequently cherished and whose name he assumed in 1878. Weak health, +consequent on over-study, prevented him from obtaining the highest +academical honours, but he graduated as doctor in theology at the age of +twenty-two, and then entered the Accademia dei Nobili ecclesiastici, a +college in which clergy of aristocratic birth are trained for the +diplomatic service of the Roman Church. Two years later Gregory XVI. +appointed him a domestic prelate, and bestowed on him, by way of +apprenticeship, various minor administrative offices. He was ordained +priest on the 31st of December 1837, and a few weeks later was made +apostolic delegate of the small papal territory of Benevento, where he +had to deal with brigands and smugglers, who enjoyed the protection of +some of the noble families of the district. His success here led to his +appointment in 1841 as delegate of Perugia, which was at that time a +centre of anti-papal secret societies. This post he held for eighteen +months only, but in that brief period he obtained a reputation as a +social and municipal reformer. In 1843 he was sent as nuncio to +Brussels, being first consecrated a bishop (19th February), with the +title of archbishop of Damietta. During his three years' residence at +the Belgian capital he found ample scope for his gifts as a diplomatist +in the education controversy then raging, and as mediator between the +Jesuits and the Catholic university of Louvain. He gained the esteem of +Leopold I., and was presented to Queen Victoria of England and the +Prince Consort. He also made the acquaintance of many Englishmen, +Archbishop Whately among them. In January 1846, at the request of the +magistrates and people of Perugia, he was appointed bishop of that city +with the rank of archbishop; but before returning to Italy he spent +February in London, and March and April in Paris. On his arrival in Rome +he would, at the request of King Leopold, have been created cardinal but +for the death of Gregory XVI. Seven years later, 19th December 1853, he +received the red hat from Pius IX. Meanwhile, and throughout his long +episcopate of thirty-two years, he foreshadowed the zeal and the +enlightened policy later to be displayed in the prolonged period of his +pontificate, building and restoring many churches, striving to elevate +the intellectual as well as the spiritual tone of his clergy, and +showing in his pastoral letters an unusual regard for learning and for +social reform. His position in Italy was similar to that of Bishop +Dupanloup in France; and, as but a moderate supporter of the policy +enunciated in the Syllabus, he was not altogether _persona grata_ to +Pius IX. But he protested energetically against the loss of the pope's +temporal power in 1870, against the confiscation of the property of the +religious orders, and against the law of civil marriage established by +the Italian government, and he refused to welcome Victor Emmanuel in his +diocese. Nevertheless, he remained in the comparative obscurity of his +episcopal see until the death of Cardinal Antonelli; but in 1877, when +the important papal office of _camerlengo_ became vacant, Pius IX. +appointed to it Cardinal Pecci, who thus returned to reside in Rome, +with the prospect of having shortly responsible functions to perform +during the vacancy of the Holy See, though the _camerlengo_ was +traditionally regarded as disqualified by his office from succeeding to +the papal throne. + +When Pius IX. died (7th February 1878) Cardinal Pecci was elected pope +at the subsequent conclave with comparative unanimity, obtaining at the +third scrutiny (20th February) forty-four out of sixty-one votes, or +more than the requisite two-thirds majority. The conclave was remarkably +free from political influences, the attention of Europe being at the +time engrossed by the presence of a Russian army at the gates of +Constantinople. It was said that the long pontificate of Pius IX. led +some of the cardinals to vote for Pecci, since his age (within a few +days of sixty-eight) and health warranted the expectation that his reign +would be comparatively brief; but he had for years been known as one of +the few "papable" cardinals; and although his long seclusion at Perugia +had caused his name to be little known outside Italy, there was a +general belief that the conclave had selected a man who was a prudent +statesman as well as a devout churchman; and Newman (whom he created a +cardinal in the year following) is reported to have said, "In the +successor of Pius I recognize a depth of thought, a tenderness of heart, +a winning simplicity, and a power answering to the name of Leo, which +prevent me from lamenting that Pius is no longer here." + +The second day after his election Pope Leo XIII. crossed the Tiber +_incognito_ to his former residence in the Falconieri Palace to collect +his papers, returning at once to the Vatican, where he continued to +regard himself as "imprisoned" so long as the Italian government +occupied the city of Rome. He was crowned in the Sistine Chapel 3rd +March 1878, and at once began a reform of the papal household on austere +and economic lines which found little favour with the _entourage_ of the +former pope. To fill posts near his own person he summoned certain of +the Perugian clergy who had been trained under his own eye, and from the +first he was less accessible than his predecessor had been, either in +public or private audience. Externally uneventful as his life henceforth +necessarily was, it was marked chiefly by the reception of distinguished +personages and of numerous pilgrimages, often on a large scale, from all +parts of the world, and by the issue of encyclical letters. The stricter +theological training of the Roman Catholic clergy throughout the world +on the lines laid down by St Thomas Aquinas was his first care, and to +this end he founded in Rome and endowed an academy bearing the great +schoolman's name, further devoting about £12,000 to the publication of a +new and splendid edition of his works, the idea being that on this basis +the later teaching of Catholic theologians and many of the speculations +of modern thinkers could best be harmonized and brought into line. The +study of Church history was next encouraged, and in August 1883 the pope +addressed a letter to Cardinals de Luca, Pitra and Hergenröther, in +which he made the remarkable concession that the Vatican archives and +library might be placed at the disposal of persons qualified to compile +manuals of history. His belief was that the Church would not suffer by +the publication of documents. A man of literary taste and culture, +familiar with the classics, a facile writer of Latin verses[1] as well +as of Ciceronian prose, he was as anxious that the Roman clergy should +unite human science and literature with their theological studies as +that the laity should be educated in the principles of religion; and to +this end he established in Rome a kind of voluntary school board, with +members both lay and clerical; and the rivalry of the schools thus +founded ultimately obliged the state to include religious teaching in +its curriculum. The numerous encyclicals by which the pontificate of Leo +XIII. will always be distinguished were prepared and written by himself, +but were submitted to the customary revision. The encyclical _Aeterni +Patris_ (4th August 1879) was written in the defence of the philosophy +of St Thomas Aquinas. In later ones, working on the principle that the +Christian Church should superintend and direct every form of civil life, +he dealt with the Christian constitution of states (_Immortale Dei_, 1st +November 1885), with human liberty (_Libertas_, 20th June 1888), and +with the condition of the working classes (_Rerum novarum_, 15th May +1891). This last was slightly tinged with modern socialism; it was +described as "the social Magna Carta of Catholicism," and it won for Leo +the name of "the working-man's pope." Translated into the chief modern +languages, many thousands of copies were circulated among the working +classes in Catholic countries. Other encyclicals, such as those on +Christian marriage (_Arcanum divinae sapientiae_, 10th February 1880), +on the Rosary (_Supremi apostolatus officii_, 1st September 1883, and +_Superiore anno_, 5th September 1898), and on Freemasonry (_Humanum +genus_, 20th April 1884), dealt with subjects on which his predecessor +had been accustomed to pronounce allocutions, and were on similar lines. +It was the knowledge that in all points of religious faith and practice +Leo XIII. stood precisely where Pius IX. had stood that served to render +ineffectual others of his encyclicals, in which he dealt earnestly and +effectively with matters in which orthodox Protestants had a sympathetic +interest with him and might otherwise have lent an ear to his counsels. +Such were the letters on the study of Holy Scripture (18th November +1893), and on the reunion of Christendom (20th June 1894). He showed +special anxiety for the return of England to the Roman Catholic fold, +and addressed a letter _ad Anglos_, dated 14th April 1895. This he +followed up by an encyclical on the unity of the Church (_Satis +cognitum_, 29th June 1896); and the question of the validity of Anglican +ordinations from the Roman Catholic point of view having been raised in +Rome by Viscount Halifax, with whom the abbé Louis Duchesne and one or +two other French priests were in sympathy, a commission was appointed to +consider the subject, and on the 15th of September 1896 a condemnation +of the Anglican form as theologically insufficient was issued, and was +directed to be taken as final. + +The establishment of a diocesan hierarchy in Scotland had been decided +upon before the death of Pius IX., but the actual announcement of it was +made by Leo XIII. On the 25th of July 1898 he addressed to the Scottish +Catholic bishops a letter, in the course of which he said that "many of +the Scottish people who do not agree with us in faith sincerely love the +name of Christ and strive to ascertain His doctrine and to imitate His +most holy example." The Irish and American bishops he summoned to Rome +to confer with him on the subjects of Home Rule and of "Americanism" +respectively. In India he established a diocesan hierarchy, with seven +archbishoprics, the archbishop of Goa taking precedence with the rank of +patriarch. + +With the government of Italy his general policy was to be as +conciliatory as was consistent with his oath as pope never to surrender +the "patrimony of St Peter"; but a moderate attitude was rendered +difficult by partisans on either side in the press, each of whom claimed +to represent his views. In 1879, addressing a congress of Catholic +journalists in Rome, he exhorted them to uphold the necessity of the +temporal power, and to proclaim to the world that the affairs of Italy +would never prosper until it was restored; in 1887 he found it necessary +to deprecate the violence with which this doctrine was advocated in +certain journals. A similar counsel of moderation was given to the +Canadian press in connexion with the Manitoba school question in +December 1897. The less conciliatory attitude towards the Italian +government was resumed in an encyclical addressed to the Italian clergy +(5th August 1898), in which he insisted on the duty of Italian Catholics +to abstain from political life while the papacy remained in its +"painful, precarious and intolerable position." And in January 1902, +reversing the policy which had its inception in the encyclical, _Rerum +novarum_, of 1891, and had further been developed ten years later in a +letter to the Italian bishops entitled _Graves de communi_, the "Sacred +Congregation of Extraordinary Ecclesiastical Affairs" issued +instructions concerning "Christian Democracy in Italy," directing that +the popular Christian movement, which embraced in its programme a number +of social reforms, such as factory laws for children, old-age pensions, +a minimum wage in agricultural industries, an eight-hours' day, the +revival of trade gilds, and the encouragement of Sunday rest, should +divert its attention from all such things as savoured of novelty and +devote its energies to the restoration of the temporal power. The +reactionary policy thus indicated gave the impression that a similar aim +underlay the appointment about the same date of a commission to inquire +into Biblical studies; and in other minor matters Leo XIII. disappointed +those who had looked to him for certain reforms in the devotional system +of the Church. A revision of the breviary, which would have involved the +omission of some of the less credible legends, came to nothing, while +the recitation of the office in honour of the Santa Casa at Loreto was +imposed on all the clergy. The worship of Mary, largely developed during +the reign of Pius IX., received further stimulus from Leo; nor did he do +anything during his pontificate to correct the superstitions connected +with popular beliefs concerning relics and indulgences. + +His policy towards all governments outside Italy was to support them +wherever they represented social order; and it was with difficulty that +he persuaded French Catholics to be united in defence of the republic. +The German _Kulturkampf_ was ended by his exertions. In 1885 he +successfully arbitrated between Germany and Spain in a dispute +concerning the Caroline Islands. In Ireland he condemned the "Plan of +Campaign" in 1888, but he conciliated the Nationalists by appointing Dr +Walsh archbishop of Dublin. His hope that his support of the British +government in Ireland would be followed by the establishment of formal +diplomatic relations between the court of St James's and the Vatican was +disappointed. But the jubilee of Queen Victoria in 1887 and the pope's +priestly jubilee a few months later were the occasion of friendly +intercourse between Rome and Windsor, Mgr. Ruffo Scilla coming to London +as special papal envoy, and the duke of Norfolk being received at the +Vatican as the bearer of the congratulations of the queen of England. +Similar courtesies were exchanged during the jubilee of 1897, and again +in March 1902, when Edward VII. sent the earl of Denbigh to Rome to +congratulate Leo XIII. on reaching his ninety-third year and the +twenty-fifth year of his pontificate. The visit of Edward VII. to Leo +XIII. in April 1903 was a further proof of the friendliness between the +English court and the Vatican. + +The elevation of Newman to the college of Cardinals in 1879 was regarded +with approval throughout the English-speaking world, both on Newman's +account and also as evidence that Leo XIII. had a wider horizon than his +predecessor; and his similar recognition of two of the most +distinguished "inopportunist" members of the Vatican council, Haynald, +archbishop of Kalocsa, and Prince Fürstenberg, archbishop of Olmütz, was +even more noteworthy. Dupanloup would doubtless have received the same +honour had he not died shortly after Leo's accession. Döllinger the pope +attempted to reconcile, but failed. He laboured much to bring about the +reunion of the Oriental Churches with the see of Rome, establishing +Catholic educational centres in Athens and in Constantinople with that +end in view. He used his influence with the emperor of Russia, as also +with the emperors of China and Japan and with the shah of Persia, to +secure the free practice of their religion for Roman Catholics within +their respective dominions. Among the canonizations and beatifications +of his pontificate that of Sir Thomas More, author of _Utopia_, is +memorable. His encyclical issued at Easter 1902, and described by +himself as a kind of will, was mainly a reiteration of earlier +condemnations of the Reformation, and of modern philosophical systems, +which for their atheism and materialism he makes responsible for all +existing moral and political disorders. Society, he earnestly pleaded, +can only find salvation by a return to Christianity and to the fold of +the Roman Catholic Church. + +Grave and serious in manner, speaking slowly, but with energetic +gestures, simple and abstemious in his life--his daily bill of fare +being reckoned as hardly costing a couple of francs--Leo XIII. +distributed large sums in charity, and at his own charges placed costly +astronomical instruments in the Vatican observatory, providing also +accommodation and endowment for a staff of officials. He always showed +the greatest interest in science and in literature, and he would have +taken a position as a statesman of the first rank had he held office in +any secular government. He may be reckoned the most illustrious pope +since Benedict XIV., and under him the papacy acquired a prestige +unknown since the middle ages. On the 3rd of March 1903 he celebrated +his jubilee in St Peter's with more than usual pomp and splendour; he +died on the 20th of July following. His successor was Pius X. + + See _Scelta di atti episcopali del cardinale G. Pecci ..._ (Rome, + 1879); _Leonis XIII. Pont. Max. acta_ (17 vols., Rome, 1881-1898); + _Sanctissimi Domini N. Leonis XIII. allocutiones, epistolae, &c._ + (Bruges and Lille, 1887, &c.); the encyclicals (_Sämtliche + Rundschreiben_) with a German translation (6 vols., Freiburg, + 1878-1904); _Discorsi del Sommo Pontefice Leone XIII. 1878-1882_ + (Rome, 1882). There are lives of Leo XIII. by B. O'Reilly (new ed., + Chicago, 1903), H. des Houx (pseudonym of Durand Morimbeau) (Paris, + 1900), by W. Meynell (1887), by J. McCarthy (1896), by Boyer d'Agen, + (_Jeunesse de Léon XIII._ (1896); _La Prélature_, 1900), by M. Spahn + (Munich, 1905), by L. K. Goetz (Gotha, 1899), &c. A life of Leo XIII. + (4 vols.) was undertaken by F. Marion Crawford, Count Edoardo Soderini + and Professor Giuseppe Clementi. (A. W. Hu.; M. Br.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] _Leonis XIII. Pont. Maximi carmina_, ed. Brunelli (Udine, 1883); + _Leonis XIII. carmina, inscriptiones, numismata_, ed. J. Bach + (Cologne, 1903). + + + + +LEO, the name of six emperors of the East. + +LEO I., variously surnamed THRAX, MAGNUS and MAKELLES, emperor of the +East, 457-474, was born in Thrace about 400. From his position as +military tribune he was raised to the throne by the soldiery and +recognized both by senate and clergy; his coronation by the patriarch of +Constantinople is said to have been the earliest instance of such a +ceremony. Leo owed his elevation mainly to Aspar, the commander of the +guards, who was debarred by his Arianism from becoming emperor in his +own person, but hoped to exercise a virtual autocracy through his former +steward and dependant. But Leo, following the traditions of his +predecessor Marcian, set himself to curtail the domination of the great +nobles and repeatedly acted in defiance of Aspar. Thus he vigorously +suppressed the Eutychian heresy in Egypt, and by exchanging his Germanic +bodyguard for Isaurians removed the chief basis of Aspar's power. With +the help of his generals Anthemius and Anagastus, he repelled invasions +of the Huns into Dacia (466 and 468). In 467 Leo had Anthemius elected +emperor of the West, and in concert with him equipped an armament of +more than 1100 ships and 100,000 men against the pirate empire of the +Vandals in Africa. Through the remissness of Leo's brother-in-law +Basiliscus, who commanded the expedition, the fleet was surprised by the +Vandal king, Genseric, and half of its vessels sunk or burnt (468). This +failure was made a pretext by Leo for killing Aspar as a traitor (471), +and Aspar's murder served the Goths in turn as an excuse for ravaging +Thrace up to the walls of the capital. In 473 the emperor associated +with himself his infant grandson, LEO II., who, however, survived him by +only a few months. His surnames Magnus (Great) and Makelles (butcher) +respectively reflect the attitude of the Orthodox and the Arians towards +his religious policy. + + See E. Gibbon, _The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire_ (ed. Bury, + 1896), iv. 29-37; J. B. Bury, _The Later Roman Empire_ (1889), i. + 227-233. + +LEO III. (c. 680-740), surnamed THE ISAURIAN, emperor of the East, +717-740. Born about 680 in the Syrian province of Commagene, he rose to +distinction in the military service, and under Anastasius II. was +invested with the command of the eastern army. In 717 he revolted +against the usurper Theodosius III. and, marching upon Constantinople, +was elected emperor in his stead. The first year of Leo's reign saw a +memorable siege of his capital by the Saracens, who had taken advantage +of the civil discord in the Roman empire to bring up a force of 80,000 +men to the Bosporus. By his stubborn defence the new ruler wore out the +invaders who, after a twelve months' investment, withdrew their forces. +An important factor in the victory of the Romans was their use of Greek +fire. Having thus preserved the empire from extinction, Leo proceeded to +consolidate its administration, which in the previous years of anarchy +had become completely disorganized. He secured its frontiers by inviting +Slavonic settlers into the depopulated districts and by restoring the +army to efficiency; when the Arabs renewed their invasions in 726 and +739 they were decisively beaten. His civil reforms include the abolition +of the system of prepaying taxes which had weighed heavily upon the +wealthier proprietors, the elevation of the serfs into a class of free +tenants, the remodelling of family and of maritime law. These measures, +which were embodied in a new code published in 740, met with some +opposition on the part of the nobles and higher clergy. But Leo's most +striking legislative reforms dealt with religious matters. After an +apparently successful attempt to enforce the baptism of all Jews and +Montanists in his realm (722), he issued a series of edicts against the +worship of images (726-729). This prohibition of a custom which had +undoubtedly given rise to grave abuses seems to have been inspired by a +genuine desire to improve public morality, and received the support of +the official aristocracy and a section of the clergy. But a majority of +the theologians and all the monks opposed these measures with +uncompromising hostility, and in the western parts of the empire the +people refused to obey the edict. A revolt which broke out in Greece, +mainly on religious grounds, was crushed by the imperial fleet (727), +and two years later, by deposing the patriarch of Constantinople, Leo +suppressed the overt opposition of the capital. In Italy the defiant +attitude of Popes Gregory II. and III. on behalf of image-worship led to +a fierce quarrel with the emperor. The former summoned councils in Rome +to anathematize and excommunicate the image-breakers (730, 732); Leo +retaliated by transferring southern Italy and Greece from the papal +diocese to that of the patriarch. The struggle was accompanied by an +armed outbreak in the exarchate of Ravenna (727), which Leo finally +endeavoured to subdue by means of a large fleet. But the destruction of +the armament by a storm decided the issue against him; his south Italian +subjects successfully defied his religious edicts, and the province of +Ravenna became detached from the empire. In spite of this partial +failure Leo must be reckoned as one of the greatest of the later Roman +emperors. By his resolute stand against the Saracens he delivered all +eastern Europe from a great danger, and by his thorough-going reforms he +not only saved the empire from collapse, but invested it with a +stability which enabled it to survive all further shocks for a space of +five centuries. + + See E. Gibbon, _The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire_ (ed. Bury, + 1896), v. 185 seq., 251 seq. and appendices, vi. 6-12; J. B. Bury, + _The Later Roman Empire_ (1889), ii. 401-449; K. Schenk, _Kaiser Leo + III._ (Halle, 1880), and in _Byzantinische Zeitschrift_ (1896), v. + 257-301; T. Hodgkin, _Italy and her Invaders_ (1892, &c.), bk. vii., + chs. 11, 12. See also ICONOCLASTS. + +LEO IV., called CHOZAR, succeeded his father, Constantine V., as emperor +of the East in 775. In 776 he associated his young son, Constantine, +with himself in the empire, and suppressed a rising led by his five +step-brothers which broke out as a result of this proceeding. Leo was +largely under the influence of his wife Irene (q.v.), and when he died +in 780 he left her as the guardian of his successor, Constantine VI. + +LEO V., surnamed THE ARMENIAN, emperor of the East, 813-820, was a +distinguished general of Nicephorus I. and Michael I. After rendering +good service on behalf of the latter in a war with the Arabs (812), he +was summoned in 813 to co-operate in a campaign against the Bulgarians. +Taking advantage of the disaffection prevalent among the troops, he left +Michael in the lurch at the battle of Adrianople and subsequently led a +successful revolution against him. Leo justified his usurpation by +repeatedly defeating the Bulgarians who had been contemplating the siege +of Constantinople (814-817). By his vigorous measures of repression +against the Paulicians and image-worshippers he roused considerable +opposition, and after a conspiracy under his friend Michael Psellus had +been foiled by the imprisonment of its leader, he was assassinated in +the palace chapel on Christmas Eve, 820. + + See E. Gibbon, _The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire_ (ed. Bury, + 1896), v. 193-195. (M. O. B. C.) + +LEO VI., surnamed THE WISE and THE PHILOSOPHER, Byzantine emperor, +886-911. He was a weak-minded ruler, chiefly occupied with unimportant +wars with barbarians and struggles with churchmen. The chief event of +his reign was the capture of Thessalonica (904) by Mahommedan pirates +(described in _The Capture of Thessalonica_ by John Cameniata) under the +renegade Leo of Tripolis. In Sicily and Lower Italy the imperial arms +were unsuccessful, and the Bulgarian Symeon, who assumed the title of +"Czar of the Bulgarians and autocrat of the Romaei" secured the +independence of his church by the establishment of a patriarchate. Leo's +somewhat absurd surname may be explained by the facts that he "was less +ignorant than the greater part of his contemporaries in church and +state, that his education had been directed by the learned Photius, and +that several books of profane and ecclesiastical science were composed +by the pen, or in the name, of the imperial philosopher" (Gibbon). His +works include seventeen _Oracula_, in iambic verse, on the destinies of +future emperors and patriarchs of Constantinople; thirty-three +_Orations_, chiefly on theological subjects (such as church festivals); +_Basilica_, the completion of the digest of the laws of Justinian, begun +by Basil I., the father of Leo; some epigrams in the Greek _Anthology_; +an iambic lament on the melancholy condition of the empire; and some +palindromic verses, curiously called [Greek: karkinoi] (crabs). The +treatise on military tactics, attributed to him, is probably by Leo +III., the Isaurian. + + Complete edition in Migne, _Patrologia Graeca_, cvii.; for the + literature of individual works see C. Krumbacher, _Geschichte der + byzantinischen Litteratur_ (1897). (J. H. F.) + + + + +LEO, BROTHER (d. c. 1270), the favourite disciple, secretary and +confessor of St Francis of Assisi. The dates of his birth and of his +becoming a Franciscan are not known; but he was one of the small group +of most trusted companions of the saint during his last years. After +Francis's death Leo took a leading part in the opposition to Elias: he +it was who broke in pieces the marble box which Elias had set up for +offertories for the completion of the basilica at Assisi. For this Elias +had him scourged, and this outrage on St Francis's dearest disciple +consolidated the opposition to Elias and brought about his deposition. +Leo was the leader in the early stages of the struggle in the order for +the maintenance of St Francis's ideas on strict poverty, and the chief +inspirer of the tradition of the Spirituals on St Francis's life and +teaching. The claim that he wrote the so-called _Speculum perfectionis_ +cannot be allowed, but portions of it no doubt go back to him. A little +volume of his writings has been published by Lemmeus (_Scripta Iratris +Leonis_, 1901). Leo assisted at St Clara's death-bed, 1253; after +suffering many persecutions from the dominant party in the order he died +at the Portiuncula in extreme old age. + + All that is known concerning him is collected by Paul Sabatier in the + "Introduction" to the _Speculum perfectionis_ (1898). See ST FRANCIS + and FRANCISCANS. (E. C. B.) + + + + +LEO, HEINRICH (1799-1878), German historian, was born at Rudolstadt on +the 19th of March 1799, his father being chaplain to the garrison there. +His family, not of Italian origin--as he himself was inclined to believe +on the strength of family tradition--but established in Lower Saxony so +early as the 16th century, was typical of the German upper middle +classes, and this fact, together with the strongly religious atmosphere +in which he was brought up and his early enthusiasm for nature, largely +determined the bent of his mind. The taste for historical study was, +moreover, early instilled into him by the eminent philologist Karl +Wilhelm Göttling (1793-1869), who in 1816 became a master at the +Rudolstadt gymnasium. From 1816 to 1819 Leo studied at the universities +of Breslau, Jena and Göttingen, devoting himself more especially to +history, philology and theology. At this time the universities were +still agitated by the Liberal and patriotic aspirations aroused by the +War of Liberation; at Breslau Leo fell under the influence of Jahn, and +joined the political gymnastic association (_Turnverein_); at Jena he +attached himself to the radical wing of the German _Burschenschaft_, the +so-called "Black Band," under the leadership of Karl Follen. The murder +of Kotzebue by Karl Sand, however, shocked him out of his extreme +revolutionary views, and from this time he tended, under the influence +of the writings of Hamann and Herder, more and more in the direction of +conservatism and romanticism, until at last he ended, in a mood almost +of pessimism, by attaching himself to the extreme right wing of the +forces of reaction. So early as April 1819, at Göttingen, he had fallen +under the influence of Karl Ludwig von Haller's _Handbuch der +allgemeinen Staatenkunde_ (1808), a text-book of the counter-Revolution. +On the 11th of May 1820 he took his doctor's degree; in the same year he +qualified as _Privatdozent_ at the university of Erlangen. For this +latter purpose he had chosen as his thesis the constitution of the free +Lombard cities in the middle ages, the province in which he was destined +to do most for the scientific study of history. His interest in it was +greatly stimulated by a journey to Italy in 1823; in 1824 he returned to +the subject, and, as the result, published in five volumes a history of +the Italian states (1829-1832). Meanwhile he had been established +(1822-1827) as _Dozent_ at Berlin, where he came in contact with the +leaders of German thought and was somewhat spoilt by the flattering +attentions of the highest Prussian society. Here, too, it was that +Hegel's philosophy of history made a deep impression upon him. It was at +Halle, however, where he remained for forty years (1828-1868), that he +acquired his fame as an academical teacher. His wonderful power of +exposition, aided by a remarkable memory, is attested by the most +various witnesses. In 1830 he became ordinary professor. + +In addition to his lecturing, Leo found time for much literary and +political work. He collaborated in the _Jahrbücher für Wissenschaftliche +Kritik_ from its foundation in 1827 until the publication was stopped in +1846. As a critic of independent views he won the approval of Goethe; on +the other hand, he fell into violent controversy with Ranke about +questions connected with Italian history. Up to the revolutionary year +1830 his religious views had remained strongly tinged with rationalism, +Hegel remaining his guide in religion as in practical politics and the +treatment of history. It was not till 1838 that Leo's polemical work +_Die Hegelingen_ proclaimed his breach with the radical developments of +the philosopher's later disciples; a breach which developed into +opposition to the philosopher himself. Under the impression of the July +revolution in Paris and of the orthodox and pietistic influences at +Halle, Leo's political convictions were henceforth dominated by +reactionary principles. As a friend of the Prussian "Camarilla" and of +King Frederick William IV. he collaborated especially in the high +conservative _Politisches Wochenblatt_, which first appeared in 1831, as +well as in the _Evangelische Kirchenzeitung_, the _Kreuzzeitung_ and the +_Volksblatt für Stadt und Land_. In all this his critics scented an +inclination towards Catholicism; and Leo did actually glorify the +counter-Reformation, e.g. in his _History of the Netherlands_ (2 vols. +1832-1835). His other historical works also, notably his +_Universalgeschichte_ (6 vols., 1835-1844), display a very one-sided +point of view. When, however, in connexion with the quarrel about the +archbishopric of Cologne (1837), political Catholicism raised its head +menacingly, Leo turned against it with extreme violence in his open +letter (1838) to Goerres, its foremost champion. On the other hand, he +took a lively part in the politico-religious controversies within the +fold of Prussian Protestantism. + +Leo was by nature highly excitable and almost insanely passionate, +though at the same time strictly honourable, unselfish, and in private +intercourse even gentle. During the last year of his life his mind +suffered rapid decay, of which signs had been apparent so early as 1868. +He died at Halle on the 24th of April 1878. In addition to the works +already mentioned, he left behind an account of his early life (_Meine +Jugendzeit_, Gotha, 1880) which is of interest. + + See Lord Acton, _English Historical Review_, i. (1886); H. Haupt, + _Karl Follen und die Giessener Schwarzen_ (Giessen, 1907); W. Herbst, + _Deutsch-Evangelische Blätter_, Bd. 3; P. Krägelin, _H. Leo_, vol. i. + (1779-1844) (Leipzig, 1908); P. Kraus, _Allgemeine Konservative + Monatsschrift_, Bd. 50 u. 51; R. M. Meyer, _Gestalten und Probleme_ + (1904); W. Schrader, _Geschichte der Friedrichs-Universität in Halle_ + (Berlin, 1894); C. Varrentrapp, _Historische Zeitschrift_, Bd. 92; F. + X. Wegele, _Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie_, Bd. 18 (1883); + _Geschichte der deutschen Historiographie_ (1885); G. Wolf, + _Einführung in das Studium der neueren Geschichte_ (1910). Leo's + _Rectitudines singularum personarum nebst einer einleitenden + Abhandlung über Landsiedelung, Landbau, gutsherrliche und bäuerliche + Verhältnisse der Angelsachsen_, was translated into English by Lord + Acton (1852). (J. Hn.) + + + + +LEO, JOHANNES (c. 1494-1552), in Italian GIOVANNI LEO or LEONE, usually +called LEO AFRICANUS, sometimes ELIBERITANUS (i.e. of Granada), and +properly known among the Moors as Al Hassan Ibn Mahommed Al Wezaz Al +Fasi, was the author of a _Descrizione dell' Affrica_, or _Africae +descriptio_, which long ranked as the best authority on Mahommedan +Africa. Born probably at Granada of a noble Moorish stock (his father +was a landowner; an uncle of his appears as an envoy from Fez to +Timbuktu), he received a great part of his education at Fez, and while +still very young began to travel widely in the Barbary States. In 1512 +we trace him at Morocco, Tunis, Bugia and Constantine; in 1513 we find +him returning from Tunis to Morocco; and before the close of the latter +year he seems to have started on his famous Sudan and Sahara journeys +(1513-1515) which brought him to Timbuktu, to many other regions of the +Great Desert and the Niger basin (Guinea, Melli, Gago, Walata, Aghadez, +Wangara, Katsena, &c.), and apparently to Bornu and Lake Chad. In +1516-1517 he travelled to Constantinople, probably visiting Egypt on the +way; it is more uncertain when he visited the three Arabias (_Deserta_, +_Felix_ and _Petraea_), Armenia and "Tartary" (the last term is perhaps +satisfied by his stay at Tabriz). His three Egyptian journeys, +immediately after the Turkish conquest, all probably fell between 1517 +and 1520; on one of these he ascended the Nile from Cairo to Assuan. As +he was returning from Egypt about 1520 he was captured by pirates near +the island of Gerba, and was ultimately presented as a slave to Leo X. +The pope discovered his merit, assigned him a pension, and having +persuaded him to profess the Christian faith, stood sponsor at his +baptism, and bestowed on him (as Ramusio says) his own names, Johannes +and Leo. The new convert, having made himself acquainted with Latin and +Italian, taught Arabic (among his pupils was Cardinal Egidio Antonini, +bishop of Viterbo); he also wrote books in both the Christian tongues he +had acquired. His _Description of Africa_ was first, apparently, written +in Arabic, but the primary text now remaining is that of the Italian +version, issued by the author at Rome, on the 10th of March 1526, three +years after Pope Leo's death, though originally undertaken at the +latter's suggestion. The Moor seems to have lived on Rome for some time +longer, but he returned to Africa some time before his death at Tunis in +1552; according to some, he renounced his Christianity and returned to +Islam; but the later part of his career is obscure. + + The _Descrizione dell' Affrica_ in its original Arabic MS. is said to + have existed for some time in the library of Vincenzo Pinelli + (1535-1601); the Italian text, though issued in 1526, was first + printed by Giovanni Battista Ramusio in his _Navigationi et Viaggi_ + (vol. i.) of 1550. This was reprinted in 1554, 1563, 1588, &c. In 1556 + Jean Temporal executed at Lyons an admirable French version from the + Italian (_Historiale description de l'Afrique_); and in the same year + appeared at Antwerp both Christopher Plantin's and Jean Bellere's + pirated issues of Temporal's translation, and a new (very inaccurate) + Latin version by Joannes Florianus, _Joannis Leonis Africani de totius + Africae descriptione libri i.-ix._ The latter was reprinted in 1558, + 1559 (Zürich), and 1632 (Leiden), and served as the basis of John + Pory's Elizabethan English translation, made at the suggestion of + Richard Hakluyt (_A Geographical Historie of Africa_, London, 1600). + Pory's version was reissued, with notes, maps, &c., by Robert Brown, + E. G. Ravenstein, &c. (3 vols., Hakluyt Society, London, 1896). An + excellent German translation was made by Lorsbach, from the Italian, + in 1805 (_Johann Leos des Afrikaners Beschreibung von Afrika_, + Herborn). See also Francis Moore's _Travels into the inland parts of + Africa_ (1738), containing a translation of Leo's account of negro + kingdoms. Heinrich Barth intended to have made a fresh version, with a + commentary, but was prevented by death; as it is, his own great works + on the Sudan are the best elucidation of the _Descrizione dell' + Affrica_. + + Leo also wrote lives of the Arab physicians and philosophers (_De + viris quibusdam illustribus apud Arabes_; see J. A. Fabricius, + _Bibliotheca Graeca_, Hamburg, 1726, xiii. 259-298); a Spanish-Arabic + vocabulary, now lost, but noticed by Ramusio as having been consulted + by the famous Hebrew physician, Jacob Mantino; a collection of Arabic + epitaphs in and near Fez (the MS. of this Leo presented, it is said, + to the brother of the king); and poems, also lost. It is stated, + moreover, that Leo intended writing a history of the Mahommedan + religion, an epitome of Mahommedan chronicles, and an account of his + travels in Asia and Egypt. (C. R. B.) + + + + +LEO, LEONARDO (1694-1744), more correctly LIONARDO ORONZO SALVATORE DE +LEO, Italian musical composer, was born on the 5th of August 1694 at S. +Vito dei Normanni, near Brindisi. He became a student at the +Conservatorio della Piètà dei Turchini at Naples in 1703, and was a +pupil first of Provenzale and later of Nicola Fago. It has been supposed +that he was a pupil of Pitoni and Alessandro Scarlatti, but he could not +possibly have studied with either of these composers, although he was +undoubtedly influenced by their compositions. His earliest known work +was a sacred drama, _L'Infedeltà abbattuta_, performed by his +fellow-students in 1712. In 1714 he produced, at the court theatre, an +opera, _Pisistrato_, which was much admired. He held various posts at +the royal chapel, and continued to write for the stage, besides teaching +at the conservatorio. After adding comic scenes to Gasparini's +_Bajazette_ in 1722 for performance at Naples, he composed a comic +opera, _La Mpeca scoperta_, in Neapolitan dialect, in 1723. His most +famous comic opera was _Amor vuol sofferenze_ (1739), better known as +_La Finta Frascatana_, highly praised by Des Brosses. He was equally +distinguished as a composer of serious opera, _Demofoonte_ (1735), +_Farnace_ (1737) and _L'Olimpiade_ (1737) being his most famous works in +this branch, and is still better known as a composer of sacred music. He +died of apoplexy on the 31st of October 1744 while engaged in the +composition of new airs for a revival of _La Finta Frascatana_. + +Leo was the first of the Neapolitan school to obtain a complete mastery +over modern harmonic counterpoint. His sacred music is masterly and +dignified, logical rather than passionate, and free from the +sentimentality which disfigures the work of F. Durante and G. B. +Pergolesi. His serious operas suffer from a coldness and severity of +style, but in his comic operas he shows a keen sense of humour. His +_ensemble_ movements are spirited, but never worked up to a strong +climax. + + A fine and characteristic example of his sacred music is the _Dixit + Dominus_ in C, edited by C. V. Stanford and published by Novello. A + number of songs from operas are accessible in modern editions. + (E. J. D.) + + + + +LEO (THE LION), in astronomy, the fifth sign of the zodiac (q.v.), +denoted by the symbol [Omega]. It is also a constellation, mentioned by +Eudoxus (4th century B.C.) and Aratus (3rd century B.C.). According to +Greek mythology this constellation is the Nemean lion, which, after +being killed by Hercules, was raised to the heavens by Jupiter in honour +of Hercules. A part of Ptolemy's Leo is now known as Coma Berenices +(q.v.). [alpha] Leonis, also known as Cor Leonis or the Lion's Heart, +Regulus, Basilicus, &c., is a very bright star of magnitude 1.23, and +parallax 0.02´´, and proper motion 0.27´´ per annum. [gamma] Leonis is a +very fine orange-yellow binary star, of magnitudes 2 and 4, and period +400 years. [iota] Leonis is a binary, composed of a 4th magnitude pale +yellow star, and a 7th magnitude blue star. The Leonids are a meteoric +swarm, appearing in November and radiating from this constellation (see +METEOR). + + + + +LEOBEN, a town in Styria, Austria, 44 m. N.W. of Graz by rail. Pop. +(1900) 10,204. It is situated on the Mur, and part of its old walls and +towers still remain. It has a well-known academy of mining and a number +of technical schools. Its extensive iron-works and trade in iron are a +consequence of its position on the verge of the important lignite +deposits of Upper Styria and in the neighbourhood of the iron mines and +furnaces of Vordernberg and Eisenerz. On the 18th of April 1797 a +preliminary peace was concluded here between Austria and France, which +led to the treaty of Campo-Formio. + + + + +LEOBSCHÜTZ (Bohemian _Lubczyce_), a town of Germany, in the Prussian +province of Silesia, on the Zinna, about 20 m. to the N.W. of Ratibor by +rail. Pop. (1905) 12,700. It has a large trade in wool, flax and grain, +its markets for these commodities being very numerously attended. The +principal industries are malting, carriage-building, wool-spinning and +glass-making. The town contains three Roman Catholic churches, a +Protestant church, a synagogue, a new town-hall and a gymnasium. +Leobschütz existed in the 10th century, and from 1524 to 1623 was the +capital of the principality of Jägerndorf. + + See F. Troska, _Geschichte der Stadt Leobschütz_ (Leobschütz, 1892). + + + + +LEOCHARES, a Greek sculptor who worked with Scopas on the Mausoleum +about 350 B.C. He executed statues of the family of Philip of Macedon, +in gold and ivory, which were set up by that king in the Philippeum at +Olympia. He also with Lysippus made a group in bronze at Delphi +representing a lion-hunt of Alexander. Of this the base with an +inscription was recently found. We hear of other statues by Leochares of +Zeus, Apollo and Ares. The statuette in the Vatican, representing +Ganymede being carried away by an eagle, though considerably restored +and poor in execution, so closely corresponds with Pliny's description +of a group by Leochares that we are justified in considering it a copy +of that group, especially as the Vatican statue shows all the +characteristics of Attic 4th-century art. Pliny (_N.H._ 34. 79) writes: +"Leochares made a group of an eagle aware whom it is carrying off in +Ganymede and to whom it is bearing him; holding the boy delicately in +its claws, with his garment between." (For engraving see GREEK ART, +Plate I. fig. 53.) The tree stem is skilfully used as a support; and the +upward strain of the group is ably rendered. The close likeness both in +head and pose between the Ganymede and the well-known Apollo Belvidere +has caused some modern archaeologists to assign the latter also to +Leochares. With somewhat more confidence we may regard the fine statue +of Alexander the Great at Munich as a copy of his gold and ivory +portrait at Olympia. (P. G.) + + + + +LEOFRIC (d. 1057), earl of Mercia, was a son of Leofwine, earl of +Mercia, and became earl at some date previous to 1032. Henceforth, being +one of the three great earls of the realm, he took a leading part in +public affairs. On the death of King Canute in 1035 he supported the +claim of his son Harold to the throne against that of Hardicanute; and +during the quarrel between Edward the Confessor and Earl Godwine in 1051 +he played the part of a mediator. Through his efforts civil war was +averted, and in accordance with his advice the settlement of the dispute +was referred to the Witan. When he became earl of Mercia his direct rule +seems to have been confined to Cheshire, Staffordshire, Shropshire and +the borders of north Wales, but afterwards he extended the area of his +earldom. As Chester was his principal residence and the seat of his +government, he is sometimes called earl of Chester. Leofric died at +Bromley in Staffordshire on the 31st of August 1057. His wife was +Godgifu, famous in legend as Lady Godiva. Both husband and wife were +noted as liberal benefactors to the church, among their foundations +being the famous Benedictine monastery at Coventry. Leofric's son, +Ælfgar, succeeded him as earl of Mercia. + + See E. A. Freeman, _The Norman Conquest_, vols. i. and ii. (1877). + + + + +LEOMINSTER, a market-town and municipal borough in the Leominster +parliamentary division of Herefordshire, England, in a rich agricultural +country on the Lugg, 157 m. W.N.W. of London and 12½ N. of Hereford on +the Great Western and London & North-Western railways. Pop. (1901) 5826. +Area, 8728 acres. Some fine old timber houses lend picturesqueness to +the wide streets. The parish church, of mixed architecture, including +the Norman nave of the old priory church, and containing some of the +most beautiful examples of window tracery in England, was restored in +1866, and enlarged by the addition of a south nave in 1879. The Butter +Cross, a beautiful example of timber work of the date 1633, was removed +when the town-hall was building, and re-erected in the pleasure ground +of the Grange. Trade is chiefly in agricultural produce, wool and cider, +as the district is rich in orchards. Brewing (from the produce of local +hop-gardens) and the manufacture of agricultural implements are also +carried on. The town is under a mayor, four aldermen and twelve +councillors. + +Merewald, king of Mercia, is said to have founded a religious house in +Leominster (Llanlieni, Leofminstre, Lempster) in 660, and a nunnery +existed here until the Conquest, when the place became a royal demesne. +It was granted by Henry I. to the monks of Reading, who built in it a +cell of their abbey, and under whose protection the town grew up and was +exempted from the sphere of the county and hundred courts. In 1539 it +reverted to the crown; and in 1554 was incorporated, by a charter +renewed in 1562, 1563, 1605, 1666, 1685 and 1786. The borough returned +two members to the parliament of 1295 and to other parliaments, until by +the Representation Act 1867 it lost one representative, and by the +Redistribution of Seats Act 1885 separate representation. A fair was +granted in the time of Henry II., and fairs in the seasons of Michaelmas +and the feasts of St Philip and St James and of Edward the Confessor, in +1265, 1281 and 1290 respectively. Charters to the burghers authorized +fairs on the days of St Peter and of St Simon and St Jude in 1554, on St +Bartholomew's day in 1605, in Mid-lent week in 1665, and on the feast of +the Purification and on the 2nd of May in 1685; these fairs have modern +representatives. A market was held by the abbey by a grant of Henry I.; +Friday is now market day. Leominster was famous for wool from the 13th +to the 18th century. There were gilds of mercers, tailors, drapers, +dyers and glovers in the 16th century. In 1835 the wool trade was said +to be dead; and that of glove-making, which had been important, was +diminishing. Hops and apples were grown in 1715. + + See G. Townsend, _The Town and Borough of Leominster_ (1863), and John + Price, _An Historical and Topographical Account of Leominster and its + Vicinity_ (Ludlow, 1715). + + + + +LEOMINSTER, a township of Worcester county, Massachusetts, U.S.A., about +45 m. N.W. of Boston and about 20 m. N. by E. of Worcester. Pop. (1890) +7269; (1900) 12,392, of whom 2827 were foreign-born; (1910 census) +17,580. It is a broken, hilly district, 26.48 sq. m. in area, traversed +by the Nashua river, crossed by the Northern Division of the New York, +New Haven & Hartford railroad, and by the Fitchburg Division of the +Boston & Maine, and connected with Boston, Worcester and other cities by +interurban electric lines. Along the N.E. border and mostly in the +township of Lunenburg are Whalom Lake and Whalom Park, popular pleasure +resorts. The principal villages are Leominster, 5 m. S.E. of Fitchburg, +and North Leominster; the two adjoin and are virtually one. According to +the Special U.S. Census of Manufactures of 1905 the township had in that +year a greater diversity of important manufacturing industries than any +place of its size in the state, or, probably, in the United States; its +65 manufactories, with a capital of $4,572,726 and with a product for +the year valued at $7,501,720 (39% more than in 1900), produced +celluloid and horn work (the manufacture of which is a more important +industry here than elsewhere in the United States), celluloid combs, +furniture, paper, buttons, pianos and piano-cases, children's carriages +and sleds, stationery, leatherboard, worsted, woollen and cotton goods, +shirts, paper boxes, &c. Leominster owns and operates its water-works. +The township was formed from a part of Lancaster township in 1740. + + + + +LEÓN, LUIS PONCE DE (1527-1591), Spanish poet and mystic, was born at +Belmonte de Cuenca, entered the university of Salamanca at the age of +fourteen, and in 1544 joined the Augustinian order. In 1561 he obtained +a theological chair at Salamanca, to which in 1571 was added that of +sacred literature. He was denounced to the Inquisition for translating +the book of Canticles, and for criticizing the text of the Vulgate. He +was consequently imprisoned at Valladolid from March 1572 till December +1576; the charges against him were then abandoned, and he was released +with an admonition. He returned to Salamanca as professor of Biblical +exegesis, and was again reported to the Inquisition in 1582, but without +result. In 1583-1585 he published the three books of a celebrated mystic +treatise, _Los Nombres de Cristo_, which he had written in prison. In +1583 also appeared the most popular of his prose works, a treatise +entitled _La Perfecta Casada_, for the use of a lady newly married. Ten +days before his death, which occurred at Madrigal on the 23rd of August +1591, he was elected vicar general of the Augustinian order. Luis de +León is not only the greatest of Spanish mystics; he is among the +greatest of Spanish lyrical poets. His translations of Euripides, +Pindar, Virgil and Horace are singularly happy; his original pieces, +whether devout like the ode _De la vida del cielo_, or secular like the +ode _A Salinas_, are instinct with a serene sublimity unsurpassed in any +literature, and their form is impeccable. Absorbed by less worldly +interests, Fray Luis de León refrained from printing his poems, which +were not issued till 1631, when Quevedo published them as a counterblast +to _culteranismo_. + + The best edition of Luis de León's works is that of Merino (6 vols., + Madrid, 1816); the reprint (Madrid, 1885) by C. Muñoz Saenz is + incorrect. The text of _La Perfecta Casada_ has been well edited by + Miss Elizabeth Wallace (Chicago, 1903). See _Coleccion de documentos + inéditos para la historia de España_, vols. x.-xi.; F. H. Reusch, + _Luis de León und die spanische Inquisition_ (Bonn, 1873); M. + Gutiérrez, _Fray Luis de León y la filosofía española_ (Madrid, 1885); + M. Menendez y Pelayo, _Estudios de crítica literaria_ (Madrid, 1893), + Primera série, pp. 1-72. + + + + +LEON, MOSES [BEN SHEM-TOB] DE (d. 1305), Jewish scholar, was born in +Leon (Spain) in the middle of the 13th century and died at Arevalo. His +fame is due to his authorship of the most influential Kabbalist work, +the _Zohar_ (see KABBALA), which was attributed to Simon b. Yohai, a +Rabbi of the 2nd century. In modern times the discovery of the modernity +of the _Zohar_ has led to injustice to the author. Moses de Leon +undoubtedly used old materials and out of them constructed a work of +genius. The discredit into which he fell was due partly to the +unedifying incidents of his personal career. He led a wandering life, +and was more or less of an adventurer. But as to the greatness of his +work, the profundity of his philosophy and the brilliance of his +religious idealism, there can be no question. + + See Graetz, _History of the Jews_, vol. iv. ch. i.; Geiger, _Leon de + Modena_. (I. A.) + + + + +LEON OF MODENA (1571-1648), Jewish scholar, was born in Venice, of a +notable French family which had migrated to Italy after the expulsion of +the Jews from France. He was a precocious child, but, as Graetz points +out, his lack of stable character prevented his gifts from maturing. "He +pursued all sorts of occupations to support himself, viz. those of +preacher, teacher of Jews and Christians, reader of prayers, +interpreter, writer, proof-reader, bookseller, broker, merchant, rabbi, +musician, matchmaker and manufacturer of amulets." Though he failed to +rise to real distinction he earned a place by his criticism of the +Talmud among those who prepared the way for the new learning in Judaism. +One of Leon's most effective works was his attack on the Kabbala (_'Ari +Nohem_, first published in 1840), for in it he demonstrated that the +"Bible of the Kabbalists" (the _Zohar_) was a modern composition. He +became best known, however, as the interpreter of Judaism to the +Christian world. At the instance of an English nobleman he prepared an +account of the religious customs of the Synagogue, _Riti Ebraici_ +(1637). This book was widely read by Christians; it was rendered into +various languages, and in 1650 was translated into English by Edward +Chilmead. At the time the Jewish question was coming to the fore in +London, and Leon of Modena's book did much to stimulate popular +interest. He died at Venice. + + See Graetz, _History of the Jews_ (Eng. trans.), vol. v. ch. iii.; + _Jewish Encyclopedia_, viii. 6; Geiger, _Leon de Modena_. (I. A.) + + + + +LEÓN, or LEÓN DE LAS ALDAMAS, a city of the state of Guanajuato, Mexico, +209 m. N.W. of the federal capital and 30 m. W. by N. of the city of +Guanajuato. Pop. (1895) 90,978; (1900) 62,623, León ranking fourth in +the latter year among the cities of Mexico. The Mexican Central gives it +railway connexion with the national capital and other prominent cities +of the Republic. León stands in a fertile plain on the banks of the +Turbio, a tributary of the Rio Grande de Lerma, at an elevation of 5862 +ft. above sea-level and in the midst of very attractive surroundings. +The country about León is considered to be one of the richest +cereal-producing districts of Mexico. The city itself is subject to +disastrous floods, sometimes leading to loss of life as well as damage +to property, as in the great flood of 1889. León is essentially a +manufacturing and commercial city; it has a cathedral and a theatre, +the latter one of the largest and finest in the republic. The city is +regularly built, with wide streets and numerous shady parks and gardens. +It manufactures saddlery and other leather work, gold and silver +embroideries, cotton and woollen goods, especially _rebozos_ (long +shawls), soap and cutlery. There are also tanneries and flour mills. The +city has a considerable trade in wheat and flour. The first settlement +of León occurred in 1552, but its formal foundation was in 1576, and it +did not reach the dignity of a city until 1836. + + + + +LEON, the capital of the department of Leon, Nicaragua, an episcopal +see, and the largest city in the republic, situated midway between Lake +Managua and the Pacific Ocean, 50 m. N.W. of Managua, on the railway +from that city to the Pacific port of Corinto. Pop. (1905) about 45,000, +including the Indian town of Subtiaba. Leon covers a very wide area, +owing to its gardens and plantations. Its houses are usually +one-storeyed, built of adobe and roofed with red tiles; its public +buildings are among the finest in Central America. The massive and +elaborately ornamented cathedral was built in the Renaissance style +between 1746 and 1774; a Dominican church in Subtiaba is little less +striking. The old (1678) and new (1873) episcopal palaces, the hospital, +the university and the barracks (formerly a Franciscan monastery) are +noteworthy examples of Spanish colonial architecture. Leon has a large +general trade, and manufactures cotton and woollen fabrics, ice, cigars, +boots, shoes and saddlery; its tanneries supply large quantities of +cheap leather for export. But its population (about 60,000 in 1850) +tends to decrease. + +At the time of the Spanish conquest Subtiaba was the residence of the +great cacique of Nagrando, and contained an important Indian temple. The +city of Leon, founded by Francisco Hernandez de Cordova in 1523, was +originally situated at the head of the western bay of Lake Managua, and +was not removed to its present position till 1610. Thomas Gage, who +visited it in 1665, describes it as a splendid city; and in 1685 it +yielded rich booty to William Dampier (q.v.). Until 1855 Leon was the +capital of Nicaragua, although its great commercial rival Granada +contested its claim to that position, and the jealousy between the two +cities often resulted in bloodshed. Leon was identified with the +interests of the democracy of Nicaragua, Granada with the clerical and +aristocratic parties. + + See NICARAGUA; E. G. Squier, _Central America_, vol. i. (1856); and T. + Gage, _Through Mexico_, &c. (1665). + + + + +LEON, the name of a modern province and of an ancient kingdom, +captaincy-general and province in north-western Spain. The modern +province, founded in 1833, is bounded on the N. by Oviedo, N.E. by +Santander, E. by Palencia, S. by Valladolid and Zamora and W. by Orense +and Lugo. Pop. (1900) 386,083. Area, 5986 sq. m. The boundaries of the +province on the north and west, formed respectively by the central ridge +and southerly offshoots of the Cantabrian Mountains (q.v.), are strongly +marked; towards the south-east the surface merges imperceptibly into the +Castilian plateau, the line of demarcation being for the most part +merely conventional. Leon belongs partly to the river system of the Miño +(see SPAIN), partly to that of the Duero or Douro (q.v.), these being +separated by the Montañas de Leon, which extend in a continuous wall +(with passes at Manzanal and Poncebadon) from north to south-west. To +the north-west of the Montañas de Leon is the richly wooded pastoral and +highland district known as the Vierzo, which in its lower valleys +produces grain, fruit, and wine in abundance. The Tierra del Campo in +the west of the province is fairly productive, but in need of +irrigation. The whole province is sparsely peopled. Apart from +agriculture, stock-raising and mining, its commerce and industries are +unimportant. Cattle, mules, butter, leather, coal and iron are exported. +The hills of Leon were worked for gold in the time of the Romans; iron +is still obtained, and coal-mining developed considerably towards the +close of the 19th century. The only towns with more than 5000 +inhabitants in 1900 were Leon (15,580) and Astorga (5573) (q.v.). The +main railway from Madrid to Corunna passes through the province, and +there are branches from the city of Leon to Vierzo, Oviedo, and the +Biscayan port of Gijón. + +At the time of the Roman conquest, the province was inhabited by the +Vettones and Callaici; it afterwards formed part of Hispania +Tarraconensis. Among the Christian kingdoms which arose in Spain as the +Moorish invasion of the 8th century receded, Leon was one of the oldest. +The title of king of Leon was first assumed by Ordoño in 913. Ferdinand +I. (the Great) of Castile united the crowns of Castile and Leon in the +11th century; the two were again separated in the 12th, until a final +union took place (1230) in the person of St Ferdinand. The limits of the +kingdom varied with the vicissitudes of war, but roughly speaking it may +be said to have embraced what are now the provinces of Leon, Palencia, +Valladolid, Zamora and Salamanca. For a detailed account of this +kingdom, see SPAIN: _History_. The captaincy-general of the province of +Leon before 1833 included Leon, Zamora and Salamanca. The Leonese, or +inhabitants of these three provinces, have less individuality, in +character and physique, than the people of Galicia, Catalonia or +Andalusia, who are quite distinct from what is usually regarded as the +central or national Spanish type, i.e. the Castilian. The Leonese belong +partly to the Castilian section of the Spaniards, partly to the +north-western section which includes the Galicians and Asturians. They +have comparatively few of the Moorish traits which are so marked in the +south and east of Spain. Near Astorga there dwells a curious tribe, the +Maragatos, sometimes considered to be a remnant of the original +Celtiberian inhabitants. As a rule the Maragatos earn their living as +muleteers or carriers; they wear a distinctive costume, mix as little as +possible with their neighbours and do not marry outside their own tribe. + + + + +LEON, an episcopal see and the capital of the Spanish province of Leon, +situated on a hill 2631 ft. above sea-level, in the angle made by the +Torio and Bernesga, streams which unite on the south, and form the river +Leon, a tributary of the Esla. Pop. (1900) 15,580. Leon is on the main +railway from Madrid to Oviedo, and is connected with Astorga by a branch +line. The older quarters of the city, which contain the cathedral and +other medieval buildings, are surrounded by walls, and have lost little +of their beauty and interest from the restoration carried out in the +second half of the 19th century. During the same period new suburbs grew +up outside the walls to house the industrial population which was +attracted by the development of iron-founding and the manufacture of +machinery, railway-plant, chemicals and leather. Leon thus comprises two +towns--the old, which is mainly ecclesiastical in its character, and the +new, which is industrial. The cathedral, founded in 1199 and only +finished at the close of the 14th century, is built of a warm +cream-coloured stone, and is remarkable for simplicity, lightness and +strength. It is one of the finest examples of Spanish Gothic, smaller, +indeed, than the cathedrals of Burgos and Toledo, but exquisite in +design and workmanship. The chapter library contains some valuable +manuscripts. The collegiate church of San Isidoro was founded by +Ferdinand I. of Castile in 1063 and consecrated in 1149. Its +architecture is Romanesque. The church contains some fine plate, +including the silver reliquary in which the bones of St Isidore of +Seville are preserved, and a silver processional cross dating from the +16th century, which is one of the most beautiful in the country. The +convent and church of San Marcos, planned in 1514 by Ferdinand the +Catholic, founded by Charles V. in 1537, and consecrated in 1541, are +Renaissance in style. They are built on the site of a hostel used by +pilgrims on their way to Santiago de Compostela. The provincial museum +occupies the chapterhouse and contains some interesting Roman monuments. +The lower part of the city walls consists of Roman masonry dating from +the 3rd century. Other buildings are the high school, ecclesiastical +seminaries, hospital, episcopal palace and municipal and provincial +halls. + +Leon (Arab. _Liyun_) owes its name to the Legio Septima Gemina of Galba, +which, under the later emperors, had its headquarters here. About 540 +Leon fell into the hands of the Gothic king Leovigild, and in 717 it +capitulated to the Moors. Retaken about 742, it ultimately, in the +beginning of the 10th century, became the capital of the kingdom of Leon +(see SPAIN: _History_). About 996 it was taken by Almansur, but on his +death soon afterwards it reverted to the Spaniards. It was the seat of +several ecclesiastical councils, the first of which was held under +Alphonso V. in 1012 and the last in 1288. + + + + +LEONARDO DA VINCI (1452-1519), the great Italian painter, sculptor, +architect, musician, mechanician, engineer and natural philosopher, was +the son of a Florentine lawyer, born out of wedlock by a mother in a +humble station, variously described as a peasant and as of gentle birth. +The place of his birth was Vinci, a _castello_ or fortified hill village +in the Florentine territory near Empoli, from which his father's family +derived its name. The Christian name of the father was Piero (the son of +Antonio the son of Piero the son of Guido, all of whom had been men of +law like their descendant). Leonardo's mother was called Catarina. Her +relations with Ser Piero da Vinci seem to have come to an end almost +immediately upon the birth of their son. She was soon afterwards married +to one Accattabriga di Piero del Vacca, of Vinci. Ser Piero on his part +was four times married, and had by his last two wives nine sons and two +daughters; but he had from the first acknowledged the boy Leonardo and +brought him up in his own house, principally, no doubt, at Florence. In +that city Ser Piero followed his profession with success, as notary to +many of the chief families in the city, including the Medici, and +afterwards to the signory or governing council of the state. The son +born to him before marriage grew up into a youth of shining promise. To +splendid beauty and activity of person he joined a winning charm of +temper and manners, a tact for all societies, and an aptitude for all +accomplishments. An inexhaustible intellectual energy and curiosity lay +beneath this amiable surface. Among the multifarious pursuits to which +the young Leonardo set his hand, the favourites at first were music, +drawing and modelling. His father showed some of his drawings to an +acquaintance, Andrea del Verrocchio, who at once recognized the boy's +artistic vocation, and was selected by Ser Piero to be his master. + +Verrocchio, although hardly one of the great creative or inventive +forces in the art of his age at Florence, was a first-rate craftsman +alike as goldsmith, sculptor and painter, and particularly distinguished +as a teacher. In his studio Leonardo worked for several years (about +1470-1477) in the company of Lorenzo di Credi and other less celebrated +pupils. Among his contemporaries he formed special ties of friendship +with the painters Sandro Botticelli and Pietro Perugino. He had soon +learnt all that Verrocchio had to teach--more than all, if we are to +believe the oft-told tale of the figure, or figures, executed by the +pupil in the picture of Christ's Baptism designed by the master for the +monks of Vallombrosa. The work in question is now in the Academy at +Florence. According to Vasari the angel kneeling on the left, with a +drapery over the right arm, was put in by Leonardo, and when Verrocchio +saw it his sense of its superiority to his own work caused him to +forswear painting for ever after. The latter part of the story is +certainly false. The picture, originally painted in tempera, has +suffered much from later repaints in oil, rendering exact judgment +difficult. The most competent opinion inclines to acknowledge the hand +of Leonardo, not only in the face of the angel, but also in parts of the +drapery and of the landscape background. The work was probably done in +or about 1470, when Leonardo was eighteen years old. By 1472 we find him +enrolled in the lists of the painters' gild at Florence. Here he +continued to live and work for ten or eleven years longer. Up till 1477 +he is still spoken of as a pupil or apprentice of Verrocchio; but in +that year he seems to have been taken into special favour by Lorenzo the +Magnificent, and to have worked as an independent artist under his +patronage until 1482-1483. In 1478 we find him receiving an important +commission from the signory, and in 1480 another from the monks of San +Donato in Scopeto. + +Leonardo was not one of those artists of the Renaissance who sought the +means of reviving the ancient glories of art mainly in the imitation of +ancient models. The antiques of the Medici gardens seem to have had +little influence on him beyond that of generally stimulating his passion +for perfection. By his own instincts he was an exclusive student of +nature. From his earliest days he had flung himself upon that study +with an unprecedented ardour of delight and curiosity. In drawing from +life he had early found the way to unite precision with freedom and +fire--the subtlest accuracy of expressive definition with vital movement +and rhythm of line--as no draughtsman had been able to unite them +before. He was the first painter to recognize the play of light and +shade as among the most significant and attractive of the world's +appearances, the earlier schools having with one consent subordinated +light and shade to colour and outline. Nor was he a student of the +broad, usual, patent appearances only of the world; its fugitive, +fantastic, unaccustomed appearances attracted him most of all. Strange +shapes of hills and rocks, rare plants and animals, unusual faces and +figures of men, questionable smiles and expressions, whether beautiful +or grotesque, far-fetched objects and curiosities, were things he loved +to pore upon and keep in memory. Neither did he stop at mere appearances +of any kind, but, having stamped the image of things upon his brain, +went on indefatigably to probe their hidden laws and causes. He soon +satisfied himself that the artist who was content to reproduce the +external aspects of things without searching into the hidden workings of +nature behind them, was one but half equipped for his calling. Every +fresh artistic problem immediately became for him a far-reaching +scientific problem as well. The laws of light and shade, the laws of +"perspective," including optics and the physiology of the eye, the laws +of human and animal anatomy and muscular movement, those of the growth +and structure of plants and of the powers and properties of water, all +these and much more furnished food almost from the beginning to his +insatiable spirit of inquiry. + +The evidence of the young man's predilections and curiosities is +contained in the legends which tell of lost works produced by him in +youth. One of these was a cartoon or monochrome painting of Adam and Eve +in tempera, and in this, besides the beauty of the figures, the infinite +truth and elaboration of the foliage and animals in the background are +celebrated in terms which bring to mind the treatment of the subject by +Albrecht Dürer in his famous engraving done thirty years later. Again, a +peasant of Vinci having in his simplicity asked Ser Piero to get a +picture painted for him on a wooden shield, the father is said to have +laughingly handed on the commission to his son, who thereupon shut +himself up with all the noxious insects and grotesque reptiles he could +find, observed and drew and dissected them assiduously, and produced at +last a picture of a dragon compounded of their various shapes and +aspects, which was so fierce and so life-like as to terrify all who saw +it. With equal research and no less effect he painted on another +occasion the head of a snaky-haired Medusa. (A picture of this subject +which long did duty at the Uffizi for Leonardo's work is in all +likelihood merely the production of some later artist to whom the +descriptions of that work have given the cue.) Lastly, Leonardo is +related to have begun work in sculpture about this time by modelling +several heads of smiling women and children. + +Of certified and accepted paintings produced by the young genius, +whether during his apprentice or his independent years at Florence +(about 1470-1482), very few are extant, and the two most important are +incomplete. A small and charming strip of an oblong "Annunciation" at +the Louvre is generally accepted as his work, done soon after 1470; a +very highly wrought drawing at the Uffizi, corresponding on a larger +scale to the head of the Virgin in the same picture, seems rather to be +a copy by a later hand. This little Louvre "Annunciation" is not very +compatible in style with another and larger, much-debated "Annunciation" +at the Uffizi, which manifestly came from the workshop of Verrocchio +about 1473-1474, and which many critics claim confidently for the young +Leonardo. It may have been joint studio-work of Verrocchio and his +pupils including Leonardo, who certainly was concerned in it, since a +study for the sleeve of the angel, preserved at Christ Church, Oxford, +is unquestionably by his hand. The landscape, with its mysterious spiry +mountains and winding waters, is very Leonardesque both in this picture +and in another contemporary product of the workshop, or as some think +of Leonardo's hand, namely a very highly and coldly finished small +"Madonna with a Pink" at Munich. The likeness he is recorded to have +painted of Ginevra de' Benci used to be traditionally identified with +the fine portrait of a matron at the Pitti absurdly known as _La +Monaca_: more lately it has been recognized in a rather dull, +expressionless Verrocchiesque portrait of a young woman with a fanciful +background of pine-sprays in the Liechtenstein gallery at Vienna. +Neither attribution can be counted convincing. Several works of +sculpture, including a bas-relief at Pistoia and a small terra-cotta +model of a St John at the Victoria and Albert Museum, have also been +claimed, but without general consent, as the young master's handiwork. +Of many brilliant early drawings by him, the first that can be dated is +a study of landscape done in 1473. A magnificent silver-point head of a +Roman warrior at the British Museum was clearly done, from or for a +bas-relief, under the immediate influence of Verrocchio. A number of +studies of heads in pen or silver point, with some sketches for +Madonnas, including a charming series in the British Museum for a +"Madonna with the Cat," may belong to the same years or the first years +of his independence. A sheet with two studies of heads bears a MS. note +of 1478, saying that in one of the last months of that year he began +painting the "Two Maries." One of the two may have been a picture of the +Virgin appearing to St Bernard, which we know he was commissioned to +paint in that year for a chapel in the Palace of the Signory, but never +finished: the commission was afterwards transferred to Filippino Lippi, +whose performance is now in the Badia. One of the two heads on this +dated sheet may probably have been a study for the same St Bernard; it +was used afterwards by some follower for a St Leonard in a stiff and +vapid "Ascension of Christ," wrongly attributed to the master himself in +the Berlin Museum. A pen-drawing representing a ringleader of the Pazzi +conspiracy, Bernardo Baroncelli, hung out of a window of the Bargello +after his surrender by the sultan at Constantinople to the emissaries of +Florence, can be dated from its subject as done in December 1479. A +number of his best drawings of the next following years are preparatory +pen-studies for an altar-piece of the "Adoration of the Magi," +undertaken early in 1481 on the commission of the monks of S. Donato at +Scopeto. The preparation in monochrome for this picture, a work of +extraordinary power both of design and physiognomical expression, is +preserved at the Uffizi, but the painting itself was never carried out, +and after Leonardo's failure to fulfil his contract Filippino Lippi had +once more to be employed in his place. Of equal or even more intense +power, though of narrower scope, is an unfinished monochrome preparation +for a St Jerome, found accidentally at Rome by Cardinal Fesch and now in +the Vatican gallery; this also seems to belong to the first Florentine +period, but is not mentioned in documents. + +The tale of completed work for these twelve or fourteen years (1470-1483 +or thereabouts) is thus very scanty. But it must be remembered that +Leonardo was already full of projects in mechanics, hydraulics, +architecture, and military and civil engineering, ardently feeling his +way in the work of experimental study and observation in every branch of +theoretical or applied science in which any beginning had been made in +his age, as well as in some in which he was himself the first pioneer. +He was full of new ideas concerning both the laws and the applications +of mechanical forces. His architectural and engineering projects were of +a daring which amazed even the fellow-citizens of Alberti and +Brunelleschi. History presents few figures more attractive to the mind's +eye than that of Leonardo during this period of his all-capable and +dazzling youth. He did not indeed escape calumny, and was even denounced +on a charge of immoral practices, but fully and honourably acquitted. +There was nothing about him, as there was afterwards about Michelangelo, +dark-tempered, secret or morose; he was open and genial with all men. He +has indeed praised "the self-sufficing power of solitude" in almost the +same phrase as Wordsworth, and from time to time would even in youth +seclude himself for a season in complete intellectual absorption, as +when he toiled among his bats and wasps and lizards, forgetful of rest +and food, and insensible to the noisomeness of their corruption. But we +have to picture him as anon coming out and gathering about him a +tatterdemalion company, and jesting with them until they were in fits of +laughter, for the sake of observing their burlesque physiognomies; anon +as eagerly frequenting the society of men of science and learning of an +older generation like the mathematician Benedetto Aritmetico, the +physician, geographer and astronomer Paolo Toscanelli, the famous Greek +Aristotelian Giovanni Argiropoulo; or as out-rivalling all the youth of +the city now by charm of recitation, now by skill in music and now by +feats of strength and horsemanship; or as stopping to buy caged birds in +the market that he might set them free and watch them rejoicing in their +flight; or again as standing radiant in his rose-coloured cloak and his +rich gold hair among the throng of young and old on the piazza, and +holding them spellbound while he expatiated on the great projects in art +and mechanics that were teeming in his mind. Unluckily it is to written +records and to imagination that we have to trust exclusively for our +picture. No portrait of Leonardo as he appeared during this period of +his life has come down to us. + +But his far-reaching schemes and studies brought him no immediate gain, +and diverted him from the tasks by which he should have supported +himself. For all his shining power and promise he remained poor. +Probably also his exclusive belief in experimental methods, and slight +regard for mere authority whether in science or art made the +intellectual atmosphere of the Medicean circle, with its passionate +mixed cult of the classic past and of a Christianity mystically blended +and reconciled with Platonism, uncongenial to him. At any rate he was +ready to leave Florence when the chance was offered him of fixed service +at the court of Ludovico Sforza (il Moro) at Milan. Soon after that +prince had firmly established his power as nominal guardian and +protector of his nephew Gian Galeazzo but really as usurping ruler of +the state, he revived a project previously mooted for the erection of an +equestrian monument in honour of the founder of his house's greatness, +Francesco Sforza, and consulted Lorenzo dei Medici on the choice of an +artist. Lorenzo recommended the young Leonardo, who went to Milan +accordingly (at some uncertain date in or about 1483), taking as a gift +from Lorenzo and a token of his own skill a silver lute of wondrous +sweetness fashioned in the likeness of a horse's head. Hostilities were +at the moment imminent between Milan and Venice; it was doubtless on +that account that in the letter commending himself to the duke, and +setting forth his own capacities, Leonardo rests his title to patronage +chiefly on his attainments and inventions in military engineering. After +asserting these in detail under nine different heads, he speaks under a +tenth of his proficiency as a civil engineer and architect, and adds +lastly a brief paragraph with reference to what he can do in painting +and sculpture, undertaking in particular to carry out in a fitting +manner the monument to Francesco Sforza. + +The first definite documentary evidence of Leonardo's employments at +Milan dates from 1487. Some biographers have supposed that the interval, +or part of it, between 1483 and that date was occupied by travels in the +East. The grounds of the supposition are some drafts occurring among his +MSS. of a letter addressed to the _diodario_ or _diwâdar_ of Syria, +lieutenant of the sultan of Babylon (Babylon meaning according to a +usage of that time Cairo). In these drafts Leonardo describes in the +first person, with sketches, a traveller's strange experiences in Egypt, +Cyprus, Constantinople, the Cilician coasts about Mount Taurus and +Armenia. He relates the rise and persecution of a prophet and preacher, +the catastrophe of a falling mountain and submergence of a great city, +followed by a general inundation, and the claim of the prophet to have +foretold these disasters; adding physical descriptions of the Euphrates +river and the marvellous effects of sunset light on the Taurus range. No +contemporary gives the least hint of Leonardo's having travelled in the +East; to the places he mentions he gives their classical and not their +current Oriental names; the catastrophes he describes are unattested +from any other source; he confuses the Taurus and the Caucasus; some of +the phenomena he mentions are repeated from Aristotle and Ptolemy; and +there seems little reason to doubt that these passages in his MSS. are +merely his drafts of a projected geographical treatise or perhaps +romance. He had a passion for geography and travellers' tales, for +descriptions of natural wonders and ruined cities, and was himself a +practised fictitious narrator and fabulist, as other passages in his +MSS. prove. Neither is the gap in the account of his doings after he +first went to the court of Milan really so complete as has been +represented. Ludovico was vehemently denounced and attacked during the +earlier years of his usurpation, especially by the partisans of his +sister-in-law Bona of Savoy, the mother of the rightful duke, young Gian +Galeazzo. To repel these attacks he employed the talents of a number of +court poets and artists, who in public recitation and pageant, in +emblematic picture and banner and device, proclaimed the wisdom and +kindness of his guardianship and the wickedness of his assailants. That +Leonardo was among the artists thus employed is proved both by notes and +projects among his MSS. and by allegoric sketches still extant. Several +such sketches are at Christ Church, Oxford: one shows a horned hag or +she-fiend urging her hounds to an attack on the state of Milan, and +baffled by the Prudence and Justice of Il Moro (all this made clear by +easily recognizable emblems). The allusion must almost certainly be to +the attempted assassination of Ludovico by agents of the duchess Bona in +1484. Again, it must have been the pestilence decimating Milan in +1484-1485 which gave occasion to the projects submitted by Leonardo to +Ludovico for breaking up the city and reconstructing it on improved +sanitary principles. To 1485-1486 also appears to belong the inception +of his elaborate though unfulfilled architectural plans for beautifying +and strengthening the _Castello_, the great stronghold of the ruling +power in the state. Very soon afterwards he must have begun work upon +his plans and models, undertaken during an acute phase of the +competition which the task had called forth between German and Italian +architects, for another momentous enterprise, the completion of Milan +cathedral. Extant records of payments made to him in connexion with +these architectural plans extend from August 1487 to May 1490: in the +upshot none of them was carried out. From the beginning of his residence +with Ludovico his combination of unprecedented mechanical ingenuity with +apt allegoric invention and courtly charm and eloquence had made him the +directing spirit in all court ceremonies and festivities. On the +occasion of the marriage of the young duke Gian Galeazzo with Isabella +of Aragon in 1487, we find Leonardo devising all the mechanical and +spectacular part of a masque of Paradise; and presently afterwards +designing a bathing pavilion of unheard-of beauty and ingenuity for the +young duchess. Meanwhile he was filling his note-books as busily as ever +with the results of his studies in statics and dynamics, in human +anatomy, geometry and the phenomena of light and shade. It is probable +that from the first he had not forgotten his great task of the Sforza +monument, with its attendant researches in equine movement and anatomy, +and in the science and art of bronze casting on a great scale. The many +existing sketches for the work (of which the chief collection is at +Windsor) cannot be distinctly dated. In 1490, the seventh year of his +residence at Milan, after some expressions of impatience on the part of +his patron, he had all but got his model ready for display on the +occasion of the marriage of Ludovico with Beatrice d'Este, but at the +last moment was dissatisfied with what he had done and determined to +begin all over again. + +In the same year, 1490, Leonardo enjoyed some months of uninterrupted +mathematical and physical research in the libraries and among the +learned men of Pavia, whither he had been called to advise on some +architectural difficulties concerning the cathedral. Here also the study +of an ancient equestrian monument (the so-called _Regisole_, destroyed +in 1796) gave him fresh ideas for his Francesco Sforza. In January 1491 +a double Sforza-Este marriage (Ludovico Sforza himself with Beatrice +d'Este, Alfonso d'Este with Anna Sforza the sister of Gian Galeazzo) +again called forth his powers as a masque and pageant-master. For the +next following years the ever-increasing gaiety and splendour of the +Milanese court gave him continual employment in similar kinds, including +the composition and recitation of jests, tales, fables and "prophecies" +(i.e. moral and social satires and allegories cast in the future tense); +among his MSS. occur the drafts of many such, some of them both profound +and pungent. Meanwhile he was again at work upon the monument to +Francesco Sforza, and this time to practical purpose. When ambassadors +from Austria came to Milan towards the close of 1493 to escort the +betrothed bride of their emperor Maximilian, Bianca Maria Sforza, away +on her nuptial journey, the finished colossal model, 26 ft. high, was at +last in its place for all to see in the courtyard of the Castello. +Contemporary accounts attest the magnificence of the work and the +enthusiasm it excited, but are not precise enough to enable us to judge +to which of the two main groups of extant sketches its design +corresponded. One of these groups shows the horse and rider in +relatively tranquil march, in the manner of the Gattemalata monument put +up fifty years before by Donatello at Padua and the Colleoni monument on +which Verocchio was now engaged at Venice. Another group of sketches +shows the horse galloping or rearing in violent action, in some +instances in the act of trampling a fallen enemy. Neither is it possible +to discriminate with certainty the sketches intended for the Sforza +monument from others which Leonardo may have done in view of another and +later commission for an equestrian statue, namely, that in honour of +Ludovico's great enemy, Gian Giacomo Trivulzio. + +The year 1494 is a momentous one in the history of Italian politics. In +that year the long ousted and secluded prince, Gian Galeazzo, died under +circumstances more than suspicious. In that year Ludovico, now duke of +Milan in his own right, for the strengthening of his power against +Naples, first entered into those intrigues with Charles VIII. of France +which later brought upon Italy successive floods of invasion, revolution +and calamity. The same year was one of special importance in the +prodigiously versatile activities of Leonardo da Vinci. Documents show +him, among other things, planning during an absence of several months +from the city vast new engineering works for improving the irrigation +and water-ways of the Lomellina and adjacent regions of the Lombard +plain; ardently studying phenomena of storm and lightning, of river +action and of mountain structure; co-operating with his friend, Donato +Bramante, the great architect, in fresh designs for the improvement and +embellishment of the Castello at Milan; and petitioning the duke to +secure him proper payment for a Madonna lately executed with the help of +his pupil, Ambrogio de Predis, for the brotherhood of the Conception of +St Francis at Milan. (This is almost certainly the fine, slightly +altered second version of the "Virgin of the Rocks," now in the National +Gallery, London. The original and earlier version is one of the glories +of the Louvre, and shows far more of a Florentine and less of a Milanese +character than the London picture.) In the same year, 1494, or early in +the next, Leonardo, if Vasari is to be trusted, paid a visit to Florence +to take part in deliberations concerning the projected new council-hall +to be constructed in the palace of the Signory. Lastly, recent research +has proved that it was in 1494 that Leonardo got to work in earnest on +what was to prove not only by far his greatest but by far his most +expeditiously and steadily executed work in painting. This was the "Last +Supper" undertaken for the refectory of the convent church of Sta Maria +delle Grazie at Milan on the joint commission (as it would appear) of +Ludovico and of the monks themselves. + +This picture, the world-famous "Cenacolo" of Leonardo, has been the +subject of much erroneous legend and much misdirected experiment. Having +through centuries undergone cruel injury, from technical imperfections +at the outset, from disastrous atmospheric conditions, from vandalism +and neglect, and most of all from unskilled repair, its remains have at +last (1904-1908) been treated with a mastery of scientific resource and +a tenderness of conscientious skill that have revived for ourselves and +for posterity a great part of its power. At the same time its true +history has been investigated and re-established. The intensity of +intellectual and manual application which Leonardo threw into the work +is proved by the fact that he finished it within four years, in spite of +all his other avocations and of those prolonged pauses of concentrated +imaginative effort and intense self-critical brooding to which we have +direct contemporary witness. He painted the picture on the wall in +tempera, not, according to the legend which sprung up within twenty +years of its completion, in oil. The tempera vehicle, perhaps including +new experimental ingredients, did not long hold firmly to its plaster +ground, nor that to the wall. Flaking and scaling set in; hard crusts of +mildew formed, dissolved and re-formed with changes of weather over both +the loosened parts and those that remained firm. Decade after decade +these processes went on, a rain of minute scales and grains falling, +according to one witness, continually from the surface, till the picture +seemed to be perishing altogether. In the 18th century attempts were +first made at restoration. They all proceeded on the false assumption, +dating from the early years of the 16th century, that the work had been +executed in oil. With oil it was accordingly at one time saturated in +hopes of reviving the colours. Other experimenters tried various +"secrets," which for the most part meant deleterious glues and +varnishes. Fortunately not very much of actual repainting was +accomplished except on some parts of the garments. The chief operations +were carried on by Bellotti in 1726, by Mazza in 1770, and by Barezzi in +1819 and the following years. None of them arrested, some actually +accelerated, the natural agencies of damp and disintegration, decay and +mildew. Yet this mere ghost of a picture, this evocation, half vanished +as it was, by a great world-genius of a mighty spiritual world-event, +remained a thing indescribably impressive. The ghost has now been +brought back to much of true life again by the skill of the most +scrupulous of all restorers, Cavaliere Cavenaghi, who, acting under the +authority of a competent commission, and after long and patient +experiment, found it possible to secure to the wall the innumerable +blistered, mildewed and half-detached flakes and scales of the original +work that yet remained, to clear the surface thus obtained of much of +the obliterating accretions due to decay and mishandling, and to bring +the whole to unity by touching tenderly in with tempera the spots and +spaces actually left bare. A further gain obtained through these +operations has been the uncovering, immediately above the main subject, +of a beautiful scheme of painted lunettes and vaultings, the lunettes +filled by Leonardo's hand with inscribed scutcheons and interlaced plait +or knot ornaments (_intrecciamenti_), the vaultings with stars on a blue +ground. The total result, if adequate steps can be taken to counteract +the effects of atmospheric change in future, will remain a splendid gain +for posterity and a happy refutation of D'Annunzio's despairing poem, +the _Death of a Masterpiece_. + +Leonardo's "Last Supper," for all its injuries, became from the first, +and has ever since remained, for all Christendom the typical +representation of the scene. Goethe in his famous criticism has said all +that needs to be said of it. The painter has departed from precedent in +grouping the disciples, with their Master in the midst, along the far +side and the two ends of a long, narrow table, and in leaving the near +or service side of the table towards the spectator free. The chamber is +seen in a perfectly symmetrical perspective, its rear wall pierced by +three plain openings which admit the sense of quiet distance and mystery +from the open landscape beyond; by the central of these openings, which +is the widest of the three, the head and shoulders of the Saviour are +framed in. On His right and left are ranged the disciples in equal +numbers. The furniture and accessories of the chamber, very simply +conceived, have been rendered with scrupulous exactness and +distinctness; yet they leave to the human and dramatic elements the +absolute mastery of the scene. The serenity of the holy company has +within a moment been broken by the words of their Master, "One of you +shall betray Me." In the agitation of their consciences and affections, +the disciples have started into groups or clusters along the table, +some standing, some still remaining seated. There are four of these +groups, of three disciples each, and each group is harmoniously +interlinked by some natural connecting action with the next. Leonardo, +though no special student of the Greeks, has perfectly carried out the +Greek principle of expressive variety in particulars subordinated to +general symmetry. He has used all his acquired science of linear and +aerial perspective to create an almost complete illusion to the eye, but +an illusion that has in it nothing trivial, and in heightening our sense +of the material reality of the scene only heightens its profound +spiritual impressiveness and gravity. The results of his intensest +meditations on the psychology and the human and divine significance of +the event (on which he has left some pregnant hints in written words of +his own) are perfectly fused with those of his subtlest technical +calculations on the rhythmical balancing of groups and arrangement of +figures in space. + +Of authentic preparatory studies for this work there remain but few. +There is a sheet at the Louvre of much earlier date than the first idea +or commission for this particular picture, containing some nude sketches +for the arrangement of the subject; another later and farther advanced, +but still probably anterior to the practical commission, at Venice, and +a MS. sheet of great interest at the Victoria and Albert Museum, on +which the painter has noted in writing the dramatic motives appropriate +to the several disciples. At Windsor and Milan are a few finished +studies in red chalk for the heads. A highly-reputed series of +life-sized chalk drawings of the same heads, of which the greater +portion is at Weimar, consists of early copies, and is interesting +though having no just claim to originality. Scarcely less doubtful is +the celebrated unfinished and injured study of the head of Christ at the +Brera, Milan. + +Leonardo's triumph with his "Last Supper" encouraged him in the hope of +proceeding now to the casting of the Sforza monument or "Great Horse," +the model of which had stood for the last three years the admiration of +all beholders, in the Corte Vecchio of the Castello. He had formed a new +and close friendship with Luca Pacioli of Borgo San Sepolcro, the great +mathematician, whose _Summa de aritmetica_, _geometrica_, &c., he had +eagerly bought at Pavia on its first appearance, and who arrived at the +Court of Milan about the moment of the completion of the "Cenacolo." +Pacioli was equally amazed and delighted at Leonardo's two great +achievements in sculpture and painting, and still more at the genius for +mathematical, physical and anatomical research shown in the collections +of MS. notes which the master laid before him. The two began working +together on the materials for Pacioli's next book, _De divina +proportione_. Leonardo obtained Pacioli's help in calculations and +measurements for the great task of casting the bronze horse and man. But +he was soon called away by Ludovico to a different undertaking, the +completion of the interior decorations, already begun by another hand +and interrupted, of certain chambers of the Castello called the _Saletta +Negra_ and the _Sala Grande dell' Asse_, or _Sala della Torre_. When, in +the last decade of the 19th century, works of thorough architectural +investigation and repair were undertaken in that building under the +superintendence of Professor Luca Beltrami, a devoted foreign student, +Dr Paul Müller-Walde, obtained leave to scrape for traces of Leonardo's +handiwork beneath the replastered and white-washed walls and ceilings of +chambers that might be identified with these. In one small chamber there +was cleared a frieze of cupids intermingled with foliage; but in this, +after the first moments of illusion, it was only possible to acknowledge +the hand of some unknown late and lax decorator of the school, +influenced as much by Raphael as by Leonardo. In another room (_Sala del +Tesoro_) was recovered a gigantic headless figure, in all probability of +Mercury, also wrongly claimed at first for Leonardo, and afterwards, to +all appearance rightly, for Bramante. But in the great _Sala dell' Asse_ +(or _della Torre_) abundant traces of Leonardo's own hand were found, in +the shape of a decoration of intricate geometrical knot or plait work +combined with natural leafage; the abstract puzzle-pattern, of a kind +in which Leonardo took peculiar pleasure, intermingling in cunning play +and contrast with a pattern of living boughs and leaves exquisitely +drawn in free and vital growth. Sufficient portions of this design were +found in good preservation to enable the whole to be accurately +restored--a process as legitimate in such a case as censurable in the +case of a figure-painting. For these and other artistic labours Leonardo +was rewarded in 1498 (ready money being with difficulty forthcoming and +his salary being long in arrears) by the gift of a suburban garden +outside the Porta Vercelli. + +But again he could not get leave to complete the task in hand. He was +called away on duty as chief military engineer (_ingegnere camerale_) +with the special charge of inspecting and maintaining all the canals and +waterways of the duchy. Dangers were accumulating upon Ludovico and the +state of Milan. France had become Ludovico's enemy; and Louis XII., the +pope and Venice had formed a league to divide his principality among +them. He counted on baffling them by forming a counter league of the +principalities of northern Italy, and by raising the Turks against +Venice, and the Germans and Swiss against France. Germans and Swiss, +however, inopportunely fell to war against each other. Ludovico +travelled to Innsbruck, the better to push his interests (September +1499). In his absence Louis XII. invaded the Milanese, and the officers +left in charge of the city surrendered it without striking a blow. The +invading sovereign, going to Sta Maria delle Grazie with his retinue to +admire the renowned painting of the "Last Supper," asked if it could not +be detached from the wall and transported to France. The French +lieutenant in Milan, Gian Giacomo Trivulzio, the embittered enemy of +Ludovico, began exercising a vindictive tyranny over the city which had +so long accepted the sway of the usurper. Great artists were usually +exempt from the consequences of political revolutions, and Trivulzio, +now or later, commissioned Leonardo to design an equestrian monument to +himself. Leonardo, having remained unmolested at Milan for two months +under the new régime, but knowing that Ludovico was preparing a great +stroke for the re-establishment of his power, and that fresh convulsions +must ensue, thought it best to provide for his own security. In December +he left Milan with his friend Luca Pacioli, having first sent some of +his modest savings to Florence for investment. His intention was to +watch events. They took a turn which made him a stranger to Milan for +the next seven years. Ludovico, at the head of an army of Swiss +mercenaries, returned victoriously in February 1500, and was welcomed by +a population disgusted with the oppression of the invaders. But in April +he was once more overthrown by the French in a battle fought at Novara, +his Swiss clamouring at the last moment for their overdue pay, and +treacherously refusing to fight against a force of their own countrymen +led by La Trémouille. Ludovico was taken prisoner and carried to France; +the city, which had been strictly spared on the first entry of Louis +XII., was entered and sacked; and the model of Leonardo's great statue +made a butt (as eye witnesses tell) for Gascon archers. Two years later +we find the duke Ercole of Ferrara begging the French king's lieutenant +in Milan to let him have the model, injured as it was, for the adornment +of his own city; but nothing came of the petition, and within a short +time it seems to have been totally broken up. + +Thus, of Leonardo's sixteen years' work at Milan (1483-1499) the results +actually remaining are as follows: The Louvre "Virgin of the Rocks" +possibly, i.e. as to its execution; the conception and style are +essentially Florentine, carried out by Leonardo to a point of intense +and almost glittering finish, of quintessential, almost overstrained, +refinement in design and expression, and invested with a new element of +romance by the landscape in which the scene is set--a strange watered +country of basaltic caves and arches, with the lights and shadows +striking sharply and yet mysteriously among rocks, some upright, some +jutting, some pendent, all tufted here and there with exquisite growths +of shrub and flower. The National Gallery "Virgin of the Rocks" +certainly, with help from Ambrogio de Predis; in this the Florentine +character of the original is modified by an admixture of Milanese +elements, the tendency to harshness and over-elaboration of detail +softened, the strained action of the angel's pointing hand altogether +dropped, while in many places pupils' work seems recognizable beside +that of the master. The "Last Supper" of Sta Maria delle Grazie, his +masterpiece; as to its history and present condition enough has been +said. The decorations of the ceiling of the Sala della Torre in the +Castello. Other paintings done by him at Milan are mentioned, and +attempts have been made to identify them with works still existing. He +is known to have painted portraits of two of the king's mistresses, +Cecilia Gallerani and Lucrezia Crivelli. Cecilia Gallerani used to be +identified as a lady with ringlets and a lute, depicted in a portrait at +Milan, now rightly assigned to Bartolommeo Veneto. More lately she has +by some been conjecturally recognized in a doubtful, though +Leonardesque, portrait of a lady with a weasel in the Czartoryski +collection at Prague. Lucrezia Crivelli has, with no better reason, been +identified with the famous "Belle Ferronnière" (a mere misnomer, caught +from the true name of another portrait which used to hang near it) at +the Louvre; this last is either a genuine Milanese portrait by Leonardo +himself or an extraordinarily fine work of his pupil Boltraffio. Strong +claims have also been made on behalf of a fine profile portrait +resembling Beatrice d'Este in the Ambrosiana; but this the best judges +are agreed in regarding as a work, done in a lucky hour, of Ambrogio de +Predis. A portrait of a musician in the same gallery is in like manner +contested between the master and the pupil. Mention is made of a +"Nativity" painted for and sent to the emperor Maximilian, and also +apparently of some picture painted for Matthias Corvinus, king of +Hungary; both are lost or at least unidentified. The painters especially +recorded as Leonardo's immediate pupils during this part of his life at +Milan are the two before mentioned, Giovanni Antonio Boltraffio and +Ambrogio Preda or de Predis, with Marco d'Oggionno and Andrea Salai, the +last apparently less a fully-trained painter than a studio assistant and +personal attendant, devotedly attached and faithful in both capacities. +Leonardo's own native Florentine manner had at first been not a little +modified by that of the Milanese school as he found it represented in +the works of such men as Bramantino, Borgognone and Zenale; but his +genius had in its turn reacted far more strongly upon the younger +members of the school, and exercised, now or later, a transforming and +dominating influence not only upon his immediate pupils, but upon men +like Luini, Giampetrino, Bazzi, Cesare da Sesto and indeed the whole +Lombard school in the early 15th century. Of sculpture done by him +during this period we have no remains, only the tragically tantalizing +history of the Sforza monument. Of drawings there are very many, +including few only for the "Last Supper," many for the Sforza monument, +as well as the multitude of sketches, scientific and other, which we +find intermingled among the vast body of his miscellaneous MSS., notes +and records. In mechanical, scientific and theoretical studies of all +kinds it was a period, as these MSS. attest, of extraordinary activity +and self-development. At Pavia in 1494 we find him taking up literary +and grammatical studies, both in Latin and the vernacular; the former, +no doubt, in order the more easily to read those among the ancients who +had laboured in the fields that were his own, as Euclid, Galen, Celsus, +Ptolemy, Pliny, Vitruvius and, above all, Archimedes; the latter with a +growing hope of some day getting into proper form and order the mass of +materials he was daily accumulating for treatises on all his manifold +subjects of enquiry. He had been much helped by his opportunities of +intercourse with the great architects, engineers and mathematicians who +frequented the court of Milan--Bramante, Alberghetti, Andrea di Ferrara, +Pietro Monti, Fazio Cardano and, above all, Luca Pacioli. The knowledge +of Leonardo's position among and familiarity with such men early helped +to spread the idea that he had been at the head of a regularly +constituted academy of arts and sciences at Milan. The occurrence of the +words "Achademia Leonardi Vinci" on certain engravings, done after his +drawings, of geometric "knots" or puzzle-patterns (things for which we +have already learned his partiality), helped to give currency to this +impression not only in Italy but in the North, where the same +engravings were copied by Albrecht Dürer. The whole notion has been +proved mistaken. There existed no such academy at Milan, with Leonardo +as president. The academies of the day represented the prevailing +intellectual tendency of Renaissance humanism, namely, an absorbing +enthusiasm for classic letters and for the transcendental speculations +of Platonic and neo-Platonic mysticism, not unmixed with the traditions +and practice of medieval alchemy, astrology and necromantics. For these +last pursuits Leonardo had nothing but contempt. His many-sided and +far-reaching studies in experimental science were mainly his own, +conceived and carried out long in advance of his time, and in communion +with only such more or less isolated spirits as were advancing along one +or another of the same paths of knowledge. He learnt indeed on these +lines eagerly wherever he could, and in learning imparted knowledge to +others. But he had no school in any proper sense except his studio, and +his only scholars were those who painted there. Of these one or two, as +we have evidence, tried their hands at engraving; among their engravings +were these "knots," which, being things of use for decorative craftsmen +to copy, were inscribed for identification, and perhaps for protection, +as coming from the Achademia Leonardi Vinci; a trifling matter +altogether, and quite unfit to sustain the elaborate structure of +conjecture which has been built on it. + +To return to the master: when he and Luca Pacioli left Milan in December +1499, their destination was Venice. They made a brief stay at Mantua, +where Leonardo was graciously received by the duchess Isabella Gonzaga, +the most cultured of the many cultured great ladies of her time, whose +portrait he promised to paint on a future day; meantime he made the fine +chalk drawing of her now at the Louvre. Arrived at Venice, he seems to +have occupied himself chiefly with studies in mathematics and +cosmography. In April the friends heard of the second and final +overthrow of Ludovico il Moro, and at that news, giving up all idea of a +return to Milan, moved on to Florence, which they found depressed both +by internal troubles and by the protraction of the indecisive and +inglorious war with Pisa. Here Leonardo undertook to paint an +altar-piece for the Church of the Annunziata, Filippino Lippi, who had +already received the commission, courteously retiring from it in his +favour. A year passed by, and no progress had been made with the +painting. Questions of physical geography and engineering engrossed him +as much as ever. He writes to correspondents making enquiries about the +tides in the Euxine and Caspian Seas. He reports for the information of +the _Arte de' Mercanti_ on the precautions to be taken against a +threatening landslip on the hill of S. Salvatore dell' Osservanza. He +submits drawings and models for the canalization and control of the +waters of the Arno, and propounds, with compulsive eloquence and +conviction, a scheme for transporting the Baptistery of St John, the +"bel San Giovanni" of Dante, to another part of the city, and elevating +it on a stately basement of marble. Meantime the Servite brothers of the +Annunziata were growing impatient for the completion of their +altar-piece. In April 1501 Leonardo had only finished the cartoon, and +this all Florence flocked to see and admire. Isabella Gonzaga, who +cherished the hope that he might be induced permanently to attach +himself to the court of Mantua, wrote about this time to ask news of +him, and to beg for a painting from him for her study, already adorned +with masterpieces by the first hands of Italy, or at least for a "small +Madonna, devout and sweet as is natural to him." In reply her +correspondent says that the master is wholly taken up with geometry and +very impatient of the brush, but at the same time tells her all about +his just completed cartoon for the Annunziata. The subject was the +Virgin seated in the lap of St Anne, bending forward to hold her child +who had half escaped from her embrace to play with a lamb upon the +ground. The description answers exactly to the composition of the +celebrated picture of the Virgin and St Anne at the Louvre. A cartoon of +this composition in the Esterhazy collection at Vienna is held to be +only a copy, and the original cartoon must be regarded as lost. But +another of kindred though not identical motive has come down to us and +is preserved in the Diploma Gallery at the Royal Academy. In this +incomparable work St Anne, pointing upward with her left hand, smiles +with an intense look of wondering, questioning, inward sweetness into +the face of the Virgin, who in her turn smiles down upon her child as He +leans from her lap to give the blessing to the little St John standing +beside her. Evidently two different though nearly related designs had +been maturing in Leonardo's mind. A rough first sketch for the motive of +the Academy cartoon is in the British Museum; one for the motive of the +lost cartoon and of the Louvre picture is at Venice. No painting by +Leonardo from the Academy cartoon exists, but in the Ambrosiana at Milan +there is one by Luini, with the figure of St Joseph added. It remains a +matter of debate whether the Academy cartoon or that shown by Leonardo +at the Annunziata in 1501 was the earlier. The probabilities seem in +favour of the Academy cartoon. This, whether done at Milan or at +Florence, is in any case a typically perfect and harmonious example of +the master's Milanese manner; while in the other composition with the +lamb the action and attitude of the Virgin are somewhat strained, and +the original relation between her head and her mother's, lovely both in +design and expression, is lost. + +In spite of the universal praise of his cartoon, Leonardo did not +persevere with the picture, and the monks of the Annunziata had to give +back the commission to Filippino Lippi, at whose death the task was +completed by Perugino. It remains uncertain whether a small Madonna with +distaff and spindle, which the correspondent of Isabella Gonzaga reports +Leonardo as having begun for one Robertet, a favourite of the king of +France, was ever finished. He painted one portrait, it is said, at this +time, that of Ginevra Benci, a kinswoman, perhaps sister, of a youth +Giovanni di Amerigo Benci, who shared his passion for cosmographical +studies; and probably began another, the famous "La Gioconda," which was +only finished four years afterwards. The gonfalionere Soderini offered +him in vain, to do with it what he would, the huge half-spoiled block of +marble out of which Michelangelo three years later wrought his "David." +Isabella Gonzaga again begged, in an autograph letter, that she might +have a painting by his hand, but her request was put off; he did her, +however, one small service by examining and reporting on some jewelled +vases, formerly the property of Lorenzo de' Medici, which had been +offered her. The importunate expectations of a masterpiece or +masterpieces in painting or sculpture, which beset him on all hands in +Florence, inclined him to take service again with some princely patron, +if possible of a genius commensurate with his own, who would give him +scope to carry out engineering schemes on a vast scale. Accordingly he +suddenly took service, in the spring of 1502, with Cesare Borgia, duke +of Valentinois, then almost within sight of the realization of his huge +ambitions, and meanwhile occupied in consolidating his recent conquests +in the Romagna. Between May 1502 and March 1503 Leonardo travelled as +chief engineer to Duke Caesar over a great part of central Italy. +Starting with a visit to Piombino, on the coast opposite Elba, he went +by way of Siena to Urbino, where he made drawings and began works; was +thence hastily summoned by way of Pesaro and Rimini to Cesena; spent two +months between there and Cesenatico, projecting and directing canal and +harbour works, and planning the restoration of the palace of Frederic +II.; thence hurriedly joined his master, momentarily besieged by enemies +at Imola; followed him probably to Sinigaglia and Perugia, through the +whirl of storms and surprises, vengeances and treasons, which marked his +course that winter, and finally, by way of Chiusi and Acquapendente, as +far as Orvieto and probably to Rome, where Caesar arrived on the 14th of +February 1503. The pope's death and Caesar's own downfall were not +destined to be long delayed. But Leonardo apparently had already had +enough of that service, and was back at Florence in March. He has left +dated notes and drawings made at most of the stations we have named, +besides a set of six large-scale maps drawn minutely with his own hand, +and including nearly the whole territory of the Maremma, Tuscany and +Umbria between the Apennines and the Tyrrhene Sea. + +At Florence he was at last persuaded, on the initiative of Piero +Soderini, to undertake for his native city a work of painting as great +as that with which he had adorned Milan. This was a battle-piece to +decorate one of the walls of the new council-hall in the palace of the +signory. He chose an episode in the victory won by the generals of the +republic in 1440 over Niccolo Piccinino near a bridge at Anghiari, in +the upper valley of the Tiber. To the young Michelangelo was presently +entrusted a rival battle-piece to be painted on another wall of the same +apartment; he chose, as is well known, a surprise of the Florentine +forces in the act of bathing near Pisa. About the same time Leonardo +took part in the debate on the proper site for Michelangelo's newly +finished colossal "David," and voted in favour of the Loggia dei Lanzi, +against a majority which included Michelangelo himself. Neither +Leonardo's genius nor his noble manners could soften the rude and +taunting temper of the younger man, whose style as an artist, +nevertheless, in subjects both of tenderness and terror, underwent at +this time a profound modification from Leonardo's example. + +In one of the sections of his projected _Treatise on Painting_, Leonardo +has detailed at length, and obviously from his own observation, the +pictorial aspects of a battle. His choice of subject in this instance +was certainly not made from any love of warfare or indifference to its +horrors. In his MSS. there occur almost as many trenchant sayings on +life and human affairs as on art and natural law; and of war he has +disposed in two words as a "bestial frenzy" (_pazzia bestialissima_). In +his design for the Hall of Council he set himself to depict this frenzy +at its fiercest. He chose the moment of a terrific struggle for the +colours between the opposing sides; hence the work became commonly known +as the "Battle of the Standard." Judging by the accounts of those who +saw it, and the fragmentary evidences which remain, the tumultuous +medley of men and horses, and the expressions of martial fury and +despair, must have been conceived and rendered with a mastery not less +commanding than had been the looks and gestures of bodeful sorrow and +soul's perplexity among the quiet company on the convent wall at Milan. +The place assigned to Leonardo for the preparation of his cartoon was +the Sala del Papa at Santa Maria Novella. He for once worked steadily +and unremittingly at his task. His accounts with the signory enable us +to follow its progress step by step. He had finished the cartoon in less +than two years (1504-1505), and when it was exhibited along with that of +Michelangelo, the two rival works seemed to all men a new revelation of +the powers of art, and served as a model and example of the students of +that generation, as the frescoes of Masaccio in the Carmine had served +to those of two generations earlier. The young Raphael, whose +incomparable instinct for rhythmical design had been trained hitherto on +subjects of holy quietude and rapt contemplation according to the +traditions of Umbrian art, learnt from Leonardo's example to apply the +same instinct to themes of violent action and strife. From the same +example Fra Bartolommeo and a crowd of other Florentine painters of the +rising or risen generation took in like manner a new impulse. The master +lost no time in proceeding to the execution of his design upon the mural +surface; this time he had devised a technical method of which, after a +preliminary trial in the Sala del Papa, he regarded the success as +certain; the colours, whether tempera or other remains in doubt, were to +be laid on a specially prepared ground, and then both colours and ground +made secure upon the wall by the application of heat. When the central +group was done the heat was applied, but it was found to take effect +unequally; the colours in the upper part ran or scaled from the wall, +and the result was a failure more or less complete. The unfinished and +decayed painting remained for some fifty years on the wall, but after +1560 was covered over with new frescoes by Vasari. The cartoon did not +last so long. After doing its work as the most inspiring of all examples +for students it seems to have been cut up. When Leonardo left Italy for +good in 1516 he is recorded to have left "the greater part of it" in +deposit at the hospital of S. Maria Nuova, where he was accustomed also +to deposit his moneys, and whence it seems before long to have +disappeared. Our only existing memorials of the great work are a number +of small pen-studies of fighting men and horses, three splendid studies +in red chalk at Budapest for heads in the principal group, one head at +Oxford copied by a contemporary of the size of the original cartoon +(above life); a tiny sketch, also at Oxford, by Raphael after the +principal group; an engraving done by Zacchia of Lucca in 1558 not after +the original but after a copy; a 16th-century Flemish drawing of the +principal group, and another, splendidly spirited, by Rubens, both +copies of copies; with Edelinck's fine engraving after the Rubens +drawing. + +During these years, 1503-1506, Leonardo also resumed (if it is true that +he had already begun it before his travels with Cesare Borgia) the +portrait of Madonna Lisa, the Neapolitan wife of Zanobi del Giocondo, +and finished it to the last pitch of his powers. In this lady he had +found a sitter whose face and smile possessed in a singular degree the +haunting, enigmatic charm in which he delighted. He worked, it is said, +at her portrait during some portion of four successive years, causing +music to be played during the sittings that the rapt expression might +not fade from off her countenance. The picture was bought afterwards by +Francis I. for four thousand gold florins, and is now one of the glories +of the Louvre. The richness of colouring on which Vasari expatiates has +indeed flown, partly from injury, partly because in striving for effects +of light and shade the painter was accustomed to model his figures on a +dark ground, and in this as in his other oil-pictures the ground has to +a large extent come through. Nevertheless, in its dimmed and blackened +state, the portrait casts an irresistible spell alike by subtlety of +expression, by refinement and precision of drawing, and by the romantic +invention of its background. It has been the theme of endless critical +rhapsodies, among which that of Pater is perhaps the most imaginative as +it is the best known. + +In the spring of 1506 Leonardo, moved perhaps by chagrin at the failure +of his work in the Hall of Council, accepted a pressing invitation to +Milan, from Charles d'Amboise, Maréchal de Chaumont, the lieutenant of +the French king in Lombardy. The leave of absence granted to him by the +signory on the request of the French viceroy was for three months only. +The period was several times extended, at first grudgingly, Soderini +complaining that Leonardo had treated the republic ill in the matter of +the battle picture; whereupon the painter honourably offered to refund +the money paid, an offer which the signory as honourably refused. Louis +XII. sent messages urgently desiring that Leonardo should await his own +arrival in Milan, having seen a small Madonna by him in France (probably +that painted for Robertet) and hoping to obtain from him works of the +same class and perhaps a portrait. The king arrived in May 1507, and +soon afterwards Leonardo's services were formally and amicably +transferred from the signory of Florence to Louis, who gave him the +title of painter and engineer in ordinary. In September of the same year +troublesome private affairs called him to Florence. His father had died +in 1504, apparently intestate. After his death Leonardo experienced +unkindness from his seven half-brothers, Ser Piero's legitimate sons. +They were all much younger than himself. One of them, who followed his +father's profession, made himself the champion of the others in +disputing Leonardo's claim to his share, first in the paternal +inheritance, and then in that which had been left to be divided between +the brothers and sisters by an uncle. The litigation that ensued dragged +on for several years, and forced upon Leonardo frequent visits to +Florence and interruptions of his work at Milan, in spite of pressing +letters to the authorities of the republic from Charles d'Amboise, from +the French king himself, and from others of his powerful friends and +patrons, begging that the proceedings might be accelerated. There are +traces of work done during these intervals of compulsory residence at +Florence. A sheet of sketches drawn there in 1508 shows the beginning of +a Madonna now lost except in the form of copies, one of which (known as +the "Madonna Litta") is at St Petersburg, another in the Poldi-Pezzoli +Museum at Milan. A letter from Leonardo to Charles d'Amboise in 1511, +announcing the end of his law troubles, speaks of two Madonnas of +different sizes that he means to bring with him to Milan. One was no +doubt that just mentioned; can the other have been the Louvre "Virgin +with St Anne and St John," now at last completed from the cartoon +exhibited in 1501? Meantime the master's main home and business were at +Milan. Few works of painting and none of sculpture (unless the +unfulfilled commission for the Trivulzio monument belongs to this time) +are recorded as occupying him during the seven years of his second +residence in that city (1506-1513). He had attached to himself a new and +devoted young friend and pupil of noble birth, Francesco Melzi. At the +villa of the Melzi family at Vaprio, where Leonardo was a frequent +visitor, a colossal Madonna on one of the walls is traditionally +ascribed to him, but is rather the work of Sodoma or of Melzi himself +working under the master's eye. Another painter in the service of the +French king, Jehan Perréal or Jehan de Paris, visited Milan, and +consultations on technical points were held between him and Leonardo. +But Leonardo's chief practical employments were evidently on the +continuation of his great hydraulic and irrigation works in Lombardy. +His old trivial office of pageant-master and inventor of scientific toys +was revived on the occasion of Louis XII.'s triumphal entry after the +victory of Agnadello in 1509, and gave intense delight to the French +retinue of the king. He was consulted on the construction of new +choir-stalls for the cathedral. He laboured in the natural sciences as +ardently as ever, especially at anatomy in company with the famous +professor of Pavia, Marcantonio della Torre. To about this time, when he +was approaching his sixtieth year, may belong the noble portrait-drawing +of himself in red chalk at Turin. He looks too old for his years, but +quite unbroken; the character of a veteran sage has fully imprinted +itself on his countenance; the features are grand, clear and deeply +lined, the mouth firmly set and almost stern, the eyes strong and intent +beneath their bushy eyebrows, the hair flows untrimmed over his +shoulders and commingles with a majestic beard. + +Returning to Milan with his law-suits ended in 1511, Leonardo might have +looked forward to an old age of contented labour, the chief task of +which, had he had his will, would undoubtedly have been to put in order +the vast mass of observations and speculations accumulated in his +note-books, and to prepare some of them for publication. But as his star +seemed rising that of his royal protector declined. The hold of the +French on Lombardy was rudely shaken by hostile political powers, then +confirmed again for a while by the victories of Gaston de Foix, and +finally destroyed by the battle in which that hero fell under the walls +of Ravenna. In June 1512 a coalition between Spain, Venice and the pope +re-established the Sforza dynasty in power at Milan in the person of +Ludovico's son Massimiliano. This prince must have been familiar with +Leonardo as a child, but perhaps resented the ready transfer of his +allegiance to the French, and at any rate gave him no employment. Within +a few months the ageing master uprooted himself from Milan, and moved +with his chattels and retinue of pupils to Rome, into the service of the +house that first befriended him, the Medici. The vast enterprises of +Pope Julius II. had already made Rome the chief seat and centre of +Italian art. The accession of Giulio de' Medici in 1513 under the title +of Leo X. raised on all hands hopes of still ampler and more sympathetic +patronage. Leonardo's special friend at the papal court was the pope's +youngest brother, Giuliano de' Medici, a youth who combined dissipated +habits with thoughtful culture and a genuine interest in arts and +sciences. By his influence Leonardo and his train were accommodated with +apartments in the Belvedere of the Vatican. But the conditions of the +time and place proved adverse. The young generation held the field. +Michelangelo and Raphael, who had both, as we have seen, risen to +greatness partly on Leonardo's shoulders, were fresh from the glory of +their great achievements in the Sistine Chapel and the Stanze. Their +rival factions hated each other, but both, especially the faction of +Michelangelo, turned bitterly against the veteran newcomer. The pope, +indeed, is said to have been delighted with Leonardo's minor experiments +and ingenuities in science, and especially by a kind of zoological toys +which he had invented by way of pastime, as well as mechanical tricks +played upon living animals. But for the master's graver researches and +projects he cared little, and was far more interested in the dreams of +astrologers and alchemists. When Leonardo, having received a commission +for a picture, was found distilling for himself a new medium of oils and +herbs before he had begun the design, the pope was convinced, not quite +unreasonably, that nothing serious would come of it. The only paintings +positively recorded as done by him at Rome are two small panels for an +official of the papal court, one of a child, the other of a Madonna, +both now lost or unrecognized. To this time may also belong a lost Leda, +standing upright with the god in swan's guise at her side and the four +children near their feet. This picture was at Fontainebleau in the 16th +century and is known from several copies, the finest of them at the +Borghese gallery, as well as from one or two preliminary sketches by the +master himself and a small sketch copy by Raphael. A portrait of a +Florentine lady, said to have been painted for Giuliano de' Medici and +seen afterwards in France, may also have been done at Rome; or may what +we learn of this be only a confused account of the Monna Lisa? Tradition +ascribes to Leonardo an attractive fresco of a Madonna with a donor in +the convent of St Onofrio, but this seems to be clearly the work of +Boltraffio. The only engineering works we hear of at this time are some +on the harbour and defences of Cività Vecchia. On the whole the master +in these Roman days found himself slighted for the first and only time +in his life. He was, moreover, plagued by insubordination and malignity +on the part of two German assistant craftsmen lodged in his apartments. +Charges of impiety and body-snatching laid by these men in connexion +with his anatomical studies caused the favour of the pope to be for a +time withdrawn. After a stay of less than two years, Leonardo left Rome +under the following circumstances. Louis XII. of France had died in the +last days of 1514. His young and brilliant successor, Francis I., +surprised Europe by making a sudden dash at the head of an army across +the Alps to vindicate his rights in Italy. After much hesitation Leo X. +in the summer of 1515 ordered Giuliano de' Medici, as gonfalonier of the +Church, to lead a papal force into the Emilia and watch the movements of +the invader. Leonardo accompanied his protector on the march, and +remained with the headquarters of the papal army at Piacenza when +Giuliano fell ill and retired to Florence. After the battle of Marignano +it was arranged that Francis and the pope should meet in December at +Bologna. The pope, travelling by way of Florence and discussing there +the great new scheme of the Laurentian library, entertained the idea of +giving the commission to Leonardo; but Michelangelo came in hot haste +from Rome and succeeded in securing it for himself. As the time for the +meeting of the potentates at Bologna drew near, Leonardo proceeded +thither from Piacenza, and in due course was presented to the king. +Between the brilliant young sovereign and the grand old sage an +immediate and strong sympathy sprang up; Leonardo accompanied Francis on +his homeward march as far as Milan, and there determined to accept the +royal invitation to France, where a new home was offered him with every +assurance of honour and regard. + +The remaining two and a half years of Leonardo's life were spent at the +Castle of Cloux near Amboise, which was assigned, with a handsome +pension, to his use. The court came often to Amboise, and the king +delighted in his company, declaring his knowledge both of the fine arts +and of philosophy to be beyond those of all mortal men. In the spring of +1518 Leonardo had occasion to exercise his old talents as a +festival-master when the dauphin was christened and a Medici-Bourbon +marriage celebrated. He drew the designs for a new palace at Amboise, +and was much engaged with the project of a great canal to connect the +Loire and Saône. An ingenious attempt has been made to prove, in the +absence of records, that the famous spiral staircase at Blois was also +of his designing. + +Among his visitors was a fellow-countryman, Cardinal Louis of Aragon, +whose secretary has left an account of the day. Leonardo, it seems, was +suffering from some form of slight paralysis which impaired his power of +hand. But he showed the cardinal three pictures, the portrait of a +Florentine lady done for Giuliano de' Medici (the Gioconda?), the Virgin +in the lap of St Anne (the Louvre picture; finished at Florence or Milan +1507-1513?), and a youthful John the Baptist. The last, which may have +been done since he settled in France, is the darkened and partly +repainted, but still powerful and haunting half-length figure in the +Louvre, with the smile of inward ravishment and the prophetic finger +beckoning skyward like that of St Anne in the Academy cartoon. Of the +"Pomona" mentioned by Lomazzo as a work of the Amboise time his visitor +says nothing, nor yet of the Louvre "Bacchus," which tradition ascribes +to Leonardo but which is clearly pupil's work. Besides pictures, the +master seems also to have shown and explained to his visitors some of +his vast store of notes and observations on anatomy and physics. He kept +hoping to get some order among his papers, the accumulation of more than +forty years, and perhaps to give the world some portion of the studies +they contained. But his strength was nearly exhausted. On Easter Eve +1519, feeling that the end was near, he made his will. It made +provision, as became a great servant of the most Christian king, for +masses to be said and candles to be offered in three different churches +of Amboise, first among them that of St Florentin, where he desired to +be buried, as well as for sixty poor men to serve as torch-bearers at +his funeral. Vasari babbles of a death-bed conversion and repentance. +But Leonardo had never been either a friend or an enemy of the Church. +Sometimes, indeed, he denounces fiercely enough the arts and pretensions +of priests; but no one has embodied with such profound spiritual insight +some of the most vital moments of the Christian story. His insatiable +researches into natural fact brought upon him among the vulgar some +suspicion of practising those magic arts which of all things he scouted +and despised. The bent of his mind was all towards the teachings of +experience and against those of authority, and laws of nature certainly +occupied far more of his thoughts than dogmas of religion; but when he +mentions these it is with respect as throwing light on the truth of +things from a side which was not his own. His conformity at the end had +in it nothing contradictory of his past. He received the sacraments of +the Church and died on the 2nd of May 1519. King Francis, then at his +court of St Germain-en-Laye, is said to have wept for the loss of such a +servant; that he was present beside the death-bed and held the dying +painter in his arms is a familiar but an untrue tale. After a temporary +sepulture elsewhere his remains were transported on the 12th of August +to the cloister of St Florentin according to his wish. He left all his +MSS. and apparently all the contents of his studio, with other gifts, to +the devoted Melzi, whom he named executor; to Salai and to his servant +Battista Villanis a half each of his vineyard outside Milan; gifts of +money and clothes to his maid Maturina; one of money to the poor of the +hospital in Amboise; and to his unbrotherly half-brothers a sum of four +hundred ducats lying to his credit at Florence. + +History tells of no man gifted in the same degree as Leonardo was at +once for art and science. In art he was an inheritor and perfecter, born +in a day of great and many-sided endeavours on which he put the crown, +surpassing both predecessors and contemporaries. In science, on the +other hand, he was a pioneer, working wholly for the future, and in +great part alone. That the two stupendous gifts should in some degree +neutralize each other was inevitable. No imaginable strength of any +single man would have sufficed to carry out a hundredth part of what +Leonardo essayed. The mere attempt to conquer the kingdom of light and +shade for the art of painting was destined to tax the skill of +generations, and is perhaps not wholly and finally accomplished yet. +Leonardo sought to achieve that conquest and at the same time to carry +the old Florentine excellences of linear drawing and psychological +expression to a perfection of which other men had not dreamed. The +result, though marvellous in quality, is in quantity lamentably meagre. +Knowing and doing allured him equally, and in art, which consists in +doing, his efforts were often paralysed by his strained desire to know. +The thirst for knowledge had first been aroused in him by the desire of +perfecting the images of beauty and power which it was his business to +create. + +Thence there grew upon him the passion of knowledge for its own sake. In +the splendid balance of his nature the Virgilian longing, _rerum +cognoscere causas_, could never indeed wholly silence the call to +exercise his active powers. But the powers he cared most to exercise +ceased by degree to be those of imaginative creation, and came to be +those of turning to practical human use the mastery which his studies +had taught him over the forces of nature. In science he was the first +among modern men to set himself most of those problems which unnumbered +searchers of later generations have laboured severally or in concert to +solve. Florence had had other sons of comprehensive genius, artistic and +mechanical, Leon Battista Alberti perhaps the chief. But the more the +range and character of Leonardo's studies becomes ascertained the more +his greatness dwarfs them all. A hundred years before Bacon, say those +who can judge best, he showed a firmer grasp of the principles of +experimental science than Bacon showed, fortified by a far wider range +of actual experiment and observation. Not in his actual conclusions, +though many of these point with surprising accuracy in the direction of +truths established by later generations, but in the soundness, the +wisdom, the tenacity of his methods lies his great title to glory. Had +the Catholic reaction not fatally discouraged the pursuit of the natural +sciences in Italy, had Leonardo even left behind him any one with zeal +and knowledge enough to extract from the mass of his MSS. some portion +of his labours in those sciences and give them to the world, an +incalculable impulse would have been given to all those enquiries by +which mankind has since been striving to understand the laws of its +being and control the conditions of its environment,--to mathematics and +astronomy, to mechanics, hydraulics, and physics generally, to geology, +geography, and cosmology, to anatomy and the sciences of life. As it +was, these studies of Leonardo--"studies intense of strong and stern +delight"--seemed to his trivial followers and biographers merely his +whims and fancies, _ghiribizzi_, things to be spoken of slightingly and +with apology. The MSS., with the single exception of some of those +relating to painting, lay unheeded and undivulged until the present +generation; and it is only now that the true range of Leonardo's powers +is beginning to be fully discerned. + +So much for the intellectual side of Leonardo's character and career. As +a moral being we are less able to discern what he was like. The man who +carried in his brain so many images of subtle beauty, as well as so much +of the hidden science of the future, must have lived spiritually, in the +main, alone. Of things communicable he was at the same time, as we have +said, communicative--a genial companion, a generous and loyal friend, +ready and eloquent of discourse, impressing all with whom he was brought +in contact by the power and the charm of genius, and inspiring fervent +devotion and attachment in friends and pupils. We see him living on +terms of constant affection with his father, and in disputes with his +brothers not the aggressor but the sufferer from aggression. We see him +full of tenderness to animals, a virtue not common in Italy in spite of +the example of St Francis; open-handed in giving, not eager in +getting--"poor," he says, "is the man of many wants"; not prone to +resentment--"the best shield against injustice is to double the cloak of +long-suffering"; zealous in labour above all men--"as a day well spent +gives joyful sleep, so does a life well spent give joyful death." With +these instincts and maxims, and with his strength, granting it almost +more than human, spent ever tunnelling in abstruse mines of knowledge, +his moral experience is not likely to have been deeply troubled. In +religion, he regarded the faith of his age and country at least with +imaginative sympathy and intellectual acquiescence, if no more. On the +political storms which shook his country and drove him from one +employment to another, he seems to have looked not with the passionate +participation of a Dante or a Michelangelo but rather with the serene +detachment of a Goethe. In matters of the heart, if any consoling or any +disturbing passion played a great part in his life, we do not know it; +we know only (apart from a few passing shadows cast by calumny and envy) +of affectionate and dignified relations with friends, patrons and +pupils, of public and private regard mixed in the days of his youth with +dazzled admiration, and in those of his age with something of +reverential awe. + + _The Drawings of Leonardo._--These are among the greatest treasures + ever given to the world by the human spirit expressing itself in pen + and pencil. Apart from the many hundreds of illustrative pen-sketches + scattered through his autobiographic and scientific MSS., the + principal collection is at Windsor Castle (partly derived from the + Arundel collection); others of importance are in the British Museum; + at Christ Church, Oxford; in the Louvre, at Chantilly, in the Uffizi, + the Venice Academy, the Royal Library at Turin, the Museum of + Budapest, and in the collections of M. Bonnat, Mrs Mond, and Captain + Holford. Leonardo's chief implements were pen, silver-point, and red + and black chalk (red chalk especially). In silver-point there are many + beautiful drawings of his earlier time, and some of his later; but of + the charming heads of women and young men in this material attributed + to him in various collections, comparatively few are his own work, the + majority being drawings in his spirit by his pupils Ambrogio Preda or + Boltraffio. Leonardo appears to have been left-handed. There is some + doubt on the point; but a contemporary and intimate friend, Luca + Pacioli, speaks of his "ineffable left hand"; all the best of his + drawings are shaded downward from left to right, which would be the + readiest way for a left-handed man; and his habitual eccentric + practice of writing from right to left is much more likely to have + been due to natural left-handedness than to any desire of mystery or + concealment. A full critical discussion and catalogue of the extant + drawings of Leonardo are to be found in Berenson's _Drawings of the + Florentine Painters_. + + _The Writings of Leonardo._--The only printed book bearing Leonardo's + name until the recent issues of transcripts from his MSS. was the + celebrated _Treatise on Painting_ (_Trattato della pittura, Traité de + la peinture_). This consists of brief didactic chapters, or more + properly paragraphs, of practical direction or critical remark on all + the branches and conditions of a painter's practice. The original MS. + draft of Leonardo has been lost, though a great number of notes for it + are scattered through the various extant volumes of his MSS. The work + has been printed in two different forms; one of these is an abridged + version consisting of 365 sections; the first edition of it was + published in Paris in 1551, by Raphael Dufresne, from a MS. which he + found in the Barberini library; the last, translated into English by + J. F. Rigaud, in London, 1877. The other is a more extended version, + in 912 sections, divided into eight books; this was printed in 1817 by + Guglielmo Manzi at Rome, from two MSS. which he had discovered in the + Vatican library; a German translation from the same MS. has been + edited by G. H. Ludwig in Eitelberger's series of _Quellenschriften + für Kunstgeschichte_ (Vienna, 1882; Stuttgart, 1885). On the history + of the book in general see Max Jordan, _Das Malerbuch des Leonardo da + Vinci_ (Leipzig, 1873). The unknown compilers of the Vatican MSS. must + have had before them much more of Leonardo's original text than is now + extant. Only about a quarter of the total number of paragraphs are + identical with passages to be found in the master's existing autograph + note-books. It is indeed doubtful whether Leonardo himself ever + completed the MS. treatise (or treatises) on painting and kindred + subjects mentioned by Fra Luca Pacioli and by Vasari, and probable + that the form and order, and perhaps some of the substance, of the + _Trattato_ as we have it was due to compilers and not to the master + himself. + + In recent years a whole body of scholars and editors have been engaged + in giving to the world the texts of Leonardo's existing MSS. The + history of these is too complicated to be told here in any detail. + Francesco Melzi (d. 1570) kept the greater part of his master's + bequest together as a sacred trust as long as he lived, though even in + his time some MSS. on the art of painting seem to have passed into + other hands. But his descendants suffered the treasure to be + recklessly dispersed. The chief agents in their dispersal were the + Doctor Orazio Melzi who possessed them in the last quarter of the 16th + century; the members of a Milanese family called Mazzenta, into whose + hands they passed in Orazio Melzi's lifetime; and the sculptor Pompeo + Leoni, who at one time entertained the design of procuring their + presentation to Philip II. of Spain, and who cut up a number of the + note-books to form the great miscellaneous single volume called the + _Codice Atlantico_, now at Milan. This volume, with a large proportion + of the total number of other Leonardo MSS. then existing, passed into + the hands of a Count Arconati, who presented them to the Ambrosian + library at Milan in 1636. In the meantime the earl of Arundel had made + a vain attempt to purchase one of these volumes (the _Codice + Atlantico_?) at a great price for the king of England. Some stray + parts of the collection, including the MSS. now at Windsor, did + evidently come into Lord Arundel's possession, and the history of some + other parts can be followed; while much, it is evident, was lost for + good. In 1796 Napoleon swept away to Paris, along with the other art + treasures of Italy, the whole of the Leonardo MSS. at the Ambrosiana: + only the _Codice Atlantico_ was afterwards restored, the other volumes + remaining the property of the Institut de France. These also have had + their adventures, two of them having been stolen by Count Libri and + passed temporarily into the collection of Lord Ashburnham, whence they + were in recent years made over again to the Institute. The first + important step towards a better knowledge of the MSS. was made by the + beginning, in 1880, of the great series of publications from the MSS. + of the Institut de France undertaken by C. Ravaisson-Mollien; the next + by the publication in 1883 of Dr J. P. Richter's _Literary Works of + Leonardo da Vinci_ (see Bibliography): this work included, besides a + history and analytical index of the MSS., facsimiles of a number of + selected pages containing matter of autobiographical, artistic, or + literary interest, with transcripts and translations of their MS. + contexts. Since then much progress has been made in the publication of + the complete MSS., scientific and other, whether with adequate + critical apparatus or in the form of mere facsimile without + transliteration or comment. + + A brief statement follows of the present distribution of the several + MSS. and of the form in which they are severally published:-- + + England.--_Windsor_: Nine MSS., chiefly on anatomy, published entire + in simple facsimile by Rouveyre (Paris, 1901); partially, with + transliterations and introduction by Piumati and Sabachnikoff (Paris, + 1898, foll.); _British Museum_: one MS., miscellaneous, unpublished; + _Victoria and Albert Museum_: ten note-books bound in 3 vols.; + facsimile by Rouveyre, _Holkham_ (collection of Lord Leicester), 1 + vol., on hydraulics and the action of water; published in facsimile + with transliteration and notes by Gerolamo Calvi. France.--_Institut + de France_: seventeen MSS., all published with transliteration and + notes by C. Ravaisson-Mollien (6 vols., Paris, 1880-1891). + Italy.--_Milan_, _Ambrosiana_: the _Codice Atlantico_, the huge + miscellany, of vital importance for the study of the master, put + together by Pompeo Leoni; published in facsimile, with + transliteration, by the Accademia dei Lincei (1894, foll.); _Milan_: + collection of Count Trivulzio; 1 vol., miscellaneous; published and + edited by L. Beltrami (1892); _Rome_: collection of Count Marszolini; + _Treatise on the Flight of Birds_, published and edited by Piumati and + Sabachnikoff (Paris, 1492). + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The principal authorities are:--"Il libro di Antonio + Billi," edited from MS. by G. de Fabriazy in _Archivio Storico Ital._ + ser. v. vol. 7; "Breve vita di Leonardo da Vinci, scritto da un + adnonimo del 1500" (known as the Anonimo Gaddiano), printed by G. + Milanesi in _Archivio Storico Ital._ t. xvi. (1872), translated with + notes by H. P. Horne in series published by the Unicorn Library + (1903); Paolo Giovio, "Leonardi Vincii vita," in his _Elogia_, printed + in Tiraboschi, _Storia della Lett. Ital._ t. vii. pt. 4, and in + _Classici Italiani_, vol. 314; Vasari, in his celebrated _Lives of the + Painters_ (1st ed., Florence, 1550; 2nd ed. ibid. 1568; ed. Milanesi, + with notes and supplements, 1878-1885); Sabba da Castiglione, + _Ricordi_ (Venice, 1565); G. P. Lomazzo, _Trattato dell' arte della + pittura_, &c. (Milan, 1584-1585); _Id., Idea del tempio della pittura_ + (Milan, 1591); Le Père Dan, _Le Trésor ... de Fontainebleau_ (1642); + J. B. Venturi, _Essai sur les ouvrages physico-mathématiques de L. da + V._ (Paris, 1797); C. Amoretti, _Memorie storiche sulla vita, &c. di + L. da V._ (Milan, 1804), a work which laid the foundation of all + future researches; Giuseppe Bossi, _Del Cenacolo di L. da V._ (Milan, + 1810); C. Fumagalli, _Scuola di Leonardo da Vinci_ (1811); Gaye, + _Carteggia d'artisti_ (1839-1841); G. Uzielli, _Ricerche intorno a L. + da V._, series 1, 2 (Florence, 1872; Rome, 1884; series 1 revised, + Turin, 1896), documentary researches of the first importance for the + study; C. L. Calvi, _Notizie dei principali professori di belle arti_ + (Milan, 1869); Arsène Houssaye, _Histoire de L. de V._ (Paris, 1869 + and 1876, an agreeable literary biography of the pre-critical kind); + Mrs Heaton, _Life of L. da V._ (London, 1872), a work also made + obsolete by recent research; Hermann Grothe, _L. da V. als Ingenieur + und Philosoph_ (Berlin, 1874); A. Marks, the _S. Anne of L. da V._ + (London, 1882); J. P. Richter, _The Literary Works of L. da V._ (2 + vols., London, 1883), this is the very important and valuable history + of and selection from the texts mentioned above under MSS.; Ch. + Ravaisson-Mollien, _Les Écrits de L. da V._ (Paris, 1881); Paul Müller + Walde, _L. da V., Lebensskizze und Forschungen_ (Munich, 1889-1890); + _Id._, "Beiträge zur Kenntniss des L. da V.," _in Jahrbuch der k. + Preussischen Kunstsammlungen_ (1897-1899), the first immature and + incomplete, the second of high value: the whole life of this writer + has been devoted to the study of L. da V., but it is uncertain whether + the vast mass of material collected by him will ever take shape or see + the light; G. Gronau, _L. da V._ (London, 1902); Bernhard Berenson, + _The Drawings of the Florentine Painters_ (London, 1903); Edmondo + Solmi, _Studi sulla filosofia naturale di L. da V._ (Modena, 1898); + _Id., Leonardo_ (Florence, 1st ed. 1900, 2nd ed. 1907; this last + edition of Solmi's work is by far the most complete and satisfactory + critical biography of the master which yet exists); A. Rosenberg, _L. + da V._, in Knackfuss's series of art biographies (Leipzig, 1898); + Gabriel Séailles, _L. da V. l'artiste et le savant_ (1st ed. 1892, 2nd + ed. 1906), a lucid and careful general estimate of great value, + especially in reference to Leonardo's relations to modern science; + Edward McCurdy, _L. da V._, in Bell's "Great Masters" series (1904 and + 1907), a very sound and trustworthy summary of the master's career as + an artist; _Id., L. da V.'s Note-Books_ (1908), a selection from the + passages of chief general interest in the master's MSS., very well + chosen, arranged, and translated, with a useful history of the MSS. + prefixed, _Le Vicende del Cenacolo di L. da V. nel secolo XIX._ + (Milan, 1906), an official account of the later history and + vicissitudes of the "Last Supper" previous to its final repair; Luca + Beltrami, _Il Castello di Milano_ (1894); _Id., L. da V. et la Sala + dell' Asse_ (1902); Id., "Il Cenacolo di Leonardo," in _Raccolta + Vinciana_ (Milan, 1908), the official account of the successful work + of repair carried out by Signor Cavenaghi in the preceding years; + Woldemar von Seidlitz, _Leonardo da Vinci, der Wendepunkt der + Renaissance_ (2 vols., 1909), a comprehensive and careful work by an + accomplished and veteran critic, inclined to give perhaps an excessive + share in the reputed works of Leonardo to a single pupil, Ambrogio + Preda. It seems needless to give references to the voluminous + discussion in newspapers and periodicals concerning the authenticity + of a wax bust of Flora acquired in 1909 for the Berlin Museum and + unfortunately ascribed to Leonardo da Vinci, its real author having + been proved by external and internal evidence to be the Englishman + Richard Cockle Lucas, and its date 1846. (S. C.) + + + + +LEONARDO OF PISA (LEONARDUS PISANUS or FIBONACCI), Italian mathematician +of the 13th century. Of his personal history few particulars are known. +His father was called Bonaccio, most probably a nickname with the +ironical meaning of "a good, stupid fellow," while to Leonardo himself +another nickname, Bigollone (dunce, blockhead), seems to have been +given. The father was secretary in one of the numerous factories erected +on the southern and eastern coasts of the Mediterranean by the warlike +and enterprising merchants of Pisa. Leonardo was educated at Bugia, and +afterwards toured the Mediterranean. In 1202 he was again in Italy and +published his great work, _Liber abaci_, which probably procured him +access to the learned and refined court of the emperor Frederick II. +Leonardo certainly was in relation with some persons belonging to that +circle when he published in 1220 another more extensive work, _De +practica geometriae_, which he dedicated to the imperial astronomer +Dominicus Hispanus. Some years afterwards (perhaps in 1228) Leonardo +dedicated to the well-known astrologer Michael Scott the second edition +of his _Liber abaci_, which was printed with Leonardo's other works by +Prince Bald. Boncompagni (Rome, 1857-1862, 2 vols.). The other works +consist of the _Practica geometriae_ and some most striking papers of +the greatest scientific importance, amongst which the _Liber +quadratorum_ may be specially signalized. It bears the notice that the +author wrote it in 1225, and in the introduction Leonardo tells us the +occasion of its being written. Dominicus had presented Leonardo to +Frederick II. The presentation was accompanied by a kind of mathematical +performance, in which Leonardo solved several hard problems proposed to +him by John of Palermo, an imperial notary, whose name is met with in +several documents dated between 1221 and 1240. The methods which +Leonardo made use of in solving those problems fill the _Liber +quadratorum_, the _Flos_, and a _Letter to Magister Theodore_. All these +treatises seem to have been written nearly at the same period, and +certainly before the publication of the second edition of the _Liber +abaci_, in which the _Liber quadratorum_ is expressly mentioned. We know +nothing of Leonardo's fate after he issued that second edition. + + Leonardo's works are mainly developments of the results obtained by + his predecessors; the influences of Greek, Arabian, and Indian + mathematicians may be clearly discerned in his methods. In his + _Practica geometriae_ plain traces of the use of the Roman + _agrimensores_ are met with; in his _Liber abaci_ old Egyptian + problems reveal their origin by the reappearance of the very numbers + in which the problem is given, though one cannot guess through what + channel they came to Leonardo's knowledge. Leonardo cannot be regarded + as the inventor of that very great variety of truths for which he + mentions no earlier source. + + The _Liber abaci_, which fills 459 printed pages, contains the most + perfect methods of calculating with whole numbers and with fractions, + practice, extraction of the square and cube roots, proportion, chain + rule, finding of proportional parts, averages, progressions, even + compound interest, just as in the completest mercantile arithmetics of + our days. They teach further the solution of problems leading to + equations of the first and second degree, to determinate and + indeterminate equations, not by single and double position only, but + by real algebra, proved by means of geometric constructions, and + including the use of letters as symbols for known numbers, the unknown + quantity being called _res_ and its square _census_. + + The second work of Leonardo, his _Practica geometriae_ (1220) requires + readers already acquainted with Euclid's planimetry, who are able to + follow rigorous demonstrations and feel the necessity for them. Among + the contents of this book we simply mention a trigonometrical chapter, + in which the words _sinus versus arcus_ occur, the approximate + extraction of cube roots shown more at large than in the _Liber + abaci_, and a very curious problem, which nobody would search for in a + geometrical work, viz.--To find a square number remaining so after the + addition of 5. This problem evidently suggested the first question, + viz.--To find a square number which remains a square after the + addition and subtraction of 5, put to our mathematician in presence of + the emperor by John of Palermo, who, perhaps, was quite enough + Leonardo's friend to set him such problems only as he had himself + asked for. Leonardo gave as solution the numbers 11(97/144), + 16(97/144), and 6(97/144),--the squares of 3(5/12), 4(1/12) and + 2(7/12); and the method of finding them is given in the _Liber + quadratorum_. We observe, however, that this kind of problem was not + new. Arabian authors already had found three square numbers of equal + difference, but the difference itself had not been assigned in + proposing the question. Leonardo's method, therefore, when the + difference was a fixed condition of the problem, was necessarily very + different from the Arabian, and, in all probability, was his own + discovery. The _Flos_ of Leonardo turns on the second question set by + John of Palermo, which required the solution of the cubic equation x³ + + 2x² + 10x = 20. Leonardo, making use of fractions of the sexagesimal + scale, gives x = 1^0 22^i 7^ii 42^iii 33^iv 4^v 40^vi, after having + demonstrated, by a discussion founded on the 10th book of Euclid, that + a solution by square roots is impossible. It is much to be deplored + that Leonardo does not give the least intimation how he found his + approximative value, outrunning by this result more than three + centuries. Genocchi believes Leonardo to have been in possession of a + certain method called _regula aurea_ by H. Cardan in the 16th century, + but this is a mere hypothesis without solid foundation. In the _Flos_ + equations with negative values of the unknown quantity are also to be + met with, and Leonardo perfectly understands the meaning of these + negative solutions. In the _Letter to Magister Theodore_ indeterminate + problems are chiefly worked, and Leonardo hints at his being able to + solve by a general method any problem of this kind not exceeding the + first degree. + + As for the influence he exercised on posterity, it is enough to say + that Luca Pacioli, about 1500, in his celebrated _Summa_, leans so + exclusively to Leonardo's works (at that time known in manuscript + only) that he frankly acknowledges his dependence on them, and states + that wherever no other author is quoted all belongs to Leonardus + Pisanus. + + _Fibonacci's series_ is a sequence of numbers such that any term is + the sum of the two preceding terms; also known as _Lamé's series_. + (M. Ca.) + + + + +LEONCAVALLO, RUGGIERO (1858- ), Italian operatic composer, was born at +Naples and educated for music at the conservatoire. After some years +spent in teaching and in ineffectual attempts to obtain the production +of more than one opera, his _Pagliacci_ was performed at Milan in 1892 +with immediate success; and next year his _Medici_ was also produced +there. But neither the latter nor _Chatterton_ (1896)--both early +works--obtained any favour; and it was not till _La Bohème_ was +performed in 1897 at Venice that his talent obtained public +confirmation. Subsequent operas by Leoncavallo were _Zaza_ (1900), and +_Der Roland_ (1904). In all these operas he was his own librettist. + + + + +LEONIDAS, king of Sparta, the seventeenth of the Agiad line. He +succeeded, probably in 489 or 488 B.C., his half-brother Cleomenes, +whose daughter Gorgo he married. In 480 he was sent with about 7000 men +to hold the pass of Thermopylae against the army of Xerxes. The +smallness of the force was, according to a current story, due to the +fact that he was deliberately going to his doom, an oracle having +foretold that Sparta could be saved only by the death of one of its +kings: in reality it seems rather that the ephors supported the scheme +half-heartedly, their policy being to concentrate the Greek forces at +the Isthmus. Leonidas repulsed the frontal attacks of the Persians, but +when the Malian Ephialtes led the Persian general Hydarnes by a mountain +track to the rear of the Greeks he divided his army, himself remaining +in the pass with 300 Spartiates, 700 Thespians and 400 Thebans. Perhaps +he hoped to surround Hydarnes' force: if so, the movement failed, and +the little Greek army, attacked from both sides, was cut down to a man +save the Thebans, who are said to have surrendered. Leonidas fell in the +thickest of the fight; his head was afterwards cut off by Xerxes' order +and his body crucified. Our knowledge of the circumstances is too slight +to enable us to judge of Leonidas's strategy, but his heroism and +devotion secured him an almost unique place in the imagination not only +of his own but also of succeeding times. + + See Herodotus v. 39-41, vii. 202-225, 238, ix. 10; Diodorus xi. 4-11; + Plutarch, _Apophthegm. Lacon.; de malignitate Herodoti_, 28-33; + Pausanias i. 13, iii. 3, 4; Isocrates, _Paneg._ 92; Lycurgus, _c._ + _Leocr._ 110, 111; Strabo i. 10, ix. 429; Aelian, _Var. hist._ iii. + 25; Cicero, _Tusc. disput._ i. 42, 49; _de Finibus_, ii. 30; Cornelius + Nepos, _Themistocles_, 3; Valerius Maximus iii. 2; Justin ii. 11. For + modern criticism on the battle of Thermopylae see G. B. Grundy, _The + Great Persian War_ (1901); G. Grote, _History of Greece_, part ii., c. + 40; E. Meyer, _Geschichte des Altertums_, iii., §§ 219, 220; G. + Busolt, _Griechische Geschichte_, 2nd ed., ii. 666-688; J. B. Bury, + "The Campaign of Artemisium and Thermopylae," in _British School + Annual_, ii. 83 seq.; J. A. R. Munro, "Some Observations on the + Persian Wars, II.," in _Journal of Hellenic Studies_, xxii. 294-332. + (M. N. T.) + + + + +LEONTIASIS OSSEA, a rare disease characterized by an overgrowth of the +facial and cranial bones. The common form is that in which one or other +maxilla is affected, its size progressively increasing both regularly +and irregularly, and thus encroaching on the cavities of the orbit, the +mouth, the nose and its accessory sinuses. Exophthalmos gradually +develops, going on later to a complete loss of sight due to compression +of the optic nerve by the overgrowth of bone. There may also be +interference with the nasal respiration and with the taking of food. In +the somewhat less common form of this rare disease the overgrowth of +bone affects all the cranial bones as well as those of the face, the +senses being lost one by one and death finally resulting from cerebral +pressure. There is no treatment other than exposing the overgrown bone, +and chipping away pieces, or excising entirely where possible. + + + + +LEONTINI (mod. _Lentini_), an ancient town in the south-east of Sicily, +22 m. N.N.W. of Syracuse direct, founded by Chalcidians from Naxos in +729 B.C. It is almost the only Greek settlement not on the coast, from +which it is 6 m. distant. The site, originally held by the Sicels, was +seized by the Greeks owing to its command of the fertile plain on the +north. It was reduced to subjection in 498 B.C. by Hippocrates of Gela, +and in 476 Hieron of Syracuse established here the inhabitants of Catana +and Naxos. Later on Leontini regained its independence, but in its +efforts to retain it, the intervention of Athens was more than once +invoked. It was mainly the eloquence of Gorgias (q.v.) of Leontini which +led to the abortive Athenian expedition of 427. In 422 Syracuse +supported the oligarchs against the people and received them as +citizens, Leontini itself being forsaken. This led to renewed Athenian +intervention, at first mainly diplomatic; but the exiles of Leontini +joined the envoys of Segesta in persuading Athens to undertake the great +expedition of 415. After its failure, Leontini became subject to +Syracuse once more (see Strabo vi. 272). Its independence was guaranteed +by the treaty of 405 between Dionysius and the Carthaginians, but it +very soon lost it again. It was finally stormed by M. Claudius Marcellus +in 214 B.C. In Roman times it seems to have been of small importance. It +was destroyed by the Saracens A.D. 848, and almost totally ruined by the +earthquake of 1698. The ancient city is described by Polybius (vii. 6) +as lying in a bottom between two hills, and facing north. On the western +side of this bottom ran a river with a row of houses on its western bank +under the hill. At each end was a gate, the northern leading to the +plain, the southern, at the upper end, to Syracuse. There was an +acropolis on each side of the valley, which lies between precipitous +hills with flat tops, over which buildings had extended. The eastern +hill[1] still has considerable remains of a strongly fortified medieval +castle, in which some writers are inclined (though wrongly) to recognize +portions of Greek masonry. See G. M. Columba, in _Archeologia di +Leontinoi_ (Palermo, 1891), reprinted from _Archivio Storico Siciliano_, +xi.; P. Orsi in _Römische Mitteilungen_ (1900), 61 seq. Excavations were +made in 1899 in one of the ravines in a Sicel necropolis of the third +period; explorations in the various Greek cemeteries resulted in the +discovery of some fine bronzes, notably a fine bronze _lebes_, now in +the Berlin museum. (T. As.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] As a fact there are two flat valleys, up both of which the modern + Lentini extends; and hence there is difficulty in fitting Polybius's + account to the site. + + + + +LEONTIUS, theological writer, born at Byzantium, flourished during the +6th century. He is variously styled BYZANTINUS, HIEROSOLYMITANUS (as an +inmate of the monastery of St Saba near Jerusalem) and SCHOLASTICUS (the +first "schoolman," as the introducer of the Aristotelian definitions +into theology; according to others, he had been an advocate, a special +meaning of the word _scholasticus_). He himself states that in his early +years he belonged to a Nestorian community. Nothing else is known of his +life; he is frequently confused with others of the same name, and it is +uncertain which of the works bearing the name Leontius are really by +him. Most scholars regard as genuine the polemical treatises _Contra +Nestorianos et Eutychianos_, _Contra Nestorianos_, _Contra +Monophysitas_, _Contra Severum_ (patriarch of Antioch); and the [Greek: +Scholia], generally called _De Sectis_. An essay _Adversus fraudes +Apollinaristarum_ and two homilies are referred to other hands, the +homilies to a Leontius, presbyter of Constantinople. + + Collected works in J. P. Migne, _Patrologia Graeca_, lxxxvi.; for the + various questions connected with Leontius see F. Loops, _Das Leben und + die polemischen Werke des Leontios von Byzanz_ (Leipzig, 1887); W. + Rügamer, _Leontius von Byzanz_ (1894); V. Ermoni, _De Leontio + Byzantino_ (Paris, 1895); C. Krumbacher, _Geschichte der + byzantinischen Litteratur_ (1897); J. P. Junglas, _Leontius von + Byzanz_ (1908). For other persons of the name see Fabricius, + _Bibliotheca Graeca_ (ed. Harles), viii. 323. + + + + +LEOPARD,[1] PARD or PANTHER (_Felis pardus_), the largest spotted true +cat of the Old World, with the exception of the snow-leopard, which is, +however, inferior in point of size to the largest leopard. (See +CARNIVORA and SNOW-LEOPARD.) Leopards, known in India as _cheeta_ +(_chita_), are characterized by the rosette-like form of the black spots +on the greater part of the body, and the absence of a central spot from +each rosette. Towards the head and on the limbs the spots tend to become +solid, but there is great local variation in regard to their form and +arrangement. In the Indian leopard, the true _Felis pardus_, the spots +are large and rosette-like, and the same is the case with the +long-haired Persian leopard (_F. pardus tulliana_). On the other hand +the heavily built and thick-haired Manchurian _F. p. villosa_ has more +consolidated spots. African leopards, again, to one of which the name +_F. p. leopardus_ is applicable, show a decided tendency to a +breaking-up of the spots; West African animals being much +darker-coloured than those from the east side of the continent. + +Both as regards structure and habits, the leopard may be reckoned as one +of the more typical representatives of the genus _Felis_, belonging to +that section in which the hyoid bone is loosely connected with the +skull, owing to imperfect ossification of its anterior arch, and the +pupil of the eye when contracted under the influence of light is +circular, not linear as in the smaller cats. + +The size of leopards varies greatly, the head and body usually measuring +from 3½ to 4½ ft. in length, and the tail from 2½ to 3 ft., but some +specimens exceed these limits, while the Somali leopard (_F. p. +nanopardus_) falls considerably short of them. The ground-colour of the +fur varies from a pale fawn to a rufous buff, graduating in the Indian +race into pure white on the under-parts and inside of the limbs. +Generally speaking, the spots on the under parts and limbs are simple +and blacker than those on the other parts of the body. The bases of the +ears behind are black, the tips buff. The upper side of the tail is +buff, spotted with broken rings like the back, its under surface white +with simple spots. The hair of the cubs is longer than that of the +adults, its ground-colour less bright, and its spots less distinct. +Perfectly black leopards, which in certain lights show the +characteristic markings on the fur, are not uncommon, and are examples +of _melanism_, occurring as individual variations, sometimes in one cub +out of a litter of which the rest are normally coloured, and therefore +not indicating a distinct race, much less a species. These are met with +chiefly in southern Asia; melanism among African leopards taking the +form of an excessive breaking-up of the spots, which finally show a +tendency to coalesce. + +[Illustration: The Leopard (_Felis pardus_).] + +In habits the leopard resembles the other large cat-like animals, +yielding to none in the ferocity of its disposition. It is exceedingly +quick in its movements, but seizes its prey by waiting in ambush or +stealthily approaching to within springing distance, when it suddenly +rushes upon it and tears it to ground with its powerful claws and teeth. +It preys upon almost any animal it can overcome, such as antelopes, +deer, sheep, goats, monkeys, peafowl, and has a special liking for dogs. +It not unfrequently attacks human beings in India, chiefly children and +old women, but instances have been known of a leopard becoming a regular +"man-eater." When favourable opportunities occur, it often kills many +more victims than it can devour at once, either to gratify its +propensity for killing or for the sake of their fresh blood. It +generally inhabits woody districts, and can climb trees with facility +when hunted, but usually lives on or near the ground, among rocks, +bushes and roots and low branches of large trees. + +The geographical range of the leopard embraces practically all Africa, +and Asia from Palestine to China and Manchuria, inclusive of Ceylon and +the great Malay Islands as far as Java. Fossil bones and teeth, +indistinguishable from those of existing leopards, have been found in +cave-deposits of Pleistocene age in Spain, France, Germany and England. + (R. L.*; W. H. F.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] The name (Late Lat. _leopardus_, Late Gr. [Greek: leopardos]) was + given by the ancients to an animal supposed to have been a cross + between a lion (Lat. _leo_, Gr. [Greek: leôn]) and a pard (Gr. + [Greek: pardos], Pers. _pars_) or panther. Medieval heralds made no + distinction in shape between a lion and a leopard, but marked the + difference by drawing the leopard showing the full face (see + HERALDRY: § _Beasts and Birds_). + + + + +LEOPARDI, GIACOMO, COUNT (1798-1837), Italian poet, was born at Recanati +in the March of Ancona, on the 29th of June 1798. All the circumstances +of his parentage and education conspired to foster his precocious and +sensitive genius at the expense of his physical and mental health. His +family was ancient and patrician, but so deeply embarrassed as to be +only rescued from ruin by the energy of his mother, who had taken the +control of business matters entirely into her own hands, and whose +engrossing devotion to her undertaking seems to have almost dried up the +springs of maternal tenderness. Count Monaldo Leopardi, the father, a +mere nullity in his own household, secluded himself in his extensive +library, to which his nervous, sickly and deformed son had free access, +and which absorbed him exclusively in the absence of any intelligent +sympathy from his parents, any companionship except that of his brothers +and sister, or any recreation in the dullest of Italian towns. The lad +spent his days over grammars and dictionaries, learning Latin with +little assistance, and Greek and the principal modern languages with +none at all. Any ordinarily clever boy would have emerged from this +discipline a mere pedant and bookworm. Leopardi came forth a Hellene, +not merely a consummate Greek scholar, but penetrated with the classical +conception of life, and a master of antique form and style. At sixteen +he composed a Latin treatise on the Roman rhetoricians of the 2nd +century, a commentary on Porphyry's life of Plotinus and a history of +astronomy; at seventeen he wrote on the popular errors of the ancients, +citing more than four hundred authors. A little later he imposed upon +the first scholars of Italy by two odes in the manner of Anacreon. At +eighteen he produced a poem of considerable length, the _Appressamento +alla Morte_, which, after being lost for many years, was discovered and +published by Zanino Volta. It is a vision of the omnipotence of death, +modelled upon Petrarch, but more truly inspired by Dante, and in its +conception, machinery and general tone offering a remarkable resemblance +to Shelley's _Triumph of Life_ (1822), of which Leopardi probably never +heard. This juvenile work was succeeded (1819) by two lyrical +compositions which at once placed the author upon the height which he +maintained ever afterwards. The ode to Italy, and that on the monument +to Dante erected at Florence, gave voice to the dismay and affliction +with which Italy, aroused by the French Revolution from the torpor of +the 17th and 18th centuries, contemplated her forlorn and degraded +condition, her political impotence, her degeneracy in arts and arms and +the frivolity or stagnation of her intellectual life. They were the +outcry of a student who had found an ideal of national existence in his +books, and to whose disappointment everything in his own circumstances +lent additional poignancy. But there is nothing unmanly or morbid in the +expression of these sentiments, and the odes are surprisingly exempt +from the failings characteristic of young poets. They are remarkably +chaste in diction, close and nervous in style, sparing in fancy and +almost destitute of simile and metaphor, antique in spirit, yet pervaded +by modern ideas, combining Landor's dignity with a considerable infusion +of the passion of Byron. These qualities continued to characterize +Leopardi's poetical writings throughout his life. A third ode, on +Cardinal Mai's discoveries of ancient MSS., lamented in the same spirit +of indignant sorrow the decadence of Italian literature. The publication +of these pieces widened the breach between Leopardi and his father, a +well-meaning but apparently dull and apathetic man, who had lived into +the 19th century without imbibing any of its spirit, and who provoked +his son's contempt by a superstition unpardonable in a scholar of real +learning. Very probably from a mistaken idea of duty to his son, very +probably, too, from his own entire dependence in pecuniary matters upon +his wife, he for a long time obstinately refused Leopardi funds, +recreation, change of scene, everything that could have contributed to +combat the growing pessimism which eventually became nothing less than +monomaniacal. The affection of his brothers and sister afforded him some +consolation, and he found intellectual sympathy in the eminent scholar +and patriot Pietro Giordani, with whom he assiduously corresponded at +this period, partly on the ways and means of escaping from "this +hermitage, or rather seraglio, where the delights of civil society and +the advantages of solitary life are alike wanting." This forms the +keynote of numerous letters of complaint and lamentation, as touching +but as effeminate in their pathos as those of the banished Ovid. It must +be remembered in fairness that the weakness of Leopardi's eyesight +frequently deprived him for months together of the resource of study. At +length (1822) his father allowed him to repair to Rome, where, though +cheered by the encouragement of C. C. J. Bunsen and Niebuhr, he found +little satisfaction in the trifling pedantry that passed for philology +and archaeology, while his sceptical opinions prevented his taking +orders, the indispensable condition of public employment in the Papal +States. Dispirited and with exhausted means, he returned to Recanati, +where he spent three miserable years, brightened only by the production +of several lyrical masterpieces, which appeared in 1824. The most +remarkable is perhaps the _Bruto Minore_, the condensation of his +philosophy of despair. In 1825 he accepted an engagement to edit Cicero +and Petrarch for the publisher Stella at Milan, and took up his +residence at Bologna, where his life was for a time made almost +cheerful by the friendship of the countess Malvezzi. In 1827 appeared +the _Operette Morali_, consisting principally of dialogues and his +imaginary biography of Filippo Ottonieri, which have given Leopardi a +fame as a prose writer hardly inferior to his celebrity as a poet. +Modern literature has few productions so eminently classical in form and +spirit, so symmetrical in construction and faultless in style. Lucian is +evidently the model; but the wit and irony which were playthings to +Lucian are terribly earnest with Leopardi. Leopardi's invention is equal +to Lucian's and his only drawback in comparison with his exemplar is +that, while the latter's campaign against pretence and imposture +commands hearty sympathy, Leopardi's philosophical creed is a repulsive +hedonism in the disguise of austere stoicism. The chief interlocutors in +his dialogues all profess the same unmitigated pessimism, claim +emancipation from every illusion that renders life tolerable to the +vulgar, and assert or imply a vast moral and intellectual superiority +over unenlightened mankind. When, however, we come to inquire what +renders them miserable, we find it is nothing but the privation of +pleasurable sensation, fame, fortune or some other external thing which +a lofty code of ethics would deny to be either indefeasibly due to man +or essential to his felicity. A page of _Sartor Resartus_ scatters +Leopardi's sophistry to the winds, and leaves nothing of his dialogues +but the consummate literary skill that would render the least fragment +precious. As works of art they are a possession for ever, as +contributions to moral philosophy they are worthless, and apart from +their literary qualities can only escape condemnation if regarded as +lyrical expressions of emotion, the wail extorted from a diseased mind +by a diseased body. _Filippo Ottonieri_ is a portrait of an imaginary +philosopher, imitated from the biography of a real sage in Lucian's +_Demonax_. Lucian has shown us the philosopher he wished to copy, +Leopardi has truly depicted the philosopher he was. Nothing can be more +striking or more tragical than the picture of the man superior to his +fellows in every quality of head and heart, and yet condemned to +sterility and impotence because he has, as he imagines, gone a step too +far on the road to truth, and illusions exist for him no more. The +little tract is full of remarks on life and character of surprising +depth and justice, manifesting what powers of observation as well as +reflection were possessed by the sickly youth who had seen so little of +the world. + +Want of means soon drove Leopardi back to Recanati, where, deaf, +half-blind, sleepless, tortured by incessant pain, at war with himself +and every one around him except his sister, he spent the two most +unhappy years of his unhappy life. In May 1831 he escaped to Florence, +where he formed the acquaintance of a young Swiss philologist, M. de +Sinner. To him he confided his unpublished philological writings, with a +view to their appearance in Germany. A selection appeared under the +title _Excerpta ex schedis criticis J. Leopardi_ (Bonn, 1834). The +remaining MSS. were purchased after Sinner's death by the Italian +government, and, together with Leopardi's correspondence with the Swiss +philologist, were partially edited by Aulard. In 1831 appeared a new +edition of Leopardi's poems, comprising several new pieces of the +highest merit. These are in general less austerely classical than his +earlier compositions, and evince a greater tendency to description, and +a keener interest in the works and ways of ordinary mankind. _The +Resurrection_, composed on occasion of his unexpected recovery, is a +model of concentrated energy of diction, and _The Song of the Wandering +Shepherd in Asia_ is one of the highest flights of modern lyric poetry. +The range of the author's ideas is still restricted, but his style and +melody are unsurpassable. Shortly after the publication of these pieces +(October 1831) Leopardi was driven from Florence to Rome by an unhappy +attachment. His feelings are powerfully expressed in two poems, _To +Himself_ and _Aspasia_, which seem to breathe wounded pride at least as +much as wounded love. In 1832 Leopardi returned to Florence, and there +formed acquaintance with a young Neapolitan, Antonio Ranieri, himself an +author of merit, and destined to enact towards him the part performed by +Severn towards Keats, an enviable title to renown if Ranieri had not in +his old age tarnished it by assuming the relation of Trelawny to the +dead Byron. Leopardi accompanied Ranieri and his sister to Naples, and +under their care enjoyed four years of comparative tranquillity. He made +the acquaintance of the German poet Platen, his sole modern rival in the +classical perfection of form, and composed _La Ginestra_, the most +consummate of all his lyrical masterpieces, strongly resembling +Shelley's _Mont Blanc_, but more perfect in expression. He also wrote at +Naples _The Sequel to the Battle of the Frogs and Mice_, a satire in +_ottava rima_ on the abortive Neapolitan revolution of 1820, clever and +humorous, but obscure from the local character of the allusions. The +more painful details of his Neapolitan residence may be found by those +who care to seek for them in the deplorable publication of Ranieri's +peevish old age (_Sette anni di sodalizio_). The decay of Leopardi's +constitution continued; he became dropsical; and a sudden crisis of his +malady, unanticipated by himself alone, put an end to his life-long +sufferings on the 15th of June 1837. + + The poems which constitute Leopardi's principal title to immortality + are only forty-one in number, and some of these are merely + fragmentary. They may for the most part be described as odes, + meditative soliloquies, or impassioned addresses, generally couched in + a lyrical form, although a few are in magnificent blank verse. Some + idea of the style and spirit of the former might be obtained by + imagining the thoughts of the last book of Spenser's _Faerie Queene_ + in the metre of his _Epithalamium_. They were first edited complete by + Ranieri at Florence in 1845, forming, along with the _Operette + Morali_, the first volume of an edition of Leopardi's works, which + does not, however, include _The Sequel to the Battle of the Frogs and + Mice_, first printed at Paris in 1842, nor the afterwards discovered + writings. Vols. ii.-iv. contain the philological essays and + translations, with some letters, and vols. v. and vi. the remainder of + the correspondence. Later editions are those of G. Chiarini and G. + Mestica. The juvenile essays preserved in his father's library at + Recanati were edited by Cugnoni (_Opere inedite_) in 1879, with the + consent of the family. See Cappelleti, _Bibliografia Leopardiana_ + (Parma, 1882). Leopardi's biography is mainly in his letters + (_Epistolario_, 1st ed., 1849, 5th ed., 1892), to which his later + biographers (Brandes, Bouché-Leclercq, Rosa) have merely added + criticisms, excellent in their way, more particularly Brandes's, but + generally over-rating Leopardi's significance in the history of human + thought. W. E. Gladstone's essay (_Quart. Rev._, 1850), reprinted in + vol. ii. of the author's _Gleanings_, is too much pervaded by the + theological spirit, but is in the main a pattern of generous and + discriminating eulogy. There are excellent German translations of the + poems by Heyse and Brandes. An English translation of the essays and + dialogues by C. Edwards appeared in 1882, and most of the dialogues + were translated with extraordinary felicity by James Thomson, author + of _The City of Dreadful Night_, and originally published in the + _National Reformer_. (R. G.) + + + + +LEOPARDO, ALESSANDRO (d. c. 1512), Italian sculptor, was born and died +at Venice. His first known work is the imposing mausoleum of the doge +Andrea Vendramini, now in the church of San Giovanni e Paolo; in this he +had the co-operation of Tullio Lombardo, but the finest parts are +Leopardo's. Some of the figures have been taken away, and two in the +Berlin museum are considered to be certainly his work. He was exiled on +a charge of fraud in 1487, and recalled in 1490 by the senate to finish +Verrocchio's colossal statue of Bartolommeo Colleoni. He worked between +1503 and 1505 on the tomb of Cardinal Zeno at St Mark's, which was +finished in 1515 by Pietro Lombardo; and in 1505 he designed and cast +the bronze sockets for the three flagstaffs in the square of St Mark's, +the antique character of the decorations suggesting some Greek model. +(See VENICE.) + + + + +LEOPOLD (M.H. Ger. _Liupolt_, O.H. Ger. _Liupald_, from _liut_, Mod. +Ger. _Leute_, "people," and _pald_, "bold," i.e. "bold for the people"), +the name which has been that of several European sovereigns. + + + + +LEOPOLD I. (1640-1705), Roman emperor, the second son of the emperor +Ferdinand III. and his first wife Maria Anna, daughter of Philip III. of +Spain, was born on the 9th of June 1640. Intended for the Church, he +received a good education, but his prospects were changed by the death +of his elder brother, the German king Ferdinand IV., in July 1654, when +he became his father's heir. In 1655 he was chosen king of Hungary and +in 1656 king of Bohemia, and in July 1658, more than a year after his +father's death, he was elected emperor at Frankfort, in spite of the +intrigues of Cardinal Mazarin, who wished to place on the imperial +throne Ferdinand, elector of Bavaria, or some other prince whose +elevation would break the Habsburg succession. Mazarin, however, +obtained a promise from the new emperor that he would not send +assistance to Spain, then at war with France, and, by joining a +confederation of German princes, called the league of the Rhine, France +secured a certain influence in the internal affairs of Germany. +Leopold's long reign covers one of the most important periods of +European history; for nearly the whole of its forty-seven years he was +pitted against Louis XIV. of France, whose dominant personality +completely overshadowed Leopold. The emperor was a man of peace and +never led his troops in person; yet the greater part of his public life +was spent in arranging and directing wars. The first was with Sweden, +whose king Charles X. found a useful ally in the prince of Transylvania, +George II. Rakocky, a rebellious vassal of the Hungarian crown. This +war, a legacy of the last reign, was waged by Leopold as the ally of +Poland until peace was made at Oliva in 1660. A more dangerous foe next +entered the lists. The Turks interfered in the affairs of Transylvania, +always an unruly district, and this interference brought on a war with +the Empire, which after some desultory operations really began in 1663. +By a personal appeal to the diet at Regensburg Leopold induced the +princes to send assistance for the campaign; troops were also sent by +France, and in August 1664 the great imperialist general, Montecucculi, +gained a notable victory at St Gotthard. By the peace of Vasvar the +emperor made a twenty years' truce with the sultan, granting more +generous terms than his recent victory seemed to render necessary. + +After a few years of peace began the first of three wars between France +and the Empire. The aggressive policy pursued by Louis XIV. towards +Holland had aroused the serious attention of Europe, and steps had been +taken to check it. Although the French king had sought the alliance of +several German princes and encouraged the Turks in their attacks on +Austria the emperor at first took no part in this movement. He was on +friendly terms with Louis, to whom he was closely related and with whom +he had already discussed the partition of the lands of the Spanish +monarchy; moreover, in 1671 he arranged with him a treaty of neutrality. +In 1672, however, he was forced to take action. He entered into an +alliance for the defence of Holland and war broke out; then, after this +league had collapsed owing to the defection of the elector of +Brandenburg, another and more durable alliance was formed for the same +purpose, including, besides the emperor, the king of Spain and several +German princes, and the war was renewed. At this time, twenty-five years +after the peace of Westphalia, the Empire was virtually a confederation +of independent princes, and it was very difficult for its head to +conduct any war with vigour and success, some of its members being in +alliance with the enemy and others being only lukewarm in their support +of the imperial interests. Thus this struggle, which lasted until the +end of 1678, was on the whole unfavourable to Germany, and the +advantages of the treaty of Nijmwegen (February 1679) were with France. + +Almost immediately after the conclusion of peace Louis renewed his +aggressions on the German frontier. Engaged in a serious struggle with +Turkey, the emperor was again slow to move, and although he joined a +league against France in 1682 he was glad to make a truce at Regensburg +two years later. In 1686 the league of Augsburg was formed by the +emperor and the imperial princes, to preserve the terms of the treaties +of Westphalia and of Nijmwegen. The whole European position was now +bound up with events in England, and the tension lasted until 1688, when +William of Orange won the English crown and Louis invaded Germany. In +May 1689 the grand alliance was formed, including the emperor, the kings +of England, Spain and Denmark, the elector of Brandenburg and others, +and a fierce struggle against France was waged throughout almost the +whole of western Europe. In general the several campaigns were +favourable to the allies, and in September 1697 England and Holland made +peace with Louis at Ryswick. To this treaty Leopold refused to assent, +as he considered that his allies had somewhat neglected his interests, +but in the following month he came to terms and a number of places were +transferred from France to Germany. The peace with France lasted for +about four years and then Europe was involved in the War of the Spanish +Succession. The king of Spain, Charles II., was a Habsburg by descent +and was related by marriage to the Austrian branch, while a similar tie +bound him to the royal house of France. He was feeble and childless, and +attempts had been made by the European powers to arrange for a peaceable +division of his extensive kingdom. Leopold refused to consent to any +partition, and when in November 1700 Charles died, leaving his crown to +Philip, duke of Anjou, a grandson of Louis XIV., all hopes of a +peaceable settlement vanished. Under the guidance of William III. a +powerful league, the grand alliance, was formed against France; of this +the emperor was a prominent member, and in 1703 he transferred his claim +on the Spanish monarchy to his second son, the archduke Charles. The +early course of the war was not favourable to the imperialists, but the +tide of defeat had been rolled back by the great victory of Blenheim +before Leopold died on the 5th of May 1705. + +In governing his own lands Leopold found his chief difficulties in +Hungary, where unrest was caused partly by his desire to crush +Protestantism. A rising was suppressed in 1671 and for some years +Hungary was treated with great severity. In 1681, after another rising, +some grievances were removed and a less repressive policy was adopted, +but this did not deter the Hungarians from revolting again. Espousing +the cause of the rebels the sultan sent an enormous army into Austria +early in 1683; this advanced almost unchecked to Vienna, which was +besieged from July to September, while Leopold took refuge at Passau. +Realizing the gravity of the situation somewhat tardily, some of the +German princes, among them the electors of Saxony and Bavaria, led their +contingents to the imperial army which was commanded by the emperor's +brother-in-law, Charles, duke of Lorraine, but the most redoubtable of +Leopold's allies was the king of Poland, John Sobieski, who was already +dreaded by the Turks. On the 12th of September 1683 the allied army fell +upon the enemy, who was completely routed, and Vienna was saved. The +imperialists, among whom Prince Eugene of Savoy was rapidly becoming +prominent, followed up the victory with others, notably one near Mohacz +in 1687 and another at Zenta in 1697, and in January 1699 the sultan +signed the treaty of Karlowitz by which he admitted the sovereign rights +of the house of Habsburg over nearly the whole of Hungary. Before the +conclusion of the war, however, Leopold had taken measures to strengthen +his hold upon this country. In 1687 at the diet of Pressburg the +constitution was changed, the right of the Habsburgs to succeed to the +throne without election was admitted and the emperor's elder son Joseph +was crowned hereditary king of Hungary. + +During this reign some important changes were made in the constitution +of the Empire. In 1663 the imperial diet entered upon the last stage of +its existence, and became a body permanently in session at Regensburg; +in 1692 the duke of Hanover was raised to the rank of an elector, +becoming the ninth member of the electoral college; and in 1700 Leopold, +greatly in need of help for the impending war with France, granted the +title of king of Prussia to the elector of Brandenburg. The net result +of these and similar changes was to weaken the authority of the emperor +over the members of the Empire, and to compel him to rely more and more +upon his position as ruler of the Austrian archduchies and of Hungary +and Bohemia, and Leopold was the first who really appears to have +realized this altered state of affairs and to have acted in accordance +therewith. + +The emperor was married three times. His first wife was Margaret Theresa +(d. 1673), daughter of Philip IV. of Spain; his second Claudia Felicitas +(d. 1676), the heiress of Tirol; and his third Eleanora, a princess of +the Palatinate. By his first two wives he had no sons, but his third +wife bore him two, Joseph and Charles, both of whom became emperors. He +had also four daughters. + +Leopold was a man of industry and education, and during his later years +he showed some political ability. Extremely tenacious of his rights, and +regarding himself as an absolute sovereign, he was also very intolerant +and was greatly influenced by the Jesuits. In person he was short, but +strong and healthy. Although he had no inclination for a military life +he loved exercises in the open air, such as hunting and riding; he had +also a taste for music. + + Leopold's letters to Marco d'Aviano from 1680 to 1699 were edited by + O. Klopp and published at Graz in 1888. Other letters are found in the + _Fontes rerum Austriacarum_, Bände 56 and 57 (Vienna, 1903-1904). See + also F. Krones, _Handbuch der Geschichte Österreichs_ (Berlin, + 1876-1879); R. Baumstark, _Kaiser Leopold I._ (1873); and A. F. + Pribram, _Zur Wahl Leopolds I._ (Vienna, 1888). (A. W. H.*) + + + + +LEOPOLD II. (1747-1792), Roman emperor, and grand-duke of Tuscany, son +of the empress Maria Theresa and her husband, Francis I., was born in +Vienna on the 5th of May 1747. He was a third son, and was at first +educated for the priesthood, but the theological studies to which he was +forced to apply himself are believed to have influenced his mind in a +way unfavourable to the Church. On the death of his elder brother +Charles in 1761 it was decided that he should succeed to his father's +grand duchy of Tuscany, which was erected into a "secundogeniture" or +apanage for a second son. This settlement was the condition of his +marriage on the 5th of August 1764 with Maria Louisa, daughter of +Charles III. of Spain, and on the death of his father Francis I. (13th +August 1765) he succeeded to the grand duchy. For five years he +exercised little more than nominal authority under the supervision of +counsellors appointed by his mother. In 1770 he made a journey to Vienna +to secure the removal of this vexatious guardianship, and returned to +Florence with a free hand. During the twenty years which elapsed between +his return to Florence and the death of his eldest brother Joseph II. in +1790 he was employed in reforming the administration of his small state. +The reformation was carried out by the removal of the ruinous +restrictions on industry and personal freedom imposed by his +predecessors of the house of Medici, and left untouched during his +father's life; by the introduction of a rational system of taxation; and +by the execution of profitable public works, such as the drainage of the +Val di Chiana. As he had no army to maintain, and as he suppressed the +small naval force kept up by the Medici, the whole of his revenue was +left free for the improvement of his state. Leopold was never popular +with his Italian subjects. His disposition was cold and retiring. His +habits were simple to the verge of sordidness, though he could display +splendour on occasion, and he could not help offending those of his +subjects who had profited by the abuses of the Medicean régime. But his +steady, consistent and intelligent administration, which advanced step +by step, making the second only when the first had been justified by +results, brought the grand duchy to a high level of material prosperity. +His ecclesiastical policy, which disturbed the deeply rooted convictions +of his people, and brought him into collision with the pope, was not +successful. He was unable to secularize the property of the religious +houses, or to put the clergy entirely under the control of the lay +power. + +During the last few years of his rule in Tuscany Leopold had begun to be +frightened by the increasing disorders in the German and Hungarian +dominions of his family, which were the direct result of his brother's +headlong methods. He and Joseph II. were tenderly attached to one +another, and met frequently both before and after the death of their +mother, while the portrait by Pompeo Baltoni in which they appear +together shows that they bore a strong personal resemblance to one +another. But it may be said of Leopold, as of Fontenelle, that his heart +was made of brains. He knew that he must succeed his childless eldest +brother in Austria, and he was unwilling to inherit his unpopularity. +When, therefore, in 1789 Joseph, who knew himself to be dying, asked him +to come to Vienna, and become co-regent, Leopold coldly evaded the +request. He was still in Florence when Joseph II. died at Vienna on the +20th of February 1790, and he did not leave his Italian capital till the +3rd of March. Leopold, during his government in Tuscany, had shown a +speculative tendency to grant his subjects a constitution. When he +succeeded to the Austrian lands he began by making large concessions to +the interests offended by his brother's innovations. He recognized the +Estates of his different dominions as "the pillars of the monarchy," +pacified the Hungarians and divided the Belgian insurgents by +concessions. When these failed to restore order, he marched troops into +the country, and re-established at the same time his own authority, and +the historic franchises of the Flemings. Yet he did not surrender any +part that could be retained of what Maria Theresa and Joseph had done to +strengthen the hands of the state. He continued, for instance, to insist +that no papal bull could be published in his dominions without his +consent (_placetum regium_). + +If Leopold's reign as emperor, and king of Hungary and Bohemia, had been +prolonged during years of peace, it is probable that he would have +repeated his successes as a reforming ruler in Tuscany on a far larger +scale. But he lived for barely two years, and during that period he was +hard pressed by peril from west and east alike. The growing +revolutionary disorders in France endangered the life of his sister +Marie Antoinette, the queen of Louis XVI., and also threatened his own +dominions with the spread of a subversive agitation. His sister sent him +passionate appeals for help, and he was pestered by the royalist +emigrants, who were intriguing both to bring about an armed intervention +in France, and against Louis XVI. From the east he was threatened by the +aggressive ambition of Catherine II. of Russia, and by the unscrupulous +policy of Prussia. Catherine would have been delighted to see Austria +and Prussia embark on a crusade in the cause of kings against the +Revolution. While they were busy beyond the Rhine, she would have +annexed what remained of Poland, and would have made conquests in +Turkey. Leopold II. had no difficulty in seeing through the rather +transparent cunning of the Russian empress, and he refused to be misled. +To his sister he gave good advice and promises of help if she and her +husband could escape from Paris. The emigrants who followed him +pertinaciously were refused audience, or when they forced themselves on +him were peremptorily denied all help. Leopold was too purely a +politician not to be secretly pleased at the destruction of the power of +France and of her influence in Europe by her internal disorders. Within +six weeks of his accession he displayed his contempt for her weakness by +practically tearing up the treaty of alliance made by Maria Theresa in +1756 and opening negotiations with England to impose a check on Russia +and Prussia. He was able to put pressure on England by threatening to +cede his part of the Low Countries to France, and then, when secure of +English support, he was in a position to baffle the intrigues of +Prussia. A personal appeal to Frederick William II. led to a conference +between them at Reichenbach in July 1790, and to an arrangement which +was in fact a defeat for Prussia. Leopold's coronation as king of +Hungary on the 15th of November 1790, was preceded by a settlement with +the diet in which he recognized the dominant position of the Magyars. He +had already made an eight months' truce with the Turks in September, +which prepared the way for the termination of the war begun by Joseph +II., the peace of Sistova being signed in August 1791. The pacification +of his eastern dominions left Leopold free to re-establish order in +Belgium and to confirm friendly relations with England and Holland. + +During 1791 the emperor continued to be increasingly preoccupied with +the affairs of France. In January he had to dismiss the count of Artois, +afterwards Charles X., king of France, in a very peremptory way. His +good sense was revolted by the folly of the French emigrants, and he did +his utmost to avoid being entangled in the affairs of that country. The +insults inflicted on Louis XVI. and Marie Antoinette, however, at the +time of their attempted flight to Varennes in June, stirred his +indignation, and he made a general appeal to the sovereigns of Europe to +take common measures in view of events which "immediately compromised +the honour of all sovereigns, and the security of all governments." Yet +he was most directly interested in the conference at Sistova, which in +June led to a final peace with Turkey. On the 25th of August he met the +king of Prussia at Pillnitz, near Dresden, and they drew up a +declaration of their readiness to intervene in France if and when their +assistance was called for by the other powers. The declaration was a +mere formality, for, as Leopold knew, neither Russia nor England was +prepared to act, and he endeavoured to guard against the use which he +foresaw the emigrants would endeavour to make of it. In face of the +agitation caused by the Pillnitz declaration in France, the intrigues of +the emigrants, and the attacks made by the French revolutionists on the +rights of the German princes in Alsace, Leopold continued to hope that +intervention might not be required. When Louis XVI. swore to observe the +constitution of September 1791, the emperor professed to think that a +settlement had been reached in France. The attacks on the rights of the +German princes on the left bank of the Rhine, and the increasing +violence of the parties in Paris which were agitating to bring about +war, soon showed, however, that this hope was vain. Leopold met the +threatening language of the revolutionists with dignity and temper. His +sudden death on the 1st of March 1792 was an irreparable loss to +Austria. + +Leopold had sixteen children, the eldest of his eight sons being his +successor, the emperor Francis II. Some of his other sons were prominent +personages in their day. Among them were: Ferdinand III., grand duke of +Tuscany; the archduke Charles, a celebrated soldier; the archduke John, +also a soldier; the archduke Joseph, palatine of Hungary; and the +archduke Rainer, viceroy of Lombardy-Venetia. + + Several volumes containing the emperor's correspondence have been + published. Among these are: _Joseph II. und Leopold von Toskana. Ihr + Briefwechsel 1781-1790_ (Vienna, 1872), and _Marie Antoinette, Joseph + II. und Leopold II. Ihr Briefwechsel_ (Vienna, 1866), both edited by + A. Ritter von Arneth; _Joseph II., Leopold II. und Kaunitz. Ihr + Briefwechsel_ (Vienna, 1873); and _Leopold II., Franz II. und + Catharina. Ihre Correspondenz nebst einer Einleitung: Zur Geschichte + der Politik Leopolds II._ (Leipzig, 1874), both edited by A. Beer; and + _Leopold II. und Marie Christine. Ihrand Briefwechsel 1781-1792_, + edited by A. Wolf (Vienna, 1867). See also H. von Sybel, _Über die + Regierung Kaiser Leopolds II._ (Munich, 1860); A. Schultze, _Kaiser + Leopold II. und die französische Revolution_ (Leipzig, 1899); and A. + Wolf and H. von Zwiedeneck-Südenhorst, _Österreich unter Maria + Theresa, Joseph II. und Leopold II._ (Berlin, 1882-1884). + + + + +LEOPOLD I. (1790-1865), king of the Belgians, fourth son of Francis, +duke of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld, and uncle of Queen Victoria of England, +was born at Coburg on the 18th of December 1790. At the age of eighteen +he entered the military service of Russia, and accompanied the emperor +Alexander to Erfurt as a member of his staff. He was required by +Napoleon to quit the Russian army, and spent some years in travelling. +In 1813 he accepted from the emperor Alexander the post of a cavalry +general in the army of invasion, and he took part in the whole of the +campaign of that and the following year, distinguishing himself in the +battles of Leipzig, Lützen and Bautzen. He entered Paris with the allied +sovereigns, and accompanied them to England. He married in May 1816 +Charlotte, only child of George, prince regent, afterwards George IV., +heiress-presumptive to the British throne, and was created duke of +Kendal in the British peerage and given an annuity of £50,000. The death +of the princess in the following year was a heavy blow to his hopes, but +he continued to reside in England. In 1830 he declined the offer of the +crown of Greece, owing to the refusal of the powers to grant conditions +which he considered essential to the welfare of the new kingdom, but was +in the following year elected king of the Belgians (4th June 1831). +After some hesitation he accepted the crown, having previously +ascertained that he would have the support of the great powers on +entering upon his difficult task, and on the 12th of July he made his +entry into Brussels and took the oath to observe the constitution. +During the first eight years of his reign he was confronted with the +resolute hostility of King William I. of Holland, and it was not until +1839 that the differences between the two states, which until 1830 had +formed the kingdom of the Netherlands, were finally settled at the +conference of London by the treaty of the 24 Articles (see BELGIUM). +From this date until his death, King Leopold spent all his energies in +the wise administration of the affairs of the newly formed kingdom, +which may be said to owe in a large measure its first consolidation and +constant prosperity to the care and skill of his discreet and fatherly +government. In 1848 the throne of Belgium stood unshaken amidst the +revolutions which marked that year in almost every European country. On +the 8th of August 1832 Leopold married, as his second wife, Louise of +Orleans, daughter of Louis Philippe, king of the French. Queen Louise +endeared herself to the Belgian people, and her death in 1850 was felt +as a national loss. This union produced two sons and one daughter--(1) +Leopold, afterwards king of the Belgians; (2) Philip, count of Flanders; +(3) Marie Charlotte, who married Maximilian of Austria, the unfortunate +emperor of Mexico. Leopold I. died at Laeken on the 10th of December +1865. He was a most cultured man and a great reader, and did his utmost +during his reign to encourage art, science and education. His judgment +was universally respected by contemporary sovereigns and statesmen, and +he was frequently spoken of as "the Nestor of Europe" (see also +VICTORIA, QUEEN). + + See Th. Juste, _Léopold I^er, roi des Belges d'après des doc. inéd. + 1793-1865_ (2 vols., Brussels, 1868), and _Les Fondateurs de la + monarchie Belge_ (22 vols., Brussels, 1878-1880); J. J. Thonissen, _La + Belgique sous le règne de Léopold I^er_ (Louvain, 1862). + + + + +LEOPOLD II. [LEOPOLD LOUIS PHILIPPE MARIE VICTOR] (1835-1909), king of +the Belgians, son of the preceding, was born at Brussels on the 9th of +April 1835. In 1846 he was created duke of Brabant and appointed a +sub-lieutenant in the army, in which he served until his accession, by +which time he had reached the rank of lieutenant-general. On attaining +his majority he was made a member of the senate, in whose proceedings he +took a lively interest, especially in matters concerning the development +of Belgium and its trade. On the 22nd of August 1853 Leopold married +Marie Henriette (1836-1902), daughter of the archduke Joseph of Austria, +palatine of Hungary, by his wife Marie Dorothea, duchess of Württemberg. +This princess, who was a great-granddaughter of the empress Maria +Theresa, and a great-niece of Marie Antoinette, endeared herself to the +people by her elevated character and indefatigable benevolence, while +her beauty gained for her the sobriquet of "The Rose of Brabant"; she +was also an accomplished artist and musician, and a fine horsewoman. +Between the years 1854 and 1865 Leopold travelled much abroad, visiting +India and China as well as Egypt and the countries on the Mediterranean +coast of Africa. On the 10th of December 1865 he succeeded his father. +On the 28th of January 1869 he lost his only son, Leopold (b. 1859), +duke of Hainaut. The king's brother Philip, count of Flanders +(1837-1905), then became heir to the throne; and on his death his son +Albert (b. 1875) became heir-presumptive. During the Franco-Prussian War +(1870-1871) the king of the Belgians preserved neutrality in a period of +unusual difficulty and danger. But the most notable event in Leopold's +career was the foundation of the Congo Free State (q.v.). While still +duke of Brabant he had been the first to call the attention of the +Belgians to the need of enlarging their horizon beyond sea, and after +his accession to the throne he gave the first impulse towards the +development of this idea by founding in 1876 the _Association +Internationale Africaine_. He enlisted the services of H. M. Stanley, +who visited Brussels in 1878 after exploring the Congo river, and +returned in 1879 to the Congo as agent of the _Comité d'Études du Haut +Congo_, soon afterwards reorganized as the "International Association of +the Congo." This association was, in 1884-1885, recognized by the powers +as a sovereign state under the name of the _État Indépendant du Congo_. +Leopold's exploitation of this vast territory, which he administered +autocratically, and in which he associated himself personally with +various financial schemes, was understood to bring him an enormous +fortune; it was the subject of acutely hostile criticism, to a large +extent substantiated by the report of a commission of inquiry instituted +by the king himself in 1904, and followed in 1908 by the annexation of +the state to Belgium (see CONGO FREE STATE: _History_). In 1880 Leopold +sought an interview with General C. G. Gordon and obtained his promise, +subject to the approval of the British government, to enter the Belgian +service on the Congo. Three years later Leopold claimed fulfilment of +the promise, and Gordon was about to proceed to the Congo when the +British government required his services for the Sudan. On the 15th of +November 1902 King Leopold's life was attempted in Brussels by an +Italian anarchist named Rubino. Queen Marie Henriette died at Spa on the +19th of September of the same year. Besides the son already mentioned +she had borne to Leopold three daughters--Louise Marie Amélie (b. 1858), +who in 1875 married Philip of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, and was divorced in +1906; Stéphanie (b. 1864), who married Rudolph, crown prince of Austria, +in 1881, and after his death in 1889 married, against her father's +wishes, Elemer, Count Lonyay, in 1900; and Clémentine (b. 1872). At the +time of the queen's death an unseemly incident was occasioned by +Leopold's refusal to see his daughter Stéphanie, who in consequence was +not present at her mother's funeral. The disagreeable impression on the +public mind thus created was deepened by an unfortunate litigation, +lasting for two years (1904-1906), over the deceased queen's will, in +which the creditors of the princess Louise, together with princess +Stéphanie (Countess Lonyay), claimed that under the Belgian law the +queen's estate was entitled to half of her husband's property. This +claim was disallowed by the Belgian courts. The king died at Laeken, +near Brussels, on the 17th of December 1909. On the 23rd of that month +his nephew took the oath to observe the constitution, assuming the title +of Albert I. King Leopold was personally a man of considerable +attainments and much strength of character, but he was a notoriously +dissolute monarch, who even to the last offended decent opinion by his +indulgences at Paris and on the Riviera. The wealth he amassed from the +Congo he spent, no doubt, royally not only in this way but also on +public improvements in Belgium; but he had a hard heart towards the +natives of his distant possession. + + + + +LEOPOLD II. (1797-1870), of Habsburg-Lorraine, grand-duke of Tuscany, +was born on the 3rd of October 1797, the son of the grand-duke Ferdinand +III., whom he succeeded in 1824. During the first twenty years of his +reign he devoted himself to the internal development of the state. His +was the mildest and least reactionary of all the Italian despotisms of +the day, and although always subject to Austrian influence he refused to +adopt the Austrian methods of government, allowed a fair measure of +liberty to the press, and permitted many political exiles from other +states to dwell in Tuscany undisturbed. But when in the early 'forties a +feeling of unrest spread throughout Italy, even in Tuscany demands for a +constitution and other political reforms were advanced; in 1845-1846 +riots broke out in various parts of the country, and Leopold granted a +number of administrative reforms. But Austrian influence prevented him +from going further, even had he wished to do so. The election of Pope +Pius IX. gave fresh impulse to the Liberal movement, and on the 4th of +September 1847 Leopold instituted the National Guard--a first step +towards the constitution; shortly after the marchese Cosimo Ridolfi was +appointed prime minister. The granting of the Neapolitan and Piedmontese +constitutions was followed (17th February 1848) by that of Tuscany, +drawn up by Gino Capponi. The revolution in Milan and Vienna aroused a +fever of patriotic enthusiasm in Tuscany, where war against Austria was +demanded; Leopold, giving way to popular pressure, sent a force of +regulars and volunteers to co-operate with Piedmont in the Lombard +campaign. His speech on their departure was uncompromisingly Italian and +Liberal. "Soldiers," he said, "the holy cause of Italian freedom is +being decided to-day on the fields of Lombardy. Already the citizens of +Milan have purchased their liberty with their blood and with a heroism +of which history offers few examples.... Honour to the arms of Italy! +Long live Italian independence!" The Tuscan contingent fought bravely, +if unsuccessfully, at Curtatone and Montanara. On the 26th of June the +first Tuscan parliament assembled, but the disturbances consequent on +the failure of the campaign in Lombardy led to the resignation of the +Ridolfi ministry, which was succeeded by that of Gino Capponi. The riots +continued, especially at Leghorn, which was a prey to actual civil war, +and the democratic party of which F. D. Guerrazzi and G. Montanelli were +leading lights became every day more influential. Capponi resigned, and +Leopold reluctantly agreed to a Montanelli-Guerrazzi ministry, which in +its turn had to fight against the extreme republican party. New +elections in the autumn of 1848 returned a constitutional majority, but +it ended by voting in favour of a constituent assembly. There was talk +of instituting a central Italian kingdom with Leopold as king, to form +part of a larger Italian federation, but in the meanwhile the +grand-duke, alarmed at the revolutionary and republican agitations in +Tuscany and encouraged by the success of the Austrian arms, was, +according to Montanelli, negotiating with Field-Marshal Radetzky and +with Pius IX., who had now abandoned his Liberal tendencies, and fled to +Gaeta. Leopold had left Florence for Siena, and eventually for Porto S. +Stefano, leaving a letter to Guerrazzi in which, on account of a protest +from the pope, he declared that he could not agree to the proposed +constituent assembly. The utmost confusion prevailed in Florence and +other parts of Tuscany. On the 9th of February 1849 the republic was +proclaimed, largely as a result of Mazzini's exhortations, and on the +18th Leopold sailed for Gaeta. A third parliament was elected and +Guerrazzi appointed dictator. But there was great discontent, and the +defeat of Charles Albert at Novara caused consternation among the +Liberals. The majority, while fearing an Austrian invasion, desired the +return of the grand-duke who had never been unpopular, and in April 1849 +the municipal council usurped the powers of the assembly and invited him +to return, "to save us by means of the restoration of the constitutional +monarchy surrounded by popular institutions, from the shame and ruin of +a foreign invasion." Leopold accepted, although he said nothing about +the foreign invasion, and on the 1st of May sent Count Luigi Serristori +to Tuscany with full powers. But at the same time the Austrians occupied +Lucca and Leghorn, and although Leopold simulated surprise at their +action it has since been proved, as the Austrian general d'Aspre +declared at the time, that Austrian intervention was due to the request +of the grand-duke. On the 24th of May the latter appointed G. +Baldasseroni prime minister, on the 25th the Austrians entered Florence +and on the 28th of July Leopold himself returned. In April 1850 he +concluded a treaty with Austria sanctioning the continuation for an +indefinite period of the Austrian occupation with 10,000 men; in +September he dismissed parliament, and the following year established a +concordat with the Church of a very clerical character. He feebly asked +Austria if he might maintain the constitution, and the Austrian premier, +Prince Schwarzenberg, advised him to consult the pope, the king of +Naples and the dukes of Parma and Modena. On their advice he formally +revoked the constitution (1852). Political trials were held, Guerrazzi +and many others being condemned to long terms of imprisonment, and +although in 1855 the Austrian troops left Tuscany, Leopold's popularity +was gone. A part of the Liberals, however, still believed in the +possibility of a constitutional grand-duke who could be induced for a +second time to join Piedmont in a war against Austria, whereas the +popular party headed by F. Bartolommei and G. Dolfi realized that only +by the expulsion of Leopold could the national aspirations be realized. +When in 1859 France and Piedmont made war on Austria, Leopold's +government failed to prevent numbers of young Tuscan volunteers from +joining the Franco-Piedmontese forces. Finally an agreement was arrived +at between the aristocratic constitutionalists and the popular party, as +a result of which the grand-duke's participation in the war was formally +demanded. Leopold at first gave way, and entrusted Don Neri Corsini with +the formation of a ministry. The popular demands presented by Corsini +were for the abdication of Leopold in favour of his son, an alliance +with Piedmont and the reorganization of Tuscany in accordance with the +eventual and definite reorganization of Italy. Leopold hesitated and +finally rejected the proposals as derogatory to his dignity. On the 27th +of April there was great excitement in Florence, Italian colours +appeared everywhere, but order was maintained, and the grand-duke and +his family departed for Bologna undisturbed. Thus the revolution was +accomplished without a drop of blood being shed, and after a period of +provisional government Tuscany was incorporated in the kingdom of Italy. +On the 21st of July Leopold abdicated in favour of his son Ferdinand +IV., who never reigned, but issued a protest from Dresden (26th March +1860). He spent his last years in Austria, and died in Rome on the 29th +of January 1870. + +Leopold of Tuscany was a well-meaning, not unkindly man, and fonder of +his subjects than were the other Italian despots, but he was weak, and +too closely bound by family ties and Habsburg traditions ever to become +a real Liberal. Had he not joined the conclave of autocrats at Gaeta, +and, above all, had he not summoned Austrian assistance while denying +that he had done so, in 1849, he might yet have preserved his throne, +and even changed the whole course of Italian history. At the same time +his rule, if not harsh, was enervating and demoralizing. + + See G. Baldasseroni, _Leopoldo II._ (Florence, 1871), useful but + reactionary in tendency, the author having been Leopold's minister, G. + Montanelli, _Memorie sull' Italia_ (Turin, 1853); F. D. Guerrazzi, + _Memorie_ (Leghorn, 1848); Zobi, _Storia civile della Toscana_, vols. + iv.-v. (Florence, 1850-1852); A. von Reumont, _Geschichte Toscanas_ (2 + vols., Gotha, 1876-1877); M. Bartolommei-Gioli, _Il Rivolgimento + Toscano e L'azione popolare_ (Florence, 1905); C. Tivaroni, _L' Italia + durante il dominio Austriaco_, vol. i. (Turin, 1892), and _L' Italia + degli Italiani_, vol. i. (Turin, 1895). See also RICASOLI; + BARTOLOMMEI; CAPPONI, GINO; &c. (L. V.*) + + + + +LEOPOLD II., a lake of Central Africa in the basin of the Kasai affluent +of the Congo, cut by 2° S. and 18° 10´ E. It has a length N. to S. of +about 75 m., is 30 m. across at its northern end, tapering towards its +southern end. Numerous bays and gulfs render its outline highly +irregular. Its shores are flat and marshy, the lake being (in all +probability) simply the lowest part of a vast lake which existed here +before the Kasai system breached the barrier--at Kwa mouth--separating +it from the Congo. The lake is fed by the Lokoro (about 300 m. long) and +smaller streams from the east. Its northern and western affluents are +comparatively unimportant. It discharges its waters (at its southern +end) into the Mfini, which is in reality the lower course of the +Lukenye. The lake is gradually diminishing in area; in the rainy season +it overflows its banks. The surrounding country is very flat and densely +wooded. + + See KASAI; and articles and maps in _Le Mouvement géog._, specially + vol. xiv., No. 29 (1897) and vol. xxiv., No. 38 (1907). + + + + +LEOTYCHIDES, Spartan king, of the Eurypontid family, was descended from +Theopompus through his younger son Anaxandridas (Herod. viii. 131), and +in 491 B.C. succeeded Demaratus (q.v.), whose title to the throne he had +with Cleomenes' aid successfully challenged. He took part in Cleomenes' +second expedition to Aegina, on which ten hostages were seized and +handed over to the Athenians for safe custody: for this he narrowly +escaped being surrendered to the Aeginetans after Cleomenes' death. In +the spring of 479 we find him in command of the Greek fleet of 110 +ships, first at Aegina and afterwards at Delos. In August he attacked +the Persian position at Mycale on the coast of Asia Minor opposite +Samos, inflicted a crushing defeat on the land-army, and annihilated the +fleet which was drawn up on the shore. Soon afterwards he sailed home +with the Peloponnesians, leaving the Athenians to prosecute the siege of +Sestos. In 476 he led an army to Thessaly to punish the Aleuadae of +Larisa for the aid they had rendered to the Persians and to strengthen +Spartan influence in northern Greece. After a series of successful +engagements he accepted a bribe from the enemy to withdraw. For this he +was brought to trial at Sparta, and to save his life fled to the temple +of Athena Alea at Tegea. Sentence of exile was passed, his house was +razed and his grandson Archidamus II. ascended the throne (Herod. vi. +65-87, ix. 90-114; Thucydides i. 89; Pausanias iii. 4. 3. 7. 9-10; +Plutarch, _De malignitate Herodoti_, 21, p. 859 D; Diodorus xi. 34-37). + + According to Diodorus (xi. 48) Leotychides reigned twenty-two, his + successor Archidamus forty-two years. The total duration of the two + reigns, sixty-four years, we know to be correct, for Leotychides came + to the throne in 491 and Archidamus (q.v.) died in 427. On this basis, + then, Leotychides's exile would fall in 469 and the Thessalian + expedition in that or the preceding year (so E. Meyer, _Geschichte des + Altertums_, iii. § 287). But Diodorus is not consistent with himself; + he attributes (xi. 48) Leotychides's death to the year 476-475 and he + records (xii. 35) Archidamus's death in 434-433, though he introduces + him in the following years at the head of the Peloponnesian army (xii. + 42, 47, 52). Further, he says expressly that Leotychides [Greek: + eteleutêsen arxas etê eikosi kai duo], i.e. he lived twenty-two years + after his accession. The twenty-two years, then, may include the time + which elapsed between his exile and his death. In that case + Leotychides died in 469, and 476-475 may be the year in which his + reign, though not his life, ended. This date seems, from what we know + of the political situation in general, to be more probable than the + later one for the Thessalian campaign. + + G. Busolt, _Griech. Geschichte_, iii. 83, note; J. B. Bury, _History + of Greece_, p. 326; G. Grote, _History of Greece_, new edition 1888, + iv. 349, note; also abridged edition 1907, p. 273, note 3. Beloch's + view (_Griech. Geschichte_, i. 455, note 2) that the expedition took + place in 476, the trial and flight in 469, is not generally accepted. + (M. N. T.) + + + + +LEOVIGILD, or LÖWENHELD (d. 586), king of the Visigoths, became king in +568 after the short period of anarchy which followed the death of King +Athanagild, whose widow, Goisvintha, he married. At first he ruled that +part of the Visigothic kingdom which lay to the south of the Pyrenees, +his brother Liuva or Leova governing the small part to the north of +these mountains; but in 572 Liuva died and Leovigild became sole king. +At this time the Visigoths who settled in Spain early in the 5th century +were menaced by two powerful enemies, the Suevi who had a small kingdom +in the north-west of the peninsula, and the Byzantines who had answered +Athanagild's appeal for help by taking possession of a stretch of +country in the south-east. Their kingdom, too, was divided and weakened +by the fierce hostility between the orthodox Christians and those who +professed Arianism. Internal and external dangers alike, however, failed +to daunt Leovigild, who may fairly be called the restorer of the +Visigothic kingdom. He turned first against the Byzantines, who were +defeated several times; he took Cordova and chastised the Suevi; and +then by stern measures he destroyed the power of those unruly and +rebellious chieftains who had reduced former kings to the position of +ciphers. The chronicler tells how, having given peace to his people, he, +first of the Visigothic sovereigns, assumed the attire of a king and +made Toledo his capital. He strengthened the position of his family and +provided for the security of his kingdom by associating his two sons, +Recared and Hermenegild, with himself in the kingly office and placing +parts of the land under their rule. Leovigild himself was an Arian, +being the last of the Visigothic kings to hold that creed; but he was +not a bitter foe of the orthodox Christians, although he was obliged to +punish them when they conspired against him with his external enemies. +His son Hermenegild, however, was converted to the orthodox faith +through the influence of his Frankish wife, Ingundis, daughter of King +Sigebert I., and of Leander, metropolitan of Seville. Allying himself +with the Byzantines and other enemies of the Visigoths, and supported by +most of the orthodox Christians he headed a formidable insurrection. The +struggle was fierce; but at length, employing persuasion as well as +force, the old king triumphed. Hermenegild was captured; he refused to +give up his faith and in March or April 585 he was executed. He was +canonized at the request of Philip II., king of Spain, by Pope Sixtus V. +About this time Leovigild put an end to the kingdom of the Suevi. During +his last years he was engaged in a war with the Franks. He died at +Toledo on the 21st of April 586 and was succeeded by his son Recared. + + + + +LEPANTO,[1] BATTLE OF, fought on the 7th of October 1571. The conquest +of Cyprus by the Turks, and their aggressions on the Christian powers, +frightened the states of the Mediterranean into forming a holy league +for their common defence. The main promoter of the league was Pope Pius +V., but the bulk of the forces was supplied by the republic of Venice +and Philip II. of Spain, who was peculiarly interested in checking the +Turks both because of the Moorish element in the population of Spain, +and because he was also sovereign of Naples and Sicily. In compliment to +King Philip, the general command of the league's fleet was given to his +natural brother, Don John of Austria. It included, however, only +twenty-four Spanish ships. The great majority of the two hundred galleys +and eight galeasses, of which the fleet was composed, came from Venice, +under the command of the proveditore Barbarigo; from Genoa, which was in +close alliance with Spain, under Gianandrea Doria; and from the Pope +whose squadron was commanded by Marc Antonio Colonna. The Sicilian and +Neapolitan contingents were commanded by the marquess of Santa Cruz, and +Cardona, Spanish officers. Eight thousand Spanish soldiers were +embarked. The allied fleet was collected slowly at Messina, from whence +it advanced by the passage between Ithaca and Cephalonia to Cape +Marathia near Dragonera. The Turkish fleet which had come up from Cyprus +and Crete anchored in the Gulf of Patras. It consisted in all of 273 +galleys which were of lighter build than the Christians', and less well +supplied with cannon or small arms. The Turks still relied mainly on the +bow and arrow. Ali, the capitan pasha, was commander-in-chief, and he +had with him Chulouk Bey of Alexandria, commonly called Scirocco, and +Uluch Ali, dey of Algiers. On the 7th of October the Christian fleet +advanced to the neighbourhood of Cape Scropha. It was formed in the +traditional order of the galleys--a long line abreast, subdivided into +the centre or "battle" commanded by Don John in person, the left wing +under the proveditore Barbarigo, and the right under Gianandrea Doria. +But a reserve squadron was placed behind the centre under the marquess +of Santa Cruz, and the eight lumbering galeasses were stationed at +intervals in front of the line to break the formation of the Turks. The +capitan pasha left his anchorage in the Gulf of Patras with his fleet in +a single line, without reserve or advance-guard. He was himself in the +centre, with Scirocco on his right and Uluch Ali on his left. The two +fleets met south of Cape Scropha, both drawn up from north to south, the +land being close to the left flank of the Christians, and the right of +the Turks. To the left of the Turks and the right of the Christians, +there was open sea. Ali Pasha's greater numbers enabled him to outflank +his enemy. The Turks charged through the intervals between the +galeasses, which proved to be of no value. On their right Scirocco +outflanked the Venetians of Barbarigo, but the better build of the +galleys of Saint Mark and the admirable discipline of their crews gave +them the victory. The Turks were almost all sunk or driven on shore. +Scirocco and Barbarigo both lost their lives. On the centre Don John and +the capitan pasha met prow to prow--the Christians reserving the fire of +their bow guns (called _di cursia_) till the moment of impact, and then +boarding. Ali Pasha was slain and his galley taken. Everywhere on the +centre the Christians gained the upper hand, but their victory was +almost turned into a defeat by the mistaken manoeuvres of Doria. In fear +lest he should be outflanked by Uluch Ali, he stood out to sea, leaving +a gap between himself and the centre. The dey of Algiers, who saw the +opening, reversed the order of his squadron, and fell on the right of +the centre. The galleys of the Order of Malta, which were stationed at +this point, suffered severely, and their flagship was taken with great +slaughter. A disaster was averted by the marquess of Santa Cruz, who +brought up the reserve. Uluch Ali then retreated with sail and oar, +bringing most of his division off in good order. + +The loss of life in the battle was enormous, being put at 20,000 for the +Turks and 8000 for the Christians. The battle of Lepanto was of immense +political importance. It gave the naval power of the Turks a blow from +which it never recovered, and put a stop to their aggression in the +Eastern Mediterranean. Historically the battle is interesting because it +was the last example of an encounter on a great scale between fleets of +galleys and also because it was the last crusade. The Christian powers +of the Mediterranean did really combine to avert the ruin of +Christendom. Hardly a noble house of Spain or Italy was not represented +in the fleet, and the princes headed the boarders. Volunteers came from +all parts of Europe, and it is said that among them was Sir Richard +Grenville, afterwards famous for his fight in the "Revenge" off Flores +in the Azores. Cervantes was undoubtedly present, and had his left hand +shattered by a Turkish bullet. + + For full accounts of the battle, with copious references to + authorities and to ancient controversies, mostly arising out of the + conduct of Doria, see Sir W. Stirling Maxwell, _Don John of Austria_ + (1883); and Jurien de la Gravière, _La Guerre de Chypre et la bataille + de Lepanto_ (1888). (D. H.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] For Lepanto see NAUPACTUS. + + + + +LE PAUTRE, JEAN (1618-1682), French designer and engraver. He was +apprenticed to a carpenter and builder and in addition to learning +mechanical and constructive work developed considerable facility with +the pencil. His designs, which were innumerable in quantity and +exuberant in fancy, consisted mainly of ceilings, friezes, +chimney-pieces, doorways and mural decorations; he also devised +fire-dogs, sideboards, cabinets, console tables, mirrors and other +pieces of furniture; he was long employed at the Gobelins. His work is +often excessively flamboyant and over-elaborate; he revelled in amorini +and swags, arabesques and cartouches. His chimney-pieces, however, were +frequently simple and elegant. His engraved plates, almost entirely +original, are something like 1500 in number and include a portrait of +himself. He became a member of the academy of Paris in 1677. + + + + +LEPCHA, the name of the aboriginal inhabitants of Sikkim (q.v.). A +peace-loving people, the Lepchas have been repeatedly conquered by +surrounding hill-tribes, and their ancient patriarchal customs are dying +out. The total number of speakers of Lepcha, or Rong, in all India in +1901, was only 19,291. Their rich and beautiful language has been +preserved from extinction by the efforts of General Mainwaring and +others; but their literature was almost entirely destroyed by the +Tibetans, and their traditions are being rapidly forgotten. Once free +and independent, they are now the poorest people in Sikkim, and it is +from them that the coolie class is drawn. They are above all things +woodmen, knowing the ways of beasts and birds, and possessing an +extensive zoological and botanical nomenclature of their own. + + See Florence Donaldson, _Lepcha Land_ (1900). + + + + +LE PELETIER (or LEPELLETIER), DE SAINT-FARGEAU, LOUIS MICHEL +(1760-1793), French politician, was born on the 29th of May 1760 at +Paris. He belonged to a well-known family, his great-grandfather, Michel +Robert Le Peletier des Forts, count of Saint-Fargeau, having been +controller-general of finance. He inherited a great fortune, and soon +became president of the parlement of Paris and in 1789 he was a deputy +of the _noblesse_ to the States-General. At this time he shared the +conservative views of the majority of his class; but by slow degrees his +ideas changed and became very advanced. On the 13th of July 1789 he +demanded the recall of Necker, whose dismissal by the king had aroused +great excitement in Paris; and in the Constituent Assembly he had moved +the abolition of the penalty of death, of the galleys and of branding, +and the substitution of beheading for hanging. This attitude won him +great popularity, and on the 21st of June 1790 he was made president of +the Constituent Assembly. During the existence of the Legislative +Assembly, he was president of the general council for the department of +the Yonne, and was afterwards elected by this department as a deputy to +the Convention. Here he was in favour of the trial of Louis XVI. by the +assembly and voted for the death of the king. This vote, together with +his ideas in general, won him the hatred of the royalists, and on the +20th of January 1793, the eve of the execution of the king, he was +assassinated in the Palais Royal at Paris by a member of the king's +body-guard. The Convention honoured Le Peletier by a magnificent +funeral, and the painter J. L. David represented his death in a famous +picture, which was later destroyed by his daughter. Towards the end of +his life, Le Peletier had interested himself in the question of public +education; he left fragments of a plan, the ideas contained in which +were borrowed in later schemes. His assassin fled to Normandy, where, on +the point of being discovered, he blew out his brains. Le Peletier had a +brother, Félix (1769-1837), well known for his advanced ideas. His +daughter, Suzanne Louise, was "adopted" by the French nation. + + See _Oeuvres de M. le Peletier de Saint-Fargeau_ (Brussels, 1826) with + a life by his brother Félix; E. Le Blant, "Le Peletier de St-Fargeau, + et son meurtrier," in the _Correspondant_ review (1874); F. + Clerembray, _Épisodes de la Révolution_ (Rouen, 1891); Brette, "La + Réforme de la législation universelle, et le plan de Lepelletier + Saint-Fargeau," in _La Révolution française_, xlii. (1902); and M. + Tourneux, _Bibliog. de l'hist. de Paris ..._ (vol. i., 1890, Nos. + 3896-3910, and vol. iv., 1906, _s.v._ Lepeletier). + + + + +LEPIDOLITE, or LITHIA-MICA, a mineral of the mica group (see MICA). It +is a basic aluminium, potassium and lithium fluo-silicate, with the +approximate formula KLi [Al(OH, F)2] Al(SiO3)3. Lithia and fluorine are +each present to the extent of about 5%; rubidium and caesium are +sometimes present in small amounts. Distinctly developed monoclinic +crystals or cleavage sheets of large size are of rare occurrence, the +mineral being usually found as scaly aggregates, and on this account was +named lepidolite (from Gr. [Greek: lepis], scale) by M. H. Klaproth in +1792. It is usually of a lilac or peach-blossom colour, but is sometimes +greyish-white, and has a pearly lustre on the cleavage surfaces. The +hardness is 2½-4 and the sp. gr. 2.8-2.9, the optic axial angle measures +50°-70°. It is found in pegmatite-veins, often in association with pink +tourmaline (rubellite) and sometimes intergrown in parallel position +with muscovite. Scaly masses of considerable extent are found at Rozena +near Bystrzitz in Moravia and at Pala in San Diego county, California. +The material from Rozena has been known since 1791, and has sometimes +been cut and polished for ornamental purposes: it has a pretty colour +and spangled appearance and takes a good polish, but is rather soft. At +Pala it has been extensively mined for the preparation of lithium and +rubidium salts. Other localities for the mineral are the island of Utö +in Sweden, and Auburn and Paris in Maine, U.S.A.; at Alabashka near +Mursinka in the Urals large isolated crystals have been found, and from +Central Australia transparent cleavage sheets of a fine lilac colour are +known. + +The lithium-iron mica _zinnwaldite_ or _lithionite_ is closely allied to +lepidolite, differing from it in containing some ferrous iron in +addition to the constituents mentioned above. It occurs as greyish +silvery scales with hexagonal outlines in the tin-bearing granites of +Zinnwald in the Erzgebirge, Bohemia and of Cornwall. (L. J. S.) + + + + +LEPIDOPTERA (Gr. [Greek: lepis], a scale or husk, and [Greek: pteron], a +wing), a term used in zoological classification for one of the largest +and best-known orders of the class Hexapoda (q.v.), in order that +comprises the insects popularly called butterflies and moths. The term +was first used by Linnaeus (1735) in the sense still accepted by modern +zoologists, and there are few groups of animals as to whose limits and +distinguishing characters less controversy has arisen. + +[Illustration: After Edwards, Riley and Howard's _Insect Life_, vol. 3 +(U.S. Dept. Agr.). + +FIG. 1.--e, _Crytophasa unipuctata_, Donov., Australia. a, Larva; c, +pupa, natural size; b, 2nd and 3rd abdominal segments of larva; d, +cremaster of pupa, magnified.] + +_Characters._--The name of the order indicates the fact that the wings +(and other parts of the body) are clothed with flattened cuticular +structures--the scales (fig. 7)--that may be regarded as modified +arthropodan "hairs." Such scales are not peculiar to the +Lepidoptera--they are found also on many of the Aptera, on the Psocidae, +a family of Corrodentia, on some Coleoptera (beetles) and on the gnats +(Culicidae), a family of Diptera. The most distinctive structural +features of the Lepidoptera are to be found in the jaws. The mandibles +are mere vestiges or entirely absent; the second maxillae are usually +reduced to a narrow transverse mentum which bears the scale-covered +labial palps, between which project the elongate first maxillae, grooved +on their inner faces, so as to form when apposed a tubular proboscis +adapted for sucking liquid food. + +All Lepidoptera are hatched as the eruciform soft-bodied type of larva +(fig. 1, a) known as the caterpillar, with biting mandibles, three pairs +of thoracic legs and with a variable number (usually five pairs) of +abdominal prolegs, which carry complete or incomplete circles of +hooklets. The pupa in a single family only is free (i.e. with the +appendages free from the body), and mandibulate. In the vast majority of +the order it is more or less obtect (i.e. with the appendages fixed to +the cuticle of the body) and without mandibles (fig. 1, c). + +[Illustration: From Riley and Howard, _Insect Life_, vol. 7 (U.S. Dept. +Agr.). + +FIG. 2.--a, Feeler of Saturniid Moth (_Telea polyphemus_). b, c, Tips of +branches, highly magnified.] + +[Illustration: After A. Walter (_Jen. Zeits. f. Naturw._ vol. 18). + +FIG. 3.--A, Mandible, and B, 1st maxilla of _Micropteryx_ +(_Eriocephala_). Magnified. + + a, Palp. + b, Galea. + c, Lacinia. + d, Stipes. + e, Cardo of maxilla.] + + _Structure._--The head in the Lepidoptera is sub-globular in shape + with the compound eyes exceedingly well developed, and with a pair of + ocelli or "simple eyes" often present on the vertex. It is connected + to the thorax by a relatively broad and membranous "neck." The feelers + are many-jointed, often they are complex, the segments bearing + processes arranged in a comb-like manner and furnished with numerous + sensory hairs (fig. 2). The complexity of the feelers is carried to + its highest development in certain male moths that have a wonderful + power of discovering their females by smell or some analogous sense. + Often the feelers are excessively complex in male moths whose maxillae + are so reduced that they take no food in the imaginal state. The + nature of the jaws has already been briefly described. Functional + mandibles of peculiar form (fig. 3, A) are present in the remarkable + small moths of the genus _Micropteryx_ (or _Eriocephala_), and there + are vestiges of these jaws in other moths of low type, but the minute + structures in the higher Lepidoptera that were formerly described as + mandibles are now believed to belong to the labrum, the true mandibles + being perhaps represented by rounded prominences, not articulated with + the head-capsule. Throughout the order, as a whole, the jaws are + adapted for sucking liquid food, and the suctorial proboscis (often + erroneously called a "tongue") is formed as was shown by J. C. Savigny + in 1816 by two elongated and flexible outgrowths of the first + maxillae, usually regarded as representing the outer lobes or galeae + (fig. 4, A, B, g). These structures are grooved along their inner + faces and by means of a series of interlocking hair-like bristles can + be joined together so as to form a tubular sucker (fig. 4, C). At + their extremities they are beset with club-like sense-organs, whose + apparent function is that of taste. The proboscis when in use is + stretched out in front of the head and inserted into the corolla of a + flower or elsewhere, for the absorption of liquid nourishment. When at + rest, the proboscis is rolled up into a close spiral beneath the head + and between the labial palps (fig. 4, A, p). Only in the genus + _Micropteryx_ mentioned above is the lacinia of the maxilla (as A. + Walter has shown) developed (fig. 3, B, c). The maxillary palp is + usually a mere vestige (fig. 4, B, p) though it is conspicuous in a + few families of small moths. A considerable number of Lepidoptera + take no food in the imaginal state; in these the maxillae are reduced + or altogether atrophied. The second maxillae are intimately fused + together to form the labium, which consists only of a reduced mentum, + bearing sometimes vestigial lobes and always a pair of palps. These + have two or three segments and are clothed with scales. The form and + direction of the terminal segment of the labial palp afford valuable + characters in classification. + + [Illustration: FIG. 4.--Arrangement of the jaws in a typical Moth. + Somewhat diagrammatic and in part after E. Burgess and V. L. Kellogg + (_Amer. Nat._ xiv. xxix.). + + A, Front view of head. + c, Clypeus. + e, Compound eye. + m, Vestigial mandible. + l, Labrum. + g, Galeae of 1st maxillae. + p, Labial palp. Magnified, B. + b, Base of first maxilla dissected out of the head. + p, Vestigial palp. + g, Galea. Further magnified. + C, Part transverse section showing how the channel (A) of the + proboscis is formed by the interlocking of the grooved inner + faces of the flexible maxillae. + t, Air-tube. + n, Nerve. + m, Muscle-fibres. Highly magnified.] + + In the thorax of the Lepidoptera the foremost segment or prothorax is + very small, and not movable on the mesothorax. In many families it + carries a pair of small erectile plates--the patagia--which have been + regarded as serially homologous with the wings. The mesothorax is + extensive; its scutum forming most of the dorsal thoracic area and + small plates--tegulae--are often present at the base of the forewings, + as in Hymenoptera. The tegulae which are beset with long hair-like + scales are often conspicuous. The metathorax is smaller than the + mesothorax. The legs are of the typical hexapodan form with + five-segmented feet; the shins often bear terminal and median spurs + articulated at their bases and the entire limbs are clothed with + scales. + + [Illustration: After A. S. Packard, _Mem. Nat. Acad. Sci._ vol. vii. + + FIG. 5.--Wing-neuration of a Notodont Moth. 2, Sub-costal; 3, radial; + 4, median; 5, cubital; 7, 8, anal nervures. a, Discoidal areolet or + "cell"; f, frenulum. Note that the forewing has five branches (1-5) of + the radial nervure, the hindwing one only. The first anal nervure (No. + 6) is absent.] + + The wings of the Lepidoptera may be said to dominate the structure of + the insect; only exceptionally, in certain female moths, are they + vestigial or absent (fig. 17). The forewing, with its prominent apex, + is longer than the hindwing, and the neuration in both (see figs. 5 + and 6) is for the most part longitudinal, only a few transverse + nervures, which are, in fact, branches of the median trunk, marking + off a discoidal areolet or "cell" (fig. 5, a). The five branches of + the radial nervure (figs. 5, 6, 3) (see HEXAPODA) are usually present + in the forewing, but the hindwing, in most families, has only a single + radial nervure; its anal area is, however, often more strongly + developed than that of the forewing. The two wings of a side are + usually kept together during flight by a few stout bristles--the + frenulum--(fig. 5, f) projecting from the base of the costa of the + hindwing and fitting beneath a membranous fold or a few thickened + scales--the retinaculum--on the under surface of the forewing. In + butterflies there is no frenulum, but a costal outgrowth of the + hindwing subserves the same function. In the most primitive moths a + small lobate outgrowth--the jugum (fig. 6, j.)--from the dorsum of the + forewing is present, but it can be of little service in keeping the + two wings together. A jugum may be also present on the hindwing. The + legs, which are generally used for clinging rather than for walking, + have five-segmented feet and are covered with scales. In some families + the front pair are reduced and without tarsal segments. + + [Illustration: After Packard, _Mem. Nat. Acad. Sci._ vol. vii. + + FIG. 6.--Wing neuration of a Swift Moth (Hepialid). j, Jugum. Nervures + numbered as in fig. 5. Note that there are five branches to the radial + nervure (No. 3) in both fore- and hindwing, and that the median trunk + nervures (No. 4) traverse the discoidal areolet.] + + Ten abdominal segments are recognizable in many Lepidoptera, but the + terminal segments are reduced or modified to form external organs of + reproduction. In the male, according to the interpretation of C. + Peytoureau, the lateral plates belonging to the ninth segment form + paired claspers beset with harpes, or series of ridges or teeth, while + the tergum of the tenth segment forms a dorsal hook--the uncus--and + its sternum a ventral process or scaphium. In the female the terminal + segments form, in some cases, a protrusible ovipositor, but the + typical hexapodan ovipositor with its three pairs of processes is + undeveloped in the Lepidoptera. + + As already mentioned, the characteristic scales on the wings, legs and + body of the Lepidoptera are cuticular structures. A complete series of + transitional forms can be traced between the most elaborate flattened + scales (fig. 7, B) with numerous longitudinal striae and a simple + arthropod "hair." Either a "hair" or a scale owes its origin to a + special cell of the ectoderm (hypodermis), a process from which grows + through the general cuticle and forms around itself the substance of + the cuticular appendage. The scales on the wings are arranged in + regular rows (fig. 7, A), and the general cuticle is drawn out into a + narrow neck or collar around the base of each scale. The scales can be + easily rubbed from the surface of the wing, and the series of collars + in which the scales rest are then evident (fig. 7, A, c) on the + wing-membrane. On the wings of many male butterflies there are + specially modified scales--the androconia (fig. 7, C)--which are + formed by glandular cells and diffuse a scented secretion. In some + cases, the androconia are mixed among the ordinary scales; in others + they are associated into conspicuous "brands" (see fig. 66). The + admirable colours of the wings of the Lepidoptera are due partly to + pigment in the scales--as in the case of yellows, browns, reds and + blacks--partly to "interference" effects from the fine striae on the + scales--as with the blues, purples and greens. + + [Illustration: FIG. 7.--A, Arrangement of scales in rows on wing of + Butterfly. n, Nervure; c, collar-like outgrowths of cuticle. + Magnified. B, single scale, and C, an androconium more highly + magnified.] + + A few points of interest in the internal structure of the Lepidoptera + deserve mention. The mouth opens into a sub-globular, muscular pharynx + which is believed to suck the liquid food through the proboscis, and + force it along the slender gullet into a crop-like enlargement or + diverticulum of the fore-gut known as a "food-reservoir" or + "sucking-stomach." The true stomach is tubular, and beyond it lies the + intestine into which open the three pairs of excretory (Malpighian) + tubes. The terminal part of the intestine is of wide diameter, and in + some cases gives off a short caecum. The brain and the sub-oesophageal + ganglia are closely approximated; there are two or three thoracic and + four (rarely five) abdominal ganglia. In the female each ovary has + four ovarian tubes, in which the large egg-cells are enclosed in + follicles and associated with nutritive cells. There is a special + bursa which in the Hepialidae opens with the vagina on the eighth + abdominal sternum. In the Micropterygidae, Enocraniidae and the lower + Tineides, the duct of the bursa leads into the vagina, which still + opens on the eighth sternum. But in most Lepidoptera, the bursa opens + by a vestibule on the eighth sternum, distinct from the vagina, whose + opening shifts back to the ninth, the duct of the bursa being + connected with the vagina by a canal which opens opposite to the + spermatheca. In the male, the two testes are usually fused into a + single mass, and a pair of tubular accessory glands open into the vasa + deferentia or into the ejaculatory duct. In a few families--the + Hepialidae and Saturniidae for example--the testes retain the + primitive paired arrangement. These details have been worked out by + various students, among whom W. H. Jackson and W. Petersen deserve + special mention. Summing up the developmental history of the genital + ducts, Jackson remarks that there is "an Ephemeridal stage, which ends + towards the close of larval life, an Orthopteran stage, indicated + during the quiescent period preceding pupation, and a Lepidopteran + stage which begins with the commencement of pupal life." + +[Illustration: FIG. 8 A.--_Cossus macmurtrei._ (MacMurtrie's Goat Moth.) +N. America.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 8 B.--Larva of _Cossus cossus_. (Goat Moth.) +Europe.] + +_Development._--Many observations have been made on the embryology of +the Lepidoptera; for some of the more important results of these see +HEXAPODA. The post-embryonic development of Lepidoptera is more +familiar, perhaps, than that of any other group of animals. The egg +shows great variation in its outward form, the outer envelope or chorion +being in some families globular, in others flattened, in others again +erect and sub-conical or cylindrical; while its surface often exhibits a +beautifully regular series of ribs and furrows. Throughout the order the +larva is of the form known as the caterpillar (fig. 1, a, b, fig. 8 B) +characterized by the presence of three pairs of jointed and clawed legs +on the thorax and a variable number of pairs of abdominal +"prolegs"--sub-cylindrical outgrowths of the abdominal segments, +provided with a complete or incomplete circle of hooklets at the +extremity. + +[Illustration: FIG. 9.--Head of Goat Moth Caterpillar (_Cossus_) from +behind. Magnified. (From Miall and Denny after Lyonnet.) + + At, Feeler. + Mn, Mandible. + Mx, First maxilla. + Lm, Second maxillae (Labium) with spinneret.] + + There are ten abdominal segments--the ninth often small and concealed; + prolegs are usually present on the third, fourth, fifth, sixth and + tenth of these segments. The head of the caterpillar (fig. 9) is large + with firmly chitinized cuticle; it carries usually twelve simple eyes + or ocelli, a pair of short feelers (fig. 9 At) and a pair of strong + mandibles (fig. 9, Mn), for the caterpillar feeds by biting leaves or + other plant-tissues. The first maxillae, so highly developed in the + imago, are in the larva small and inconspicuous appendages, each + bearing two short jointed processes,--the galea and the palp (fig. 9, + Mx). The second maxillae form a plate-like labium on whose surface + projects the spinneret which is usually regarded as a modified + hypopharynx (fig. 9, Lm). The silk-glands whose ducts open on this + spinneret are paired convoluted tubes lying alongside the elongate + cylindrical stomach. In the common "silkworm" these glands are five + times as long as the body of the caterpillar. They are regarded as + modified salivary glands, though the correspondence has been doubted + by some students. The body of the caterpillar is usually cylindrical + and wormlike, with the segmentation well marked and the cuticle + feebly chitinized and flexible. Firm chitinous plates are, however, + not seldom present on the prothorax and on the hindmost abdominal + segment. The segments are mostly provided with bristle or + spine-bearing tubercles, whose arrangement has lately been shown by H. + G. Dyar to give partially trustworthy indications of relationship. On + either side of the median line we find two dorsal or trapezoidal + tubercles (Nos. 1 and 2), while around the spiracle are grouped (Nos. + 3, 4 and 5) supra-, post-, and pre-spiracular tubercles; below are the + sub-spiraculars, of which there may be two (Nos. 6, 7). The last-named + is situated on the base of the abdominal proleg, and yet another + tubercle (No. 8) may be present on the inner aspect of the proleg. The + spiracles are very conspicuous on the body of a caterpillar, occurring + on the prothorax and on the first eight abdominal segments. Various + tubercles may become coalesced or aborted (fig. 10, B); often, in + conjunction with the spines that they bear, the tubercles serve as a + valuable protective armature for the caterpillar. Much discussion has + taken place as to whether the abdominal prolegs are or are not + developed directly from the embryonic abdominal appendages. In the + more lowly families of Lepidoptera, these organs are provided at the + extremity with a complete circle of hooklets, but in the more highly + organized families, only the inner half of this circle is retained. + + [Illustration: B, after Grote, _Mitt. aus dem Roemer Museum_, No. 6. + + FIG. 10.--Abdominal segments of Caterpillars, to show arrangement of + tubercles; the arrows point anteriorly. A, Generalized condition; B, + specialized condition in the Saturniidae. s, Spiracle; the numbering + of the tubercles is explained in the text. Note that in B No. 2 is + much reduced and disappears after the first moult. 4 and 5 are + coalesced, and 6 is absent.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 11.--Pupa of a Butterfly (_Amathusia phidippus_).] + + The typical Lepidopteran pupa, or "chrysalis," as shown in the higher + families, is an obtect pupa (fig. 11) with no trace of mandibles, the + appendages being glued to the body by an exudation, and motion being + possible only at three of the abdominal intersegmental regions, the + fifth and sixth abdominal segments at most being "free." A flattened + or pointed process--the cremaster--often prominent at the tail-end, + may carry one or several hooks (fig. 1, d) which serve to anchor the + pupa to its cocoon or to suspend butterfly-pupae from their pad of + silk (fig. 11). In the lower families the pupa (fig. 1, c) is only + incompletely obtect, and a greater number of abdominal segments can + move on one another. The seventh abdominal segment is, in all female + lepidopterous pupae, fused with those behind it; in the male + "incomplete" pupa this becomes "free" and so may the segments anterior + to it, in both sexes, forward to and including the third. The presence + of circles of spines on the abdominal segments enables the + "incomplete" pupa as a whole to work its way partly out of the cocoon + when the time for the emergence of the imago draws near. In the family + of the Eriocraniidae (often called the Micropterygidae) the pupa + resembles that of a caddis-fly (_Trichopteron_) being active before + the emergence of the imago and provided with strong mandibles by means + of which it bites its way out of the cocoon. The importance of the + pupa in the phylogeny and classification of the Lepidoptera has lately + been demonstrated by T. A. Chapman in a valuable series of papers. + Sometimes organs are present in the pupa which are undeveloped in the + imago, such as the maxillary palps of the Sesiidae (clearwing moths) + and the pectination on the feelers of female Saturniids. E. B. Poulton + has drawn attention to the ancestral value of such characters. + +_Habits and Life-Relations._--The attractiveness of the Lepidoptera and +the conspicuous appearance of many of them have led to numerous +observations on their habits. The method of feeding of the imago by the +suction of liquids has already been mentioned in connexion with the +structure of the maxillae and the food-canal. Nectar from flowers is the +usual food of moths and butterflies, most of which alight on a blossom +before thrusting the proboscis into the corolla of the flower, while +others--the hawk moths (Sphingidae) for example--remain poised in the +air in front of the flower by means of excessively rapid vibration of +the wings, and quickly unrolling the proboscis sip the nectar. Certain +flowers with remarkably long tubular corollas seem to be specially +adapted for the visits of hawk moths. Some Lepidoptera have other +sources of food-supply. The juices of fruit are often sought for, and +certain moths can pierce the envelope of a succulent fruit with the +rough cuticular outgrowths at the tips of the maxillae, so as to reach +the soft tissue within. Animal juices attract other Lepidoptera, which +have been observed to suck blood from a wounded mammal; while putrid +meat is a familiar "lure" for the gorgeous "purple emperor" butterfly +(_Apatura iris_). The water of streams or the dew on leaves may be +frequently sought by Lepidoptera desirous of quenching their thirst, +possibly with fatal results, the insects being sometimes drowned in +rivers in large numbers. Members of several families of the +Lepidoptera--the Hepialidae, Lasiocampidae and Saturniidae, for +example--have the maxillae vestigial or aborted, and take no food at all +after attaining the winged condition. In such insects there is a +complete "division of labour" between the larval and the imaginal +instars, the former being entirely devoted to nutritive, the latter to +reproductive functions. + +Of much interest is the variety displayed among the Lepidoptera in the +season and the duration of the various instars. The brightly coloured +vanessid butterflies, for example, emerge from the pupa in the late +summer and live through the winter in sheltered situations, reappearing +to lay their eggs in the succeeding spring. Many species, such as the +vapourer moths (_Orgyia_), lay eggs in the autumn, which remain +unhatched through the winter. The eggs of the well-known magpie moths +(_Abraxas_) hatch in autumn and the caterpillar hibernates while still +quite small, awaiting for its growth the abundant food-supply to be +afforded by the next year's foliage. The codlin moths (_Carpocapsa_) +pass the winter as resting full-grown larvae, which seek shelter and +spin cocoons in autumn, but do not pupate until the succeeding spring. +Lastly, many of the Lepidoptera hibernate in the pupal stage; the +death's head moth (_Acherontia_) and the cabbage-white butterflies +(_Pieris_) are familiar examples of such. The last-named insects afford +instances of the "double-brooded" condition, two complete life-cycles +being passed through in the year. The flour moth (_Ephestia kühniella_) +is said to have five successive generations in a twelvemonth. On the +other hand, certain species whose larvae feed in wood or on roots take +two or three years to reach the adult stage. + +The rate of growth of the larva depends to a great extent on the nature +of its food, and the feeding-habits of caterpillars afford much of +interest and variety to the student. The contrast among the Lepidoptera +between the suctorial mouth of the imago and the biting jaws of the +caterpillar is very striking (cf. figs. 4 and 9), and the profound +transformation in structure which takes place is necessarily accompanied +by the change from solid to liquid food. The first meal of a young +caterpillar is well known to be often its empty egg-shell; from this it +turns to feed upon the leaves whereon its provident parent has laid her +eggs. But in a few cases hatching takes place in winter or early spring, +and the young larvae have then to find a temporary food until their own +special plant is available. For example, the caterpillars of some +species of _Xanthia_ and other noctuid moths feed at first upon +willow-catkins. On the other hand, the caterpillars of the pith moth +(_Blastodacna_) hatched at midsummer, feed on leaves when young, and +burrow into woody shoots in autumn. All who have tried to rear +caterpillars know that, while those of some species will feed only on +one particular species of plant, others will eat several species of the +same genus or family, while others again are still less particular, some +being able to feed on almost any green herb. It is curious to note how +certain species change their food in different localities, a caterpillar +confined to one plant in some localities being less particular +elsewhere. Individual aberrations in food are of special interest in +suggesting the starting-point for a change in the race. When we consider +the vast numbers of the Lepidoptera and the structural modifications +which they have undergone, their generally faithful adherence to a +vegetable diet is remarkable. The vast majority of caterpillars eat +leaves, usually devouring them openly, and, if of large size, quickly +reducing the amount of foliage on the plant. But many small caterpillars +keep, apparently for the sake of concealment, to the under surface of +the leaf, while others burrow into the green tissue, forming a +characteristic sinuous "mine" between the two leaf-skins. In several +families we find the habit of burrowing in woody stems,--the "goat" +(_Cossus_, fig. 8) and the clearwings (Sesiidae), for example, while +others, like the larvae of the swift moths (Hepialidae) live underground +devouring roots (fig. 12). The richer nutrition in the green food is +usually shown by the quicker growth of the numerous caterpillars that +feed on it, as compared with the slower development of the wood and +root-feeding species. Aquatic larvae are very rare among the +Lepidoptera. The caterpillars of the pyralid "china-mark" moths +(_Hydrocampa_, fig. 13), however, live under water, feeding on duckweed +(_Lemna_) and breathing atmospheric air, a film of which is enclosed in +a spun-up shelter beneath the leaves, while the larvae of _Paraponyx_, +which feed on _Stratiotes_, have closed spiracles and breathe dissolved +air by means of branchial filaments along the sides of the body. + +[Illustration: FIG. 12.--Larva of _Hepialus humuli_ (ghost moth).] + +[Illustration: FIG. 13.--_Hydrocampa aquatilis_ (water moth).] + +We may now turn to instances of more anomalous modes of feeding. The +clothes moths (Tineids) have invaded our dwellings and found a congenial +food-stuff for their larvae in our garments. A few small species of the +same group are reared in meal and other human food-stores; so are the +caterpillars of some pyralid moths (_Ephestia_), while others (_Asopia_, +_Aglossa_) feed upon kitchen refuse. Two species of crambid moths +(_Aphomia sociella_ and _Galleria melonella_) find a home in bee-hives, +where their caterpillars feed upon the wax, while the waxy secretion +from the body of the great American lantern-fly (_Fulgora candelaria_) +serves both as shelter and food for the caterpillar of the moth +_Epipyrops anomala_. Very few caterpillars have developed a thoroughly +carnivorous habit. That of _Cosmia trapezina_ feeds on oak and other +leaves, but devours smaller caterpillars which happen to get in its way, +and if shaken from the tree, eats other larvae while climbing the trunk. +_Xylina ornithopus_ and a few other species are said to be always +carnivorous when opportunity offers; the small looping caterpillar of a +"pug" moth (_Eupithecia coronata_) has been observed to eat a larva +three times as big as itself. The caterpillars of _Orthosia pistacina_ +live together in peace while their food is moist, but devour each other +when it dries up; this is true cannibalism--a term which should not be +applied to the habit of preying on another species. A few carnivorous +caterpillars do not attack other caterpillars, but prey upon insects of +another order; among these _Fenescia tarquinius_, which eats aphides, +and _Erastria scitula_, which feeds upon scale insects, must be reckoned +as benefactors to mankind. The life-history of the latter moth has been +worked out by H. Rouzaud. It inhabits the shores of the Mediterranean, +and its caterpillar devours the coccids upon various fruit-trees, +especially the black-scale (_Lecanium oleae_) of the olive. The moth, +which is a small noctuid, the white markings on whose wings give it the +appearance of a bird-dropping when at rest in the daytime, appears in +May, and lays her eggs, singly and far apart, upon the trees infested by +the coccids. when hatched, the young caterpillar selects a large female +coccid, eats its way through the scale, and devours the insect beneath; +having done this it makes its way to a fresh victim. As it increases in +size it forms a case for itself made of the scales of its victims, +excrement, &c., bound together by silk which it spins, and, protected by +this covering, which closely resembles the smut-covered bark of the +tree, it roams about during its later stages, devouring several coccids +every day. So nutritious is the food, that four or five successive +broods follow each other through the summer. + +[Illustration: After Marlatt (after Riley), _Bull. 4, Div. Ent. U.S. +Dept. Agr._ + +FIG. 14.--Clothes Moth (_Tinea pellionella_), with larva in and out of +its case. Magnified.] + +The habit just mentioned of forming some kind of protective covering out +of foreign substances spun together by silk is practised by caterpillars +of different families. The clothes moth larvae (_Tinea_, fig. 14), for +example, make a tubular dwelling out of the pellets of wool passed from +their own intestines, while the allied Tortricid caterpillars roll up +leaves and spin for themselves cylindrical shelters. The habit of +spinning over the food plant a protective mass of web, whereon the +caterpillars of a family can live together socially is not uncommon. In +the case of the small ermine moths (_Hyponomeuta_) the caterpillars +remain associated throughout their lives and pupate in cocoons on the +mass of web produced by their common labour. But the larger, spiny +caterpillars of the vanessid butterflies usually scatter away from the +nest of their infancy when they have attained a certain size. + +[Illustration: FIG. 15.--Larva of _Orgyia gonostigma_. Europe.] + +Spines and hairs seem to be often effective protections for +caterpillars; the experiments of E. B. Poulton and others tend to show +that hairy caterpillars (fig. 15) are distasteful to birds. Many +caterpillars are protected by the harmony of their general green +coloration with their surroundings. When the insect attains a large +size--as in the case of the hawk moth (Sphingid) caterpillars--the +extensive green surface becomes broken up by diagonal dark markings +(fig. 46b), thus simulating the effect of light and shade among the +foliage. A remarkable result of Poulton's experiments has been the +establishment of a reflex effect through the skin on the colour of a +caterpillar. Some species of "loopers" (Geometridae, fig. 43) for +example, if placed when young among surroundings of a certain colour, +become closely assimilated thereto--dark brown among dark twigs, green +among green leaves. These colour-reflexes in conjunction with the +elongate twig-like shape of the caterpillars and their habit of +stretching themselves straight out from a branch, afford some of the +best and most familiar examples of "protective resemblance." The +"terrifying attitude" of caterpillars, and the supposed resemblance +borne by some of them to serpents and other formidable vertebrates or +arthropods, are discussed in the article MIMICRY. + +[Illustration: After Ratzeburg, _Insect Life_, vol. 2 (U.S. Dept. Agr.). + +FIG. 16.--Pupa of Gypsy Moth (_Porthetria dispar_) sheltered in leaves +joined by silken threads. Below is the cast larval cuticle.] + +The silk produced by a caterpillar is, as we have seen, often +advantageous in its own life-relations, but its great use is in +connexion with the pupal stage. In the life-history of many Lepidoptera, +the last act of the caterpillar is to spin a cocoon which may afford +protection to the pupa. In some cases this is formed entirely of the +silk produced by the spinning-glands, and may vary from the loose +meshwork that clothes the pupa of the diamond-back moth (_Plutella +cruciferarum_) to the densely woven cocoon of the silkworms (Bombycidae +and Saturniidae) or the hard shell-like covering of the eggars +(Lasiocampidae). Frequently foreign substances are worked up with the +silk and serve to strengthen the cocoon, such as hairs from the body of +the caterpillar itself, as among the "tigers" (Arctiidae) or chips of +wood, as with the timber-burrowing larva of the "goat" (_Cossus_). In +many families of Lepidoptera we can trace a degeneration of the cocoon. +Thus, the pupae of most owl moths (Noctuidae) and hawk moths +(Sphingidae) lie buried in an earthen cell. Among the butterflies we +find that the cocoon is reduced to a pad of silk which gives attachment +to the cremaster; in the Pieridae there is in addition a girdle of silk +around the waist-region of the pupa, but the pupae of the Nymphalidae +(figs. 11, 65) simply hang from the supporting pad by the tail-end. +Poulton has shown that the colours of some exposed pupae vary with the +nature of the surroundings of the larva during the final stage. + +When the pupal stage is complete the insect has to make its way out of +the cocoon. In the lower families of moths it is the pupa which comes +out at least partially, working itself onwards by the spines on its +abdominal segments; the pupa of the primitive _Micropteryx_ has +functional mandibles with which it bites through the cocoon. In the +higher Lepidoptera the pupa is immovable, and the imago, after the +ecdysis of the pupal cuticle, must emerge. This emergence is in some +cases facilitated by the secretion of an acid or alkaline solvent +discharged from the mouth or from the hind-gut, which weakens the +cocoon--so that the delicate moth can break through without injury. + +As might be expected, the conditions to which larva and pupa are +subjected have often a marked influence on the nature of the imago. An +indifferent food-supply for the larva leads to a dwarfing of the moth or +butterfly. Many converging lines of experiment and observation tend to +show that cool conditions during the pupal stage frequently induce +darkening of pigment in the imago, while a warm temperature brightens +the colours of the perfect insect. For example, in many species of +butterfly that are double-brooded, the spring brood emerging from the +wintering pupae are more darkly coloured than the summer brood, but if +the pupae producing the latter be subjected artificially to cold +conditions, the winter form of imago results. It is usually impossible, +however, to produce the summer form of the species from wintering pupae +by artificial heat. From this A. Weismann argued that the more stable +winter form must be regarded as representing the ancestral race of the +species. Further examples of this "seasonal dimorphism" are afforded by +many tropical butterflies which possess a darker "wet-season" and a +brighter "dry-season" generation. So different in appearance are often +these two seasonal forms that before their true relationship was worked +out they had been naturally regarded as independent species. The +darkening of wing-patterns in many species of Lepidoptera has been +carefully studied in our own British fauna. Melanic or melanochroic +varieties are specially characteristic of western and hilly regions, and +some remarkable dark races (fig. 43) of certain geometrid moths have +arisen and become perpetuated in the manufacturing districts of the +north of England. The production of these melanic forms is explained by +J. W. Tutt and others as largely due to the action of natural selection, +the damp and sooty conditions of the districts where they occur +rendering unusually dark the surfaces--such as rocks, tree-trunks and +palings--on which moths habitually rest and so favouring the survival of +dark, and the elimination of pale varieties, as the latter would be +conspicuous to their enemies. Breeding experiments have shown that these +melanic races are sometimes "dominant" to their parent-stock. An +evidently adaptive connexion can be frequently traced between the +resting situation and attitude of the insect and the colour and pattern +of its wings. Moths that rest with the hindwings concealed beneath the +forewings (fig. 34, f) often have the latter dull and mottled, while the +former are sometimes highly coloured. Butterflies whose normal resting +attitude is with the wings closed vertically over the back (fig. 63) so +that the under surface is exposed to view, often have this under surface +mottled and inconspicuous although the upper surface may be bright with +flashing colours. Various degrees of such "protective resemblance" can +be traced, culminating in the wonderful "imitation" of its surroundings +shown by the tropical "leaf-butterflies" (_Kallima_), the under surfaces +of whose wings, though varying greatly, yet form in every case a perfect +representation of a leaf in some stage or other of decay, the butterfly +at the same time disposing of the rest of its body so as to bear out the +deception. How this is effected is best told by A. R. Wallace, who was +the first to observe it, in his work _The Malay Archipelago_:-- + + "The habit of the species is always to rest on a twig and among dead + or dried leaves, and in this position, with the wings closely pressed + together, their outline is exactly that of a moderately sized leaf + slightly curved or shrivelled. The tail of the hindwings forms a + perfect stalk and touches the stick, while the insect is supported by + the middle pair of legs, which are not noticed among the twigs and + fibres that surround it. The head and antennae are drawn back between + the wings so as to be quite concealed, and there is a little notch + hollowed out at the very base of the wings, which allows the head to + be retracted sufficiently." + +But the British Vanessids often rest on a bare patch of ground with the +brightly coloured upper surface of their wings fully exposed to view, +and even make themselves still more conspicuous by fanning their wings +up and down. Some genera and families of Lepidoptera, believed to +secrete noxious juices that render them distasteful, are adorned with +the staring contrasts of colour usually regarded as "warning," while +other genera, belonging to harmless families sought for as food by birds +and lizards, are believed to obtain complete or partial immunity by +their likeness to the conspicuous noxious groups. (See MIMICRY.) + +[Illustration: FIG. 17.--Vapourer Moth (_Ocneria detrita_). S. Europe. +A, Male; B, Female.] + +Sexual dimorphism is frequent among the Lepidoptera. In many families +this takes the form of more elaborate feelers in the male than in the +female moth. Such complex feelers (fig. 2) bear numerous sensory +(olfactory) nerve-endings and give to the males that possess them a +wonderful power of discovering their mates. A single captive female of +the Endromidae or Lasiocampidae often causes hundreds of males of her +species to "assemble" around her prison, and this character is made use +of by collectors who want to secure specimens. In many +butterflies--notably the "blues" (Lycaenidae)--the male is brilliant +while the female is dull, and in other groups (the Danainae for example) +he is provided with scent-producing glands believed to be "alluring" in +function. The apparent evidence given by the sexual differences among the +Lepidoptera in favour of C. Darwin's theory of sexual selection finds no +support from a study of their habits. The male indeed usually seeks the +female, but she appears to exercise no choice in pairing. In some cases +the female is attracted by the male, and here a modified form of sexual +selection appears to be operative. The ghost swift moth (_Hepialus +humuli_) affords a curious and interesting example of this condition, the +female showing the usual brown and buff coloration of her genus, while +the wings of the male are pure white, rendering him conspicuous in the +dusky evening when pairing takes place. But in the northernmost haunts +of the species, where there is no midsummer night, the male closely +resembles the female in wing patterns, the development of the conspicuous +white being needless. A very interesting sexual dimorphism is seen in the +wingless condition of several female moths--the winter moths (_Hybernia_ +and _Cheimatobia_) among the Geometridae and the vapourers (_Orgyia_ and +_Ocneria_) among the Lymantriidae for example (fig. 17). It might be +thought that the loss of power of flight by the female would seriously +restrict the range of the species. In such insects, however, the +caterpillars are often active and travel far. + +_Distribution and Migration._--The range of the Lepidoptera is +practically world-wide; they are absent from the most remote and +inhospitable of the arctic and antarctic lands, but even Kerguelen +possesses a few small indigenous moths. Many of the large and dominant +families have a range wide as that of the order, and certain species +that have attached themselves to man--like the meal moths and the +clothes moths--have become almost cosmopolitan. Interesting and +suggestive restrictions of range can, however, be often traced. Although +butterflies have been found in 82° N. latitude in Greenland, they are +unknown in Iceland, and only a few species of the group reach New +Zealand. Three large sections--the Ithomiinae, Heliconiinae and +Brassolinae--of the great butterfly family Nymphalidae are peculiar to +the Neotropical region, while the Morphinae, a characteristically South +American group, have a few Oriental genera in India and Indo-Malaya. The +Acraeinae, another section of the same family, have the vast majority of +their species in Ethiopian Africa, but are represented eastwards in the +Oriental and Australian regions and westwards in South America. A +comparison of the lepidopterous faunas of Ireland, Great Britain and the +European continent is very instructive, and suggests strongly that, +despite their power of flight the Lepidoptera are mostly dependent on +land-connexions for the extension of their range. For example, Ireland +has only forty of the seventy species of British butterflies. The range +of many Lepidoptera is of course determined by the distribution of the +plants on which their larvae feed. + +Nevertheless certain species of powerful flight, and some that might be +thought feeble on the wing, often cross sea-channels and establish or +reinforce distant colonies. Caterpillars of the great death's head moth +(_Acherontia atropos_) are found every summer feeding in British and +Irish potato fields, but it is doubtful if any of the pupae resulting +from them survive the winter in our climate. It is believed by Tutt that +the species is only maintained by a fresh immigration of moths from the +South each summer. Hosts of white butterflies (_Pieris_) have been +frequently observed crossing the English Channel from France to Kent. +Migrating swarms of Lepidoptera have often been met by sailors in +mid-ocean; thus, Tutt records the presence around a sailing ship in the +Atlantic of such a swarm of the rather feeble moth _Deiopeia pulchella_, +nearly 1000 m. from its nearest known habitat. This migratory instinct +is connected with the gregarious habits of many Lepidoptera. For +example, H. W. Bates states that at one place in South America he +noticed eighty different species flying about in enormous numbers in the +sunshine, and these, with few exceptions, were males, the females +remaining within the forest shades. Darwin describes a "butterfly +shower," which he observed 10 m. off the South American coast, extending +as far as the eye could reach; "even by the aid of the telescope," he +adds, "it was not possible to see a space free from butterflies." Sir J. +Emerson Tennent, witnessed in Ceylon a mighty host of butterflies of +white or pale yellow hue, "apparently miles in breadth and of such +prodigious extension as to occupy hours and even days uninterruptedly in +their passage." Observations at Heligoland by H. Gätke have shown that +migrating moths "travel under the same conditions as migrating birds, +and for the most part in their company, in an east to west direction; +they fly in swarms, the numbers of which defy all attempts at +computation and can only be expressed by millions." The painted lady +butterfly (_Pyrameis cardui_) comes in repeated swarms from the +Mediterranean region into northern and western Europe, while in North +America companies of the monarch (_Anosia archippus_) invade Canada +every summer from the United States, and are believed to return +southwards in autumn. This latter species has, during the last +half-century, extended its range south-westwards across the Pacific and +reached the Austro-Malayan islands, while several specimens have +occurred in southern and western England, though it has not established +itself on this side of the Atlantic. It is noteworthy that the +introduction of its food-plant--_Asclepias_--into the Sandwich Islands +in 1850 apparently enabled it to spread across the Pacific. + +_Fossil History._--Our knowledge of the geological history of the +Lepidoptera is but scanty. Certain Oolitic fossil insects from the +lithographic stone of Solenhofen, Bavaria, have been described as moths, +but it is only in Tertiary deposits that undoubted Lepidoptera occur, +and these, all referable to existing families, are very scarce. Most of +them come from the Oligocene beds of Florissant, Colorado, and have been +described by S. H. Scudder. The paucity of Lepidoptera among the fossils +is not surprising when we consider the delicacy of their structure, and +though their past history cannot be traced back beyond early Cainozoic +times, we can have little doubt from the geographical distribution of +some of the families that the order originated with the other higher +Endopterygota in the Mesozoic epoch. + +_Classification._--The order Lepidoptera contains more than fifty +families, the discussion of whose mutual relationships has given rise to +much difference of opinion. The generally received distinction is +between butterflies or _Rhopalocera_ (Lepidoptera with clubbed feelers, +whose habit is to fly by day) and moths or _Heterocera_ (Lepidoptera +with variously shaped feelers, mostly crepuscular or nocturnal in +habit). This distinction is quite untenable as a zoological conception, +for the relationship of butterflies to some moths is closer than that of +many families of Heterocera to each other. Still more objectionable is +the division of the order into _Macrolepidoptera_ (including the +butterflies and large moths) and the _Microlepidoptera_ (comprising the +smaller moths). Most of the recent suggestions for the division of the +Lepidoptera into sub-orders depend upon some single character. Thus J. +H. Comstock has proposed to separate the three lowest families, which +have--like caddis-flies (Trichoptera)--a jugum on each forewing, as a +suborder _Jugatae_, distinct from all the rest of the Lepidoptera--the +_Frenatae_, mostly possessing a frenulum on the hindwing. A. S. Packard +places one family (Micropterygidae) with functional mandibles and a +lacinia in the first maxilla alone in a suborder _Laciniata_, all the +rest of the order forming the suborder _Haustellata_. T. A. Chapman +divides the families with free or incompletely obtect and mobile pupae +(_Incompletae_) from those with obtect pupae which never leave the +cocoon (_Obtectae_), and this is probably the most natural primary +division of the Lepidoptera that has as yet been suggested. Dyar puts +forward a classification founded entirely on the structure of the larva, +while Tutt divides the Lepidoptera into three great stirps characterized +by the shape of the chorion of the egg. The primitive form of the egg is +oval, globular, or flattened with the micropyle at one end; from this +has apparently been derived the upright form of egg with the micropyle +on top which characterizes the butterflies and the higher moths. These +schemes, though helpful in pointing out important differences, are +unnatural in that they lay stress on single, often adaptive, characters +to the exclusion of others equally important. Although it is perhaps +best to establish no division among the Lepidoptera between the order +and the family, an attempt has been made in the classification adopted +in this article to group the families into tribes or super-families +which may indicate their probable affinities. The systematic work of G. +F. Hampson, A. R. Grote and E. Meyrick has done much to place the +classification of the Lepidoptera on a sound basis, so far as the +characters of the imago are concerned, but attention must also be paid +to the preparatory stages if a truly natural system is to be reached. + + + _Jugatae._ + + Three families are included in this group having in common certain + primitive characters of the wings and neuration (see fig. 6), as well + as of the larva and pupa. There is a membranous lobe or jugum near the + base of the wing, and the neuration of the hindwing is closely like + that of the forewing, the radial nervure being five-branched in both. + The pupa has four or five movable segments, and the larval prolegs + have complete circles of hooklets. + + The three families of the Jugatae are not very closely related to each + other. The _Micropterygidae_ (often known as _Eriocephalidae_), + comprising a few small moths with metallic wings, are the most + primitive of all Lepidoptera. They are provided with functional + mandibles, while the maxillae have distinct laciniae, well-developed + palps and galeae not modified for suction (see fig. 3). The larva is + remarkable on account of its long feelers, the presence of pairs of + jointed prolegs on the first eight abdominal segments, an anal sucker + beneath the last segment and bladder-like outgrowths on the cuticle. + These curious larvae feed on wet moss. The family has only a few + genera scattered widely over the earth's surface (Europe, America, + Australia, New Zealand). + + The _Eriocraniidae_ resemble the Micropterygidae in appearance, but + the imago has no mandibles, and the maxillae, though short and + provided with conspicuous palps, have no laciniae and form a proboscis + as in Lepidoptera generally. The abdomen of the female carries a + serrate piercing process, and the eggs are laid in the leaves of + deciduous trees, the white larvae, with aborted legs, mining in the + leaf tissue. The fully-fed larva winters in an underground cocoon and + then changes into the most remarkable of all known lepidopterous + pupae, with relatively enormous toothed mandibles which bite a way out + of the cocoon in preparation for the final change. These pupal + mandibles of the Eriocraniidae, together with the nature of the + imaginal maxillae in the Micropterygidae (Eriocephalidae) and the + wing-neuration in both families, point strongly to a relationship + between the Lepidoptera and the Trichoptera. + + The _Hepialidae_ or swift moths--the third family of the Jugatae--are + in some respects specialized. The moths are of large or moderate size + with the maxillae in a vestigial condition, no food being taken after + the attainment of the perfect state. The larvae (fig. 12) feed either + on roots or in the wood of trees and shrubs, not attaining their + growth in less than a year and some large exotic species living for + two or three. The family is world-wide in range, and Australia + possesses some almost gigantic and strangely coloured genera. + + + _Tineides._ + + A large assemblage of moths, mostly of small size, are included in + this group. The wings have no jugum, but there is a frenulum on the + hindwing, which has, as in all the groups above the Jugatae, only a + single radial nervure. Three anal nervures are present in the hindwing + in those families whose wings are well developed, but in several + families of small moths the wings of both pairs are very narrow and + pointed, and the neuration is consequently reduced. The sub-costal + nervure of the hindwing is usually present and distinct from the + radial nervure. The egg is flat except in the Cossidae and Castniidae + in which it is upright. The larval prolegs, with few exceptions, have + a complete circle of hooklets, and the larvae usually feed in some + concealed situation. The pupa is incompletely obtect, with three (in + some females only two) to five free abdominal segments, and emerges + partly from the cocoon before the moth appears. The cremaster serves + to anchor the pupa to its cocoon at the correct degree of emergence, + and thus facilitates the eclosion of the imago. + + [Illustration: FIG. 18.--_Stygia australis._ S. Europe.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 19.--_Zeuzera scalaris._ India.] + + The _Cossidae_ are a small family of large moths (figs. 8, 18, 19) + belonging to this section, characterized by their heads with erect + rough scales or hairs, the pectinate feelers of the males, their + reduced maxillae so that no food is taken in the perfect state, and + their wings with the fifth radial nervure arising from the third, and + the main median nervure forking in the discoidal areolet. The larvae + feed in plant stems, often in the wood of trees, forming tunnels and + galleries, and usually taking a year or more to reach maturity. The + pupa which has three or four free segments in the male and four or + five in the female, rests in a cocoon within the food plant, often + strengthened by chips of wood, or in a subterranean cocoon. The family + is fairly well represented in the tropics; the British fauna possesses + only three species, of which the "goat" (_Cossus cossus_) and the + "leopard" (_Zeuzera pyrina_) are well known, the caterpillars of both + being often injurious to timber and fruit trees. + + The _Tortricidae_ are a large family of small moths (see fig. 1), + nearly allied to the Cossidae. The fifth radial nervure does not + arise from the third, the maxillae are well developed, but their + palps are obsolete; the head is densely clothed with erect scales; the + terminal segment of the labial palp is short and obtuse. The female + pupa has three, the male four, free segments. All the larvae of these + moths have some method of concealing themselves while feeding. A + frequent plan is to roll up a leaf of the food-plant, fastening the + twisted portion with silken threads so as to make a tubular retreat; + this is the habit of the caterpillar of the green bell moth (_Tortrix + viridana_) which often ravages the foliage of oak plantations. The + larvae of the pine-shoot moths (_Retinia_) shelter in solidified + resinous exudations from their coniferous food-plants, while the + codlin-moth caterpillar (_Carpocapsa pomonella_) feeds in apples and + pears, growing with the growth of the fruit which affords them both + provender and home. The antics of "jumping-beans" are due to the + movements of tortricid caterpillars within the substance of the seed. + + The _Psychidae_ are a small but widely-distributed family of moths + whose males have the head, densely clothed with rough hairs, bearing + complex, bipectinated feelers, but with the maxillae reduced and + useless. The larvae live in portable cases made of grass, pieces of + leaf or stick, with a silken lining, and these cases serve as cocoons + for the pupae which agree in structure with those of the Tortricidae. + But the most remarkable feature of the family is the extreme + degradation of the female, which, wingless, legless and without jaws + or feelers, never emerges from the cocoon. + + [Illustration: FIG. 20.--_Castnia acraeoides._ Brazil.] + + The _Castniidae_ are a small family of large, conspicuous, day-flying + exotic moths (fig. 20) whose clubbed feelers and bright colours give + them a resemblance to butterflies, although their wing-neuration is of + the primitive tineoid type; the smooth larvae feed on the stems or + roots of plants and the pupal structure agrees with that of the + Tortricidae and Psychidae. The distribution of the family is confined + to Tropical America and the Indo-Malayan and Australian regions. + + [Illustration: FIG. 21.--_Neurosymploca concinna._ S. Africa.] + + The _Zygaenidae_ (burnet moths) are a large family of day-flying moths + (fig. 21) adorned with brilliant metallic colours. The feelers are + long, stout in the middle and tapering, bearing numerous long or short + pectinations. The well-developed maxillae have vestigial palps. The + larvae--often very conspicuously coloured--are remarkable among the + Tineides in having incomplete circles of hooks on the prolegs, and + they feed exposed on the leaves of various plants. The pupa, enclosed + in a silken cocoon, has four or five free segments. The _Limacodidae_ + are a small family of brownish nocturnal moths, allied to the + Zygaenidae and agreeing with them in the structure of the pupa. The + larva in this family also is an exposed feeder, but it is remarkable + in form, being flattened and slug-like, without prolegs and adorned + with curious spinous processes. + + [Illustration: FIG. 22.--A, _Sesia asiliformis_ (Gad-fly Hawk Moth). + Europe. B, Larva.] + + The _Sesiidae_ are a large family of small, narrow-winged moths, the + sub-costal nervure of the hindwing being absent and the wings being + for the most part destitute of scales (fig. 22). The maxillae are + developed but their palps are vestigial, while the terminal segment of + the labial palp is short and pointed. Many of these insects have their + bodies banded with black and yellow; this in conjunction with the + transparent wings makes some of them like wasps or hornets in + appearance. The larvae feed in the woody stems of various plants. The + pupa, with three or four free abdominal segments, remains within its + cocoon, formed with chips of wood, until the time for its final change + draws near; then it works itself partly out of the tree by means of + the spines on its abdominal segments. + + The _Nepticulidae_ are the smallest of all the Lepidoptera, measuring + only 3-8 mm. across the outspread wings, which are all lanceolate and + pointed at the tip. The sucking portions of the maxillae are + vestigial, but the palps are long and jointed. The larvae, without + thoracic limbs or prolegs, but sometimes with paired rudimentary + processes on some of the segments, mine in the leaves of plants. The + pupa, with four free abdominal segments in the female and five in the + male, rests in a cocoon usually outside the mine. + + [Illustration: FIG. 23.--_Adela degeerella._ Europe.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 24.--_Euplocampus anthracinus._ Europe.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 25.--_Tinea tapetzella_ (Clothes Moth). Europe.] + + The _Adelidae_ are a family of delicate, but larger, moths with very + long feelers (fig. 23) especially in the males. The larvae feed, when + young, in flowers; later, protected by a flat case, they devour + leaves; the pupa resembles that of the Nepticulidae in structure. The + female has an ovipositor adapted for piercing plant tissues. + + The _Tineidae_ are a large and important family of small moths (figs. + 14, 24, 25) with rough-haired heads, and with the maxillae and their + palps usually well developed. Many of the genera have narrow pointed + wings with degraded neuration. The larvae differ in their habits, + some--_Gracilaria_ for example--mine in leaves, while others, like the + well-known caterpillars of the clothes moth (_Tinea_) surround + themselves with portable cases (fig. 14) formed by spinning together + their own excrement. The female pupa has three, the male four free + abdominal segments. + + + _Plutellides._ + + This group includes a few large families of small moths that are + linked by their imaginal and larval structure to the Tineidae (in + which they have often been included) and by their pupal structure to + the higher groups that have yet to be considered. The moths have + labial palps with slender pointed terminal segments, and narrow + pointed wings, but the neuration (except in the Elachistidae) is less + degenerate than in most Tineidae. The hairy covering of the head is + smooth, and the maxillary palps are usually vestigial. The egg is + flat, and the larval prolegs have complete circles of hooklets. The + pupa is obtect with only two free abdominal segments (fifth and sixth) + in both sexes and does not move out of the cocoon. + + [Illustration: FIG. 26.--_Cerostoma asperella._ Europe.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 27.--_Psecadia pusiella._] + + Four families are included in this group. The _Plutellidae_ (fig. 26) + have the maxillary palps developed, in some genera, as slender + threadlike appendages directed straight forward. The larvae do not + usually mine in leaves, but feed openly, keeping to the underside for + protection (_Plutella_), or spinning by their united labour a mass of + web over the food-plant (_Hyponomeuta_). In the other three families + the maxillary palps are vestigial or obsolete. The _Elachistidae_ have + remarkably narrow, pointed wings and their larvae mine in leaves or + form portable cases and feed among seeds. In the _Oecophoridae_ (fig. + 27) the sub-costal nervure of the hindwing is free and distinct + throughout its length, and the larvae usually feed among spun leaves + or seeds, or in decayed wood. The _Gelechiidae_ are a large family + with similar larval habits; the moths are distinguished by the sinuate + termen of the hindwing and the connexion of its sub-costal nervure + with the discoidal areolet. + + + _Pyralides._ + + [Illustration: FIG. 28.--_Pterophorus spilodactylus._ Europe.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 29.--_Orneodes hexadactylus_ (24-plumed Moth). + Europe.] + + This group includes a number of moths of delicate build with elongate + legs, the maxillae and their palps being usually well developed. The + forewings have two anal nervures, the hindwings three (fig. 30, h, i); + in the hindwing the sub-costal nervure bends towards and often + connects with the radial, and the frenulum is usually present. The egg + is flat. The larva has complete circles of hooklets on its five pairs + of prolegs, and the pupa (usually completely obtect) does not move at + all from its cocoon. This group includes the only Lepidoptera that + have aquatic larvae. + + Of the families comprised in this division three deserve special + mention. The _Pterophoridae_ (plume moths, fig. 28) usually have the + wings deeply cleft--a single cleft in the forewing and two in the + hindwing. The hairy larvae feed openly on leaves, while the soft and + hairy pupa remains attached to its cocoon by the cremaster, although + it is incompletely obtect and has three or four free abdominal + segments. The _Orneodidae_ (multiplume moths) have all the wings + six-cleft. Our British species, _Orneodes hexadactyla_ (fig. 29), is + an exquisite little insect, whose larva feeds on the blossoms of + honeysuckle. The pupa is completely obtect, with only two free + abdominal segments. The _Pyralidae_ (figs. 13, 30), a large family + with numerous divisions, have entire wings, and their pupae are + obtect. The caterpillars feed in some kind of shelter, some spinning a + loose case among the leaves of their food-plant, others burrowing into + dry vegetable substances or eating the waxen cells of bees. Several + species of this group, such as the Mediterranean flour moth, _Ephestia + kühniella_ (fig. 30), become serious pests in storehouses and + granaries, their larvae devouring flour and similar food-stuffs. + + [Illustration: After Riley and Howard, _Insect Life_, vol. 2 (U.S. + Dept. Agr.). + + FIG. 30.--Flour Moth (_Ephestia kühniella_). + + c, With wings spread. + f, At rest. + g, h, i, Marking and neuration of wings. + a, Larva. + b, Pupa. + d, Head and front body-segments of larva. + e, 2nd and 3rd abdominal segments.] + + + _Noctuides._ + + In this group may be included a number of families of moths with the + second median nervure of the forewing arising close to the third. This + feature of neuration characterizes also the Jugatae (see fig. 6), + Tineides, Plutellides and Pyralides. But the Noctuides differ from + these groups in having only two anal nervures in the hindwing. The + maxillary palps are absent or vestigial, and a frenulum is usually + present on the hindwing. The larva has usually ten prolegs, whose + hooklets are arranged only along the inner edge, while the immobile + pupa is always obtect with only two free abdominal segments (the fifth + and sixth). The Lasiocampidae and their allies have flat eggs, but in + the Noctuidae, Arctiidae and their allies the egg is upright. + + [Illustration: FIG. 31.--_Claterna cydonia._ India.] + + The _Lasiocampidae_, together with a few small families, differ from + the majority of this group in wanting a frenulum. The maxillae of the + Lasiocampidae are so reduced that no food is taken in the imaginal + state, and in correlation with this condition the feelers of the male + are strongly (those of the female more feebly) bipectinated. The moths + are stout, hairy insects, usually brown or yellow in the pattern of + their wings. The caterpillars are densely hairy and many species + hibernate in the larval stage. The pupa is enclosed in a hard, dense + cocoon, whence the name "eggars" is often applied to the family, which + has a wide distribution, but is absent from New Zealand. The + _Drepanulidae_ are an allied family, in which the frenulum is usually + present, while the hindmost pair of larval prolegs are absent, their + segment being prolonged into a pointed process which is raised up when + the caterpillar is at rest. The hook-tip moths represent this family + in the British fauna. + + The _Lymantriidae_ resemble the Lasiocampidae in their hairy bodies + ana vestigial maxillae, but the frenulum is usually present on the + hindwing and the feelers are bipectinate only in the males. Some + females of this family--the vapourer moths (_Orgyia_ and allies, fig. + 17), for example--are degenerate creatures with vestigial wings. The + larvae (fig. 15) are very hairy, and often carry dense tufts on some + of their segments; hence the name of "tussocks" frequently applied to + them. The pupae are also often hairy (fig. 16)--an exceptional + condition--and are protected by a cocoon of silk mixed with some of + the larval hairs, while the female sheds some hairs from her own + abdomen to cover the eggs. The family is widely distributed, its + headquarters being the eastern tropics. To that part of the world is + restricted the allied family of the _Hypsidae_, distinguished from the + "tussocks" by the slender upturned terminal segment of the labial + palps and by the development of the maxillae. + + [Illustration: FIG. 32.--_Ophideres imperator._ Madagascar.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 33.--_Cyligramma fluctuosa._ W. Africa.] + + [Illustration: From Mally, _Bull._ 24, _Div. Ent. U.S. Dept. Agr._ + + FIG. 34.--e, f, _Heliothis armigera._ Europe, c, Larva; d, pupa in + cell. Natural size. a, b, Egg, highly magnified.] + + The _Noctuidae_ are the largest and most dominant family of the + Lepidoptera, comprising some 10,000 known species. They are mostly + moths of dull coloration, flying at dusk or by night. The maxillae are + well developed, the hindwing has a frenulum, and its sub-costal + nervure touches the radial near the base. The larvae of the Noctuidae + (fig. 34, c) are rarely hairy and the pupa (fig. 34, d) usually rests + in an earthen cell, being often the wintering stage for the species; + sometimes the pupa is enclosed in a loose cocoon of silk and leaves. + In some Noctuidae (fig. 32) the hindwings are brightly coloured, but + these are concealed beneath the dull, inconspicuous forewings when the + insect rests (fig. 34, f). Nearly allied to the Noctuidae, but very + different in appearance, are the gaily-coloured _Agaristidae_, a + family of day-flying moths (figs. 35, 36), confined to the warmer + regions of the globe and distinguished by their thickened feelers, + those of the Noctuids being thread-like or slightly pectinate. + + The _Arctiidae_ (tiger moths, footmen, &c.) are allied to the + Noctuidae, but their wing-neuration is more specialized, the + sub-costal nervure of the hindwing being confluent with the radial for + the basal part of its course. These moths (fig. 37) have gaily + coloured wings, and the caterpillars are often densely covered with + long smooth hairs. The pupae are enclosed in silken cocoons (fig. 38). + The highest specialization of structure in this group of the + Lepidoptera is reached by the _Syntomidae_, a family nearly allied to + the Arctiidae, but with the sub-costal nervure in the hindwing absent. + The Syntomidae have elongate narrow forewings and short hindwings, + usually dark in colour with clear spots and dashes destitute of scales + (fig. 40). The body, on the other hand, is often brilliantly adorned. + The family, abundant in the tropics of the Old World, has only two + European species. + + [Illustration: FIG. 35.--_Rothia pales._ Madagascar.] + + + _Sphingides._ + + [Illustration: FIG. 36.--_Aegocera rectilinea._ Tropical Africa.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 37.--_Haploa Lecontei._ N. America.] + + [Illustration: After Lugger, Riley and Howard, _Insect Life_, vol. 2 + (U.S. Dept. Agr.). + + FIG. 38.--c, Tiger Moth (_Phragmatobia fuliginosa_, Linn.). Europe. a, + Caterpillar; b, cocoon with pupa. Slightly enlarged.] + + This group includes a series of families which agree with the + Noctuides in most points, but are distinguished by the origin of the + second median nervure of the forewing close to the first, or from the + discocellular nervure midway between the first and third medians (see + fig. 5). These neurational characters may appear somewhat + insignificant, but such slight though constant distinctions in + structures of no adaptational value may be safely regarded as truly + significant of relationship. Several of the families in this group + have lost the frenulum. In larval and pupal characters the Sphingides + generally resemble the Noctuides, but in some families there is a + reduction in the number of the larval prolegs. The egg is spherical or + flat, upright only in the Notodontidae. + + [Illustration: FIG. 39.--_Halias prasinana._ Europe.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 40.--_Euchromia formosa._ S. Africa.] + + The Notodontidae are stout, hairy moths (figs. 5, 41, 42 a) with + maxillae and frenulum developed. In the larva the prolegs on the + hindmost segment are sometimes modified into pointed outgrowths which + are carried erect when the caterpillar moves about. From these + structures whip-like, coloured processes are protruded by the + caterpillar (fig. 42 b) of the puss moth (_Cerura_) when alarmed; + these processes are believed to help in "terrifying" the caterpillar's + enemies. Allied to the Notodontidae are the _Cymatophoridae_--a family + of moths agreeing with the Noctuidae in appearance and habits--and the + large and important family of the _Geometridae_. The moths (fig. 43) + of this family are distinguished from the Notodontidae by their + delicate build and elongate feet, the caterpillars (fig. 43, c) by the + absence or vestigial condition of the three anterior pairs of prolegs. + The two hinder pairs of prolegs are therefore alone functional and the + larva progresses by "looping," i.e. bending the body so as to bring + these prolegs close up to the thoracic legs, and then, taking a fresh + grip on the twig whereon it walks, stretching the body straight out + again. Many of these larvae have a striking resemblance both in form + and colour to the twigs of their food-plant. In some of the species + the female has the wings reduced to useless vestiges. The family is + world-wide in its range. The tropical _Uraniidae_ are large handsome + moths (figs. 44, 45), often with exquisite wing-patterns, allied to + the Geometridae, but distinguished by the absence of a frenulum in the + moth and the presence of the normal ten prolegs in the larva. + + [Illustration: FIG. 41.--_Notodonta ziczac_ (Pebble Prominent Moth). + Europe.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 42 A.--_Cerura borealis._ N. America.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 42 B.--Larva of _Cerura_ (Puss Moth).] + + [Illustration: After Grote, _Natural Science_ (J. M. Dent & Co.). + + FIG. 43.--Geometrid Moth (_Amphidasys betularia_, Linn.). Europe. a, + Large grey type; b, dark variety; c, caterpillar in looping attitude.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 44.--_Urania boisduvalii._ Cuba.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 45.--_Urania boisduvalii_ at rest, showing under + surface of wings.] + + The _Sphingidae_ (hawk moths) are insects often of large size (figs. + 46a, 47), with spindle-shaped feelers, elongate and powerful forewings + and the maxillae very well developed. The hindwing carries a frenulum + and has its sub-costal nervure connected with the radial by a short + bar. The caterpillars have the full number of prolegs, and, in many + genera, carry a prominent dorsal horn on the eighth abdominal segment + (fig. 46b). The pupa lies in an earthen cell. On account of their + powerful flight the moths of this family have a wide range; certain + species--like _Acherontia atropos_ and _Protoparce + convolvuli_--migrate into the British Islands in numbers almost every + summer. + + [Illustration: FIG. 46 A.--_Chlaenogramma jasminearum_ (Jessamine + Sphinx). N. America.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 46 B.--Larva.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 47.--_Smerinthus ocellatus_ (Eyed Hawk moth). + Europe.] + + A group of families in which the first maxillae are vestigial, the + feelers bipectinate and the pupa enclosed in a dense silken cocoon, + have been regarded as the most highly specialized of all the moths, + though according to other views the whole series of the Lepidoptera + culminates in the Syntomidae. Of these cocoon-spinning families may be + specially mentioned the _Eupterotidae_, large brown or yellow moths + inhabiting tropical Asia and Africa, and represented in Europe only by + the "processionary moth" (_Cnethocampa processionea_). In this family + the frenulum is present, and the larvae are protected with tufts of + long hair. The _Bombycidae_ have no frenulum, and the larvae are + smooth, with some of the segments humped and the eighth abdominal + often carrying a dorsal spine. The family is tropical in its + distribution, but the common silkworm (_Bombyx mori_, fig. 48) has + become acclimatized in southern Europe and is the source of most of + the silk used in manufacture and art. Of commercial value also is the + silk spun by the great moths of the family _Saturniidae_, well + represented in warm countries and contributing a single species + (_Saturnia pavonia-minor_) to the British fauna. These moths (fig. 49) + have but a single anal nervure in the hindwing and only three radial + nervures in the forewing. The wing-patterns are handsome and striking; + usually an unsealed "eyespot" is conspicuous at the end of each + discoidal areolet. The caterpillars are protected by remarkable + spine-bearing tubercles (fig. 10, B). + + [Illustration: After C.V. Riley, _Bull._ 14, _Div. Ent. U.S. Dept. + Agr._ + + FIG. 48.--_Bombyx mori._ China. a, Caterpillar (the common silkworm); + b, cocoon; c, male moth.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 49.--_Epiphora bouhiniae._ W. Africa.] + + _Grypocera._ + + [Illustration: FIG. 50.--_Tagiades sabadius._ S. Africa.] + + This group stands at the base of the series of families that are + usually distinguished as "butterflies." The feelers are recurved at + the tip, and thickened just before the extremity. The forewing has the + full number of radial nervures, distinct and evenly spaced, and two + anal nervures; the frenulum is usually absent. The larvae (fig. 51) + have prolegs with complete circles of hooklets, and often feed in + concealed situations, while the pupa is protected by a light cocoon. + The affinities of this group are clearly not with the higher groups of + moths just described, but with some of the lower families. According + to Meyrick they are most closely related to the Pyralidae, but Hampson + and most other students would derive them (through the Castniidae) + from a primitive Tineoid stock allied to the Cossidae and Zygaenidae. + + Three families are included in the section. The North American + _Megathymidae_ and the Australian _Euschemonidae_ have a frenulum and + are usually reckoned among the "moths." The _Hesperiidae_ in which the + frenulum is wanting form the large family of the skipper butterflies, + represented in our own fauna by several species. They are insects with + broad head--the feelers being widely separated--usually brown or grey + wings (fig. 50) and a peculiar jerky flight. The family has an + extensive range but is unknown in Greenland, New Zealand, and in many + oceanic islands. + + + _Rhopalocera._ + + [Illustration: FIG. 51.--Chrysalis and Larva of _Nisoniadestages_ + (dingy skipper). Europe.] + + This group comprises the typical butterflies which are much more + highly specialized than the Grypocera, and may be readily + distinguished by the knobbed or clubbed feelers and by the absence of + a frenulum. Two or more of the radial nervures in the forewing arise + from a common stalk or are suppressed. The egg is "upright." The + larvae have hooklets only on the inner edges of the prolegs. The pupa + is very highly modified, only two free abdominal segments are ever + recognizable, and in some genera even these have become consolidated. + The cocoon is reduced to a pad of silk, to which the pupa is attached, + suspended by the cremastral hooks; in some families there is also a + silken girdle around the waist-region. In correlation with the exposed + condition of the pupa, we find the presence of a specially developed + "head-piece" or "nose-horn" to protect the head-region of the + contained imago. Their bright colours and conspicuous flight in the + sunshine has made the Rhopalocera the most admired of all insects by + the casual observer. + + [Illustration: FIG. 52.--_Chrysophanus thoe._ N. America.] + + A modification that has taken place in several families of butterflies + is the reduction of the first pair of legs. H. W. Bates arranged the + families in a series depending on this character, but neurational and + pupal features must be taken into account as well, and the sequence + followed here is modified from that proposed by A. R. Grote and J. W. + Tutt. + + [Illustration: FIG. 53.--_Rathinda amor._ India.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 54.--_Cheritra freja._ India.] + + The _Lycaenidae_ are a large family including the small butterflies + (figs. 52, 53, 54) popularly known as blues, coppers and hairstreaks. + The forelegs in the female are normal, but in the male the tarsal + segments are shortened and the claws sometimes are absent. The + forewing has only three or four radial nervures (fig. 55), the last + two of which arise from a common stalk; the feelers are inserted close + together on the head. The larva is short and hairy, somewhat like a + woodlouse in shape, the broad sides concealing the legs and prolegs, + while the pupa, which is also hairy or bristly, is attached by the + cremaster to a silken pad and cinctured with a silken thread. The + upper surfaces of the wings of these insects are usually of a bright + metallic hue--blue or coppery--while beneath there are often numerous + dark centred "eye-spots." The family is widely distributed. Nearly + related are the _Lemoniidae_, a family abundantly represented in the + Neotropical Region, but scarce in the Old World and having only a + single European species (_Nemeobius lucinia_) which occurs also in + England. In the Lemoniidae (figs. 56, 57) the forelegs of the male are + reduced and useless for walking. The _Libytheidae_ may be recognized + by the elongate snout-like palps, the five-branched radial nervure of + the forewing, the cylindrical hairy larva, and the pupa attached only + by the cremaster. + + [Illustration: After Grote, _Natural Science_, vol. 12 (J. M. Dent & + Co.). + + FIG. 55.--Neuration of Wings in _Lycaena_. + + 2, Sub-costal. + 3, Radial. + 4, Median. + 5, Cubital. + 7, 8, Anal nervures.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 56.--_Eurybia carolina._ Brazil.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 57.--_Calephelis caenius._ N. America.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 58.--_Papilio machaon_ (Swallow-tail.). Europe.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 59.--_Parnassius apollo_ (Apollo). European Alps.] + + The _Papilionidae_ are large butterflies with ample wings, and all six + legs fully developed in both sexes. The forewing has five radial and + two anal nervures, the second of the latter being free from the first + and running to the dorsum of the wing, while the hindwing has but a + single anal, and is frequently prolonged into a "tail" at the third + median nervure (fig. 58). The larva is cylindrical, never hairy but + often tuberculate and provided with a dorsal retractile tentacle + (osmaterium) on the prothorax. The pupa, which has a double + "nose-horn," is attached by the cremaster and a waist-girdle to the + food-plant in the Papilioninae (fig. 58), but lies in a web on the + ground among the Parnasiinae (figs. 59, 60). The latter sub-family + includes the well-known Apollo butterflies of the Alps. The former is + represented in the British fauna by the East Anglian swallow-tail + (_Papilio machaon_), and is very abundant in the warmer regions of the + world, including some of the most magnificent and brilliant of + insects. + + [Illustration: FIG. 60.--_Thais medesicaste._ S. France.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 61.--_Colias hyale_ (Pale clouded Yellow + Butterfly). Europe.] + + Agreeing with the Papilionidae in the six perfect legs of both sexes + and the cincture-support of the pupa we find the _Pieridae_--the + family of the white and yellow butterflies (figs. 61, 62)--represented + by ten species in the British fauna and very widely spread over the + earth's surface. In the _Pieridae_ there are two anal nervures in the + hindwing, while the second anal nervure in the forewing runs into the + first; the larva is cylindrical and hairy without an osmaterium. The + pupa has a single "nose-horn," and in the more highly organized genera + there is no mobility whatever between its abdominal segments. The + wintering pupae of the common cabbage butterflies (_Pieris brassicae_ + and _P. rapae_) are common objects attached to walls and fences and + their colour harmonizes, to a great extent, with that of their + surroundings. + + [Illustration: FIG. 62.--_Appias nero_ (male). Malaya.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 63.--_Dione moneta._ Brazil.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 64.--Larva of _Argynnis paphia_ (Silver-washed + Fritillary). Europe.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 65.--_Vanessa io_ (Peacock) and its pupa.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 66.--_Euploea leucostictos_ (male). Malaya.] + + [Illustration: After A. R. Grote, _Natural Science_, vol. 12 (J. M. + Dent & Co.). + + FIG. 67.--Neuration of Wings in a Nymphaline Butterfly. + + 2, Sub-costal. + 3, Radial. + 4, Median. + 5, Cubital. + 6, 7, 8, Anal nervures.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 68.--_Nymphalis jason._ W. Africa. Upper and under + surface.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 69.--Larva and Pupa of _Apatura ilia_.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 70.--_Callithea sapphira._ Brazil.] + + The _Nymphalidae_ are by far the largest and most dominant family of + butterflies. In both sexes the forelegs are useless for walking (fig. + 63), the tarsal segments being absent and the short shins clothed with + long hairs, whence the name of brush-footed butterflies is often + applied to the family. The neuration of the wings resembles that found + among the Pieridae, but in the Nymphalidae the pupa, which has a + double nose-horn (fig. 65)--as in _Papilio_--is suspended from the + cremaster only, no girdling thread being present, or it lies simply on + the ground. The egg is elongate and sub-conical in form and ornamented + with numerous ribs, while the larva is usually protected by numerous + spines (fig. 64) arising from the segmental tubercles. To this family + belong our common gaily-coloured butterflies--the tortoiseshells, + peacock (fig. 65), admirals, fritillaries and emperors. In most cases + the bright colouring is confined to the upper surface of the wings, + the under-side being mottled and often inconspicuous. Most members of + the group Vanessidi--the peacock and tortoiseshells (_Vanessa_) and + the red admiral (_Pyrameis_) for example--hibernate in the imaginal + state. This large family is divided into several sub-families whose + characters may be briefly given, as they are considered to be distinct + families by many entomologists. The _Danainae_ (or _Euploeinae_, fig. + 66) have the anal nervures of the forewing arising from a common + stalk, the discoidal areolets in both wings closed, and the front feet + of the female thickened; their larvae are smooth with fleshy + processes. The danaine butterflies range over all the warmer parts of + the world, becoming most numerous in the eastern tropics, where + flourish the handsome purple _Euploeae_ whose males often have + "brands" on the wings; these insects are conspicuously marked and are + believed to be distasteful to birds and lizards. So are the South + American _Ithomiinae_, distinguished from the Danainae by the slender + feet of the females; the narrow winged, tawny _Acraeinae_, with simple + anal nervures, thick hairy palps and spiny larvae; and the + _Heliconiinae_ whose palps are compressed, scaly at the sides and + hairy in front. This last named sub-family is confined to the + Neotropical Region, while the Acraeinae are most numerous in the + Ethiopian. The _Nymphalinae_ include the British vanessids (fig. 65), + and a vast assemblage of exotic genera (figs. 68, 70), characterized + by the "open" discoidal areolets (fig. 67) owing to the absence of the + transverse "disco-cellular" nervules. In the _Morphinae_--including + some magnificent South American insects with deep or azure blue wings, + and a few rather dull-coloured Oriental genera--the areolets are + closed in the forewings and often in the hindwings. The larvae of the + Morphinae (fig. 71) are smooth or hairy with a curiously forked + tail-segment. A similar larva characterizes the South American + _Brassolinae_ or owl-butterflies--robust insects (figs. 72, 73) with + the areolets closed in both wings, which are adorned with large + "eye-spots" beneath. The _Satyrinae_, including our native browns and + the Alpine _Erebiae_, resemble the foregoing group in many respects of + structure, but the sub-costal nervure is greatly thickened at the base + (fig. 74). This sub-family is world-wide in its distribution. One + genus (_Oeneis_, fig. 75) is found in high northern latitudes, but + reappears in South America. The dark, spotted species of _Erebia_ are + familiar insects to travellers among the Alps; yet butterflies nearly + related to these Alpine insects occur in Patagonia, in South Africa + and in New Zealand. Such facts of distribution clearly show that + though the Nymphalidae have attained a high degree of specialization + among the Lepidoptera, some of their genera have a history which goes + back to a time when the distribution of land and water on the earth's + surface must have been very different from what it is to-day. + + [Illustration: FIG. 71.--Larva of _Amathusia phidippus_.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 72.--_Opsiphanes syme._ Brazil.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 73.--_Brassolis astyra._ Brazil.] + + [Illustration: After A. R. Grote, _Natural Science_, vol. 12 (J. M. + Dent & Co.). + + FIG. 74.--Neuration of wings in _Pararge_, a satyrid butterfly. + + 2, Sub-costal. + 3, Radial. + 4, Median. + 5, Cubital. + 7, 8, Anal nervures.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 75.--_Oeneis jutta._ Arctic Regions.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 76.--_Bia actorion._ Brazil.] + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The handsome Lepidoptera, with their interesting and + easily observed life-histories, have naturally attracted many + students, and the literature of the order is enormous. M. Malpighi's + treatise on the anatomy of the silkworm (_De Bombycibus_, London, + 1669) and P. Lyonnet's memoir on the Goat-caterpillar, are among the + earliest and most famous of entomological writings. W. F. Kirby's + _Handbook to the Order Lepidoptera_ (5 vols., London, 1894-1897) + should be consulted for references to the older systematic writers + such as Linnaeus, J. C. Fabricius, J. Hübner, P. Cramer, E. Doubleday + and W. C. Hewitson. Kirby's _Catalogues_ are also invaluable for the + systematist. For the jaws of the Lepidoptera see F. Darwin, _Quart. + Journ. Mic. Sci._ xv. (1875); E. Burgess, _Amer. Nat._ xiv. (1880); A. + Walter, _Jen. Zeits. f. Naturw._ xviii. (1885); W. Breitenbach, Ib. + xv. (1882); V. L. Kellogg, _Amer. Nat._ xxix. (1895). The last-named + deals also with wing structure, which is further described by A. + Spuler, _Zeits. wiss. Zool._ liii. (1892) and _Zool. Jahrb. Anat._ + viii. (1895); A. R. Grote, _Mitt. aus dem Roemer-Museum_ (Hildesheim, + 1896-1897); G. Enderlein, _Zool. Jahrb. Anat._ xvi. (1903), and many + others. For scales see A. G. Mayer, _Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool. Harvard_, + xxix. (1896). For internal anatomy W. H. Jackson, _Trans. Linn. Soc. + Zool._ (2) v. (1891), and W. Petersen, _Mem. Acad. Imp. Sci. St + Petersburg_ (8) ix. (1900). The early stages and transformations of + Lepidoptera are described by J. Gonin, _Bull. Soc. Vaud. Sci. Nat._ + xxx. (1894); E. B. Poulton, _Trans. Linn. Soc. Zool._ (2) v. (1891); + H. G. Dyar, _Ann. New York Acad. Sci._ viii. (1894); T. A. Chapman, + _Trans. Entom. Soc. Lond._ (1893), &c. For habits and life-relations + see A. Seitz, _Zool. Jahrb. Syst._ v., vii. (1890, 1894); A. Weismann, + _Studies in the Theory of Descent_ (London, 1882) and _Entomologist_, + xxix. (1896); F. Merrifield, _Trans. Entom. Soc. Lond._ (1890, 1893, + 1905); M. Standfuss, _Handbuch der paläarktischen + Gross-schmetterlinge_ (Jena, 1896); R. Trimen, _Proc. Ent. Soc. Lond._ + (1898); E. B. Poulton, _Colours of Animals_ (London, 1890); _Trans. + Entom. Soc._ (1892 and 1903), and _Journ. Linn. Soc. Zool._ xxvi. + (1898); F. E. Beddard, _Animal Coloration_ (London, 1892). For + distribution see H. J. Elwes, _Proc. Entom. Soc. Lond._ (1894); J. W. + Tutt, _Migration and Dispersal of Insects_ (London, 1902); Fossil + Lepidoptera, S. H. Scudder, _8th Rep. U.S. Geol. Survey_ (1889). Among + recent general works on the Lepidoptera, most of which contain + numerous references to the older literature, may be mentioned A. S. + Packard's unfinished work on the Bombycine Moths of N. America, _Mem. + Nat. Acad. Sci. Philadelphia_, vii. (1895), and _Mem. Acad. Sci. + Washington_, lx. (1905); D. Sharp's chapter in _Cambridge Nat. Hist._ + vi. (London, 1898); G. F. Hampson, _Moths of India_ (4 vols., London, + 1892-1896), and _Catalogue of the Lepidoptera Phalaenae_ (1895) and + onwards; S. H. Scudder, _Butterflies of New England_ (3 vols., + Cambridge, Mass., 1888-1889); W. J. Holland, _Butterfly Book_ (New + York, 1899). Works on the British Lepidoptera are numerous, for + example, those of H. T. Stainton (1851), C. G. Barrett (1893-1907), E. + Meyrick (1895), and J. W. Tutt (1899 and onwards). For recent general + systematic works, the student should consult the catalogues mentioned + above and the _Zoological Record_. The writings of O. Staudinger, E. + Schatz, C. Oberthür, K. Jordan, C. Aurivillius and P. Mabille may be + specially mentioned. (G. H. C.) + + + + +LEPIDUS, the name of a Roman patrician family in the Aemilian gens. + +1. MARCUS AEMILIUS LEPIDUS, one of the three ambassadors sent to Egypt +in 201 B.C. as guardians of the infant king Ptolemy V. He was consul in +187 and 175, censor 179, _pontifex maximus_ from 180 onwards, and was +six times chosen by the censors _princeps senatus_. He died in 152. He +distinguished himself in the war with Antiochus III. of Syria, and +against the Ligurians. He made the Via Aemilia from Ariminum to +Placentia, and led colonies to Mutina and Parma. + + Livy xl. 42-46, _epit._ 48; Polybius xvi. 34. + +2. MARCUS AEMILIUS LEPIDUS, surnamed PORCINA (probably from his personal +appearance), consul 137 B.C. Being sent to Spain to conduct the +Numantine war, he began against the will of the senate to attack the +Vaccaei. This enterprise was so unsuccessful that he was deprived of his +command in 136 and condemned to pay a fine. He was among the greatest of +the earlier Roman orators, and Cicero praises him for having introduced +the well-constructed sentence and even flow of language from Greek into +Roman oratory. + + Cicero, _Brutus_, 25, 27, 86, 97; Vell. Pat. ii. 10; Appian, _Hisp._ + 80-83; Livy, _epit._ 56. + +3. MARCUS AEMILIUS LEPIDUS, father of the triumvir. In 81 B.C. he was +praetor of Sicily, where he made himself detested by oppression and +extortion. In the civil wars he sided with Sulla and bought much of the +confiscated property of the Marian partisans. Afterwards he became +leader of the popular party, and with the help of Pompey was elected +consul for 78, in spite of the opposition of Sulla. When the dictator +died, Lepidus tried in vain to prevent the burial of his body in the +Campus Martius, and to alter the constitution established by him. His +colleague Lutatius Catulus found a tribune to place his veto on +Lepidus's proposals; and the quarrel between the two parties in the +state became so acute that the senate made the consuls swear not to take +up arms. Lepidus was then ordered by the senate to go to his province, +Transalpine Gaul; but he stopped in Etruria on his way from the city and +began to levy an army. He was declared a public enemy early in 77, and +forthwith marched against Rome. A battle took place in the Campus +Martius, Pompey and Catulus commanding the senatorial army, and Lepidus +was defeated. He sailed to Sardinia, in order to put himself into +connexion with Sertorius in Spain, but here also suffered a repulse, and +died shortly afterwards. + + Plutarch, _Sulla_, 34, 38, _Pompey_, 15; Appian, _B.C._ i. 105, 107; + Livy, _epit._ 90; Florus iii. 23; Cicero, _Balbus_, 15. + +4. MARCUS AEMILIUS LEPIDUS, the triumvir. He joined the party of Julius +Caesar in the civil wars, and was by the dictator thrice nominated +_magister equitum_ and raised to the consulship in 46 B.C. He was a man +of great wealth and influence, and it was probably more on this ground +than on account of his ability that Caesar raised him to such honours. +In the beginning of 44 B.C. he was sent to Gallia Narbonensis, but +before he had left the city with his army Caesar was murdered. Lepidus, +as commander of the only army near Rome, became a man of great +importance in the troubles which followed. Taking part with Marcus +Antonius (Mark Antony), he joined in the reconciliation which the latter +effected with the senatorial party, and afterwards sided with him when +open war broke out. Antony, after his defeat at Mutina, joined Lepidus +in Gaul, and in August 43 Octavian (afterwards the emperor Augustus), +who had forced the senate to make him consul, effected an arrangement +with Antony and Lepidus, and their triumvirate was organized at Bononia. +Antony and Octavian soon reduced Lepidus to an inferior position. His +province of Gaul and Spain was taken from him; and, though he was +included in the triumvirate when it was renewed in 37, his power was +only nominal. He made an effort in the following year to regain some +reality of power, conquered part of Sicily, and claimed the whole island +as his province, but Octavian found means to sap the fidelity of his +soldiers, and he was obliged to supplicate for his life. He was allowed +to retain his fortune and the office of _pontifex maximus_ to which he +had been appointed in 44, but had to retire into private life. According +to Suetonius (_Augustus_, 16) he died at Circeii in the year 13. + + See ROME: _History_ ii., "The Republic," Period C, _ad fin._; Appian, + _Bell. Civ._ ii.-v.; Dio Cassius xli.-xlix.; Vell. Pat. ii. 64, 80; + Orelli's _Onomasticon_ to Cicero. + + + + +LE PLAY, PIERRE GUILLAUME FRÉDÉRIC (1806-1882), French engineer and +economist, was born at La Rivière-Saint-Sauveur (Calvados) on the 11th +of April 1806, the son of a custom-house official. He was educated at +the École Polytechnique, and from there passed into the State Department +of Mines. In 1834 he was appointed head of the permanent committee of +mining statistics, and in 1840 engineer-in-chief and professor of +metallurgy at the school of mines, where he became inspector in 1848. +For nearly a quarter of a century Le Play spent his vacations travelling +in the various countries of Europe, and collected a vast quantity of +material bearing upon the social condition of the working classes. In +1855 he published _Les Ouvriers européens_, which comprised a series of +thirty-six monographs on the budgets of typical families selected from +the most diverse industries. The Académie des Sciences conferred on him +the Montyon prize. Napoleon III., who held him in high esteem, entrusted +him with the organization of the Exhibition of 1855, and appointed him +counsellor of state, commissioner general of the Exhibition of 1867, +senator of the empire and grand officer of the Legion of Honour. He died +in Paris on the 5th of April 1882. + + In 1856 Le Play founded the _Société internationale des études + pratiques d'Économie sociale_, which has devoted its energies + principally to forwarding social studies on the lines laid down by its + founder. The journal of the society, _La Réforme sociale_, founded in + 1881, is published fortnightly. Other works of Le Play are _La Réforme + sociale_ (2 vols., 1864; 7th ed., 3 vols., 1887); _L'Organisation de + la famille_ (1871); _La Constitution de l'Angleterre_ (in + collaboration with M. Delaire, 1875). See article in _Harvard + Quarterly Journal of Economics_ (June 1890), by H. Higgs. + + + + +LEPROSY (_Lepra Arabum_, _Elephantiasis Graecorum_, _Aussatz_, +_Spedalskhed_), the greatest disease of medieval Christendom, +identified, on the one hand, with a disease endemic from the earliest +historical times (1500 B.C.) in the delta and valley of the Nile, and, +on the other hand, with a disease now common in Asia, Africa, South +America, the West Indies, and certain isolated localities of Europe. An +authentic representation of the leprosy of the middle ages exists in a +picture at Munich by Holbein, painted at Augsburg in 1516; St Elizabeth +gives bread and wine to a prostrate group of lepers, including a bearded +man whose face is covered with large round reddish knobs, an old woman +whose arm is covered with brown blotches, the leg swathed in bandages +through which matter oozes, the bare knee also marked with discoloured +spots, and on the head a white rag or plaster, and, thirdly, a young man +whose neck and face (especially round the somewhat hairless eyebrows) +are spotted with brown patches of various size. It is conjectured by +Virchow that the painter had made studies of lepers from the +leper-houses then existing at Augsburg. These external characters of +medieval leprosy agree with the descriptions of it by the ancients, and +with the pictures of modern leprosy given by Danielssen and Boeck for +Norway, by various authors for sporadic European cases, by Anderson for +Malacca, by Carter for India, by Wolff for Madeira and by Hillis for +British Guiana. There has been some confusion in the technical naming of +the disease; it is called _Elephantiasis_ (_Leontiasis_, _Satyriasis_) +by the Greek writers, and _Lepra_ by the Arabians. + +Leprosy is now included among the parasitic diseases (see PARASITIC +DISEASES). The cause is believed to be infection by the bacillus leprae, +a specific microbe discovered by Armauer Hansen in 1871. It is worthy of +note that tuberculosis is very common among lepers, and especially +attacks the serous membranes. The essential character of leprosy is a +great multiplication of cells, resembling the "granulation cells" of +lupus and syphilis, in the tissues affected, which become infiltrated +and thickened, with degeneration and destruction of their normal +elements. The new cells vary in size from ordinary leucocytes to giant +cells three or four times larger. The bacilli are found in these cells, +sometimes in small numbers, sometimes in masses. The structures most +affected are the skin, nerves, mucous membranes and lymphatic glands. + +The symptoms arise from the anatomical changes indicated, and they vary +according to the parts attacked. Three types of disease are usually +described--(1) nodular, (2) smooth or anaesthetic, (3) mixed. In the +first the skin is chiefly affected, in the second the nerves; the third +combines the features of both. It should be understood that this +classification is purely a matter of convenience, and is based on the +relative prominence of symptoms, which may be combined in all degrees. +The incubation period of leprosy--assuming it to be due to infection--is +unknown, but cases are on record which can only be explained on the +hypothesis that it may be many years. The invasion is usually slow and +intermittent. There are occasional feverish attacks, with the usual +constitutional disturbance and other slight premonitory signs, such as +changes in the colour of the skin and in its sensibility. Sometimes, but +rarely, the onset is acute and the characteristic symptoms develop +rapidly. These begin with an eruption which differs markedly according +to the type of disease. In the nodular form dark red or coppery patches +appear on the face, backs of the hands, and feet or on the body; they +are generally symmetrical, and vary from the size of a shilling upwards. +They come with one of the feverish attacks and fade away when it has +gone, but only to return. After a time infiltration and thickening of +the skin become noticeable, and the nodules appear. They are lumpy +excrescences, at first pink but changing to brown. Thickening of the +skin of the face produces a highly characteristic appearance, recalling +the aspect of a lion. The tissues of the eye undergo degenerative +changes; the mucous membrane of the nose and throat is thickened, +impairing the breathing and the voice; the eyebrows fall off; the ears +and nose become thickened and enlarged. As the disease progresses the +nodules tend to break down and ulcerate, leaving open sores. The +patient, whose condition is extremely wretched, gradually becomes +weaker, and eventually succumbs to exhaustion or is carried off by some +intercurrent disease, usually inflammation of the kidneys or +tuberculosis. A severe case may end fatally in two years, but, as a +rule, when patients are well cared for the illness lasts several years. +There is often temporary improvement, but complete recovery from this +form of leprosy rarely or never occurs. The smooth type is less severe +and more chronic. The eruption consists of patches of dry, slightly +discoloured skin, not elevated above the surface. These patches are the +result of morbid changes affecting the cutaneous nerves, and are +accompanied by diminished sensibility over the areas of skin affected. +At the same time certain nerve trunks in the arm and leg, and +particularly the ulnar nerve, are found to be thickened. In the further +stages the symptoms are those of increasing degeneration of the nerves. +Bullae form on the skin, and the discoloured patches become enlarged; +sensation is lost, muscular power diminished, with wasting, contraction +of tendons, and all the signs of impaired nutrition. The nails become +hard and clawed; perforating ulcers of the feet are common; portions of +the extremities, including whole fingers and toes, die and drop off. +Later, paralysis becomes more marked, affecting the muscles of the face +and limbs. The disease runs a very chronic course, and may last twenty +or thirty years. Recovery occasionally occurs. In the mixed form, which +is probably the most common, the symptoms described are combined in +varying degrees. Leprosy may be mistaken for syphilis, tuberculosis, +ainhum (an obscure disease affecting negroes, in which the little toe +drops off), and several affections of the skin. Diagnosis is established +by the presence of the bacillus leprae in the nodules or bullae, and by +the signs of nerve degeneration exhibited in the anaesthetic patches of +skin and the thickened nerve trunks. + +In former times leprosy was often confounded with other skin diseases, +especially psoriasis and leucoderma; the white leprosy of the Old +Testament was probably a form of the latter. But there is no doubt that +true leprosy has existed from time immemorial. Prescriptions for +treating it have been found in Egypt, to which a date of about 4600 B.C. +is assigned. The disease is described by Aristotle and by later Greek +writers, but not by Hippocrates, though leprosy derives its name from +his "lepra" or "scaly" disease, which was no doubt psoriasis. In ancient +times it was widely prevalent throughout Asia as well as in Egypt, and +among the Greeks and Romans. In the middle ages it became extensively +diffused in Europe, and in some countries--France, England, Germany and +Spain--every considerable town had its leper-house, in which the +patients were segregated. The total number of such houses has been +reckoned at 19,000. The earliest one in England was established at +Canterbury in 1096, and the latest at Highgate in 1472. At one time +there were at least 95 religious hospitals for lepers in Great Britain +and 14 in Ireland (Sir James Simpson). During the 15th century the +disease underwent a remarkable diminution. It practically disappeared in +the civilized parts of Europe, and the leper-houses were given up. It is +a singular fact that this diminution was coincident with the great +extension of syphilis (see PROSTITUTION). The general disappearance of +leprosy at this time is the more unintelligible because it did not take +effect everywhere. In Scotland the disease lingered until the 19th +century, and in some other parts it has never died out at all. At the +present time it still exists in Norway, Iceland, along the shores of the +Baltic, in South Russia, Greece, Turkey, several Mediterranean islands, +the Riviera, Spain and Portugal. Isolated cases occasionally occur +elsewhere, but they are usually imported. The Teutonic races seem to be +especially free from the taint. Leper asylums are maintained in Norway +and at two or three places in the Baltic, San Remo, Cyprus, +Constantinople, Alicante and Lisbon. Except in Spain, where some +increase has taken place, the disease is dying out. The number of lepers +in Norway was 3000 in 1856, but has now dwindled to a few hundreds. They +are no longer numerous in any part of Europe. On the other hand, leprosy +prevails extensively throughout Asia, from the Mediterranean to Japan, +and from Arabia to Siberia. It is also found in nearly all parts of +Africa, particularly on the east and west coasts near the equator. In +South Africa it has greatly increased, and attacks the Dutch as well as +natives. Leper asylums have been established at Robben Island near Cape +Town, and in Tembuland. In Australia, where it was introduced by +Chinese, it has also spread to Europeans. In New Zealand the Maoris are +affected; but the amount of leprosy is not large in either country. A +much more remarkable case is that of the Hawaiian Islands, where the +disease is believed to have been imported by Chinese. It was unknown +before 1848, but in 1866 the number of lepers had risen to 230 and in +1882 to 4000 (Liveing). All attempts to stop it by segregating lepers in +the settlement of Molokai appear to have been fruitless. In the West +Indies and on the American continent, again, leprosy has a wide +distribution. It is found in nearly all parts of South and Central +America, and in certain parts of North America--namely, Louisiana, +California (among Chinese), Minnesota, Wisconsin and North and South +Dakota (Norwegians), New Brunswick (French Canadians). + +It is difficult to find any explanation of the geographical distribution +and behaviour of leprosy. It seems to affect islands and the sea-coast +more than the interior, and to some extent this gives colour to the old +belief that it is caused or fostered by a fish diet, which has been +revived by Mr Jonathan Hutchinson, but is not generally accepted. +Leprosy is found in interiors where fish is not an article of diet. +Climate, again, has obviously little, if any, influence. The theory of +heredity is equally at fault, whether it be applied to account for the +spread of the disease by transmission or for its disappearance by the +elimination of susceptible persons. The latter is the manner in which +heredity might be expected to act, if at all, for lepers are remarkably +sterile. But we see the disease persisting among the Eastern races, who +have been continuously exposed to its selective influence from the +earliest times, while it has disappeared among the Europeans, who were +affected very much later. The opposite theory of hereditary transmission +from parents to offspring is also at variance with many observed facts. +Leprosy is very rarely congenital, and no cases have occurred among the +descendants to the third generation of 160 Norwegian lepers settled in +the United States. Again, if hereditary transmission were an effective +influence, the disease could hardly have died down so rapidly as it did +in Europe in the 15th century. Then we have the theory of contagion. +There is no doubt that human beings are inoculable with leprosy, and +that the disease may be communicated by close contact. Cases have been +recorded which prove it conclusively; for instance, that of a man who +had never been out of the British islands, but developed leprosy after +sharing for a time the bed and clothes of his brother, who had +contracted the disease in the West Indies. Some of the facts noted, such +as the extensive dissemination of the disease in Europe during the +middle ages, and its subsequent rapid decline, suggest the existence of +some unknown epidemic factor. Poverty and insanitation are said to go +with the prevalence of leprosy, but they go with every malady, and there +is nothing to show that they have any special influence. Vaccination has +been blamed for spreading it, and a few cases of communication by +arm-to-arm inoculation are recorded. The influence of this factor, +however, can only be trifling. Vaccination is a new thing, leprosy a +very old one; where there is most vaccination there is no leprosy, and +where there is most leprosy there is little or no vaccination. In India +78% of the lepers are unvaccinated, and in Canton since vaccination was +introduced leprosy has declined (Cantlie). On the whole we must conclude +that there is still much to be learnt about the conditions which govern +the prevalence of leprosy. + +With regard to prevention, the isolation of patients is obviously +desirable, especially in the later stages, when open sores may +disseminate the bacilli; but complete segregation, which has been urged, +is regarded as impracticable by those who have had most experience in +leprous districts. Scrupulous cleanliness should be exercised by persons +attending on lepers or brought into close contact with them. In +treatment the most essential thing is general care of the health, with +good food and clothing. The tendency of modern therapeutics to attach +increasing importance to nutrition in various morbid states, and notably +in diseases of degeneration, such as tuberculosis and affections of the +nervous system, is borne out by experience in leprosy, which has +affinities to both; and this suggests the application to it of modern +methods for improving local as well as general nutrition by physical +means. A large number of internal remedies have been tried with varying +results; those most recommended are chaulmoogra oil, arsenic, salicylate +of soda, salol and chlorate of potash. Vergueira uses Collargol +intravenously and subcutaneously, and states that in all the cases +treated there was marked improvement, and hair that had been lost grew +again. Calmette's Anterenene injected subcutaneously has been followed +by good results. Deycke together with R. Bey isolated from a +non-ulcerated leprous nodule a streptothrix which they call S. +leproides. Its relation to the bacillus is uncertain. They found that +injections of this organism had marked curative effects, due to a +neutral fat which they named "Nastin." Injections of Nastin together +with Benzoyl Chloride directly act on the lepra bacilli. Some cases were +unaffected by this treatment, but with others the effect was marvellous. +Dr W. A. Pusey of Chicago uses applications of carbon dioxide snow with +good effect. In the later stages of the disease there is a wide field +for surgery, which is able to give much relief to sufferers. + + LITERATURE.--For history and geographical distribution, see Hirsch, + _Handbuch der historisch-geographischen Pathologie_ (1st ed., + Erlangen, 1860, with exhaustive literature). For pathology, Virchow, + _Die krankhaften Geschwülste_ (Berlin, 1863-1867), vol. ii. For + clinical histories, R. Liveing, _Elephantiasis Graecorum or True + Leprosy_ (London, 1873), ch. iv. For medieval leprosy--in Germany, + Virchow, in _Virchow's Archiv_, five articles, vols. xviii.-xx. + (1860-1861); in the Netherlands, Israëls, in _Nederl. Tijdschr. voor + Geneeskunde_, vol. i. (1857); in Britain, J. Y. Simpson, _Edin. Med. + and Surg. Journ._, three articles, vols. lxvi. and lxvii. (1846-1847). + Treatises on modern leprosy in particular localities: Danielssen and + Boeck (Norway), _Traité de la Spédalskhed_, with atlas of twenty-four + coloured plates (Paris, 1848); A. F. Anderson, _Leprosy as met with in + the Straits Settlements_, coloured photographs with explanatory notes + (London, 1872); H. Vandyke Carter (Bombay), _On Leprosy and + Elephantiasis_, with coloured plates (London, 1874); Hillis, _Leprosy + in British Guiana_, an account of West Indian leprosy, with twenty-two + coloured plates (London, 1882). See also the dermatological works of + Hebra, Erasmus Wilson, Bazin and Jonathan Hutchinson (also the + latter's letters to _The Times_ of the 11th of April and the 25th of + May 1903); _British Medical Journal_ (April 1, 1908); _American + Journal of Dermatology_ (Dec. 1907); _The Practitioner_ (February + 1910). An important early work is that of P. G. Hensler, _Vom + abendländischen Aussatze im Mittelalter_ (Hamburg, 1790). + + + + +LEPSIUS, KARL RICHARD (1810-1884), German Egyptologist, was born at +Naumburg-am-Saale on the 23rd of December 1810, and in 1823 was sent to +the "Schulpforta" school near Naumburg, where he came under the +influence of Professor Lange. In 1829 he entered the university of +Leipzig, and one year later that of Göttingen, where, under the +influence of Otfried Müller, he finally decided to devote himself to the +archaeological side of philology. From Göttingen he proceeded to Berlin, +where he graduated in 1833 as doctor with the thesis _De tabulis +Eugubinis_. In the same year he proceeded to study in Paris, and was +commissioned by the duc de Luynes to collect material from the Greek and +Latin writers for his work on the weapons of the ancients. In 1834 he +took the Volney prize with his _Paläographie als Mittel der +Sprachforschung_. Befriended by Bunsen and Humboldt, Lepsius threw +himself with great ardour into Egyptological studies, which, since the +death of Champollion in 1832, had attracted no scholar of eminence and +weight. Here Lepsius found an ample field for his powers. After four +years spent in visiting the Egyptian collections of Italy, Holland and +England, he returned to Germany, where Humboldt and Bunsen united their +influence to make his projected visit to Egypt a scientific expedition +with royal support. For three years Lepsius and his party explored the +whole of the region in which monuments of ancient Egyptian and Ethiopian +occupation are found, from the Sudan above Khartum to the Syrian coast. +At the end of 1845 they returned home, and the results of the +expedition, consisting of casts, drawings and squeezes of inscriptions +and scenes, maps and plans collected with the utmost thoroughness, as +well as antiquities and papyri, far surpassed expectations. In 1846 he +married Elisabeth Klein, and his appointment to a professorship in +Berlin University in the following August afforded him the leisure +necessary for the completion of his work. In 1859 the twelve volumes of +his vast _Denkmäler aus Ägypten und Äthiopien_ were finished, +supplemented later by a text prepared from the note-books of the +expedition; they comprise its entire archaeological, palaeographical and +historical results. In 1866 Lepsius again went to Egypt, and discovered +the famous Decree of Tanis or Table of Canopus, an inscription of the +same character as the Rosetta Stone, in hieroglyphic, demotic and Greek. +In 1873 he was appointed keeper of the Royal Library, Berlin, which, +like the Berlin Museum, owes much to his care. About ten years later he +was appointed Geheimer Oberregierungsrath. He died at Berlin on the 10th +of July 1884. Besides the colossal _Denkmäler_ and other publications of +texts such as the _Todtenbuch der Ägypter_ (_Book of the Dead_, 1842) +his other works, amongst which may be specially named his _Königsbuch +der Ägypter_ (1858) and _Chronologie der Ägypter_ (1849), are +characterized by a quality of permanence that is very remarkable in a +subject of such rapid development as Egyptology. In spite of his +scientific training in philology Lepsius left behind few translations of +inscriptions or discussions of the meanings of words: by preference he +attacked historical and archaeological problems connected with the +ancient texts, the alphabet, the metrology, the names of metals and +minerals, the chronology, the royal names. On the other hand one of his +latest works, the _Nubische Grammatik_ (1880), is an elaborate grammar +of the then little-known Nubian language, preceded by a linguistic +sketch of the African continent. Throughout his life he profited by the +gift of attaching to himself the right men, whether as patrons or, like +Weidenbach and Stern, as assistants. Lepsius was a fine specimen of the +best type of German scholar. + + See _Richard Lepsius_, by Georg Ebers (New York, 1887), and art. + EGYPT, section _Exploration and Research_. + + + + +LEPTINES, an Athenian orator, known as the proposer of a law that no +Athenian, whether citizen or resident alien (with the sole exception of +the descendants of Harmodius and Aristogeiton), should be exempt from +the public charges ([Greek: leitourgiai]) for the state festivals. The +object was to provide funds for the festivals and public spectacles at a +time when both the treasury and the citizens generally were short of +money. It was further asserted that many of the recipients of immunity +were really unworthy of it. Against this law Demosthenes delivered (354 +B.C.) his well-known speech _Against Leptines_ in support of the +proposal of Ctesippus that all the cases of immunity should be carefully +investigated. Great stress is laid on the reputation for ingratitude and +breach of faith which the abolition of immunities would bring upon the +state. Besides, the law itself had been passed unconstitutionally, for +an existing law confirmed these privileges, and by the constitution of +Solon no law could be enacted until any existing law which it +contravened had been repealed. The law was probably condemned. Nothing +further is known of Leptines. + + See the edition of the speech by J. E. Sandys (1890). + + + + +LEPTIS, the name of two towns in ancient Africa. The first, Leptis Magna +([Greek: Leptimagna]), the modern Lebda, was in Tripolitana between +Tripolis and Mesrata at the mouth of the Cinyps; the second, Leptis +Parva ([Greek: Leptis hê mikra]), known also as Leptiminus or Leptis +minor, the modern Lamta, was a small harbour of Byzacena between Ruspina +(Monastir) and Thapsus (Dimas). + +1. LEPTIS MAGNA was one of the oldest and most flourishing of the +Phoenician emporia established on the coasts of the greater Syrtis, the +chief commercial entrepot for the interior of the African continent. It +was founded by the Sidonians (Sallust, _Jug._ 78) who were joined later +by people of Tyre (Pliny, _Hist. Nat._ v. 17). Herodotus enlarges on the +fertility of its territory (iv. 175, v. 42). It was tributary to +Carthage to which it paid a contribution of a talent a day (Livy xxxiv. +62). After the Second Punic War Massinissa made himself master of it +(Sallust, _Jug._ 78; Livy xxxiv. 62; Appian viii. 106). During the +Jugurthine War it appealed for protection to Rome (Sallust, _Jug._ 78). +Though captured and plundered by Juba, it maintained its allegiance to +Rome, supported the senatorial cause, received Cato the younger with the +remains of the Pompeian forces after Pharsalus 48 B.C. After his victory +Julius Caesar imposed upon it an annual contribution of 300,000 measures +of oil. Nevertheless, it preserved its position as a free city governed +by its own magistrates (_C.I.L._ viii. 7). It received the title of +_municipium_ (_C.I.L._ viii. 8), and was subsequently made a _colonia_ +by Trajan (_C.I.L._ viii. 10). Septimius Severus, who was born there, +beautified the place and conferred upon it the _Ius Italicum_. Leptis +Magna was the limit of the Roman state, the last station of the _limes +Tripolitanus_; hence, especially during the last centuries of the +Empire, it suffered much from the Nomads of the desert, the Garamantes, +the Austuriani and the Levathae (Ammian. Marc. xxviii. 6; Procop. _De +Aedif._ vi. 4). Its commerce declined and its harbour silted up. +Justinian made a vain attempt to rebuild it (Procop. _ibid._; Ch. Diehl, +_L'Afrique byzantine_, p. 388). It was the seat of a bishopric, but no +mention is made of its bishops after 462. + +Leptis Magna had a citadel which protected the commercial city which was +generally called Neapolis, the situation of which may be compared with +that of Carthage at the foot of Byrsa. Its ruins are still imposing; +remains of ramparts and docks, a theatre, a circus and various buildings +of the Roman period still exist. Inscriptions show that the current +pronunciation of the name was Lepcis, Lepcitana, instead of Leptis, +Leptitana (Tissot, _Géogr. comp. de la prov. d'Afrique_, ii. 219; +Clermont-Ganneau, _Recueil d'archéologie orientale_, vi. 41; _Comptes +rendus de l'Acad. des Inscr. et B.-Lettres_, 1903, p. 333; Cagnat, _C.R. +Acad._, 1905, p. 531). The coins of Leptis Magna, like the majority of +the emporia in the neighbourhood, present a series from the Punic +period. They are of bronze with the legend [Hebrew: lepqi] (_Lepqi_). +They have on one side the head of Bacchus, Hercules or Cybele, and on +the other various emblems of these deities. From the Roman period we +have also coins bearing the heads of Augustus, Livia and Tiberius, which +still have the name of the town in Neo-Punic script (Lud. Müller, +_Numism. de l'anc. Afrique_, ii. 3). + + The ruins of Leptis Magna have been visited by numerous travellers + since the time of Frederick William and Henry William Beechey + (_Travels_, pp. 51 and 74) and Heinrich Barth (_Wanderungen_, pp. 306, + 360); they are described by Ch. Tissot (_Géogr. comp._ ii. 219 et + seq.); Cl. Perroud, _De Syrticis emporiis_, p. 33 (Paris, 1881, in + 8°); see also a description in the New York journal, _The Nation_ + (1877), vol. xxvii. No. 683. M. Méhier de Mathuisieulx explored the + site afresh in 1901; his account is inserted in the _Nouvelles + Archives des missions_, x. 245-277; cf. vol. xii. See also J. Toutain, + "Le Limes Tripolitanus en Tripolitaine," in the _Bulletin + archéologique áu comité des travaux historiques_ (1905). + +2. LEPTIS PARVA (Lamta), 7½ m. from Monastir, which is often confused by +modern writers with Leptis Magna in their interpretations of ancient +texts (Tissot, _Géogr. comp._ ii. 169), was, according to the _Tabula +Peutingeriana_, 18 m. south of Hadrumetum. Evidently Phoenician in +origin like Leptis Magna, it was in the Punic period of comparatively +slight importance. Nevertheless, it had fortifications, and the French +engineer, A. Daux, has discovered a probable line of ramparts. Like its +neighbour Hadrumetum, Leptis Parva declared for Rome after the last +Punic War. Also after the fall of Carthage in 146 it preserved its +autonomy and was declared a _civitas libera et immunis_ (Appian, +_Punica_, 94; _C.I.L._ i. 200; _De bell. Afric._ c. xii.). Julius Caesar +made it the base of his operations before the battle of Thapsus in 46 +(Ch. Tissot, _Géogr. comp._ ii. 728). Under the Empire Leptis Parva +became extremely prosperous; its bishops appeared in the African +councils from 258 onwards. In Justinian's reorganization of Africa we +find that Leptis Parva was with Capsa one of the two residences of the +_Dux Byzacenae_ (Tissot, _op. cit._ p. 171). The town had coins under +Augustus and Tiberius. On the obverse is the imperial effigy with a +Latin legend, and on the reverse the Greek legend [Greek: LEPTIS] with +the bust of Mercury (Lud. Müller, _Numism. de l'anc. Afrique_, ii. 49). +The ruins extend along the sea-coast to the north-west of Lemta; the +remains of docks, the amphitheatre and the acropolis can be +distinguished; a Christian cemetery has furnished tombs adorned with +curious mosaics. + + See _Comptes rendus de l'Acad. des Inscrip. et B.-Lettres_ (1883), p. + 189; Cagnat and Saladin, "Notes d'archéol. tunisiennes," in the + _Bulletin monumental_ of 1884; _Archives des missions_, xii. 111; + Cagnat, _Explorations archéol. en Tunisie_, 3^me fasc. pp. 9-16, and + _Tour du monde_ (1881), i. 292; Saladin, _Rapport sur une mission en + Tunisie_ (1886), pp. 9-20; _Bulletin archéol. du comité de travaux + historiques_ (1895), pp. 69-71 (inscriptions of Lamta); _Bulletin de + la Soc. archéol. de Sousse_ (1905; plan of the ruins of Lamta). + (E. B.*) + + + + +LE PUY, or LE PUY EN VELAY, a town of south-eastern France, capital of +the department of Haute-Loire, 90 m. S.W. of Lyons on the Paris-Lyon +railway. Pop. (1906) town, 17,291; commune, 21,420. Le Puy rises in the +form of an amphitheatre from a height of 2050 ft. above sea-level upon +Mont Anis, a hill that divides the left bank of the Dolézon from the +right bank of the Borne (a rapid stream joining the Loire 3 m. below). +From the new town, which lies east and west in the valley of the +Dolézon, the traveller ascends the old feudal and ecclesiastical town +through narrow steep streets, paved with pebbles of lava, to the +cathedral commanded by the fantastic pinnacle of Mont Corneille. Mont +Corneille, which is 433 ft. above the Place de Breuil (in the lower +town), is a steep rock of volcanic breccia, surmounted by an iron statue +of the Virgin (53 ft. high) cast, after a model by Bonassieux, out of +guns taken at Sebastopol. Another statue, that of Msgr de Morlhon, +bishop of Le Puy, also sculptured by Bonassieux, faces that of the +Virgin. From the platform of Mont Corneille a magnificent panoramic view +is obtained of the town and of the volcanic mountains, which make this +region one of the most interesting parts of France. + +The Romanesque cathedral (Notre-Dame), dating chiefly from the first +half of the 12th century, has a particoloured façade of white sandstone +and black volcanic breccia, which is reached by a flight of sixty steps, +and consists of three tiers, the lowest composed of three high arcades +opening into the porch, which extends beneath the first bays of the +nave; above are three windows lighting the nave; and these in turn are +surmounted by three gables, two of which, those to the right and the +left, are of open work. The staircase continues within the porch, where +it divides, leading on the left to the cloister, on the right into the +church. The doorway of the south transept is sheltered by a fine +Romanesque porch. The isolated bell-tower (184 ft.), which rises behind +the choir in seven storeys, is one of the most beautiful examples of the +Romanesque transition period. The bays of the nave are covered in by +octagonal cupolas, the central cupola forming a lantern. The choir and +transepts are barrel-vaulted. Much veneration is paid to a small image +of the Virgin on the high altar, a modern copy of the medieval image +destroyed at the Revolution. The cloister, to the north of the choir, is +striking, owing to its variously-coloured materials and elegant shafts. +Viollet-le-Duc considered one of its galleries to belong to the oldest +known type of cathedral cloister (8th or 9th century). Connected with +the cloister are remains of fortifications of the 13th century, by which +it was separated from the rest of the city. Near the cathedral the +baptistery of St John (11th century), built on the foundations of a +Roman building, is surrounded by walls and numerous remains of the +period, partly uncovered by excavations. The church of St Lawrence (14th +century) contains the tomb and statue of Bertrand du Guesclin, whose +ashes were afterwards carried to St Denis. + +Le Puy possesses fragmentary remains of its old line of fortifications, +among them a machicolated tower, which has been restored, and a few +curious old houses dating from the 12th to the 17th century. In front of +the hospital there is a fine medieval porch under which a street passes. +Of the modern monuments the statue of Marie Joseph Paul, marquis of La +Fayette, and a fountain in the Place de Breuil, executed in marble, +bronze and syenite, may be specially mentioned. The museum, named after +Charles Crozatier, a native sculptor and metal-worker to whose +munificence it principally owes its existence, contains antiquities, +engravings, a collection of lace, and ethnographical and natural history +collections. Among the curiosities of Le Puy should be noted the church +of St Michel d'Aiguilhe, beside the gate of the town, perched on an +isolated rock like Mont Corneille, the top of which is reached by a +staircase of 271 steps. The church dates from the end of the 10th +century and its chancel is still older. The steeple is of the same type +as that of the cathedral. Three miles from Le Puy are the ruins of the +Château de Polignac, one of the most important feudal strongholds of +France. + +Le Puy is the seat of a bishopric, a prefect and a court of assizes, and +has tribunals of first instance and of commerce, a board of trade +arbitration, a chamber of commerce, and a branch of the Bank of France. +Its educational institutions include ecclesiastical seminaries, lycées +and training colleges for both sexes and municipal industrial schools of +drawing, architecture and mathematics applied to arts and industries. +The principal manufacture is that of lace and guipure (in woollen, +linen, cotton, silk and gold and silver threads), and distilling, +leather-dressing, malting and the manufacture of chocolate and cloth are +carried on. Cattle, woollens, grain and vegetables are the chief +articles of trade. + + It is not known whether Le Puy existed previously to the Roman + invasion. Towards the end of the 4th or beginning of the 5th century + it became the capital of the country of the Vellavi, at which period + the bishopric, originally at Revession, now St Paulien, was + transferred hither. Gregory of Tours speaks of it by the name of + Anicium, because a chapel "ad Deum" had been built on the mountain, + whence the name of Mont Adidon or Anis, which it still retains. In the + 10th century it was called Podium Sanctae Mariae, whence Le Puy. In + the middle ages there was a double enclosure, one for the cloister, + the other for the town. The sanctuary of Nôtre Dame was much + frequented by pilgrims, and the city grew famous and populous. + Rivalries between the bishops who held directly of the see of Rome and + had the right of coining money, and the lords of Polignac, revolts of + the town against the royal authority, and the encroachments of the + feudal superiors on municipal prerogatives often disturbed the quiet + of the town. The Saracens in the 8th century, the Routiers in the + 12th, the English in the 14th, the Burgundians in the 15th, + successively ravaged the neighbourhood. Le Puy sent the flower of its + chivalry to the Crusades in 1096, and Raymond d'Aiguille, called + d'Agiles, one of its sons, was their historian. Many councils and + various assemblies of the states of Languedoc met within its walls; + popes and sovereigns, among the latter Charlemagne and Francis I., + visited its sanctuary. Pestilence and the religious wars put an end to + its prosperity. Long occupied by the Leaguers, it did not submit to + Henry IV. until many years after his accession. + + + + +LERDO DE TEJADA, SEBASTIAN (1825-1889), president of Mexico, was born at +Jalapa on the 25th of April 1825. He was educated as a lawyer and became +a member of the supreme court. He became known as a liberal leader and a +supporter of President Juarez. He was minister of foreign affairs for +three months in 1857, and became president of the Chamber of Deputies in +1861. During the French intervention and the reign of the emperor +Maximilian he continued loyal to the patriotic party, and had an active +share in conducting the national resistance. He was minister of foreign +affairs to President Juarez, and he showed an implacable resolution in +carrying out the execution of Maximilian at Querétaro. When Juarez died +in 1872 Lerdo succeeded him in office in the midst of a confused civil +war. He achieved some success in pacifying the country and began the +construction of railways. He was re-elected on the 24th of July 1876, +but was expelled in January of the following year by Porfirio Diaz. He +had made himself unpopular by the means he took to secure his +re-election and by his disposition to limit state rights in favour of a +strongly centralized government. He fled to the United States and died +in obscurity at New York in 1889. + + See H. H. Bancroft, _Pacific States_, vol. 9 (San Francisco, + 1882-1890). + + + + +LERICI, a village of Liguria, Italy, situated on the N.E. side of the +Gulf of Spezia, about 12 m. E.S.E. of Spezia, and 4 m. W.S.W. of Sarzana +by road, 17 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901) 9326. Its small harbour is +guarded by an old castle, said to have been built by Tancred; in the +middle ages it was the chief place on the gulf. S. Terenzo, a hamlet +belonging to Lerici, was the residence of Shelley during his last days. +Farther north-west is the Bay of Pertusola, with its large lead-smelting +works. + + + + +LÉRIDA, a province of northern Spain, formed in 1833 of districts +previously included in the ancient province of Catalonia, and bounded on +the N. by France and Andorra, E. by Gerona and Barcelona, S. by +Tarragona and W. by Saragossa and Huesca. Pop. (1900) 274,590; area 4690 +sq. m. The northern half of Lérida belongs entirely to the Mediterranean +or eastern section of the Pyrenees, and comprises some of the finest +scenery in the whole chain, including the valleys of Aran and La +Cerdaña, and large tracts of forest. It is watered by many rivers, the +largest of which is the Segre, a left-hand tributary of the Ebro. South +of the point at which the Segre is joined on the right by the Noguera +Pallaresa, the character of the country completely alters. The Llaños de +Urgel, which comprise the greater part of southern Lérida, are extensive +plains forming part of the Ebro valley, but redeemed by an elaborate +system of canals from the sterility which characterizes so much of that +region in Aragon. Lérida is traversed by the main railway from Barcelona +to Saragossa, and by a line from Tarragona to the city of Lérida. In +1904 the Spanish government agreed with France to carry another line to +the mouth of an international tunnel through the Pyrenees. Industries +are in a more backward condition than in any other province of +Catalonia, despite the abundance of water-power. There are, however, +many saw-mills, flour-mills, and distilleries of alcohol and liqueurs, +besides a smaller number of cotton and linen factories, paper-mills, +soap-works, and oil and leather factories. Zinc, lignite and common salt +are mined, but the output is small and of slight value. There is a +thriving trade in wine, oil, wool, timber, cattle, mules, horses and +sheep, but agriculture is far less prosperous than in the maritime +provinces of Catalonia. Lérida (q.v.) is the capital (pop. 21,432), and +the only town with more than 5000 inhabitants. Séo de Urgel, near the +headwaters of the Segre, is a fortified city which has been an episcopal +see since 840, and has had a close historical connexion with Andorra +(q.v.). Solsona, on a small tributary of the Cardoner, which flows +through Barcelona to the Mediterranean, is the _Setelix_ of the Romans, +and contains in its parish church an image of the Virgin said to possess +miraculous powers, and visited every year by many hundreds of pilgrims. +Cervera, on a small river of the same name, contains the buildings of a +university which Philip V. established here in 1717. This university had +originally been founded at Barcelona in the 15th century, and was +reopened there in 1842. In character, and especially in their industry, +intelligence and keen local patriotism, the inhabitants of Lérida are +typical Catalans. (See CATALONIA.) + + + + +LÉRIDA, the capital of the Spanish province of Lérida, on the river +Segre and the Barcelona-Saragossa and Lérida-Tarragona railways. Pop. +(1900) 21,432. The older parts of the city, on the right bank of the +river, are a maze of narrow and crooked streets, surrounded by ruined +walls and a moat, and commanded by the ancient citadel, which stands on +a height overlooking the plains of Noguera on the north and of Urgel on +the south. On the left bank, connected with the older quarters by a fine +stone bridge and an iron railway bridge, are the suburbs, laid out +after 1880 in broad and regular avenues of modern houses. The old +cathedral, last used for public worship in 1707, is a very interesting +late Romanesque building, with Gothic and Mauresque additions; but the +interior was much defaced by its conversion into barracks after 1717. It +was founded in 1203 by Pedro II. of Aragon, and consecrated in 1278. The +fine octagonal belfry was built early in the 15th century. A second +cathedral, with a Corinthian façade, was completed in 1781. The church +of San Lorenzo (1270-1300) is noteworthy for the beautiful tracery of +its Gothic windows; its nave is said to have been a Roman temple, +converted by the Moors into a mosque and by Ramon Berenguer IV., last +count of Barcelona, into a church. Other interesting buildings are the +Romanesque town hall, founded in the 13th century but several times +restored, the bishop's palace and the military hospital, formerly a +convent. The museum contains a good collection of Roman and Romanesque +antiquities; and there are a school for teachers, a theological seminary +and academies of literature and science. Leather, paper, glass, silk, +linen and cloth are manufactured in the city, which has also some trade +in agricultural produce. + +Lérida is the _Ilerda_ of the Romans, and was the capital of the people +whom they called _Ilerdenses_ (Pliny) or _Ilergetes_ (Ptolemy). By +situation the key of Catalonia and Aragon, it was from a very early +period an important military station. In the Punic wars it sided with +the Carthaginians and suffered much from the Roman arms. In its +immediate neighbourhood Hanno was defeated by Scipio in 216 B.C., and it +afterwards became famous as the scene of Caesar's arduous struggle with +Pompey's generals Afranius and Petreius in the first year of the civil +war (49 B.C.). It was already a _municipium_ in the time of Augustus, +and enjoyed great prosperity under later emperors. Under the Visigoths +it became an episcopal see, and at least one ecclesiastical council is +recorded to have met here (in 546). Under the Moors _Lareda_ became one +of the principal cities of the province of Saragossa; it became +tributary to the Franks in 793, but was reconquered in 797. In 1149 it +fell into the hands of Ramon Berenguer IV. In modern times it has come +through numerous sieges, having been taken by the French in November +1707 during the War of Succession, and again in 1810. In 1300 James II. +of Aragon founded a university at Lérida, which achieved some repute in +its day, but was suppressed in 1717, when the university of Cervera was +founded. + + + + +LERMA, FRANCISCO DE SANDOVAL Y ROJAS, DUKE OF (1552-1625), Spanish +minister, was born in 1552. At the age of thirteen he entered the royal +palace as a page. The family of Sandoval was ancient and powerful, but +under Philip II. (1556-1598) the nobles, with the exception of a few who +held viceroyalties or commanded armies abroad, had little share in the +government. The future duke of Lerma, who was by descent marquis of +Denia, passed his life as a courtier, and possessed no political power +till the accession of Philip III. in 1598. He had already made himself a +favourite with the prince, and was in fact one of the incapable men who, +as the dying king Philip II. foresaw, were likely to mislead the new +sovereign. The old king's fears were fully justified. No sooner was +Philip III. king than he entrusted all authority to his favourite, whom +he created duke of Lerma in 1599 and on whom he lavished an immense list +of offices and grants. The favour of Lerma lasted for twenty years, till +it was destroyed by a palace intrigue carried out by his own son. Philip +III. not only entrusted the entire direction of his government to Lerma, +but authorized him to affix the royal signature to documents, and to +take whatever presents were made to him. No royal favourite was ever +more amply trusted, or made a worse use of power. At a time when the +state was practically bankrupt, he encouraged the king in extravagance, +and accumulated for himself a fortune estimated by contemporaries at +forty-four millions of ducats. Lerma was pious withal, spending largely +on religious houses, and he carried out the ruinous measures for the +expulsion of the Moriscoes in 1610--a policy which secured him the +admiration of the clergy and was popular with the mass of the nation. He +persisted in costly and useless hostilities with England till, in 1604, +Spain was forced by exhaustion to make peace, and he used all his +influence against a recognition of the independence of the Low +Countries. The fleet was neglected, the army reduced to a remnant, and +the finances ruined beyond recovery. His only resources as a finance +minister were the debasing of the coinage, and foolish edicts against +luxury and the making of silver plate. Yet it is probable that he would +never have lost the confidence of Philip III., who divided his life +between festivals and prayers, but for the domestic treachery of his +son, the duke of Uceda, who combined with the king's confessor, Aliaga, +whom Lerma had introduced to the place, to turn him out. After a long +intrigue in which the king was all but entirely dumb and passive, Lerma +was at last compelled to leave the court, on the 4th of October 1618. As +a protection, and as a means of retaining some measure of power in case +he fell from favour, he had persuaded Pope Paul V. to create him +cardinal, in the year of his fall. He retired to the town of Lerma in +Old Castile, where he had built himself a splendid palace, and then to +Valladolid. Under the reign of Philip IV., which began in 1621 he was +despoiled of part of his wealth, and he died in 1625. + + The history of Lerma's tenure of office is in vol. xv. of the + _Historia General de España_ of Modesto Lafuente (Madrid, 1855)--with + references to contemporary authorities. + + + + +LERMONTOV, MIKHAIL YUREVICH (1814-1841), Russian poet and novelist, +often styled the poet of the Caucasus, was born in Moscow, of Scottish +descent, but belonged to a respectable family of the Tula government, +and was brought up in the village of Tarkhanui (in the Penzensk +government), which now preserves his dust. By his grandmother--on whom +the whole care of his childhood was devolved by his mother's early death +and his father's military service--no cost nor pains was spared to give +him the best education she could think of. The intellectual atmosphere +which he breathed in his youth differed little from that in which +Pushkin had grown up, though the domination of French had begun to give +way before the fancy for English, and Lamartine shared his popularity +with Byron. From the academic gymnasium in Moscow Lermontov passed in +1830 to the university, but there his career came to an untimely close +through the part he took in some acts of insubordination to an obnoxious +teacher. From 1830 to 1834 he attended the school of cadets at St +Petersburg, and in due course he became an officer in the guards. To his +own and the nation's anger at the loss of Pushkin (1837) the young +soldier gave vent in a passionate poem addressed to the tsar, and the +very voice which proclaimed that, if Russia took no vengeance on the +assassin of her poet, no second poet would be given her, was itself an +intimation that a poet had come already. The tsar, however, seems to +have found more impertinence than inspiration in the address, for +Lermontov was forthwith sent off to the Caucasus as an officer of +dragoons. He had been in the Caucasus with his grandmother as a boy of +ten, and he found himself at home by yet deeper sympathies than those of +childish recollection. The stern and rocky virtues of the mountaineers +against whom he had to fight, no less than the scenery of the rocks and +mountains themselves, proved akin to his heart; the emperor had exiled +him to his native land. He was in St Petersburg in 1838 and 1839, and in +the latter year wrote the novel, _A Hero of Our Time_, which is said to +have been the occasion of the duel in which he lost his life in July +1841. In this contest he had purposely selected the edge of a precipice, +so that if either combatant was wounded so as to fall his fate should be +sealed. + + Lermontov published only one small collection of poems in 1840. Three + volumes, much mutilated by the censorship, were issued in 1842 by + Glazounov; and there have been full editions of his works in 1860 and + 1863. To Bodenstedt's German translation of his poems (_Michail + Lermontov's poetischer Nachlass_, Berlin, 1842, 2 vols.), which indeed + was the first satisfactory collection, he is indebted for a wide + reputation outside of Russia. His novel has found several translators + (August Boltz, Berlin, 1852, &c.). Among his best-known pieces are + "Ismail-Bey," "Hadji Abrek," "Walerik," "The Novice," and, remarkable + as an imitation of the old Russian ballad, "The song of the tsar Ivan + Vasilivitch, his young bodyguard, and the bold merchant Kalashnikov." + + See Taillandier, "Le Poète du Caucase," in _Revue des deux mondes_ + (February 1855), reprinted in _Allemagne et Russie_ (Paris, 1856); + Duduishkin's "Materials for the Biography of Lermontov," prefixed to + the 1863 edition of his works. _The Demon_, translated by Sir + Alexander Condie Stephen (1875), is an English version of one of his + longer poems. (W. R. S. R.) + + + + +LEROUX, PIERRE (1798-1871), French philosopher and economist, was born +at Bercy near Paris on the 7th of April 1798, the son of an artisan. His +education was interrupted by the death of his father, which compelled +him to support his mother and family. Having worked first as a mason and +then as a compositor, he joined P. Dubois in the foundation of _Le +Globe_ which became in 1831 the official organ of the Saint-Simonian +community, of which he became a prominent member. In November of the +same year, when Enfantin preached the enfranchisement of women and the +functions of the _couple-prêtre_, Leroux separated himself from the +sect. In 1838, with J. Regnaud, who had seceded with him, he founded the +_Encyclopédie nouvelle_ (eds. 1838-1841). Amongst the articles which he +inserted in it were _De l'égalité_ and _Réfutation de l'éclectisme_, +which afterwards appeared as separate works. In 1840 he published his +treatise _De l'humanité_ (2nd ed. 1845), which contains the fullest +exposition of his system, and was regarded as the philosophical +manifesto of the Humanitarians. In 1841 he established the _Revue +indépendante_, with the aid of George Sand, over whom he had great +influence. Her _Spiridion_, which was dedicated to him, _Sept cordes de +la lyre_, _Consuelo_, and _La Comtesse de Rudolstadt_, were written +under the Humanitarian inspiration. In 1843 he established at Boussac +(Creuse) a printing association organized according to his systematic +ideas, and founded the _Revue sociale_. After the outbreak of the +revolution of 1848 he was elected to the Constituent Assembly, and in +1849 to the Legislative Assembly, but his speeches on behalf of the +extreme socialist wing were of so abstract and mystical a character that +they had no effect. After the _coup d'état_ of 1851 he settled with his +family in Jersey, where he pursued agricultural experiments and wrote +his socialist poem _La Grève de Samarez_. On the definitive amnesty of +1869 he returned to Paris, where he died in April 1871, during the +Commune. + + The writings of Leroux have no permanent significance in the history + of thought. He was the propagandist of sentiments and aspirations + rather than the expounder of a systematic theory. He has, indeed, a + system, but it is a singular medley of doctrines borrowed, not only + from Saint-Simonian, but from Pythagorean and Buddhistic sources. In + philosophy his fundamental principle is that of what he calls the + "triad"--a triplicity which he finds to pervade all things, which in + God is "power, intelligence and love," in man "sensation, sentiment + and knowledge." His religious doctrine is Pantheistic; and, rejecting + the belief in a future life as commonly conceived, he substitutes for + it a theory of metempsychosis. In social economy his views are very + vague; he preserves the family, country and property, but finds in all + three, as they now are, a despotism which must be eliminated. He + imagines certain combinations by which this triple tyranny can be + abolished, but his solution seems to require the creation of families + without heads, countries without governments and property without + rights of possession. In politics he advocates absolute equality--a + democracy pushed to anarchy. + + See Raillard, _Pierre Leroux et ses oeuvres_ (Paris, 1899); Thomas, + _Pierre Leroux: sa vie, son oeuvre, sa doctrine_ (Paris, 1904); L. + Reybaud, _Études sur les réformateurs et socialistes modernes_; + article in R. H. Inglis Palgrave's _Dictionary of Pol. Econ._ + + + + +LEROY-BEAULIEU, HENRI JEAN BAPTISTE ANATOLE (1842- ), French publicist, +was born at Lisieux, on the 12th of February 1842. In 1866 he published +_Une troupe de comédiens_, and afterwards _Essai sur la restauration de +nos monuments historiques devant l'art et devant le budget_, which deals +particularly with the restoration of the cathedral of Evreux. He visited +Russia in order to collect documents on the political and economic +organization of the Slav nations, and on his return published in the +_Revue des deux mondes_ (1882-1889) a series of articles, which appeared +shortly afterwards in book form under the title _L'Empire des tsars et +les Russes_ (4th ed., revised in 3 vols., 1897-1898). The work entitled +_Un empereur, un roi, un pape, une restauration_. published in 1879, was +an analysis and criticism of the politics of the Second Empire. _Un +homme d'état russe_ (1884) gave the history of the emancipation of the +serfs by Alexander II. Other works are _Les Catholiques libéraux, +l'église et le libéralisme_ (1890), _La Papauté, le socialisme et la +démocracie_ (1892), _Les Juifs et l'antisémitisme; Israël chez les +nations_ (1893), _Les Arméniens et la question arménienne_ (1896), +_L'Antisémitisme_ (1897), _Études russes et européennes_ (1897). These +writings, mainly collections of articles and lectures intended for the +general public, display enlightened views and wide information. In 1881 +Leroy-Beaulieu was elected professor of contemporary history and eastern +affairs at the École Libre des Sciences Politiques, becoming director of +this institution on the death of Albert Sorel in 1906, and in 1887 he +became a member of the Académie des Sciences Morales et Politiques. + + Two of Leroy-Beaulieu's works have been translated into English: one + as the _Empire of the Tsars and the Russians_, by Z. A. Regozin (New + York, 1893-1896), and another as _Papacy, Socialism, Democracy_, by B. + L. O'Donnell (1892). See W. E. H. Lecky, _Historical and Political + Essays_ (1908). + + + + +LEROY-BEAULIEU, PIERRE PAUL (1843- ), French economist, brother of the +preceding, was born at Saumur on the 9th of December 1843, and educated +in Paris at the Lycée Bonaparte and the École de Droit. He afterwards +studied at Bonn and Berlin, and on his return to Paris began to write +for _Le Temps_, _Revue nationale_ and _Revue contemporaine_. In 1867 he +won a prize offered by the Academy of Moral Science with an essay +entitled "L'Influence de l'état moral et intellectuel des populations +ouvrières sur le taux des salaires." In 1870 he gained three prizes for +essays on "La Colonization chez les peuples modernes," "L'Administration +en France et en Angleterre," and "L'Impôt foncier et ses conséquences +économiques." In 1872 Leroy-Beaulieu became professor of finance at the +newly-founded École Libre des Sciences Politiques, and in 1880 he +succeeded his father-in-law, Michel Chevalier, in the chair of political +economy in the Collège de France. Several of his works have made their +mark beyond the borders of his own country. Among these may be mentioned +his _Recherches économiques, historiques et statistiques sur les guerres +contemporaines_, a series of studies published between 1863 and 1869, in +which he calculated the loss of men and capital caused by the great +European conflicts. Other works by him are--_La Question monnaie au +dix-neuvième siècle_ (1861), _Le Travail des femmes au dix-neuvième +siècle_ (1873), _Traité de la science des finances_ (1877), _Essai sur +la repartition des richesses_ (1882), _L'Algérie et la Tunisie_ (1888), +_Précis d'économie politique_ (1888), and _L'État moderne et ses +fonctions_ (1889). He also founded in 1873 the _Économiste français_, on +the model of the English _Economist_. Leroy-Beaulieu may be regarded as +the leading representative in France of orthodox political economy, and +the most pronounced opponent of protectionist and collectivist +doctrines. + + + + +LERWICK, a municipal and police burgh of Shetland, Scotland, the most +northerly town in the British Isles. Pop. (1901) 4281. It is situated on +Brassay Sound, a fine natural harbour, on the east coast of the island +called Mainland, 115 m. N.E. of Kirkwall, in Orkney, and 340 m. from +Leith by steamer. The town dates from the beginning of the 17th century, +and the older part consists of a flagged causeway called Commercial +Street, running for 1 m. parallel with the sea (in which the gable ends +of several of the quaint-looking houses stand), and so narrow in places +as not to allow of two vehicles passing each other. At right angles to +this street lanes ascend the hill-side to Hillhead, where the more +modern structures and villas have been built. At the north end stands +Fort Charlotte, erected by Cromwell, repaired in 1665 by Charles II. and +altered in 1781 by George III., after whose queen it was named. It is +now used as a depôt for the Naval Reserve, for whom a large drill hall +was added. The Anderson Institute, at the south end, was constructed as +a secondary school in 1862 by Arthur Anderson, a native, who also +presented the Widows' Asylum in the same quarter, an institution +intended by preference for widows of Shetland sailors. The town-hall, +built in 1881, contains several stained-glass windows, two of which were +the gift of citizens of Amsterdam and Hamburg, in gratitude for services +rendered by the islanders to fishermen and seamen of those ports. +Lerwick's main industries are connected with the fisheries, of which it +is an important centre. Docks, wharves, piers, curing stations and +warehouses have been provided or enlarged to cope with the growth of the +trade, and an esplanade has been constructed along the front. The town +is also the chief distributing agency for the islands, and carries on +some business in knitted woollen goods. One mile west of Lerwick is +Clickimin Loch, separated from the sea by a narrow strip of land. On an +islet in the lake stands a ruined "broch" or round tower. + + + + +LE SAGE, ALAIN RENÉ (1668-1747), French novelist and dramatist, was born +at Sarzeau in the peninsula of Rhuys, between the Morbihan and the sea, +on the 13th of December 1668. Rhuys was a legal district, and Claude le +Sage, the father of the novelist, held the united positions of advocate, +notary and registrar of its royal court. His wife's name was Jeanne +Brenugat. Both father and mother died when Le Sage was very young, and +his property was wasted or embezzled by his guardians. Little is known +of his youth except that he went to school with the Jesuits at Vannes +until he was eighteen. Conjecture has it that he continued his studies +at Paris, and it is certain that he was called to the bar at the capital +in 1692. In August 1694 he married the daughter of a joiner, Marie +Elizabeth Huyard. She was beautiful but had no fortune, and Le Sage had +little practice. About this time he met his old schoolfellow, the +dramatist Danchet, and is said to have been advised by him to betake +himself to literature. He began modestly as a translator, and published +in 1695 a French version of the _Epistles_ of Aristaenetus, which was +not successful. Shortly afterwards he found a valuable patron and +adviser in the abbé de Lyonne, who bestowed on him an annuity of 600 +livres, and recommended him to exchange the classics for Spanish +literature, of which he was himself a student and collector. + +Le Sage began by translating plays chiefly from Rojas and Lope de Vega. +_Le Traitre puni_ and _Le Point d'honneur_ from the former, _Don Félix +de Mendoce_ from the latter, were acted or published in the first two or +three years of the 18th century. In 1704 he translated the continuation +of _Don Quixote_ by Avellaneda, and soon afterwards adapted a play from +Calderon, _Don César Ursin_, which had a divided fate, being successful +at court and damned in the city. He was, however, nearly forty before he +obtained anything like decided success. But in 1707 his admirable farce +of _Crispin rival de son maître_ was acted with great applause, and _Le +Diable boiteux_ was published. This latter went through several editions +in the same year, and was frequently reprinted till 1725, when Le Sage +altered and improved it considerably, giving it its present form. +Notwithstanding the success of _Crispin_, the actors did not like Le +Sage, and refused a small piece of his called _Les Étrennes_ (1707). He +thereupon altered it into _Turcaret_, his theatrical masterpiece, and +one of the best comedies in French literature. This appeared in 1709. +Some years passed before he again attempted romance writing, and then +the first two parts of _Gil Blas de Santillane_ appeared in 1715. +Strange to say, it was not so popular as _Le Diable boiteux_. Le Sage +worked at it for a long time, and did not bring out the third part till +1724, nor the fourth till 1735. For this last he had been part paid to +the extent of a hundred pistoles some years before its appearance. +During these twenty years he was, however, continually busy. +Notwithstanding the great merit and success of _Turcaret_ and _Crispin_, +the Théâtre Français did not welcome him, and in the year of the +publication of _Gil Blas_ he began to write for the Théâtre de la +Foire--the comic opera held in booths at festival time. This, though not +a very dignified occupation, was followed by many writers of distinction +at this date, and by none more assiduously than by Le Sage. According to +one computation he produced, either alone or with others, about a +hundred pieces, varying from strings of songs with no regular dialogues, +to comediettas only distinguished from regular plays by the introduction +of music. He was also industrious in prose fiction. Besides finishing +_Gil Blas_ he translated the _Orlando innamorato_ (1721), rearranged +_Guzman d'Alfarache_ (1732), published two more or less original novels, +_Le Bachelier de Salamanque_ and _Estévanille Gonzales_, and in 1733 +produced the _Vie et aventures de M. de Beauchesne_, which is curiously +like certain works of Defoe. Besides all this, Le Sage was also the +author of _La Valise trouvée_, a collection of imaginary letters, and of +some minor pieces, of which _Une journée des parques_ is the most +remarkable. This laborious life he continued until 1740, when he was +more than seventy years of age. His eldest son had become an actor, and +Le Sage had disowned him, but the second was a canon at Boulogne in +comfortable circumstances. In the year just mentioned his father and +mother went to live with him. At Boulogne Le Sage spent the last seven +years of his life, dying on the 17th of November 1747. His last work, +_Mélange amusant de saillies d'esprit et de traits historiques les plus +frappants_, had appeared in 1743. + +Not much is known of Le Sage's life and personality, and the foregoing +paragraph contains not only the most important but almost the only facts +available for it. The few anecdotes which we have of him represent him +as a man of very independent temper, declining to accept the +condescending patronage which in the earlier part of the century was +still the portion of men of letters. Thus it is said that, on being +remonstrated with, as he thought impolitely, for an unavoidable delay in +appearing at the duchess of Bouillon's house to read _Turcaret_, he at +once put the play in his pocket and retired, refusing absolutely to +return. It may, however, be said that as in time so in position he +occupies a place apart from most of the great writers of the 17th and +18th centuries respectively. He was not the object of royal patronage +like the first, nor the pet of _salons_ and coteries like the second. +Indeed, he seems all his life to have been purely domestic in his +habits, and purely literary in his interests. + +The importance of Le Sage in French and in European literature is not +entirely the same, and he has the rare distinction of being more +important in the latter than in the former. His literary work may be +divided into three parts. The first contains his Théâtre de la Foire and +his few miscellaneous writings, the second his two remarkable plays +_Crispin_ and _Turcaret_, the third his prose fictions. In the first two +he swims within the general literary current in France; he can be and +must be compared with others of his own nation. But in the third he +emerges altogether from merely national comparison. It is not with +Frenchmen that he is to be measured. He formed no school in France; he +followed no French models. His work, admirable as it is from the mere +point of view of style and form, is a parenthesis in the general +development of the French novel. That product works its way from Madame +de la Fayette through Marivaux and Prévost, not through Le Sage. His +literary ancestors are Spaniards, his literary contemporaries and +successors are Englishmen. The position is almost unique; it is +certainly interesting and remarkable in the highest degree. + +Of Le Sage's miscellaneous work, including his numerous farce-operettas, +there is not much to be said except that they are the very best kind of +literary hack-work. The pure and original style of the author, his +abundant wit, his cool, humoristic attitude towards human life, which +wanted only greater earnestness and a wider conception of that life to +turn it into true humour, are discernible throughout. But this portion +of his work is practically forgotten, and its examination is incumbent +only on the critic. _Crispin_ and _Turcaret_ show a stronger and more +deeply marked genius, which, but for the ill-will of the actors, might +have gone far in this direction. But Le Sage's peculiar unwillingness to +attempt anything absolutely new discovered itself here. Even when he had +devoted himself to the Foire theatre, it seems that he was unwilling to +attempt, when occasion called for it, the absolute innovation of a piece +with only one actor, a crux which Alexis Piron, a lesser but a bolder +genius, accepted and carried through. _Crispin_ and _Turcaret_ are +unquestionably Molièresque, though they are perhaps more original in +their following of Molière than any other plays that can be named. For +this also was part of Le Sage's idiosyncrasy that, while he was +apparently unable or unwilling to strike out an entirely novel line for +himself, he had no sooner entered upon the beaten path than he left it +to follow his own devices. _Crispin rival de son maître_ is a farce in +one act and many scenes, after the earlier manner of motion. Its plot +is somewhat extravagant, inasmuch as it lies in the effort of a knavish +valet, not as usual to further his master's interests, but to supplant +that master in love and gain. But the charm of the piece consists first +in the lively bustling action of the short scenes which take each other +up so promptly and smartly that the spectator has not time to cavil at +the improbability of the action, and secondly in the abundant wit of the +dialogue. _Turcaret_ is a far more important piece of work and ranks +high among comedies dealing with the actual society of their time. The +only thing which prevents it from holding the very highest place is a +certain want of unity in the plot. This want, however, is compensated in +_Turcaret_ by the most masterly profusion of character-drawing in the +separate parts. Turcaret, the ruthless, dishonest and dissolute +financier, his vulgar wife as dissolute as himself, the harebrained +marquis, the knavish chevalier, the baroness (a coquette with the finer +edge taken off her fine-ladyhood, yet by no means unlovable), are each +and all finished portraits of the best comic type, while almost as much +may be said of the minor characters. The style and dialogue are also +worthy of the highest praise; the wit never degenerates into mere +"wit-combats." + +It is, however, as a novelist that the world has agreed to remember Le +Sage. A great deal of unnecessary labour has been spent on the +discussion of his claims to originality. What has been already said will +give a sufficient clue through this thorny ground. In mere form Le Sage +is not original. He does little more than adopt that of the Spanish +picaroon romance of the 16th and 17th century. Often, too, he prefers +merely to rearrange and adapt existing work, and still oftener to give +himself a kind of start by adopting the work of a preceding writer as a +basis. But it may be laid down as a positive truth that he never, in any +work that pretends to originality at all, is guilty of anything that can +fairly be called plagiarism. Indeed we may go further, and say that he +is very fond of asserting or suggesting his indebtedness when he is +really dealing with his own funds. Thus the _Diable boiteux_ borrows the +title, and for a chapter or two the plan and almost the words, of the +_Diablo Cojuelo_ of Luis Velez de Guevara. But after a few pages Le Sage +leaves his predecessor alone. Even the plan of the Spanish original is +entirely discarded, and the incidents, the episodes, the style, are as +independent as if such a book as the _Diablo Cojuelo_ had never existed. +The case of _Gil Blas_ is still more remarkable. It was at first alleged +that Le Sage had borrowed it from the _Marcos de Obregon_ of Vincent +Espinel, a curiously rash assertion, inasmuch as that work exists and is +easily accessible, and as the slightest consultation of it proves that, +though it furnished Le Sage with separate incidents and hints for more +than one of his books, _Gil Blas_ as a whole is not in the least +indebted to it. Afterwards Father Isla asserted that _Gil Blas_ was a +mere translation from an actual Spanish book--an assertion at once +incapable of proof and disproof, inasmuch as there is no trace whatever +of any such book. A third hypothesis is that there was some manuscript +original which Le Sage may have worked up in his usual way, in the same +way, for instance, as he professes himself to have worked up the +_Bachelor of Salamanca_. This also is in the nature of it incapable of +refutation, though the argument from the _Bachelor_ is strong against +it, for there could be no reason why Le Sage should be more reticent of +his obligations in the one case than in the other. Except, however, for +historical reasons, the controversy is one which may be safely +neglected, nor is there very much importance in the more impartial +indication of sources--chiefly works on the history of Olivares--which +has sometimes been attempted. That Le Sage knew Spanish literature well +is of course obvious; but there is as little doubt (with the limitations +already laid down) of his real originality as of that of any great +writer in the world. _Gil Blas_ then remains his property, and it is +admittedly the capital example of its own style. For Le Sage has not +only the characteristic, which Homer and Shakespeare have, of absolute +truth to human nature as distinguished from truth to this or that +national character, but he has what has been called the quality of +detachment, which they also have. He never takes sides with his +characters as Fielding (whose master, with Cervantes, he certainly was) +sometimes does. Asmodeus and Don Cleofas, Gil Blas and the Archbishop +and Doctor Sangrado, are produced by him with exactly the same +impartiality of attitude. Except that he brought into novel writing this +highest quality of artistic truth, it perhaps cannot be said that he did +much to advance prose fiction in itself. He invented, as has been said, +no new _genre_; he did not, as Marivaux and Prévost did, help on the +novel as distinguished from the romance. In form his books are +undistinguishable, not merely from the Spanish romances which are, as +has been said, their direct originals, but from the medieval _romans +d'aventures_ and the Greek prose romances. But in individual excellence +they have few rivals. Nor should it be forgotten, as it sometimes is, +that Le Sage was a great master of French style, the greatest +unquestionably between the classics of the 17th century and the classics +of the 18th. He is perhaps the last great writer before the decadence +(for since the time of Paul Louis Courier it has not been denied that +the _philosophe_ period is in point of style a period of decadence). His +style is perfectly easy at the same time that it is often admirably +epigrammatic. It has plenty of colour, plenty of flexibility, and may be +said to be exceptionally well fitted for general literary work. + + The dates of the original editions of Le Sage's most important works + have already been given. He published during his life a collection of + his regular dramatic works, and also one of his pieces for the Foire, + but the latter is far from exhaustive; nor is there any edition which + can be called so, though the _Oeuvres choisies_ of 1782 and 1818 are + useful, and there are so-called _Oeuvres complètes_ of 1821 and 1840. + Besides critical articles by the chief literary critics and + historians, the work of Eugène Lintilhac, in the Grands _écrivains + français_ (1893), should be consulted. The _Diable boiteux_ and _Gil + Blas_ have been reprinted and translated numberless times. Both will + be found conveniently printed, together with _Estévanille Gonzales_ + and _Guzman d'Alfarache_, the best of the minor novels, in four + volumes of Garnier's _Bibliothèque amusante_ (Paris, 1865). _Turcaret_ + and _Crispin_ are to be found in all collected editions of the French + drama. There is a useful edition of them, with ample specimens of Le + Sage's work for the Foire, in two volumes (Paris, 1821). (G. Sa.) + + + + +LES ANDELYS, a town of northern France, capital of an arrondissement in +the department of Eure about 30 m. S.E. of Rouen by rail. Pop. (1906) +3955. Les Andelys is formed by the union of Le Grand Andely and Le Petit +Andely, the latter situated on the right bank of the Seine, the former +about half a mile from the river. Grand Andely, founded, according to +tradition, in the 6th century, has a church (13th, 14th and 15th +centuries) parts of which are of fine late Gothic and Renaissance +architecture. The works of art in the interior include beautiful stained +glass of the latter period. Other interesting buildings are the hôtel du +Grand Cerf dating from the first half of the 16th century, and the +chapel of Sainte-Clotilde, close by a spring which, owing to its +supposed healing powers, is the object of a pilgrimage. Grand Andely has +a statue of Nicolas Poussin, a native of the place. Petit Andely sprang +up at the foot of the eminence on which stands the château Gaillard, now +in ruins, but formerly one of the strongest fortresses in France (see +FORTIFICATION AND SIEGECRAFT and CASTLE). It was built by Richard Coeur +de Lion at the end of the 12th century to protect the Norman frontier, +was captured by the French in 1204 and passed finally into their +possession in 1449. The church of St Sauveur at Petit Andely also dates +from the end of the 12th century. Les Andelys is the seat of a +sub-prefect and of a tribunal of first instance, has a preparatory +infantry school; it carries on silk milling, and the manufacture of +leather, organs and sugar. It has trade in cattle, grain, flour, &c. + + + + +LES BAUX, a village of south-eastern France, in the department of +Bouches-du-Rhône, 11 m. N.E. of Arles by road. Pop. (1906) 111. Les +Baux, which in the middle ages was a flourishing town, is now almost +deserted. Apart from a few inhabited dwellings, it consists of an +assemblage of ruined towers, fallen walls and other débris, which cover +the slope of a hill crowned by the remains of a huge château, once the +seat of a celebrated "court of love." The ramparts, a medieval church, +the château, parts of which date to the 11th century, and many of the +dwellings are, in great part, hollowed out of the white friable +limestone on which they stand. Here and there may be found houses +preserving carved façades of Renaissance workmanship. Les Baux has given +its name to the reddish rock (bauxite) which is plentiful in the +neighbourhood and from which aluminium is obtained. In the middle ages +Les Baux was the seat of a powerful family which owned the Terre +Baussenques, extensive domains in Provence and Dauphiné. The influence +of the seigneurs de Baux in Provence declined before the power of the +house of Anjou, to which they abandoned many of their possessions. In +1632 the château and the ramparts were dismantled. + + + + +LESBONAX, of Mytilene, Greek sophist and rhetorician, flourished in the +time of Augustus. According to Photius (_cod._ 74) he was the author of +sixteen political speeches, of which two are extant, a hortatory speech +after the style of Thucydides, and a speech on the Corinthian War. In +the first he exhorts the Athenians against the Spartans, in the second +(the title of which is misleading) against the Thebans (edition by F. +Kiehr, _Lesbonactis quae supersunt_, Leipzig, 1907). Some erotic letters +are also attributed to him. + + The Lesbonax described in Suidas as the author of a large number of + philosophical works is probably of much earlier date; on the other + hand, the author of a small treatise [Greek: Peri Schêmatôn] on + grammatical figures (ed. Rudolf Müller, Leipzig, 1900), is probably + later. + + + + +LESBOS (Mytilene, Turk. _Midullu_), an island in the Aegean sea, off the +coast of Mysia, N. of the entrance of the Gulf of Smyrna, forming the +main part of a sanjak in the archipelago vilayet of European Turkey. It +is divided into three districts, Mytilene or Kastro in the E., Molyvo in +the N., and Calloni in the W. Since the middle ages it has been known as +Mytilene, from the name of its principal town. Strabo estimated the +circumference of the island at 1100 stadia, or about 138 m., and Scylax +reckoned it seventh in size of the islands of the Mediterranean. The +width of the channel between it and the mainland varies from 7 to 10 m. +The island is roughly triangular in shape; the three points are Argennum +on the N.E., Sigrium (Sigri) on the W., and Malea (Maria) on the S.E. +The Euripus Pyrrhaeus (Calloni) is a deep gulf on the west between +Sigrium and Malea. The country though mountainous is very fertile, +Lesbos being celebrated in ancient times for its wine, oil and grain. +Homer refers to its wealth. Its chief produce now is olives, which also +form its principal export. Soap, skins and valonea are also exported, +and mules and cattle are extensively bred. The sardine fishery is an +important trade, and antimony, marble and coal are found on the island. +The surface is rugged and mountainous, the highest point, Mount Olympus +(Hagios Elias) being 3080 ft. The island has suffered from periodical +earthquakes. The roads were remade in 1889, and there is telegraphic +communication on the island, and to the mainland by cable. The ports are +Sigri and Mytilene. The Gulf of Calloni and Hiera or Olivieri can only +be entered by vessels of small draught. + +The chief town, called Mytilene, is built in amphitheatre shape round a +small hill crowned by remains of an ancient fortress. There are now 14 +mosques and 7 churches, including a cathedral. It was originally built +on an island close to the eastern coast of Lesbos, and afterwards when +the town became too large for the island, it was joined to Lesbos by a +causeway, and the city spread along the coast. There was a harbour on +each side of the small island. Maloeis, by some surmised to be the +northern of these, was not far away. Besides the five cities which gave +the island the name of Pentapolis (Mytilene, Methymna, Antissa, Eresus, +Pyrrha), there was a town called Arisba, destroyed by an earthquake in +the time of Herodotus. Professor Conze thinks that this is the site now +called Palaikastro, N.E. of Calloni. Pyrrha lay S.E. of Calloni, and is +now also called Palaikastro. Antissa was on the N. coast near Sigri. It +was destroyed by the Romans in 168 B.C. Eresus was also near Sigri on +the S. coast. Methymna was on the N. coast, on the site of Molyvo, still +the second city of the island. The name Methymna is derived from the +wine (Gr. [Greek: methy]) for which it was famous. Considerable remains +of town walls and other buildings are to be seen on all these sites. + (E. Gr.) + +_History._--Although the position of Lesbos near the old-established +trade-route to the Hellespont marks it out as an important site even in +pre-historic days, no evidence on the early condition of the island is +as yet obtainable, beyond the Greek tradition which represented it at +the time of the Trojan war as inhabited by an original stock of Pelasgi +and an immigrant population of Ionians. In historic times it was peopled +by an "Aeolian" race who reckoned Boeotia as their motherland and +claimed to have migrated about 1050 B.C.; its principal nobles traced +their pedigree to Orestes, son of Agamemnon. Lesbos was the most +prominent of Aeolian settlements, and indeed played a large part in the +early development of Greek life. Its commercial activity is attested by +several colonies in Thrace and the Troad, and by the participation of +its traders in the settlement of Naucratis in Egypt; hence also the town +of Mytilene, by virtue of its good harbour, became the political capital +of the island. The climax of its prosperity was reached about 600 B.C., +when a citizen named Pittacus was appointed as _aesymnetes_ (dictator) +to adjust the balance between the governing nobility and the insurgent +commons and by his wise administration and legislation won a place among +the Seven Sages of Greece. These years also constitute the golden age of +Lesbian culture. The lyric poetry of Greece, which owed much to two +Lesbians of the 7th century, the musician Terpander and the dithyrambist +Arion, attained the standard of classical excellence under Pittacus' +contemporaries Alcaeus and Sappho. In the 6th century the importance of +the island declined, partly through a protracted and unsuccessful +struggle with Athens for the possession of Sigeum near the Hellespont, +partly through a crushing naval defeat inflicted by Polycrates of Samos +(about 550). The Lesbians readily submitted to Persia after the fall of +Croesus of Lydia, and although hatred of their tyrant Coës, a Persian +protégé, drove them to take part in the Ionic revolt (499-493), they +made little use of their large navy and displayed poor spirit at the +decisive battle of Lade. In the 5th century Lesbos for a long time +remained a privileged member of the Delian League (q.v.), with full +rights of self-administration, and under the sole obligation of +assisting Athens with naval contingents. Nevertheless at the beginning +of the Peloponnesian War the ruling oligarchy of Mytilene forced on a +revolt, which was ended after a two years' siege of that town (429-427). +The Athenians, who had intended to punish the rebels by a wholesale +execution, contented themselves with killing the ringleaders, +confiscating the land and establishing a garrison. In the later years of +the war Lesbos was repeatedly attacked by the Peloponnesians, and in 405 +the harbour of Mytilene was the scene of a battle between the admirals +Callicratidas and Conon. In 389 most of the island was recovered for the +Athenians by Thrasybulus; in 377 it joined the Second Delian League, and +remained throughout a loyal member, although in the second half of the +century the dominant democracy was for a while supplanted by a tyranny. +In 334 Lesbos served as a base for the Persian admiral Memnon against +Alexander the Great. During the Third Macedonian war the Lesbians sided +with Perseus against Rome; similarly in 88 they became eager allies of +Mithradates VI. of Pontus, and Mytilene stood a protracted siege on his +behalf. This town, nevertheless, was raised by Pompey to the status of a +free community, thanks no doubt to his confidant Theophanes, a native of +Mytilene. + +Of the other towns on the island, Antissa, Eresus and Pyrrha possess no +separate history. Methymna in the 5th and 4th centuries sometimes +figures as a rival of Mytilene, with an independent policy. Among the +distinguished Lesbians, in addition to those cited, may be mentioned the +cyclic poet Lesches, the historian Hellanicus and the philosophers +Theophrastus and Cratippus. + +During the Byzantine age the island, which now assumes the name of +Mytilene, continued to flourish. In 1091 it fell for a while into the +hands of the Seljuks, and in the following century was repeatedly +occupied by the Venetians. In 1224 it was recovered by the Byzantine +emperors, who in 1354 gave it as a dowry to the Genoese family +Gattilusio. After prospering under their administration Mytilene passed +in 1462 under Turkish control, and has since had an uneventful history. +The present population is about 130,000 of whom 13,000 are Turks and +Moslems and 117,000 Greeks. + + See Strabo xiii. pp. 617-619; Herodotus ii. 178, iii. 39, vi. 8, 14; + Thucydides iii. 2-50; Xenophon, _Hellenica_, i., ii.; S. Plehn, + _Lesbiacorum Liber_ (Berlin, 1828); C. T. Newton, _Travels and + Discoveries in the Levant_ (London, 1865); B. V. Head, _Historia + Numorum_ (Oxford, 1887), pp. 487-488; E. L. Hicks and G. F. Hill, + _Greek Historical Inscriptions_ (Oxford, 1901), Nos. 61, 94, 101, 139, + 164; Conze, _Reise auf der Insel Lesbos_ (1865); Koldewey, _Antike + Baureste auf Lesbos_ (Berlin, 1890). (M. O. B. C.) + + + + +LESCHES (Lescheos in Pausanias x. 25. 5), the reputed author of the +_Little Iliad_ ([Greek: Ilias mikra]), one of the "cyclic" poems. +According to the usually accepted tradition, he was a native of Pyrrha +in Lesbos, and flourished about 660 B.C. (others place him about 50 +years earlier). The _Little Iliad_ took up the story of the Homeric +_Iliad_, and, beginning with the contest between Ajax and Odysseus for +the arms of Achilles, carried it down to the fall of Troy (Aristotle, +_Poetics_, 23). According to the epitome in the _Chrestomathy_ of +Proclus, it ended with the admission of the wooden horse within the +walls of the city. Some ancient authorities ascribe the work to a +Lacedaemonian named Cinaethon, and even to Homer. + + See F. G. Welcker, _Der epische Cyclus_ (1865-1882); Müller and + Donaldson, _Hist. of Greek Literature_, i. ch. 6; G. H. Bode, + _Geschichte der hellenischen Dichtkunst_, i. + + + + +LESCURE, LOUIS MARIE JOSEPH, MARQUIS DE (1766-1793), French soldier and +anti-revolutionary, was born near Bressuire. He was educated at the +École Militaire, which he left at the age of sixteen. He was in command +of a company of cavalry in the Régiment de Royal-Piémont, but being +opposed to the ideas of the Revolution he emigrated in 1791; he soon, +however, returned to France, and on the 10th of August 1792 took part in +the defence of the Tuileries against the mob of Paris. The day after, he +was forced to leave Paris, and took refuge in the château of Clisson +near Bressuire. On the outbreak of the revolt of Vendée against the +Republic, he was arrested and imprisoned with all his family, as one of +the promoters of the rising. He was set at liberty by the Royalists, and +became one of their leaders, fighting at Thouars, taking Fontenay and +Saumur (May-June 1793), and, after an unsuccessful attack on Nantes, +joining H. du Verger de la Rochejaquelein, another famous Vendean +leader. Their peasant troops, opposed to the republican general F. J. +Westermann, sustained various defeats, but finally gained a victory +between Tiffauges and Cholet on the 19th of September 1793. The struggle +was then concentrated round Chatillon, which was time after time taken +and lost by the Republicans. Lescure was killed on the 15th of October +1793 near the château of La Tremblaye between Einée and Fougères. + + See Marquise de la Rochejaquelein (Lescure's widow, who afterwards + married La Rochejaquelein), _Mémoires_ (Paris, 1817); Jullien de + Courcelles, _Dictionnaire des généraux français_, tome vii. (1823); T. + Muret, _Histoire des guerres de l'ouest_ (Paris, 1848); and J. A. M. + Crétineau-Joly, _Guerres de Vendée_ (1834). + + + + +LESDIGUIÈRES, FRANÇOIS DE BONNE, DUC DE (1543-1626), constable of +France, was born at Saint-Bonnet de Champsaur on the 1st of April 1543, +of a family of notaries with pretensions to nobility. He was educated at +Avignon under a Protestant tutor, and had begun the study of law in +Paris when he enlisted as an archer. He served under the +lieutenant-general of his native province of Dauphiné, Bertrand de +Simiane, baron de Gordes, but when the Huguenots raised troops in +Dauphiné Lesdiguières threw in his lot with them, and under his kinsman +Antoine Rambaud de Furmeyer, whom he succeeded in 1570, distinguished +himself in the mountain warfare that followed by his bold yet prudent +handling of troops. He fought at Jarnac and Moncontour, and was a guest +at the wedding of Henry IV. of Navarre. Warned of the impending massacre +he retired hastily to Dauphiné, where he secretly equipped and drilled a +determined body of Huguenots, and in 1575, after the execution of +Montbrun, became the acknowledged leader of the Huguenot resistance in +the district with the title of commandant general, confirmed in 1577 by +Marshal Damville, by Condé in 1580, and by Henry of Navarre in 1582. He +seized Gap by a lucky night attack on the 3rd of January 1577, +re-established the reformed religion there, and fortified the town. He +refused to acquiesce in the treaty of Poitiers (1578) which involved the +surrender of Gap, and after two years of fighting secured better terms +for the province. Nevertheless in 1580 he was compelled to hand the +place over to Mayenne and to see the fortifications dismantled. He took +up arms for Henry IV. in 1585, capturing Chorges, Embrun, Châteauroux +and other places, and after the truce of 1588-1589 secured the complete +submission of Dauphiné. In 1590 he beat down the resistance of Grenoble, +and was now able to threaten the leaguers and to support the governor of +Provence against the raids of Charles Emmanuel I. of Savoy. He defeated +the Savoyards at Esparron in April 1591, and in 1592 began the +reconquest of the marquessate of Saluzzo which had been seized by +Charles Emmanuel. After his defeat of the Spanish allies of Savoy at +Salebertrano in June 1593 there was a truce, during which Lesdiguières +was occupied in maintaining the royal authority against Éperon in +Provence. The war with Savoy proceeded intermittently until 1601, when +Henry IV. concluded peace, much to the dissatisfaction of Lesdiguières. +The king regarded his lieutenant's domination in Dauphiné with some +distrust, although he was counted among the best of his captains. +Nevertheless he made him a marshal of France in 1609, and ensured the +succession to the lieutenant-generalship of Dauphiné, vested in +Lesdiguières since 1597, to his son-in-law Charles de Créquy. Sincerely +devoted to the throne, Lesdiguières took no part in the intrigues which +disturbed the minority of Louis XIII., and he moderated the political +claims made by his co-religionists under the terms of the Edict of +Nantes. After the death of his first wife, Claudine de Bérenger, he +married the widow of Ennemond Matel, a Grenoble shopkeeper, who was +murdered in 1617. Lesdiguières was then 73, and this lady, Marie Vignon, +had long been his mistress. He had two daughters, one of whom, +Françoise, married Charles de Créquy. In 1622 he formally abjured the +Protestant faith, his conversion being partly due to the influence of +Marie Vignon. He was already a duke and peer of France; he now became +constable of France, and received the order of the Saint Esprit. He had +long since lost the confidence of the Huguenots, but he nevertheless +helped the Vaudois against the duke of Savoy. Lesdiguières had the +qualities of a great general, but circumstances limited him to the +mountain warfare of Dauphiné, Provence and Savoy. He had almost +unvarying success through sixty years of fighting. His last campaign, +fought in alliance with Savoy to drive the Spaniards from the +Valtelline, was the least successful of his enterprises. He died of +fever at Valence on the 21st of September 1626. + + The life of the Huguenot captain has been written in detail by Ch. + Dufuyard, _Le Connétable de Lesdiguières_ (Paris, 1892). His first + biographer was his secretary Louis Videl, _Histoire de la vie du + connestable de Lesdiguières_ (Paris, 1638). Much of his official + correspondence, with an admirable sketch of his life, is contained in + _Actes et correspondance du connétable de Lesdiguières_, edited by + Comte Douglas and J. Roman in _Documents historiques inédits pour + servir à l'histoire de Dauphiné_ (Grenoble, 1878). Other letters are + in the _Lettres et mémoires_ (Paris, 1647) of Duplessis-Mornay. + + + + +LESGHIANS, or LESGHIS (from the Persian _Leksi_, called Leki by the +Grusians or Georgians, Armenians and Ossetes), the collective name for a +number of tribes of the eastern Caucasus, who, with their kinsfolk the +Chechenzes, have inhabited Daghestan from time immemorial. They spread +southward into the Transcaucasian circles Kuba, Shemakha, Nukha and +Sakataly. They are mentioned as [Greek: Lêchai] by Strabo and Plutarch +along with the [Greek: Gêlai] (perhaps the modern Galgai, a Chechenzian +tribe), and their name occurs frequently in the chronicles of the +Georgians, whose territory was exposed to their raids for centuries, +until, on the surrender (1859) to Russia of the Chechenzian chieftain +Shamyl, they became Russian subjects. Moses of Chorene mentions a battle +in the reign of the Armenian king Baba (A.D. 370-377), in which Shagir, +king of the Lekians, was slain. The most important of the Lesghian +tribes are the Avars (q.v.), the Kasimukhians or Lakians, the Darghis +and the Kurins or Lesghians proper. Komarov[1] gives the total number +of the tribes as twenty-seven, all speaking distinct dialects. Despite +this, the Lesghian peoples, with the exception of the Udi and Kubatschi, +are held to be ethnically identical. The Lesghians are not usually so +good-looking as the Circassians or the Chechenzes. They are tall, +powerfully built, and their hybrid descent is suggested by the range of +colouring, some of the tribes exhibiting quite fair, others quite dark, +individuals. Among some there is an obvious mongoloid strain. In +disposition they are intelligent, bold and persistent, and capable of +reckless bravery, as was proved in their struggle to maintain their +independence. They are capable of enduring great physical fatigue. They +live a semi-savage life on their mountain slopes, for the most part +living by hunting and stock-breeding. Little agriculture is possible. +Their industries are mainly restricted to smith-work and cutlery and the +making of felt cloaks, and the women weave excellent shawls. They are +for the most part fanatical Mahommedans. + + See Moritz Wagner, _Schamyl_ (Leipzig, 1854); von Seidlitz, + "Ethnographie des Kaukasus," in _Petermann's Mitteilungen_ (1880); + Ernest Chantre, _Recherches anthropologiques dans le Caucase_ (Lyon, + 1885-1887); J. de Morgan, _Recherches sur les origines des peuples du + Caucase_ (Paris, 1889). + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] _Ethnological Map of Daghestan._ + + + + +LESINA (Serbo-Croatian, _Hvar_), an island in the Adriatic Sea, forming +part of Dalmatia, Austria. Lesina lies between the islands of Brazza on +the north and Curzola on the south; and is divided from the peninsula of +Sabbioncello by the Narenta channel. Its length is 41 m.; its greatest +breadth less than 4 m. It has a steep rocky coast with a chain of thinly +wooded limestone hills. The climate is mild, and not only the grape and +olive, but dates, figs and the carob or locust-bean flourish. The +cultivation of these fruits, boat-building, fishing and the preparation +of rosemary essence and liqueurs are the principal resources of the +islanders. Lesina (_Hvar_) and Cittavecchia (_Starigrad_) are the +principal towns and seaports, having respectively 2138 and 3120 +inhabitants. Lesina, the capital, contains an arsenal, an observatory +and some interesting old buildings of the 16th century. It is a Roman +Catholic bishopric, and the centre of an administrative district, which +includes Cittavecchia, Lissa, and some small neighbouring islands. Pop. +(1900) of island 18,091, of district 27,928. + +To the primitive "Illyrian" race, whose stone cists and bronze +implements have been disinterred from barrows near the capital, may +perhaps be attributed the "Cyclopean" walls at Cittavecchia. About 385 +B.C., a Greek colony from Paros built a city on the site of the present +Lesina, naming it _Paros_ or _Pharos_. The forms _Phara_, _Pharia_ +(common among Latin writers), and _Pityeia_, also occur. In 229 B.C. the +island was betrayed to the Romans by Demetrius, lieutenant of the +Illyrian queen Teuta; but in 219, as Demetrius proved false to Rome +also, his capital was razed by Lucius Aemilius Paullus. _Neos Pharos_, +now Cittavecchia, took its place, and flourished until the 6th century, +when the island was laid waste by barbarian invaders. Constantine +Porphyrogenitus mentions Lesina as a colony of pagan Slavs, in the 10th +century. Throughout the middle ages it remained a purely Slavonic +community; and its name, which appears in old documents as _Lisna_, +_Lesna_ or _Lyesena_, "wooded" is almost certainly derived from the +Slavonic _lyés_, "forest," not from the Italian _lesina_, "an awl." But +the old form Pharia persisted, as _Far_ or _Hvar_, with the curious +result that the modern Serbo-Croatian name is Greek, and the modern +Italian name Slavonic in origin. Lesina became a bishopric in 1145, and +received a charter from Venice in 1331. It was sacked by the enemies of +Venice in 1354 and 1358; ceded to Hungary in the same year; held by +Ragusa from 1413 to 1416; and incorporated in the Venetian dominions in +1420. During the 16th century Lesina city had a considerable maritime +trade, and, though sacked and partly burned by the Turks in 1571, it +remained the chief naval station of Venice, in these waters, until 1776, +when it was superseded by Curzola. Passing to Austria in 1797, and to +France in 1805, it withstood a Russian attack in 1807, but was +surrendered by the French in 1813, and finally annexed to Austria in +1815. + + + + +LESION (through Fr. from Lat. _laesio_, injury, _laedere_, to hurt), an +injury, hurt, damage. In Scots law the term is used of damage suffered +by a party in a contract sufficient to enable him to bring an action for +setting it aside. In pathology, the chief use, the word is applied to +any morbid change in the structure of an organ, whether shown by visible +changes or by disturbance of function. + + + + +LESKOVATS (LESKOVATZ or LESKOVAC), a town in Servia, between Nish and +Vranya, on the railway line from Nish to Salonica. Pop. (1901) 13,707. +It is the headquarters of the Servian hemp industry, the extensive plain +in which the town lies growing the best flax and hemp in all the Balkan +peninsula. The plain is not only the most fertile portion of Servia, but +also the best cultivated. Besides flax and hemp, excellent tobacco is +grown. Five valleys converge on the plain from different directions, and +the inhabitants of the villages in these valleys are all occupied in +growing flax and hemp, which they send to Leskovats to be stored or +manufactured into ropes. After Belgrade and Nish, Leskovats is the most +prosperous town in Servia. + + + + +LESLEY, JOHN (1527-1596), Scottish bishop and historian, was born in +1527. His father was Gavin Lesley, rector of Kingussie. He was educated +at the university of Aberdeen, where he took the degree of M.A. In 1538 +he obtained a dispensation permitting him to hold a benefice, +notwithstanding his being a natural son, and in June 1546 he was made an +acolyte in the cathedral church of Aberdeen, of which he was afterwards +appointed a canon and prebendary. He also studied at Poitiers, at +Toulouse and at Paris, where he was made doctor of laws in 1553. In 1558 +he took orders and was appointed Official of Aberdeen, and inducted into +the parsonage and prebend of Oyne. At the Reformation Lesley became a +champion of Catholicism. He was present at the disputation held in +Edinburgh in 1561, when Knox and Willox were his antagonists. He was one +of the commissioners sent the same year to bring over the young Queen +Mary to take the government of Scotland. He returned in her train, and +was appointed a privy councillor and professor of canon law in King's +College, Aberdeen, and in 1565 one of the senators of the college of +justice. Shortly afterwards he was made abbot of Lindores, and in 1565 +bishop of Ross, the election to the see being confirmed in the following +year. He was one of the sixteen commissioners appointed to revise the +laws of Scotland, and the volume of the _Actis and Constitutionis of the +Realme of Scotland_ known as the Black Acts was, chiefly owing to his +care, printed in 1566. + +The bishop was one of the most steadfast friends of Queen Mary. After +the failure of the royal cause, and whilst Mary was a captive in +England, Lesley (who had gone to her at Bolton) continued to exert +himself on her behalf. He was one of the commissioners at the conference +at York in 1568. He appeared as her ambassador at the court of Elizabeth +to complain of the injustice done to her, and when he found he was not +listened to, he laid plans for her escape. He also projected a marriage +for her with the duke of Norfolk, which ended in the execution of that +nobleman. For this he was put under the charge of the bishop of London, +and then of the bishop of Ely (in Holborn), and afterwards imprisoned in +the Tower of London. During his confinement he collected materials for +his history of Scotland, by which his name is now chiefly known. In 1571 +he presented the latter portion of this work, written in Scots, to Queen +Mary to amuse her in her captivity. He also wrote for her use his _Piae +Consolationes_, and the queen devoted some of the hours of her captivity +to translating a portion of it into French verse. + +In 1573 he was liberated from prison, but was banished from England. For +two years he attempted unsuccessfully to obtain the assistance of +Continental princes in favour of Queen Mary. While at Rome in 1578 he +published his Latin history _De Origine, Moribus, et Rebus Gestis +Scotorum_. In 1579 he went to France, and was made suffragan and +vicar-general of the archbishopric of Rouen. Whilst visiting his +diocese, however, he was thrown into prison, and had to pay 3000 +pistoles to prevent his being given up to Elizabeth. During the +remainder of the reign of Henry III. he lived unmolested, but on the +accession of the Protestant Henry IV. he again fell into trouble. In +1590 he was thrown into prison, and had to purchase his freedom at the +same expense as before. In 1593 he was made bishop of Coutances in +Normandy, and had licence to hold the bishopric of Ross till he should +obtain peaceable possession of the former see. He retired to an +Augustinian monastery near Brussels, where he died on the 31st of May +1596. + + The chief works of Lesley are as follows: _A Defence of the Honour of + ... Marie, Queene of Scotland, by Eusebius Dicaeophile_ (London, + 1569), reprinted, with alterations, at Liége in 1571, under the title, + _A Treatise concerning the Defence of the Honour of Marie, Queene of + Scotland, made by Morgan Philippes, Bachelar of Divinitie, Piae + afflicti animi consolationes, ad Mariam Scot. Reg._ (Paris, 1574); _De + origine, moribus et rebus gestis Scotorum libri decem_ (Rome, 1578; + re-issued 1675); _De illustrium feminarum in republica administranda + authoritate libellus_ (Reims, 1580; a Latin version of a tract on "The + Lawfulness of the Regiment of Women": cf. Knox's pamphlet); _De titulo + et jure Mariae Scot. Reg., quo regni Angliae successionem sibi juste + vindicat_ (Reims, 1580; translated in 1584). The history of Scotland + from 1436 to 1561 owes much, in its earlier chapters, to the accounts + of Hector Boece (q.v.) and John Major (q.v.), though no small portion + of the topographical matter is first-hand. In the later sections he + gives an independent account (from the Catholic point of view) which + is a valuable supplement and a corrective in many details, to the + works of Buchanan and Knox. A Scots version of the history was written + in 1596 by James Dalrymple of the Scottish Cloister at Regensburg. It + has been printed for the Scottish Text Society (2 vols., 1888-1895) + under the editorship of the Rev. E. G. Cody, O.S.B. A slight sketch by + Lesley of Scottish history from 1562 to 1571 has been translated by + Forbes-Leith in his _Narrative of Scottish Catholics_ (1885), from the + original MS. now in the Vatican. + + + + +LESLEY, J. PETER (1819-1903), American geologist, was born in +Philadelphia on the 17th of September 1819. It is recorded by Sir A. +Geikie that "He was christened Peter after his father and grandfather, +and at first wrote his name 'Peter Lesley, Jr.,' but disliking the +Christian appellation that had been given to him, he eventually +transformed his signature by putting the J. of 'Junior' at the +beginning." He was educated for the ministry at the university of +Pennsylvania, where he graduated in 1838; but the effects of close study +having told upon his health, he served for a time as sub-assistant on +the first geological survey of Pennsylvania under Professor H. D. +Rogers, and was afterwards engaged in a special examination of the coal +regions. On the termination of the survey in 1841 he entered Princeton +seminary and renewed his theological studies, at the same time giving +his leisure time to assist Professor Rogers in preparing the final +report and map of Pennsylvania. He was licensed to preach in 1844; he +then paid a visit to Europe and entered on a short course of study at +the university of Halle. Returning to America he worked during two years +for the American Tract Society, and at the close of 1847 he joined +Professor Rogers again in preparing geological maps and sections at +Boston. He then accepted the pastorate of the Congregational church at +Milton, a suburb of Boston, where he remained until 1851, when, his +views having become Unitarian, he abandoned the ministry and entered +into practice as a consulting geologist. In the course of his work he +made elaborate surveys of the Cape Breton coalfield, and of other coal +and iron regions. From 1855 to 1859 he was secretary of the American +Iron Association; for twenty-seven years (1858-1885) he was secretary +and librarian of the American Philosophical Society; from 1872 to 1878 +he was professor of geology and dean of the faculty of science in the +university of Pennsylvania, and from 1874-1893 he was in charge of the +second geological survey of the state. He then retired to Milton, Mass., +where he died on the 1st of June 1903. He published _Manual of Coal and +its Topography_ (1856); _The Iron Manufacturer's Guide to the Furnaces, +Forges and Rolling Mills of the United States_ (1859). + + See Memoir by Sir A. Geikie in _Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc._ (May 1904); + and Memoir (with portrait) by B. S. Lyman, printed in advance with + portrait, and afterwards in abstract only in _Trans. Amer. Inst. + Mining Engineers_, xxxiv. (1904) p. 726. + + + + + +LESLIE, CHARLES (1650-1722), Anglican nonjuring divine, son of John +Leslie (1571-1671), bishop of Raphoe and afterwards of Clogher, was born +in July 1650 in Dublin, and was educated at Enniskillen school and +Trinity College, Dublin. Going to England he read law for a time, but +soon turned his attention to theology, and took orders in 1680. In 1687 +he became chancellor of the cathedral of Connor and a justice of the +peace, and began a long career of public controversy by responding in +public disputation at Monaghan to the challenge of the Roman Catholic +bishop of Clogher. Although a vigorous opponent of Roman Catholicism, +Leslie was a firm supporter of the Stuart dynasty, and, having declined +at the Revolution to take the oath to William and Mary, he was on this +account deprived of his benefice. In 1689 the growing troubles in +Ireland induced him to withdraw to England, where he employed himself +for the next twenty years in writing various controversial pamphlets in +favour of the nonjuring cause, and in numerous polemics against the +Quakers, Jews, Socinians and Roman Catholics, and especially in that +against the Deists with which his name is now most commonly associated. +He had the keenest scent for every form of heresy and was especially +zealous in his defence of the sacraments. A warrant having been issued +against him in 1710 for his pamphlet _The Good Old Cause, or Lying in +Truth_, he resolved to quit England and to accept an offer made by the +Pretender (with whom he had previously been in frequent correspondence) +that he should reside with him at Bar-le-Duc. After the failure of the +Stuart cause in 1715, Leslie accompanied his patron into Italy, where he +remained until 1721, in which year, having found his sojourn amongst +Roman Catholics extremely unpleasant, he sought and obtained permission +to return to his native country. He died at Glaslough, Monaghan, on the +13th of April 1722. + + The _Theological Works_ of Leslie were collected and published by + himself in 2 vols. folio in 1721; a later edition, slightly enlarged, + appeared at Oxford in 1832 (7 vols. 8vo). Though marred by persistent + arguing in a circle they are written in lively style and show + considerable erudition. He had the somewhat rare distinction of making + several converts by his reasonings, and Johnson declared that "Leslie + was a reasoner, and a reasoner who was not to be reasoned against." An + historical interest in all that now attaches to his subjects and his + methods, as may be seen when the promise given in the title of his + best-known work is contrasted with the actual performance. The book + professes to be _A Short and Easy Method with the Deists, wherein the + certainty of the Christian Religion is Demonstrated by Infallible + Proof from Four Rules, which are incompatible to any imposture that + ever yet has been, or that can possibly be_ (1697). The four rules + which, according to Leslie, have only to be rigorously applied in + order to establish not the probability merely but the absolute + certainty of the truth of Christianity are simply these: (1) that the + matter of fact be such as that men's outward senses, their eyes and + ears, may be judges of it; (2) that it be done publicly, in the face + of the world; (3) that not only public monuments be kept up in memory + of it, but some outward actions be performed; (4) that such monuments + and such actions or observances be instituted and do commence from the + time that the matter of fact was done. Other publications of Leslie + are _The Snake in the Grass_ (1696), against the Quakers; _A Short + Method with the Jews_ (1689); _Gallienus Redivivus_ (an attack on + William III., 1695); _The Socinian Controversy Discussed_ (1697); _The + True Notion of the Catholic Church_ (1703); and _The Case Stated + between the Church of Rome and the Church of England_ (1713). + + + + +LESLIE, CHARLES ROBERT (1794-1859), English genre-painter, was born in +London on the 19th of October 1794. His parents were American, and when +he was five years of age he returned with them to their native country. +They settled in Philadelphia, where their son was educated and +afterwards apprenticed to a bookseller. He was, however, mainly +interested in painting and the drama, and when George Frederick Cooke +visited the city he executed a portrait of the actor, from recollection +of him on the stage, which was considered a work of such promise that a +fund was raised to enable the young artist to study in Europe. He left +for London in 1811, bearing introductions which procured for him the +friendship of West, Beechey, Allston, Coleridge and Washington Irving, +and was admitted as a student of the Royal Academy, where he carried off +two silver medals. At first, influenced by West and Fuseli, he essayed +"high art," and his earliest important subject depicted Saul and the +Witch of Endor; but he soon discovered his true aptitude and became a +painter of cabinet-pictures, dealing, not like those of Wilkie, with the +contemporary life that surrounded him, but with scenes from the great +masters of fiction, from Shakespeare and Cervantes, Addison and Molière, +Swift, Sterne, Fielding and Smollett. Of individual paintings we may +specify "Sir Roger de Coverley going to Church" (1819); "May-day in the +Time of Queen Elizabeth" (1821); "Sancho Panza and the Duchess" (1824); +"Uncle Toby and the Widow Wadman" (1831); _La Malade Imaginaire_, act +iii. sc. 6 (1843); and the "Duke's Chaplain Enraged leaving the Table," +from _Don Quixote_ (1849). Many of his more important subjects exist in +varying replicas. He possessed a sympathetic imagination, which enabled +him to enter freely into the spirit of the author whom he illustrated, a +delicate perception for female beauty, an unfailing eye for character +and its outward manifestation in face and figure, and a genial and sunny +sense of humour, guided by an instinctive refinement which prevented it +from overstepping the bounds of good taste. In 1821 Leslie was elected +A.R.A., and five years later full academician. In 1833 he left for +America to become teacher of drawing in the military academy at West +Point, but the post proved an irksome one, and in some six months he +returned to England. He died on the 5th of May 1859. + + In addition to his skill as an artist, Leslie was a ready and pleasant + writer. His _Life_ of his friend Constable, the landscape painter, + appeared in 1843, and his _Handbook for Young Painters_, a volume + embodying the substance of his lectures as professor of painting to + the Royal Academy, in 1855. In 1860 Tom Taylor edited his + _Autobiography and Letters_, which contain interesting reminiscences + of his distinguished friends and contemporaries. + + + + +LESLIE, FRED [FREDERICK HOBSON] (1855-1892), English actor, was born at +Woolwich on the 1st of April 1855. He made his first stage appearance in +London as Colonel Hardy in _Paul Pry_ in 1878. He had a good voice, and +in 1882 made a great hit as Rip Van Winkle in Planquette's opera of that +name at the Comedy. In 1885 he appeared at the Gaiety as Jonathan Wild +in H. P. Stephens and W. Yardley's burlesque _Little Jack Sheppard_. His +extraordinary success in this part determined his subsequent career, and +for some years he and Nelly Farren, with whom he played in perfect +association, were the pillars of Gaiety burlesque. Leslie's "Don Caesar +de Bazan" in _Ruy Blas, or the Blasé Roué_, was perhaps the most popular +of his later parts. In all of them it was his own versatility and +entertaining personality which formed the attraction; whether he sang, +danced, whistled or "gagged," his performance was an unending flow of +high spirits and ludicrous charm. Under the pseudonym of "A. C. Torr" he +was acknowledged on the programmes as part-author of these burlesques, +and while on occasion he acted in more serious comedy, for which he had +undoubted capacity, his fame rests on his connexion with them. In 1881 +and 1883 he played in America. He died on the 7th of December 1892. + + See W. T. Vincent, _Recollections of Fred Leslie_ (1894). + + + + +LESLIE, SIR JOHN (1766-1832), Scottish mathematician and physicist, was +born of humble parentage at Largo, Fifeshire, on the 16th of April 1766, +and received his early education there and at Leven. In his thirteenth +year, encouraged by friends who had even then remarked his aptitude for +mathematical and physical science, he entered the university of St +Andrews. On the completion of his arts course, he nominally studied +divinity at Edinburgh until 1787; in 1788-1789 he spent rather more than +a year as private tutor in a Virginian family, and from 1790 till the +close of 1792 he held a similar appointment at Etruria in Staffordshire, +with the family of Josiah Wedgwood, employing his spare time in +experimental research and in preparing a translation of Buffon's +_Natural History of Birds_, which was published in nine 8vo vols. in +1793, and brought him some money. For the next twelve years (passed +chiefly in London or at Largo, with an occasional visit to the continent +of Europe) he continued his physical studies, which resulted in numerous +papers contributed by him to Nicholson's _Philosophical Journal_, and in +the publication (1804) of the _Experimental Inquiry into the Nature and +Properties of Heat_, a work which gained him the Rumford Medal of the +Royal Society of London. In 1805 he was elected to succeed John +Playfair in the chair of mathematics at Edinburgh, not, however, without +violent though unsuccessful opposition on the part of a narrow-minded +clerical party who accused him of heresy in something he had said as to +the "unsophisticated notions of mankind" about the relation of cause and +effect. During his tenure of this chair he published two volumes of a +_Course of Mathematics_--the first, entitled _Elements of Geometry, +Geometrical Analysis and Plane Trigonometry_, in 1809, and the second, +_Geometry of Curve Lines_, in 1813; the third volume, on _Descriptive +Geometry and the Theory of Solids_ was never completed. With reference +to his invention (in 1810) of a process of artificial congelation, he +published in 1813 _A Short Account of Experiments and Instruments +depending on the relations of Air to Heat and Moisture_; and in 1818 a +paper by him "On certain impressions of cold transmitted from the higher +atmosphere, with an instrument (the aethrioscope) adapted to measure +them," appeared in the _Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh_. +In 1819, on the death of Playfair, he was promoted to the more congenial +chair of natural philosophy, which he continued to hold until his death, +and in 1823 he published, chiefly for the use of his class, the first +volume of his never-completed _Elements of Natural Philosophy_. Leslie's +main contributions to physics were made by the help of the "differential +thermometer," an instrument whose invention was contested with him by +Count Rumford. By adapting to this instrument various ingenious devices +he was enabled to employ it in a great variety of investigations, +connected especially with photometry, hygroscopy and the temperature of +space. In 1820 he was elected a corresponding member of the Institute of +France, the only distinction of the kind which he valued, and early in +1832 he was created a knight. He died at Coates, a small property which +he had acquired near Largo, on the 3rd of November 1832. + + + + +LESLIE, THOMAS EDWARD CLIFFE (1827-1882), English economist, was born in +the county of Wexford in (as is believed) the year 1827. He was the +second son of the Rev. Edward Leslie, prebendary of Dromore, and rector +of Annahilt, in the county of Down. His family was of Scottish descent, +but had been connected with Ireland since the reign of Charles I. +Amongst his ancestors were that accomplished prelate, John Leslie +(1571-1671), bishop first of Raphoe and afterwards of Clogher, who, when +holding the former see, offered so stubborn a resistance to the +Cromwellian forces, and the bishop's son Charles (see above), the +nonjuror. Cliffe Leslie received his elementary education from his +father, who resided in England, though holding church preferment as well +as possessing some landed property in Ireland; by him he was taught +Latin, Greek and Hebrew, at an unusually early age; he was afterwards +for a short time under the care of a clergyman at Clapham, and was then +sent to King William's College, in the Isle of Man, where he remained +until, in 1842, being then only fifteen years of age, he entered Trinity +College, Dublin. He was a distinguished student there, obtaining, +besides other honours, a classical scholarship in 1845, and a senior +moderatorship (gold medal) in mental and moral philosophy at his degree +examination in 1846. He became a law student at Lincoln's Inn, was for +two years a pupil in a conveyancer's chambers in London, and was called +to the English bar. But his attention was soon turned from the pursuit +of legal practice, for which he seems never to have had much +inclination, by his appointment, in 1853, to the professorship of +jurisprudence and political economy in Queen's College, Belfast. The +duties of this chair requiring only short visits to Ireland in certain +terms of each year, he continued to reside and prosecute his studies in +London, and became a frequent writer on economic and social questions in +the principal reviews and other periodicals. In 1870 he collected a +number of his essays, adding several new ones, into a volume entitled +_Land Systems and Industrial Economy of Ireland, England and Continental +Countries_. J. S. Mill gave a full account of the contents of this work +in a paper in the _Fortnightly Review_, in which he pronounced Leslie to +be "one of the best living writers on applied political economy." Mill +had sought his acquaintance on reading his first article in +_Macmillan's Magazine_; he admired his talents and took pleasure in his +society, and treated him with a respect and kindness which Leslie always +gratefully acknowledged. + +In the frequent visits which Leslie made to the continent, especially to +Belgium and some of the less-known districts of France and Germany, he +occupied himself much in economic and social observation, studying the +effects of the institutions and system of life which prevailed in each +region, on the material and moral condition of its inhabitants. In this +way he gained an extensive and accurate acquaintance with continental +rural economy, of which he made excellent use in studying parallel +phenomena at home. The accounts he gave of the results of his +observations were among his happiest efforts; "no one," said Mill, "was +able to write narratives of foreign visits at once so instructive and so +interesting." In these excursions he made the acquaintance of several +distinguished persons, amongst others of M. Léonce de Lavergne and M. +Émile de Laveleye. To the memory of the former of these he afterwards +paid a graceful tribute in a biographical sketch (_Fortnightly Review_, +February 1881); and to the close of his life there existed between him +and M. de Laveleye relations of mutual esteem and cordial intimacy. + +Two essays of Leslie's appeared in volumes published under the auspices +of the Cobden Club, one on the "Land System of France" (2nd ed., 1870), +containing an earnest defence of _la petite culture_ and still more of +_la petite propriété_; the other on "Financial Reform" (1871), in which +he exhibited in detail the impediments to production and commerce +arising from indirect taxation. Many other articles were contributed by +him to reviews between 1875 and 1879, including several discussions of +the history of prices and the movements of wages in Europe, and a sketch +of life in Auvergne in his best manner; the most important of them, +however, related to the philosophical method of political economy, +notably a memorable one which appeared in the Dublin University +periodical, _Hermathena_. In 1879 the provost and senior fellows of +Trinity College published for him a volume in which a number of these +articles were collected under the title of _Essays in Political and +Moral Philosophy_. These and some later essays, together with the +earlier volume on _Land Systems_, form the essential contribution of +Leslie to economic literature. He had long contemplated, and had in part +written, a work on English economic and legal history, which would have +been his _magnum opus_--a more substantial fruit of his genius and his +labours than anything he has left. But the MS. of this treatise, after +much pains had already been spent on it, was unaccountably lost at Nancy +in 1872; and, though he hoped to be able speedily to reproduce the +missing portion and finish the work, no material was left in a state fit +for publication. What the nature of it would have been may be gathered +from an essay on the "History and Future of Profit" in the _Fortnightly +Review_ for November 1881, which is believed to have been in substance +an extract from it. + +That he was able to do so much may well be a subject of wonder when it +is known that his labours had long been impeded by a painful and +depressing malady, from which he suffered severely at intervals, whilst +he never felt secure from its recurring attacks. To this disease he in +the end succumbed at Belfast, on the 27th of January 1882. + + Leslie's work may be distributed under two heads, that of applied + political economy and that of discussion on the philosophical method + of the science. The _Land Systems_ belonged principally to the former + division. The author perceived the great and growing importance for + the social welfare of both Ireland and England of what is called "the + land question," and treated it in this volume at once with breadth of + view and with a rich variety of illustrative detail. His general + purpose was to show that the territorial systems of both countries + were so encumbered with elements of feudal origin as to be altogether + unfitted to serve the purposes of a modern industrial society. The + policy he recommended is summed up in the following list of + requirements, "a simple jurisprudence relating to land, a law of equal + intestate succession, a prohibition of entail, a legal security for + tenants' improvements, an open registration of title and transfer and + a considerable number of peasant properties." The volume is full of + practical good sense, and exhibits a thorough knowledge of home and + foreign agricultural economy; and in the handling of the subject is + everywhere shown the special power which its author possessed of + making what he wrote interesting as well as instructive. The way in + which sagacious observation and shrewd comment are constantly + intermingled in the discussion not seldom reminds us of Adam Smith, + whose manner was more congenial to Leslie than the abstract and arid + style of Ricardo. + + But what, more than anything else, marks him as an original thinker + and gives him a place apart among contemporary economists, is his + exposition and defence of the historical method in political economy. + Both at home and abroad there has for some time existed a profound and + growing dissatisfaction with the method and many of the doctrines of + the hitherto dominant school, which, it is alleged, under a + "fictitious completeness, symmetry and exactness" disguises a real + hollowness and discordance with fact. It is urged that the attempt to + deduce the economic phenomena of a society from the so-called + universal principle of "the desire of wealth" is illusory, and that + they cannot be fruitfully studied apart from the general social + conditions and historic development of which they are the outcome. Of + this movement of thought Leslie was the principal representative, if + not the originator, in England. There is no doubt, for he has himself + placed it on record, that the first influence which impelled him in + the direction of the historical method was that of Sir Henry Maine, by + whose personal teaching of jurisprudence, as well as by the example of + his writings, he was led "to look at the present economic structure + and state of society as the result of a long evolution." The study of + those German economists who represent similar tendencies doubtless + confirmed him in the new line of thought on which he had entered, + though he does not seem to have been further indebted to any of them + except, perhaps, in some small degree to Roscher. And the writings of + Comte, whose "prodigious genius," as exhibited in the _Philosophie + Positive_, he admired and proclaimed, though he did not accept his + system as a whole, must have powerfully co-operated to form in him the + habit of regarding economic science as only a single branch of + sociology, which should always be kept in close relation to the + others. The earliest writing in which Leslie's revolt against the + so-called "orthodox school" distinctly appears is his _Essay on + Wages_, which was first published in 1868 and was reproduced as an + appendix to the volume on _Land Tenures_. In this, after exposing the + inanity of the theory of the wage-fund, and showing the utter want of + agreement between its results and the observed phenomena, he concludes + by declaring that "political economy must be content to take rank as + an inductive, instead of a purely deductive science," and that, by + this change of character, "it will gain in utility, interest and real + truth far more than a full compensation for the forfeiture of a + fictitious title to mathematical exactness and certainty." But it is + in the essays collected in the volume of 1879 that his attitude in + relation to the question of method is most decisively marked. In one + of these, on "the political economy of Adam Smith," he exhibits in a + very interesting way the co-existence in the _Wealth of Nations_ of + historical-inductive investigation in the manner of Montesquieu with a + priori speculation founded on theologico-metaphysical bases, and + points out the error of ignoring the former element, which is the + really characteristic feature of Smith's social philosophy, and places + him in strong contrast with his _soi-disant_ followers of the school + of Ricardo. The essay, however, which contains the most brilliant + polemic against the "orthodox school," as well as the most luminous + account and the most powerful vindication of the new direction, was + that of which we have above spoken as having first appeared in + _Hermathena_. It may be recommended as supplying the best extant + presentation of one of the two contending views of economic method. On + this essay mainly rests the claim of Leslie to be regarded as the + founder and first head of the English historical school of political + economy. Those who share his views on the philosophical constitution + of the science regard the work he did, notwithstanding its + unsystematic character, as in reality the most important done by any + English economists in the latter half of the 19th century. But even + the warmest partisans of the older school acknowledge that he did + excellent service by insisting on a kind of inquiry, previously too + much neglected, which was of the highest interest and value, in + whatever relation it might be supposed to stand to the establishment + of economic truth. The members of both groups alike recognized his + great learning, his patient and conscientious habits of investigation + and the large social spirit in which he treated the problems of his + science. (J. K. I.) + + + + +LESLIE, a police burgh of Fifeshire, Scotland. Pop. (1901) 3587. It lies +on the Leven, the vale of which is overlooked by the town, 4 m. W. of +Markinch by the North British railway. The industries include +paper-making, flax-spinning, bleaching and linen-weaving. The old church +claims to be the "Christ's Kirk on the Green" of the ancient ballads of +that name. A stone on the Green, called the Bull Stone, is said to have +been used when bull-baiting was a popular pastime. Leslie House, the +seat of the earl of Rothes, designed by Sir William Bruce, rivalled +Holyrood in magnificence. It was noted for its tapestry and its gallery +of family portraits and other pictures, including a portrait of +Rembrandt by himself. Daniel Defoe considered its park the glory of the +kingdom. The mansion sustained serious damage from fire in 1763. Norman +Leslie, master of Rothes, was concerned in the killing of Cardinal +Beaton (1546), and the dagger with which John Leslie, Norman's uncle, +struck the fatal blow is preserved in Leslie House. + +MARKINCH (pop. 1499), a police burgh situated between Conland Burn and +the Leven, 7¼ m. N. by E. of Kirkcaldy by the North British railway, is +a place of great antiquity. A cell of the Culdees was established here +by one of the last of the Celtic bishops, the site of which may possibly +be marked by the ancient cross of Balgonie. Markinch is also believed to +have been a residence of the earlier kings, where prior to the 11th +century they occasionally administered justice; and in the reign of +William the Lion (d. 1214) the warrantors of goods alleged to have been +stolen were required to appear here. Its industries comprise bleaching, +flax-spinning, paper-making, distilling and coal-mining. Balgonie +Castle, close by, the keep of which is 80 ft. high, was a residence of +Alexander Leslie, the first earl of Leven, and at Balfour Castle were +born Cardinal Beaton and his uncle and nephew the archbishops of +Glasgow. + + + + +LESPINASSE, JEANNE JULIE ÉLÉONORE DE (1732-1776), French author, was +born at Lyons on the 9th of November 1732. A natural child of the +comtesse d'Albon, she was brought up as the daughter of Claude +Lespinasse of Lyons. On leaving her convent school she became governess +in the house of her mother's legitimate daughter, Mme de Vichy, who had +married the brother of the marquise du Deffand. Here Mme du Deffand made +her acquaintance, and, recognizing her extraordinary gifts, persuaded +her to come to Paris as her companion. The alliance lasted ten years +(1754-1764) until Mme du Deffand became jealous of the younger woman's +increasing influence, when a violent quarrel ensued. Mlle de Lespinasse +set up a salon of her own which was joined by many of the most brilliant +members of Mme du Deffand's circle. D'Alembert was one of the most +assiduous of her friends and eventually came to live under the same +roof. There was no scandal attached to this arrangement, which ensured +d'Alembert's comfort and lent influence to Mlle de Lespinasse's salon. +Although she had neither beauty nor rank, her ability as a hostess made +her reunions the most popular in Paris. She owes her distinction, +however, not to her social success, but to circumstances which remained +a secret during her lifetime from her closest friends. Two volumes of +_Lettres_ published in 1809 displayed her as the victim of a passion of +a rare intensity. In virtue of this ardent, intense quality Sainte Beuve +and other of her critics place her letters in the limited category to +which belong the Latin letters of Héloïse and those of the Portuguese +Nun. Her first passion, a reasonable and serious one, was for the +marquis de Mora, son of the Spanish ambassador in Paris. De Mora had +come to Paris in 1765, and with some intervals remained there until 1772 +when he was ordered to Spain for his health. On the way to Paris in 1774 +to fulfil promises exchanged with Mlle de Lespinasse, he died at +Bordeaux. But her letters to the comte de Guibert, the worthless object +of her fatal infatuation, begin from 1773. From the struggle between her +affection for de Mora and her blind passion for her new lover they go on +to describe her partial disenchantment on Guibert's marriage and her +final despair. Mlle de Lespinasse died on the 23rd of May 1776, her +death being apparently hastened by the agitation and misery to which she +had been for the last three years of her life a prey. In addition to the +_Lettres_ she was the author of two chapters intended as a kind of +sequel to Sterne's _Sentimental Journey_. + + Her _Lettres_ ... were published by Mme de Guibert in 1809 and a + spurious additional collection appeared in 1820. Among modern editions + may be mentioned that of Eugène Asse (1876-1877). _Lettres inédites de + Mademoiselle de Lespinasse à Condorcet, à D'Alembert, à Guibert, au + comte de Crillon_, edited by M. Charles Henry (1887), contains copies + of the documents available for her biography. Mrs Humphry Ward's + novel, _Lady Rose's Daughter_, owes something to the character of Mlle + de Lespinasse. + + + + +LES SABLES D'OLONNE, a seaport of western France, capital of an +arrondissement of the department of Vendée, on an inlet of the Atlantic +seaboard, 23 m. S.W. of La Roche-sur-Yon by rail. Pop. (1906) 11,847. +The town stands between the sea on the south and the port on the north, +while on the west it is separated by a channel from the suburb of La +Chaume, built at the foot of a range of dunes 65 ft. high, which +terminates southwards in the rocky peninsula of L'Aiguille. The +beautiful smoothly sloping beach, 1 m. in length, is much frequented by +bathers. To the north of Sables extend salt-marshes and oyster-parks, +yielding 6,000,000 to 8,000,000 oysters per annum. Sables has a church +built in the Late Gothic style towards the middle of the 17th century. +The port, consisting of a tidal basin and a wet-dock, is accessible to +vessels of 2000 tons, but is dangerous when the winds are from the +south-west. The lighthouse of Barges, a mile out at sea to the west, is +visible for 17 to 18 nautical miles. The inhabitants are employed +largely in sardine and tunny fishing; there are imports of coal, wood, +petroleum and phosphates. Boat-building and sardine-preserving are +carried on. The town has a sub-prefecture and a tribunal of first +instance. + +Founded by Basque or Spanish sailors, Sables was the first place in +Poitou invaded by the Normans in 817. Louis XI., who went there in 1472, +granted the inhabitants various privileges, improved the harbour, and +fortified the entrance. Captured and recaptured during the Wars of +Religion, the town afterwards became a nursery of hardy sailors and +privateers, who harassed the Spaniards and afterwards the English. In +1696 Sables was bombarded by the combined fleets of England and Holland. +In the middle of the 18th century hurricanes caused grievous damage to +town and harbour. + + + + +LES SAINTES-MARIES, a coast village of south-eastern France in the +department of Boûches-du-Rhône, 24 m. S.S.W. of Arles by rail. Pop. +(1906) 544. Saintes-Maries is situated in the plain of the Camargue, 1½ +m. E. of the mouth of the Petit-Rhône. It is the object of an ancient +and famous pilgrimage due to the tradition that Mary, sister of the +Virgin, and Mary, mother of James and John, together with their black +servant Sara, Lazarus, Martha, Mary Magdalen and St Maximin fled thither +to escape persecution in Judaea. The relics of the two Maries, who are +said to have been buried at Saintes-Maries, are bestowed in the upper +storey of the apse of the fortress-church, a remarkable building of the +12th century with crenelated and machicolated walls. Two festivals are +held in the town, a less important one in October, the other, on the +24th and 25th of May, unique for its gathering of gipsies who come in +large numbers to do honour to the tomb of their patroness Sara, +contained in the crypt below the apse. + + + + +LESSE, one of the most romantic of the smaller rivers of Belgium. It +rises at Ochamps in the Ardennes, and flowing in a north-westerly course +reaches the Meuse at Anseremme, a few miles above Dinant. The river is +only 49 m. long, but its meandering course may be judged by the fact +that it is no more than 29 m. from Ochamps to Anseremme in a straight +line. There is a good deal of pretty scenery along this river, as, for +instance, at Ciergnon, but the most striking part of the valley is +contained in the last 12 m. from Houyet to Anseremme. In this section +the river is confined between opposing walls of cliff ranging from 300 +to 500 ft. above the river. Here were discovered in the caves near +Walzin the bones of prehistoric men, and other evidence of the primitive +occupants of this globe at a period practically beyond computation. +Another curious natural feature of the Lesse is that on reaching the +hill of Han it disappears underground, reappearing about 1 m. farther on +at the village of that name. Here are the curious and interesting Han +grottoes. The Lesse receives altogether in its short course the water of +thirteen tributaries. + + + + +LESSEPS, FERDINAND DE (1805-1894). French diplomatist and maker of the +Suez Canal, was born at Versailles on the 19th of November 1805. The +origin of his family has been traced back as far as the end of the 14th +century. His ancestors, it is believed, came from Scotland, and settled +at Bayonne when that region was occupied by the English. One of his +great-grandfathers was town clerk and at the same time secretary to +Queen Anne of Neuberg, widow of Charles II. of Spain, exiled to Bayonne +after the accession of Philip V. From the middle of the 18th century +the ancestors of Ferdinand de Lesseps followed the diplomatic career, +and he himself occupied with real distinction several posts in the same +calling from 1825 to 1849. His uncle was ennobled by King Louis XVI., +and his father was made a count by Napoleon I. His father, Mathieu de +Lesseps (1774-1832), was in the consular service; his mother, Catherine +de Grivégnée, was Spanish, and aunt of the countess of Montijo, mother +of the empress Eugénie. His first years were spent in Italy, where his +father was occupied with his consular duties. He was educated at the +College of Henry IV. in Paris. From the age of 18 years to 20 he was +employed in the commissary department of the army. From 1825 to 1827 he +acted as assistant vice-consul at Lisbon, where his uncle, Barthélemy de +Lesseps, was the French chargé d'affaires. This uncle was an old +companion of La Pérouse and a survivor of the expedition in which that +navigator perished. In 1828 Ferdinand was sent as an assistant +vice-consul to Tunis, where his father was consul-general. He +courageously aided the escape of Youssouff, pursued by the soldiers of +the bey, of whom he was one of the officers, for violation of the +seraglio law. Youssouff acknowledged this protection given by a +Frenchman by distinguishing himself in the ranks of the French army at +the time of the conquest of Algeria. Ferdinand de Lesseps was also +entrusted by his father with missions to Marshal Count Clausel, +general-in-chief of the army of occupation in Algeria. The marshal wrote +to Mathieu de Lesseps on the 18th of December 1830: "I have had the +pleasure of meeting your son, who gives promise of sustaining with great +credit the name he bears." In 1832 Ferdinand de Lesseps was appointed +vice-consul at Alexandria. To the placing in quarantine of the vessel +which took him to Egypt is due the origin of his great conception of a +canal across the isthmus of Suez. In order to help him to while away the +time at the lazaretto, M. Mimaut, consul-general of France at +Alexandria, sent him several books, among which was the memoir written +upon the Suez Canal, according to Bonaparte's instructions, by the civil +engineer Lapère, one of the scientific members of the French expedition. +This work struck de Lesseps's imagination, and gave him the idea of +piercing the African isthmus. This idea, moreover, was conceived in +circumstances that were to prepare the way for its realization. Mehemet +Ali, who was the viceroy of Egypt, owed his position, to a certain +extent, to the recommendations made in his behalf to the French +government by Mathieu de Lesseps, who was consul-general in Egypt when +Mehemet Ali was a simple colonel. The viceroy therefore welcomed +Ferdinand affectionately, while Said Pacha, Mehemet's son, began those +friendly relations that he did not forget later, when he gave him the +concession for making the Suez Canal. In 1833 Ferdinand de Lesseps was +sent as consul to Cairo, and soon afterwards given the management of the +consulate-general at Alexandria, a post that he held until 1837. While +he was there a terrible epidemic of the plague broke out and lasted for +two years, carrying off more than a third of the inhabitants of Cairo +and Alexandria. During this time he went from one city to the other, +according as the danger was more pressing, and constantly displayed an +admirable zeal and an imperturbable energy. Towards the close of the +year 1837 he returned to France, and on the 21st of December married +Mlle Agathe Delamalle, daughter of the government prosecuting attorney +at the court of Angers. By this marriage M. de Lesseps became the father +of five sons. In 1839 he was appointed consul at Rotterdam, and in the +following year transferred to Malaga, the place of origin of his +mother's family. In 1842 he was sent to Barcelona, and soon afterwards +promoted to the grade of consul-general. In the course of a bloody +insurrection in Catalonia, which ended in the bombardment of Barcelona, +Ferdinand de Lesseps showed the most persistent bravery, rescuing from +death, without distinction, the men belonging to the rival factions, and +protecting and sending away not only the Frenchmen who were in danger, +but foreigners of all nationalities. From 1848 to 1849 he was minister +of France at Madrid. In the latter year the government of the French +Republic confided to him a mission to Rome at the moment when it was a +question whether the expelled pope would return to the Vatican with or +without bloodshed. Following his interpretation of the instructions he +had received, de Lesseps began negotiations with the existing government +at Rome, according to which Pius IX. should peacefully re-enter the +Vatican and the independence of the Romans be assured at the same time. +But while he was negotiating, the elections in France had caused a +change in the foreign policy of the government. His course was +disapproved; he was recalled and brought before the council of state, +which blamed his conduct without giving him a chance to justify himself. +Rome, attacked by the French army, was taken by assault after a month's +sanguinary siege. M. de Lesseps then retired from the diplomatic +service, and never afterwards occupied any public office. In 1853 he +lost his wife and daughter at a few days' interval. Perhaps his energy +would not have been sufficient to sustain him against these repeated +blows of destiny if, in 1854, the accession to the viceroyalty of Egypt +of his old friend, Said Pacha, had not given a new impulse to the ideas +that had haunted him for the last twenty-two years concerning the Suez +Canal. Said Pacha invited M. de Lesseps to pay him a visit, and on the +7th of November 1854 he landed at Alexandria; on the 30th of the same +month Said Pacha signed the concession authorizing M. de Lesseps to +pierce the isthmus of Suez. + +A first scheme, indicated by him, was immediately drawn out by two +French engineers who were in the Egyptian service, MM. Linant Bey and +Mougel Bey. This project, differing from others that had been previously +presented or that were in opposition to it, provided for a direct +communication between the Mediterranean and the Red Sea. After being +slightly modified, the plan was adopted in 1856 by an international +commission of civil engineers to which it had been submitted. Encouraged +by this approval, de Lesseps no longer allowed anything to stop him. He +listened to no adverse criticism and receded before no obstacle. Neither +the opposition of Lord Palmerston, who considered the projected +disturbance as too radical not to endanger the commercial position of +Great Britain, nor the opinions entertained, in France as well as in +England, that the sea in front of Port Said was full of mud which would +obstruct the entrance to the canal, that the sands from the desert would +fill the trenches--no adverse argument, in a word, could dishearten +Ferdinand de Lesseps. His faith made him believe that his adversaries +were in the wrong; but how great must have been this faith, which +permitted him to undertake the work at a time when mechanical appliances +for the execution of such an undertaking did not exist, and when for the +utilization of the proposed canal there was as yet no steam mercantile +marine! Impelled by his convictions and talent, supported by the emperor +Napoleon III. and the empress Eugénie, he succeeded in rousing the +patriotism of the French and obtaining by their subscriptions more than +half of the capital of two hundred millions of francs which he needed in +order to form a company. The Egyptian government subscribed for eighty +millions' worth of shares. The company was organized at the end of 1858. +On the 25th of April 1859 the first blow of the pickaxe was given by +Lesseps at Port Said, and on the 17th of November 1869 the canal was +officially opened by the Khedive, Ismail Pacha (see SUEZ CANAL). While +in the interests of his canal Lesseps had resisted the opposition of +British diplomacy to an enterprise which threatened to give to France +control of the shortest route to India, he acted loyally towards Great +Britain after Lord Beaconsfield had acquired the Suez shares belonging +to the Khedive, by frankly admitting to the board of directors of the +company three representatives of the British government. The +consolidation of interests which resulted, and which has been developed +by the addition in 1884 of seven other British directors, chosen from +among shipping merchants and business men, has augmented, for the +benefit of all concerned, the commercial character of the enterprise. + +Ferdinand de Lesseps steadily endeavoured to keep out of politics. If in +1869 he appeared to deviate from this principle by being a candidate at +Marseilles for the Corps Législatif, it was because he yielded to the +entreaties of the Imperial government in order to strengthen its +goodwill for the Suez Canal. Once this goodwill had been shown, he bore +no malice towards those who rendered him his liberty by preferring +Gambetta. He afterwards declined the other candidatures that were +offered him: for the Senate in 1876, and for the Chamber in 1877. In +1873 he became interested in a project for uniting Europe and Asia by a +railway to Bombay, with a branch to Peking. He subsequently encouraged +Major Roudaire, who wished to transform the Sahara desert into an inland +sea. The king of the Belgians having formed an International African +Society, de Lesseps accepted the presidency of the French committee, +facilitated M. de Brazza's explorations, and acquired stations that he +subsequently abandoned to the French government. These stations were the +starting-point of French Congo. In 1879 a congress assembled in the +rooms of the Geographical Society at Paris, under the presidency of +Admiral de la Roncière le Noury, and voted in favour of the making of +the Panama Canal. Public opinion, it may be declared, designated +Ferdinand de Lesseps as the head of the enterprise. It was upon that +occasion that Gambetta bestowed upon him the title of _Le Grand +Français_. He was not a man to shirk responsibility, and notwithstanding +that he had reached the age of 74, he undertook to carry out the Panama +Canal project (see PANAMA CANAL and FRANCE: _History_). Politics, which +de Lesseps had always avoided, was his greatest enemy in this matter. +The winding-up of the Panama Company having been declared in the month +of December 1888, the adversaries of the French Republic, seeking for a +scandal that would imperil the government, hoped to bring about the +prosecution of the directors of the Panama Company. Their attacks were +so vigorously made that the government was obliged, in self-defence, to +have judicial proceedings taken against Ferdinand de Lesseps, his son +Charles (b. 1849) and his co-workers Fontane and Cottu. Charles de +Lesseps, a victim offered to the fury of the politicians, tried to +divert the storm upon his head and prevent it from reaching his father. +He managed to draw down upon himself alone the burden of the +condemnations pronounced. One of the consequences of the persecutions of +which he was the object was to oblige him to spend three years, from +1896 to 1899, in England, where his participation in the management of +the Suez Canal had won for him some strong friendships, and where he was +able to see the great respect in which the memory and name of his father +were held by Englishmen. + +Ferdinand de Lesseps died at La Chenaie on the 7th of December 1894. He +had contracted a second marriage in 1869 with Mlle Autard de Bragard, +daughter of a former magistrate of Mauritius; and eleven out of twelve +children of this marriage survived him. M. de Lesseps was a member of +the French Academy, of the Academy of Sciences, of numerous scientific +societies, Grand Cross of the Legion of Honour and of the Star of India, +and had received the freedom of the City of London. According to some +accounts he was unconscious of the disastrous events that took place +during the closing months of his life. Others report that, feeling +himself powerless to scatter the gathered clouds, and aware of his +physical feebleness, he had had the moral courage to pass in the eyes of +his family, which he did not wish to afflict, as the dupe of the efforts +they employed to conceal the truth from him. This last version would not +be surprising if we relied upon the following portrait, sketched by a +person who knew him intimately:--"Simple in his tastes, never thinking +of himself, constantly preoccupied about others, supremely kind, he did +not and would not recognize such a thing as evil. Of a confiding nature, +he was inclined to judge others by himself. This naturally affectionate +abandonment that every one felt in him had procured him profound +attachments and rare devotions. He showed, while making the Suez Canal, +what a gift he possessed for levying the pacific armies he conducted. He +set duty above everything, had in the highest degree a reverence for +honour, and placed his indomitable courage at the service of everything +that was beneficial with an abnegation that nothing could tire. His +marvellous physical and moral equilibrium gave him an evenness of temper +which always rendered his society charming. Whatever his cares, his +work or his troubles, I have never noticed in him aught but generous +impulses and a love of humanity carried even to those heroic imprudences +of which they alone are capable who devote themselves to the +amelioration of humanity." No doubt this eulogy requires some +reservations. The striking and universal success which crowned his work +on the Suez Canal gave him an absoluteness of thought which brooked no +contradiction, a despotic temper before which every one must bow, and +against which, when he had once taken a resolution, nothing could +prevail, not even the most authoritative opposition or the most +legitimate entreaties. He had resolved to construct the Panama Canal +without locks, to make it an uninterrupted navigable way. All attempts +to dissuade him from this resolution failed before his tenacious will. +At his advanced age he went with his youngest child to Panama to see +with his own eyes the field of his new enterprise. He there beheld the +Culebra and the Chagres; he saw the mountain and the stream, those two +greatest obstacles of nature that sought to bar his route. He paid no +heed to them, but began the struggle against the Culebra and the +Chagres. It was against them that was broken his invincible will, +sweeping away in the defeat the work of Panama, his own fortune, his +fame and almost an atom of his honour. But this atom, only grazed by +calumny, has already been restored to him by posterity, for he died +poor, having been the first to suffer by the disaster to his illusions. +Political agitators, in order to sap the power of the Opportunist party, +did not hesitate to drag in the mud one of the greatest citizens of +France. But when the Panama "scandal" has been forgotten, for centuries +to come the traveller in saluting the statue of Ferdinand de Lesseps at +the entrance of the Suez Canal will pay homage to one of the most +powerful embodiments of the creative genius of the 19th century. + + See G. Barnett Smith, _The Life and Enterprises of Ferdinand de + Lesseps_ (London, 1893); and _Souvenirs de quarante ans_, by Ferdinand + de Lesseps (trans. by C. B. Pitman). (de B.) + + + + +LESSING, GOTTHOLD EPHRAIM (1729-1781), German critic and dramatist, was +born at Kamenz in Upper Lusatia (Oberlausitz), Saxony, on the 22nd of +January 1729. His father, Johann Gottfried Lessing, was a clergyman, +and, a few years after his son's birth, became _pastor primarius_ or +chief pastor of Kamenz. After attending the Latin school of his native +town, Gotthold was sent in 1741 to the famous school of St Afra at +Meissen, where he made such rapid progress, especially in classics and +mathematics, that, towards the end of his school career, he was +described by the rector as "a steed that needed double fodder." In 1746 +he entered the university of Leipzig as a theological student. The +philological lectures of Johann Friedrich Christ (1700-1756) and Johann +August Ernesti (1707-1781) proved, however, more attractive than those +on theology, and he attended the philosophical disputations presided +over by his friend A. G. Kästner, professor of mathematics and also an +epigrammatist of repute. Among Lessing's chief friends in Leipzig were +C. F. Weisse (1726-1804) the dramatist, and Christlob Mylius +(1722-1754), who had made some name for himself as a journalist. He was +particularly attracted by the theatre then directed by the talented +actress Karoline Neuber (1697-1760), who had assisted Gottsched in his +efforts to bring the German stage into touch with literature. Frau +Neuber even accepted for performance Lessing's first comedy, _Der junge +Gelehrte_ (1748), which he had begun at school. His father naturally did +not approve of these new interests and acquaintances, and summoned him +home. He was only allowed to return to Leipzig on the condition that he +would devote himself to the study of medicine. Some medical lectures he +did attend, but as long as Frau Neuber's company kept together the +theatre had an irresistible fascination for him. + +In 1748, however, the company broke up, and Lessing, who had allowed +himself to become surety for some of the actors' debts, was obliged to +leave Leipzig too, in order to escape their creditors. He went to +Wittenberg, and afterwards, towards the end of the year, to Berlin, +where his friend Mylius had established himself as a journalist. In +Berlin Lessing now spent three years, maintaining himself chiefly by +literary work. He translated three volumes of Charles Rollin's _Histoire +ancienne_, wrote several plays--_Der Misogyn_, _Der Freigeist_, _Die +Juden_--and in association with Mylius, began the _Beiträge zur Historie +und Aufnahine des Theaters_ (1750), a periodical--which soon came to an +end--for the discussion of matters connected with the drama. Early in +1751 he became literary critic to the _Vossische Zeitung_, and in this +position laid the foundation for his reputation as a reviewer of +learning, judgment and wit. At the end of 1751 he was in Wittenberg +again, where he spent about a year engaged in unremitting study and +research. He then returned to Berlin with a view to making literature +his profession; and the next three years were among the busiest of his +life. Besides translating for the booksellers, he issued several numbers +of the _Theatralische Bibliothek_, a periodical similar to that which he +had begun with Mylius; he also continued his work as critic to the +_Vossische Zeitung_. In 1754 he gave a particularly brilliant proof of +his critical powers in his _Vademecum für Herrn S. G. Lange_; as a +retort to that writer's overbearing criticism, Lessing exposed with +scathing satire Lange's errors in his popular translation of Horace. + +By 1753 Lessing felt that his position was sufficiently assured to allow +of him issuing an edition of his collected writings (_Schriften_, 6 +vols., 1753-1755). They included his lyrics and epigrams, most of which +had already appeared during his first residence in Berlin in a volume of +_Kleinigkeiten_, published anonymously. Much more important were the +papers entitled _Rettungen_, in which he undertook to vindicate the +character of various writers--Horace and writers of the Reformation +period, such as Cochlaeus and Cardanus--who had been misunderstood or +falsely judged by preceding generations. The _Schriften_ also contained +Lessing's early plays, and one new one, _Miss Sara Sampson_ (1755). +Hitherto Lessing had, as a dramatist, followed the methods of +contemporary French comedy as cultivated in Leipzig; _Miss Sara +Sampson_, however, marks the beginning of a new period in the history of +the German drama. This play, based more or less on Lille's _Merchant of +London_, and influenced in its character-drawing by the novels of +Richardson, is the first _bürgerliches Trauerspiel_, or "tragedy of +common life" in German. It was performed for the first time at +Frankfort-on-Oder in the summer of 1755, and received with great favour. +Among Lessing's chief friends during his second residence in Berlin were +the philosopher Moses Mendelssohn (1729-1786), in association with whom +he wrote in 1755 an admirable treatise, _Pope ein Metaphysiker!_ tracing +sharply the lines which separate the poet from the philosopher. He was +also on intimate terms with C. F. Nicolai (1733-1811), a Berlin +bookseller and rationalistic writer, and with the "German Horace" K. W. +Ramler (1725-1798); he had also made the acquaintance of J. W. L. Gleim +(1719-1803), the Halberstadt poet, and E. C. von Kleist (1715-1759), a +Prussian officer, whose fine poem. _Der Frühling_, had won for him +Lessing's warm esteem. + +In October 1755 Lessing settled in Leipzig with a view to devoting +himself more exclusively to the drama. In 1756 he accepted the +invitation of Gottfried Winkler, a wealthy young merchant, to accompany +him on a foreign tour for three years. They did not, however, get beyond +Amsterdam, for the outbreak of the Seven Years' War made it necessary +for Winkler to return home without loss of time. A disagreement with his +patron shortly after resulted in Lessing's sudden dismissal; he demanded +compensation and, although in the end the court decided in his favour, +it was not until the case had dragged on for about six years. At this +time Lessing began the study of medieval literature to which attention +had been drawn by the Swiss critics, Bodmer and Breitinger, and wrote +occasional criticisms for Nicolai's _Bibliothek der schönen +Wissenschaften_. In Leipzig Lessing had also an opportunity of +developing his friendship with Kleist who happened to be stationed +there. The two men were mutually attracted, and a warm affection sprang +up between them. In 1758 Kleist's regiment being ordered to new +quarters, Lessing decided not to remain behind him and returned again to +Berlin. Kleist was mortally wounded in the following year at the battle +of Kunersdorf. + +Lessing's third residence in Berlin was made memorable by the _Briefe, +die neueste Literatur betreffend_ (1759-1765), a series of critical +essays--written in the form of letters to a wounded officer--on the +principal books that had appeared since the beginning of the Seven +Years' War. The scheme was suggested by Nicolai, by whom the _Letters_ +were published. In Lessing's share in this publication, his critical +powers and methods are to be seen at their best. He insisted especially +on the necessity of truth to nature in the imaginative presentation of +the facts of life, and in one letter he boldly proclaimed the +superiority of Shakespeare to Corneille, Racine and Voltaire. At the +same time he marked the immutable conditions to which even genius must +submit if it is to succeed in its appeal to our sympathies. While in +Berlin at this time, he edited with Ramler a selection from the writings +of F. von Logau, an epigrammatist of the 17th century, and introduced to +the German public the _Lieder eines preussischen Grenadiers_, by J. W. +L. Gleim. In 1759 he published _Philotas_, a prose tragedy in one act, +and also a complete collection of his fables, preceded by an essay on +the nature of the fable. The latter is one of his best essays on +criticism, defining with perfect lucidity what is meant by "action" in +works of the imagination, and distinguishing the action of the fable +from that of the epic and the drama. + +In 1760, feeling the need of some change of scene and work, Lessing went +to Breslau, where he obtained the post of secretary to General +Tauentzien, to whom Kleist had introduced him in Leipzig. Tauentzien was +not only a general in the Prussian army, but governor of Breslau, and +director of the mint. During the four years which Lessing spent in +Breslau, he associated chiefly with Prussian officers, went much into +society, and developed a dangerous fondness for the gaming table. He did +not, however, lose sight of his true goal; he collected a large library, +and, after the conclusion of the Seven Years' War, in 1763, he resumed +more enthusiastically than ever the studies which had been partially +interrupted. He investigated the early history of Christianity and +penetrated more deeply than any contemporary thinker into the +significance of Spinoza's philosophy. He also found time for the studies +which were ultimately to appear in the volume entitled _Laokoon_, and in +fresh spring mornings he sketched in a garden the plan of _Minna von +Barnhelm_. + +After resigning his Breslau appointment in 1765, he hoped for a time to +obtain a congenial appointment in Dresden, but nothing came of this and +he was again compelled, much against his will, to return to Berlin. His +friends there exerted themselves to obtain for him the office of keeper +of the royal library, but Frederick had not forgotten Lessing's quarrel +with Voltaire, and declined to consider his claims. During the two years +which Lessing now spent in the Prussian capital, he was restless and +unhappy, yet it was during this period that he published two of his +greatest works, _Laokoon, oder über die Grenzen der Malerei und Poesie_ +(1766) and _Minna von Barnhelm_ (1767). The aim of Laokoon, which ranks +as a classic, not only in German but in European literature, is to +define by analysis the limitations of poetry and the plastic arts. Many +of his conclusions have been corrected and extended by later criticism; +but he indicated more decisively than any of his predecessors the +fruitful principle that each art is subject to definite conditions, and +that it can accomplish great results only by limiting itself to its +special function. The most valuable parts of the work are those which +relate to poetry, of which he had a much more intimate knowledge than of +sculpture and painting. His exposition of the methods of Homer and +Sophocles is especially suggestive, and he may be said to have marked an +epoch in the appreciation of these writers, and of Greek literature +generally. The power of _Minna von Barnhelm_, Lessing's greatest drama, +was also immediately recognized. Tellheim, the hero of the comedy, is an +admirable study of a manly and sensitive soldier, with somewhat +exaggerated ideas of conventional honour; and Minna, the heroine, is one +of the brightest and most attractive figures in German comedy. The +subordinate characters are conceived with even more force and vividness; +and the plot, which reflects precisely the struggles and aspirations of +the period that immediately followed the Seven Years' War, is simply and +naturally unfolded. + +In 1767 Lessing settled in Hamburg, where he had been invited to take +part in the establishment of a national theatre. The scheme promised +well, and, as he associated himself with Johann Joachim Christoph Bode +(1730-1793), a literary man whom he respected, in starting a printing +establishment, he hoped that he might at last look forward to a peaceful +and prosperous career. The theatre, however, was soon closed, and the +printing establishment failed, leaving behind it a heavy burden of debt. +In despair, Lessing determined towards the end of his residence in +Hamburg to quit Germany, believing that in Italy he might find congenial +labour that would suffice for his wants. The _Hamburgische Dramaturgie_ +(1767-1768), Lessing's commentary on the performances of the National +Theatre, is the first modern handbook of the dramatist's art. By his +original interpretation of Aristotle's theory of tragedy, he delivered +German dramatists from the yoke of the classic tragedy of France, and +directed them to the Greek dramatists and to Shakespeare. Another result +of Lessing's labours in Hamburg was the _Antiquarische Briefe_ (1768), a +series of masterly letters in answer to Christian Adolf Klotz +(1738-1771), a professor of the university of Halle, who, after +flattering Lessing, had attacked him, and sought to establish a kind of +intellectual despotism by means of critical journals which he directly +or indirectly controlled. In connexion with this controversy Lessing +wrote his brilliant little treatise, _Wie die Alten den Tod gebildet_ +(1769), contrasting the medieval representation of death as a skeleton +with the Greek conception of death as the twin-brother of sleep. + +Instead of settling in Italy, as he intended, Lessing accepted in 1770 +the office of librarian at Wolfenbüttel, a post which was offered to him +by the hereditary prince of Brunswick. In this position he passed his +remaining years. For a time he was not unhappy, but the debts which he +had contracted in Hamburg weighed heavily on him, and he missed the +society of his friends; his health, too, which had hitherto been +excellent, gradually gave way. In 1775 he travelled for nine months in +Italy with Prince Leopold of Brunswick, and in the following year he +married Eva König, the widow of a Hamburg merchant, with whom he had +been on terms of intimate friendship. But their happiness lasted only +for a brief period; in 1778 she died in childbed. + +Soon after settling in Wolfenbüttel, Lessing found in the library the +manuscript of a treatise by Berengarius of Tours on transubstantiation +in reply to Lanfranc. This was the occasion of Lessing's powerful essay +on Berengarius, in which he vindicated the latter's character as a +serious and consistent thinker. In 1771 he published his _Zerstreute +Anmerkungen über das Epigramm, und einige der vornehmsten +Epigrammatisten_--a work which Herder described as "itself an epigram." +Lessing's theory of the origin of the epigram is somewhat fanciful, but +no other critic has offered so many pregnant hints as to the laws of +epigrammatic verse, or defended with so much force and ingenuity the +character of Martial. In 1772 he published _Emilia Galotti_, a tragedy +which he had begun many years before in Leipzig. The subject was +suggested by the Roman legend of Virginia, but the scene is laid in an +Italian court, and the whole play is conceived in the spirit of the +"tragedy of common life." Its defect is that its tragic conclusion does +not seem absolutely inevitable, but the characters--especially those of +the Gräfin Orsina and Marinelli, the prince of Guastalla's chamberlain +who weaves the intrigue from which Emilia escapes by death, are +powerfully drawn. Having completed _Emilia Galotti_, which the younger +generation of playwrights at once accepted as a model, Lessing occupied +himself for some years almost exclusively with the treasures of the +Wolfenbüttel library. The results of these researches he embodied in a +series of volumes, _Zur Geschichte und Literatur_, the first being +issued in 1773, the last in the year of his death. + +The last period of Lessing's life was devoted chiefly to theological +controversy. H. S. Reimarus (1694-1768), professor of oriental +languages in Hamburg, who commanded general respect as a scholar and +thinker, wrote a book entitled _Apologie oder Schutzschrift für die +vernünftigen Verehrer Gottes_. His standpoint was that of the English +deists, and he investigated, without hesitation, the evidence for the +miracles recorded in the Bible. The manuscript of this work was, after +the author's death, entrusted by his daughter to Lessing, who published +extracts from it in his _Zur Geschichte und Literatur_ in 1774-1778. +These extracts, the authorship of which was not publicly avowed, were +known as the _Wolfenbütteler Fragmente_. They created profound +excitement among orthodox theologians, and evoked many replies, in which +Lessing was bitterly condemned for having published writings of so +dangerous a tendency. His most formidable assailant was Johann Melchior +Goeze (1717-1786), the chief pastor of Hamburg, a sincere and earnest +theologian, but utterly unscrupulous in his choice of weapons against an +opponent. To him, therefore, Lessing addressed in 1778 his most +elaborate answers--_Eine Parabel_, _Axiomata_, eleven letters with the +title _Anti-Goeze_, and two pamphlets in reply to an inquiry by Goeze as +to what Lessing meant by Christianity. These papers are not only full of +thought and learning; they are written with a grace, vivacity and energy +that make them hardly less interesting to-day than they were to +Lessing's contemporaries. He does not undertake to defend the +conclusions of Reimarus; his immediate object is to claim the right of +free criticism in regard even to the highest subjects of human thought. +The argument on which he chiefly relies is that the Bible cannot be +considered necessary to a belief in Christianity, since Christianity was +a living and conquering power before the New Testament in its present +form was recognized by the church. The true evidence for what is +essential in Christianity, he contends, is its adaptation to the wants +of human nature; hence the religious spirit is undisturbed by the +speculations of the boldest thinkers. The effect of this controversy was +to secure wider freedom for writers on theology, and to suggest new +problems regarding the growth of Christianity, the formation of the +canon and the essence of religion. The Brunswick government having, in +deference to the consistory, confiscated the _Fragments_ and ordered +Lessing to discontinue the controversy, he resolved, as he wrote to +Elise Reimarus, to try "whether they would let him preach undisturbed +from his old pulpit, the stage." In _Nathan der Weise_, written in the +winter of 1778-1779, he gave poetic form to the ideas which he had +already developed in prose. Its governing conception is that noble +character may be associated with the most diverse creeds, and that there +can, therefore, be no good reason why the holders of one sect of +religious principles should not tolerate those who maintain wholly +different doctrines. The play, which is written in blank verse, is too +obviously a continuation of Lessing's theological controversy to rank +high as poetry, but the representatives of the three religions--the +Mahommedan Saladin, the Jew Nathan and the Christian Knight Templar--are +finely conceived, and show that Lessing's dramatic instinct had, in +spite of other interests, not deserted him. In 1780 appeared _Die +Erziehung des Menschengeschlechts_, the first half of which he had +published in 1777 with one of the _Fragments_. This work, composed a +hundred brief paragraphs, was the last, and is one of the most +suggestive of Lessing's writings. The doctrine on which its argument is +based is that no dogmatic creed can be regarded as final, but that every +historical religion had its share in the development of the spiritual +life of mankind. Lessing also maintains that history reveals a definite +law of progress, and that occasional retrogression may be necessary for +the advance of the world towards its ultimate goal. These ideas formed a +striking contrast to the principles both of orthodox and of sceptical +writers in Lessing's day, and gave a wholly new direction to religious +philosophy. Another work of Lessing's last years, _Ernst und Falk_ (a +series of five dialogues, of which the first three were published in +1777, the last two in 1780), also set forth many new points of view. Its +nominal subject is freemasonry, but its real aim is to plead for a +humane and charitable spirit in opposition to a narrow patriotism, an +extravagant respect for rank, and exclusive devotion to any particular +church. + +Lessing's theological opinions exposed him to much petty persecution, +and he was in almost constant straits for money. Nothing, however, broke +his manly and generous spirit. To the end he was always ready to help +those who appealed to him for aid, and he devoted himself with growing +ardour to the search for truth. He formed many new plans of work, but in +the course of 1780 it became evident to his friends that he would not be +able much longer to continue his labours. His health had been undermined +by excessive work and anxiety, and after a short illness he died at +Brunswick on the 15th of February 1781. "We lose much in him," wrote +Goethe after Lessing's death, "more than we think." It may be questioned +whether there is any other writer to whom the Germans owe a deeper debt +of gratitude. He was succeeded by poets and philosophers who gave +Germany for a time the first place in the intellectual life of the +world, and it was Lessing, as they themselves acknowledged, who prepared +the way for their achievements. Without attaching himself to any +particular system of philosophical doctrine, he fought error +incessantly, and in regard to art, poetry and the drama and religion, +suggested ideas which kindled the enthusiasm of aspiring minds, and +stimulated their highest energies. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The first edition of Lessing's collected works, edited + by his brother Karl Gotthelf Lessing (1740-1812), J. J. Eschenburg and + F. Nicolai, appeared in 26 vols. between 1791 and 1794, as a + continuation of the _Vermischte Schriften_, edited by Lessing himself + in 4 vols. (1771-1785); the _Sämtliche Schriften_, edited by Karl + Lachmann, were published in 13 vols. (1825-1828), this edition being + subsequently re-edited by W. von Maltzahn (1853-1857) and by F. + Muncker (21 vols., 1886 ff.), the last mentioned being the standard + edition of Lessing's works. Other editions are _Lessings Werke_, + published by Hempel, under the editorship of various scholars (23 + vols., 1868-1877); an illustrated edition published by Grote in 8 + vols. (1875, new ed., 1882); _Lessings Werke_, edited by R. Boxberger + and H. Blümner, in Kürschner's _Deutsche Nationalliteratur_, vols. + 58-71 (1883-1890). There are also many popular editions. Lessing's + correspondence is included in the Lachmann editions and in that of + Hempel (edited by C. C. Redlich, 1879; _Nachträge und Berichtigungen_, + 1886); his correspondence with his wife was published as early as 1789 + (2 vols., new edition by A. Schöne, 1885). The chief biographies of + Lessing are by K. G. Lessing (his brother), (1793-1795, a reprint in + Reclam's _Universalbibliothek_); by J. F. Schink (1825); T. W. Danzel + and G. E. Guhrauer (1850-1853, 2nd ed. by W. von Maltzahn and R. + Boxberger, 2 vols., 1880-1881); A. Stahr (2 vols., 1859, 9th ed., + 1887); J. Sime, _Lessing, his Life and Works_ (2 vols., 1877); H. + Zimmern, _Lessing's Life and Works_ (1878); H. Düntzer, _Lessings + Leben_ (1882); E. Schmidt, _Lessing, Geschichte seines Lebens und + seiner Schriften_ (2 vols., 1884-1892, 3rd ed., 1910)--this is the + most complete biography; T. W. Rolleston, _Lessing_ (in "Great + Writers," 1889); K. Borinski, _Lessing_ (2 vols., 1900). Cf. also C. + Hebler, _Lessing-Studien_ (1862); A. Lehmann, _Forschungen über + Lessings Sprache_ (1875); W. Cosack, _Materialien zu Lessings + Hamburgischer Dramaturgie_ (1876, 2nd ed., 1891); H. Blümner, + _Lessings Laokoon_ (1876, 2nd ed., 1880); H. Blümner, + _Laokoon-Studien_ (2 vols., 1881-1882); K. Fischer, _Lessing als + Reformator der deutschen Literatur dargestellt_ (2 vols., 1881, 2nd + ed., 1888); B. A. Wagner, _Lessing-Forschungen_ (1881); J. W. Braun, + _Lessing im Urteile seiner Zeitgenossen_ (2 vols., 1884); P. Albrecht, + _Lessings Plagiate_ (6 vols., 1890 ff.); K. Werder, _Vorlesungen über + Lessings Nathan_ (1892); G. Kettner, _Lessings Dramen im Lichte ihrer + und unsrer Zeit_ (1904). Translations of Lessing's _Dramatic Works_ (2 + vols., 1878), edited by E. Bell, and of _Laokoon, Dramatic Notes and + the Representation of Death by the Ancients_, by E. C. Beasley and H. + Zimmern (1 vol., 1879), will be found in Bohn's "Standard Library." + (J. Si.; J. G. R.) + + + + +LESSON (through Fr. _leçon_ from Lat. _lectio_, reading; _legere_, to +read), properly a certain portion of a book appointed to be read aloud, +or learnt for repetition, hence anything learnt or studied, a course of +instruction or study. A specific meaning of the word is that of a +portion of Scripture or other religious writings appointed to be read at +divine service, in accordance with a table known as a "lectionary." In +the Church of England the lectionary is so ordered that most of the Old +Testament is read through during the year as the First Lesson at Morning +and Evening Prayer, and as the Second Lesson the whole of the New +Testament, except Revelation, of which only portions are read. (See +LECTION and LECTIONARY.) + + + + +LESTE, a desert wind, similar to the Leveche (q.v.), observed in +Madeira. It blows from an easterly direction in autumn, winter and +spring, rarely in summer, and is of intense dryness, sometimes reducing +the relative humidity at Funchal to below 20%. The Leste is commonly +accompanied by clouds of fine red sand. + + + + +L'ESTRANGE, SIR ROGER (1616-1704), English pamphleteer on the royalist +and court side during the Restoration epoch, but principally remarkable +as the first English man of letters of any distinction who made +journalism a profession, was born at Hunstanton in Norfolk on the 17th +of December 1616. In 1644, during the civil war, he headed a conspiracy +to seize the town of Lynn for the king, under circumstances which led to +his being condemned to death as a spy. The sentence, however, was not +executed, and after four years' imprisonment in Newgate he escaped to +the Continent. He was excluded from the Act of Indemnity, but in 1653 +was pardoned by Cromwell upon his personal solicitation, and lived +quietly until the Restoration, when after some delay his services and +sufferings were acknowledged by his appointment as licenser of the +press. This office was administered by him in the spirit which might be +expected from a zealous cavalier. He made himself notorious, not merely +by the severity of his literary censorship, but by his vigilance in the +suppression of clandestine printing. In 1663 (see NEWSPAPERS) he +commenced the publication of the _Public Intelligencer_ and the _News_, +from which eventually developed the famous official paper the _London +Gazette_ in 1665. In 1679 he again became prominent with the +_Observator_, a journal specially designed to vindicate the court from +the charge of a secret inclination to popery. He discredited the Popish +Plot, and the suspicion he thus incurred was increased by the conversion +of his daughter to Roman Catholicism, but there seems no reason to +question the sincerity of his own attachment to the Church of England. +In 1687 he gave a further proof of independence by discontinuing the +_Observator_ from his unwillingness to advocate James II.'s Edict of +Toleration, although he had previously gone all lengths in support of +the measures of the court. The Revolution cost him his office as +licenser, and the remainder of his life was spent in obscurity. He died +in 1704. It is to L'Estrange's credit that among the agitations of a +busy political life he should have found time for much purely literary +work as a translator of Josephus, Cicero, Seneca, Quevedo and other +standard authors. + + + + +LESUEUR, DANIEL, the pseudonym of JEANNE LAPANZE, _née_ Loiseau (1860- +), French poet and novelist, who was born in Paris in 1860. She +published a volume of poems, _Fleurs d'avril_ (1882), which was crowned +by the Academy. She also wrote some powerful novels dealing with +contemporary life: _Le Mariage de Gabrielle_ (1882); _Un Mystérieux +Amour_ (1892), with a series of philosophical sonnets; _L'Amant de +Geneviève_ (1883); _Marcelle_ (1885); _Une Vie tragique_ (1890); +_Justice de femme_ (1893); _Comédienne Haine d'amour_ (1894); _Honneur +d'une femme_ (1901); _La Force du passé_ (1905). Her poems were +collected in 1895. She published in 1905 a book on the economic status +of women, _L'Évolution féminine_; and in 1891-1893 a translation (2 +vols.) of the works of Lord Byron, which was awarded a prize by the +Academy. Her _Masque d'amour_, a five-act play based on her novel (1904) +of the same name, was produced at the Théâtre Sarah Bernhardt in 1905. +She received the ribbon of the Legion of Honour in 1900, and the prix +Vitet from the French Academy in 1905. She married in 1904 Henry Lapanze +(b. 1867), a well-known writer on art. + + + + +LE SUEUR, EUSTACHE (1617-1655), one of the founders of the French +Academy of painting, was born on the 19th of November 1617 at Paris, +where he passed his whole life, and where he died on the 30th of April +1655. His early death and retired habits have combined to give an air of +romance to his simple history, which has been decorated with as many +fables as that of Claude. We are told that, persecuted by Le Brun, who +was jealous of his ability, he became the intimate friend and +correspondent of Poussin, and it is added that, broken-hearted at the +death of his wife, Le Sueur retired to the monastery of the Chartreux +and died in the arms of the prior. All this, however, is pure fiction. +The facts of Le Sueur's life are these. He was the son of Cathelin Le +Sueur, a turner and sculptor in wood, who placed his son with Vouet, in +whose studio he rapidly distinguished himself. Admitted at an early age +into the guild of master-painters, he left them to take part in +establishing the academy of painting and sculpture, and was one of the +first twelve professors of that body. Some paintings, illustrative of +the Hypnerotomachia Polyphili, which were reproduced in tapestry, +brought him into notice, and his reputation was further enhanced by a +series of decorations (Louvre) in the mansion of Lambert de Thorigny, +which he left uncompleted, for their execution was frequently +interrupted by other commissions. Amongst these were several pictures +for the apartments of the king and queen in the Louvre, which are now +missing, although they were entered in Bailly's inventory (1710); but +several works produced for minor patrons have come down to us. In the +gallery of the Louvre are the "Angel and Hagar," from the mansion of De +Tonnay Charente; "Tobias and Tobit," from the Fieubet collection; +several pictures executed for the church of Saint Gervais; the +"Martyrdom of St Lawrence," from Saint Germain de l'Auxerrois; two very +fine works from the destroyed abbey of Marmoutiers; "St Paul preaching +at Ephesus," one of Le Sueur's most complete and thorough performances, +painted for the goldsmith's corporation in 1649; and his famous series +of the "Life of St Bruno," executed in the cloister of the Chartreux. +These last have more personal character than anything else which Le +Sueur produced, and much of their original beauty survives in spite of +injuries and restorations and removal from the wall to canvas. The +Louvre also possesses many fine drawings (reproduced by Braun), of which +Le Sueur left an incredible quantity, chiefly executed in black and +white chalk His pupils, who aided him much in his work, were his wife's +brother, Th. Goussé, and three brothers of his own, as well as Claude +Lefebvre and Patel the landscape painter. + + Most of his works have been engraved, chiefly by Picart, B. Audran, + Seb. Leclerc, Drevet, Chauveau, Poilly and Desplaces. Le Sueur's work + lent itself readily to the engraver's art, for he was a charming + draughtsman; he had a truly delicate perception of varied shades of + grave and elevated sentiment, and possessed the power to render them. + His graceful facility in composition was always restrained by a very + fine taste, but his works often fail to please completely, because, + producing so much, he had too frequent recourse to conventional types, + and partly because he rarely saw colour except with the cold and + clayey quality proper to the school of Vouet; yet his "St Paul at + Ephesus" and one or two other works show that he was not naturally + deficient in this sense, and whenever we get direct reference to + nature--as in the monks of the St Bruno series--we recognize his + admirable power to read and render physiognomy of varied and serious + type. + + See Guillet de St Georges, _Mém. inéd._; C. Blanc, _Histoire des + peintres_; Vitet, _Catalogue des tableaux du Louvre_; d'Argenville, + _Vies des peintres._ + + + + +LESUEUR, JEAN FRANÇOIS (1760 or 1763-1837), French musical composer, was +born on the 15th of January 1760 (or 1763) at Drucat-Plessiel, near +Abbeville. He was a choir boy in the cathedral of Amiens, and then +became musical director at various churches. In 1786 he obtained by open +competition the musical directorship of the cathedral of Notre-Dame in +Paris, where he gave successful performances of sacred music with a full +orchestra. This place he resigned in 1787; and, after a retirement of +five years in a friend's country house, he produced _La Caverne_ and two +other operas at the Théâtre Feydeau in Paris. At the foundation of the +Paris Conservatoire (1795) Lesueur was appointed one of its inspectors +of studies, but was dismissed in 1802, owing to his disagreements with +Méhul. Lesueur succeeded G. Paisiello as _Maestro di cappella_ to +Napoleon, and produced (1804) his _Ossian_ at the Opéra. He also +composed for the emperor's coronation a mass and a Te Deum. Louis +XVIII., who had retained Lesueur in his court, appointed him (1818) +professor of composition at the Conservatoire; and at this institution +he had, among many other pupils, Hector Berlioz, Ambroise Thomas, Louis +Désiré, Besozzi and Charles Gounod. He died on the 6th of October 1837. +Lesueur composed eight operas and several masses, and other sacred +music. All his works are written in a style of rigorous simplicity. + + See Raoul Rochette, _Les Ouvrages de M. Lesueur_ (Paris, 1839). + + + + + +LE TELLIER, MICHEL (1603-1685), French statesman, was born in Paris on +the 19th of April 1603. Having entered the public service he became +maître des requêtes and in 1640 intendant of Piedmont; in 1643, owing to +his friendship with Mazarin, he became secretary of state for military +affairs, being an efficient administrator. In 1677 he was made +chancellor of France and he was one of those who influenced Louis XIV. +to revoke the Edict of Nantes. He died on the 30th of October 1685, a +few days after the revocation had been signed. Le Tellier, who amassed +great wealth, left two sons, one the famous statesman Louvois and +another who became archbishop of Reims. His correspondence is in the +Bibliothèque nationale in Paris. + + See L. Caron, _Michel Le Tellier, intendant d'armée au Piémont_ + (Paris, 1881). + +Another MICHEL LE TELLIER (1643-1719) Was confessor of the French king +Louis XIV. Born at Vire on the 16th of December 1643 he entered the +Society of Jesus and later became prominent in consequence of his +violent attacks on the Jansenists. He was appointed provincial of his +order in France, but it was not until 1709 that he became the king's +confessor. In this capacity all his influence was directed towards +urging Louis to further persecutions of the Protestants. He was exiled +by the regent Orleans, but he had returned to France when he died at La +Flèche on the 2nd of September 1719. + + + + +LETHAL (Lat. _lethalis_, for _letalis_, deadly, from _letum_, death; the +spelling is due to a confusion with Gr. [Greek: lêthê], forgetfulness), +an adjective meaning "deadly," "fatal," especially as applied to +weapons, drugs, &c. A "lethal chamber" is a room or receptacle in which +animals may be put to death painlessly, by the admission of poisonous +gases. + + + + +LETHARGY (Gr. [Greek: lêthargia], from [Greek: lêthê], forgetfulness), +drowsiness, torpor. In pathology the term is used of a morbid condition +of deep and lasting sleep from which the sufferer can be with difficulty +and only temporarily aroused. The term Negro or African lethargy was +formerly applied to the disease now generally known as "sleeping +sickness" (q.v.). + + + + +LETHE ("Oblivion"), in Greek mythology, the daughter of Eris (Hesiod, +_Theog._ 227) and the personification of forgetfulness. It is also the +name of a river in the infernal regions. Those initiated in the +mysteries were taught to distinguish two streams in the lower world, one +of memory and one of oblivion. Directions for this purpose, written on a +gold plate, have been found in a tomb at Petilia, and near Lebadeia, at +the oracle of Trophonius, which was counted an entrance to the lower +world, the two springs Mnemosyne and Lethe were shown (Pausanias ix. 39. +8). This thought begins to appear in literature in the end of the 5th +century B.C., when Aristophanes (_Frogs_, 186) speaks of the plain of +Lethe. Plato (_Rep._ x.) embodies the idea in one of his finest myths. + + + + +LE TRÉPORT, a maritime town of northern France in the department of +Seine-Inférieure, on the English Channel, at the mouth of the Bresle, +114 m. N.N.W. of Paris on the Northern railway. Pop. (1906) 4619. Owing +to its nearness to the capital, Le Tréport is a favourite watering-place +of the Parisians. A good view is obtained from Mont Huon, which rises to +the south-west of the town. The mouth of the Bresle forms a small port, +comprising an outer tidal harbour and an inner dock accessible to +vessels drawing from 13 to 16 ft. The fisheries and oyster parks with +their dependent industries, shipbuilding and glass manufacture, furnish +the chief occupations of the inhabitants. Coal, timber, ice and jute are +imported; _articles de Paris_, sugar, &c., are exported. The chief +buildings are the church of St Jacques (16th century), which has finely +carved vaulting and good modern stained glass, and the casino erected +1896-1897. About 1 m. north-east of Le Tréport is the small bathing +resort of Mers. The Eu-Tréport canal, uniting the two towns, has a +length of about 3 m., and is navigable by vessels drawing 14 ft. Le +Tréport (the ancient _Ulterior Portus_) was a port of some note in the +middle ages and suffered from the English invasions. Louis Philippe +twice received Queen Victoria here. + + + + +LETRONNE, JEAN ANTOINE (1787-1848), French archaeologist, was born at +Paris on the 25th of January 1787. His father, a poor engraver, sent him +to study art under the painter David, but his own tastes were literary, +and he became a student in the Collège de France, where it is said he +used to exercise his already strongly developed critical faculty by +correcting for his own amusement old and bad texts of Greek authors, +afterwards comparing the results with the latest and most approved +editions. From 1810 to 1812 he travelled in France, Switzerland and +Italy, and on his return to Paris published an _Essai critique sur la +topographie de Syracuse_ (1812), designed to elucidate Thucydides. Two +years later appeared his _Recherches géographiques et critiques on the +De Mensura Orbis Terrae_ of Dicuil. In 1815 he was commissioned by +government to complete the translation of Strabo which had been begun by +Laporte-Dutheil, and in March 1816 he was one of those who were admitted +to the Academy of Inscriptions by royal ordinance, having previously +contributed a _Mémoire_, "On the Metrical System of the Egyptians," +which had been crowned. Further promotion came rapidly; in 1817 he was +appointed director of the École des Chartes, in 1819 inspector-general +of the university, and in 1831 professor of history in the Collège de +France. This chair he exchanged in 1838 for that of archaeology, and in +1840 he succeeded Pierre C. François Daunou (1761-1840) as keeper of the +national archives. Meanwhile he had published, among other works, +_Considérations générales sur l'évaluation des monnaies grecques et +romaines et sur la valeur de l'or et de l'argent avant la découverte de +l'Amérique_ (1817), _Recherches pour servir à l'histoire d'Égypte +pendant la domination des Grecs et des Romains_ (1823), and _Sur +l'origine grecque des zodiaques prétendus égyptiens_ (1837). By the +last-named he finally exploded a fallacy which had up to that time +vitiated the chronology of contemporary Egyptologists. His _Diplômes et +Chartres de l'époque Mérovingienne sur papyrus et sur vélin_ were +published in 1844. The most important work of Letronne is the _Recueil +des inscriptions grecques et latines de l'Égypte_, of which the first +volume appeared in 1842, and the second in 1848. He died at Paris on the +14th of December 1848. + + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th +Edition, Volume 16, Slice 4, by Various + +*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 42048 *** |