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diff --git a/42033-0.txt b/42033-0.txt index abb04b6..820d9b8 100644 --- a/42033-0.txt +++ b/42033-0.txt @@ -1,41 +1,4 @@ -The Project Gutenberg eBook, Assyria, Its Princes, Priests and People, by -A. H. (Archibald Henry) Sayce - - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org - - - - - -Title: Assyria, Its Princes, Priests and People - By-Paths of Bible Knowledge VII - - -Author: A. H. 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You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org - - - - - -Title: Assyria, Its Princes, Priests and People - By-Paths of Bible Knowledge VII - - -Author: A. H. (Archibald Henry) Sayce - - - -Release Date: February 6, 2013 [eBook #42033] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 - - -***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ASSYRIA, ITS PRINCES, PRIESTS AND -PEOPLE*** - - -E-text prepared by Delphine Lettau, Richard Hulse, and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team (http://www.pgdp.net) from page images -generously made available by Internet Archive/Canadian Libraries -(http://archive.org/details/toronto) - - - -Note: Project Gutenberg also has an HTML version of this - file which includes the original illustrations. - See 42033-h.htm or 42033-h.zip: - (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42033/42033-h/42033-h.htm) - or - (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42033/42033-h.zip) - - - Images of the original pages are available through - Internet Archive/Canadian Libraries. See - http://archive.org/details/assyriaitsprince00saycuoft - - -Transcriber's note: - - Text enclosed by underscores is in italics (_italics_). - - The non-printable characters have been replaced as shown - below with x representing a letter with a diacritical mark: - - 'oe' ligature --> oe - T shaped symbol --> [T] - Greek a --> [alpha] - x with acute accent above --> ['x] - x with marcron above --> [=x] - x with dot below --> [x.] - - Characters in small capitals were replaced as all capitals. - - - - - -[Illustration: MONOLITH OF SHALMANESER II. -(_From the original in the British Museum._)] - - -By-Paths of Bible Knowledge. -VII. - -ASSYRIA -ITS PRINCES, PRIESTS, AND PEOPLE. - -by - -A. H. SAYCE, M.A. - -Deputy Professor of Comparative Philology, Oxford, -Hon. LL.D. Dublin, etc. - -Author of 'Fresh Light from the Ancient Monuments,' -'An Introduction to Ezra, Nehemiah, and Esther,' etc. - - - - - - - -London: -The Religious Tract Society, -56, Paternoster Row, 65, St. Paul's Churchyard, -and 164, Piccadilly. -1885. - - - - -CONTENTS. - PAGE - - - List of Illustations 6 - - Preface 7 - - Chronological Table of the Kings of Assyria 17 - - Table of Biblical Dates according to - Assyrian Monuments 19 - - I. The Country and People 21 - - - II. Assyrian History 27 - - - III. Assyrian Religion 55 - - - IV. Art, Literature, and Science 86 - - - V. Manners and Customs; Trade and Government 122 - - Appendix 146 - - Index 153 - - Index of Scripture References 166 - - - - -ILLUSTRATIONS. - - PAGE - Monolith of Shalmaneser II. (from the original in the - British Museum) Frontispiece - - - Assur-bani-pal and his Queen. (from the original in the - British Museum) 49 - - - Nergal. (from the original in the British Museum) 65 - - - Fragment now in the British Museum showing primitive - Hieroglyphics and Cuneiform Characters side by side. 93 - - - An Assyrian Book. (from the original in the British - Museum) 99 - - - Part of an Assyrian Cylinder containing Hezekiah's - Name. (from the original in the British Museum) 104 - - - Assyrian King in his Chariot. 125 - - - Siege of a City. 127 - - - - -PREFACE. - - -Among the many wonderful achievements of the present century there is -none more wonderful than the recovery and decipherment of the monuments -of ancient Nineveh. For generations the great oppressing city had slept -buried beneath the fragments of its own ruins, its history lost, its -very site forgotten. Its name had passed into the region of myth even in -the age of the classical writers of Greece and Rome; Ninos or Nineveh -had become a hero-king about whom strange legends were told, and whose -conquests were fabled to have extended from the Mediterranean to India. -Little was known of the history of the mighty Assyrian Empire beyond -what might be learnt from the Old Testament, and that little was -involved in doubt and obscurity. Scholars wrote long treatises to -reconcile the statements of Greek historians with those of Scripture, -but they only succeeded in evolving theories which were contradicted and -overthrown by the next writer. There was none so bold as to suggest that -the history and life of Assyria were still lying hidden beneath the -ground, ready to rise up and disclose their secrets at the touch of a -magician's rod. The rod was the spade and the patient sagacity which -deciphered and interpreted what the spade had found. It might have been -thought that the cuneiform or wedge-shaped inscriptions of Assyria could -never be forced to reveal their mysteries. The language in which they -were written was unknown, and all clue to the meaning of the -multitudinous characters that composed them had long been lost. No -bilingual text came to the aid of the decipherer like the Rosetta Stone, -whose Greek inscription had furnished the key to the meaning of the -Egyptian hieroglyphics. Nevertheless the great feat was accomplished. -Step by step the signification of the cuneiform characters and the words -they concealed was made out, until it is now possible to translate an -ordinary Assyrian text with as much ease and certainty as a page of the -Old Testament. - -And the revelation that awaited the decipherer was startling in the -extreme. The ruins of Nineveh yielded not only sculptures and -inscriptions carved in stone, but a whole library of books. True, the -books are written upon clay, and not on paper, but they are none the -less real books, dealing with all the subjects of knowledge known at the -time they were compiled, and presenting us with a clear and truthful -reflection of Assyrian thought and belief. We can not only trace the -architectural plans of the Assyrian palaces, and study the bas-reliefs -in which the Assyrians have pictured themselves and the life they led; -we can also penetrate to their inmost thoughts and feelings, and read -their history as they have told it themselves. - -It is a strange thing to examine for the first time one of the clay -tablets of the old Assyrian library. Usually it has been more or less -broken by the catastrophe of that terrible day when Nineveh was captured -by its enemies, and the palace and library burnt and destroyed together. -But whether it is a fragment or a complete tablet, it is impossible not -to handle it reverently when cleaning it from the dirt with which its -long sojourn in the earth has encrusted it, and spelling out its words -for the first time for more than 2,000 years. When last the characters -upon it were read, it was in days when Assyria was still a name of -terror, and the destruction that God's prophets had predicted was still -to come. When its last reader laid it aside, Judah had not as yet -undergone the chastisement of the Babylonish exile, the Old Testament -was an uncompleted volume, the kingdom of the Messiah a promise of the -distant future. We are brought face to face, as it were, with men who -were the contemporaries of Isaiah, of Hezekiah, of Ahaz; nay, of men -whose names have been familiar to us since we first read the Bible by -our mother's side. - -Tiglath-Pileser and Sennacherib can never again be to us mere names. We -possess the records which they caused to be written, and in which they -told the story of their campaigns in Palestine. The records are not -copies of older texts, with all the errors that human fallibility causes -copyists and scribes to make. They are the original documents which were -recited to the kings who ordered them to be compiled, and who may have -held them in their own hands. The gulf of centuries and forgetfulness -that has divided us from Sennacherib is filled up when we read the -account of his invasion of Judah, which seems to come from his own lips. -Never again can the heroes of the Old Testament be to us as lay-figures, -whose story is told by a voice that comes from a dark and unreal past. -The voice is now become a living one, and we can realise that Isaiah and -those of whom Isaiah wrote were men of flesh and blood like ourselves, -with the same passions, the same needs, the same temptations. - -This realisation of Old Testament history is not the only result of the -recovery of Assyria upon Biblical studies. It is a very important -result, but there are others besides of equal importance. One of these -is the unexpected confirmation of the correctness of Holy Writ which -Assyrian discovery has afforded. The later history of the Old Testament -no longer stands alone. Once it was itself the sole witness for the -truth of the narratives it contains. Classical history or legend dealt -with other lands and other ages; there were no documents besides those -contained in the Old Testament to which we could appeal in support of -its statements. All is changed now. The earth has yielded up its -secrets; the ancient civilisation of Assyria has stepped forth again -into the light of day, and has furnished us with records, the -authenticity of which none can deny, which run side by side with those -of the Books of Kings, confirming, explaining, and illustrating them. It -has been said that just at the moment when sceptical criticism seemed -to have achieved its worst, and to have resolved the narratives of the -Old Testament into myths or fables, God's Providence was raising up from -the grave of centuries a new and unimpeachable witness for their truth. -Indeed, so strikingly was this the case, that one of the objections -brought against the correctness of Assyrian decipherment in its early -days was that Assyrian monarchs could never have concerned themselves -with petty kingdoms like those of Samaria and Judah, as the decipherers -made them do. Before the cuneiform monuments were interpreted, no one -could have suspected that they would have poured such a flood of light -upon Old Testament history. - -This light is manifold. The very language of the inscriptions has helped -to explain difficult passages in the Hebrew Bible. Assyrian turns out to -be very closely related to Hebrew, as closely related, in fact, as two -strongly marked English dialects are to one another. There is no other -Semitic language (except, of course, Phoenician, which is practically -the same as Hebrew) which is so nearly allied to it. And thanks to the -library of Nineveh, and its lexicons and lists of synonymous words, we -have a larger literature, and a larger vocabulary, to draw upon in the -case of Assyrian than we have in the case of Hebrew. The consequence is -that Assyrian may sometimes settle the meaning of a word which occurs -only once or very rarely in the Old Testament. Thus the word _z'bhûl_, -which Hebrew scholars had supposed to mean 'a dwelling,' is shown by -the Assyrian texts to signify a 'height,' so that in 1 Kings viii. 13, -Solomon does not declare to God that he had built Him 'an house to dwell -in,' as the Authorised Version renders the passage, but 'a lofty -temple.' Naturally words of Assyrian origin, like Rab-shakeh and Tartan, -have first received their explanation from the decipherment of the -Assyrian inscriptions. They are not proper names, but titles, the -Rab-shakeh being 'the chief of the princes,' or Vizier, and the Tartan, -the commander-in-chief. - -But not only do we find parallels to Hebrew in the individual words of -Assyrian, we also find parallel expressions which illustrate and explain -those of the Hebrew text. We all remember the statement that the 'Lord -rained upon Sodom and upon Gomorrah brimstone and fire from the Lord out -of heaven.' The same phrase occurs in an unpublished Accadian hymn -addressed to a deity whose name is lost, but who was probably Rimmon the -Air-god. The Accadian original describes him as 'raining fire and stones -upon the enemy,' which the Assyrian translation changes into 'raining -stones and fire upon the foe' in exact conformity with the Hebrew -phrase. The familiar expression 'the Lord of Hosts,' similarly finds its -analogue and illustration in the common Assyrian title of the supreme -god Assur: 'lord of the legions of heaven and earth,' these legions -being the multitudinous spirits and angels whose home was in 'the heaven -above and the earth below.' - -We can hardly speak here of the accounts of the Creation, the Deluge, -and the Tower of Babel, to which Mr. George Smith gave the name of 'the -Chaldean Genesis,' and which agree so closely with the corresponding -accounts in the Hebrew Book of Genesis. Though found in the library of -Nineveh, they are really copies of older Babylonian works, and therefore -belong rather to Babylonian than to Assyrian history. It is only the -account of the Creation in six days which may perhaps be of purely -Assyrian origin. What a resemblance it offers to the first chapter of -Genesis will be seen from the extracts from it in the chapter on -Assyrian Religion. - -It is in the domain of history that the light cast upon Old Testament -Scripture by Assyrian research has been fullest and strongest. No one -can read the sketch of Assyrian history as revealed by the monuments -which is given in the following pages, without perceiving how important -it is for the proper understanding of the ancient Scriptures. For the -first time the prophecies in Isaiah which refer to a capture of -Jerusalem receive their explanation, and the sceptical criticism is -answered which found in them a prediction of events that never took -place. The chapter in which Isaiah describes the onward march of the -Assyrian host against Jerusalem (ch. x.) is no 'ideal' description of -'an ideal campaign,' the verses in which he tells us of the sufferings -endured by the beleaguered inhabitants of the Jewish capital (ch. xxii.) -are no 'exaggerated account of a possible catastrophe,' the prophecies -in which he declares that the devoted city was about to fall into the -hands of its enemies (x. 34, xxii. 14) were not unfulfilled threats. We -learn from the inscriptions of Sargon that already, ten years before the -campaign of his son Sennacherib, the Assyrian monarch had swept through -'the wide-spread land of Judah,' and had made it a tributary province. -It was not the army of Sennacherib to which Isaiah was alluding on the -day whereon he declared that the Assyrian host was at Nob, only a short -half-hour to the north of Jerusalem, but the more terrible veterans of -Sargon who marched against the holy city along the northern road. -Similar light is thrown by the Assyrian monuments upon another prophecy -of Isaiah, in which he pronounces the doom upon the land of Egypt (ch. -xix.). The prophecy has sometimes been referred by critics to a later -age than that of the great prophet; but the records of Esar-haddon prove -that it is strictly applicable to his time, and to his time only. The -unexpected revelation they have made to us of the Assyrian conquest of -Egypt, and its division into twenty vassal satrapies shows us who was -the 'cruel lord' and 'fierce king' into whose hands the Egyptians were -given, and paints the picture of an epoch in which 'the Egyptians' -fought 'every one against his brother, and every one against his -neighbour; city against city, and kingdom against kingdom.' The Isaianic -authorship of 'the burden of Egypt' can never again be denied. - -Nahum, again, we can now read with a new interest and a new -understanding. The very date of his prophecy, so long disputed, can be -fixed approximately by the reference it contains to the sack of No-Amon -or Thebes (iii. 8). The prophecy was delivered hard upon sixty years -before the fall of Nineveh, when the Assyrian Empire was at the height -of its prosperity, and mistress of the Eastern world. Human foresight -could little have imagined that so great and terrible a power was so -soon to disappear. And yet at the very moment when it seemed strongest -and most secure, the Jewish prophet was uttering a prediction which the -excavations of Botta and Layard have shown to have been carried out -literally in fact. As we thread our way among the ruins of Nineveh, or -trace the after history of the deserted and forgotten site, we see -everywhere the fulfilment of Nahum's prophecy. Of the words that he -pronounced against the doomed city, there is none which has not come to -pass. - -Those who would learn how marvellously the monuments of Assyria -illustrate and corroborate the pages of sacred history, need only -compare the records they contain with the narratives of the Books of -Kings which relate to the same period. The one complements and supplies -the missing chapters given by the other. The Bible informs us why -Sennacherib left Hezekiah unpunished, and never despatched another army -to Palestine; the cuneiform annals explain the causes of his murder, and -the reason of the flight of his sons to Ararat or Armenia. The single -passage in Scripture in which the name of Sargon is mentioned, no -longer remains isolated and unintelligible; we have no longer any need -to identify him with Tiglath-Pileser, or Shalmaneser, or any other -Assyrian prince with whom the fancy of older commentators confounded -him; we now know that he was one of the most powerful of Assyrian -conquerors, and we have his own independent testimony to that siege and -capture of Ashdod which is the occasion of the mention of his name in -Scripture. Between the history of the monuments and the history of the -Bible there is perpetual contact; and the voice of the monuments is -found to be in strict harmony with that of the Old Testament. - -Before concluding this Preface, I have to thank Mr. W. G. Hird for his -kindness in undertaking the task of compiling an Index to the volume. - - - * * * * * - - - - - CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF THE KINGS - OF ASSYRIA. - - B.C. - Bel-kapkapi 1700(?) - - Adasi - - Bel-bani, his son 1650(?) - - Assur-sum-esir 1600(?) - - Adar-tiglath-Assuri 1600(?) - - Irba-Rimmon 1550(?) - - Assur-nadin-akhi, his son - - Assur-bel-nisi-su _cir._ 1450 - - Buyur-Assur 1420 - - Assur-yuballidh 1400 - - Bel-nirari, his son 1380 - - Pudil (Pedael), his son 1350 - - Rimmon-nirari I, his son 1320 - - Shalmaneser I, his son 1300 - - Tiglath-Adar I, his son 1280 - - Bel-kudur-utsur (Belchadrezzar), his son 1260 - - Assur-narara and Nebo-dân 1240 - - Adar-pal-esar (Adar-pileser) 1220 - - Assur-dân I, his son 1200 - - Mutaggil-Nebo, his son 1180 - - Assur-ris-ilim, his son 1160 - - Tiglath-pileser I, his son 1140 - - Assur-bel-kala, his son 1110 - - Samas-Rimmon I, his brother 1090 - - Assur-rab buri - - Assur-zalmati - - Assur-dân II 930 - - Rimmon-nirari II, his son 911 - - Tiglath-Adar II, his son 889 - - Assur-natsir-pal, his son 883 - - Shalmaneser II, his son 858 - - Samas-Rimmon II, his son 823 - - Rimmon-nirari III, his son 810 - - Shalmaneser III 781 - - Assur-dân III 771 - - Assur-nirari 753 - - Pulu (Pul) usurps the throne and founds - the 2nd Empire under the name of - Tiglath-Pileser II 12th of Iyyar 745 - - Ululâ (Elulæos) of Tinu, usurper, takes - the name of Shalmaneser IV 727 - - Sargon, usurper 722 - - Sennacherib of Khabigal, his son 12th of Ab 705 - - Esar-haddon, his son 681 - - Assur-bani-pal (Sardanapalos), his son 668 - - Assur-etil-ili-yukinni, his son _cir._ 640 - - (Bel)-sum-iskun - - Esar-haddon II (Sarakos) - - Fall of Nineveh 606(?) - - - * * * * * - - - - - TABLE OF BIBLICAL DATES ACCORDING - TO THE ASSYRIAN MONUMENTS. - - - B.C. - Battle of Karkar; Ahab ally of Damascus - against Shalmaneser of Assyria 853 - - Death of Ahab 851 - - Campaign of Shalmaneser against Hadadezer - (Benhadad II) of Damascus 850 - - Second campaign against Hadadezer 845 - - Murder of Hadadezer by Hazael 843 - - Campaign of Shalmaneser against Hazael; - tribute paid by Jehu of Samaria 841 - - Damascus captured by the Assyrians; - tribute paid by Samaria 804 - - Campaign of the Assyrians against Damascus 773 - - Tiglath-Pileser II attacks Hamath; - submission of Uzziah; fall of Arpad 743-40 - - Tribute paid to Tiglath-Pileser by Menahem - of Samaria and Rezon of Damascus 738 - - Damascus besieged by the Assyrians; the tribes - beyond the Jordan carried away; Jehoahaz - (Ahaz) of Judah becomes a vassal of - Tiglath-Pileser 734 - - Damascus taken and Rezon slain; Ahaz - at Damascus 732 - - Samaria besieged by Shalmaneser V 723 - - Accession of Sargon 722 - - Merodach-baladan conquers Babylonia 721 - - Capture of Samaria by Sargon 720 - - Hamath conquered by Sargon; Sabako (So) of - Egypt defeated at Raphia 719 - - Embassy of Merodach-baladan to Hezekiah 712 - - Capture of Jerusalem and Ashdod by Sargon 711 - - Merodach-baladan driven from Babylonia 710 - - Merodach-baladan recovers Babylonia for six - months 703 - - Sennacherib's campaign against Judah; battle - of Eltekeh; overthrow of the Assyrian army - at Jerusalem 701 - - Murder of Sennacherib by his two sons 681 - - Manasseh appears among the Assyrian - tributaries; Egypt conquered by Esar-haddon 676 - - Destruction of Thebes (No-Amun) by the - Assyrians 665 - - - - -ASSYRIA: - -ITS PRINCES, PRIESTS, AND PEOPLE. - - - - -CHAPTER I. - -THE COUNTRY AND PEOPLE. - - -Assyria was the name given to the district which had been called 'the -land of Assur' by its own inhabitants. Assur, however, had originally -been the name, not of a country, but of a city founded in remote times -on the western bank of the Tigris, midway between the Greater and the -Lesser Zab. It was the primitive capital of the district in which it -stood, and to which, accordingly, it lent its name. It seems to have -been built by a people who spoke an agglutinative language, like the -languages of the modern Fins and Turks, and who were afterwards -supplanted by the Semitic Assyrians. The name in their language probably -signified 'water-boundary.' When the country was occupied by the Semitic -Assyrians the name was slightly changed, so as to assume the form of a -word which in Assyrian meant 'gracious.' - -It so happened that Assyrian mythology knew of a deity who represented -the firmament, and was addressed as Sar. The name of Sar came in time -to be confused with that of Assur, the divine patron of the Assyrian -capital, the result being that Assur signified not only a city and -country, but also the supreme deity worshipped by their inhabitants. -Assur, in fact, became the divine impersonation of the power and -constitution of Assyria; at the same time he was also 'the gracious' god -and the primæval firmament of heaven. - -Assur, whose ruins are now called Kalah Sherghat, did not always remain -the capital of Assyria. Its place was taken by a group of cities some 60 -miles to the north, above the Greater Zab, and on the eastern side of -the Tigris, namely, Nineveh, Calah, and Dur-Sargon. The foundation of -Nineveh, the modern Kouyunjik, probably goes back to as early an age as -that of Assur, but it was not until a much later period that it became -an important city, and supplanted the older capital of the kingdom. -Calah, now called Nimrûd, though built some four centuries before, was -not made the seat of royalty until the reigns of Assur-natsir-pal and -Shalmaneser II, in the 9th century B.C., and Dur-Sargon (the modern -Khorsabad), as its name implies, was the creation of Sargon. Instead of -Dur-Sargon the Book of Genesis (x. 11) mentions Resen 'between Nineveh -and Calah.' The site of Resen has not been identified, though its name -has been met with in the Assyrian inscriptions under the form of -Res-eni, 'the head of the spring.' - -The passage of Genesis in which Resen is referred to unfortunately -admits of a double translation. If we adopt the rendering of the margin, -and translate 'out of that land he went forth into Assyria and builded -Nineveh,' we might infer that Nineveh and its neighbouring towns had no -existence before the days when Babylonian emigrants settled in the -territory of the city of Assur, and superseded its older inhabitants. -However this may be, we know from the cuneiform monuments that the rise -of Assyria did not take place until the Babylonian monarchy was already -growing old. The country afterwards known as Assyria had been comprised -in Gutium or Kurdistan, a name which has been identified, with great -probability, by Sir H. Rawlinson, with the Goyyim or 'nations' of -Genesis xiv. over which Tidal was king. There seems to have been a time -when the rulers of Assur were mere governors appointed by the Babylonian -monarchs; at all events, the earliest of whom we know do not give -themselves the title of king, but use a word which signifies 'viceroy' -in the Chaldean inscriptions. - -These viceroys, however, managed eventually to shake off the yoke of -their Babylonian masters, and one of them, Bel-kapkapi by name, -established an independent kingdom at Assur in the 17th or 16th century -before our era. His kingdom extended on both sides of the Tigris, and -doubtless included the country north of the Greater Zab, where Nineveh -was situated. The exact frontiers of Assyria, however, were never -accurately fixed. They varied with the military power and conquests of -its monarchs. Sometimes portions of the plateau of Mesopotamia on the -west were comprehended within it, as well as the country through which -the Tigris flowed, as far south as the borders of Babylonia, and as far -north as the Kurdish mountains. At other times Assyria was confined to -the narrow space within which its great cities stood. - -The inhabitants of Assyria belonged to the Semitic stock, that is to -say, they were allied in blood and language to the Hebrews, the -Aramæans, and the Arabs. The older population had been either expelled -or destroyed. The Assyrians thus differed from the Babylonians, who were -a mixed race, partly Semitic and partly non-Semitic. The non-Semitic -element is generally termed Accadian; it spoke agglutinative dialects, -and was the original possessor of the plain of Chaldæa. The Accadians -invented the cuneiform system of writing, founded the chief cities and -civilisation of Babylonia, and erected the earliest Babylonian monuments -with which we are acquainted. It was only gradually that they yielded to -the advance of the Semites; in fact, the final triumph of the Semites in -Babylonia was only effected by their amalgamation with the old -population of the country, and their complete acceptance of Accadian -culture. The Accadian language lingered long, and when it died out was -preserved as a learned language, like Latin in our own day, which every -educated Babylonian was expected to know. - -It was natural, therefore, that the pure-blooded Semites of Assyria and -the mixed population of Babylonia should differ from one another in many -respects. The Babylonians were agriculturists, fond of literature and -peaceful pursuits. The Assyrians, on the contrary, have been -appropriately termed the Romans of the East: they were a military -people, caring for little else save war and trade. Their literature, -like their culture and art, was borrowed from Babylonia, and they never -took kindly to it. Even under the magnificent patronage of -Assur-bani-pal, Assyrian literature was an exotic. It was cultivated -only by the few; whereas in Babylonia the greater part of the population -seems to have been able to read and write. If the Assyrian was less -luxurious than his Babylonian neighbour, he was also less humane. -Indeed, the Assyrian annals glory in the record of a ferocity at which -we stand aghast. On the other hand, the Assyrian was not so -superstitious as the Babylonian, though he ascribed his successes to the -favour of Assur, and impaled the inhabitants of conquered towns or burnt -them alive because they did not believe in his national deity. He was, -as Nahum declared, the lion which 'did tear in pieces enough for his -whelps, and strangled for his lionesses, and filled his holes with prey, -and his dens with ravin.' - -Assyria was so wholly a military power, that the destruction of Nineveh -not only destroyed the Assyrian Empire but blotted out the Assyrian -nation itself. When 'the gates of the rivers' of Nineveh--the Tigris and -Khusur--were opened, and 'the palace dissolved,' Assyria ceased to -exist. In the Sassanian period the mounds which covered the ruins of the -old city were for a short time occupied by the houses of a village, but -these, too, disappeared after a while, and the very site of Nineveh -remained for centuries unknown. Rich, in 1818, conjectured that the -mounds of Kouyunjik, opposite the modern town of Mosul, concealed its -ruins beneath them, but it was not until the excavations of the -Frenchman Botta, in 1842, and the Englishman Layard, in 1845, that the -remains first of Dur-Sargon, and then of Nineveh itself, were revealed -to the eyes of a wondering world. The capital of the Assyrian Empire was -recovered, and with it the sculptured monuments of its kings, and the -relics of its clay-inscribed library. The discovery came at an opportune -moment. The cuneiform inscriptions of Persia had at last yielded up -their secrets to the patient sagacity of European scholars, and had -furnished the key to other inscriptions,--also in cuneiform characters, -but of a wholly different kind, and expressing a wholly different -language--which now proved to be the long-lost records of the Assyrian -people. Little by little the records were deciphered; fresh expeditions -to the buried cities of Assyria and Babylonia returned to Europe with -fresh spoils, and it is now possible to describe the history and even -the daily life and thoughts of a people who but half a century ago were -but a mere name. The following pages are intended to give a picture of -that history and life. - - - * * * * * - - - - -CHAPTER II. - -ASSYRIAN HISTORY. - - -Assyrian history, as we have seen, begins with the _patesis_ or viceroys -of the city of Assur. We know little about them except their names; -contemporaneous annals do not commence until Assyria has ceased to be -the dependency of a foreign power, and has become an independent -kingdom. It was in the 17th or 16th century before the Christian era -that Bel-kapkapi first gave himself the title of king. For two or three -centuries afterwards our chief information about the monarchy he founded -is derived from the relations, sometimes hostile and sometimes -peaceable, which his successors had with Babylonia. One of them, -however, Rimmon-nirari I by name (about B.C. 1320), has left us an -inscription in which he recounts the wars he waged against the -Babylonians, the Kurds, the Aramæans, and the Shuites, nomad tribes who -extended along the western bank of the Euphrates. It was his son, -Shalmaneser I, to whom the foundation of Calah is ascribed. For six -generations his descendants followed one another on the throne; then -came Tiglath-Pileser I, who may be regarded as the founder of the first -Assyrian Empire. He carried his arms as far as Cilicia and Malatiyeh on -the west, and the wild tribes of Kurdistan on the east; he overthrew the -Moschi or Meshech, defeated the Hittites and their Colchian allies, and -erected a memorial of his conquests at the sources of the Tigris. The -Hittite city of Pethor, at the junction of the Euphrates and Sajur, was -garrisoned with Assyrian soldiers, and at Arvad the Assyrian monarch -symbolised his subjection of the Mediterranean by embarking in a ship -and killing a dolphin in the sea. In Nineveh he established a botanical -garden, which he filled with the strange trees he had brought back with -him from his campaigns. In B.C. 1130 he marched into Babylonia, and, -after a momentary repulse at the hands of the Babylonian king, defeated -his antagonists on the banks of the Lower Zab. Babylonia was ravaged, -and Babylon itself was captured. - -With the death of Tiglath-Pileser I, Assyrian history becomes for awhile -obscure. The sceptre fell into feeble hands, and the distant conquests -of the empire were lost. It was during this period of abeyance that the -kingdom of David and Solomon arose in the west. The Assyrian power did -not revive until the reign of Assur-dân II, whose son, Rimmon-nirari II -(B.C. 911-889), and great-grandson, Assur-natsir-pal (B.C. 883-858), led -their desolating armies through Western Asia, and made the name of -Assyria once more terrible to the nations around them. Assur-natsir-pal -was at once one of the most ferocious and most energetic of the -Assyrian kings. His track was marked by impalements, by pyramids of -human heads, and by other barbarities too horrible to be described. But -his campaigns reached further than those of Tiglath-Pileser had done. -Armenia, Mesopotamia, and Kurdistan, were overrun again and again; the -Babylonians were forced to sue for peace; Sangara, the Hittite king of -Carchemish, paid tribute, and the rich cities of Phoenicia poured their -offerings into the treasury of Nineveh. The armies of Assyria penetrated -even to Nizir, where the ark of the Chaldæan Noah was believed to have -rested on the peak of Rowandiz. In Assyria itself the cities were -embellished with the spoils of foreign conquest; splendid palaces were -erected, and Calah, which had fallen into decay, was restored. A library -was erected there, and it became the favourite residence of -Assur-natsir-pal. - -He was succeeded by his son Shalmaneser II, so named, perhaps, after the -original founder of Calah. Shalmaneser's military successes exceeded -even those of his father, and his long reign of thirty-five years marks -the climax of the first Assyrian Empire. His annals are chiefly to be -found engraved on three monuments now in the British Museum. One of -these is a monolith from Kurkh, a place about twenty miles from -Diarbekr. The full-length figure of Shalmaneser is sculptured upon it, -and the surface of the stone is covered with the inscription. Another -monument is a small 'obelisk' of polished black stone, the upper part of -which is shaped like three ascending steps. Inscriptions run round its -four sides, as well as small bas-reliefs representing the tribute -offered to 'the great king' by foreign states. Among the tribute-bearers -are the Israelitish subjects of 'Jehu, son of Omri.' The third monument -is one which was discovered in 1878 at Balawât, about nine miles from -Nimrûd or Calah. It consists of the bronze framework of two colossal -doors, of rectangular shape, twenty-two feet high and twenty-six feet -broad. The doors opened into a temple, and were made of wood, to which -the bronze was fastened by means of nails. The bronze was cut into -bands, which ran in a horizontal direction across the doors, and were -each divided into two lines of embossed reliefs. These reliefs were -hammered out, and not cast, and the rudeness of their execution proves -that they were the work of native artists, and not of the Phoenician -settlers in Nineveh, of whose skill in such work we have several -specimens. Short texts are added to explain the reliefs, so that the -various campaigns and cities represented in them can all be identified. -Among the cities is the Hittite capital Carchemish, and the warriors of -Armenia are depicted in a costume strikingly similar to that of the -ancient Greeks. - -Shalmaneser's first campaign was against the restless tribes of -Kurdistan. He then turned northward, and fell upon the Armenian king of -Van and the Mannâ or Minni (see Jer. li. 27), who inhabited the country -between the mountains of Kotûr and Lake Urumiyeh. The Hittites of -Carchemish, with their allies from Cilicia and other neighbouring -districts, were next compelled to sue for peace, and the acquisition of -Pethor, which had been lost after Tiglath-Pileser's death, again gave -the Assyrians the command of the ford over the Euphrates. The result of -this was, that in B.C. 854 Shalmaneser came into conflict with the -kingdom of Hamath. The common danger had roused Hadadezer of Damascus, -called Benhaded II in the Bible, to make common cause with Hamath, and a -confederacy was formed to resist the Assyrian advance. Among the -confederates 'Ahab of Israel' is mentioned as furnishing the allies with -2,000 chariots and 10,000 infantry. But the confederacy was shattered at -Karkar or Aroer, although Shalmaneser had himself suffered too severely -to be able to follow up his victory. For a time, therefore, Syria -remained unmolested, and the Assyrian king turned his attention to -Babylonia, which he reduced to a state of vassalage, under the pretext -of assisting the Babylonian sovereign against his rebel brother. - -Twelve years, however, after the battle of Karkar, Shalmaneser was once -more in the west. Hadadezer had been succeeded by Hazael on the throne -of Damascus, and it was against him that the full flood of Assyrian -power was turned. For some time he managed to stem it, but in B.C. 841 -he suffered a crushing defeat on the heights of Shenir (see Deut. iii. -9), and his camp, along with 1,121 chariots and 470 carriages, fell into -the hands of the Assyrians, who proceeded to besiege him in his capital, -Damascus. The siege, however, was soon raised, and Shalmaneser -contented himself with ravaging the Hauran and marching to Beyrout, -where his image was carved on the rocky promontory of Baal-rosh, at the -mouth of the Nahr el-Kelb. It was while he was in this neighbourhood -that the ambassadors of Jehu arrived with offers of tribute and -submission. The tribute, we are told, consisted of 'silver, gold, a -golden bowl, vessels of gold, goblets of gold, pitchers of gold, a -sceptre for the king's hand and spear-handles,' and Jehu is erroneously -entitled 'the son of Omri.' - -After the defeat of Hazael Shalmaneser's expeditions were only to -distant regions like Phoenicia, Kappadokia, and Armenia, for the sake of -exacting tribute. No further attempt was made at permanent conquest, and -after B.C. 834 the old king ceased to lead his armies in person, the -tartan or commander-in-chief taking his place. Not long afterwards a -revolt broke out headed by his eldest son, who seems to have thought -that he would have little difficulty in wresting the sceptre from the -hands of the enfeebled king. Twenty-seven cities, including Nineveh and -Assur, joined the revolt, which was, however, finally put down by the -energy and military capacity of Shalmaneser's second son Samas-Rimmon, -who succeeded him soon afterwards (B.C. 823-810). On his death he was -followed by his son Rimmon-nirari III (810-781), who compelled Mariha of -Damascus to pay him tribute, as well as the Phoenicians, Israelites, -Edomites, and Philistines. But the vigour of the dynasty was beginning -to fail. A few short reigns followed that of Rimmon-nirari, during -which the first Assyrian Empire melted away. A formidable power arose in -Armenia, the Assyrian armies were driven to the frontiers of their own -country, and disaffection began to prevail in Assyria itself. At length, -on the 15th of June, B.C. 763, an eclipse of the sun took place, and the -city of Assur rose in revolt. The revolt lasted three years, and before -it could be crushed the outlying provinces were lost. When Assur-nirari, -the last of his line, ascended the throne in B.C. 753, the empire was -already gone, and the Assyrian cities themselves were surging with -discontent. Ten years later the final blow was struck; the army declared -itself against their monarch, and he and his dynasty fell together. On -the 30th of Iyyar of the year B.C. 745, a military adventurer, Pul, -seized the vacant crown, and assumed the venerable name of -Tiglath-Pileser. - -If we may believe Greek tradition, Tiglath-Pileser II began life as a -gardener. Whatever might have been his origin, however, he proved to be -a capable ruler, a good general, and a far-sighted administrator. He was -the founder of the second Assyrian Empire, which differed essentially -from the first. The first empire was at best a loosely-connected -military organization; campaigns were made into distant countries for -the sake of plunder and tribute, but little effort was made to retain -the districts that had been conquered. Almost as soon as the Assyrian -armies were out of sight, the conquered nations shook off the Assyrian -yoke, and it was only in regions bordering on Assyria that garrisons -were left by the Assyrian king. And whenever the Assyrian throne was -occupied by a weak or unwarlike prince, even these were soon destroyed -or forced to retreat homewards. Tiglath-Pileser II, however, -consolidated and organised the conquests he made; turbulent populations -were deported from their old homes, and the empire was divided into -satrapies or provinces, each of which paid a fixed annual tribute to the -imperial exchequer. For the first time in history the principle of -centralisation was carried out on a large scale, and a bureaucracy began -to take the place of the old feudal nobility of Assyria. But the second -Assyrian Empire was not only an organised and bureaucratic one, it was -also commercial. In carrying out his schemes of conquest Tiglath-Pileser -II was influenced by considerations of trade. His chief object was to -divert the commerce of Western Asia into Assyrian hands. For this -purpose every effort was made to unite Babylonia with Assyria, to -overthrow the Hittites of Carchemish, who held the trade of Asia Minor, -as well as the high road to the west, and to render Syria and the -Phoenician cities tributary. The policy inaugurated by Tiglath-Pileser -was successfully followed up by his successors. - -Babylonia was the first to feel the results of the change of dynasty at -Nineveh. The northern part of it was annexed to Assyria, and secured by -a chain of fortresses. Tiglath-Pileser now attacked the Kurdish tribes, -who were constantly harassing the eastern frontier of the kingdom, and -chastised them severely, the Assyrian army forcing its way through the -fastnesses of the Kurdish mountains into the very heart of Media. But -Ararat, or Armenia, was still a dangerous neighbour, and accordingly -Tiglath-Pileser's next campaign was against a confederacy of the nations -of the north headed by Sarduris of Van. The confederacy was utterly -defeated in Kommagênê, 72,950 prisoners falling into the hands of the -Assyrians, and the way was opened into Syria. In B.C. 742 the siege of -Arpad (now Tel Erfâd) began, and lasted two years. Its fall brought with -it the submission of Northern Syria, and it was next the turn of Hamath -to be attacked. Hamath was in alliance with Uzziah of Judah, and its -king Eniel may have been of Jewish extraction. But the alliance availed -nothing. Hamath was taken by storm, part of its population transported -to Armenia, and their places taken by colonists from distant provinces -of the empire, while nineteen of the districts belonging to it were -annexed to Assyria. The kings of Syria now flocked to render homage and -offer tribute to the Assyrian conqueror. Among them we read the names of -Menahem of Samaria, Rezon of Syria, Hiram of Tyre, and Pisiris of -Carchemish. This was the occasion when, as we learn from 2 Kings xv. 19, -Menahem gave a thousand talents of silver to the Assyrian king Pul, the -name under which Tiglath-Pileser continued to be known in Babylonia, -and, as the Old Testament informs us, in Palestine also. - -Three years later Ararat was again invaded. Van, the capital, was -blockaded, and though it successfully resisted the Assyrians, the -country was devastated far and near for a space of 450 miles. It was -long before the Armenians recovered from the blow, and for the next -century they ceased to be formidable to Assyria. Tiglath-Pileser's -northern frontier was now secure, and he therefore gladly seized the -opportunity of interfering in the affairs of the west which was offered -him by Ahaz, the Jewish king. Ahaz, whom the Assyrian inscriptions call -Jehoahaz, had been hard pressed by Rezon of Damascus and Pekah of -Israel, who had combined to overthrow the Davidic dynasty and place a -vassal prince, 'the son of Tabeal,' on the throne of Jerusalem. Ahaz in -his extremity called in the aid of Tiglath-Pileser, offering him a heavy -bribe and acknowledging his supremacy. Tiglath-Pileser accordingly -marched into Syria; Rezon was utterly defeated in battle and then -besieged in Damascus, to which he had escaped. Damascus was closely -invested; the trees in its neighbourhood were cut down; the districts -dependent on it were ravaged, and forces were despatched to punish the -Israelites, Ammonites, Moabites, and Philistines, who had been the -allies of Rezon, Gilead and Abel-beth-maachah being burnt, and the -tribes beyond the Jordan carried into captivity. The Philistine cities -were compelled to open their gates; the king of Ashkelon committed -suicide in order not to fall into the hands of the enemy, and Khanun of -Gaza fled to Egypt. At last in B.C. 732, after a siege of two years, -Damascus was forced by famine to surrender. Rezon was slain, Damascus -given over to plunder and ruin, and its inhabitants transported to Kir. -Syria became an Assyrian province, and all its princes were summoned to -do homage to the conqueror, while Tyre was fined 150 talents of gold, or -about £400,000. Among the princes who attended the levée or 'durbar' was -Ahaz, and it was while he was attending it that he saw the altar of -which he sent a pattern to Urijah the priest (2 Kings xvi. 10). - -All that now remained for Tiglath-Pileser to do was to reduce Babylonia -as he had reduced Syria. In B.C. 731, accordingly, he marched again into -Chaldæa. Ukin-ziru, the Babylonian king, was slain, Babylon and other -great cities were taken, and in B.C. 729, under his original name of -Pul, Tiglath-Pileser assumed the title of 'king of Sumer (Shinar) and -Accad.' - -He lived only two years after this, and died in B.C. 727, when the crown -was seized by Elulæos of Tinu, who took the name of Shalmaneser IV. -Shalmaneser's short reign was signalised by an unsuccessful attempt to -capture Tyre, and by the beginning of a war against the kingdom of -Israel. But the siege of Samaria was hardly commenced when Shalmaneser -died, or was murdered, in B.C. 722, and was succeeded by another usurper -who assumed the name of Sargon, one of the most famous of the early -Babylonian kings. Sargon in his inscriptions claims royal descent, but -the claim was probably without foundation. He proved to be an able -general, though his inscriptions show that he continued to the last to -be a rough but energetic soldier who had perhaps risen from the ranks. - -Two years after his accession (B.C. 720) Samaria was taken and placed -under an Assyrian governor, 27,280 of its leading inhabitants being -carried captive to Gozan and Media. But Sargon soon found that the task -of cementing and completing the empire founded by Tiglath-Pileser was by -no means an easy one. Babylonia had broken away from Assyria on the news -of Shalmaneser's death, and had submitted itself to Merodach-Baladan the -hereditary chieftain of Beth-Yagina in the marshes on the coast of the -Persian Gulf. The southern portion of Sargon's dominions was threatened -by the ancient and powerful kingdom of Elam; the Kurdish tribes on the -east renewed their depredations; while the Hittite kingdom of Carchemish -still remained unsubdued, and the Syrian conquests could with difficulty -be retained. In fact, a new enemy appeared in this part of the empire in -the shape of Egypt. - -Sargon's first act, therefore, was to drive the Elamites back to their -own country with considerable loss. He was then recalled to the west by -the revolt of Hamath, where Yahu-bihdi, or Ilu-bihdi, whose name perhaps -indicates his Jewish parentage, had proclaimed himself king, and -persuaded Arpad, Damascus, Samaria, and other cities to follow his -standard. But the revolt was of short duration. Hamath was burnt, 4,300 -Assyrians being sent to occupy its ruins, and Yahu-bihdi was flayed -alive. Sargon next marched along the sea-coast to the cities of the -Philistines. There the Egyptian army was routed at Raphia, and its ally, -Khanun of Gaza, taken captive. - -In B.C. 717 all was ready for dealing the final blow at the Hittite -power in Northern Syria. The rich trading city of Carchemish was -stormed, its last king, Pisiris, fell into the hands of the Assyrians, -and his Moschian allies were forced to retreat to the north. The plunder -of Carchemish brought eleven talents and thirty manehs of gold and 2,100 -talents of silver into the treasury of Calah. It was henceforth placed -under an Assyrian satrap, who thus held in his hands the key of the high -road and the caravan trade between Eastern and Western Asia. - -But Sargon was not allowed to retain possession of Carchemish without a -struggle. Its Hittite inhabitants found avengers in the allied -populations of the north, in Meshech and Tubal, in Ararat and Minni. The -struggle lasted for six years, but in the end Sargon prevailed. Van -submitted, its king Ursa, the leader of the coalition against Assyria, -committed suicide, Cilicia and the Tibareni or Tubal were placed under -an Assyrian governor, and the city of Malatiyeh was razed to the ground. -In B.C. 711, Sargon was at length free to turn his attention to the -west. Here affairs wore a threatening aspect. Merodach-Baladan, -foreseeing that his own turn would come as soon as Sargon had firmly -established his power in Northern Syria, had despatched ambassadors to -the Mediterranean states, urging them to combine with him against the -common foe. We read in the Bible of the arrival of the Babylonian -embassy in Jerusalem, and of the rebuke received by Hezekiah for his -vainglory in displaying to the strangers the resources of his kingdom. -In spite of Isaiah's warning, Hezekiah listened to the persuasions of -the Babylonian envoys, and encouraged by the promise of Egyptian support -along with Phoenicia, Moab, Edom, and the Philistines, determined to -defy the Assyrian king. - -But before the confederates were ready to act in concert Sargon -descended upon Palestine. Phoenicia and Judah were overrun, Jerusalem -was captured, and Ashdod burnt, while the Egyptians made no attempt to -help their friends. This siege of Ashdod is the only occasion on which -the name of Sargon occurs in the Bible (Isaiah xx. 1). As soon as all -source of danger was removed in the west Sargon hurled his forces -against Babylonia. Merodach-Baladan had made every preparation to meet -the coming attack, and the Elamite king had engaged to help him. But the -Elamites were again compelled to fly before the warriors of Assyria, and -Sargon entered Babylon in triumph (B.C. 710). The following year he -pursued Merodach-Baladan to his ancestral stronghold in the marshes; -Beth-Yagina was taken by storm, and its unfortunate defenders were sent -in chains to Nineveh. Sargon was now at the height of his power. His -empire was a compact and consolidated whole, reaching from the -Mediterranean on the west to the mountains of Elam on the east, and his -solemn coronation at Babylon gave a title to his claim to be the -legitimate successor of the ancient Sargon of Accad. The old kingdoms of -Elam and Egypt alone remained to threaten the newly-founded empire, -which received the voluntary homage of the smaller states that lay -immediately beyond it. Thus the sacred island of Dilvun in the Persian -Gulf submitted itself to the terrible conqueror, and the Phoenicians of -Kition or Chittim in Cyprus erected a monumental record of his -supremacy. - -Sargon's end was consonant with his whole career. He was murdered by his -soldiers in his new city of Dur-Sargon or Khorsabad, on the 12th of Ab -or July, B.C. 705, and was succeeded by his son Sennacherib. If we may -judge from Sennacherib's name, which means 'the Moon-god has increased -the brothers,' he would not have been Sargon's eldest son. In any case -he had been brought up in the purple, and displayed none of the rugged -virtues of his father. He was weak, boastful, and cruel, and preserved -his empire only by the help of the veterans and generals whom Sargon had -trained. - -Merodach-Baladan had escaped from captivity, and two years after the -death of Sargon had once more possessed himself of Babylon. But a battle -at Kis drove him from the country nine months subsequently, and -Sennacherib was able to turn his attention to affairs in the west. In -B.C. 701, he marched into Phoenicia and Palestine, where Hezekiah of -Judah and some of the neighbouring kings had refused their tribute. -Tirhakah, the Ethiopian king of Egypt, had promised support to the -rebellious states, and Padi, the king of Ekron, who remained faithful to -the Assyrians, was carried in chains to Jerusalem. The Assyrian army -fell first upon Phoenicia. Great and Little Sidon, Sarepta, Acre, and -other towns, surrendered, Elulæos, the Sidonian monarch, fled to Cyprus, -and the kings of Arvad and Gebal offered homage. Metinti of Ashdod, -Pedael of Ammon, Chemosh-nadab of Moab, and Melech-ram of Edom, also -submitted. Then, says Sennacherib: 'Zedekiah, king of Ashkelon, who had -not submitted to my yoke, himself, the gods of the house of his fathers, -his wife, his sons, his daughters, and his brothers, the seed of the -house of his fathers, I removed, and I sent him to Syria. I set over the -men of Ashkelon Sarludari, the son of Rukipti, their former king, and I -imposed upon him the payment of tribute, and the homage due to my -majesty, and he became a vassal. In the course of my campaign I -approached and captured Beth-Dagon, Joppa, Bene-berak, and Azur, the -cities of Zedekiah, which did not submit at once to my yoke, and I -carried away their spoil. The priests, the chief men, and the common -people of Ekron who had thrown into chains their king Padi because he -was faithful to his oaths to Assyria, and had given him up to Hezekiah, -the Jew, who imprisoned him like an enemy in a dark dungeon, feared in -their hearts. The king of Egypt, the bowmen, the chariots, and the -horses of the king of Ethiopia, had gathered together innumerable -forces, and gone to their assistance. In sight of the town of Eltekeh -was their order of battle drawn up; they called their troops (to the -battle). Trusting in Assur, my lord, I fought with them and overthrew -them. My hands took the captains of the chariots, and the sons of the -king of Egypt, as well as the captains of the chariots of the king of -Ethiopia, alive in the midst of the battle. I approached and captured -the towns of Eltekeh and Timnath, and I carried away their spoil. I -marched against the city of Ekron, and put to death the priests and the -chief men who had committed the sin (of rebellion), and I hung up their -bodies on stakes all round the city. The citizens who had done wrong and -wickedness I counted as a spoil; as for the rest of them who had done no -sin or crime, in whom no fault was found, I proclaimed a free pardon. I -had Padi, their king, brought out from the midst of Jerusalem, and I -seated him on the throne of royalty over them, and I laid upon him the -tribute due to my majesty. But as for Hezekiah of Judah, who had not -submitted to my yoke, forty-six of his strong cities, together with -innumerable fortresses and small towns which depended on them, by -overthrowing the walls and open attack, by battle engines and -battering-rams, I besieged, I captured, I brought out from the midst of -them and counted as a spoil 200,150 persons, great and small, male and -female, horses, mules, asses, camels, oxen and sheep without number. -Hezekiah himself I shut up like a bird in a cage in Jerusalem, his royal -city. I built a line of forts against him, and I kept back his heel from -going forth out of the great gate of his city. I cut off his cities that -I had spoiled from the midst of his land, and gave them to Metinti, king -of Ashdod, Padi, king of Ekron, and Zil-baal, king of Gaza, and I made -his country small. In addition to their former tribute and yearly gifts, -I added other tribute, and the homage due to my majesty, and I laid it -upon them. The fear of the greatness of my majesty overwhelmed him, even -Hezekiah, and he sent after me to Nineveh, my royal city, by way of gift -and tribute, the Arabs and his body-guard whom he had brought for the -defence of Jerusalem, his royal city, and had furnished with pay, along -with thirty talents of gold, 800 talents of pure silver, carbuncles and -other precious stones, a couch of ivory, thrones of ivory, an elephant's -hide, an elephant's tusk, rare woods of various names, a vast treasure, -as well as the eunuchs of his palace, dancing-men and dancing-women; and -he sent his ambassador to offer homage.' - -In this account of his campaign Sennacherib discreetly says nothing -about the disaster which befell his army in front of Jerusalem, and -which obliged him to return ignominiously to Assyria without attempting -to capture Jerusalem, and to deal with Hezekiah as it was his custom to -deal with other rebellious kings. The tribute offered by Hezekiah at -Lachish, when he vainly tried to buy off the threatened Assyrian attack, -is represented as having been the final result of a successful campaign. -There is, however, no exaggeration in the amount of silver Sennacherib -claims to have received, since 800 talents of silver are equivalent to -the 500 talents stated by the Bible to have been given, when reckoned -according to the standard of value in use at the time in Nineveh. - -Sennacherib never recovered from the blow he had suffered in Judah. He -made no more expeditions against Palestine, and during the rest of his -reign Judah remained unmolested. Babylonia, moreover, gave him constant -trouble. In the year after his campaign in the west (B.C. 700) a -Chaldean, named Nergal-yusezib, stirred up a revolt which Sennacherib -had some difficulty in suppressing. Two years later he appointed his -eldest son, Assur-nadin-sumi, viceroy of Babylon. In B.C. 694, he -determined to attack the followers of Merodach-Baladan in their last -retreat at the mouth of the Eulæus, where land had been given to them by -the Elamite king after their expulsion from Babylonia. Ships were built -and manned by Phoenicians in the Persian Gulf, by means of which the -settlements of the Chaldean refugees were burnt and destroyed. -Meanwhile, however, Babylonia itself was invaded by the Elamites; the -Assyrian viceroy was carried into captivity, and Nergal-yusezib placed -on the throne of the country. He defeated the Assyrian forces in a -battle near Nipur, but died soon afterwards, and was followed by -Musezib-Merodach, who like his predecessor is called Suzub in -Sennacherib's inscriptions. He defied the Assyrian power for nearly four -years. But in B.C. 690 the combined Babylonian and Elamite army was -overthrown in the decisive battle of Khalule, and before another year -was past Sennacherib had captured Babylon, and given it up to fire and -sword. Its inhabitants were sold into slavery, and the waters of the -Araxes canal allowed to flow over its ruins. Sennacherib now assumed the -title of king of Babylonia, but with the exception of a campaign into -the Cilician mountains he seems to have undertaken no more military -expeditions. The latter years of his life were passed in constructing -canals and aqueducts, in embanking the Tigris, and in rebuilding the -palace of Nineveh on a new and sumptuous scale. On the 20th of Tebet, or -December, B.C. 681, he was murdered by his two elder sons, Adrammelech -and Nergal-sharezer, who were jealous of the favour shown to their -younger brother, Esar-haddon. - -Esar-haddon was at the time conducting a campaign against Erimenas, king -of Armenia, to whom his insurgent brothers naturally fled. Between seven -and eight weeks after the murder of the old king, a battle was fought -near Malatiyeh, in Kappadokia, between the veterans of Esar-haddon and -the forces under his brothers and Erimenas, which ended in the complete -defeat of the latter. Esar-haddon was proclaimed king, and the event -proved that a wiser choice could not have been made. - -His military genius was of the first order, but it was equalled by his -political tact. He was the only king of Assyria who endeavoured to -conciliate the nations he had conquered. Under him the fabric of the -Second Empire was completed by the conquest of Egypt. In the first year -of his reign he rebuilt Babylon, giving it back its captured deities, -its plunder, and its people. Henceforth Babylon became the second -capital of the empire, the court residing alternately there and at -Nineveh. It was while Esar-haddon was holding his winter court at -Babylon that Manasseh, of Judah, was brought to him as prisoner.[1] - - [1] 2 Chr. xxxiii. 11. - -The trade of Phoenicia was diverted into Assyrian hands by the -destruction of Sidon. The caravan-road from east to west was at the same -time rendered secure by an expedition into the heart of Northern Arabia. -Here Esar-haddon penetrated as far as the lands of Huz and Buz, 280 -miles of the march being through a waterless desert. The feat has never -been excelled, and the terror it inspired among the Bedouin tribes was -not forgotten for many years. The northern frontiers of the kingdom were -also made safe by the defeat of Teispes, the Kimmerian, who was driven -westward with his hordes into Asia Minor. In the east the Assyrian -monarch was bold enough to occupy and work the copper-mines on the -distant borders of Media, the very name of which had scarcely been -heard of before. Westward, the kings of Cyprus paid homage to the great -conqueror, and among the princes who sent materials for his palace at -Nineveh were Cyprian rulers with Greek names. - -But the principal achievement of Esar-haddon's reign was his conquest of -the ancient monarchy of Egypt. In B.C. 675 the Assyrian army started for -the banks of the Nile. Four years later Memphis was taken on the 22nd of -Tammuz, or June, and Tirhakah, the Egyptian king, compelled to fly first -to Thebes, and then into Ethiopia. Egypt was divided into twenty -satrapies, governed partly by Assyrians, partly by native princes, whose -conduct was watched by Assyrian garrisons. On his return to Assyria -Esar-haddon associated Assur-bani-pal, the eldest of his four sons, in -the government on the 12th of Iyyar, or April, B.C. 669, and died two -years afterwards (on the 12th of Marchesvan, or October), when again on -his way to Egypt. Assur-bani-pal, the Sardanapalos of the Greeks, -succeeded to the empire, his brother, Samas-sum-yukin, being entrusted -with the government of Babylonia. - -Assur-bani-pal is probably the 'great and noble' Asnapper of Ezra iv. -10. He was luxurious, ambitious, and cruel, but a munificent patron of -literature. The libraries of Babylonia were ransacked for ancient texts, -and scribes were kept busily employed at Nineveh in inscribing new -editions of older works. But unlike his fathers, Assur-bani-pal refused -to face the hardships of a campaign. His armies were led by generals, -who were required to send despatches from time to time to the king. It -was evident that a purely military empire, like that of Assyria, could -not last long, when its ruler had himself ceased to take an active part -in military affairs. At first the veterans of his father preserved and -even extended the empire of Assur-bani-pal; but before his death it was -shattered irretrievably. It is characteristic of Assur-bani-pal that his -lion-hunts were mere _battues_, in which tame animals were released from -cages and lashed to make them run; in curious contrast to the lion-hunts -in the open field in which his warlike predecessors had delighted. - -[Illustration: ASSUR-BANI-PAL AND HIS QUEEN. -(_From the original in the British Museum._)] - -His first occupation was to crush a revolt in Egypt. Tirhakah was once -more driven out of the country, and Thebes, called Ni in the Assyrian -texts, and No-Amon, or 'No of the god Amun' in Scripture, was plundered -and destroyed. Its temples were hewed in pieces, and two of its -obelisks, weighing 70 tons in all, were carried as trophies to Nineveh. -It is to this destruction of the old capital of the Pharaohs that Nahum -refers in his prophecy (iii. 8). - -Meanwhile Tyre had been besieged and forced to surrender, and Cilicia -had paid homage to the Assyrian king. Gog, or Gyges, of Lydia, too, -voluntarily sent him tribute, including two Kimmerian chieftains whom -the Lydian sovereign had captured in battle. When the Lydian ambassadors -arrived in Nineveh they found no one who could understand their -language; in fact, the very name of Lydia had been unknown to the -Assyrians before. - -The Assyrian Empire had now reached its widest limits. Elam had fallen -after a long and arduous struggle. Shushan, its capital, was razed to -the ground, and the three last Elamite kings were bound to the yoke of -Assur-bani-pal's chariot, and made to drag their conqueror through the -streets of Nineveh. The Kedarites and other nomad tribes of Northern -Arabia were also chastised, the land of the Minni was overrun, and the -Armenians of Van begged for an alliance with the Assyrian king. - -But while at the very height of his prosperity, the empire was fast -slipping away from under Assur-bani-pal's feet. In B.C. 652 a rebellion -broke out headed by his brother, the Babylonian viceroy, which shook it -to the foundations. Babylonia, Egypt, Palestine, and Arabia made common -cause against the oppressor. Lydia sent Karian and Ionic mercenaries to -Psammetikhos of Sais, with whose help he succeeded in overthrowing his -brother satraps, and in delivering Egypt from the Assyrian yoke. The -revolt in Babylonia took long to quell, and for a time the safety of -Assur-bani-pal himself was imperilled. At last in 647 Babylon and Cuthah -were reduced by famine, and Samas-sum-yukin burnt himself to death in -his palace. Fire and sword were carried through Elam, and the last of -its monarchs became an outlawed fugitive. - -When Assyria finally emerged from the deadly struggle, Egypt was lost to -it for ever, and Babylonia was but half subdued. The latter province was -placed under the government of Kandalanu, who ruled over it for -twenty-two years, more like an independent sovereign than a viceroy. His -successor, Nabopolassar, the father of Nebuchadnezzar, threw off all -semblance of submission to Nineveh, and prepared the way for the empire -of his son. But meanwhile the once proud kingdom of Assyria had been -contending for bare existence. Assur-bani-pal's son, Assur-etil-ilani, -rebuilt with diminished splendour the palace of Calah, which seems to -have been burnt by some victorious enemy; and when the last Assyrian -king, Esar-haddon II, called Sarakos by the Greeks, mounted the throne, -he found himself surrounded on all sides by threatening foes. Kaztarit -or Kyaxares, Mamitarsu the Median, the Kimmerians, the Minni, and the -people of Sepharad leagued themselves together against the devoted city -of Nineveh. The frontier towns fell first, and though Esar-haddon in his -despair proclaimed public fasts and prayers to the gods, nothing could -ward off the doom pronounced by God's prophets against Nineveh so long -before. Nineveh was besieged, captured, and utterly destroyed; and the -second Assyrian Empire perished more hopelessly and completely than the -first. All that survived was the old capital of the country, Assur, -whose former inhabitants were allowed to return to it by Cyrus at the -time when the Jewish exiles also were released from their captivity in -Babylon.[2] - - [2] The following are the significations of the different Assyrian - royal names mentioned in this chapter:-- - Rimmon-nirari, 'Rimmon (the Air-god) is my help.' - Shalmaneser (Sallimanu-esir), 'Sallimanu (Solomon, the god of - peace) directs.' The Babylonians changed the name to - Sulman-asarid, 'Solomon is supreme.' - Tiglath-Pileser (Tukulti-pal-E-Sára), 'The servant of (the god - Adar) the son of E-'Sara (the temple of legions).' - Assur-dân, 'Assur is strong.' - Assur-natsir-pal, 'Assur is protector of the son.' - Samas-Rimmon, 'The Sun-god is also Rimmon (the Air-god).' - Sargon (Sarru-kunu), 'the constituted king.' - Sennacherib (Sinu-akhi-erba), 'The Moon-god increased the - brethren.' - Esar-haddon (Assur-akh-iddina), 'Assur gave a brother.' - Assur-bani-pal, 'Assur is creator of the son.' - Assur-etil-ilani, 'Assur is prince of the gods.' - -[Illustration] - - - * * * * * - - - - -CHAPTER III. - -ASSYRIAN RELIGION. - - -The Assyrians derived the greater part of their deities and religious -beliefs, like their literature and culture generally, from Babylonia. -The Babylonian gods were the gods of Assyria also. Most of them were of -Accadian or præ-Semitic origin, but the Semitic Babylonians, when they -appropriated the civilisation of the Accadians, modified them in -accordance with their own conceptions. The Accadians believed that every -object and phenomenon of nature had its _Zi_ or 'spirit,' some of them -beneficent, others hostile to man, like the objects and phenomena they -represented. Naturally, however, there were more malevolent than -beneficent spirits in the universe, and there was scarcely an action -which did not risk demoniac possession. Diseases were due to the -malevolence of these spirits, and could be cured only by the use of -certain charms and exorcisms. Exorcisms, in fact, gave those who -employed them power over the spirits; they could by means of them compel -the evil spirit to retire, and the beneficent spirit to approach. The -knowledge of such exorcisms was in the hands of the priests, so that -priest and magician were almost synonymous terms. - -Among the multitude of spirits feared by the Accadians, there were some -which had been raised above the rest into the position of gods. Of -these, Anu, 'the sky;' Mul-ge, 'the earth;' and Ea, 'the deep,' were the -most conspicuous. At their side stood the 'spirits' of the heavenly -bodies--the Moon-god, the Sun-god, the evening star, and the other -planets. The Moon-god ranked before the Sun-god, as might indeed have -been expected to be the case among a nation of astronomers like the -Chaldeans. - -When the Semitic Babylonians adopted the deities of their predecessors -and teachers, Anu and his compeers lost much of their elemental nature, -while the Sun-god Samas came to assume an important place. The religion -of the Babylonian Semites, in fact, was essentially solar; the Sun-god -was addressed as Bel or Baal, the supreme 'lord,' and adored under -various forms. He appeared to them, moreover, under two aspects, -sometimes as the kindly deity who gives life and light to all things, -sometimes as the scorching sun of summer who demanded the sacrifice of -the first-born to appease his wrath. Sometimes, again, he was worshipped -as the young and beautiful Tammuz, slain by the boar's tusk of winter; -whose death was lamented at the autumnal equinox, and who was invoked as -_adoni_ (_Adonis_) or 'master.' - -Unlike the Accadians, who did not distinguish gender, the Semites -divided all nouns into masculines and feminines. By the side of the god, -consequently, stood the goddess. She was, however, but a pale -reflection of her male consort, created, so to speak, by the necessities -of grammar. She had no independent attributes of her own; Beltis, or -Bilat, the wife of Bel, was nothing more than the feminine complement of -the god. The Accadians had known of one great goddess, Istar, the -evening star; but Istar was an independent deity, with attributes as -strongly and individually marked as those of the gods. Among the -Semites, Istar became Ashtoreth, with the feminine suffix _th_, and -though in Babylonia the old legends and traditions prevented her from -losing altogether her primitive character, she tended more and more to -pass into the mere reflection of some male deity. Just as the gods could -be collectively spoken of as Baalim or 'lords,' all being regarded as so -many different forms of the Sun-god, the goddesses also were termed -Ashtaroth or 'Ashtoreths.' - -We see, therefore, that in adopting the pantheon of Accad, the Semites -made three important changes. The Sun-god was assigned a leading place -in worship and belief; female deities were introduced, who were, -however, mere reflections of the gods; while the inferior deities of the -Accadians were classed among 'the 300 spirits of heaven' and 'the 600 -spirits of earth,' only a few of the more prominent ones retaining their -old position. These latter may be grouped as follows:-- - -At the head of the divine hierarchy still stood the old triad of Anu, -Mul-ge, and Ea. Mul-ge's name, however, was changed to Bel, but since -Merodach was also known as Bel, he fell more and more into the -background, especially after the rise of Babylon, of which city Merodach -was the patron deity. At Nipur, now Niffer, alone, he continued to be -worshipped down into late times. His consort was Bilat, or Beltis, 'the -great lady,' who eventually came to be regarded as the wife of Merodach -rather than of 'the other Bel.' Like Anu and Ea, Bel was the offspring -of Sar and Kisar, the upper and lower firmaments. - -Anu was the visible sky, but he also represented the invisible heaven, -which was supposed to extend above the visible one, and to be the abode -of the gods. The chief seat of his worship was Erech, where he was -regarded as the oldest of the gods, and the original creator of the -universe. But elsewhere, also, he was looked upon as the creator of the -visible world, and the father of the gods. By his side, in the Semitic -period, stood the goddess Anat, whose attributes were derived from his. -The worship of Anat spread from Babylonia to the Canaanites, as is shown -by the geographical names Beth Anath, 'the temple of Anat' (Josh. xix. -38; xv. 59), and Anathoth, the city of 'the goddesses Anat.' It was even -introduced into Egypt after the Asiatic wars of the eighteenth dynasty. -In the præ-Semitic days of Chaldea, a monotheistic school had -flourished, which resolved the various deities of the Accadian belief -into manifestations of the one supreme god, Anu; and old hymns exist in -which reference is made to 'the one god.' But this school never seems -to have numbered many adherents, and it eventually died out. Its -existence, however, reminds us of the fact that Abraham was born in 'Ur -of the Chaldees.' - -Ea originally represented the ocean-stream or 'great deep,' which was -supposed to surround the earth like a serpent, and by which all rivers -and springs were fed. He was symbolised by the snake, and was held to be -the creator and benefactor of mankind. One of his most frequent titles -is 'lord of wisdom,' and the chief seat of his worship was at Eridu, -'the holy city,' near which was the sacred grove or 'garden,' the centre -of the world, where the tree of life and knowledge had its roots. It was -Ea who had given to mankind not only life, but all the arts and -appliances of culture also, and it was his help that the Babylonian -invoked when in trouble. He was emphatically the god of healing, who had -revealed medicines to mankind. As god of the great deep, he was often -figured as a man with the tail of a fish, and in this form was known to -the Greeks under the name of Oannes or 'Ea the fish.' Sometimes the skin -of a fish was suspended behind his back. Oannes, it was said, had in -early days ascended out of the Persian Gulf, and taught the first -inhabitants of Babylonia letters, science, and art, besides writing a -history of the origin of mankind and their different ways of life. His -wife was Dav-kina, 'the lady of the earth,' who presided over the lower -world. - -Among the numerous offspring of Ea and Dav-kina, Merodach held the -foremost place. He was originally a form of the Sun-god, regarded under -his beneficent aspect, and was believed to be ever engaged in combating -the powers of evil, and in performing services for mankind. Hence he is -addressed as 'the redeemer of mankind,' 'the restorer to life,' and the -'raiser from the dead,' and a considerable number of the religious hymns -are dedicated to him. He was believed to be continually passing -backwards and forwards between the earth and the heaven where Ea dwelt, -informing Ea of the sufferings of men, and returning with Ea's -directions how to relieve them. One of the bas-reliefs from Nineveh, now -in the British Museum, represents him as pursuing with his curved sword -or thunderbolt the demon Tiamat, the personification of chaos and -anarchy, who is depicted with claws, tail, and horns. As we have already -seen, he was commonly addressed as Bel or 'lord,' and so came gradually -to supplant the older Bel or Mul-ge. Among the planets his star was -Jupiter. His wife was Zarpanit or Zirat-panitu, in whom some scholars -have seen the Succoth-benoth of 2 Kings xvii. 30. - -The children of Merodach and Zarpanit were Nebo, 'the prophet,' and his -wife Tasmit, 'the hearer.' Nebo was the god of oratory and literature; -it was he who 'enlightened the eyes' to understand written characters, -while his wife 'enlarged the ears,' so that they could comprehend what -was read. The origin of the cuneiform system of writing was ascribed to -Nebo. To him was dedicated 'the temple of the Seven Lights of Heaven -and Earth,' at Borsippa, the suburb of Babylon, which is now known to -the Arabs as the Birs-i-Nimrûd, and his worship was carried as far as -Canaan, as we may gather from such names as the city of Nebo, in Judæa -(Ezra ii. 29), and Mount Nebo, in Moab (Deut. xxxii. 49). In Accadian he -had been called Dimsar, 'the tablet-writer,' and a temple was erected to -him in the island of Bahrein, in the Persian Gulf, where he was -worshipped under the name of Enzak. As a planetary deity, he was -identified with Mercury. He was often adored under the name of Nusku, -although Nusku had originally been a separate divinity, and the same, -perhaps, as the Nisroch of the Bible (2 Kings xix. 37). - -The companion of Merodach was Rimmon, or rather Ramman, 'the thunderer.' -He represented the atmosphere, and was accordingly the god of rain and -storm, who was armed with the lightning and the thunderbolt. Sometimes -he was dreaded as 'the destroyer of crops,' 'the scatterer of the -harvest;' at other times prayers were made to him as 'the lord of -fecundity.' His worship extended into Syria, where Rimmon appears to -have been the supreme deity of Damascus, and where he was also known -under the name of Hadad or Dadda. - -Two other elemental gods were Samas, the Sun-god, and Sin, the Moon-god. -Samas was the son of Sin, in accordance with the astronomical view of -the old Babylonians, which made the moon the measurer of time, and -regarded the day as the offspring of night. Samas, however, like Saul or -Savul, another deity of whom mention is made in the inscriptions, was -really but a form of Merodach, though in historical times the two -divinities were separated from one another, and received different -cults. Samas, again, was originally identical with Tammuz; but when -Tammuz came to denote only the sun of spring and summer, while the myth -that associated him with Istar laid firm hold of men's minds, Tammuz -assumed separate attributes, and an individual existence apart from -Samas. - -Sin, the Moon-god, was termed Agu or Acu by the Accadians, and if the -name of Mount Sinai was derived from him, as is sometimes supposed, we -should have evidence that he was known and worshipped in Northern -Arabia. At all events he was one of the deities of Southern Arabia. Sin -was the patron-god of the city of Ur, and it was to him that the -Assyrian kings traced the formation of their kingdom. One of the most -famous of his temples was in the ancient city of Harran, where he was -symbolised by an upright cone of stone. As the emblem of the Sun-god was -the solar orb, the emblem of Sin was the crescent moon. - -According to some of the legends of Babylonia, the daughter of the -Moon-god was the goddess Istar. Other legends, however, placed Istar -among the older gods, and made her the daughter of Anu, the sky. In -either case she was at the outset the goddess of the evening star, and -when it was discovered that the evening and morning stars were the same, -of the morning star also. As the evening star, she was known as Istar of -Erech, as the morning star, she was identified with Anunit or Anat, the -goddess of Accad. At times she was also regarded as androgynous, both -male and female. - -Istar was the chief of the Accadian goddesses, and she retained her rank -even among the Semites, who, as we have seen, looked upon the goddess as -the mere consort and shadow of the god. But Istar continued to the last -a separate and independent divinity. She presided over love and war, as -well as over the chase. She was invoked as 'the queen of heaven,' 'the -queen of all the gods,' and there was often a tendency to merge in her -the other goddesses of the pantheon. Her principal temples were at -Erech, Nineveh, and Arbela, but altars were erected to her in almost -every place, and she was adored under as many forms and titles as she -possessed shrines. Her name and worship spread through the Semitic -world, in Southern Arabia, in Syria, in Moab, where she was identified -with the Sun-god, Chemosh, and in Canaan, where she was called -Ashtoreth, the Astartê of the Greeks. But the Greeks also knew her as -Aphroditê, the goddess whom they had borrowed from the Phoenicians of -Canaan, and we may discover her again in the Ephesian Artemis. The rites -performed in her temples made Istar or Ashtoreth the darkest blot in -Assyrian and Canaanitish religion, and excited the utmost horror and -indignation of the prophets of God. When the moon came to be conceived -as a female divinity, the pale reflection, as it were, of the sun, -Istar, the evening star, became also the goddess of the moon. Hence it -is that 'the queen of heaven' (Jer. xliv. 17) passed into Astartê 'with -crescent horns.' - -One of the most popular of old Babylonian myths told how Istar had -wedded the young and beautiful Sun-god, Tammuz, 'the only-begotten,' and -had descended into Hades in search of him when he had been slain by the -boar's tusk of winter. A portion of a Babylonian poem has been preserved -to us, which describes her passage through the seven gates of the -underworld, where she left with the warden of each some one of her -adornments, until at last she reached the seat of the infernal goddess -Allat, stripped and bare. There she remained imprisoned until the gods, -wearied of the long absence of the goddess of love, created a hound -called 'the renewal of light,' who restored her to the upper world. The -myth clearly refers to the waning and waxing of the monthly moon, and -must therefore have originated when Istar had already become the goddess -of the moon. The myth entered deeply into the religious belief of the -worshippers of Istar. The Accadians called the month of August 'the -month of the errand of Istar,' while June was termed 'the month of -Tammuz' by the Semites. It was then that, as Milton writes, his - - 'annual wound in Lebanon allured - The Syrian damsels to lament his fate - In amorous ditties all a summer's day; - While smooth Adonis from his native rock - Ran purple to the sea, supposed with blood - Of Tammuz yearly wounded.' - -But it was not only in Assyria and Phoenicia that the death of Tammuz -was lamented by the women year by year. The infection spread to Judah -also, and even in Jerusalem, within the precincts of the temple itself, -Ezekiel saw 'women weeping for Tammuz' (Ezek. viii. 14). - -[Illustration: NERGAL. -(_From the original in the British Museum._)] - -There are only two other Assyro-Babylonian deities who need be -mentioned, Nergal and Adar. Nergal was the presiding deity of Cuthah and -its vast necropolis.[3] He shared with Anu the privilege of -superintending the regions of the dead, and he was also a god of hunting -and war. His name, like those of Anu, Ea, and Istar, was of Accadian -origin. Adar, the son of Beltis, was one of those solar deities who were -formed by worshipping the Sun-god under some particular attribute. The -reading of his name is, unfortunately, not certain, and Adar is only its -most probable pronunciation. If it is correct, Adar will be the deity -meant in 2 Kings xvii. 31, where it is stated that the people of -Sepharvaim, or the two Sipparas, burnt their children in fire to -Adrammelech and Anammelech, that is to say, to 'King Adar' and 'King -Anu.' - - [3] Confer 2 Kings xvii. 30. - -Such were the principal divinities of Babylonia and Assyria. But the -Assyrians had another also, whom they exalted above all the rest. This -was Assur, the divine impersonation of the state and empire. It was -Assur who, according to the Assyrian kings, led them to victory, and the -cruelties they practised on the conquered were, they held, judgments -exercised against those who would not believe in him. Assur, in the form -of an archer, is sometimes represented on the monuments in the midst of -the winged solar disk, and above the head of the monarch, whom he -protects from his enemies. - -The Assyrian, however, was not so pious or superstitious as his -Babylonian neighbour. The Babylonian lived in perpetual dread of the -evil spirits which thronged about him; almost every moment had its -religious ceremony, almost every action its religious complement. Not -only had the State ritual to be attended to; the unceasing attacks of -the demons could be warded off only by magical incantations and the -intervention of the sorcerer-priest. But the Assyrians were too much -occupied with wars and fighting to give all this heed to the -requirements of religion. It is significant that, whereas in Babylonia -we find the remains of scarcely any great buildings except temples, the -great buildings of Assyria were the royal palaces. The libraries, which -in Babylonia were stored in the temples, were deposited in Assyria in -the palace of the king. - -Nevertheless, the greater part of the religious system of Babylonia had -been transported into Assyria. Along with the Babylonian deities had -come the Babylonian scriptures. These were divided into two great -collections or volumes. The first, and oldest, was a collection of -exorcisms and magical texts, by the use of which, it was believed, the -spirits of evil could be driven away, and the spirits of good induced to -visit the reciter. When, however, certain independent deities began to -emerge from among the multitudinous 'spirits' of the primitive Accadian -creed, hymns were composed in their honour, and these hymns were -eventually collected together, and, like the Rig-Veda of India, became a -second sacred book. After the Accadians had been supplanted by the -Semites, the Accadian language, in which the hymns were originally -written, was provided with a Semitic translation; but it was still -considered necessary to recite the exact words of the original, since -the words themselves were sacred, and any mistake in their pronunciation -would invalidate the religious service in which they were employed. Some -of the incantations embodied in the collection of exorcisms must have -been introduced into it subsequently to the compilation of the sacred -hymns, since the latter are found inserted in them. From this it would -appear that the older collection continued to receive additions for a -long while after the younger collection--that of the sacred hymns--had -been put together and invested with a sacred character. This could not -have been till after the beginning of the Semitic period, since there -are a few hymns which do not seem to have had any Accadian originals. If -we may compare the two collections with our own religious literature, we -may say that the collection of hymns corresponded more to our Bible, -that of exorcisms to our Prayer Book. - -The Babylonians and Assyrians, however, possessed a liturgy which -answered far better to our conception of what a Prayer Book should be. -This contained services for particular days and hours, together with -rubrics for the direction of the priest. Thus we are told that 'in the -month Nisan, on the second day, two hours after nightfall, the priest -[of Bel at Babylon] must come and take of the waters of the river, must -enter into the presence of Bel, and change his dress; must put on a robe -in the presence of Bel, and say this prayer: "O my lord who in his -strength has no equal, O my lord, blessed sovereign, lord of the world, -speeding the peace of the great gods, the lord who in his might destroys -the strong, lord of kings, light of mankind, establisher of trust, O -Bel, thy sceptre is Babylon, thy crown is Borsippa, the wide heaven is -the dwelling-place of thy liver.... O lord of the world, light of the -spirits of heaven, utterer of blessings, who is there whose mouth -murmurs not of thy righteousness, or speaks not of thy glory, and -celebrates not thy dominion? O lord of the world, who dwellest in the -temple of the sun, reject not the hands that are raised to thee; be -merciful to thy city Babylon, to Beth-Saggil thy temple incline thy -face, grant the prayers of thy people the sons of Babylon."' - -Part of the liturgy consisted of prayers addressed to the various -deities, and suited to various occasions. Here are examples of them: 'At -dawn and in the night prayer should be made to the throne-bearer, and -thus should it be said: "O throne-bearer, giver of prosperity, a -prayer!" After that, let prayer be made to Nusku, and thus let it be -said: "O Nusku, prince and king of the secrets of the great gods, a -prayer!" After that, let prayer be made to Adar, and thus let it be -said: "O Adar, mighty lord of the deep places of the springs, a prayer!" -After that let prayer be made to Gula (Beltis), and thus let it be said: -"O Gula, mother, begetter of the black-headed race (of Accadians), a -prayer!" After that, let prayer be made to Nin-lil, and thus let it be -said: "O Nin-lil, great goddess, wife of the divine prince of -sovereignty, a prayer!" After that, let prayer be made to Bel, and thus -let it be said: "O lord supreme, establisher of law, a prayer!" The -prayer (must be repeated) during the day at dawn, and in the night, -with face and mouth uplifted, during the middle watch. Water must be -poured out in libation day by day ... at dawn, on the beams of the -palace.' - -One of the most curious of these petitions is a prayer after a bad -dream, of which a fragment only has been found. This reads as follows: -'May the lord set my prayer at rest, (may he remove) my heavy (sin). May -the lord (grant) a return of favour. By day direct unto death all that -disquiets me. O my goddess, be gracious unto me; when (wilt thou hear) -my prayer? May they pardon my sin, my wickedness, (and) my -transgression. May the exalted one deliver, may the holy one love. May -the seven winds carry away my groaning. May the worm lay it low, may the -bird bear it upwards to heaven. May a shoal of fish carry it away; may -the river bear it along. May the creeping thing of the field come unto -me; may the waters of the river as they flow cleanse me. Enlighten me -like a mask of gold. Food and drink before thee perpetually may I get. -Heap up the worm, take away his life. The steps of thy altar, thy many -ones, may I ascend. With the worm make me pass, and may I be kept with -thee. Make me to be fed, and may a favourable dream come. May the dream -I dream be favourable; may the dream I dream be fulfilled. May the dream -I dream turn to prosperity. May Makhir, the god of dreams, settle upon -my head. Let me enter Beth-Saggil, the palace of the gods, the temple of -the lord. Give me unto Merodach, the merciful, to prosperity, even unto -prospering hands. May thy entering (O Merodach) be exalted, may thy -divinity be glorious; may the men of thy city extol thy mighty deeds.' - -Along with these prayers, the Assyrians possessed a collection of -penitential psalms, which were composed at a very remote period in -Southern Babylonia. The most perfect of those of which we have copies is -the following:-- - - My Lord is wroth in his heart: may he be appeased again. - May God be appeased again, for I knew not that I sinned. - May Istar, my mother, be appeased again, for I knew not - that I sinned, - God knoweth that I knew not: may he be appeased. - Istar, my mother, knoweth that I knew not: may she be - appeased. - May the heart of my God be appeased. - May God and Istar, my mother, be appeased. - May God cease from his anger. - May Istar, my mother, cease from her anger. - The transgression (I committed my God) knew. - - [The next few lines are obliterated.] - - The transgression (I committed, Istar, my mother, knew). - (My tears) I drink like the waters of the sea. - That which was forbidden by my God I ate without knowing. - That which was forbidden by Istar, my mother, I trampled - on without knowing. - O my Lord, my transgression is great, many are my sins. - O my God, my transgression is great, many are my sins. - O Istar, my mother, my transgression is great, many are my - sins. - O my God, who knowest that I knew not, my transgression is - great, many are my sins. - O Istar, my mother, who knowest that I knew not, my - transgression is great, many are my sins. - The transgression that I committed I knew not. - The sin that I sinned I knew not. - The forbidden thing did I eat. - The forbidden thing did I trample on. - My Lord, in the anger of his heart, has punished me. - God, in the strength of his heart, has taken me. - Istar, my mother, has seized upon me, and put me to grief. - God, who knoweth that I knew not, has afflicted me. - Istar, my mother, who knoweth that I knew not, has caused - darkness. - I prayed, and none takes my hand. - I wept, and none held my palm. - I cry aloud, but there is none that will hear me. - I am in darkness and hiding, I dare not look up. - To God I refer my distress, I utter my prayer. - The feet of Istar, my mother, I embrace. - To God, who knoweth that I knew not, my prayer I utter. - To Istar, my mother, who knoweth that I knew not, my - prayer I address. - - [The next four lines are destroyed.] - - How long, O God (shall I suffer)? - How long, O Istar, my mother (shall I be afflicted)? - How long, O God, who knoweth that I knew not (shall I - feel thy) strength? - How long, O Istar, my mother, who knoweth that I knew - not, shall thy heart (be angry)? - Thou writest the number (?) of mankind, and none knoweth - it. - Thou callest man by his name, and what does he know? - Whether he shall be afflicted, or whether he shall be - prosperous, there is no man that knoweth. - O my God, thou givest not rest to thy servant. - In the waters of the raging flood take his hand. - The sin he has sinned turn into good. - Let the wind carry away the transgression I have committed. - Destroy my manifold wickednesses like a garment. - O my God, seven times seven are my transgressions, my - transgressions are (ever) before me. - -A rubric is attached to this verse, stating that it is to be repeated -ten times, and at the end of the whole psalm is the further rubric: 'For -the tearful supplication of the heart let the glorious name of every god -be invoked sixty-five times, and then the heart shall have peace.' - -Reference is made in the psalm to the eating of forbidden foods, and we -have other indications that certain kinds of food, among which swine's -flesh may be mentioned, were not allowed to be consumed. On particular -days also fasts were observed, and special days of fasting and -humiliation were prescribed in times of public calamity. In the calendar -of the Egibi banking firm, the 2nd of Tammuz or June is entered as a day -of 'weeping.' The institution of the Sabbath, moreover, was known to -the Babylonians and Assyrians, though it was confounded with the feast -of the new moon, since it was kept, not every seven days, but on the -seventh, fourteenth, twenty-first, and twenty-eighth days of the lunar -month. On these days, we read in a sort of Saints' calendar for the -intercalary Elul: 'Flesh cooked on the fire may not be eaten, the -clothing of the body may not be changed, white garments may not be put -on, a sacrifice may not be offered, the king may not ride in his -chariot, nor speak in public, the augur may not mutter in a secret -place, medicine of the body may not be applied, nor may any curse be -uttered.' The very name of Sabattu or Sabbath was employed by the -Assyrians, and is defined as 'a day of rest for the heart,' while the -Accadian equivalent is explained to mean 'a day of completion of -labour.' - -So far as we are at present acquainted with the peculiarities of the -Assyro-Babylonian temple, it offers many points of similarity to the -temple of Solomon at Jerusalem. Thus there were an outer and an inner -court and a shrine, to which the priests alone had access. In this was -an altar approached by steps, as well as an ark or coffer containing two -inscribed tablets of stone, such as were discovered by Mr. Rassam in the -temple of Balawât. In the outer court was a large basin, filled with -water, and called 'a sea,' which was used for ablutions and religious -ceremonies. At the entrance stood colossal figures of winged bulls, -termed 'cherubs,' which were imagined to prevent the ingress of evil -spirits. Similar figures guarded the approach to the royal palace, and -possibly to other houses as well. Some of them may now be seen in the -British Museum. Within, the temples were filled with images of gods, -great and small, which not only represented the deities whose names they -bore, but were believed to confer of themselves a special sanctity on -the place wherein they were placed. As among the Israelites, offerings -were of two kinds, sacrifices and meal offerings. The sacrifice -consisted of an animal, more usually a bullock, part of whose flesh was -burnt upon the altar, while the rest was handed over to the priests or -retained by the offerer. There is no trace of human sacrifices among the -Assyrians, which is the more singular, since we learn that human -sacrifice had been an Accadian institution. A passage in an old -astrological work indicates that the victims were burnt to death, like -the victims of Moloch; and an early Accadian fragment expressly states -that they were to be the children of those for whose sins they were -offered to the gods. The fragment is as follows: 'The son who lifts his -head among men, the son for his own life must (the father) give; the -head of the child for the head of the man must he give; the neck of the -child for the neck of the man must he give; the breast of the child for -the breast of the man must he give.' The idea of vicarious punishment is -here clearly indicated. - -The future life to which the Babylonian had looked forward was dreary -enough. Hades, the land of the dead, was beneath the earth, a place of -darkness and gloom, from which 'none might return,' where the spirits of -the dead flitted like bats, with dust alone for their food. Here the -shadowy phantoms of the heroes of old time sat crowned, each upon his -throne, a belief to which allusion is made by the Hebrew prophet in his -prophecy of the coming overthrow of Babylon (Is. xiv. 9). In the midst -stood the palace of Allat, the queen of the underworld, where the waters -of life bubbled forth beside the golden throne of the spirits of earth, -restoring those who might drink of them to life and the upper air. The -entrance to this dreary abode of the departed lay beyond Datilla, the -river of death, at the mouth of the Euphrates, and it was here that the -hero Gisdhubar saw Xisuthros, the Chaldean Noah, after his translation -to the fields of the blessed. In later times, when the horizon of -geographical knowledge was widened, the entrance to the gloomy world of -Hades, and the earthly paradise that was above it, were alike removed to -other and more unknown regions. The conception of the after-life, -moreover, was made brighter, at all events, for the favoured few. An -Assyrian court-poet prays thus on behalf of his king: 'The land of the -silver sky, oil unceasing, the benefits of blessedness may he obtain -among the feasts of the gods, and a happy cycle among their light, even -life everlasting, and bliss; such is my prayer to the gods who dwell in -the land of Assur.' Even at a far earlier time we find the great -Chaldean epic of Gisdhubar concluding with a description of the -blissful lot of the spirit of Ea-bani: 'On a couch he reclines and pure -water he drinks. Him who is slain in battle thou seest and I see. His -father and his mother (support) his head, his wife addresses the corpse. -His friends in the fields are standing; thou seest (them) and I see. His -spoil on the ground is uncovered; of his spoil he hath no oversight, -(as) thou seest and I see. His tender orphans beg for bread; the food -that was stored in (his) tent is eaten.' Here the spirit of Ea-bani is -supposed to behold from his couch in heaven the deeds that take place on -the earth below. - -Heaven itself had not always been 'the land of the silver sky' of later -Assyrian belief. The Babylonians once believed that the gods inhabited -the snow-clad peak of Rowandiz, 'the mountain of the world' and 'the -mountain of the East,' as it was also termed, which supported the starry -vault of heaven. It is to this old Babylonian belief that allusion is -made in Isaiah xiv. 13, 14, where the Babylonian monarch is represented -as saying in his heart: 'I will ascend into heaven, I will exalt my -throne above the stars of God: I will sit also on the mount of the -assembly (of the gods)[4] in the extremities[5] of the north: I will -ascend above the heights of the clouds.' - - [4] A. V. 'congregation.' - - [5] A. V. 'sides.' - -As in all old forms of heathen faith, religion and mythology were -inextricably mixed together. Myths were told of most of the gods. -Reference has already been made to the myth of Istar and Tammuz, the -prototype of the Greek legend of Aphroditê and Adonis. So, too, the -Greek story of the theft of fire by Prometheus has its parallel in the -Babylonian story of the god Zu, 'the divine storm-bird,' who stole the -lightning of Bel, the tablet whereon the knowledge of futurity is -written, and who was punished for his crime by the father of the gods. -In reading the legend of the plague-demon Lubara, whom Anu sends to -smite the evildoers in Babylon, Erech, and other places, we are reminded -of the avenging angel of God whom David saw standing with a drawn sword -over Jerusalem. - -One of the most curious of the Babylonian myths was that which told how -the seven evil-spirits or storm-demons had once warred against the moon -and threatened to devour it. Samas and Istar fled from the lower sky, -and the Moon-god would have been blotted out from heaven had not Bel and -Ea sent Merodach in his 'glistening armour' to rescue him. The myth is -really a primitive attempt to explain a lunar eclipse, and finds its -illustration in the dragon of the Chinese, who is still popularly -believed by them to devour the sun or moon when an eclipse takes place. - -The primæval victory of light and order over darkness and chaos, which -seems to be repeated whenever the sun bursts through a storm-cloud, was -similarly expressed in a mythical form. It was the victory of Merodach -over Tiamat,'the deep,' the personification of chaos and elemental -anarchy. The myth was embodied in a poem, the greater part of which has -been preserved to us. We are told how Merodach was armed by the gods -with bow and scimetar, how alone he faced and fought the dragon Tiamat, -driving the winds into her throat when she opened her mouth to swallow -him, and how, finally, he cut open her body, scattering in flight 'the -rebellious deities' who had stood at her side. Tiamat, or the watery -chaos, is usually represented with wings, claws, tail, and horns, but -she is also identified with 'the wicked serpent' of 'night and -darkness,' 'the monstrous serpent of seven heads,' 'which beats the -sea.' - -The most interesting of the old myths and traditions of Babylonia are -those in which we can trace, more or less clearly, the lineaments of the -accounts of the creation of the world and the early history of man, -given us in the early chapters of Genesis. There was more than one -legend of the creation. In a text which came from the library of Cuthah, -it was described as taking place on evolutionary principles, the first -created beings being the brood of chaos, men with 'the bodies of birds' -and 'the faces of ravens,' who were succeeded by the more perfect forms -of the existing world. But the library of Assur-bani-pal also contained -an account of the creation, which bears a remarkable resemblance to that -in the first chapter of Genesis. Unfortunately, however, it seems to -have been of Assyrian and not Babylonian origin, and, therefore, not to -have been of early date. In this account the creation appears to be -described as having been accomplished in six days. It begins in these -words: - -'At that time the heavens above named not a name, nor did the earth -below record one; yea, the ocean was their first creator, the flood of -the deep (Tiamat) was she who bore them all. Their waters were embosomed -in one place, and the clouds (?) were not collected, the plant was still -ungrown. At that time the gods had not issued forth, any one of them; by -no name were they recorded, no destiny (had they fixed). Then the -(great) gods were made; Lakhmu and Lakhamu issued forth the first. They -grew up.... Next were made the host of heaven and earth. The time was -long, (and then) the gods Anu, (Bel, and Ea were born of) the host of -heaven and earth.' The rest of the account is lost, and it is not until -we come to the fifth tablet of the series, which describes the -appointment of the heavenly bodies, that the narrative is again -preserved. Here we are told that the creator, who seems to have been Ea, -'made the stations of the great gods, even the stars, fixing the places -of the principal stars like ... He ordered the year, setting over it the -decans; yea, he established three stars for each of the twelve months.' -It will be remembered that, according to Genesis, the appointment of the -heavenly bodies to guide and govern the seasons was the work of the -fourth day, and since the work is described in the fifth tablet or book -of the Assyrian account, while the first tablet describes the condition -of the universe before the creation was begun, it becomes probable that -the Assyrians also knew that the work was performed on the fourth day. -The next tablet states that 'at that time the gods in their assembly -created (the living creatures). They made the mighty (animals). They -caused the living beings to come forth, the cattle of the field, the -beast of the field, and the creeping thing.' Unfortunately the rest of -the narrative is in too mutilated a condition for a translation to be -possible, and the part which describes the creation of man has not yet -been recovered among the ruins of the library of Nineveh. - -The Chaldean account of the Deluge was discovered by Mr. George Smith, -and its close resemblance to the account in Genesis is well known. Those -who wish to see a translation of it, according to the latest researches, -will find one in the pages of 'Fresh Light from the Ancient Monuments.' -The account was introduced as an episode into the eleventh book of the -great Babylonian epic of Gisdhubar, and appears to be the amalgamation -of two older poems on the subject. The story of the Deluge, in fact, was -a favourite theme among the Babylonians, and we have fragments of at -least two other versions of it, neither of which, however, agree so -remarkably with the Biblical narrative as does the version discovered by -Mr. Smith. Apart from the profound difference caused by the polytheistic -character of the Chaldean account, and the monotheism of the Scriptural -narrative, it is only in details that the two accounts vary from one -another. Thus, the vessel in which Xisuthros, the Chaldean Noah, sails, -is a ship, guided by a steersman, and not an ark, and others besides -his own family are described as being admitted into it. So, too, the -period of time during which the flood was at its height is said to have -been seven days only, while, beside the raven and the dove, Xisuthros is -stated to have sent out a third bird, the swallow, in order to determine -how far the waters had subsided. The Chaldean ark rested, moreover, on -Rowandiz, the highest of the mountains of Eastern Kurdistan, and the -peak whereon Accadian mythology imagined the heavens to be supported, -and not on the northern or Armenian continuation of the range. -Babylonian tradition, too, had fused into one Noah and Enoch, Xisuthros -being represented as translated to the land of immortality immediately -after his descent from the ark and his sacrifice to the gods. It is -noticeable that the Chaldean account agrees with that of the Bible in -one remarkable respect, in which it differs from almost all the other -traditions of the Deluge found throughout the world. This is in its -ascribing the cause of the Deluge to the wickedness of mankind. It was -sent as a punishment for sin. - -As might have been expected, the Babylonians and Assyrians knew of the -building of the Tower of Babel, and the dispersion of mankind. Men had -'turned against the father of all the gods,' under a leader the thoughts -of whose heart 'were evil.' At Babylon they began to erect 'a mound,' or -hill-like tower, but the winds destroyed it in the night, and Anu -'confounded great and small on the mound,' as well as their 'speech,' -and 'made strange their counsel.' All this was supposed to have taken -place at the time of the autumnal equinox, and it is possible that the -name of the rebel leader, which is lost, was Etána. At all events the -demi-god Etána played a conspicuous part in the early historical -mythology of Babylonia, like two other famous divine kings, Ner and Dun, -and a fragment describes him as having built a city of brick. However -this may be, Etána is the Babylonian Titan of Greek writers, who, with -Promêtheus and Ogygos, made war against the gods. - -If we sum up the character of Assyrian religion, we shall find it -characterised by curious contrasts. On the one hand we shall find it -grossly polytheistic, believing in 'lords many and gods many,' and -admitting not only gods and demi-gods, and even deified men, but the -multitudinous spirits, 'the host of heaven and earth,' who were classed -together as the '300 spirits of heaven and the 600 spirits of earth.' -Some of these were beneficent, others hostile, to man. In addition to -this vast army of divine powers, the Assyrian offered worship also to -the heavenly bodies, and to the spirits of rivers and mountains. He even -set up stones or 'Beth-els,' so called because they were imagined to be -veritable 'houses of god,' wherein the godhead dwelt, and over these he -poured out libations of oil and wine. Yet, on the other hand, with all -this gross polytheism, there was a strong tendency to monotheism. The -supreme god, Assur, is often spoken of in language which at first sight -seems monotheistic: to him the Assyrian monarchs ascribe their -victories, and in his name they make war against the unbeliever. A -similar inconsistency prevailed in the character of Assyrian worship -itself. There was much in it which commands our admiration: the Assyrian -confessed his sins to his gods, he begged for their pardon and help, he -allowed nothing to interfere with what he conceived to be his religious -duties. With all this, his worship of Istar was stained with the foulest -excesses--excesses, too, indulged in, like those of the Phoenicians, in -the name and for the sake of religion. - -Much of this inconsistency may be explained by the history of his -religious ideas. As we have seen, a large part of them was derived from -a non-Semitic population, the primitive inhabitants of Babylonia, under -whose influence the Semitic Babylonians had come at a time when they -still lacked nearly all the elements of culture. The result was a form -of creed in which the old Accadian faith was bodily taken over by an -alien race, but at the same time profoundly modified. It was Accadian -religion interpreted by the Semitic mind and belief. Baal-worship, which -saw the Sun-god everywhere under an infinite variety of manifestations, -waged a constant struggle with the conceptions of the borrowed creed, -but never overcame them altogether. The gods and spirits of the -Accadians remained to the last, although permeated and overlaid with the -worship of the Semitic Sun-god. As time went on, new religious elements -were introduced, and Assyro-Babylonian religion underwent new phases, -while in Assyria itself the deified state in the person of the god Assur -tended to absorb the religious cult and aspirations of the people. The -higher minds of the nation struggled now and again towards the -conception of one supreme God and of a purer form of faith, but the dead -weight of polytheistic beliefs and practices prevented them from ever -really reaching it. In the best examples of their religious literature -we constantly fall across expressions and ideas which show how wide was -the gulf that separated them from that kindred people of Israel to whom -the oracles of God were revealed. - -[Illustration] - - - * * * * * - - - - -CHAPTER IV. - -ART, LITERATURE, AND SCIENCE. - - -Assyrian art was, speaking generally, imported from Babylonia. Even the -palace of the king was built of bricks, and raised upon a mound like the -palaces and temples of Babylonia, although stone was plentiful in -Assyria, and there was no marshy plain where inundations might be -feared. It was only the walls that were lined with sculptured slabs of -alabaster, the sculptures taking the place of the paintings in -vermilion, which adorned the houses of Babylonia (Ezek. xxiii. 14). - -It is at Khorsabad, or Dur-Sargon, the city built by Sargon, to the -north of Nineveh, that we can best study the architectural genius of -Assyria. The city was laid out in the form of a square, and surrounded -by walls forty-six feet thick and over a mile in length each way, the -angles of which faced the four cardinal points. The outer wall was -flanked with eight tall towers, and was erected on a mound of rubble. - -On the north-west side stood the royal palace, defended also by a wall -of its own, and built on a [T]-shaped platform. It was approached -through an outer court, the gates of which were hung under arches of -enamelled brick, and guarded by colossal figures in stone. From the -court an inclined plane led to the first terrace, occupied by a number -of small rooms, in which the French excavators saw the barracks of the -palace-guard. Above this terrace rose a second, at a height of about -ten feet, upon which was built the royal palace itself. This was -entered through a gateway, on either side of which stood the stone -figure of a 'cherub,' while within it was a court 350 feet long and -170 feet wide. Beyond this court was an inner one, which formed a -square of 150 feet. On its left were the royal chambers, consisting of -a suite of ten rooms, and beyond them again the private chapel of the -monarch, leading to the apartments in which he commonly lived. On the -west side of the palace rose a tower, built in stages, on the summit -of which was the royal observatory. - -It is a question whether the Assyrian palace possessed any upper -stories. On the whole, probability speaks against it. Columns, however, -were used plentifully. The column, in fact, had been a Babylonian -invention, and originated in the necessity of supporting buildings on -wooden pillars in a country where there was no stone. From Babylonia -columnar architecture passed into Assyria, where it assumed exaggerated -forms, the column being sometimes made to rest on the backs of lions, -dogs, and winged bulls. - -The apertures which served as windows were protected by heavy folds of -tapestry, that kept out the heats of summer and the cold winds of -winter. In warm weather, however, the inmates of the house preferred to -sit in the open air, either in the airy courts upon which its chambers -opened, or under the shady trees of the _paradeisos_ or park attached to -the dwellings of the rich. The leases of houses let or sold in Nineveh -in the time of the Second Assyrian Empire generally make mention of the -'shrubbery,' which formed part of the property. - -Assyrian sculpture was for the most part in relief. The Assyrians carved -badly in the round, unlike the Babylonians, some of whose sitting -statues are not wanting in an air of dignity and repose. But they -excelled in that kind of shallow relief of which so many examples have -been brought to the British Museum. We can trace three distinct periods -in the history of this form of art. The first period is that which -begins, so far as we know at present, with the age of Assur-natsir-pal. -It is characterised by boldness and vigour, by an absence of background -or landscape, and by an almost total want of perspective. With very few -exceptions, faces and figures are drawn in profile. But with all this -want of skill, the work is often striking from the spirit with which it -is executed, and the naturalness with which animals, more especially, -are depicted. A bas-relief representing a lion-hunt of Assur-natsir-pal -has been often selected as a typical, though favourable, illustration of -the art of this age. - -The second period extends from the foundation of the Second Assyrian -Empire to the reign of Esar-haddon. The artist has lost in vigour, but -has compensated for it by care and accuracy. The foreground is now -filled in with vegetable and other forms, all drawn with a -pre-Raffaellite exactitude. The relief consequently becomes exceedingly -rich, and produces the effect of embroidery in stone. It is probable -that the delicate minuteness of this period of art was in great measure -due to the work in ivory that had now become fashionable at Nineveh. - -The third, and best period, is that of the reign of Assur-bani-pal. -There is a return to the freedom of the first period, but without its -accompanying rudeness and want of skill. The landscape is either left -bare, or indicated in outline only, the attention of the spectator being -thus directed to the principal sculpture itself. The delineation of the -human figure has much improved; vegetable forms have lost much of their -stiffness, and we meet with several examples of successful -foreshortening. Up to the last, however, the Assyrian artist succeeded -but badly in human portraiture. Nothing can surpass some of his pictures -of animals; when he came to deal with the human figure he expended his -strength on embroidered robes and the muscles of the legs and arms. The -reason of this is not difficult to discover. Unlike the Egyptian, who -excelled in the delineation of the human form, he did not draw from nude -models. The details of the drapery were with him of more importance than -the features of the face or the posture of the limbs. We cannot expect -to find portraits in the sculptures of Assyria. Little, if any, attempt -is made even to distinguish the natives of different foreign countries -from one another, except in the way of dress. All alike have the same -features as the Assyrians themselves. - -The effect of the bas-reliefs was enhanced by the red, black, blue, and -white colours with which they were picked out. The practice had come -from Babylonia, but whereas the Babylonians delighted in brilliant -colouring, their northern neighbours contented themselves with much more -sober hues. It was no doubt from the populations of Mesopotamia that the -Greeks first learnt to paint and tint their sculptured stone. -Unfortunately it is difficult, if not impossible, to find any trace of -colouring remaining in the Assyrian bas-reliefs now in Europe. When -first disinterred, however, the colours were still bright in many cases, -although exposure to the air soon caused them to fade and perish. - -The bas-reliefs and colossi were moved from the quarries out of which -they had been dug, or the workshops in which they had been carved, by -the help of sledges and rollers. Hundreds of captives were employed to -drag the huge mass along; sometimes it was transported by water, the -boat on which it lay being pulled by men on shore; sometimes it was -drawn over the land by gangs of slaves, urged to their work by the rod -and sword of their task-masters. On the colossus itself stood an -overseer holding to his mouth what looks on the monument like a modern -speaking-trumpet. Over a sculpture representing the transport of one of -these colossi Sennacherib has engraved the words: 'Sennacherib, king -of legions, king of Assyria, has caused the winged bull and the colossi, -the divinities which were made in the land of the city of the Baladians, -to be brought with joy to the palace of his lordship, which is within -Nineveh.' We may infer from this epigraph that the images themselves -were believed to be in some way the abode of divinity, like the Beth-els -or sacred stones to which reference has been made in the last chapter. - -[Illustration: Fragment now in the British Museum showing primitive -Hieroglyphics and Cuneiform Characters side by side.] - -Like Assyrian art, Assyrian literature was for the most part derived -from Babylonia. A large portion of it was translated from Accadian -originals. Sometimes the original was lost or forgotten; more frequently -it was re-edited from time to time with interlinear or parallel -translations in Assyro-Babylonian. This was more especially the case -with the sacred texts, in which the old language of Accad was itself -accounted sacred, like Latin in the services of the Roman Catholic -Church, or Coptic in those of the modern Egyptian Church. - -The Accadians had been the inventors of the hieroglyphics or pictorial -characters out of which the cuneiform characters had afterwards grown. -Writing begins with pictures, and the writing of the Babylonians formed -no exception to the rule. The pictures were at first painted on the -papyrus leaves which grew in the marshes of the Euphrates, but as time -went on a new and more plentiful writing material came to be employed in -the shape of clay. Clay was literally to be found under the feet of -every one. All that was needed was to impress it, while still wet, with -the hieroglyphic pictures, and then dry it in the sun. It is probable -that the bricks used in the construction of the great buildings of -Chaldea were first treated in this way. At all events we find that up to -the last, the Babylonian kings stamped their names and titles in the -middle of such bricks, and hundreds of them may be met with in the -museums of Europe bearing the name of Nebuchadnezzar. When once the -discovery was made that clay could be employed as a writing material, it -was quickly turned to good account. All Babylonia began to write on -tablets of clay, and though papyrus continued to be used, it was -reserved for what we should now term 'éditions de luxe.' The writing -instrument had originally been the edge of a stone or a piece of stick, -but these were soon superseded by a metal stylus with a square head. -Under the combined influence of the clay tablet and the metal stylus, -the old picture-writing began to degenerate into the cuneiform or -'wedge-shaped' characters with which the monuments of Assyria have made -us familiar. It was difficult, if not impossible, any longer to draw -circles and curves, and accordingly angles took the place of circles, -and straight lines the place of curves. Continuous lines were equally -difficult to form; it was easier to represent them by a series of -indentations, each of which took a wedge-like appearance from the square -head of the stylus. As soon as the exact forms of the old pictures began -to be obliterated, other alterations became inevitable. The forms began -to be simplified by the omission of lines or wedges which were no -longer necessary, now that the character had become a mere symbol -instead of a picture; and this process of simplification went on from -one century to another, until in many instances the later form of a -character is hardly more than a shadow of what it originally was. -Education was widely spread in Babylonia; in spite of the cumbrousness -and intricacy of the system of writing, there were few, it would appear, -who could not read and write, and hence, as was natural, all kinds of -handwritings were prevalent, some good and some bad. Among these various -cursive or running hands were some which were selected for public -documents; but as the hands varied, not only among individuals, but also -from age to age, the official script never became fixed and permanent, -but changed constantly, each change, however, bringing with it increased -simplicity in the shapes of the characters, and a greater departure from -the primitive hieroglyphic form. The earliest contemporaneous monuments -with which we are at present acquainted, are those recently excavated by -the French Consul M. de Sarzec at a place called Tel-Loh; on these we -see the early pictures in the very act of passing into cuneiform -characters, the pictures being sometimes preserved and sometimes already -lost. A comparison of the forms found at Tel-Loh with those usually -employed in the time of Nebuchadnezzar, will show at a glance what -profound modifications were undergone by the cuneiform syllabary in the -course of its transmission from generation to generation. - -In contrast to the Babylonians, the Assyrians were a nation of warriors -and huntsmen, not of students, and with them, therefore, a knowledge of -writing was confined to a particular class, that of the scribes. At an -early period, accordingly, in the history of the kingdom, a special form -of script was adopted not only in official documents, but in private -documents as well, and this script remained practically unchanged down -to the fall of Nineveh. This form of script was one of the many -simplified forms of handwriting that were used in Babylonia, and it was -fortunately a very clear and well-defined one. Now and then, it is true, -contact with Babylonia made an Assyrian king desirous of imitating the -archaic writing of Babylonia, and inscriptions were consequently -engraved in florid characters, abounding in a multiplicity of needless -wedges, and reminding us of our modern black-letter. Such ornamental -inscriptions are not numerous, and were carved only on stone. The clay -literature was all written in the ordinary Assyrian characters, except -when the scribe was unable to recognise a character in a Babylonian text -he was copying, and so reproduced it exactly in his copy. - -The clay tablets used by the Assyrians were an improvement on those of -Babylonia. Instead of being merely dried in the sun, they were -thoroughly baked in a kiln, holes being drilled through them here and -there to allow the steam to escape. As a rule, therefore, the tablets of -Assyria are smaller than those of Babylonia, since there was always a -danger of a large tablet being broken in the fire. In consequence of -the small size of the tablets, and the amount of text with which it was -often necessary to cover them, the characters impressed upon them are -frequently minute, so minute, indeed, as to suggest that they must have -been written with the help of a magnifying glass. This supposition is -confirmed by the existence of a magnifying lens of crystal discovered by -Sir A. H. Layard on the site of the library of Nineveh, and now in the -British Museum. - -[Illustration: AN ASSYRIAN BOOK. -(_From the original in the British Museum._)] - -A literary people like the Babylonians needed libraries, and libraries -were accordingly established at a very early period in all the great -cities of the country, and plentifully stocked with books in papyrus and -clay. In imitation of these Babylonian libraries, libraries were also -founded in Assyria by the Assyrian kings. There was a library at Assur, -and another at Calah which seems to have been as old as the city itself. -But the chief library of Assyria that, in fact, from which most of the -Assyrian literature we possess has come, was the great library of -Nineveh (Kouyunjik). This owed its magnitude and reputation to -Assur-bani-pal, who filled it with copies of the plundered books of -Babylonia. A whole army of scribes was employed in it, busily engaged in -writing and editing old texts. Assur-bani-pal is never weary of telling -us, in the colophon at the end of the last tablet of a series which made -up a single work, that 'Nebo and Tasmit had given him broad ears and -enlightened his eyes so as to see the engraved characters of the written -tablets, whereof none of the kings that had gone before had seen this -text, the wisdom of Nebo, all the literature of the library that -exists,' so that he had 'written, engraved, and explained it on tablets, -and placed it within his palace for the inspection of readers.' - -A good deal of the literature was of a lexical and grammatical kind, and -was intended to assist the Semitic student in interpreting the old -Accadian texts. Lists of characters were drawn up with their -pronunciation in Accadian and the translation into Assyrian of the words -represented by them. Since the Accadian pronunciation of a character was -frequently the phonetic value attached to it by the Assyrians, these -syllabaries, as they have been termed--in consequence of the fact that -the cuneiform characters denoted syllables and not letters--have been of -the greatest possible assistance in the decipherment of the -inscriptions. Besides the syllabaries, the Semitic scribes compiled -tables of Accadian words and grammatical forms with their -Assyro-Babylonian equivalents, as well as lists of the names of animals, -birds, reptiles, fish, stones, vegetables, medicines, and the like in -the two languages. There are even geographical and astronomical lists, -besides long lists of Assyrian synonyms and the titles of military and -civil officers. - -Other tablets contain phrases and sentences extracted from some -particular Accadian work and explained in Assyrian, while others again -are exercises or reading-books intended for boys at school, who were -learning the old dead language of Chaldea. In addition to these helps -whole texts were provided with Assyrian translations, sometimes -interlinear, sometimes placed in a parallel column on the right-hand -side; so that it is not wonderful that the Assyrians now and then -attempted to write in the extinct Accadian, just as we write nowadays in -Latin, though in both cases, it must be confessed, not always with -success. - -Accadian, however, was not the only language besides his own that the -Semitic Babylonian or Assyrian was required to know. Aramaic had become -the common language of trade and diplomacy, so that not only was it -assumed by the ministers of Hezekiah that an official like the -Rab-shakeh or Vizier of Sennacherib could speak it as a matter of course -(2 Kings xviii. 26), but even in trading documents we find the Aramaic -language and alphabet used side by side with the Assyrian cuneiform. -This common use of Aramaic explains how it was that the Jews after the -Babylonish captivity gave up their own language in favour not of the -Assyro-Babylonian, but of the Aramaic of Northern Syria and Arabia. An -educated Assyrian was thus expected to be able to read and write a dead -language, Accadian, and to read, write, and speak a foreign living -language, Aramaic. In addition to these languages, moreover, he took an -interest in others which were spoken by his neighbours around him. The -Rab-shakeh of Sennacherib was able to speak Hebrew, and tablets have -been discovered giving the Assyrian renderings of lists of words from -the barbarous dialects of the Kossæans in the mountains of Elam and of -the Semitic nomads on the western side of the Euphrates. - -All the branches of knowledge known at the time were treated of in -Assyrian literature, though naturally history, legend, and poetry -occupied a prominent place in it. But even such subjects as the -despatches of generals in the field, or the copies of royal -correspondence found a place in the public library. The chronology of -Assyria, and therewith of the Old Testament also, has been restored by -means of the lists of successive 'eponyms' or officers after whom the -years were named, while a recent discovery has brought to light a table -of Semitic Babylonian kings, arranged in dynasties, which traces them -back to B.C. 2330. - -[Illustration: Part of an Assyrian Cylinder containing Hezekiah's Name. -(_From the original in the British Museum._)] - -The following is the transcription into the ordinary Assyrian Characters -of the last thirteen lines of the photograph on page 104. - -[Illustration] - -By way of comparison, a specimen of Babylonian writing is also given -here. - -[Illustration: SPECIMEN OF BABYLONIAN WRITING FROM AN INSCRIPTION OF -NEBUCHADNEZZAR.] - -The following is the transliteration and translation of the -transcription on page 105. - - 29. a-na D.P.[6] Kha-za-ki-ya-hu - _to Hezekiah._ - - [6] D.P. stands for 'Determinative Prefix.' There are thirty - determinatives in Assyrian. - - The D.P. [Illustration: Symbol 1], the sign meaning 'heaven,' or - anything in heaven, is put before the name of a god. - - The D.P. [Illustration: Symbol 2], the sign meaning 'country,' - is put before the name of a country. - - The D.P. [Illustration: Symbol 3], the sign meaning 'city,' is - put before the name of a city, and so on. - - - 30. D.P. Ya-hu-da-â id-di-nu-su - _of the Jews they gave him as an enemy_ - - nak-ris a-na zil-li e-['s]ir-su - _In a dungeon he shut him up._ - - 31. ip-lukh lab-ba-su-un sarrani mat Mu-tsu-ri - _Their heart feared. The kings of the country of Egypt,_ - - - 32. D.P. tsabi D.P. mitpani D.P. narkabaté - _the men of bows and chariots,_ - - D.P. sis[=e] sa sar D.P. Me-lukh-khi - _the horses of the king of Melu[h.][h.]i_, - - - 33. e-mu-[k.]i la ni-bi ik-te-ru-nim-ma - _a force without number they brought together_ - - il-li-ku - _and they marched to_ - - - 34. ri-tsu-u['s]-['s]u-un. i-na ta-mir-ti - _their aid. In the sight of the city_ - - D.P. Al-ta-[k.]u-u - _Altaku_ - - - 35. el-la-mu-u-a ['s]i-id-ru rit-ku-nu - _before me the order of battle they had placed,_ - - u-sa-a'-lu - _they appealed to_ - - - 36. D.P. kakk-su-un i-na tukulti D.P. Assur beli-ya it-ti-su-un - _their weapons. By the support of Assur my lord with them_ - - - 37. am-da-khi-its-ma as-ta-kan hapikta-su-un - _I fought and I accomplished their overthrow;_ - - 38. D.P. beli-narkabate u abli sarrani - _the charioteers and the sons of the kings of_ - - D.P. Mu-tsu-ra-â - _the Egyptians_ - - - 39. a-di D.P. beli-narkabate sa sar - _together with the charioteers of the king of_ - - D.P. Me-lukh-khi bal-[d.]u-['s]u-un - _Melu[h.][h.]i alive_ - - - 40. i-na [k.]abal tam-kha-ri ik-su-da [k.]at[=a] - _in the midst of battle my two hands captured._ - - D.P. Al-ta-[k.]u-u - _The city Altaku_ - - - 41. D.P. Ta-am-na-a al-me aks-ud - _and the city T[=a]mn[=a] I besieged I captured_ - - sal-la-['s]un as-lu-la - _I carried away their spoil._ - -A flood of light has been poured on Chaldean astronomy and astrology, by -the fragments of the original work called 'The Observations of Bel' -which was translated into Greek by the Babylonian priest Bêrôssos. It -consisted of seventy-two books, and was compiled for king Sargon of -Accad, whose date is assigned by Nabonidos to B.C. 3800. Another work on -omens, in 137 books, had been compiled for the same king, and both -remained to the last days of the Assyrian Empire the standard treatises -on the subjects with which they dealt. To the same period we should -probably refer a treatise on agriculture, extracts from which have been -preserved in a reading-book in Accadian and Assyrian. Here the songs are -quoted with which the Accadian ox-drivers beguiled their labours -in the field: 'An heifer am I: to the cow thou art yoked: the -plough's handle is strong: lift it up lift it up;' or again: 'The knees -are marching, the feet are not resting; with no wealth of thy own grain -thou begettest for me.' Some of the most curious specimens of this -department of literature are the fables, riddles, and proverbs, which -embody the homely wisdom of the unofficial classes. - -Here, for instance, is a riddle propounded to Nergal and the other gods -by 'the wise man,' such as Orientals still delight in: - -'What is (found) in the house; what is (concealed) in the secret place; -what is (fixed) in the foundation of the house; what exists on the floor -of the house; what is (perceived) in the lower part (of the house); what -goes down by the sides of the house; what in the ditch of the house -(makes) broad furrows; what roars like a bull; what brays like an ass; -what flutters like a sail; what bleats like a sheep; what barks like a -dog; what growls like a bear; what enters into a man; what enters into a -woman?' The answer is, of course, the air or wind. - -Among the most treasured portions of the library of Nineveh was the -poetical literature, comprising epics, hymns to the gods, psalms and -songs. Fifteen of these songs, we are told, were arranged on the eastern -and northern sides of the building, 'on the western side being nine -songs to Assur, Bel the voice of the firmament, the Southern Sun,' and -another god. The mention of songs to Assur shows that there were some -which were of Assyrian origin. The epics, however, all came from -Babylonia, and were partly translations from Accadian, partly -independent compositions of Semitic Babylonian poets. The names of the -reputed authors of many of them have come down to us. Thus the great -epic of Gisdhubar was ascribed to Sin-liki-unnini; the legend of Etána -to Nis-Sin; the fable of the fox to Ru-Merodach the son of -Nitakh-Dununa. - -The epic of Gisdhubar, as has already been stated, contained the account -of the Deluge, introduced as an episode into the eleventh book. It -consisted in all of twelve books, and was arranged upon an astronomical -principle, the subject-matter of each of the books being made to -correspond with one of the signs of Zodiac. Thus the fifth book records -the death of a monstrous lion at the hands of Gisdhubar, answering to -the Zodiacal Leo; in the sixth book the hero is vainly wooed by Istar, -the Virgo of the Zodiacal signs; and just as Aquarius is in the eleventh -Zodiacal sign, so the history of the Deluge is embodied in the eleventh -book. There was a special reason, however, for this arrangement; -Gisdhubar himself was a solar hero. He seems originally to have been the -fire-stick of the primitive Accadians, and then the god or spirit of the -fire it produced, eventually in the Semitic period passing first into a -form of the Sun-god, and then into a solar hero. His twelve labours or -adventures answer to the twelve months of the year through which the sun -moves, like the twelve labours of the Greek Hêraklês. The latter, -indeed, were simply the twelve labours of Gisdhubar transported to the -west. The Greeks received many myths and mythological conceptions from -the Phoenicians, along with their early culture, and these myths had -themselves been brought by the Phoenicians from their original home in -Chaldea. It has long been recognised that Hêraklês was the borrowed -Phoenician Sun-god; we now know that his primitive prototype had been -adopted by the Phoenicians from the Accadians of Babylonia. It is not -strange, therefore, that just as in the Greek myth of Aphroditê and -Adônis we find the outlines of the old Chaldean story of Istar and -Tammuz, so in the legends of Hêraklês we find an echo of the legends of -Gisdhubar. The lion destroyed by Gisdhubar is the lion of Nemea; the -winged bull made by Anu to avenge the slight offered to Istar is the -winged bull of Krete; the tyrant Khumbaba, slain by Gisdhubar in 'the -land of pine-trees, the seat of the gods, the sanctuary of the spirits' -is the tyrant Geryôn; the gems borne by the trees of the forest beyond -'the gateway of the sun' are the apples of the Hesperides; and the -deadly sickness of Gisdhubar himself is but the fever sent by the -poisoned tunic of Nessos through the veins of the Greek hero. It is -curious thus to trace to their first source the myths which have made so -deep an impress on classical art and literature. The indebtedness of -European culture to the valley of the Euphrates is becoming more and -more apparent every year. - -It is impossible to determine the age of the great Chaldean epic, but -it must have been composed subsequently to the period when, through the -precession of the equinoxes, Aries came to be the first sign of the -Zodiac instead of Taurus, that is to say, about B.C. 2500. On the other -hand, it is difficult to make it later than B.C. 2000, while the whole -character and texture of the poem shows that it has been put together -from older lays, which have been united into a single whole. The poem -deservedly continued to be a favourite among the Babylonians and -Assyrians, and more than one edition of it was made for the library of -Assur-bani-pal. A translation of all the portions of it that have been -discovered will be found in George Smith's 'Chaldean Account of -Genesis.' - -It is difficult for the English reader to appreciate justly the real -character of many of these old poems. The tablets on which they are -inscribed were broken in pieces when Nineveh was destroyed, and the roof -of the library fell in upon them. A text, therefore, has generally to be -pieced together from a number of fragments, leaving gaps and lacunæ -which mar the pleasure of reading it. Then, again, the translator -frequently comes across a word or phrase which is new to him, and which -he is consequently obliged to leave untranslated or to render purely -conjecturally. At times there is a lacuna in the original text itself. -When the Assyrian scribe was unable to read the tablet he was copying, -either because the characters had been effaced by time or because their -Babylonian forms were unknown to him, he wrote the word _khibi_, 'it is -wanting,' and left a blank in his text. It is not wonderful, therefore, -that what is really a fine piece of literature reads tamely and poorly -in its English dress, more especially when we remember that the -decipherer is compelled to translate literally, and cannot have recourse -to those idiomatic paraphrases which are permissible when we are dealing -with known languages. - -But it must be confessed that many of the best compositions of Babylonia -are spoilt for us by the references to a puerile superstition, and the -ever-present dread of witchcraft and magic which they contain. A good -example of this curious mixture of exalted thought and debasing -superstition is the following hymn to the Sun-god:-- - - 'O Sun-god, king of heaven and earth, director of things - above and below, - O Sun-god, thou that clothest the dead with life, delivered - by thy hands, - judge unbribed, director of mankind, - supreme in mercy for him that is in trouble, - bidding the child and offspring come forth, light of the - world, - creator of all thy land, the Sun-god art thou! - O Sun-god, when the bewitchment for many days - is bound behind me and there is no deliverer, - the expulsion of the curse and return of health are brought - about (by thee). - Among mankind, the flock of the god Ner, whatever be their - names, he selects me: - after trouble he fills me with rest, - and day and night I stand undarkened. - In the anguish of my heart and the sickness of my body - there is ... - O father supreme, I am debased and walk to and fro. - In misery and affliction I held myself (?). - My littleness (?) I know not, the sin I have committed I - knew not. - I am small and he is great: - The walls of my god may I pass. - O bird stand still and hear the hound! - O Sun-god stand still and hear me! - The name of the evil bewitchment that has been brought - about overpower, - whether the bewitchment of my father, or the bewitchment of - my begetter, - or the bewitchment of the seven branches of the house of my - father, - or the bewitchment of my family and my slaves, - or the bewitchment of my free-born women and concubines, - or the bewitchment of the dead and the living, or the - bewitchment of the adult and the suckling (?), - or the bewitchment of my father and of him who is not my - father. - To father and mother be thou a father, and to brother and - child be thou a father. - To friend and neighbour be thou a father, and to handmaid - and man be thou a father. - To the field thou hast made and thy ... be thou a father. - May the name of my god be a father where there is no - justice. - To mankind, the flock of the god Ner, whatever be their - names, who are in field and city, - speak, O Sun-god, mighty lord, and bid the evil enchantment - be at rest.' - -Even the science of the Babylonians and their Assyrian disciples was not -free from superstition. Astronomy was mixed with astrology, and their -observation of terrestrial phenomena led only to an elaborate system of -augury. The false assumption was made that an event was caused by -another which had immediately preceded it; and hence it was laid down -that whenever two events had been observed to follow one upon the other, -the recurrence of the first would cause the other to follow again. The -assumption was an illustration of the well-known fallacy: 'Post hoc, -ergo propter hoc.' It produced both the pseudo-science of astrology and -the pseudo-science of augury. - -The standard work on astronomy, as has already been noted, was that -called 'The Observations of Bel,' compiled originally for the library of -Sargon I at Accad. Additions were made to it from time to time, the -chief object of the work being to notice the events which happened after -each celestial phenomenon. Thus the occurrences which at different -periods followed a solar eclipse on a particular day were all duly -introduced into the text and piled, as it were, one upon the other. The -table of contents prefixed to the work showed that it treated of -various matters--eclipses of the sun and moon, the conjunction of the -sun and moon, the phases of Venus and Mars, the position of the -pole-star, the changes of the weather, the appearance of comets, or, as -they are called, 'stars with a tail behind and a corona in front,' and -the like. The immense collection of records of eclipses indicates the -length of time during which observations of the heavens had been carried -on. As it is generally stated whether a solar eclipse had happened -'according to calculation' or 'contrary to calculation,' it is clear -that the Babylonians were acquainted at an early date with the -periodicity of eclipses of the sun. The beginning of the year was -determined by the position of the star Dilgan ([alpha] Aurigæ) in -relation to the new moon at the vernal equinox, and the night was -originally divided into three watches. Subsequently the _kasbu_ or -'double hour' was introduced to mark time, twelve _kasbu_ being -equivalent to a night and day. Time itself was measured by a clepsydra -or water-clock, as well as by a gnomon or dial. The dial set up by Ahaz -at Jerusalem (2 Kings xx. 11) was doubtless one of the fruits of his -intercourse with the Assyrians. - -The Zodiacal signs had been marked out and named at that remote period -when the sun was still in Taurus at the beginning of spring, and the -equator had been divided into sixty degrees. The year was -correspondingly divided into twelve months, each of thirty days, -intercalary months being counted in by the priests when necessary. The -British Museum possesses fragments of a planisphere from Nineveh, -representing the sky at the time of the vernal equinox, the -constellation of Tammuz or Orion being specially noticeable upon it. -Another tablet contains a table of lunar longitudes. - -With all this attention to astronomical matters it is not surprising -that every great city boasted of an observatory, erected on the summit -of a lofty tower. Astronomers were appointed by the state to take charge -of these observatories, and to send in fortnightly reports to the king. -Here are specimens of them, the first of which is dated B.C. 649:--'To -the king, my lord, thy servant Istar-iddin-pal, one of the chief -astronomers of Arbela. May there be peace to the king, my lord, may -Nebo, Merodach, and Istar of Arbela, be favourable to the king, my lord. -On the twenty-ninth day we kept a watch. The observatory was covered -with cloud: the moon we did not see. (Dated) the month Sebat, the first -day, the eponymy of Bel-kharran-Sadua.' 'To the king, my lord, thy -servant Abil-Istar. May there be peace to the king, my lord. May Nebo -and Merodach be propitious to the king, my lord. May the great gods -grant unto the king, my lord, long days, soundness of body, and joy of -heart. On the twenty-seventh day (of the month) the moon disappeared. On -the twenty-eighth, twenty-ninth, and thirtieth days, we kept a watch for -the eclipse of the sun. But the sun did not pass into eclipse. On the -first day the moon was seen during the day. During the month Tammuz -(June) it was above the planet Mercury, as I have already reported to -the king. During the period when the moon is called Anu (_i.e._, from -the first to the fifth days of the lunar month), it was seen declining -in the orbit of Arcturus. Owing to the rain the horn was not visible. -Such is my report. During the period when the moon was Anu, I sent to -the king, my lord, the following account of its conjunction:--It was -stationary and visible below the star of the chariot. During the period -when the moon is called Bel (_i.e._, from the tenth to the fifteenth -day), it became full; to the star of the chariot it approached. Its -conjunction (with the star) was prevented; but its conjunction with -Mercury, during the period when it was Anu, of which I have already sent -a report to the king, my lord, was not prevented. May the king, my lord, -have peace!' - -Astronomical observations imply a knowledge of mathematics, and in this -the Babylonians and Assyrians seem to have excelled. Tables of squares -and cubes have been found at Senkereh, the ancient Larsa, and a series -of geometrical figures used for augural purposes presupposes a sort of -Babylonian Euclid. The mathematical unit was 60, which was understood as -a multiple when high numbers had to be expressed, IV, for example, -standing for (4 × 60 =) 240. Similarly, 60 was the unwritten denominator -of fractional numbers. The plan of an estate outside the gate of Zamama -at Babylon, and belonging to the time of Nebuchadnezzar, has been -discovered, while the famous Hanging Gardens of that city were watered -by means of a screw. - -Medicine also was in a more advanced state than might have been -expected. Fragments of an old work on medicine have been found, which -show that all known diseases had been classified, and their symptoms -described, the medical mixtures considered appropriate to each being -compounded and prescribed quite in modern fashion. Here is one of them: -'For a diseased gall-bladder, which devours the top of a man's heart -like a ring(?) ... within the sick (part), we prepare cypress-extract, -goats' milk, palm-wine, barley, the flesh of an ox and bear, and the -wine of the cellarer, in order that the sick man may live. Half an ephah -of clear honey, half an ephah of cypress-extract, half an ephah of -_gamgam_ herbs, half an ephah of linseed, half an ephah of ..., half an -ephah of _imdi_ herbs, half an ephah of the seed of _tarrati_, half an -ephah of calves' milk, half an ephah of _senu_ wood, half an ephah of -_tik_ powder, half an ephah of the ... of the river-god, half an ephah -of _usu_ wood, half an ephah of mountain medicine, half an ephah of the -flesh(?) of a dove, half an ephah of the seed of the ..., half an ephah -of the corn of the field, ten measures of the juice of a cut herb, ten -measures of the tooth of the sea (sea-weed), one ephah of putrid -flesh(?), one ephah of dates, one ephah of palm-wine and _insik_, and -one ephah of the flesh(?) of the entrails; slice and cut up; or mix as a -mixture, after first stirring it with a reed. On the fourth day observe -(the sick man's) countenance. If it shows a white appearance his heart -is cured; if it shows a dark appearance his heart is still devoured by -the fire; if it shows a yellow appearance during the day, the patient's -recovery is assured; if it shows a black appearance he will grow worse -and will not live. For the swelling(?), slice (the flesh of) a cow which -has entered the stall and has been slaughtered during the day. Seethe it -in water and calves' milk. Drink the result in palm-wine. Drink it -during the day.' - -Generally, however, the prescriptions are not so elaborate as this. They -are more usually of this nature: 'For low spirits, slice the root of the -destiny tree, the root of the _susum_ tree, two or three other vegetable -compounds, and the tongue of a dog. Drink the mixture either in water or -in palm-wine.' - -Even medical science, however, was invaded by superstition. In place of -trying the doctor's prescription, a patient often had the choice allowed -him of having recourse to charms and exorcisms. Thus the medical work -itself permits him to 'place an incantation on the big toe of the left -foot and cause it to remain' there, the incantation being as follows: 'O -wind, my mother, wind, wind, the handmaid of the gods art thou; O wind -among the storm-birds; yea, the water dost thou make stream down, and -with the gods thy brothers liftest up the glory of thy wisdom.' At other -times a witch or sorceress was called in, and told to 'bind a cord twice -seven times, binding it on the sick man's neck and on his feet like -fetters, and while he lies in his bed to pour pure water over him.' -Instead of the knotted cord verses from a sacred book might be -employed, just as phylacteries were, and still are, among the Jews. Thus -we read: 'In the night-time let a verse from a good tablet be placed on -the head of the sick man in bed.' The word translated 'verse' is -_masal_, the Hebrew _mâshâl_, which literally signifies a 'proverb' or -'parable.' It is curious to find the witch by the side of the wizard in -Babylonia. 'The wise woman,' however, was held in great repute there, -and just as the witches of Europe were supposed to fly through the air -on a broomstick so it was believed that the witches of Babylonia could -perform the same feat with the help of a wooden staff. - -[Illustration] - - - * * * * * - - - - -CHAPTER V. - -MANNERS AND CUSTOMS; TRADE AND GOVERNMENT. - - -The monuments of Assyria do not give us the same assistance as those of -Egypt in learning about the manners and customs of its inhabitants. We -find there no tombs whose pictured walls set before us the daily life -and doings of the people. We have to acquire our knowledge from the -bas-reliefs of the royal palaces, which represent to us rather the pomp -of the court and the conquest of foreign nations than scenes taken from -ordinary Assyrian life. It is only incidentally that the manners and -customs of the lower classes are depicted. It is true that we can learn -a good deal from the contract-tablets and other kinds of what may be -called the private literature of Babylonia and Assyria. At present, -however, but a small portion of these has been examined, and a -literature can never paint so fully and distinctly the manners and -customs of the day as the picture or sculpture on the wall. It is only -in times comparatively modern that the novelist has sought to give a -faithful portrait of the life of the peasant and artisan. - -The dress of the upper classes in Assyria did not differ essentially -from that of the well-to-do Oriental of to-day. In time of peace the -king was dressed in a robe which reached to the ankles, bound round the -waist with a broad belt, while a mantle was thrown over his shoulders, -and a tiara or fillet was worn on his head. The tiara sometimes -resembled the triple tiara of the Pope, sometimes was of cone-like -shape, and the fillet was furnished with two long bandelettes which fell -down behind. The robe and mantle were alike richly embroidered and edged -with fringes. The arms were left bare, except in so far as they could be -covered by the mantle, and a heavy pair of bracelets encircled each, the -workmanship of the jewelry being similar to that of the chain which was -worn round the neck. The feet were shod with sandals which had a raised -part behind to protect the heels, and they were fastened to the feet by -a ring through which the great toe passed, and a latchet over the -instep. Sandals of precisely the same character are still used in -Mesopotamia. The monarch's dress in war was similar to that used in time -of peace, except that he carried a belt for daggers, while a fringed -apron took the place of the mantle. Boots laced in front were also -sometimes substituted for the sandals. - -The upper classes, and more especially the officials about court, wore a -costume similar to that of the king, only of course, less rich and -costly. In all cases they were distinguished by the long fringed -sleeveless robe which descended to the ankles. The dress of the soldiers -and of the common people generally was quite different. It consisted -only of the tunic, over which in all probability the long robe of the -wealthy was worn, and which did not quite reach the knees. Sometimes a -sort of jacket was put on above it, and, in a few instances, a simple -kilt seems to take its place. The kilt was frequently worn under the -tunic, which was fastened round the waist by a girdle or sword-belt. The -arms, legs, and feet, were bare. Some of the soldiers, however, wore -sandals, and others, more particularly the cavalry, wore boots, which -were laced in front, and came half way up the leg. The upper part of the -legs was occasionally protected by drawers of leather or chain-armour, -and we even find tunics made of the same materials. Helmets were also -employed, but the common soldier usually covered his head with a simple -skull-cap. - -The dress of the women consisted of a long tunic and mantle, and a -fillet for confining the hair. - -The king and his officers rode in chariots even when on a campaign. In -crossing mountains the chariots often had to be carried on the shoulders -of men or animals, their wheels being sometimes first taken off for the -purpose. The chariot was large enough to contain not only the king but -an umbrella-bearer and a charioteer as well. The latter held the reins -in both hands, each rein being single and fastened to either side of a -snaffle-like bit. When in the field the royal chariot was followed by a -bow-bearer and a quiver-bearer, as well as by led horses, intended to -assist the monarch to escape, should the fortune of battle turn against -him. The chariot was drawn by two horses, a third horse being usually -attached to it by a thong in order to take the place of one of the other -two if an accident occurred. - -[Illustration: ASSYRIAN KING IN HIS CHARIOT.] - -Beside the chariots the army was accompanied by a corps of cavalry. In -the time of the first Assyrian Empire the cavalry-soldier rode on the -bare back of the horse, with his knees crouched up in front of him; -subsequently saddles were introduced, though not stirrups. - -The cavalry was divided into two corps--the heavy and the light-armed. -The latter were armed only with the bow and arrow and a guard for the -wrist, and were chiefly employed in skirmishing. Most of the archers, -however, belonged to the infantry. The Assyrians were particularly -skilled in the use of the bow, and their superiority in war was probably -in great measure due to it. Besides the bow they employed the spear, the -short dagger or dirk, and the sword, which was of two kinds. The -ordinary kind was long and straight, the less usual kind being curved, -like a scimetar. For defence, round shields, of no great size, were -carried. - -Only the king and the chief nobles were allowed the luxury of a tent. -The common soldier had to sleep on the ground, wrapped up in a blanket -or plaid. The tent was probably of felt, and had an opening in the -centre through which the smoke of a fire might escape. Not only, -however, was a sleeping-tent carried for the king, a cooking-tent was -carried also. So also was the royal chair, called a _nimedu_, on which -the monarch sat when stationary in camp. The chair may be seen in the -bas-relief, now in the British Museum, which represents Sennacherib -sitting upon it in front of the captured town of Lachish. Above is a -short inscription which tells us that 'Sennacherib, the king of legions, -the king of Assyria, sat on an upright throne, and the spoil of the city -of Lachish passed before him.' - -There were various means for assaulting a hostile town. Sometimes -scaling-ladders were used, sometimes the walls were undermined with -crowbars and pickaxes; sometimes a battering-ram was employed armed -with one or two spear-like projections; sometimes fire was applied to -the enemy's gates. Other engines are mentioned in the inscriptions, but -as they have not been found depicted on the monuments it is difficult to -identify them. - -[Illustration: SIEGE OF A CITY.] - -The barbarities which followed the capture of a town would be almost -incredible, were they not a subject of boast in the inscriptions which -record them. Assur-natsir-pal's cruelties were especially revolting. -Pyramids of human heads marked the path of the conqueror; boys and girls -were burned alive or reserved for a worse fate; men were impaled, flayed -alive, blinded, or deprived of their hands and feet, of their ears and -noses, while the women and children were carried into slavery, the -captured city plundered and reduced to ashes, and the trees in its -neighbourhood cut down. During the second Assyrian Empire warfare was a -little more humane, but the most horrible tortures were still exercised -upon the vanquished. How deeply-seated was the thirst for blood and -vengeance on an enemy is exemplified in a bas-relief which represents -Assur-bani-pal and his queen feasting in their garden while the head of -the conquered Elamite king hangs from a tree above. - -The Assyrians made use of chairs, tables, and couches. A piece of -sculpture from Khorsabad introduces us to a scene in which the priests -of the king are seated, two on a chair on either side of a four-legged -table. Their sandals are removed, as was the custom among the Greeks -when eating. In the luxurious days of Assur-bani-pal the couch seems to -have partially taken the place of the chair, since in the scene alluded -to above the king is depicted reclining, though the queen sits in a -chair by his side. The number of different kinds of food mentioned in -the inscriptions seems to imply that the Assyrians were fond of good -living. The common people, it is true, lived mostly on bread, fruit, and -vegetables; but the monuments show us soldiers engaged in slaughtering -and cooking oxen and sheep. - -Wine was the usual beverage at a banquet, and the Assyrians appear to -have resembled the Persians in their indulgence in it. Various sorts of -wine are enumerated in the inscriptions, most of which were imported -from abroad. Among the most highly prized was the wine of Khilbun or -Helbon, which is mentioned in Ezek. xxvii. 18, and was grown near -Damascus at a village still called Halbûn. Besides grape-wine, -palm-wine, made from dates, was brought from Babylon, and beer, milk, -cream, butter or ghee, and oil, were all much used. At a feast the wine -was ladled out of a large vase into cups, which were then presented to -the guests. - -The table was ornamented with flowers, and musicians were hired to amuse -the banqueters. No less than seven or eight different musical -instruments were known, among them the harp, the lyre, and the -tambourine. The lyre seems to have been specially employed at feasts, -and the harp for the performance of sacred music. The instrumental music -was at times accompanied by the voice, and bands of musicians celebrated -the triumphant return of the king from war. - -Polygamy was permitted--at all events to the monarch--and the palace was -accordingly guarded by a whole army of eunuchs. They were generally in -attendance on the sovereign, like the scribes whose offices were -continually needed in both peace and war. Another attendant must not be -forgotten--the servant who stood behind the king armed with a fly-flap, -and was almost a necessity in hot weather. Considering the number of -captives carried away every year to Assyria in the successful campaigns -of its rulers, slaves must have been very plentiful in Nineveh. Indeed, -after the Arabian campaign of Assur-bani-pal we are told that a camel -was sold for half a shekel of silver, and that a man was worth a -correspondingly small sum. - -Next to hunting men the chief employment and delight of an Assyrian king -was to hunt wild beasts. Tiglath-Pileser I had hunted elephants in the -land of the Hittites, as the Egyptian Pharaohs had done before him; -subsequently the extinction of the elephant in Western Asia caused his -successors to content themselves with lesser game. The reem or wild bull -and the lion became their favourite sport, smaller animals like the -gazelle, the hare, and the wild ass being left to their subjects to -pursue. It was not until the reign of Assur-bani-pal that the lion-hunt -ceased to be a dangerous and exciting pastime. With Esar-haddon, -however, the old race of warrior kings had come to an end, and the new -king introduced a new style of sport. The lions were now caught and kept -in cages, until they were turned out for a royal _battue_. As they had -to be whipped into activity, neither the monarch nor his companions -could have run much risk of being harmed. - -The Assyrians were not an agricultural people like the Babylonians. -Nevertheless, the kings had their paradises or parks, and the wealthier -classes their gardens or shrubberies. The garden was planted with trees -rather than with flowers or herbs, and afforded a shady retreat during -the summer months. Tiglath-Pileser I had even established a sort of -botanical garden, in which he tried to acclimatise some of the trees he -had met with in his campaigns. He tells us of it: 'As for the cedar, the -_likkarin_ tree, and the almug, from the countries I have conquered, -these trees, which none of the kings my fathers that were before me had -planted, I took, and in the gardens of my land I planted, and by the -name of garden I called them; whatsoever in my land there was not I -took, and I established the gardens of Assyria.' The gardens were -abundantly watered from the river or canal, by the side of which they -were usually planted. Summer-houses were built in the midst of them, and -as early as the time of Sennacherib we meet with a 'hanging garden,' -grown on the roof of a building. - -Fishing was carried on with a line merely, and without a rod. The -fisherman sat on the bank, or else swam in the water, supporting himself -on an inflated skin. - -These inflated skins were largely used in warfare for conveying troops -and animals across a stream. The chief officers, along with their -chariots and commissariat, were ferried across in boats, but the -soldiers had to strip, and with the help of the skins convey themselves, -their arms, the horses, and other baggage to the opposite bank. - -At times a pontoon-bridge of boats was constructed, at other times the -Assyrian army was fortunate enough to meet with bridges of stone or -wood. In fact, such bridges existed on all the main roads which it -traversed. Western Asia was more thickly populated then than is at -present the case, and the roads were not only more numerous than they -are to-day, but better kept. Hence the ease and rapidity with which -large bodies of men were moved by the Assyrian kings from one part of -Asia to another. Where a road did not already exist, it was made by the -advancing army, timber being cleared and a highway thrown up for the -purpose. - -As road-makers the Assyrians seem to have anticipated the Romans. Both -their military and their trading instincts led them in this direction. -It was only when they came to the water that their career was checked. -Excellent as they were as soldiers, they never became sailors. The boats -of the Tigris and Euphrates were either rafts or circular coracles of -skins stretched on a wooden framework. When Sennacherib wished to attack -the Chaldeans of Bit-Yagina in their place of refuge on the Persian -Gulf, he had to transport Phoenicians from the west to build his -galleys, and to navigate them afterwards. It was the Babylonians 'whose -cry was in their ships;' the Assyrians fought and traded on shore. - -It was not until the rise of the Second Assyrian Empire that the trade -of Assyria became important. The earlier kings had gone forth to war for -the sake of booty or out of mere caprice; Tiglath-Pileser II and his -successors aimed at getting the commerce of the world into the hands of -their own subjects. The fall of Carchemish and the overthrow of the -Phoenician cities enabled them to carry out their design. Nineveh became -a busy centre of trade, from whence caravans went and returned north and -south, east and west. The old Hittite standard of weight, called 'the -maneh of Carchemish' by the Assyrians, was made the ordinary legal -standard, and Aramaic became the common language of trade. Not -unfrequently an Aramaic docket accompanies an Assyrian contract tablet, -stating briefly what were its contents and the names of the chief -contracting parties. These contract tablets have to do with the sale and -lease of houses, slaves, and other property, as well as with the amount -of interest to be paid upon loans. We learn from them that the rate of -interest was usually as low as four per cent., and when objects like -bronze were borrowed as three per cent. House property naturally varied -in value. A house sold at Nineveh on the sixteenth of Sivan or May, B.C. -692, fetched one maneh of silver or £9, the average price of a slave. -Thus, three Israelites, as Dr. Oppert believes, were sold by a -Phoenician on the twentieth of Ab or July, B.C. 709, for £27, -retractation or annulment of the sale being subject to a penalty of -about £230, part of which was to go to the temple of Istar of Arbela. -Twenty years later, however, as many as seven slaves, among them an -Israelite, Hoshea, and his two wives, were sold for the same price, -while we find a girl handed over by her parents to an Egyptian lady -Nitôkris, who wished to marry her to her son Takhos, for the small sum -of £2 10_s_. The last deed of sale, by the way, proves that wives in -Assyria could sometimes be bought. - -All deeds and contracts were signed and sealed in the presence of a -number of attesting witnesses, who attached their seals, or, if they -were too poor to possess any, their nail-marks, to the documents. It was -then enclosed in an outer coating of clay, on which an abstract of its -contents was given. Sometimes a further document on papyrus was fastened -to it by means of a string. - -It was only in the case of the monarch himself that the signatures of -attesting witnesses were dispensed with. The British Museum possesses a -sort of private will made by Sennacherib in favour of Esar-haddon, when -the latter was not as yet heir-apparent to the throne. In this no -witnesses are mentioned, and it is considered sufficient that the -document should be lodged in the imperial archives. It runs as follows: -'I, Sennacherib, king of legions, king of Assyria, bequeathe armlets of -gold, quantities of ivory, a platter of gold, ornaments and chains for -the neck, all these beautiful things of which there are heaps, and three -sorts of precious stones, 1½ manehs and 2½ shekels in weight, to -Esar-haddon, my son, whose name was afterwards changed to -Assur-sar-illik-pal by my wish. I have deposited the treasure in the -house of Amuk. Thine is the kingdom, O Nebo, our light!' Payments, it -must be remembered, were still made by weight, coined money not having -been introduced until after the time of Nebuchadnezzar. - -The business-like character of the trading community of Nineveh will -best be gathered from the documents themselves which have been left to -us. It will, therefore, not be out of place to add here translations of -some of the contract tablets:-- - - I. 'Ten shekels of the best silver for the head of Istar of - Nineveh, which Bil-lubaladh has lent on a loan in the presence - of Mannu-ki-Arbela [here follow three seals]; the silver is to - have interest paid upon it at four per cent. The silver has - been given on the third day of the month. (Dated) the third - day of Sebat, in the eponymy of Rimmon-lid-ani. The witnesses - (are) Khatpi-sumnu, Rahu, Ziru-yukin, Neriglissor, Ebed-Nebo - of Selappa, Musezib-Assur, Nebo-sallim-sunu, Khanni, and - Bel-sad-ili.' - -Then follow two lines and a half of Aramaic, the first of which contains -the name of Mannu-ki-Arbela. - - II. 'Two talents of bronze, the property of Istar of Arbela, which - Mannu-ki-Arbela gives to the goddess in the month Ab, in the - presence of Samas-akhi-erba; if they are given, interest shall - be paid on them at three per cent. (Dated) the eleventh day of - Sivan, in the eponymy of Bamba (B.C. 676), before the - witnesses: Istar-bab-esses, Kua, Sarru-ikbi, Dumku-pani-sarri, - and Nebo-bilua.' - - III. 'Four manehs of silver, according to the standard of - Carchemish, which Neriglissor, in the presence of - Nebo-sum-iddin, son of Nebo-rahim-baladhi, the superintendent - of the Guards at Dur-Sargon (Khorsabad), lends out at five - shekels of silver per month interest. (Dated) the twenty-sixth - day of the month of Iyyar, in the eponymy of Gabbaru (B.C. - 667). The witnesses are: Nebo-pal-iddin, Nebo-nirar, the - holder of the two pens, Akhu-ramu of the same office, - Assur-danin-sarri of the same office, Disi the astronomer, - Samas-igir-sumeli (?), Sin-kasid-kala, the executioner, and - Merodach ... the astronomer.' - - IV. 'The nail-mark of Sar-ludari, the nail-mark of Atar-suru, the - nail-mark of the woman Amat-Suhla, the wife of Bel-dur, - belonging to the third regiment, owners of the house which is - sold. [Then follow four nail-marks.] The whole house, with its - woodwork and its doors, situated in the city of Nineveh, - adjoining the houses of Mannu-ki-akhi and El-kiya, near the - markets (?), has been sold, and Tsil-Assur, the astronomer, an - Egyptian, has received it for one maneh of silver, according - to the royal standard (£9), in the presence of Sar-ludari, - Atar-suru, and Amat-suhla, the wife of Bel-dur. The full price - has been paid. This house has been bought. Withdrawal from the - contract and agreement is forbidden. Whoever shall act - fraudulently (?) at any time, or from among these men who have - sworn to the contract and agreement with Tsil-Assur, shall be - fined ten manehs of silver (£90). The witnesses are: - Susanku-khatnanis, Kharmaza, the captain; Rasuh, the pilot; - Nebo-dur-sanin, the foreign traveller; Kharmaza, the chief - pilot; Sin-sar-utsur and Zedekiah. (Dated) the sixteenth day - of Sivan, in the eponymy of Zaza (B.C. 692), the Governor of - Arpad. In the presence of Samas-yukin-akhi, Latturu, and - Nebo-sum-utsur.' - - V. 'The seal of (Dagon-melech) the master of the slaves.--Imannu, - the woman U ... and Melech-ur [Melchior], three persons, have - been sold, and thou, O Enuma-ili, the holder of the - highplaces which have been erected at the entrance to - Dur-Sargon, hast received them from Dagon-melech for three - manehs of silver (£27) according to the standard of - Carchemish. The full price hast thou paid. These slaves have - been bought and taken. Withdrawal from the contract and - agreement is forbidden. Whoever shall act fraudulently (?) at - any time, and shall deceive and injure me (?), whether - Dagon-melech or his brothers, or the sons of his brothers, - whether small or great, who have sworn to the contract and - agreement on behalf of Enuma-ili, his sons and grandsons, - shall pay ... (manehs) of silver, and one maneh of gold to - Istar of Arbela, and shall return the price to the owners with - ten per cent. interest. Then he will be quit of his contract - and agreement, and will not have bought. The witnesses (are): - Adda the astronomer, Akhu-irame the astronomer, Pakakha - [Pekah] the chief of the ..., Nadbi-Yahu [Nadabiah] the - principal ... Bel-sime-ani, Bin-dikiri, Khim-Istar, and Tabni - the astronomer, the recipient of the document. (Dated) the - twentieth day of Ab, in the eponymy of Mannu-ki-Assur-lih' - (B.C. 709). - -It will be noticed that the Israelitish witnesses to the last deed of -sale, Pekah and Nadabiah, hold public offices, though the exact nature -of them is at present unknown. We may conclude from this that some of -the Samaritan captives were allowed to live in Nineveh, and so far from -being in a condition of slavery were able to be in the service of the -state. Among the earliest known examples of Israelitish or Jewish -writing are seals which probably belong to a period anterior to the -Babylonish Exile, and have been found at Diarbekr and other places in -the neighbourhood of the Tigris and Euphrates. It is also possible that -the great banking firm of Egibi, which flourished at Babylon from the -time of Sennacherib and Esar-haddon to that of Darius and Xerxes, and -carried on business transactions as extensive as those of the -Rothschilds of to-day, was of Israelitish origin. At all events the name -Egibi is not Babylonian, while it is a very exact Babylonian transcript -of the Biblical name Jacob. - -The contract tablets throw a good deal of light upon Assyrian law. In -its main outlines it did not differ much from our own. Precedents and -previous decisions seem to have been held in as high estimation as among -our own lawyers. The king was the supreme court of appeal, and copies -exist of private petitions preferred to him on a variety of matters. -Judges were appointed under the king, and prisons were established in -the towns. An old Babylonian code of moral precepts addressed to princes -denounces the ruler who listens to the evil advice of his courtiers, and -does not deliver judgment 'according to the statutes,' 'the law-book,' -and 'the writing of the god Ea.' The earliest existing code of laws is -one which goes back to the Accadian epoch, and contains an express -enactment for protecting the slave against his master. How far it was -made the basis of subsequent Semitic legislation it is difficult to say; -in one respect, at all events, it differed considerably from the law -which followed it. This was in the position it assigned to women. Among -the Accadians, the woman was the equal of man; in fact, she ranked -before the husband in matters relating to the family; whereas among the -Semites she was degraded to a very inferior rank. It is curious to find -the Semitic translator of an Accadian text invariably changing the order -in which the words for man and woman, male and female occur in the -original. In the Accadian the order is 'woman and man,' in the -Assyro-Babylonian translation, 'man and woman.' - -The high-roads were placed under the charge of commissioners, and in -Babylonia, where brick-making was an important occupation, the -brick-yards as well. Certain of the taxes, which were raised alike from -citizens and aliens, were devoted to the maintenance of them. -Unfortunately we know but little at present of the precise way in which -the taxes were levied, and the principle on which they were distributed -among the various classes of the population. In Babylonia, however, the -tenant does not seem to have paid much to the government, since we are -told of him that after handing over one-third of the produce of an -estate to his landlord, he might keep the rest of it for himself. There -is no hint that any portion of it was distrained for the state. - -As in modern Turkey, the imperial exchequer after the time of -Tiglath-Pileser II was supplied by fixed contributions from the separate -provinces and large towns. Thus Nineveh itself was assessed at thirty -talents. The best way, however, of giving an idea of the assessment is -by a translation of the few fragments of the assessment lists of the -Second Empire which have been preserved to us. - - I. 'To be expended on linen cloths. Fifty (talents). - Thirty talents. The tribute of Nineveh. Ten talents - for firewood (?). - Twenty talents of Assyria, from the same city, for the - equipment of the fleet. - Ten talents of Assyria, a fresh assessment. In all - (from Assyria) 274 talents. - Twenty talents for the harem of the palace. Expended - on linen cloths. - - * * * * * - - Five talents. The tribute of Calah. To be expended - on firewood (?). - Four talents of Assyria, from the same city. Thirty - talents for the highlands. - Ten talents from the city of Enil, for the lowlands. - ... talents from the city of Nisibis. Twenty - talents for 600.... - ( ... talents) from the city of Alikhu, for 600 - dresses. - ( ... talents) for six vestures of linen. Three - talents for _epâ_. - ( ... talents ...) for keeping the gates in - repair. - ( ... talents) for the tax-gatherer. Two talents - from the city of Alikhu. - ( ... talents) for chariots and for wheels. - ( ... talents) for the astronomer. Three talents for - women's robes. - ( ... talents) for the throne of the palace in the - middle of the city. Two talents for gala dresses. - ( ... talents) for the throne of the palace (in the - middle of the city). Two talents ten manehs 500 - (shekels). - ... in the city of Assur ... again. - ... the city of Kalzu[7], two talents (for) - three conduits. - ( ... talents) from the city of Enil, for the persons - of the overseers. - (Assessment of) the country of Assyria; two talents for - the house of the tax-gatherer; two talents for the - right side (of the house); five talents for the - completion (of the assessment). - ( ... talents) from the nobles, and two talents from - the librarians, for firewood (?) each year. - - [7] Now Shamameh, south-west Arbela. - - - * * * * * - - To be expended on linen cloths: ten talents from the - land of Risu. - (For) the servants of the palace and the people of - Nineveh. - - * * * * * - - ... (for) seats, five talents from their attendants - (Levied) every year from the lowlands. - The payment to be made by the tax-gatherer: two - talents for the male and female spinners. - - * * * * * - - (For) the house of the Master of the Singers: one - talent for their coverings. - Also for the house of the singing men themselves. - ... for the keep of the war-chariot. In all 190 - talents ten manehs. - - * * * * * - - ... manehs for his awning. To be expended in - full. - ... manehs for the broad streets of the public - road: seven talents ten manehs besides. - Forty manehs and a shekel and (?) a sleeved dress; - twenty-two talents for wood. - At six per cent. on each shekel let him put out the - money at triple interest. - - * * * * * - - Two talents without the linen. Fifteen talents ten - manehs for the same personage. - - * * * * * - - Three talents ten manehs for the custom-house. - Thirty talents ten manehs on (?) slaves. - Two manehs for wine-presses. The money to be put - out at double interest. - - * * * * * - - For rods: one talent (levied on) the north side (of - the city). In all, twenty-two talents to be invested. - Altogether thirty talents twenty-one manehs out of - fifty-three talents. - In the presence of the princes the money raised on the - slaves to be invested. - - * * * * * - - [Here follows the endorsement of the tax-collectors:] - - We receive no bribes: we give what we take.' - - II. 'Thirty talents (are annually received) from Arpad. - One hundred talents from Carchemish. - Thirty talents from the city of the Kuans.[8] - Fifteen talents from Megiddo. - Fifteen talents from Mannutsuate. - ... talents from Zemar (Gen. x. 18). - ... talents from Hadrach (Zech. ix. 1). - - [8] The Kue or Kuans inhabited the northern and eastern - shores of the Gulf of Antioch. M. François Lenormant - has ingeniously suggested that in 1 Kings x. 28, we - ought to read (with a slight change of vowel punctuation), - 'And Solomon had horses brought out of Egypt, and out - of Kue the king's merchants received a drove at a price.' - - * * * * * - - ... talents to be put out at interest; fifty talents - to be melted into bronze. - It is weighed in the presence of the princes. - (The tribute) of Damascus, Arpad, Carchemish, Kue, - Tsubud, Zemar, and Meon-Zemar.' - -In spite of the fragmentary character of these lists, and the difficulty -of understanding them perfectly in consequence of their brevity and the -omission of prepositions, we may nevertheless glean from them a fair -idea of the method in which the imperial exchequer of Assyria was -replenished, and the objects to which the taxes and tribute were -devoted. A considerable amount must have gone to the great army of -officials by whom the Second Empire was administered. 'The great king,' -it was true, was autocratic like the Russian Czar, but like the Russian -Czar he was also controlled by a bureaucracy which managed the -government under him. In military matters alone he was supreme, though -even here two commanders-in-chief stood at his side, ready to take his -place in the command of the troops whenever age or disinclination -detained him at home. The lists of Assyrian officials which we possess -are very lengthy, and their titles seem almost endless. At the head came -the two commanders-in-chief, the Turtannu or Tartan of the right, and -the Turtannu of the left, doubtless so called from their position on the -right and left of the king. Next to them were the Chamberlain or -superintendent of the singing men and women, and then after five other -officials whose posts are obscure, the 'Rab-sak' or 'Rab-shakeh.' His -title means literally 'chief of the princes,' and he corresponded to the -Vizier or Prime Minister of the Turkish Empire. Among other public -offices we may notice that of the astronomer, who was supported by the -state like the rest, and who ranked immediately after the -'superintendent of the camel-stables.' The latter again was inferior in -rank to the 'captain of the watch,' 'the captain of fifty,' 'the -overseer of the vineyards,' and 'the overseer of the quays.' - -Such, then, was the constitution of the great Assyrian Empire, which -first endeavoured to organise Western Asia into a single homogeneous -whole, and in effecting its purpose cared neither for justice nor for -humanity. Nineveh was 'full of lies and robbery,' but it was God's -instrument in chastising His chosen people, and in preparing the way for -the ages that were to come, and for a while, therefore, it was allowed -to 'make the earth empty' and 'waste.' But the day came when its work -was accomplished, and the measure of its iniquity was full. Nineveh, -'the bloody city,' fell, never to rise again and the doom pronounced by -Nahum was fulfilled. For centuries the very site of the imperial city -remained unknown, and the traveller and historian alike put the vain -question: 'Where is the dwelling of the lions, and the feeding-place of -the young lions, where the lion, even the old lion, walked, and the -lion's whelp, and none made them afraid?' - -[Illustration] - - - * * * * * - - - - - APPENDIX. - - TRANSLATIONS FROM ASSYRIAN TEXTS RELATING TO THE - HISTORY OF THE KINGDOMS OF ISRAEL AND JUDAH. - - - _From the inscription of Shalmaneser II, found at Kurkh, on the right - bank of the Tigris, to the south-east of Diarbekr._ - -'In the eponymy of Dayan-Assur (B.C. 854) on the 14th of the month Iyyar -I left the city of Nineveh. The river Tigris I crossed. I approached the -cities of Giammu on the river Balikh. The fear of my lordship, the sight -of my strong weapons they feared, and in the service of themselves they -slew Giammu their lord. I descended into the cities of Kitlala and -Tul-sa-abil-akhi [the mound of the son of the brother]; I caused my gods -to enter his palaces; a plundering in his palaces I made. I opened his -store-chambers; his treasures I seized. His goods, his spoil, I carried -off; to my city of Assur I brought (them). From the city of Kitlala I -departed; to the city of the Fort of Shalmaneser [Tul-Barsip, the -Barsampsê of Ptolemy] I approached. In boats of inflated skins for the -second time I crossed the Euphrates at its flood. The tribute of the -kings of the further bank of the Euphrates; of Sangar of Carchemish; of -Kundaspi of Komagênê; of Arame the son of Gusi; of Lalli of Malatiyeh; -of Khayani, the son of Gabari; of Girparuda of the Patinians; and of -Girparuda of the Gamgumians; silver, gold, lead, bronze, and vases of -bronze (in) the city of Assur-tamsukha-atsbat, on the further bank of -the Euphrates, and above the river Saguri [the Sajur], which the -Hittites call the city of Pethor, in the midst (of it) I received. From -the Euphrates I departed. The city of Khalman [Aleppo] I approached; -they feared battle; they embraced my feet. Silver and gold I received as -their tribute; I offered sacrifices before the god Rimmon of Khalman. -From the city of Khalman I departed; to two cities of Irkhulena of -Hamath I approached. The cities of Adennu [the Eden of Amos i. 5], Barga -and Argana his royal city I captured.[9] His spoil, his goods, and the -treasures of his palaces I brought out. To his palaces I set fire. From -the city of Argana I departed, the city of Karkar [Aroer] I approached. -(His) royal city of Karkar I threw down, dug up, and burned with fire. -1,200 chariots, 1,200 horsemen, and 20,000 men of Hadadezer of Damascus, -700 chariots, 700 horsemen, and 10,000 men of Ahab [Akhabbu] of Israel, -500 men of Kue, 1,000 men from Egypt, 10 chariots, and 10,000 men from -the land of Irkanat, 200 men of Matinu-Baal of Arvad, 200 men from the -land of Usanat, 30 chariots, and 10,000 men of Adon-Baal of Sizan, 1,000 -camels of Gindibuh of the land of the Arabians [Arba'â], 200 men of -Bahsa son of Rukhubi [Rehob] of Ammon, these twelve kings (Irkhulena) -brought to his help, and to (make) war and battle against me they had -come. With the exalted help which Assur the lord rendered, with the -mighty weapons which the great protector who goes before me bestowed, I -fought with them. From the city of Karkar to the city of Guzau I -overthrew them. 14,000 of their troops I slew with weapons. Like Rimmon, -the air-god, I caused the storm to come forth upon them. I filled the -surface of the water with their (wrecks). I laid low their wide-spread -forces with weapons. The low ground of the district received (?) their -corpses. To give life to its inhabitants I have enlarged its border (?); -that it might support them I divided (it) among its people. The river -Orontes I reached close to the banks. In the midst of this battle I took -from them their chariots, their horsemen, their horses and their teams.' - - [9] On the bronze gates of Balawât Adennu is written Adâ and Barga - Parga. - - - _From the Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser II._ - -'In my eighteenth year for the sixteenth time I crossed the Euphrates. -Hazael, of Damascus, advanced to battle; 1,121 of his chariots, 470 of -his horsemen, along with his camp I took from him.' - - - _From a Fragment of the Annals of Shalmaneser II._ - -'In my eighteenth year for the sixteenth time I crossed the Euphrates. -Hazael, of Damascus, trusted in the might of his army, and assembled his -army without number. He made Mount Shenir, the highest peak of the -mountains which are as you come to Mount Lebanon, his fortress. I fought -with him; I overthrew him; 16,000 of his fighting men I slew with -weapons, 1,121 of his chariots, 470 of his horsemen, along with his -camp, I took from him. To save his life he ascended (the country); I -pursued after him. In Damascus, his royal city, I shut him up; his -plantations I cut down. To the mountains of the Hauran I went; cities -innumerable I threw down, I dug up, I burned with fire; their spoil -innumerable I carried away. To the mountains of Baal-rosh at the -promontory of the sea I went; I made an image of my majesty there. At -that time I received the tribute of the Tyrians, of the Sidonians, and -of Jehu, son of Omri.' - - - _From the Inscription of Rimmon-nirari III._ - -'Conqueror from the highroad of the rising sun, of the lands of Kip, -Ellip [Ekbatana], Kharkhar, Arazias, Mesu, the Medes, Girubbunda to its -whole extent, Munna, Barsua, Allabria, Abdadana, Nahri to its extreme -frontiers, and Andiu, whose situation is remote, the mountainous -border-land to its extreme frontiers, as far as the great sea of the -rising sun [the Persian Gulf], from the Euphrates, and the lands of the -Hittites, of Phoenicia to its whole extent, of Tyre, of Sidon, of Omri -[Samaria], of Edom, and of Philistia as far as the great sea of the -setting sun [the Mediterranean], to my yoke I subjected (them), payment -of tribute I imposed upon them. To the land of Damascus I went; I shut -up Marih, king of Syria, in Damascus, his royal city. The fear of the -brilliance of Assur, his lord, overwhelmed him, and he took my feet; he -offered homage. 2,300 talents of silver, 20 talents of gold, 3,000 -talents of bronze, 5,000 talents of iron, garments of damask and linen, -a couch of ivory, a sun-shade of ivory, I took, I carried to (Assyria). -His spoil, his goods innumerable, I received in Damascus, his royal -city, in the midst of his palace.' - - - _From Fragments of the Annals of Tiglath-Pileser II._ - -I. 'They had embraced the mountain of Baal-tsephon [Mount Kasios] as far -as the range of Amanus, the land of Zittu (?), the land of Sau to its -whole extent, the province of the cities of Kar-Rimmon and Hadrach -(Zech. ix. 1), the province of the city of Nukudina, the land of Khazu -[Huz] as far as the cities in the circuit of the city of Arâ, the -cities, all of them, the cities in their circuit, the mountain of Sarbua -to its whole extent, the cities of Askhan and Yadab, Mount Yaraku to its -whole extent, the cities of ... ri, Ellitarbi, and Zitânu as far as the -midst of the city of Atinni ... and the city of Buname, nineteen -districts belonging to Hamath, together with the cities in their circuit -in the direction of the sea of the setting sun [the Mediterranean], -which in their faithlessness made revolt to Azariah, I turned into the -territory of Assyria. My governors and officers I appointed over them.' - -II. 'The tribute of Kustaspi of Komagênê, Rezon of Damascus, Menahem of -Samaria, Hiram of Tyre, Sibitti-Baal of Gebal, Urikki of Kue, Pisiris of -Carchemish, Eniel of Hamath, Parammu of Samahla, Tarkhu-lara of Gamgum, -Sulumal of Milid [Malatiyeh], Dadilu of Kolkhis, Vas-surme of Tubal, -Uskhitti of Tuna, Urpalla of Tukhan, Tukhamme of Istunda, Urimme of -Khusimna, and Zabibieh, queen of the Arabians, gold, silver, lead, iron, -elephants' hides, elephants' tusks, tapestries of blue and purple, -oak-wood, weapons for service, a royal tent, sheep with bundles of their -wool, purple dye, the dyed feathers of flying birds, nine of their wings -coloured blue, horses, mules, oxen, sheep, and wethers, camels and -she-camels, together with their young ones, I received. In my ninth year -Assur my lord regarded me and to the countries of Kipsi, Irangi, -Tazakki, Media, Zualzas, Matti, and Umliyas I went.' - -III. 'The towns of Gil(ead) and Abel-(beth-Maachah) in the province of -Beth-Omri [Samaria], the widespread (district of Naphta)li to its whole -extent I turned into the territory of Assyria. My (governors) and -officers I appointed (over them). Khanun of Gaza who had fled before my -weapons escaped (to the land) of Egypt. The city of Gaza (his royal city -I captured. Its spoils), its gods (I carried away. My name) and the -image of my majesty (I set up) in the midst of the temple of ... the -gods of their land I counted (as a spoil) and ... like a bird ... to his -land I restored him and (imposed tribute upon him. Gold), silver, -garments of damask and linen (along with other objects) I received. The -land of Beth-Omri ... a selection of its inhabitants (with their goods) -I transported to Assyria. Pekah their king I put to death, and I -appointed Hosea to the sovereignty over them. Ten (talents of gold, ... -of silver as) their tribute I received, and I transported them (to -Assyria).' - - - _From the Inscriptions of Sargon._ - -I. '(In the beginning of my reign) the city of Samaria I besieged, I -captured; 27,280 of its inhabitants I carried away; fifty chariots in -the midst of them I collected, and the rest of their goods I seized; I -set my governor over them and laid upon them the tribute of the former -king (Hosea).' - -II. '(Sargon) the conqueror of the Thamudites, the Ibadidites, the -Marsimanites, and the Khapayans,[10] the remainder of whom was carried -away and whom he transported to the midst of the land of Beth-Omri.' - - [10] Identified by Delitzsch with the Ephah of Gen. xxv. 4, and - Is. lx. 6. - -III. 'The Thamudites, the (Ibadidites), the Marsimanites and the -Khapayans, distant Arab tribes, who inhabit the desert, of whom no -scholar or envoy knew, and who had never brought their tribute to the -kings my (fathers), I slaughtered in the service of Assur, and -transported what was left of them, setting them in the city of Samaria.' - -IV. '(In my ninth expedition and eleventh year) the people of the -Philistines, Judah, Edom and the Moabites who dwell by the sea, who owed -tribute and presents to Assur my lord, plotted rebellion, men of -insolence, who in order to revolt against me carried their bribes for -alliance to Pharaoh king of Egypt, a prince who could not save them, and -sent him homage. I, Sargon, the established prince, the reverer of the -worship of Assur and Merodach, the protector of the renown of Assur, -caused the warriors who belonged to me entirely to pass the rivers -Tigris and Euphrates during full flood, and that same Yavan [of Ashdod], -their king, who trusted in his (forces), and did not (reverence) my -sovereignty, heard of the progress of my expedition to the land of the -Hittites [Syria], and the fear of (Assur) my (lord) overwhelmed him, and -to the border of Egypt ... he fled away.' - - - _From a Cylinder of Esar-haddon._ - -'I assembled the kings of Syria and the land beyond the [Mediterranean] -sea, Baal king of Tyre, Manasseh king of Judah, Kaus-gabri king of Edom, -Mizri[11] king of Moab, Zil-Baal king of Gaza, Metinti king of Ashkelon, -Ikausu king of Ekron, Melech-asaph king of Gebal, Matan-Baal king of -Arvad, Abi-Baal king, of Shamesh-merom, Pedael king of Beth-Ammon, and -Ahimelech king of Ashdod, twelve kings of the sea-coast; Ekistor king of -Idalion, Pylagoras king of Khytros, Kissos king of Salamis, Ithuander -king of Paphos, Eriêsos king of Soloi, Damasos king of Kurion, Rumesu -king of Tamassos, Damusi king of Carthage, Unasagusu king of Lidir, and -Butsusu king of Nurê, ten kings of the land of Cyprus in the middle of -the sea.' - - [11] That is 'the Egyptian;' cf. 2 Sam. xxiii. 20, 21. - - - * * * * * - - - - - INDEX - - - A. - -Accadians, invented the cuneiform system of writing, founded the chief -cities and civilisation of Babylonia; erected the earliest known -monuments; the language may be called the Latin of Asia, 24; the -Accadians first used hieroglyphics or pictures painted on papyrus -leaves, from which the cuneiform characters were formed; afterwards soft -clay was stamped with cuneitic symbols, and then sun-dried; general use -of writing and materials employed; characters changed, 93-95; Sarzec's -recent discovery at Tel-Loh, 95. - -Adar, a solar deity; pronunciation of name not quite certain; it forms a -part of the name Adrammelech, 66. - -Adrammelech, one of the gods of Sepharvaim brought to Samaria by the -colonists settled there; probably representing some particular attribute -of the Sun-god; also the name of one of Sennacherib's regicide sons, 46, -66. - -Ahaz, king of Judah, called Jehoahaz in the inscriptions; bribed Pul to -attack the Syrians and Israelites; and himself became tributary, 36. - -Allat, the goddess queen of the underworld, 76. - -APPENDIX.--Translations from Assyrian texts relating to the kingdoms of -Israel and Judah: - - I. Inscription of Shalmaneser II, found at Kurkh, 146-8. - II. The Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser II, 148. - III. From a Fragment of Shalmaneser II, 148. - IV. From the Inscription of Rimmon-nirari III, 148-9. - V. From Fragments of the Annals of Tiglath-Pileser II, 149-151. - VI. From the Inscriptions of Sargon, 151-2. - VII. From a Cylinder of Esar-haddon, 152. - -Aramaic, commonly used by the Jews, after the captivity, and became the -common language of trade, 132-3. - -Ararat or Armenia, long a dangerous neighbour; Tiglath-Pileser II -invaded the country, invested Van, and devastated the surrounding -country, 35. - -Armies composed of charioteers, light and heavy armed cavalry and -infantry, and were variously equipped with bows, swords, and daggers, -126. - -Armies crossing streams; the common soldiers on inflated skins; the -chief officers, chariots, and commissariat in boats, or on pontoon -bridges, 131. - -Assessment lists of the provinces and large towns after the time of -Tiglath-Pileser II; the places and amounts paid to the imperial -exchequer, 140-3. - -Assur, the name of a city on the western bank of the Tigris, and the -capital of the country or district named after it; Assur was a -descriptive appellation signifying 'water-boundary' at first, but was -slightly changed by the Semitic conquerors so as to mean 'gracious;' the -name of Sar, the god of the firmament, in time, was confused with that -of the patron deity, and Assur thus came to signify the city, country, -and the deity; hence Assur represented at the same time the power and -constitution of Assyria, the 'gracious' god, and the primeval firmament; -ruins now called Kalah Sherghat, 21-2. - -Assur-bani-pal, probably 'the great and noble Asnapper;' succeeded his -father, Esar-haddon, 48; he was luxurious, ambitious, and cruel, but a -most magnificent patron of literature; he kept scribes constantly -engaged on new editions of rare or older works; entrusted his armies to -his generals, and before his death found the empire irretrievably -weakened; his lion hunts compared with those of his warlike -predecessors; Egyptian revolt crushed, and Tirhakah again a fugitive, -No-Amon plundered, and two obelisks carried as trophies to Nineveh, 51; -Tyre surrendered and the Lydians paid tribute; fall of Elam, Shushan -razed, and captive kings compelled to drag Assur-bani-pal's chariot -through Nineveh, 51-2; the Arabs severely punished, and the Armenians of -Van sought an alliance; rebellion headed by his brother the Babylonian -viceroy, with the assistance of Egypt, Palestine, and Arabia, and hired -Karian and Ionian mercenaries; Egypt now threw off the yoke; Cuthah was -reduced by famine, and Samas-yukin perished in the flames of his palace; -Elam ravaged again and the last king became a fugitive, 52. - -Assur-natsir, one of the most energetic and ferocious warrior kings, -also a great builder of palaces; restored Calah, formed a library, and -made the city his favourite residence, 28-9. - -Assur-nirari, the last of his line, ascended the throne in troublous -time; Assur, the capital, rose in revolt; the cities and outlying -districts were surging with discontent; ten years later the army -rebelled, and the monarch and his dynasty fell together, 33. - -Assyrian book, with illustration from the original in the British -Museum, 98. - -Assyrian _campaigns_ at first undertaken for the sake of plunder and -exacting tribute; made but little effort to retain their conquests, till -the time of the Second Empire, 33. - -Assyrian _history_ scarcely known till Bel-kapkapi became king; decline -of Assyrian power and influence, and revived by Assur-dayan II and his -warlike successors, who conquered the Babylonians, Hittites, and -Phoenicians, 34-7. - -Assyrian _law_ relied greatly on precedents and decisions; the king -supreme, and appointed the judges; in its general principles resembled -the English; earliest code, Accadian, 138. - -Assyrian _literature_, wide range of subjects, included history, legend, -poetry, astronomy, and astrology, &c.; letters of the king, reports of -astronomers and generals, 102. - -Assyrian _palace_, built of brick on a raised platform; description, -extent of courts and royal chambers; the observatory built in stages on -the west side; exaggerated forms of columnar architecture used; -apertures which served as windows protected in winter by heavy folds of -tapestry, 86-8. - -Assyrian _sculptures_, mostly in relief; three periods traceable; -characteristics and comparison with Egyptian art; colour used on the -bas-reliefs, 89-90. - -Assyrian _Semites_, allied in blood and language to the Hebrews, -Aramæans, and Arabs; the Babylonians a mixed race, partly Semites and -Accadians, the original possessors of the soil of Chaldea, 24. - -Assyrians and Babylonians contrasted, 66-7. - -Assyro-Babylonians excelled in a knowledge of mathematics; tables of -squares and cubes and geometrical figures have been found at Senkereh, -and the plan of an estate at Babylon, 118. - - - B. - -Babel, tower of, and the dispersion, 82-3. - -Babylonian _myth_ of the seven evil spirits warring against the moon; -flight of Samas and Istar; and the demons put to flight by Merodach; -explanation of the myth, 78. - -Babylonian _story_ of the god Zu stealing the lightning of Bel compared -with that of the Greek Prometheus, 78. - -Balawât, colossal doors of, the work of native artists, description of -the bronze framework and reliefs; explanatory texts relating to -Shalmaneser's campaigns; Carchemish and Armenian warriors depicted, 30. - -Banquets, wines of various kinds used; those of Helbon most highly -prized; other luxuries common; the tables ornamented with flowers, and -musicians hired to entertain the guests, 128-9. - -Bel-kapkapi, the founder of the kingdom of Assur; its extent and varying -frontiers; the inhabitants Semites, 27. - -Bêrôssus' great work of seventy-two books translated into Greek, 102. - -Blissful lot of the spirit of Ea-bani described in the epic of -Gisdhubar, 76-7. - -Botta and Layard's excavation brought to light Dur-Sargon and Nineveh, -26. - -Bridges common on all the great roads through Western Asia in the -earliest ages; used for war and trade; the country then more populous, -and the roads numerous and well kept, 131-2. - - - C. - -Calah founded by Shalmaneser I, whose descendants reigned six -generations; it became the seat of royalty under Assur-natsir-pal and -Shalmaneser II, 27-9; the palace rebuilt by Assur-etil-ilani, son of -Assur-bani-pal, 53. - -Chairs, tables, and couches used at meals, 128. - -Chaldæan account of the Deluge, and its relation to the Scriptural -narrative; the two compared and contrasted, 81-2. - -Chariots often carried across mountains on the shoulders of men, or -animals; the royal chariot contained the king and two attendants, and -was followed by a guard and led horses, 124. - -Charms and exorcisms used for curing diseases; the knotted cord and -leaves from a sacred book; repute of the witch and wizard, 120-1. - -Code of moral precepts addressed to princes and courtiers; earliest -Accadian law book expressly protected slaves, 138. - -Colossi dragged from the quarries on land by means of sledges, and on -rivers and canals by rafts; Sennacherib directed the removal of winged -bulls and deities from Balad, 90-3. - -Contract tablets relating to loans, sales, leases of houses, and other -property: tablets translated: i. Loan of silver and interest paid on it; -ii. Loan of bronze; iii. Loan of silver; iv. Sale of a house; v. Sale of -slaves, 135-7. - -Contrasts between the Assyrians and Babylonians, 66-7. - -Creation legend from Cuthah, described chaos, and the formation of -monsters, followed by more perfect creatures; the legend from -Assur-bani-pal's library and its remarkable resemblance to the account -in Genesis; Assyrian account, 79, 80-1. - -Cylinder, part of, containing Hezekiah's name, transcribed into -ordinary characters, 104-5; compared with one of Nebuchadnezzar's -inscriptions; transliteration and translation of part of the -inscription, 107-8. - -Cyrus permitted the Assyrians to return to their old capital, and -released the Jewish exiles from Babylon, 53-4. - - - D. - -Datilla, the river of death, at the mouth of the Euphrates, where -Gisdhubar saw the Chaldæan Noah after his translation; but in later -times the entrance to Hades and the site of the earthly Paradise were -removed to more unknown regions, 76. - -Death of Tammuz lamented by Jewish females in the temple at Jerusalem, -65. - -Deeds and contracts signed and sealed in the presence of witness, or -nail marks made by those unable to write, and the documents carefully -preserved, 133. - -Defects in the tablets caused by the ignorance of the scribes, 112-3. - -Deluge sent as a punishment for the wickedness of mankind, 82. - -Descent of Istar into Hades in search of Tammuz, one of the most popular -old Babylonian myths; her passage through the seven gates of the -underworld, and appearance before Allat; the myth explained, 64-5. - -Dread of witchcraft and magic; referred to in hymn to the Sun-god, -113-5. - -Dress of all classes; the king in time of peace; the upper classes, -soldiers, common people, and women, 123-4. - -Dur-Sargina, the modern Khorsabad, built by Sargon, in the form of a -square, surrounded by walls forty-six feet thick; the outer wall was -flanked with towers; description of the palace and its courts; the royal -chambers; the observatory built in stages, 86-7. - - - E. - -Ea (the god), the deep, or ocean-stream, supposed to surround the earth -like a serpent; his symbol, attributes, and title; Eridu the chief seat -of his worship, near the sacred grove where the tree of life and -knowledge had its roots; Ea, a benevolent deity, who taught the art of -healing and culture to mankind; his wife, Dav-kina, presided over the -lower world, 59. - -Eclipse of the sun and revolt of city of Assur, 33. - -Educated Assyrians and traders conversant with several languages, 101. - -Education widely diffused throughout Babylonia; few unable to read and -write, 95. - -Egibi, eminent bankers during the reigns of Sennacherib and Esar-haddon, -to Darius and Xerxes; the name a very exact transcript of the Biblical -Jacob, 138. - -Eponyms, officers after whom the year was named; lists determine both -the Assyrian and Biblical chronology, 102. - -Erimenas, king of Armenia, completely defeated near Malatiyeh in -Kappadokia, 46. - -Esar-haddon, shortly after his father's murder, defeated his insurgent -brothers and Erimenas, near Malatiyeh, and was then proclaimed king; he -possessed military genius and political tact, and was the first king who -conciliated the conquered nations; Egypt was subdued; Babylon rebuilt, -and the plunder and the gods returned to the inhabitants; Manasseh -brought captive before him; trade diverted into Assyrian channels, and -secured by a daring march to Huz and Buz; terrified the Arabs; drove -Teispes westwards; worked the copper mines of Media; exacted tribute -from Cyprus, where he obtained some of the materials of his palace at -Nineveh, 46-8; he completely overran Egypt, divided the country into 27 -satrapies placed under governors watched by Assyrian garrisons, 48. - -Esar-haddon II, called Sarakos by the Greeks, on ascending the throne -was surrounded by foes; the frontier towns fell quickly, and a public -fast was proclaimed and prayers offered to the gods to ward off the doom -of Nineveh, but the city was besieged, captured, and destroyed, 53. - -Etana, the Babylonian Titan, and his exploits, 83; legend ascribed to -Nis-Sin, 110. - - - F. - -Fables, riddles, and proverbs anciently, as now, the delight of -Orientals; riddle propounded to Nergal and the other gods, 109. - -Fate of Nineveh after its iniquity was full; the very site unknown for -ages, 53. - -Fishing carried on with a line merely, 131. - -Forbidden foods; fasts and humiliations in times of public calamity, -73. - - - G. - -Gisdhubar epic; structure and contents; each of its twelve books -corresponded to one of the signs of the zodiac; history of the Deluge -contained in the eleventh book; Gisdhubar a solar hero, and his -adventures compared with the labours of Hêraclês; resemblance of -Accadian and Greek myths; date of the epic more than 2000 years before -Christ; formed of older lays put together to form a single poem, 110-12. - -Goyim, over which Tidal was king, probably comprised in Gutium, or -Kurdistan, 23. - - - H. - -Hadadezer (the Biblical Benhadad) of Damascus formed a confederacy with -Hamath and Israel against the Assyrians; Ahab's contingent; rout of the -allies at Karkar, or Aroer, 31. - -Hades a dreary abode, where spirits flitted, like bats, among the -crowned phantoms of heroes; palace of Allat, where the waters of life, -near the golden throne, restored to life and the upper air those who -drank of them; entrance, the River Datilla, 75-6. - -Hanging gardens, watered by means of a screw, 118. - -Hazael utterly routed by Shalmaneser II on the heights of Shenir; camp, -chariots, and carriages captured, and siege laid to Damascus, 31. - -Helbon noted for its wines; still called Halbûn, 127. - -Highroads and brickyards placed under commissioners, 131-2. - -Human sacrifices an Accadian institution; children burnt to death as -expiatory offerings by their fathers, 75. - -Hymn to the Sun-god, a mixture of exalted thought and debasing -superstition, 113-5. - -Hymns in honour of the different deities collected into a sacred book; -Semitic translations made, but the hymns recited long afterwards in the -original Accadian language, 67-8. - - - I. - -Inferior deities classed among 'the 300 spirits of heaven' and 'the 600 -spirits of earth,' 57. - -Inscription containing Hezekiah's name transliterated and translated, -101-8. - -Israelite officials witnesses of deed of sale, 137. - -Istar, the great Accadian goddess, unlike the Beltis or Bilat, wife of -Baal, had independent attributes as strongly marked as those of the -gods, and was known as the evening star, 57; she became the Semitic -Ashtoreth, and was the goddess of love, war, and the chase; she was -associated with Tammuz; her different attributes, temples, and worship -in different places, 62-4. - - - J. - -Jehu's tribute to Shalmaneser II, gold and silver drinking vessels, a -sceptre, and spear handles, 32. - -Jewish seals probably earlier than the Babylonish exile found at -Diarbekr and other places near the Tigris and Euphrates, 138. - - - K. - -Kandalanu, viceroy of Babylon twenty-two years; the father of -Nabopolassar, 53. - -Karkar or Aroer, battle of, and defeat of Benhadad and his allies, 31. - -Khumbaba the tyrant, slain by Gisdhubar 'in the land of the pine trees,' -111. - -King only supreme in military affairs, and assisted by two -commanders-in-chief; lists of officials, their titles and duties, 144. - - - L. - -Legend of Lubara, the plague demon, smiting the evil-doers of Babylon -and Erech, and its partial resemblance to the angel of the Lord standing -with a drawn sword over Jerusalem as a punishment of David's sins, 78. - -Libraries early established in all the great cities, as Assur, Calah, -and Nineveh; the last filled by Assur-bani-pal with copies of the -plundered books of Babylonia, 99; lexical and grammatical phrase books, -and lists of the names of animals, birds, reptiles, fish, stones, -vegetables, and titles of military and civil officers, were contained in -the different books stored up for reference, 100-1; all the branches of -learning then known were included; also dispatches of generals, reports -of astronomers, royal letters, and lists of eponyms, 102. - -Library of Nineveh, rich in poetical literature, comprised epics, hymns -to the gods, psalms, and songs; songs to Assur of Assyrian origin, the -epics, Babylonian, Accadian, and partly Semitic, by native poets, -109-10. - -Liturgy contained rubrics for particular days, and direction of the -priests, 68. - - - M. - -March, order of, in a campaign; the king and his attendants, -charioteers, heavy and light cavalry, bowmen and infantry variously -equipped, 125-6; king and nobles only allowed tents; a royal chair -called a _nimedu_ carried for the king's use; bas-relief of Sennacherib -seated on one, before Lachish, 126. - -Medicines, classification of diseases, prescriptions, and incantations, -119-20. - -Merodach, originally a form of the Sun-god; a benevolent and -intercessory deity, represented as continually passing between earth and -heaven, informing Ea of the sufferings of mankind, and striving to -alleviate them; he destroyed the demon Tiamat, and was commonly -addressed as 'Bel' or 'Lord;' his star Jupiter; and his wife Zir-panitu, -60. - -Merodach-Baladan's envoys induced Hezekiah to join the confederacy of -Phoenicia, Moab, Edom, Philistia, and Egypt, against the Assyrians; but -Sargon's rapid movements surprised them; Phoenicia and Judah were -overrun, and Ashdod burnt before the arrival of the Egyptians; -Merodach-Baladan in his own country made vigorous efforts to repel the -attack of the conqueror on his return; but the Elamite allies were put -to flight, and Sargon entered Babylon in triumph; the following year -Merodach-Baladan was pursued to Beth-Yagina, which was taken by storm, -and the defenders sent in chains to Nineveh; Merodach-Baladan escaped, -and two years afterwards again seized Babylon, but was defeated at the -battle of Kis, and a second time became a fugitive, 40-1. - -Modes of assaulting fortified towns, and fearful atrocities committed by -the conquerors, 126-8. - -Monotheists who flourished in Chaldæa in pre-Semitic times, resolved the -various deities into manifestations of one supreme god, Anu; old hymns -refer to 'the one god,' 58-9. - -Myths common to all old forms of faith, 77-8. - - - N. - -Nabopolassar renounced his allegiance to Nineveh, and prepared the way -for his son Nebuchadnezzar's empire, 53. - -Names of Assyrian kings explained, 54. - -Nebo the god of oratory and literature, said to have invented the -cuneiform system of writing; great temple at Borsippa dedicated to him; -his worship carried to Canaan, as seen in the names of a city and a -mountain; had a temple at Bahrein under the name of Enzak; as a -planetary deity he represented Mercury, and was often adored as Nusku, -perhaps, the Nisroch of the Bible, 61. - -Nergal, the god of hunting and war, also presided with Anu over the -regions of the dead, 65. - -Nineveh, probably coeval with the city of Assur, but only became the -capital at a much later period; after the fall of the Assyrian Empire -its site was forgotten for ages; Rich's conjecture verified by Layard's -excavations, and its buried treasures again brought to light, 25-6. - - - O. - -'Observations of Bel,' the great work on astronomy and astrology, -compiled at Accad for Sargon, mostly a record of eclipses of the sun and -moon, conjunctions and phases of Venus and Mars; the time of the new -year; the zodiacal signs named, and the divisions of the year, 102, -115-6. - -Observatories in all the great cities; specimens of the astronomers' -fortnightly reports, 117-8. - -Official lists and titles almost endless; rank and office of the -principal, 144. - -Omens, work on, in 137 books compiled for Sargon, known to the last days -of the Empire, 102. - -Ox-driver's labour song in the fields, 109. - - - P. - -Paradises or parks planted by the kings; gardens and shrubberies -containing summer-houses by the wealthy; hanging garden, 130-1. - -Penitential psalms composed at a very remote period, one of the finest -addressed to Istar, 71-3. - -Phoenician galley builders and sailors employed by Sennacherib on the -Persian Gulf in his attack on the last refuge of the Chaldæans, 132. - -Planisphere from Nineveh, and a table of lunar longitudes, 116-7. - -Polygamy practised by the king, and the palace guarded by eunuchs, 129. - -Prayer after a bad dream, 70. - -Prayer of an Assyrian court for the king, 76. - -Prayers to Bel and various deities on different occasions, 68-70. - -Private will of Sennacherib in favour of Esar-haddon, 134. - -Proud boast of the Babylonian monarch about exalting his throne above -the stars, and sitting in the assembly of the gods, 77. - -Pul, a military adventurer, seized the crown, B.C. 743, and assumed the -name of Tiglath-Pileser II; he was an able ruler, a good general, and a -skilful administrator, and consolidated the empire by deporting the -turbulent populations to distant homes, and importing others; he divided -the empire into provinces, and fixed the annual tribute; he endeavoured -to subvert the power of the Hittites of Carchemish, and turn the trade -of Asia Minor into Assyrian channels, and render Syria and Phoenicia -tributary, 34; he annexed Northern Babylonia, punished the Kurds, -utterly defeated Sarduris and his confederates, and captured Arpad after -a siege of two years; he stormed Hamath, and transplanted part of the -inhabitants to Armenia; he received tribute from the Syrian kings, and -Menahem, Rezon, Hiram, and Pisiris; he blockaded Van, and ravaged the -surrounding country, 35-6; he was heavily bribed by Ahaz to attack Rezon -and Pekah; Damascus was invested and forced to surrender through famine, -and forces were sent against the Ammonites, Moabites, and Philistines; -on the fall of Damascus it was plundered and the inhabitants -transplanted to Kir; Babylonia was reduced, and under his original name -of Pul, he assumed the title of King of Sumir (Shinar) and Accad, 37. - - - R. - -Relative rank of women in Accadian and Babylonian times, 139. - -Religion of Assyria, including deities and beliefs borrowed from -Babylonia; but the Semites had greatly modified the original Accadian -conceptions; belief of the _Zi_, evil and good spirits; diseases caused -by demoniacal possession, and only curable by exorcisms and charms; the -spirits most dreaded those who had been raised to the position of gods, -as Anu, Mul-ge, and Ea; spirits of the heavenly bodies, 55-6; curious -contrasts: polytheism and monotheism, 83-4; victories ascribed to Assur, -and wars undertaken in his name: inconsistency and changes in the cult -explained; inferiority to the faith of Israel, 84-5. - -Rents paid by tenants of land in Babylonia, 139. - -Repetition of the names of the gods, and its efficacy, 73. - -Resen, name found in the inscriptions, but the site not yet determined; -its meaning, 22-3. - -Rimmon or Ramman, 'the thunderer,' the god of the atmosphere, rain, and -storms; his cult extended to Syria, and he appears to have been the -chief deity of Damascus, where he was known as Hadad or Dadda, 61. - -Rimmon-nirari I, inscriptions of: his wars against the Babylonians, -Kurds, and Shuites, 27. - -Roads formed and kept in good condition, 131-2. - -Rowandiz, where the ark is supposed to have rested; a snow-clad peak, -'the mountain of the world,' and 'the mountain of the East;' thought to -be the abode of the gods, and the support of the vault of heaven, 77, -82. - -Royal hunts, at first wild elephants and lions; but under Esar-haddon -had degenerated into a _battue_ of tamed animals kept in cages for the -purpose, 129, 130. - - - S. - -Sabbath early known, but confounded with the feast of the New Moon; kept -on the seventh, fourteenth, twenty-first, and twenty-eighth day of the -lunar month, 73-4. - -Sale of Israelitish slaves by a Phoenician; another sale afterwards of -seven persons included an Israelite called Hoshea and his two wives, -133. - -Samas, the Sun-god, was the son of Sin, in accordance with the -astronomical view of the old Babylonians; he was really only a form of -Merodach, though in historical times the two were separated, and -received different cults; originally identical with Tammuz, through the -myth of Istar, separate attributes were assigned to him, and Tammuz -became a deity distinct from Samas, 61-2. - -Samas-Rimmon, Shalmaneser's second son, quelled the revolt against his -father, and succeeded him as king of Assyria, 32. - -Sar, the god of the firmament; afterwards confused with the name of the -patron deity of the capital of the country, 22. (_See_ Assur.) - -Sargon, a usurper, claimed royal descent; was an able general, but a -rough and energetic ruler, 37-8; two years after his accession captured -Samaria, and removed the inhabitants to Gozan; he found the task of -cementing together the empire formed by Tiglath-Pileser by no means -easy; Babylonia had thrown off the yoke, and submitted to -Merodach-Baladan; Elam threatened him on the south; the Kurds renewed -their depredations on the east; the Hittites of Carchemish were -unsubdued, Syria held with difficulty, and Egypt appeared as a new -enemy, 38; he drove the Elamites back into their own country, suppressed -the revolt of Hamath, and burnt the city; put Yahu-bihdi or Ilu-bihdi to -a horrible death, marched along the coast of Palestine, and roused the -Egyptian army at Raphia, taking its ally the king of Gaza captive, 38-9; -he stormed Carchemish, took Pisiris prisoner, and the allies fled -northward; the city was plundered, and an Assyrian satrap appointed over -it; he had now gained the high road of the caravan trade between Eastern -and Western Asia; the Hittite allies continued the struggle six years, -when Van submitted, and its king Ursa committed suicide; Cilicia and -Tubal were placed under an Assyrian governor, and the city of Malatiyeh -was razed to the ground, 39; Merodach-Baladan had formed a powerful -combination against Sargon in the west, of Judah, Phoenicia, Edom, -Philistia, and Egypt, but before the confederates were ready to act -together, Sargon overran Palestine, captured Jerusalem, and burnt -Ashdod; he next hurled his forces against Babylonia, compelled the -Elamites to retire, and entered the capital in triumph; the following -year he pursued Merodach-Baladan to Beth-Yagin, which was taken by -storm, and the defenders sent in chains to Nineveh, but Merodach-Baladan -escaped, 40-1; extent of Sargon's empire, and conquests; murdered by his -own soldiers in Dur-Sargon, his new city, 41; succeeded by his son -Sennacherib, 41. - -Science mixed with superstition; astronomy with astrology: the -observation of nature with augury, 115; modes of measuring time and -determining the beginning of the year, 116. - -Script characters generally used for official and private documents; -this mode of writing clear, well-defined, and continued nearly the same -till the fall of Nineveh; clay tablets small, but well baked in a kiln; -characters sometimes very minute, and must have been formed with the aid -of a magnifying glass, 96-7. - -Sennacherib had been brought up in the purple; was weak, boastful, and -cruel, and only preserved the empire by the help of his father's -veterans and generals; Merodach-Baladan escaped from captivity, and -again seized Babylon, but was driven from the country after the battle -of Kis, 41-2; Sennacherib next invaded Phoenicia and Judah and the -neighbouring countries; Assyrian account of the battle of Eltekeh; -capture of illustrious persons and spoil; his boast of cities taken and -tribute; but entire silence about the terrible disaster he sustained -near Jerusalem, and his precipitate flight; the following year he -suppressed Nergal-yusezib's revolt, and appointed Assur Nadin-sumi -viceroy of Babylon, 42-5; pursued the Chaldæan refugees and destroyed -their last settlements on the Persian Gulf, 45; Elam next invaded -Babylonia, and placed Nergal-yusezib on the throne; defeated the -Assyrians near Nipur, but died soon afterwards; he was succeeded by -Musezib, who defied the power of Assyria nearly four years, but was -beaten in the decisive battle of Khalule; the following year Sennacherib -captured Babylon, and gave it up to fire and the sword; the inhabitants -were sold into slavery, and the waters of the Araxes canal overflowed -the ruined city; his Cilician campaign the last; the rest of his life -spent in constructing canals, aqueducts, and rebuilding the palace at -Nineveh; he was murdered by his two elder sons whilst worshipping in the -temple of his god, 46. - -Shalmaneser I said to have built Calah, and his descendants reigned -uninterruptedly six generations, 27. - -Shalmaneser II, his great military successes and long reign, the climax -of the first Assyrian empire; his annals contained on a monolith near -Diarbekr, a small obelisk, and on the bronze framework of the gates of -Balawât; Jehu one of his tributaries; his campaign against the Kurds, -Van, and the Manna or Minni; compelled the Hittites to sue for peace, -and recaptured Pethor, 29-31; defeated Benhadad and his allies at Aroer -or Karkar, and twelve years afterwards completely crushed the power of -Hazael on the heights of Shenir, laid siege to Damascus, ravaged the -Hauran, and marched to Baal-rosh, where his image was carved on the -rocky promontory, 31-2; little further attempted by the king, besides -exacting tribute from distant regions; revolt of his eldest son, joined -by twenty-seven cities, put down by the energy and military capacity of -Samas-Rimmon, 31-2. - -Shalmaneser III, a usurper of Tinu; he attempted the capture of Tyre, -began a war against Israel, but had scarcely laid siege to Samaria when -he died or was murdered, and was succeeded by Sargon, another usurper, -37. - -Sin, the Moon-god, called Agu or Acu by the Accadians, was the patron -deity of Ur; had a famous temple in the ancient city of Harran, where he -was symbolised by an upright cone of stone; his emblem was the crescent -moon, 62. - - - T. - -Table of Semitic Babylonian kings arranged in dynasties, which traces -them back to B.C. 2330; a recent discovery, 102. - -Tables of squares and cubes found at Larsa, also geometrical figures -used for augury; the mathematical unit, and mode of expression, 132-3. - -Temple, Assyro-Babylonian, and its points of resemblance to Solomon's, -74-5; entrances to temples and palaces guarded by colossal figures of -winged bulls; temples filled with images of the gods, great and small, -which were supposed to confer special sanctity on the place; offerings -of two kinds, sacrifices and meal offerings; no traces of human -sacrifices among the Assyrians, although an Accadian institution; -referred to in an old astrological work, where children were allowed to -be offered by the fathers as expiatory sacrifices, 74-5. - -Tiamat, the dragon, destroyed by Merodach, 60, 78-9. - -Tiglath-Pileser I, his conquests in Cilicia, Kurdistan; defeated the -Moschi, Hittites, and their Colchian allies, and erected a memorial of -his exploits near the sources of the Tigris; he garrisoned Pethor with -Assyrian soldiers, and on his return to Nineveh planted a park with -strange trees brought back with him during his campaigns; he invaded -Babylonia, and was at first repulsed, but was victorious afterwards, -ravaged the country, and captured Babylon, 28. - -Tower of Babel, building destroyed by winds in the night, and 'great and -small,' as well as their speech confounded by Anu, 82-3. - -Trade, its rise and growth under the Second Empire; fall of Carchemish -and the Phoenician cities; the standard of weight, 'the maneh,' and -Aramaic, the language of commerce, 132-3. - - - V. - -Van, the capital of Ararat, successfully resisted the Assyrians, whilst -the country far and near was wasted for a space of 450 miles, 36; -submitted to Sargon, and its king Ursa committed suicide, 39; Van sought -an alliance with Assur-bani-pal, 52. - - - W. - -Witches and wizards held in high repute, 121. - -Woman's position in Accad and Babylonia, 139. - - - X. - -Xisuthros, the Chaldæan Noah, sails in a ship containing others beside -his own family, steered by a pilot; whilst the flood was at its height, -sent out a raven, dove, and swallow, to ascertain how far the waters had -abated; his vessel rested on Rowandiz, and Xisuthros, immediately after -his descent, sacrificed to the gods, and was translated to the land of -immortality, 81-2. - - - Z. - -Zu, 'the divine storm bird,' who stole the lightning of Bel, the -parallel of the Greek story of Prometheus, 78. - - - * * * * * - - - - - INDEX OF SCRIPTURE REFERENCES. - - - Page - - Gen. x. 11 22 - Gen. x. 18 143 - Gen. xiv. 1 23 - - Deut. iii. 9 31 - Deut. xxii. 49 61 - - Josh. xv. 59 58 - Josh. xix. 38 58 - - 1 Kings viii. 13 12 - 1 Kings x. 28 143 - - 2 Kings xv. 19 35 - 2 Kings xvi. 10 37 - 2 Kings xvii. 30 60, 65 - 2 Kings xvii. 31 66 - 2 Kings xviii. 26 101 - 2 Kings xviii. 30 101 - 2 Kings xix. 37 61 - 2 Kings xx. 11 116 - - 2 Chron. xxxiii. 11 47 - - Ezra ii. 29 61 - Ezra iv. 10 48 - - Is. x. 34 13 - Is. xiv. 9 76 - Is. xiv. 13, 14 77 - Is. xix. 25 14 - Is. xx. 1 40 - Is. xxii. 14 14 - Is. xliv. 17 64 - Is. li. 27 30 - Is. li. 30 30 - - Ezek. viii. 14 65 - Ezek. xxiii. 14 86 - Ezek. xxvii. 18 128 - - Nahum i. 8 25 - Nahum ii. 6, 8, 12 25 - Nahum iii. 8 15, 51 - - Zech. ix. 1 143 - - HARRISON & SONS, Printers in Ordinary to Her Majesty, St. Martin's Lane - - - - - * * * * * - - - - -Transcriber's note: - -Table of Contents edited with additional entries for user convenience. - -Punctuation has been standardised. - -Page references to pages 104 and 105 are to illustrations on the -two previous pages. - -Ditto marks in the Indexes have been replaced with the actual words. - -This book was written in a period when many words had not become -standarized in their spelling. Numerous words have multiple spelling -variations in the text. These have been left unchanged unless noted -below: - - Page 6 - added hyphen for consistency (Assur-bani-pal and his - Queen). - - Page 49 - missing '(' added to caption (From the original in the - British Museum.). - - Page 54 - removed extraneous open single quotation mark - (Solomon, the god of peace). - - Page 115 - missing "'" added ('Post hoc, ergo propter hoc.'). - - Page 132 - Beth-Yagina is called Bit-Yagina, left unchanged. - - Page 149 - typographical error 'eities' corrected (the cities in their). - - Page 160 - typographical error 'Assyriam' corrected (of the Assyrian). - - Page 162 - typographical error 'Merodoch' corrected (Merodach-Baladan had - formed). - - - - -***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ASSYRIA, ITS PRINCES, PRIESTS AND -PEOPLE*** - - -******* This file should be named 42033-8.txt or 42033-8.zip ******* - - -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: -http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/4/2/0/3/42033 - - - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions -will be renamed. - -Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no -one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation -(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without -permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org - - - - - -Title: Assyria, Its Princes, Priests and People - By-Paths of Bible Knowledge VII - - -Author: A. H. (Archibald Henry) Sayce - - - -Release Date: February 6, 2013 [eBook #42033] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ISO-646-US (US-ASCII) - - -***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ASSYRIA, ITS PRINCES, PRIESTS AND -PEOPLE*** - - -E-text prepared by Delphine Lettau, Richard Hulse, and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team (http://www.pgdp.net) from page images -generously made available by Internet Archive/Canadian Libraries -(http://archive.org/details/toronto) - - - -Note: Project Gutenberg also has an HTML version of this - file which includes the original illustrations. - See 42033-h.htm or 42033-h.zip: - (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42033/42033-h/42033-h.htm) - or - (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42033/42033-h.zip) - - - Images of the original pages are available through - Internet Archive/Canadian Libraries. See - http://archive.org/details/assyriaitsprince00saycuoft - - -Transcriber's note: - - Text enclosed by underscores is in italics (_italics_). - - The non-printable characters have been replaced as shown - below with x representing a letter with a diacritical mark: - - 'ae' ligature --> ae - 'oe' ligature --> oe - Latin pound symbol --> [L] - T shaped symbol --> [T] - Greek a --> [alpha] - x with circumflex accent above --> [^x] - x with acute accent above --> ['x] - x with cedilla below --> [,x] - x with marcron above --> [=x] - x with dot below --> [x.] - - Characters in small capitals were replaced as all capitals. - - - - - -[Illustration: MONOLITH OF SHALMANESER II. -(_From the original in the British Museum._)] -[Illustration: MONOLITH OF SHALMANESER II. -(_From the original in the British Museum._)] - - -By-Paths of Bible Knowledge. -VII. - -ASSYRIA -ITS PRINCES, PRIESTS, AND PEOPLE. - -by - -A. H. SAYCE, M.A. - -Deputy Professor of Comparative Philology, Oxford, -Hon. LL.D. Dublin, etc. - -Author of 'Fresh Light from the Ancient Monuments,' -'An Introduction to Ezra, Nehemiah, and Esther,' etc. - - - - - - - -London: -The Religious Tract Society, -56, Paternoster Row, 65, St. Paul's Churchyard, -and 164, Piccadilly. -1885. - - - - -CONTENTS. - PAGE - - - List of Illustations 6 - - Preface 7 - - Chronological Table of the Kings of Assyria 17 - - Table of Biblical Dates according to - Assyrian Monuments 19 - - I. The Country and People 21 - - - II. Assyrian History 27 - - - III. Assyrian Religion 55 - - - IV. Art, Literature, and Science 86 - - - V. Manners and Customs; Trade and Government 122 - - Appendix 146 - - Index 153 - - Index of Scripture References 166 - - - - -ILLUSTRATIONS. - - PAGE - Monolith of Shalmaneser II. (from the original in the - British Museum) Frontispiece - - - Assur-bani-pal and his Queen. (from the original in the - British Museum) 49 - - - Nergal. (from the original in the British Museum) 65 - - - Fragment now in the British Museum showing primitive - Hieroglyphics and Cuneiform Characters side by side. 93 - - - An Assyrian Book. (from the original in the British - Museum) 99 - - - Part of an Assyrian Cylinder containing Hezekiah's - Name. (from the original in the British Museum) 104 - - - Assyrian King in his Chariot. 125 - - - Siege of a City. 127 - - - - -PREFACE. - - -Among the many wonderful achievements of the present century there is -none more wonderful than the recovery and decipherment of the monuments -of ancient Nineveh. For generations the great oppressing city had slept -buried beneath the fragments of its own ruins, its history lost, its -very site forgotten. Its name had passed into the region of myth even in -the age of the classical writers of Greece and Rome; Ninos or Nineveh -had become a hero-king about whom strange legends were told, and whose -conquests were fabled to have extended from the Mediterranean to India. -Little was known of the history of the mighty Assyrian Empire beyond -what might be learnt from the Old Testament, and that little was -involved in doubt and obscurity. Scholars wrote long treatises to -reconcile the statements of Greek historians with those of Scripture, -but they only succeeded in evolving theories which were contradicted and -overthrown by the next writer. There was none so bold as to suggest that -the history and life of Assyria were still lying hidden beneath the -ground, ready to rise up and disclose their secrets at the touch of a -magician's rod. The rod was the spade and the patient sagacity which -deciphered and interpreted what the spade had found. It might have been -thought that the cuneiform or wedge-shaped inscriptions of Assyria could -never be forced to reveal their mysteries. The language in which they -were written was unknown, and all clue to the meaning of the -multitudinous characters that composed them had long been lost. No -bilingual text came to the aid of the decipherer like the Rosetta Stone, -whose Greek inscription had furnished the key to the meaning of the -Egyptian hieroglyphics. Nevertheless the great feat was accomplished. -Step by step the signification of the cuneiform characters and the words -they concealed was made out, until it is now possible to translate an -ordinary Assyrian text with as much ease and certainty as a page of the -Old Testament. - -And the revelation that awaited the decipherer was startling in the -extreme. The ruins of Nineveh yielded not only sculptures and -inscriptions carved in stone, but a whole library of books. True, the -books are written upon clay, and not on paper, but they are none the -less real books, dealing with all the subjects of knowledge known at the -time they were compiled, and presenting us with a clear and truthful -reflection of Assyrian thought and belief. We can not only trace the -architectural plans of the Assyrian palaces, and study the bas-reliefs -in which the Assyrians have pictured themselves and the life they led; -we can also penetrate to their inmost thoughts and feelings, and read -their history as they have told it themselves. - -It is a strange thing to examine for the first time one of the clay -tablets of the old Assyrian library. Usually it has been more or less -broken by the catastrophe of that terrible day when Nineveh was captured -by its enemies, and the palace and library burnt and destroyed together. -But whether it is a fragment or a complete tablet, it is impossible not -to handle it reverently when cleaning it from the dirt with which its -long sojourn in the earth has encrusted it, and spelling out its words -for the first time for more than 2,000 years. When last the characters -upon it were read, it was in days when Assyria was still a name of -terror, and the destruction that God's prophets had predicted was still -to come. When its last reader laid it aside, Judah had not as yet -undergone the chastisement of the Babylonish exile, the Old Testament -was an uncompleted volume, the kingdom of the Messiah a promise of the -distant future. We are brought face to face, as it were, with men who -were the contemporaries of Isaiah, of Hezekiah, of Ahaz; nay, of men -whose names have been familiar to us since we first read the Bible by -our mother's side. - -Tiglath-Pileser and Sennacherib can never again be to us mere names. We -possess the records which they caused to be written, and in which they -told the story of their campaigns in Palestine. The records are not -copies of older texts, with all the errors that human fallibility causes -copyists and scribes to make. They are the original documents which were -recited to the kings who ordered them to be compiled, and who may have -held them in their own hands. The gulf of centuries and forgetfulness -that has divided us from Sennacherib is filled up when we read the -account of his invasion of Judah, which seems to come from his own lips. -Never again can the heroes of the Old Testament be to us as lay-figures, -whose story is told by a voice that comes from a dark and unreal past. -The voice is now become a living one, and we can realise that Isaiah and -those of whom Isaiah wrote were men of flesh and blood like ourselves, -with the same passions, the same needs, the same temptations. - -This realisation of Old Testament history is not the only result of the -recovery of Assyria upon Biblical studies. It is a very important -result, but there are others besides of equal importance. One of these -is the unexpected confirmation of the correctness of Holy Writ which -Assyrian discovery has afforded. The later history of the Old Testament -no longer stands alone. Once it was itself the sole witness for the -truth of the narratives it contains. Classical history or legend dealt -with other lands and other ages; there were no documents besides those -contained in the Old Testament to which we could appeal in support of -its statements. All is changed now. The earth has yielded up its -secrets; the ancient civilisation of Assyria has stepped forth again -into the light of day, and has furnished us with records, the -authenticity of which none can deny, which run side by side with those -of the Books of Kings, confirming, explaining, and illustrating them. It -has been said that just at the moment when sceptical criticism seemed -to have achieved its worst, and to have resolved the narratives of the -Old Testament into myths or fables, God's Providence was raising up from -the grave of centuries a new and unimpeachable witness for their truth. -Indeed, so strikingly was this the case, that one of the objections -brought against the correctness of Assyrian decipherment in its early -days was that Assyrian monarchs could never have concerned themselves -with petty kingdoms like those of Samaria and Judah, as the decipherers -made them do. Before the cuneiform monuments were interpreted, no one -could have suspected that they would have poured such a flood of light -upon Old Testament history. - -This light is manifold. The very language of the inscriptions has helped -to explain difficult passages in the Hebrew Bible. Assyrian turns out to -be very closely related to Hebrew, as closely related, in fact, as two -strongly marked English dialects are to one another. There is no other -Semitic language (except, of course, Phoenician, which is practically -the same as Hebrew) which is so nearly allied to it. And thanks to the -library of Nineveh, and its lexicons and lists of synonymous words, we -have a larger literature, and a larger vocabulary, to draw upon in the -case of Assyrian than we have in the case of Hebrew. The consequence is -that Assyrian may sometimes settle the meaning of a word which occurs -only once or very rarely in the Old Testament. Thus the word -_z'bh[^u]l_, which Hebrew scholars had supposed to mean 'a dwelling,' -is shown by the Assyrian texts to signify a 'height,' so that in 1 Kings -viii. 13, Solomon does not declare to God that he had built Him 'an -house to dwell in,' as the Authorised Version renders the passage, but -'a lofty temple.' Naturally words of Assyrian origin, like Rab-shakeh -and Tartan, have first received their explanation from the decipherment -of the Assyrian inscriptions. They are not proper names, but titles, the -Rab-shakeh being 'the chief of the princes,' or Vizier, and the Tartan, -the commander-in-chief. - -But not only do we find parallels to Hebrew in the individual words of -Assyrian, we also find parallel expressions which illustrate and explain -those of the Hebrew text. We all remember the statement that the 'Lord -rained upon Sodom and upon Gomorrah brimstone and fire from the Lord out -of heaven.' The same phrase occurs in an unpublished Accadian hymn -addressed to a deity whose name is lost, but who was probably Rimmon the -Air-god. The Accadian original describes him as 'raining fire and stones -upon the enemy,' which the Assyrian translation changes into 'raining -stones and fire upon the foe' in exact conformity with the Hebrew -phrase. The familiar expression 'the Lord of Hosts,' similarly finds its -analogue and illustration in the common Assyrian title of the supreme -god Assur: 'lord of the legions of heaven and earth,' these legions -being the multitudinous spirits and angels whose home was in 'the heaven -above and the earth below.' - -We can hardly speak here of the accounts of the Creation, the Deluge, -and the Tower of Babel, to which Mr. George Smith gave the name of 'the -Chaldean Genesis,' and which agree so closely with the corresponding -accounts in the Hebrew Book of Genesis. Though found in the library of -Nineveh, they are really copies of older Babylonian works, and therefore -belong rather to Babylonian than to Assyrian history. It is only the -account of the Creation in six days which may perhaps be of purely -Assyrian origin. What a resemblance it offers to the first chapter of -Genesis will be seen from the extracts from it in the chapter on -Assyrian Religion. - -It is in the domain of history that the light cast upon Old Testament -Scripture by Assyrian research has been fullest and strongest. No one -can read the sketch of Assyrian history as revealed by the monuments -which is given in the following pages, without perceiving how important -it is for the proper understanding of the ancient Scriptures. For the -first time the prophecies in Isaiah which refer to a capture of -Jerusalem receive their explanation, and the sceptical criticism is -answered which found in them a prediction of events that never took -place. The chapter in which Isaiah describes the onward march of the -Assyrian host against Jerusalem (ch. x.) is no 'ideal' description of -'an ideal campaign,' the verses in which he tells us of the sufferings -endured by the beleaguered inhabitants of the Jewish capital (ch. xxii.) -are no 'exaggerated account of a possible catastrophe,' the prophecies -in which he declares that the devoted city was about to fall into the -hands of its enemies (x. 34, xxii. 14) were not unfulfilled threats. We -learn from the inscriptions of Sargon that already, ten years before the -campaign of his son Sennacherib, the Assyrian monarch had swept through -'the wide-spread land of Judah,' and had made it a tributary province. -It was not the army of Sennacherib to which Isaiah was alluding on the -day whereon he declared that the Assyrian host was at Nob, only a short -half-hour to the north of Jerusalem, but the more terrible veterans of -Sargon who marched against the holy city along the northern road. -Similar light is thrown by the Assyrian monuments upon another prophecy -of Isaiah, in which he pronounces the doom upon the land of Egypt (ch. -xix.). The prophecy has sometimes been referred by critics to a later -age than that of the great prophet; but the records of Esar-haddon prove -that it is strictly applicable to his time, and to his time only. The -unexpected revelation they have made to us of the Assyrian conquest of -Egypt, and its division into twenty vassal satrapies shows us who was -the 'cruel lord' and 'fierce king' into whose hands the Egyptians were -given, and paints the picture of an epoch in which 'the Egyptians' -fought 'every one against his brother, and every one against his -neighbour; city against city, and kingdom against kingdom.' The Isaianic -authorship of 'the burden of Egypt' can never again be denied. - -Nahum, again, we can now read with a new interest and a new -understanding. The very date of his prophecy, so long disputed, can be -fixed approximately by the reference it contains to the sack of No-Amon -or Thebes (iii. 8). The prophecy was delivered hard upon sixty years -before the fall of Nineveh, when the Assyrian Empire was at the height -of its prosperity, and mistress of the Eastern world. Human foresight -could little have imagined that so great and terrible a power was so -soon to disappear. And yet at the very moment when it seemed strongest -and most secure, the Jewish prophet was uttering a prediction which the -excavations of Botta and Layard have shown to have been carried out -literally in fact. As we thread our way among the ruins of Nineveh, or -trace the after history of the deserted and forgotten site, we see -everywhere the fulfilment of Nahum's prophecy. Of the words that he -pronounced against the doomed city, there is none which has not come to -pass. - -Those who would learn how marvellously the monuments of Assyria -illustrate and corroborate the pages of sacred history, need only -compare the records they contain with the narratives of the Books of -Kings which relate to the same period. The one complements and supplies -the missing chapters given by the other. The Bible informs us why -Sennacherib left Hezekiah unpunished, and never despatched another army -to Palestine; the cuneiform annals explain the causes of his murder, and -the reason of the flight of his sons to Ararat or Armenia. The single -passage in Scripture in which the name of Sargon is mentioned, no -longer remains isolated and unintelligible; we have no longer any need -to identify him with Tiglath-Pileser, or Shalmaneser, or any other -Assyrian prince with whom the fancy of older commentators confounded -him; we now know that he was one of the most powerful of Assyrian -conquerors, and we have his own independent testimony to that siege and -capture of Ashdod which is the occasion of the mention of his name in -Scripture. Between the history of the monuments and the history of the -Bible there is perpetual contact; and the voice of the monuments is -found to be in strict harmony with that of the Old Testament. - -Before concluding this Preface, I have to thank Mr. W. G. Hird for his -kindness in undertaking the task of compiling an Index to the volume. - - - * * * * * - - - - - CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF THE KINGS - OF ASSYRIA. - - B.C. - Bel-kapkapi 1700(?) - - Adasi - - Bel-bani, his son 1650(?) - - Assur-sum-esir 1600(?) - - Adar-tiglath-Assuri 1600(?) - - Irba-Rimmon 1550(?) - - Assur-nadin-akhi, his son - - Assur-bel-nisi-su _cir._ 1450 - - Buyur-Assur 1420 - - Assur-yuballidh 1400 - - Bel-nirari, his son 1380 - - Pudil (Pedael), his son 1350 - - Rimmon-nirari I, his son 1320 - - Shalmaneser I, his son 1300 - - Tiglath-Adar I, his son 1280 - - Bel-kudur-utsur (Belchadrezzar), his son 1260 - - Assur-narara and Nebo-d[^a]n 1240 - - Adar-pal-esar (Adar-pileser) 1220 - - Assur-d[^a]n I, his son 1200 - - Mutaggil-Nebo, his son 1180 - - Assur-ris-ilim, his son 1160 - - Tiglath-pileser I, his son 1140 - - Assur-bel-kala, his son 1110 - - Samas-Rimmon I, his brother 1090 - - Assur-rab buri - - Assur-zalmati - - Assur-d[^a]n II 930 - - Rimmon-nirari II, his son 911 - - Tiglath-Adar II, his son 889 - - Assur-natsir-pal, his son 883 - - Shalmaneser II, his son 858 - - Samas-Rimmon II, his son 823 - - Rimmon-nirari III, his son 810 - - Shalmaneser III 781 - - Assur-d[^a]n III 771 - - Assur-nirari 753 - - Pulu (Pul) usurps the throne and founds - the 2nd Empire under the name of - Tiglath-Pileser II 12th of Iyyar 745 - - Ulul[^a] (Elulaeos) of Tinu, usurper, takes - the name of Shalmaneser IV 727 - - Sargon, usurper 722 - - Sennacherib of Khabigal, his son 12th of Ab 705 - - Esar-haddon, his son 681 - - Assur-bani-pal (Sardanapalos), his son 668 - - Assur-etil-ili-yukinni, his son _cir._ 640 - - (Bel)-sum-iskun - - Esar-haddon II (Sarakos) - - Fall of Nineveh 606(?) - - - * * * * * - - - - - TABLE OF BIBLICAL DATES ACCORDING - TO THE ASSYRIAN MONUMENTS. - - - B.C. - Battle of Karkar; Ahab ally of Damascus - against Shalmaneser of Assyria 853 - - Death of Ahab 851 - - Campaign of Shalmaneser against Hadadezer - (Benhadad II) of Damascus 850 - - Second campaign against Hadadezer 845 - - Murder of Hadadezer by Hazael 843 - - Campaign of Shalmaneser against Hazael; - tribute paid by Jehu of Samaria 841 - - Damascus captured by the Assyrians; - tribute paid by Samaria 804 - - Campaign of the Assyrians against Damascus 773 - - Tiglath-Pileser II attacks Hamath; - submission of Uzziah; fall of Arpad 743-40 - - Tribute paid to Tiglath-Pileser by Menahem - of Samaria and Rezon of Damascus 738 - - Damascus besieged by the Assyrians; the tribes - beyond the Jordan carried away; Jehoahaz - (Ahaz) of Judah becomes a vassal of - Tiglath-Pileser 734 - - Damascus taken and Rezon slain; Ahaz - at Damascus 732 - - Samaria besieged by Shalmaneser V 723 - - Accession of Sargon 722 - - Merodach-baladan conquers Babylonia 721 - - Capture of Samaria by Sargon 720 - - Hamath conquered by Sargon; Sabako (So) of - Egypt defeated at Raphia 719 - - Embassy of Merodach-baladan to Hezekiah 712 - - Capture of Jerusalem and Ashdod by Sargon 711 - - Merodach-baladan driven from Babylonia 710 - - Merodach-baladan recovers Babylonia for six - months 703 - - Sennacherib's campaign against Judah; battle - of Eltekeh; overthrow of the Assyrian army - at Jerusalem 701 - - Murder of Sennacherib by his two sons 681 - - Manasseh appears among the Assyrian - tributaries; Egypt conquered by Esar-haddon 676 - - Destruction of Thebes (No-Amun) by the - Assyrians 665 - - - * * * * * - - - - -ASSYRIA: - -ITS PRINCES, PRIESTS, AND PEOPLE. - - - - -CHAPTER I. - -THE COUNTRY AND PEOPLE. - - -Assyria was the name given to the district which had been called 'the -land of Assur' by its own inhabitants. Assur, however, had originally -been the name, not of a country, but of a city founded in remote times -on the western bank of the Tigris, midway between the Greater and the -Lesser Zab. It was the primitive capital of the district in which it -stood, and to which, accordingly, it lent its name. It seems to have -been built by a people who spoke an agglutinative language, like the -languages of the modern Fins and Turks, and who were afterwards -supplanted by the Semitic Assyrians. The name in their language probably -signified 'water-boundary.' When the country was occupied by the Semitic -Assyrians the name was slightly changed, so as to assume the form of a -word which in Assyrian meant 'gracious.' - -It so happened that Assyrian mythology knew of a deity who represented -the firmament, and was addressed as Sar. The name of Sar came in time -to be confused with that of Assur, the divine patron of the Assyrian -capital, the result being that Assur signified not only a city and -country, but also the supreme deity worshipped by their inhabitants. -Assur, in fact, became the divine impersonation of the power and -constitution of Assyria; at the same time he was also 'the gracious' god -and the primaeval firmament of heaven. - -Assur, whose ruins are now called Kalah Sherghat, did not always remain -the capital of Assyria. Its place was taken by a group of cities some 60 -miles to the north, above the Greater Zab, and on the eastern side of -the Tigris, namely, Nineveh, Calah, and Dur-Sargon. The foundation of -Nineveh, the modern Kouyunjik, probably goes back to as early an age as -that of Assur, but it was not until a much later period that it became -an important city, and supplanted the older capital of the kingdom. -Calah, now called Nimr[^u]d, though built some four centuries before, -was not made the seat of royalty until the reigns of Assur-natsir-pal -and Shalmaneser II, in the 9th century B.C., and Dur-Sargon (the modern -Khorsabad), as its name implies, was the creation of Sargon. Instead of -Dur-Sargon the Book of Genesis (x. 11) mentions Resen 'between Nineveh -and Calah.' The site of Resen has not been identified, though its name -has been met with in the Assyrian inscriptions under the form of -Res-eni, 'the head of the spring.' - -The passage of Genesis in which Resen is referred to unfortunately -admits of a double translation. If we adopt the rendering of the margin, -and translate 'out of that land he went forth into Assyria and builded -Nineveh,' we might infer that Nineveh and its neighbouring towns had no -existence before the days when Babylonian emigrants settled in the -territory of the city of Assur, and superseded its older inhabitants. -However this may be, we know from the cuneiform monuments that the rise -of Assyria did not take place until the Babylonian monarchy was already -growing old. The country afterwards known as Assyria had been comprised -in Gutium or Kurdistan, a name which has been identified, with great -probability, by Sir H. Rawlinson, with the Goyyim or 'nations' of -Genesis xiv. over which Tidal was king. There seems to have been a time -when the rulers of Assur were mere governors appointed by the Babylonian -monarchs; at all events, the earliest of whom we know do not give -themselves the title of king, but use a word which signifies 'viceroy' -in the Chaldean inscriptions. - -These viceroys, however, managed eventually to shake off the yoke of -their Babylonian masters, and one of them, Bel-kapkapi by name, -established an independent kingdom at Assur in the 17th or 16th century -before our era. His kingdom extended on both sides of the Tigris, and -doubtless included the country north of the Greater Zab, where Nineveh -was situated. The exact frontiers of Assyria, however, were never -accurately fixed. They varied with the military power and conquests of -its monarchs. Sometimes portions of the plateau of Mesopotamia on the -west were comprehended within it, as well as the country through which -the Tigris flowed, as far south as the borders of Babylonia, and as far -north as the Kurdish mountains. At other times Assyria was confined to -the narrow space within which its great cities stood. - -The inhabitants of Assyria belonged to the Semitic stock, that is to -say, they were allied in blood and language to the Hebrews, the -Aramaeans, and the Arabs. The older population had been either expelled -or destroyed. The Assyrians thus differed from the Babylonians, who were -a mixed race, partly Semitic and partly non-Semitic. The non-Semitic -element is generally termed Accadian; it spoke agglutinative dialects, -and was the original possessor of the plain of Chaldaea. The Accadians -invented the cuneiform system of writing, founded the chief cities and -civilisation of Babylonia, and erected the earliest Babylonian monuments -with which we are acquainted. It was only gradually that they yielded to -the advance of the Semites; in fact, the final triumph of the Semites in -Babylonia was only effected by their amalgamation with the old -population of the country, and their complete acceptance of Accadian -culture. The Accadian language lingered long, and when it died out was -preserved as a learned language, like Latin in our own day, which every -educated Babylonian was expected to know. - -It was natural, therefore, that the pure-blooded Semites of Assyria and -the mixed population of Babylonia should differ from one another in many -respects. The Babylonians were agriculturists, fond of literature and -peaceful pursuits. The Assyrians, on the contrary, have been -appropriately termed the Romans of the East: they were a military -people, caring for little else save war and trade. Their literature, -like their culture and art, was borrowed from Babylonia, and they never -took kindly to it. Even under the magnificent patronage of -Assur-bani-pal, Assyrian literature was an exotic. It was cultivated -only by the few; whereas in Babylonia the greater part of the population -seems to have been able to read and write. If the Assyrian was less -luxurious than his Babylonian neighbour, he was also less humane. -Indeed, the Assyrian annals glory in the record of a ferocity at which -we stand aghast. On the other hand, the Assyrian was not so -superstitious as the Babylonian, though he ascribed his successes to the -favour of Assur, and impaled the inhabitants of conquered towns or burnt -them alive because they did not believe in his national deity. He was, -as Nahum declared, the lion which 'did tear in pieces enough for his -whelps, and strangled for his lionesses, and filled his holes with prey, -and his dens with ravin.' - -Assyria was so wholly a military power, that the destruction of Nineveh -not only destroyed the Assyrian Empire but blotted out the Assyrian -nation itself. When 'the gates of the rivers' of Nineveh--the Tigris and -Khusur--were opened, and 'the palace dissolved,' Assyria ceased to -exist. In the Sassanian period the mounds which covered the ruins of the -old city were for a short time occupied by the houses of a village, but -these, too, disappeared after a while, and the very site of Nineveh -remained for centuries unknown. Rich, in 1818, conjectured that the -mounds of Kouyunjik, opposite the modern town of Mosul, concealed its -ruins beneath them, but it was not until the excavations of the -Frenchman Botta, in 1842, and the Englishman Layard, in 1845, that the -remains first of Dur-Sargon, and then of Nineveh itself, were revealed -to the eyes of a wondering world. The capital of the Assyrian Empire was -recovered, and with it the sculptured monuments of its kings, and the -relics of its clay-inscribed library. The discovery came at an opportune -moment. The cuneiform inscriptions of Persia had at last yielded up -their secrets to the patient sagacity of European scholars, and had -furnished the key to other inscriptions,--also in cuneiform characters, -but of a wholly different kind, and expressing a wholly different -language--which now proved to be the long-lost records of the Assyrian -people. Little by little the records were deciphered; fresh expeditions -to the buried cities of Assyria and Babylonia returned to Europe with -fresh spoils, and it is now possible to describe the history and even -the daily life and thoughts of a people who but half a century ago were -but a mere name. The following pages are intended to give a picture of -that history and life. - - - * * * * * - - - - -CHAPTER II. - -ASSYRIAN HISTORY. - - -Assyrian history, as we have seen, begins with the _patesis_ or viceroys -of the city of Assur. We know little about them except their names; -contemporaneous annals do not commence until Assyria has ceased to be -the dependency of a foreign power, and has become an independent -kingdom. It was in the 17th or 16th century before the Christian era -that Bel-kapkapi first gave himself the title of king. For two or three -centuries afterwards our chief information about the monarchy he founded -is derived from the relations, sometimes hostile and sometimes -peaceable, which his successors had with Babylonia. One of them, -however, Rimmon-nirari I by name (about B.C. 1320), has left us an -inscription in which he recounts the wars he waged against the -Babylonians, the Kurds, the Aramaeans, and the Shuites, nomad tribes who -extended along the western bank of the Euphrates. It was his son, -Shalmaneser I, to whom the foundation of Calah is ascribed. For six -generations his descendants followed one another on the throne; then -came Tiglath-Pileser I, who may be regarded as the founder of the first -Assyrian Empire. He carried his arms as far as Cilicia and Malatiyeh on -the west, and the wild tribes of Kurdistan on the east; he overthrew the -Moschi or Meshech, defeated the Hittites and their Colchian allies, and -erected a memorial of his conquests at the sources of the Tigris. The -Hittite city of Pethor, at the junction of the Euphrates and Sajur, was -garrisoned with Assyrian soldiers, and at Arvad the Assyrian monarch -symbolised his subjection of the Mediterranean by embarking in a ship -and killing a dolphin in the sea. In Nineveh he established a botanical -garden, which he filled with the strange trees he had brought back with -him from his campaigns. In B.C. 1130 he marched into Babylonia, and, -after a momentary repulse at the hands of the Babylonian king, defeated -his antagonists on the banks of the Lower Zab. Babylonia was ravaged, -and Babylon itself was captured. - -With the death of Tiglath-Pileser I, Assyrian history becomes for awhile -obscure. The sceptre fell into feeble hands, and the distant conquests -of the empire were lost. It was during this period of abeyance that the -kingdom of David and Solomon arose in the west. The Assyrian power did -not revive until the reign of Assur-d[^a]n II, whose son, Rimmon-nirari -II (B.C. 911-889), and great-grandson, Assur-natsir-pal (B.C. 883-858), -led their desolating armies through Western Asia, and made the name of -Assyria once more terrible to the nations around them. Assur-natsir-pal -was at once one of the most ferocious and most energetic of the -Assyrian kings. His track was marked by impalements, by pyramids of -human heads, and by other barbarities too horrible to be described. But -his campaigns reached further than those of Tiglath-Pileser had done. -Armenia, Mesopotamia, and Kurdistan, were overrun again and again; the -Babylonians were forced to sue for peace; Sangara, the Hittite king of -Carchemish, paid tribute, and the rich cities of Phoenicia poured their -offerings into the treasury of Nineveh. The armies of Assyria penetrated -even to Nizir, where the ark of the Chaldaean Noah was believed to have -rested on the peak of Rowandiz. In Assyria itself the cities were -embellished with the spoils of foreign conquest; splendid palaces were -erected, and Calah, which had fallen into decay, was restored. A library -was erected there, and it became the favourite residence of -Assur-natsir-pal. - -He was succeeded by his son Shalmaneser II, so named, perhaps, after the -original founder of Calah. Shalmaneser's military successes exceeded -even those of his father, and his long reign of thirty-five years marks -the climax of the first Assyrian Empire. His annals are chiefly to be -found engraved on three monuments now in the British Museum. One of -these is a monolith from Kurkh, a place about twenty miles from -Diarbekr. The full-length figure of Shalmaneser is sculptured upon it, -and the surface of the stone is covered with the inscription. Another -monument is a small 'obelisk' of polished black stone, the upper part of -which is shaped like three ascending steps. Inscriptions run round its -four sides, as well as small bas-reliefs representing the tribute -offered to 'the great king' by foreign states. Among the tribute-bearers -are the Israelitish subjects of 'Jehu, son of Omri.' The third monument -is one which was discovered in 1878 at Balaw[^a]t, about nine miles from -Nimr[^u]d or Calah. It consists of the bronze framework of two colossal -doors, of rectangular shape, twenty-two feet high and twenty-six feet -broad. The doors opened into a temple, and were made of wood, to which -the bronze was fastened by means of nails. The bronze was cut into -bands, which ran in a horizontal direction across the doors, and were -each divided into two lines of embossed reliefs. These reliefs were -hammered out, and not cast, and the rudeness of their execution proves -that they were the work of native artists, and not of the Phoenician -settlers in Nineveh, of whose skill in such work we have several -specimens. Short texts are added to explain the reliefs, so that the -various campaigns and cities represented in them can all be identified. -Among the cities is the Hittite capital Carchemish, and the warriors of -Armenia are depicted in a costume strikingly similar to that of the -ancient Greeks. - -Shalmaneser's first campaign was against the restless tribes of -Kurdistan. He then turned northward, and fell upon the Armenian king of -Van and the Mann[^a] or Minni (see Jer. li. 27), who inhabited the -country between the mountains of Kot[^u]r and Lake Urumiyeh. The -Hittites of Carchemish, with their allies from Cilicia and other -neighbouring districts, were next compelled to sue for peace, and the -acquisition of Pethor, which had been lost after Tiglath-Pileser's -death, again gave the Assyrians the command of the ford over the -Euphrates. The result of this was, that in B.C. 854 Shalmaneser came -into conflict with the kingdom of Hamath. The common danger had roused -Hadadezer of Damascus, called Benhaded II in the Bible, to make common -cause with Hamath, and a confederacy was formed to resist the Assyrian -advance. Among the confederates 'Ahab of Israel' is mentioned as -furnishing the allies with 2,000 chariots and 10,000 infantry. But the -confederacy was shattered at Karkar or Aroer, although Shalmaneser had -himself suffered too severely to be able to follow up his victory. For a -time, therefore, Syria remained unmolested, and the Assyrian king turned -his attention to Babylonia, which he reduced to a state of vassalage, -under the pretext of assisting the Babylonian sovereign against his -rebel brother. - -Twelve years, however, after the battle of Karkar, Shalmaneser was once -more in the west. Hadadezer had been succeeded by Hazael on the throne -of Damascus, and it was against him that the full flood of Assyrian -power was turned. For some time he managed to stem it, but in B.C. 841 -he suffered a crushing defeat on the heights of Shenir (see Deut. iii. -9), and his camp, along with 1,121 chariots and 470 carriages, fell into -the hands of the Assyrians, who proceeded to besiege him in his capital, -Damascus. The siege, however, was soon raised, and Shalmaneser -contented himself with ravaging the Hauran and marching to Beyrout, -where his image was carved on the rocky promontory of Baal-rosh, at the -mouth of the Nahr el-Kelb. It was while he was in this neighbourhood -that the ambassadors of Jehu arrived with offers of tribute and -submission. The tribute, we are told, consisted of 'silver, gold, a -golden bowl, vessels of gold, goblets of gold, pitchers of gold, a -sceptre for the king's hand and spear-handles,' and Jehu is erroneously -entitled 'the son of Omri.' - -After the defeat of Hazael Shalmaneser's expeditions were only to -distant regions like Phoenicia, Kappadokia, and Armenia, for the sake of -exacting tribute. No further attempt was made at permanent conquest, and -after B.C. 834 the old king ceased to lead his armies in person, the -tartan or commander-in-chief taking his place. Not long afterwards a -revolt broke out headed by his eldest son, who seems to have thought -that he would have little difficulty in wresting the sceptre from the -hands of the enfeebled king. Twenty-seven cities, including Nineveh and -Assur, joined the revolt, which was, however, finally put down by the -energy and military capacity of Shalmaneser's second son Samas-Rimmon, -who succeeded him soon afterwards (B.C. 823-810). On his death he was -followed by his son Rimmon-nirari III (810-781), who compelled Mariha of -Damascus to pay him tribute, as well as the Phoenicians, Israelites, -Edomites, and Philistines. But the vigour of the dynasty was beginning -to fail. A few short reigns followed that of Rimmon-nirari, during -which the first Assyrian Empire melted away. A formidable power arose in -Armenia, the Assyrian armies were driven to the frontiers of their own -country, and disaffection began to prevail in Assyria itself. At length, -on the 15th of June, B.C. 763, an eclipse of the sun took place, and the -city of Assur rose in revolt. The revolt lasted three years, and before -it could be crushed the outlying provinces were lost. When Assur-nirari, -the last of his line, ascended the throne in B.C. 753, the empire was -already gone, and the Assyrian cities themselves were surging with -discontent. Ten years later the final blow was struck; the army declared -itself against their monarch, and he and his dynasty fell together. On -the 30th of Iyyar of the year B.C. 745, a military adventurer, Pul, -seized the vacant crown, and assumed the venerable name of -Tiglath-Pileser. - -If we may believe Greek tradition, Tiglath-Pileser II began life as a -gardener. Whatever might have been his origin, however, he proved to be -a capable ruler, a good general, and a far-sighted administrator. He was -the founder of the second Assyrian Empire, which differed essentially -from the first. The first empire was at best a loosely-connected -military organization; campaigns were made into distant countries for -the sake of plunder and tribute, but little effort was made to retain -the districts that had been conquered. Almost as soon as the Assyrian -armies were out of sight, the conquered nations shook off the Assyrian -yoke, and it was only in regions bordering on Assyria that garrisons -were left by the Assyrian king. And whenever the Assyrian throne was -occupied by a weak or unwarlike prince, even these were soon destroyed -or forced to retreat homewards. Tiglath-Pileser II, however, -consolidated and organised the conquests he made; turbulent populations -were deported from their old homes, and the empire was divided into -satrapies or provinces, each of which paid a fixed annual tribute to the -imperial exchequer. For the first time in history the principle of -centralisation was carried out on a large scale, and a bureaucracy began -to take the place of the old feudal nobility of Assyria. But the second -Assyrian Empire was not only an organised and bureaucratic one, it was -also commercial. In carrying out his schemes of conquest Tiglath-Pileser -II was influenced by considerations of trade. His chief object was to -divert the commerce of Western Asia into Assyrian hands. For this -purpose every effort was made to unite Babylonia with Assyria, to -overthrow the Hittites of Carchemish, who held the trade of Asia Minor, -as well as the high road to the west, and to render Syria and the -Phoenician cities tributary. The policy inaugurated by Tiglath-Pileser -was successfully followed up by his successors. - -Babylonia was the first to feel the results of the change of dynasty at -Nineveh. The northern part of it was annexed to Assyria, and secured by -a chain of fortresses. Tiglath-Pileser now attacked the Kurdish tribes, -who were constantly harassing the eastern frontier of the kingdom, and -chastised them severely, the Assyrian army forcing its way through the -fastnesses of the Kurdish mountains into the very heart of Media. But -Ararat, or Armenia, was still a dangerous neighbour, and accordingly -Tiglath-Pileser's next campaign was against a confederacy of the nations -of the north headed by Sarduris of Van. The confederacy was utterly -defeated in Kommag[^e]n[^e], 72,950 prisoners falling into the hands of -the Assyrians, and the way was opened into Syria. In B.C. 742 the siege -of Arpad (now Tel Erf[^a]d) began, and lasted two years. Its fall -brought with it the submission of Northern Syria, and it was next the -turn of Hamath to be attacked. Hamath was in alliance with Uzziah of -Judah, and its king Eniel may have been of Jewish extraction. But the -alliance availed nothing. Hamath was taken by storm, part of its -population transported to Armenia, and their places taken by colonists -from distant provinces of the empire, while nineteen of the districts -belonging to it were annexed to Assyria. The kings of Syria now flocked -to render homage and offer tribute to the Assyrian conqueror. Among them -we read the names of Menahem of Samaria, Rezon of Syria, Hiram of Tyre, -and Pisiris of Carchemish. This was the occasion when, as we learn from -2 Kings xv. 19, Menahem gave a thousand talents of silver to the -Assyrian king Pul, the name under which Tiglath-Pileser continued to be -known in Babylonia, and, as the Old Testament informs us, in Palestine -also. - -Three years later Ararat was again invaded. Van, the capital, was -blockaded, and though it successfully resisted the Assyrians, the -country was devastated far and near for a space of 450 miles. It was -long before the Armenians recovered from the blow, and for the next -century they ceased to be formidable to Assyria. Tiglath-Pileser's -northern frontier was now secure, and he therefore gladly seized the -opportunity of interfering in the affairs of the west which was offered -him by Ahaz, the Jewish king. Ahaz, whom the Assyrian inscriptions call -Jehoahaz, had been hard pressed by Rezon of Damascus and Pekah of -Israel, who had combined to overthrow the Davidic dynasty and place a -vassal prince, 'the son of Tabeal,' on the throne of Jerusalem. Ahaz in -his extremity called in the aid of Tiglath-Pileser, offering him a heavy -bribe and acknowledging his supremacy. Tiglath-Pileser accordingly -marched into Syria; Rezon was utterly defeated in battle and then -besieged in Damascus, to which he had escaped. Damascus was closely -invested; the trees in its neighbourhood were cut down; the districts -dependent on it were ravaged, and forces were despatched to punish the -Israelites, Ammonites, Moabites, and Philistines, who had been the -allies of Rezon, Gilead and Abel-beth-maachah being burnt, and the -tribes beyond the Jordan carried into captivity. The Philistine cities -were compelled to open their gates; the king of Ashkelon committed -suicide in order not to fall into the hands of the enemy, and Khanun of -Gaza fled to Egypt. At last in B.C. 732, after a siege of two years, -Damascus was forced by famine to surrender. Rezon was slain, Damascus -given over to plunder and ruin, and its inhabitants transported to Kir. -Syria became an Assyrian province, and all its princes were summoned to -do homage to the conqueror, while Tyre was fined 150 talents of gold, or -about[L]400,000. Among the princes who attended the lev['e]e or 'durbar' -was Ahaz, and it was while he was attending it that he saw the altar of -which he sent a pattern to Urijah the priest (2 Kings xvi. 10). - -All that now remained for Tiglath-Pileser to do was to reduce Babylonia -as he had reduced Syria. In B.C. 731, accordingly, he marched again into -Chaldaea. Ukin-ziru, the Babylonian king, was slain, Babylon and other -great cities were taken, and in B.C. 729, under his original name of -Pul, Tiglath-Pileser assumed the title of 'king of Sumer (Shinar) and -Accad.' - -He lived only two years after this, and died in B.C. 727, when the crown -was seized by Elulaeos of Tinu, who took the name of Shalmaneser IV. -Shalmaneser's short reign was signalised by an unsuccessful attempt to -capture Tyre, and by the beginning of a war against the kingdom of -Israel. But the siege of Samaria was hardly commenced when Shalmaneser -died, or was murdered, in B.C. 722, and was succeeded by another usurper -who assumed the name of Sargon, one of the most famous of the early -Babylonian kings. Sargon in his inscriptions claims royal descent, but -the claim was probably without foundation. He proved to be an able -general, though his inscriptions show that he continued to the last to -be a rough but energetic soldier who had perhaps risen from the ranks. - -Two years after his accession (B.C. 720) Samaria was taken and placed -under an Assyrian governor, 27,280 of its leading inhabitants being -carried captive to Gozan and Media. But Sargon soon found that the task -of cementing and completing the empire founded by Tiglath-Pileser was by -no means an easy one. Babylonia had broken away from Assyria on the news -of Shalmaneser's death, and had submitted itself to Merodach-Baladan the -hereditary chieftain of Beth-Yagina in the marshes on the coast of the -Persian Gulf. The southern portion of Sargon's dominions was threatened -by the ancient and powerful kingdom of Elam; the Kurdish tribes on the -east renewed their depredations; while the Hittite kingdom of Carchemish -still remained unsubdued, and the Syrian conquests could with difficulty -be retained. In fact, a new enemy appeared in this part of the empire in -the shape of Egypt. - -Sargon's first act, therefore, was to drive the Elamites back to their -own country with considerable loss. He was then recalled to the west by -the revolt of Hamath, where Yahu-bihdi, or Ilu-bihdi, whose name perhaps -indicates his Jewish parentage, had proclaimed himself king, and -persuaded Arpad, Damascus, Samaria, and other cities to follow his -standard. But the revolt was of short duration. Hamath was burnt, 4,300 -Assyrians being sent to occupy its ruins, and Yahu-bihdi was flayed -alive. Sargon next marched along the sea-coast to the cities of the -Philistines. There the Egyptian army was routed at Raphia, and its ally, -Khanun of Gaza, taken captive. - -In B.C. 717 all was ready for dealing the final blow at the Hittite -power in Northern Syria. The rich trading city of Carchemish was -stormed, its last king, Pisiris, fell into the hands of the Assyrians, -and his Moschian allies were forced to retreat to the north. The plunder -of Carchemish brought eleven talents and thirty manehs of gold and 2,100 -talents of silver into the treasury of Calah. It was henceforth placed -under an Assyrian satrap, who thus held in his hands the key of the high -road and the caravan trade between Eastern and Western Asia. - -But Sargon was not allowed to retain possession of Carchemish without a -struggle. Its Hittite inhabitants found avengers in the allied -populations of the north, in Meshech and Tubal, in Ararat and Minni. The -struggle lasted for six years, but in the end Sargon prevailed. Van -submitted, its king Ursa, the leader of the coalition against Assyria, -committed suicide, Cilicia and the Tibareni or Tubal were placed under -an Assyrian governor, and the city of Malatiyeh was razed to the ground. -In B.C. 711, Sargon was at length free to turn his attention to the -west. Here affairs wore a threatening aspect. Merodach-Baladan, -foreseeing that his own turn would come as soon as Sargon had firmly -established his power in Northern Syria, had despatched ambassadors to -the Mediterranean states, urging them to combine with him against the -common foe. We read in the Bible of the arrival of the Babylonian -embassy in Jerusalem, and of the rebuke received by Hezekiah for his -vainglory in displaying to the strangers the resources of his kingdom. -In spite of Isaiah's warning, Hezekiah listened to the persuasions of -the Babylonian envoys, and encouraged by the promise of Egyptian support -along with Phoenicia, Moab, Edom, and the Philistines, determined to -defy the Assyrian king. - -But before the confederates were ready to act in concert Sargon -descended upon Palestine. Phoenicia and Judah were overrun, Jerusalem -was captured, and Ashdod burnt, while the Egyptians made no attempt to -help their friends. This siege of Ashdod is the only occasion on which -the name of Sargon occurs in the Bible (Isaiah xx. 1). As soon as all -source of danger was removed in the west Sargon hurled his forces -against Babylonia. Merodach-Baladan had made every preparation to meet -the coming attack, and the Elamite king had engaged to help him. But the -Elamites were again compelled to fly before the warriors of Assyria, and -Sargon entered Babylon in triumph (B.C. 710). The following year he -pursued Merodach-Baladan to his ancestral stronghold in the marshes; -Beth-Yagina was taken by storm, and its unfortunate defenders were sent -in chains to Nineveh. Sargon was now at the height of his power. His -empire was a compact and consolidated whole, reaching from the -Mediterranean on the west to the mountains of Elam on the east, and his -solemn coronation at Babylon gave a title to his claim to be the -legitimate successor of the ancient Sargon of Accad. The old kingdoms of -Elam and Egypt alone remained to threaten the newly-founded empire, -which received the voluntary homage of the smaller states that lay -immediately beyond it. Thus the sacred island of Dilvun in the Persian -Gulf submitted itself to the terrible conqueror, and the Phoenicians of -Kition or Chittim in Cyprus erected a monumental record of his -supremacy. - -Sargon's end was consonant with his whole career. He was murdered by his -soldiers in his new city of Dur-Sargon or Khorsabad, on the 12th of Ab -or July, B.C. 705, and was succeeded by his son Sennacherib. If we may -judge from Sennacherib's name, which means 'the Moon-god has increased -the brothers,' he would not have been Sargon's eldest son. In any case -he had been brought up in the purple, and displayed none of the rugged -virtues of his father. He was weak, boastful, and cruel, and preserved -his empire only by the help of the veterans and generals whom Sargon had -trained. - -Merodach-Baladan had escaped from captivity, and two years after the -death of Sargon had once more possessed himself of Babylon. But a battle -at Kis drove him from the country nine months subsequently, and -Sennacherib was able to turn his attention to affairs in the west. In -B.C. 701, he marched into Phoenicia and Palestine, where Hezekiah of -Judah and some of the neighbouring kings had refused their tribute. -Tirhakah, the Ethiopian king of Egypt, had promised support to the -rebellious states, and Padi, the king of Ekron, who remained faithful to -the Assyrians, was carried in chains to Jerusalem. The Assyrian army -fell first upon Phoenicia. Great and Little Sidon, Sarepta, Acre, and -other towns, surrendered, Elulaeos, the Sidonian monarch, fled to -Cyprus, and the kings of Arvad and Gebal offered homage. Metinti of -Ashdod, Pedael of Ammon, Chemosh-nadab of Moab, and Melech-ram of Edom, -also submitted. Then, says Sennacherib: 'Zedekiah, king of Ashkelon, who -had not submitted to my yoke, himself, the gods of the house of his -fathers, his wife, his sons, his daughters, and his brothers, the seed -of the house of his fathers, I removed, and I sent him to Syria. I set -over the men of Ashkelon Sarludari, the son of Rukipti, their former -king, and I imposed upon him the payment of tribute, and the homage due -to my majesty, and he became a vassal. In the course of my campaign I -approached and captured Beth-Dagon, Joppa, Bene-berak, and Azur, the -cities of Zedekiah, which did not submit at once to my yoke, and I -carried away their spoil. The priests, the chief men, and the common -people of Ekron who had thrown into chains their king Padi because he -was faithful to his oaths to Assyria, and had given him up to Hezekiah, -the Jew, who imprisoned him like an enemy in a dark dungeon, feared in -their hearts. The king of Egypt, the bowmen, the chariots, and the -horses of the king of Ethiopia, had gathered together innumerable -forces, and gone to their assistance. In sight of the town of Eltekeh -was their order of battle drawn up; they called their troops (to the -battle). Trusting in Assur, my lord, I fought with them and overthrew -them. My hands took the captains of the chariots, and the sons of the -king of Egypt, as well as the captains of the chariots of the king of -Ethiopia, alive in the midst of the battle. I approached and captured -the towns of Eltekeh and Timnath, and I carried away their spoil. I -marched against the city of Ekron, and put to death the priests and the -chief men who had committed the sin (of rebellion), and I hung up their -bodies on stakes all round the city. The citizens who had done wrong and -wickedness I counted as a spoil; as for the rest of them who had done no -sin or crime, in whom no fault was found, I proclaimed a free pardon. I -had Padi, their king, brought out from the midst of Jerusalem, and I -seated him on the throne of royalty over them, and I laid upon him the -tribute due to my majesty. But as for Hezekiah of Judah, who had not -submitted to my yoke, forty-six of his strong cities, together with -innumerable fortresses and small towns which depended on them, by -overthrowing the walls and open attack, by battle engines and -battering-rams, I besieged, I captured, I brought out from the midst of -them and counted as a spoil 200,150 persons, great and small, male and -female, horses, mules, asses, camels, oxen and sheep without number. -Hezekiah himself I shut up like a bird in a cage in Jerusalem, his royal -city. I built a line of forts against him, and I kept back his heel from -going forth out of the great gate of his city. I cut off his cities that -I had spoiled from the midst of his land, and gave them to Metinti, king -of Ashdod, Padi, king of Ekron, and Zil-baal, king of Gaza, and I made -his country small. In addition to their former tribute and yearly gifts, -I added other tribute, and the homage due to my majesty, and I laid it -upon them. The fear of the greatness of my majesty overwhelmed him, even -Hezekiah, and he sent after me to Nineveh, my royal city, by way of gift -and tribute, the Arabs and his body-guard whom he had brought for the -defence of Jerusalem, his royal city, and had furnished with pay, along -with thirty talents of gold, 800 talents of pure silver, carbuncles and -other precious stones, a couch of ivory, thrones of ivory, an elephant's -hide, an elephant's tusk, rare woods of various names, a vast treasure, -as well as the eunuchs of his palace, dancing-men and dancing-women; and -he sent his ambassador to offer homage.' - -In this account of his campaign Sennacherib discreetly says nothing -about the disaster which befell his army in front of Jerusalem, and -which obliged him to return ignominiously to Assyria without attempting -to capture Jerusalem, and to deal with Hezekiah as it was his custom to -deal with other rebellious kings. The tribute offered by Hezekiah at -Lachish, when he vainly tried to buy off the threatened Assyrian attack, -is represented as having been the final result of a successful campaign. -There is, however, no exaggeration in the amount of silver Sennacherib -claims to have received, since 800 talents of silver are equivalent to -the 500 talents stated by the Bible to have been given, when reckoned -according to the standard of value in use at the time in Nineveh. - -Sennacherib never recovered from the blow he had suffered in Judah. He -made no more expeditions against Palestine, and during the rest of his -reign Judah remained unmolested. Babylonia, moreover, gave him constant -trouble. In the year after his campaign in the west (B.C. 700) a -Chaldean, named Nergal-yusezib, stirred up a revolt which Sennacherib -had some difficulty in suppressing. Two years later he appointed his -eldest son, Assur-nadin-sumi, viceroy of Babylon. In B.C. 694, he -determined to attack the followers of Merodach-Baladan in their last -retreat at the mouth of the Eulaeus, where land had been given to them -by the Elamite king after their expulsion from Babylonia. Ships were -built and manned by Phoenicians in the Persian Gulf, by means of which -the settlements of the Chaldean refugees were burnt and destroyed. -Meanwhile, however, Babylonia itself was invaded by the Elamites; the -Assyrian viceroy was carried into captivity, and Nergal-yusezib placed -on the throne of the country. He defeated the Assyrian forces in a -battle near Nipur, but died soon afterwards, and was followed by -Musezib-Merodach, who like his predecessor is called Suzub in -Sennacherib's inscriptions. He defied the Assyrian power for nearly four -years. But in B.C. 690 the combined Babylonian and Elamite army was -overthrown in the decisive battle of Khalule, and before another year -was past Sennacherib had captured Babylon, and given it up to fire and -sword. Its inhabitants were sold into slavery, and the waters of the -Araxes canal allowed to flow over its ruins. Sennacherib now assumed the -title of king of Babylonia, but with the exception of a campaign into -the Cilician mountains he seems to have undertaken no more military -expeditions. The latter years of his life were passed in constructing -canals and aqueducts, in embanking the Tigris, and in rebuilding the -palace of Nineveh on a new and sumptuous scale. On the 20th of Tebet, or -December, B.C. 681, he was murdered by his two elder sons, Adrammelech -and Nergal-sharezer, who were jealous of the favour shown to their -younger brother, Esar-haddon. - -Esar-haddon was at the time conducting a campaign against Erimenas, king -of Armenia, to whom his insurgent brothers naturally fled. Between seven -and eight weeks after the murder of the old king, a battle was fought -near Malatiyeh, in Kappadokia, between the veterans of Esar-haddon and -the forces under his brothers and Erimenas, which ended in the complete -defeat of the latter. Esar-haddon was proclaimed king, and the event -proved that a wiser choice could not have been made. - -His military genius was of the first order, but it was equalled by his -political tact. He was the only king of Assyria who endeavoured to -conciliate the nations he had conquered. Under him the fabric of the -Second Empire was completed by the conquest of Egypt. In the first year -of his reign he rebuilt Babylon, giving it back its captured deities, -its plunder, and its people. Henceforth Babylon became the second -capital of the empire, the court residing alternately there and at -Nineveh. It was while Esar-haddon was holding his winter court at -Babylon that Manasseh, of Judah, was brought to him as prisoner.[1] - - [1] 2 Chr. xxxiii. 11. - -The trade of Phoenicia was diverted into Assyrian hands by the -destruction of Sidon. The caravan-road from east to west was at the same -time rendered secure by an expedition into the heart of Northern Arabia. -Here Esar-haddon penetrated as far as the lands of Huz and Buz, 280 -miles of the march being through a waterless desert. The feat has never -been excelled, and the terror it inspired among the Bedouin tribes was -not forgotten for many years. The northern frontiers of the kingdom were -also made safe by the defeat of Teispes, the Kimmerian, who was driven -westward with his hordes into Asia Minor. In the east the Assyrian -monarch was bold enough to occupy and work the copper-mines on the -distant borders of Media, the very name of which had scarcely been -heard of before. Westward, the kings of Cyprus paid homage to the great -conqueror, and among the princes who sent materials for his palace at -Nineveh were Cyprian rulers with Greek names. - -But the principal achievement of Esar-haddon's reign was his conquest of -the ancient monarchy of Egypt. In B.C. 675 the Assyrian army started for -the banks of the Nile. Four years later Memphis was taken on the 22nd of -Tammuz, or June, and Tirhakah, the Egyptian king, compelled to fly first -to Thebes, and then into Ethiopia. Egypt was divided into twenty -satrapies, governed partly by Assyrians, partly by native princes, whose -conduct was watched by Assyrian garrisons. On his return to Assyria -Esar-haddon associated Assur-bani-pal, the eldest of his four sons, in -the government on the 12th of Iyyar, or April, B.C. 669, and died two -years afterwards (on the 12th of Marchesvan, or October), when again on -his way to Egypt. Assur-bani-pal, the Sardanapalos of the Greeks, -succeeded to the empire, his brother, Samas-sum-yukin, being entrusted -with the government of Babylonia. - -Assur-bani-pal is probably the 'great and noble' Asnapper of Ezra iv. -10. He was luxurious, ambitious, and cruel, but a munificent patron of -literature. The libraries of Babylonia were ransacked for ancient texts, -and scribes were kept busily employed at Nineveh in inscribing new -editions of older works. But unlike his fathers, Assur-bani-pal refused -to face the hardships of a campaign. His armies were led by generals, -who were required to send despatches from time to time to the king. It -was evident that a purely military empire, like that of Assyria, could -not last long, when its ruler had himself ceased to take an active part -in military affairs. At first the veterans of his father preserved and -even extended the empire of Assur-bani-pal; but before his death it was -shattered irretrievably. It is characteristic of Assur-bani-pal that his -lion-hunts were mere _battues_, in which tame animals were released from -cages and lashed to make them run; in curious contrast to the lion-hunts -in the open field in which his warlike predecessors had delighted. - -[Illustration: ASSUR-BANI-PAL AND HIS QUEEN. -(_From the original in the British Museum._)] - -His first occupation was to crush a revolt in Egypt. Tirhakah was once -more driven out of the country, and Thebes, called Ni in the Assyrian -texts, and No-Amon, or 'No of the god Amun' in Scripture, was plundered -and destroyed. Its temples were hewed in pieces, and two of its -obelisks, weighing 70 tons in all, were carried as trophies to Nineveh. -It is to this destruction of the old capital of the Pharaohs that Nahum -refers in his prophecy (iii. 8). - -Meanwhile Tyre had been besieged and forced to surrender, and Cilicia -had paid homage to the Assyrian king. Gog, or Gyges, of Lydia, too, -voluntarily sent him tribute, including two Kimmerian chieftains whom -the Lydian sovereign had captured in battle. When the Lydian ambassadors -arrived in Nineveh they found no one who could understand their -language; in fact, the very name of Lydia had been unknown to the -Assyrians before. - -The Assyrian Empire had now reached its widest limits. Elam had fallen -after a long and arduous struggle. Shushan, its capital, was razed to -the ground, and the three last Elamite kings were bound to the yoke of -Assur-bani-pal's chariot, and made to drag their conqueror through the -streets of Nineveh. The Kedarites and other nomad tribes of Northern -Arabia were also chastised, the land of the Minni was overrun, and the -Armenians of Van begged for an alliance with the Assyrian king. - -But while at the very height of his prosperity, the empire was fast -slipping away from under Assur-bani-pal's feet. In B.C. 652 a rebellion -broke out headed by his brother, the Babylonian viceroy, which shook it -to the foundations. Babylonia, Egypt, Palestine, and Arabia made common -cause against the oppressor. Lydia sent Karian and Ionic mercenaries to -Psammetikhos of Sais, with whose help he succeeded in overthrowing his -brother satraps, and in delivering Egypt from the Assyrian yoke. The -revolt in Babylonia took long to quell, and for a time the safety of -Assur-bani-pal himself was imperilled. At last in 647 Babylon and Cuthah -were reduced by famine, and Samas-sum-yukin burnt himself to death in -his palace. Fire and sword were carried through Elam, and the last of -its monarchs became an outlawed fugitive. - -When Assyria finally emerged from the deadly struggle, Egypt was lost to -it for ever, and Babylonia was but half subdued. The latter province was -placed under the government of Kandalanu, who ruled over it for -twenty-two years, more like an independent sovereign than a viceroy. His -successor, Nabopolassar, the father of Nebuchadnezzar, threw off all -semblance of submission to Nineveh, and prepared the way for the empire -of his son. But meanwhile the once proud kingdom of Assyria had been -contending for bare existence. Assur-bani-pal's son, Assur-etil-ilani, -rebuilt with diminished splendour the palace of Calah, which seems to -have been burnt by some victorious enemy; and when the last Assyrian -king, Esar-haddon II, called Sarakos by the Greeks, mounted the throne, -he found himself surrounded on all sides by threatening foes. Kaztarit -or Kyaxares, Mamitarsu the Median, the Kimmerians, the Minni, and the -people of Sepharad leagued themselves together against the devoted city -of Nineveh. The frontier towns fell first, and though Esar-haddon in his -despair proclaimed public fasts and prayers to the gods, nothing could -ward off the doom pronounced by God's prophets against Nineveh so long -before. Nineveh was besieged, captured, and utterly destroyed; and the -second Assyrian Empire perished more hopelessly and completely than the -first. All that survived was the old capital of the country, Assur, -whose former inhabitants were allowed to return to it by Cyrus at the -time when the Jewish exiles also were released from their captivity in -Babylon.[2] - - [2] The following are the significations of the different Assyrian - royal names mentioned in this chapter:-- - Rimmon-nirari, 'Rimmon (the Air-god) is my help.' - Shalmaneser (Sallimanu-esir), 'Sallimanu (Solomon, the god of - peace) directs.' The Babylonians changed the name to - Sulman-asarid, 'Solomon is supreme.' - Tiglath-Pileser (Tukulti-pal-E-S['a]ra), 'The servant of (the god - Adar) the son of E-'Sara (the temple of legions).' - Assur-d[^a]n, 'Assur is strong.' - Assur-natsir-pal, 'Assur is protector of the son.' - Samas-Rimmon, 'The Sun-god is also Rimmon (the Air-god).' - Sargon (Sarru-kunu), 'the constituted king.' - Sennacherib (Sinu-akhi-erba), 'The Moon-god increased the - brethren.' - Esar-haddon (Assur-akh-iddina), 'Assur gave a brother.' - Assur-bani-pal, 'Assur is creator of the son.' - Assur-etil-ilani, 'Assur is prince of the gods.' - -[Illustration] - - - * * * * * - - - - -CHAPTER III. - -ASSYRIAN RELIGION. - - -The Assyrians derived the greater part of their deities and religious -beliefs, like their literature and culture generally, from Babylonia. -The Babylonian gods were the gods of Assyria also. Most of them were of -Accadian or prae-Semitic origin, but the Semitic Babylonians, when they -appropriated the civilisation of the Accadians, modified them in -accordance with their own conceptions. The Accadians believed that every -object and phenomenon of nature had its _Zi_ or 'spirit,' some of them -beneficent, others hostile to man, like the objects and phenomena they -represented. Naturally, however, there were more malevolent than -beneficent spirits in the universe, and there was scarcely an action -which did not risk demoniac possession. Diseases were due to the -malevolence of these spirits, and could be cured only by the use of -certain charms and exorcisms. Exorcisms, in fact, gave those who -employed them power over the spirits; they could by means of them compel -the evil spirit to retire, and the beneficent spirit to approach. The -knowledge of such exorcisms was in the hands of the priests, so that -priest and magician were almost synonymous terms. - -Among the multitude of spirits feared by the Accadians, there were some -which had been raised above the rest into the position of gods. Of -these, Anu, 'the sky;' Mul-ge, 'the earth;' and Ea, 'the deep,' were the -most conspicuous. At their side stood the 'spirits' of the heavenly -bodies--the Moon-god, the Sun-god, the evening star, and the other -planets. The Moon-god ranked before the Sun-god, as might indeed have -been expected to be the case among a nation of astronomers like the -Chaldeans. - -When the Semitic Babylonians adopted the deities of their predecessors -and teachers, Anu and his compeers lost much of their elemental nature, -while the Sun-god Samas came to assume an important place. The religion -of the Babylonian Semites, in fact, was essentially solar; the Sun-god -was addressed as Bel or Baal, the supreme 'lord,' and adored under -various forms. He appeared to them, moreover, under two aspects, -sometimes as the kindly deity who gives life and light to all things, -sometimes as the scorching sun of summer who demanded the sacrifice of -the first-born to appease his wrath. Sometimes, again, he was worshipped -as the young and beautiful Tammuz, slain by the boar's tusk of winter; -whose death was lamented at the autumnal equinox, and who was invoked as -_adoni_ (_Adonis_) or 'master.' - -Unlike the Accadians, who did not distinguish gender, the Semites -divided all nouns into masculines and feminines. By the side of the god, -consequently, stood the goddess. She was, however, but a pale -reflection of her male consort, created, so to speak, by the necessities -of grammar. She had no independent attributes of her own; Beltis, or -Bilat, the wife of Bel, was nothing more than the feminine complement of -the god. The Accadians had known of one great goddess, Istar, the -evening star; but Istar was an independent deity, with attributes as -strongly and individually marked as those of the gods. Among the -Semites, Istar became Ashtoreth, with the feminine suffix _th_, and -though in Babylonia the old legends and traditions prevented her from -losing altogether her primitive character, she tended more and more to -pass into the mere reflection of some male deity. Just as the gods could -be collectively spoken of as Baalim or 'lords,' all being regarded as so -many different forms of the Sun-god, the goddesses also were termed -Ashtaroth or 'Ashtoreths.' - -We see, therefore, that in adopting the pantheon of Accad, the Semites -made three important changes. The Sun-god was assigned a leading place -in worship and belief; female deities were introduced, who were, -however, mere reflections of the gods; while the inferior deities of the -Accadians were classed among 'the 300 spirits of heaven' and 'the 600 -spirits of earth,' only a few of the more prominent ones retaining their -old position. These latter may be grouped as follows:-- - -At the head of the divine hierarchy still stood the old triad of Anu, -Mul-ge, and Ea. Mul-ge's name, however, was changed to Bel, but since -Merodach was also known as Bel, he fell more and more into the -background, especially after the rise of Babylon, of which city Merodach -was the patron deity. At Nipur, now Niffer, alone, he continued to be -worshipped down into late times. His consort was Bilat, or Beltis, 'the -great lady,' who eventually came to be regarded as the wife of Merodach -rather than of 'the other Bel.' Like Anu and Ea, Bel was the offspring -of Sar and Kisar, the upper and lower firmaments. - -Anu was the visible sky, but he also represented the invisible heaven, -which was supposed to extend above the visible one, and to be the abode -of the gods. The chief seat of his worship was Erech, where he was -regarded as the oldest of the gods, and the original creator of the -universe. But elsewhere, also, he was looked upon as the creator of the -visible world, and the father of the gods. By his side, in the Semitic -period, stood the goddess Anat, whose attributes were derived from his. -The worship of Anat spread from Babylonia to the Canaanites, as is shown -by the geographical names Beth Anath, 'the temple of Anat' (Josh. xix. -38; xv. 59), and Anathoth, the city of 'the goddesses Anat.' It was even -introduced into Egypt after the Asiatic wars of the eighteenth dynasty. -In the prae-Semitic days of Chaldea, a monotheistic school had -flourished, which resolved the various deities of the Accadian belief -into manifestations of the one supreme god, Anu; and old hymns exist in -which reference is made to 'the one god.' But this school never seems -to have numbered many adherents, and it eventually died out. Its -existence, however, reminds us of the fact that Abraham was born in 'Ur -of the Chaldees.' - -Ea originally represented the ocean-stream or 'great deep,' which was -supposed to surround the earth like a serpent, and by which all rivers -and springs were fed. He was symbolised by the snake, and was held to be -the creator and benefactor of mankind. One of his most frequent titles -is 'lord of wisdom,' and the chief seat of his worship was at Eridu, -'the holy city,' near which was the sacred grove or 'garden,' the centre -of the world, where the tree of life and knowledge had its roots. It was -Ea who had given to mankind not only life, but all the arts and -appliances of culture also, and it was his help that the Babylonian -invoked when in trouble. He was emphatically the god of healing, who had -revealed medicines to mankind. As god of the great deep, he was often -figured as a man with the tail of a fish, and in this form was known to -the Greeks under the name of Oannes or 'Ea the fish.' Sometimes the skin -of a fish was suspended behind his back. Oannes, it was said, had in -early days ascended out of the Persian Gulf, and taught the first -inhabitants of Babylonia letters, science, and art, besides writing a -history of the origin of mankind and their different ways of life. His -wife was Dav-kina, 'the lady of the earth,' who presided over the lower -world. - -Among the numerous offspring of Ea and Dav-kina, Merodach held the -foremost place. He was originally a form of the Sun-god, regarded under -his beneficent aspect, and was believed to be ever engaged in combating -the powers of evil, and in performing services for mankind. Hence he is -addressed as 'the redeemer of mankind,' 'the restorer to life,' and the -'raiser from the dead,' and a considerable number of the religious hymns -are dedicated to him. He was believed to be continually passing -backwards and forwards between the earth and the heaven where Ea dwelt, -informing Ea of the sufferings of men, and returning with Ea's -directions how to relieve them. One of the bas-reliefs from Nineveh, now -in the British Museum, represents him as pursuing with his curved sword -or thunderbolt the demon Tiamat, the personification of chaos and -anarchy, who is depicted with claws, tail, and horns. As we have already -seen, he was commonly addressed as Bel or 'lord,' and so came gradually -to supplant the older Bel or Mul-ge. Among the planets his star was -Jupiter. His wife was Zarpanit or Zirat-panitu, in whom some scholars -have seen the Succoth-benoth of 2 Kings xvii. 30. - -The children of Merodach and Zarpanit were Nebo, 'the prophet,' and his -wife Tasmit, 'the hearer.' Nebo was the god of oratory and literature; -it was he who 'enlightened the eyes' to understand written characters, -while his wife 'enlarged the ears,' so that they could comprehend what -was read. The origin of the cuneiform system of writing was ascribed to -Nebo. To him was dedicated 'the temple of the Seven Lights of Heaven -and Earth,' at Borsippa, the suburb of Babylon, which is now known to -the Arabs as the Birs-i-Nimr[^u]d, and his worship was carried as far as -Canaan, as we may gather from such names as the city of Nebo, in Judaea -(Ezra ii. 29), and Mount Nebo, in Moab (Deut. xxxii. 49). In Accadian he -had been called Dimsar, 'the tablet-writer,' and a temple was erected to -him in the island of Bahrein, in the Persian Gulf, where he was -worshipped under the name of Enzak. As a planetary deity, he was -identified with Mercury. He was often adored under the name of Nusku, -although Nusku had originally been a separate divinity, and the same, -perhaps, as the Nisroch of the Bible (2 Kings xix. 37). - -The companion of Merodach was Rimmon, or rather Ramman, 'the thunderer.' -He represented the atmosphere, and was accordingly the god of rain and -storm, who was armed with the lightning and the thunderbolt. Sometimes -he was dreaded as 'the destroyer of crops,' 'the scatterer of the -harvest;' at other times prayers were made to him as 'the lord of -fecundity.' His worship extended into Syria, where Rimmon appears to -have been the supreme deity of Damascus, and where he was also known -under the name of Hadad or Dadda. - -Two other elemental gods were Samas, the Sun-god, and Sin, the Moon-god. -Samas was the son of Sin, in accordance with the astronomical view of -the old Babylonians, which made the moon the measurer of time, and -regarded the day as the offspring of night. Samas, however, like Saul or -Savul, another deity of whom mention is made in the inscriptions, was -really but a form of Merodach, though in historical times the two -divinities were separated from one another, and received different -cults. Samas, again, was originally identical with Tammuz; but when -Tammuz came to denote only the sun of spring and summer, while the myth -that associated him with Istar laid firm hold of men's minds, Tammuz -assumed separate attributes, and an individual existence apart from -Samas. - -Sin, the Moon-god, was termed Agu or Acu by the Accadians, and if the -name of Mount Sinai was derived from him, as is sometimes supposed, we -should have evidence that he was known and worshipped in Northern -Arabia. At all events he was one of the deities of Southern Arabia. Sin -was the patron-god of the city of Ur, and it was to him that the -Assyrian kings traced the formation of their kingdom. One of the most -famous of his temples was in the ancient city of Harran, where he was -symbolised by an upright cone of stone. As the emblem of the Sun-god was -the solar orb, the emblem of Sin was the crescent moon. - -According to some of the legends of Babylonia, the daughter of the -Moon-god was the goddess Istar. Other legends, however, placed Istar -among the older gods, and made her the daughter of Anu, the sky. In -either case she was at the outset the goddess of the evening star, and -when it was discovered that the evening and morning stars were the same, -of the morning star also. As the evening star, she was known as Istar of -Erech, as the morning star, she was identified with Anunit or Anat, the -goddess of Accad. At times she was also regarded as androgynous, both -male and female. - -Istar was the chief of the Accadian goddesses, and she retained her rank -even among the Semites, who, as we have seen, looked upon the goddess as -the mere consort and shadow of the god. But Istar continued to the last -a separate and independent divinity. She presided over love and war, as -well as over the chase. She was invoked as 'the queen of heaven,' 'the -queen of all the gods,' and there was often a tendency to merge in her -the other goddesses of the pantheon. Her principal temples were at -Erech, Nineveh, and Arbela, but altars were erected to her in almost -every place, and she was adored under as many forms and titles as she -possessed shrines. Her name and worship spread through the Semitic -world, in Southern Arabia, in Syria, in Moab, where she was identified -with the Sun-god, Chemosh, and in Canaan, where she was called -Ashtoreth, the Astart[^e] of the Greeks. But the Greeks also knew her as -Aphrodit[^e], the goddess whom they had borrowed from the Phoenicians of -Canaan, and we may discover her again in the Ephesian Artemis. The rites -performed in her temples made Istar or Ashtoreth the darkest blot in -Assyrian and Canaanitish religion, and excited the utmost horror and -indignation of the prophets of God. When the moon came to be conceived -as a female divinity, the pale reflection, as it were, of the sun, -Istar, the evening star, became also the goddess of the moon. Hence it -is that 'the queen of heaven' (Jer. xliv. 17) passed into Astart[^e] -'with crescent horns.' - -One of the most popular of old Babylonian myths told how Istar had -wedded the young and beautiful Sun-god, Tammuz, 'the only-begotten,' and -had descended into Hades in search of him when he had been slain by the -boar's tusk of winter. A portion of a Babylonian poem has been preserved -to us, which describes her passage through the seven gates of the -underworld, where she left with the warden of each some one of her -adornments, until at last she reached the seat of the infernal goddess -Allat, stripped and bare. There she remained imprisoned until the gods, -wearied of the long absence of the goddess of love, created a hound -called 'the renewal of light,' who restored her to the upper world. The -myth clearly refers to the waning and waxing of the monthly moon, and -must therefore have originated when Istar had already become the goddess -of the moon. The myth entered deeply into the religious belief of the -worshippers of Istar. The Accadians called the month of August 'the -month of the errand of Istar,' while June was termed 'the month of -Tammuz' by the Semites. It was then that, as Milton writes, his - - 'annual wound in Lebanon allured - The Syrian damsels to lament his fate - In amorous ditties all a summer's day; - While smooth Adonis from his native rock - Ran purple to the sea, supposed with blood - Of Tammuz yearly wounded.' - -But it was not only in Assyria and Phoenicia that the death of Tammuz -was lamented by the women year by year. The infection spread to Judah -also, and even in Jerusalem, within the precincts of the temple itself, -Ezekiel saw 'women weeping for Tammuz' (Ezek. viii. 14). - -[Illustration: NERGAL. -(_From the original in the British Museum._)] - -There are only two other Assyro-Babylonian deities who need be -mentioned, Nergal and Adar. Nergal was the presiding deity of Cuthah and -its vast necropolis.[3] He shared with Anu the privilege of -superintending the regions of the dead, and he was also a god of hunting -and war. His name, like those of Anu, Ea, and Istar, was of Accadian -origin. Adar, the son of Beltis, was one of those solar deities who were -formed by worshipping the Sun-god under some particular attribute. The -reading of his name is, unfortunately, not certain, and Adar is only its -most probable pronunciation. If it is correct, Adar will be the deity -meant in 2 Kings xvii. 31, where it is stated that the people of -Sepharvaim, or the two Sipparas, burnt their children in fire to -Adrammelech and Anammelech, that is to say, to 'King Adar' and 'King -Anu.' - - [3] Confer 2 Kings xvii. 30. - -Such were the principal divinities of Babylonia and Assyria. But the -Assyrians had another also, whom they exalted above all the rest. This -was Assur, the divine impersonation of the state and empire. It was -Assur who, according to the Assyrian kings, led them to victory, and the -cruelties they practised on the conquered were, they held, judgments -exercised against those who would not believe in him. Assur, in the form -of an archer, is sometimes represented on the monuments in the midst of -the winged solar disk, and above the head of the monarch, whom he -protects from his enemies. - -The Assyrian, however, was not so pious or superstitious as his -Babylonian neighbour. The Babylonian lived in perpetual dread of the -evil spirits which thronged about him; almost every moment had its -religious ceremony, almost every action its religious complement. Not -only had the State ritual to be attended to; the unceasing attacks of -the demons could be warded off only by magical incantations and the -intervention of the sorcerer-priest. But the Assyrians were too much -occupied with wars and fighting to give all this heed to the -requirements of religion. It is significant that, whereas in Babylonia -we find the remains of scarcely any great buildings except temples, the -great buildings of Assyria were the royal palaces. The libraries, which -in Babylonia were stored in the temples, were deposited in Assyria in -the palace of the king. - -Nevertheless, the greater part of the religious system of Babylonia had -been transported into Assyria. Along with the Babylonian deities had -come the Babylonian scriptures. These were divided into two great -collections or volumes. The first, and oldest, was a collection of -exorcisms and magical texts, by the use of which, it was believed, the -spirits of evil could be driven away, and the spirits of good induced to -visit the reciter. When, however, certain independent deities began to -emerge from among the multitudinous 'spirits' of the primitive Accadian -creed, hymns were composed in their honour, and these hymns were -eventually collected together, and, like the Rig-Veda of India, became a -second sacred book. After the Accadians had been supplanted by the -Semites, the Accadian language, in which the hymns were originally -written, was provided with a Semitic translation; but it was still -considered necessary to recite the exact words of the original, since -the words themselves were sacred, and any mistake in their pronunciation -would invalidate the religious service in which they were employed. Some -of the incantations embodied in the collection of exorcisms must have -been introduced into it subsequently to the compilation of the sacred -hymns, since the latter are found inserted in them. From this it would -appear that the older collection continued to receive additions for a -long while after the younger collection--that of the sacred hymns--had -been put together and invested with a sacred character. This could not -have been till after the beginning of the Semitic period, since there -are a few hymns which do not seem to have had any Accadian originals. If -we may compare the two collections with our own religious literature, we -may say that the collection of hymns corresponded more to our Bible, -that of exorcisms to our Prayer Book. - -The Babylonians and Assyrians, however, possessed a liturgy which -answered far better to our conception of what a Prayer Book should be. -This contained services for particular days and hours, together with -rubrics for the direction of the priest. Thus we are told that 'in the -month Nisan, on the second day, two hours after nightfall, the priest -[of Bel at Babylon] must come and take of the waters of the river, must -enter into the presence of Bel, and change his dress; must put on a robe -in the presence of Bel, and say this prayer: "O my lord who in his -strength has no equal, O my lord, blessed sovereign, lord of the world, -speeding the peace of the great gods, the lord who in his might destroys -the strong, lord of kings, light of mankind, establisher of trust, O -Bel, thy sceptre is Babylon, thy crown is Borsippa, the wide heaven is -the dwelling-place of thy liver.... O lord of the world, light of the -spirits of heaven, utterer of blessings, who is there whose mouth -murmurs not of thy righteousness, or speaks not of thy glory, and -celebrates not thy dominion? O lord of the world, who dwellest in the -temple of the sun, reject not the hands that are raised to thee; be -merciful to thy city Babylon, to Beth-Saggil thy temple incline thy -face, grant the prayers of thy people the sons of Babylon."' - -Part of the liturgy consisted of prayers addressed to the various -deities, and suited to various occasions. Here are examples of them: 'At -dawn and in the night prayer should be made to the throne-bearer, and -thus should it be said: "O throne-bearer, giver of prosperity, a -prayer!" After that, let prayer be made to Nusku, and thus let it be -said: "O Nusku, prince and king of the secrets of the great gods, a -prayer!" After that, let prayer be made to Adar, and thus let it be -said: "O Adar, mighty lord of the deep places of the springs, a prayer!" -After that let prayer be made to Gula (Beltis), and thus let it be said: -"O Gula, mother, begetter of the black-headed race (of Accadians), a -prayer!" After that, let prayer be made to Nin-lil, and thus let it be -said: "O Nin-lil, great goddess, wife of the divine prince of -sovereignty, a prayer!" After that, let prayer be made to Bel, and thus -let it be said: "O lord supreme, establisher of law, a prayer!" The -prayer (must be repeated) during the day at dawn, and in the night, -with face and mouth uplifted, during the middle watch. Water must be -poured out in libation day by day ... at dawn, on the beams of the -palace.' - -One of the most curious of these petitions is a prayer after a bad -dream, of which a fragment only has been found. This reads as follows: -'May the lord set my prayer at rest, (may he remove) my heavy (sin). May -the lord (grant) a return of favour. By day direct unto death all that -disquiets me. O my goddess, be gracious unto me; when (wilt thou hear) -my prayer? May they pardon my sin, my wickedness, (and) my -transgression. May the exalted one deliver, may the holy one love. May -the seven winds carry away my groaning. May the worm lay it low, may the -bird bear it upwards to heaven. May a shoal of fish carry it away; may -the river bear it along. May the creeping thing of the field come unto -me; may the waters of the river as they flow cleanse me. Enlighten me -like a mask of gold. Food and drink before thee perpetually may I get. -Heap up the worm, take away his life. The steps of thy altar, thy many -ones, may I ascend. With the worm make me pass, and may I be kept with -thee. Make me to be fed, and may a favourable dream come. May the dream -I dream be favourable; may the dream I dream be fulfilled. May the dream -I dream turn to prosperity. May Makhir, the god of dreams, settle upon -my head. Let me enter Beth-Saggil, the palace of the gods, the temple of -the lord. Give me unto Merodach, the merciful, to prosperity, even unto -prospering hands. May thy entering (O Merodach) be exalted, may thy -divinity be glorious; may the men of thy city extol thy mighty deeds.' - -Along with these prayers, the Assyrians possessed a collection of -penitential psalms, which were composed at a very remote period in -Southern Babylonia. The most perfect of those of which we have copies is -the following:-- - - My Lord is wroth in his heart: may he be appeased again. - May God be appeased again, for I knew not that I sinned. - May Istar, my mother, be appeased again, for I knew not - that I sinned, - God knoweth that I knew not: may he be appeased. - Istar, my mother, knoweth that I knew not: may she be - appeased. - May the heart of my God be appeased. - May God and Istar, my mother, be appeased. - May God cease from his anger. - May Istar, my mother, cease from her anger. - The transgression (I committed my God) knew. - - [The next few lines are obliterated.] - - The transgression (I committed, Istar, my mother, knew). - (My tears) I drink like the waters of the sea. - That which was forbidden by my God I ate without knowing. - That which was forbidden by Istar, my mother, I trampled - on without knowing. - O my Lord, my transgression is great, many are my sins. - O my God, my transgression is great, many are my sins. - O Istar, my mother, my transgression is great, many are my - sins. - O my God, who knowest that I knew not, my transgression is - great, many are my sins. - O Istar, my mother, who knowest that I knew not, my - transgression is great, many are my sins. - The transgression that I committed I knew not. - The sin that I sinned I knew not. - The forbidden thing did I eat. - The forbidden thing did I trample on. - My Lord, in the anger of his heart, has punished me. - God, in the strength of his heart, has taken me. - Istar, my mother, has seized upon me, and put me to grief. - God, who knoweth that I knew not, has afflicted me. - Istar, my mother, who knoweth that I knew not, has caused - darkness. - I prayed, and none takes my hand. - I wept, and none held my palm. - I cry aloud, but there is none that will hear me. - I am in darkness and hiding, I dare not look up. - To God I refer my distress, I utter my prayer. - The feet of Istar, my mother, I embrace. - To God, who knoweth that I knew not, my prayer I utter. - To Istar, my mother, who knoweth that I knew not, my - prayer I address. - - [The next four lines are destroyed.] - - How long, O God (shall I suffer)? - How long, O Istar, my mother (shall I be afflicted)? - How long, O God, who knoweth that I knew not (shall I - feel thy) strength? - How long, O Istar, my mother, who knoweth that I knew - not, shall thy heart (be angry)? - Thou writest the number (?) of mankind, and none knoweth - it. - Thou callest man by his name, and what does he know? - Whether he shall be afflicted, or whether he shall be - prosperous, there is no man that knoweth. - O my God, thou givest not rest to thy servant. - In the waters of the raging flood take his hand. - The sin he has sinned turn into good. - Let the wind carry away the transgression I have committed. - Destroy my manifold wickednesses like a garment. - O my God, seven times seven are my transgressions, my - transgressions are (ever) before me. - -A rubric is attached to this verse, stating that it is to be repeated -ten times, and at the end of the whole psalm is the further rubric: 'For -the tearful supplication of the heart let the glorious name of every god -be invoked sixty-five times, and then the heart shall have peace.' - -Reference is made in the psalm to the eating of forbidden foods, and we -have other indications that certain kinds of food, among which swine's -flesh may be mentioned, were not allowed to be consumed. On particular -days also fasts were observed, and special days of fasting and -humiliation were prescribed in times of public calamity. In the calendar -of the Egibi banking firm, the 2nd of Tammuz or June is entered as a day -of 'weeping.' The institution of the Sabbath, moreover, was known to -the Babylonians and Assyrians, though it was confounded with the feast -of the new moon, since it was kept, not every seven days, but on the -seventh, fourteenth, twenty-first, and twenty-eighth days of the lunar -month. On these days, we read in a sort of Saints' calendar for the -intercalary Elul: 'Flesh cooked on the fire may not be eaten, the -clothing of the body may not be changed, white garments may not be put -on, a sacrifice may not be offered, the king may not ride in his -chariot, nor speak in public, the augur may not mutter in a secret -place, medicine of the body may not be applied, nor may any curse be -uttered.' The very name of Sabattu or Sabbath was employed by the -Assyrians, and is defined as 'a day of rest for the heart,' while the -Accadian equivalent is explained to mean 'a day of completion of -labour.' - -So far as we are at present acquainted with the peculiarities of the -Assyro-Babylonian temple, it offers many points of similarity to the -temple of Solomon at Jerusalem. Thus there were an outer and an inner -court and a shrine, to which the priests alone had access. In this was -an altar approached by steps, as well as an ark or coffer containing two -inscribed tablets of stone, such as were discovered by Mr. Rassam in the -temple of Balaw[^a]t. In the outer court was a large basin, filled with -water, and called 'a sea,' which was used for ablutions and religious -ceremonies. At the entrance stood colossal figures of winged bulls, -termed 'cherubs,' which were imagined to prevent the ingress of evil -spirits. Similar figures guarded the approach to the royal palace, and -possibly to other houses as well. Some of them may now be seen in the -British Museum. Within, the temples were filled with images of gods, -great and small, which not only represented the deities whose names they -bore, but were believed to confer of themselves a special sanctity on -the place wherein they were placed. As among the Israelites, offerings -were of two kinds, sacrifices and meal offerings. The sacrifice -consisted of an animal, more usually a bullock, part of whose flesh was -burnt upon the altar, while the rest was handed over to the priests or -retained by the offerer. There is no trace of human sacrifices among the -Assyrians, which is the more singular, since we learn that human -sacrifice had been an Accadian institution. A passage in an old -astrological work indicates that the victims were burnt to death, like -the victims of Moloch; and an early Accadian fragment expressly states -that they were to be the children of those for whose sins they were -offered to the gods. The fragment is as follows: 'The son who lifts his -head among men, the son for his own life must (the father) give; the -head of the child for the head of the man must he give; the neck of the -child for the neck of the man must he give; the breast of the child for -the breast of the man must he give.' The idea of vicarious punishment is -here clearly indicated. - -The future life to which the Babylonian had looked forward was dreary -enough. Hades, the land of the dead, was beneath the earth, a place of -darkness and gloom, from which 'none might return,' where the spirits of -the dead flitted like bats, with dust alone for their food. Here the -shadowy phantoms of the heroes of old time sat crowned, each upon his -throne, a belief to which allusion is made by the Hebrew prophet in his -prophecy of the coming overthrow of Babylon (Is. xiv. 9). In the midst -stood the palace of Allat, the queen of the underworld, where the waters -of life bubbled forth beside the golden throne of the spirits of earth, -restoring those who might drink of them to life and the upper air. The -entrance to this dreary abode of the departed lay beyond Datilla, the -river of death, at the mouth of the Euphrates, and it was here that the -hero Gisdhubar saw Xisuthros, the Chaldean Noah, after his translation -to the fields of the blessed. In later times, when the horizon of -geographical knowledge was widened, the entrance to the gloomy world of -Hades, and the earthly paradise that was above it, were alike removed to -other and more unknown regions. The conception of the after-life, -moreover, was made brighter, at all events, for the favoured few. An -Assyrian court-poet prays thus on behalf of his king: 'The land of the -silver sky, oil unceasing, the benefits of blessedness may he obtain -among the feasts of the gods, and a happy cycle among their light, even -life everlasting, and bliss; such is my prayer to the gods who dwell in -the land of Assur.' Even at a far earlier time we find the great -Chaldean epic of Gisdhubar concluding with a description of the -blissful lot of the spirit of Ea-bani: 'On a couch he reclines and pure -water he drinks. Him who is slain in battle thou seest and I see. His -father and his mother (support) his head, his wife addresses the corpse. -His friends in the fields are standing; thou seest (them) and I see. His -spoil on the ground is uncovered; of his spoil he hath no oversight, -(as) thou seest and I see. His tender orphans beg for bread; the food -that was stored in (his) tent is eaten.' Here the spirit of Ea-bani is -supposed to behold from his couch in heaven the deeds that take place on -the earth below. - -Heaven itself had not always been 'the land of the silver sky' of later -Assyrian belief. The Babylonians once believed that the gods inhabited -the snow-clad peak of Rowandiz, 'the mountain of the world' and 'the -mountain of the East,' as it was also termed, which supported the starry -vault of heaven. It is to this old Babylonian belief that allusion is -made in Isaiah xiv. 13, 14, where the Babylonian monarch is represented -as saying in his heart: 'I will ascend into heaven, I will exalt my -throne above the stars of God: I will sit also on the mount of the -assembly (of the gods)[4] in the extremities[5] of the north: I will -ascend above the heights of the clouds.' - - [4] A. V. 'congregation.' - - [5] A. V. 'sides.' - -As in all old forms of heathen faith, religion and mythology were -inextricably mixed together. Myths were told of most of the gods. -Reference has already been made to the myth of Istar and Tammuz, the -prototype of the Greek legend of Aphrodit[^e] and Adonis. So, too, the -Greek story of the theft of fire by Prometheus has its parallel in the -Babylonian story of the god Zu, 'the divine storm-bird,' who stole the -lightning of Bel, the tablet whereon the knowledge of futurity is -written, and who was punished for his crime by the father of the gods. -In reading the legend of the plague-demon Lubara, whom Anu sends to -smite the evildoers in Babylon, Erech, and other places, we are reminded -of the avenging angel of God whom David saw standing with a drawn sword -over Jerusalem. - -One of the most curious of the Babylonian myths was that which told how -the seven evil-spirits or storm-demons had once warred against the moon -and threatened to devour it. Samas and Istar fled from the lower sky, -and the Moon-god would have been blotted out from heaven had not Bel and -Ea sent Merodach in his 'glistening armour' to rescue him. The myth is -really a primitive attempt to explain a lunar eclipse, and finds its -illustration in the dragon of the Chinese, who is still popularly -believed by them to devour the sun or moon when an eclipse takes place. - -The primaeval victory of light and order over darkness and chaos, which -seems to be repeated whenever the sun bursts through a storm-cloud, was -similarly expressed in a mythical form. It was the victory of Merodach -over Tiamat,'the deep,' the personification of chaos and elemental -anarchy. The myth was embodied in a poem, the greater part of which has -been preserved to us. We are told how Merodach was armed by the gods -with bow and scimetar, how alone he faced and fought the dragon Tiamat, -driving the winds into her throat when she opened her mouth to swallow -him, and how, finally, he cut open her body, scattering in flight 'the -rebellious deities' who had stood at her side. Tiamat, or the watery -chaos, is usually represented with wings, claws, tail, and horns, but -she is also identified with 'the wicked serpent' of 'night and -darkness,' 'the monstrous serpent of seven heads,' 'which beats the -sea.' - -The most interesting of the old myths and traditions of Babylonia are -those in which we can trace, more or less clearly, the lineaments of the -accounts of the creation of the world and the early history of man, -given us in the early chapters of Genesis. There was more than one -legend of the creation. In a text which came from the library of Cuthah, -it was described as taking place on evolutionary principles, the first -created beings being the brood of chaos, men with 'the bodies of birds' -and 'the faces of ravens,' who were succeeded by the more perfect forms -of the existing world. But the library of Assur-bani-pal also contained -an account of the creation, which bears a remarkable resemblance to that -in the first chapter of Genesis. Unfortunately, however, it seems to -have been of Assyrian and not Babylonian origin, and, therefore, not to -have been of early date. In this account the creation appears to be -described as having been accomplished in six days. It begins in these -words: - -'At that time the heavens above named not a name, nor did the earth -below record one; yea, the ocean was their first creator, the flood of -the deep (Tiamat) was she who bore them all. Their waters were embosomed -in one place, and the clouds (?) were not collected, the plant was still -ungrown. At that time the gods had not issued forth, any one of them; by -no name were they recorded, no destiny (had they fixed). Then the -(great) gods were made; Lakhmu and Lakhamu issued forth the first. They -grew up.... Next were made the host of heaven and earth. The time was -long, (and then) the gods Anu, (Bel, and Ea were born of) the host of -heaven and earth.' The rest of the account is lost, and it is not until -we come to the fifth tablet of the series, which describes the -appointment of the heavenly bodies, that the narrative is again -preserved. Here we are told that the creator, who seems to have been Ea, -'made the stations of the great gods, even the stars, fixing the places -of the principal stars like ... He ordered the year, setting over it the -decans; yea, he established three stars for each of the twelve months.' -It will be remembered that, according to Genesis, the appointment of the -heavenly bodies to guide and govern the seasons was the work of the -fourth day, and since the work is described in the fifth tablet or book -of the Assyrian account, while the first tablet describes the condition -of the universe before the creation was begun, it becomes probable that -the Assyrians also knew that the work was performed on the fourth day. -The next tablet states that 'at that time the gods in their assembly -created (the living creatures). They made the mighty (animals). They -caused the living beings to come forth, the cattle of the field, the -beast of the field, and the creeping thing.' Unfortunately the rest of -the narrative is in too mutilated a condition for a translation to be -possible, and the part which describes the creation of man has not yet -been recovered among the ruins of the library of Nineveh. - -The Chaldean account of the Deluge was discovered by Mr. George Smith, -and its close resemblance to the account in Genesis is well known. Those -who wish to see a translation of it, according to the latest researches, -will find one in the pages of 'Fresh Light from the Ancient Monuments.' -The account was introduced as an episode into the eleventh book of the -great Babylonian epic of Gisdhubar, and appears to be the amalgamation -of two older poems on the subject. The story of the Deluge, in fact, was -a favourite theme among the Babylonians, and we have fragments of at -least two other versions of it, neither of which, however, agree so -remarkably with the Biblical narrative as does the version discovered by -Mr. Smith. Apart from the profound difference caused by the polytheistic -character of the Chaldean account, and the monotheism of the Scriptural -narrative, it is only in details that the two accounts vary from one -another. Thus, the vessel in which Xisuthros, the Chaldean Noah, sails, -is a ship, guided by a steersman, and not an ark, and others besides -his own family are described as being admitted into it. So, too, the -period of time during which the flood was at its height is said to have -been seven days only, while, beside the raven and the dove, Xisuthros is -stated to have sent out a third bird, the swallow, in order to determine -how far the waters had subsided. The Chaldean ark rested, moreover, on -Rowandiz, the highest of the mountains of Eastern Kurdistan, and the -peak whereon Accadian mythology imagined the heavens to be supported, -and not on the northern or Armenian continuation of the range. -Babylonian tradition, too, had fused into one Noah and Enoch, Xisuthros -being represented as translated to the land of immortality immediately -after his descent from the ark and his sacrifice to the gods. It is -noticeable that the Chaldean account agrees with that of the Bible in -one remarkable respect, in which it differs from almost all the other -traditions of the Deluge found throughout the world. This is in its -ascribing the cause of the Deluge to the wickedness of mankind. It was -sent as a punishment for sin. - -As might have been expected, the Babylonians and Assyrians knew of the -building of the Tower of Babel, and the dispersion of mankind. Men had -'turned against the father of all the gods,' under a leader the thoughts -of whose heart 'were evil.' At Babylon they began to erect 'a mound,' or -hill-like tower, but the winds destroyed it in the night, and Anu -'confounded great and small on the mound,' as well as their 'speech,' -and 'made strange their counsel.' All this was supposed to have taken -place at the time of the autumnal equinox, and it is possible that the -name of the rebel leader, which is lost, was Et['a]na. At all events the -demi-god Et['a]na played a conspicuous part in the early historical -mythology of Babylonia, like two other famous divine kings, Ner and Dun, -and a fragment describes him as having built a city of brick. However -this may be, Et['a]na is the Babylonian Titan of Greek writers, who, -with Prom[^e]theus and Ogygos, made war against the gods. - -If we sum up the character of Assyrian religion, we shall find it -characterised by curious contrasts. On the one hand we shall find it -grossly polytheistic, believing in 'lords many and gods many,' and -admitting not only gods and demi-gods, and even deified men, but the -multitudinous spirits, 'the host of heaven and earth,' who were classed -together as the '300 spirits of heaven and the 600 spirits of earth.' -Some of these were beneficent, others hostile, to man. In addition to -this vast army of divine powers, the Assyrian offered worship also to -the heavenly bodies, and to the spirits of rivers and mountains. He even -set up stones or 'Beth-els,' so called because they were imagined to be -veritable 'houses of god,' wherein the godhead dwelt, and over these he -poured out libations of oil and wine. Yet, on the other hand, with all -this gross polytheism, there was a strong tendency to monotheism. The -supreme god, Assur, is often spoken of in language which at first sight -seems monotheistic: to him the Assyrian monarchs ascribe their -victories, and in his name they make war against the unbeliever. A -similar inconsistency prevailed in the character of Assyrian worship -itself. There was much in it which commands our admiration: the Assyrian -confessed his sins to his gods, he begged for their pardon and help, he -allowed nothing to interfere with what he conceived to be his religious -duties. With all this, his worship of Istar was stained with the foulest -excesses--excesses, too, indulged in, like those of the Phoenicians, in -the name and for the sake of religion. - -Much of this inconsistency may be explained by the history of his -religious ideas. As we have seen, a large part of them was derived from -a non-Semitic population, the primitive inhabitants of Babylonia, under -whose influence the Semitic Babylonians had come at a time when they -still lacked nearly all the elements of culture. The result was a form -of creed in which the old Accadian faith was bodily taken over by an -alien race, but at the same time profoundly modified. It was Accadian -religion interpreted by the Semitic mind and belief. Baal-worship, which -saw the Sun-god everywhere under an infinite variety of manifestations, -waged a constant struggle with the conceptions of the borrowed creed, -but never overcame them altogether. The gods and spirits of the -Accadians remained to the last, although permeated and overlaid with the -worship of the Semitic Sun-god. As time went on, new religious elements -were introduced, and Assyro-Babylonian religion underwent new phases, -while in Assyria itself the deified state in the person of the god Assur -tended to absorb the religious cult and aspirations of the people. The -higher minds of the nation struggled now and again towards the -conception of one supreme God and of a purer form of faith, but the dead -weight of polytheistic beliefs and practices prevented them from ever -really reaching it. In the best examples of their religious literature -we constantly fall across expressions and ideas which show how wide was -the gulf that separated them from that kindred people of Israel to whom -the oracles of God were revealed. - -[Illustration] - - - * * * * * - - - - -CHAPTER IV. - -ART, LITERATURE, AND SCIENCE. - - -Assyrian art was, speaking generally, imported from Babylonia. Even the -palace of the king was built of bricks, and raised upon a mound like the -palaces and temples of Babylonia, although stone was plentiful in -Assyria, and there was no marshy plain where inundations might be -feared. It was only the walls that were lined with sculptured slabs of -alabaster, the sculptures taking the place of the paintings in -vermilion, which adorned the houses of Babylonia (Ezek. xxiii. 14). - -It is at Khorsabad, or Dur-Sargon, the city built by Sargon, to the -north of Nineveh, that we can best study the architectural genius of -Assyria. The city was laid out in the form of a square, and surrounded -by walls forty-six feet thick and over a mile in length each way, the -angles of which faced the four cardinal points. The outer wall was -flanked with eight tall towers, and was erected on a mound of rubble. - -On the north-west side stood the royal palace, defended also by a wall -of its own, and built on a [T]-shaped platform. It was approached -through an outer court, the gates of which were hung under arches of -enamelled brick, and guarded by colossal figures in stone. From the -court an inclined plane led to the first terrace, occupied by a number -of small rooms, in which the French excavators saw the barracks of the -palace-guard. Above this terrace rose a second, at a height of about ten -feet, upon which was built the royal palace itself. This was entered -through a gateway, on either side of which stood the stone figure of a -'cherub,' while within it was a court 350 feet long and 170 feet wide. -Beyond this court was an inner one, which formed a square of 150 feet. -On its left were the royal chambers, consisting of a suite of ten rooms, -and beyond them again the private chapel of the monarch, leading to the -apartments in which he commonly lived. On the west side of the palace -rose a tower, built in stages, on the summit of which was the royal -observatory. - -It is a question whether the Assyrian palace possessed any upper -stories. On the whole, probability speaks against it. Columns, however, -were used plentifully. The column, in fact, had been a Babylonian -invention, and originated in the necessity of supporting buildings on -wooden pillars in a country where there was no stone. From Babylonia -columnar architecture passed into Assyria, where it assumed exaggerated -forms, the column being sometimes made to rest on the backs of lions, -dogs, and winged bulls. - -The apertures which served as windows were protected by heavy folds of -tapestry, that kept out the heats of summer and the cold winds of -winter. In warm weather, however, the inmates of the house preferred to -sit in the open air, either in the airy courts upon which its chambers -opened, or under the shady trees of the _paradeisos_ or park attached to -the dwellings of the rich. The leases of houses let or sold in Nineveh -in the time of the Second Assyrian Empire generally make mention of the -'shrubbery,' which formed part of the property. - -Assyrian sculpture was for the most part in relief. The Assyrians carved -badly in the round, unlike the Babylonians, some of whose sitting -statues are not wanting in an air of dignity and repose. But they -excelled in that kind of shallow relief of which so many examples have -been brought to the British Museum. We can trace three distinct periods -in the history of this form of art. The first period is that which -begins, so far as we know at present, with the age of Assur-natsir-pal. -It is characterised by boldness and vigour, by an absence of background -or landscape, and by an almost total want of perspective. With very few -exceptions, faces and figures are drawn in profile. But with all this -want of skill, the work is often striking from the spirit with which it -is executed, and the naturalness with which animals, more especially, -are depicted. A bas-relief representing a lion-hunt of Assur-natsir-pal -has been often selected as a typical, though favourable, illustration of -the art of this age. - -The second period extends from the foundation of the Second Assyrian -Empire to the reign of Esar-haddon. The artist has lost in vigour, but -has compensated for it by care and accuracy. The foreground is now -filled in with vegetable and other forms, all drawn with a -pre-Raffaellite exactitude. The relief consequently becomes exceedingly -rich, and produces the effect of embroidery in stone. It is probable -that the delicate minuteness of this period of art was in great measure -due to the work in ivory that had now become fashionable at Nineveh. - -The third, and best period, is that of the reign of Assur-bani-pal. -There is a return to the freedom of the first period, but without its -accompanying rudeness and want of skill. The landscape is either left -bare, or indicated in outline only, the attention of the spectator being -thus directed to the principal sculpture itself. The delineation of the -human figure has much improved; vegetable forms have lost much of their -stiffness, and we meet with several examples of successful -foreshortening. Up to the last, however, the Assyrian artist succeeded -but badly in human portraiture. Nothing can surpass some of his pictures -of animals; when he came to deal with the human figure he expended his -strength on embroidered robes and the muscles of the legs and arms. The -reason of this is not difficult to discover. Unlike the Egyptian, who -excelled in the delineation of the human form, he did not draw from nude -models. The details of the drapery were with him of more importance than -the features of the face or the posture of the limbs. We cannot expect -to find portraits in the sculptures of Assyria. Little, if any, attempt -is made even to distinguish the natives of different foreign countries -from one another, except in the way of dress. All alike have the same -features as the Assyrians themselves. - -The effect of the bas-reliefs was enhanced by the red, black, blue, and -white colours with which they were picked out. The practice had come -from Babylonia, but whereas the Babylonians delighted in brilliant -colouring, their northern neighbours contented themselves with much more -sober hues. It was no doubt from the populations of Mesopotamia that the -Greeks first learnt to paint and tint their sculptured stone. -Unfortunately it is difficult, if not impossible, to find any trace of -colouring remaining in the Assyrian bas-reliefs now in Europe. When -first disinterred, however, the colours were still bright in many cases, -although exposure to the air soon caused them to fade and perish. - -The bas-reliefs and colossi were moved from the quarries out of which -they had been dug, or the workshops in which they had been carved, by -the help of sledges and rollers. Hundreds of captives were employed to -drag the huge mass along; sometimes it was transported by water, the -boat on which it lay being pulled by men on shore; sometimes it was -drawn over the land by gangs of slaves, urged to their work by the rod -and sword of their task-masters. On the colossus itself stood an -overseer holding to his mouth what looks on the monument like a modern -speaking-trumpet. Over a sculpture representing the transport of one of -these colossi Sennacherib has engraved the words: 'Sennacherib, king -of legions, king of Assyria, has caused the winged bull and the colossi, -the divinities which were made in the land of the city of the Baladians, -to be brought with joy to the palace of his lordship, which is within -Nineveh.' We may infer from this epigraph that the images themselves -were believed to be in some way the abode of divinity, like the Beth-els -or sacred stones to which reference has been made in the last chapter. - -[Illustration: Fragment now in the British Museum showing primitive -Hieroglyphics and Cuneiform Characters side by side.] - -Like Assyrian art, Assyrian literature was for the most part derived -from Babylonia. A large portion of it was translated from Accadian -originals. Sometimes the original was lost or forgotten; more frequently -it was re-edited from time to time with interlinear or parallel -translations in Assyro-Babylonian. This was more especially the case -with the sacred texts, in which the old language of Accad was itself -accounted sacred, like Latin in the services of the Roman Catholic -Church, or Coptic in those of the modern Egyptian Church. - -The Accadians had been the inventors of the hieroglyphics or pictorial -characters out of which the cuneiform characters had afterwards grown. -Writing begins with pictures, and the writing of the Babylonians formed -no exception to the rule. The pictures were at first painted on the -papyrus leaves which grew in the marshes of the Euphrates, but as time -went on a new and more plentiful writing material came to be employed in -the shape of clay. Clay was literally to be found under the feet of -every one. All that was needed was to impress it, while still wet, with -the hieroglyphic pictures, and then dry it in the sun. It is probable -that the bricks used in the construction of the great buildings of -Chaldea were first treated in this way. At all events we find that up to -the last, the Babylonian kings stamped their names and titles in the -middle of such bricks, and hundreds of them may be met with in the -museums of Europe bearing the name of Nebuchadnezzar. When once the -discovery was made that clay could be employed as a writing material, it -was quickly turned to good account. All Babylonia began to write on -tablets of clay, and though papyrus continued to be used, it was -reserved for what we should now term '['e]ditions de luxe.' The writing -instrument had originally been the edge of a stone or a piece of stick, -but these were soon superseded by a metal stylus with a square head. -Under the combined influence of the clay tablet and the metal stylus, -the old picture-writing began to degenerate into the cuneiform or -'wedge-shaped' characters with which the monuments of Assyria have made -us familiar. It was difficult, if not impossible, any longer to draw -circles and curves, and accordingly angles took the place of circles, -and straight lines the place of curves. Continuous lines were equally -difficult to form; it was easier to represent them by a series of -indentations, each of which took a wedge-like appearance from the square -head of the stylus. As soon as the exact forms of the old pictures began -to be obliterated, other alterations became inevitable. The forms began -to be simplified by the omission of lines or wedges which were no -longer necessary, now that the character had become a mere symbol -instead of a picture; and this process of simplification went on from -one century to another, until in many instances the later form of a -character is hardly more than a shadow of what it originally was. -Education was widely spread in Babylonia; in spite of the cumbrousness -and intricacy of the system of writing, there were few, it would appear, -who could not read and write, and hence, as was natural, all kinds of -handwritings were prevalent, some good and some bad. Among these various -cursive or running hands were some which were selected for public -documents; but as the hands varied, not only among individuals, but also -from age to age, the official script never became fixed and permanent, -but changed constantly, each change, however, bringing with it increased -simplicity in the shapes of the characters, and a greater departure from -the primitive hieroglyphic form. The earliest contemporaneous monuments -with which we are at present acquainted, are those recently excavated by -the French Consul M. de Sarzec at a place called Tel-Loh; on these we -see the early pictures in the very act of passing into cuneiform -characters, the pictures being sometimes preserved and sometimes already -lost. A comparison of the forms found at Tel-Loh with those usually -employed in the time of Nebuchadnezzar, will show at a glance what -profound modifications were undergone by the cuneiform syllabary in the -course of its transmission from generation to generation. - -In contrast to the Babylonians, the Assyrians were a nation of warriors -and huntsmen, not of students, and with them, therefore, a knowledge of -writing was confined to a particular class, that of the scribes. At an -early period, accordingly, in the history of the kingdom, a special form -of script was adopted not only in official documents, but in private -documents as well, and this script remained practically unchanged down -to the fall of Nineveh. This form of script was one of the many -simplified forms of handwriting that were used in Babylonia, and it was -fortunately a very clear and well-defined one. Now and then, it is true, -contact with Babylonia made an Assyrian king desirous of imitating the -archaic writing of Babylonia, and inscriptions were consequently -engraved in florid characters, abounding in a multiplicity of needless -wedges, and reminding us of our modern black-letter. Such ornamental -inscriptions are not numerous, and were carved only on stone. The clay -literature was all written in the ordinary Assyrian characters, except -when the scribe was unable to recognise a character in a Babylonian text -he was copying, and so reproduced it exactly in his copy. - -The clay tablets used by the Assyrians were an improvement on those of -Babylonia. Instead of being merely dried in the sun, they were -thoroughly baked in a kiln, holes being drilled through them here and -there to allow the steam to escape. As a rule, therefore, the tablets of -Assyria are smaller than those of Babylonia, since there was always a -danger of a large tablet being broken in the fire. In consequence of -the small size of the tablets, and the amount of text with which it was -often necessary to cover them, the characters impressed upon them are -frequently minute, so minute, indeed, as to suggest that they must have -been written with the help of a magnifying glass. This supposition is -confirmed by the existence of a magnifying lens of crystal discovered by -Sir A. H. Layard on the site of the library of Nineveh, and now in the -British Museum. - -[Illustration: AN ASSYRIAN BOOK. -(_From the original in the British Museum._)] - -A literary people like the Babylonians needed libraries, and libraries -were accordingly established at a very early period in all the great -cities of the country, and plentifully stocked with books in papyrus and -clay. In imitation of these Babylonian libraries, libraries were also -founded in Assyria by the Assyrian kings. There was a library at Assur, -and another at Calah which seems to have been as old as the city itself. -But the chief library of Assyria that, in fact, from which most of the -Assyrian literature we possess has come, was the great library of -Nineveh (Kouyunjik). This owed its magnitude and reputation to -Assur-bani-pal, who filled it with copies of the plundered books of -Babylonia. A whole army of scribes was employed in it, busily engaged in -writing and editing old texts. Assur-bani-pal is never weary of telling -us, in the colophon at the end of the last tablet of a series which made -up a single work, that 'Nebo and Tasmit had given him broad ears and -enlightened his eyes so as to see the engraved characters of the written -tablets, whereof none of the kings that had gone before had seen this -text, the wisdom of Nebo, all the literature of the library that -exists,' so that he had 'written, engraved, and explained it on tablets, -and placed it within his palace for the inspection of readers.' - -A good deal of the literature was of a lexical and grammatical kind, and -was intended to assist the Semitic student in interpreting the old -Accadian texts. Lists of characters were drawn up with their -pronunciation in Accadian and the translation into Assyrian of the words -represented by them. Since the Accadian pronunciation of a character was -frequently the phonetic value attached to it by the Assyrians, these -syllabaries, as they have been termed--in consequence of the fact that -the cuneiform characters denoted syllables and not letters--have been of -the greatest possible assistance in the decipherment of the -inscriptions. Besides the syllabaries, the Semitic scribes compiled -tables of Accadian words and grammatical forms with their -Assyro-Babylonian equivalents, as well as lists of the names of animals, -birds, reptiles, fish, stones, vegetables, medicines, and the like in -the two languages. There are even geographical and astronomical lists, -besides long lists of Assyrian synonyms and the titles of military and -civil officers. - -Other tablets contain phrases and sentences extracted from some -particular Accadian work and explained in Assyrian, while others again -are exercises or reading-books intended for boys at school, who were -learning the old dead language of Chaldea. In addition to these helps -whole texts were provided with Assyrian translations, sometimes -interlinear, sometimes placed in a parallel column on the right-hand -side; so that it is not wonderful that the Assyrians now and then -attempted to write in the extinct Accadian, just as we write nowadays in -Latin, though in both cases, it must be confessed, not always with -success. - -Accadian, however, was not the only language besides his own that the -Semitic Babylonian or Assyrian was required to know. Aramaic had become -the common language of trade and diplomacy, so that not only was it -assumed by the ministers of Hezekiah that an official like the -Rab-shakeh or Vizier of Sennacherib could speak it as a matter of course -(2 Kings xviii. 26), but even in trading documents we find the Aramaic -language and alphabet used side by side with the Assyrian cuneiform. -This common use of Aramaic explains how it was that the Jews after the -Babylonish captivity gave up their own language in favour not of the -Assyro-Babylonian, but of the Aramaic of Northern Syria and Arabia. An -educated Assyrian was thus expected to be able to read and write a dead -language, Accadian, and to read, write, and speak a foreign living -language, Aramaic. In addition to these languages, moreover, he took an -interest in others which were spoken by his neighbours around him. The -Rab-shakeh of Sennacherib was able to speak Hebrew, and tablets have -been discovered giving the Assyrian renderings of lists of words from -the barbarous dialects of the Kossaeans in the mountains of Elam and of -the Semitic nomads on the western side of the Euphrates. - -All the branches of knowledge known at the time were treated of in -Assyrian literature, though naturally history, legend, and poetry -occupied a prominent place in it. But even such subjects as the -despatches of generals in the field, or the copies of royal -correspondence found a place in the public library. The chronology of -Assyria, and therewith of the Old Testament also, has been restored by -means of the lists of successive 'eponyms' or officers after whom the -years were named, while a recent discovery has brought to light a table -of Semitic Babylonian kings, arranged in dynasties, which traces them -back to B.C. 2330. - -[Illustration: Part of an Assyrian Cylinder containing Hezekiah's Name. -(_From the original in the British Museum._)] - -The following is the transcription into the ordinary Assyrian Characters -of the last thirteen lines of the photograph on page 104. - -[Illustration] - -By way of comparison, a specimen of Babylonian writing is also given -here. - -[Illustration: SPECIMEN OF BABYLONIAN WRITING FROM AN INSCRIPTION OF -NEBUCHADNEZZAR.] - -The following is the transliteration and translation of the -transcription on page 105. - - 29. a-na D.P.[6] Kha-za-ki-ya-hu - _to Hezekiah._ - - [6] D.P. stands for 'Determinative Prefix.' There are thirty - determinatives in Assyrian. - - The D.P. [Illustration: Symbol 1], the sign meaning 'heaven,' or - anything in heaven, is put before the name of a god. - - The D.P. [Illustration: Symbol 2], the sign meaning 'country,' - is put before the name of a country. - - The D.P. [Illustration: Symbol 3], the sign meaning 'city,' is - put before the name of a city, and so on. - - - 30. D.P. Ya-hu-da-[^a] id-di-nu-su - _of the Jews they gave him as an enemy_ - - nak-ris a-na zil-li e-['s]ir-su - _In a dungeon he shut him up._ - - - 31. ip-lukh lab-ba-su-un sarrani mat Mu-tsu-ri - _Their heart feared. The kings of the country of Egypt,_ - - - 32. D.P. tsabi D.P. mitpani D.P. narkabat['e] - _the men of bows and chariots,_ - - D.P. sis[=e] sa sar D.P. Me-lukh-khi - _the horses of the king of Melu[h.][h.]i_, - - - 33. e-mu-[k.]i la ni-bi ik-te-ru-nim-ma - _a force without number they brought together_ - - il-li-ku - _and they marched to_ - - - 34. ri-tsu-u['s]-['s]u-un. i-na ta-mir-ti - _their aid. In the sight of the city_ - - D.P. Al-ta-[k.]u-u - _Altaku_ - - - 35. el-la-mu-u-a ['s]i-id-ru rit-ku-nu - _before me the order of battle they had placed,_ - - u-sa-a'-lu - _they appealed to_ - - - 36. D.P. kakk-su-un i-na tukulti D.P. Assur beli-ya it-ti-su-un - _their weapons. By the support of Assur my lord with them_ - - - 37. am-da-khi-its-ma as-ta-kan hapikta-su-un - _I fought and I accomplished their overthrow;_ - - 38. D.P. beli-narkabate u abli sarrani - _the charioteers and the sons of the kings of_ - - D.P. Mu-tsu-ra-[^a] - _the Egyptians_ - - - 39. a-di D.P. beli-narkabate sa sar - _together with the charioteers of the king of_ - - D.P. Me-lukh-khi bal-[d.]u-['s]u-un - _Melu[h.][h.]i alive_ - - - 40. i-na [k.]abal tam-kha-ri ik-su-da [k.]at[=a] - _in the midst of battle my two hands captured._ - - D.P. Al-ta-[k.]u-u - _The city Altaku_ - - - 41. D.P. Ta-am-na-a al-me aks-ud - _and the city T[=a]mn[=a] I besieged I captured_ - - sal-la-['s]un as-lu-la - _I carried away their spoil._ - -A flood of light has been poured on Chaldean astronomy and astrology, by -the fragments of the original work called 'The Observations of Bel' -which was translated into Greek by the Babylonian priest B[^e]r[^o]ssos. -It consisted of seventy-two books, and was compiled for king Sargon of -Accad, whose date is assigned by Nabonidos to B.C. 3800. Another work on -omens, in 137 books, had been compiled for the same king, and both -remained to the last days of the Assyrian Empire the standard treatises -on the subjects with which they dealt. To the same period we should -probably refer a treatise on agriculture, extracts from which have been -preserved in a reading-book in Accadian and Assyrian. Here the songs are -quoted with which the Accadian ox-drivers beguiled their labours -in the field: 'An heifer am I: to the cow thou art yoked: the -plough's handle is strong: lift it up lift it up;' or again: 'The knees -are marching, the feet are not resting; with no wealth of thy own grain -thou begettest for me.' Some of the most curious specimens of this -department of literature are the fables, riddles, and proverbs, which -embody the homely wisdom of the unofficial classes. - -Here, for instance, is a riddle propounded to Nergal and the other gods -by 'the wise man,' such as Orientals still delight in: - -'What is (found) in the house; what is (concealed) in the secret place; -what is (fixed) in the foundation of the house; what exists on the floor -of the house; what is (perceived) in the lower part (of the house); what -goes down by the sides of the house; what in the ditch of the house -(makes) broad furrows; what roars like a bull; what brays like an ass; -what flutters like a sail; what bleats like a sheep; what barks like a -dog; what growls like a bear; what enters into a man; what enters into a -woman?' The answer is, of course, the air or wind. - -Among the most treasured portions of the library of Nineveh was the -poetical literature, comprising epics, hymns to the gods, psalms and -songs. Fifteen of these songs, we are told, were arranged on the eastern -and northern sides of the building, 'on the western side being nine -songs to Assur, Bel the voice of the firmament, the Southern Sun,' and -another god. The mention of songs to Assur shows that there were some -which were of Assyrian origin. The epics, however, all came from -Babylonia, and were partly translations from Accadian, partly -independent compositions of Semitic Babylonian poets. The names of the -reputed authors of many of them have come down to us. Thus the great -epic of Gisdhubar was ascribed to Sin-liki-unnini; the legend of -Et['a]na to Nis-Sin; the fable of the fox to Ru-Merodach the son of -Nitakh-Dununa. - -The epic of Gisdhubar, as has already been stated, contained the account -of the Deluge, introduced as an episode into the eleventh book. It -consisted in all of twelve books, and was arranged upon an astronomical -principle, the subject-matter of each of the books being made to -correspond with one of the signs of Zodiac. Thus the fifth book records -the death of a monstrous lion at the hands of Gisdhubar, answering to -the Zodiacal Leo; in the sixth book the hero is vainly wooed by Istar, -the Virgo of the Zodiacal signs; and just as Aquarius is in the eleventh -Zodiacal sign, so the history of the Deluge is embodied in the eleventh -book. There was a special reason, however, for this arrangement; -Gisdhubar himself was a solar hero. He seems originally to have been the -fire-stick of the primitive Accadians, and then the god or spirit of the -fire it produced, eventually in the Semitic period passing first into a -form of the Sun-god, and then into a solar hero. His twelve labours or -adventures answer to the twelve months of the year through which the sun -moves, like the twelve labours of the Greek H[^e]rakl[^e]s. The latter, -indeed, were simply the twelve labours of Gisdhubar transported to the -west. The Greeks received many myths and mythological conceptions from -the Phoenicians, along with their early culture, and these myths had -themselves been brought by the Phoenicians from their original home in -Chaldea. It has long been recognised that H[^e]rakl[^e]s was the -borrowed Phoenician Sun-god; we now know that his primitive prototype -had been adopted by the Phoenicians from the Accadians of Babylonia. It -is not strange, therefore, that just as in the Greek myth of -Aphrodit[^e] and Ad[^o]nis we find the outlines of the old Chaldean -story of Istar and Tammuz, so in the legends of H[^e]rakl[^e]s we find -an echo of the legends of Gisdhubar. The lion destroyed by Gisdhubar is -the lion of Nemea; the winged bull made by Anu to avenge the slight -offered to Istar is the winged bull of Krete; the tyrant Khumbaba, slain -by Gisdhubar in 'the land of pine-trees, the seat of the gods, the -sanctuary of the spirits' is the tyrant Gery[^o]n; the gems borne by the -trees of the forest beyond 'the gateway of the sun' are the apples of -the Hesperides; and the deadly sickness of Gisdhubar himself is but the -fever sent by the poisoned tunic of Nessos through the veins of the -Greek hero. It is curious thus to trace to their first source the myths -which have made so deep an impress on classical art and literature. The -indebtedness of European culture to the valley of the Euphrates is -becoming more and more apparent every year. - -It is impossible to determine the age of the great Chaldean epic, but -it must have been composed subsequently to the period when, through the -precession of the equinoxes, Aries came to be the first sign of the -Zodiac instead of Taurus, that is to say, about B.C. 2500. On the other -hand, it is difficult to make it later than B.C. 2000, while the whole -character and texture of the poem shows that it has been put together -from older lays, which have been united into a single whole. The poem -deservedly continued to be a favourite among the Babylonians and -Assyrians, and more than one edition of it was made for the library of -Assur-bani-pal. A translation of all the portions of it that have been -discovered will be found in George Smith's 'Chaldean Account of -Genesis.' - -It is difficult for the English reader to appreciate justly the real -character of many of these old poems. The tablets on which they are -inscribed were broken in pieces when Nineveh was destroyed, and the roof -of the library fell in upon them. A text, therefore, has generally to be -pieced together from a number of fragments, leaving gaps and lacunae -which mar the pleasure of reading it. Then, again, the translator -frequently comes across a word or phrase which is new to him, and which -he is consequently obliged to leave untranslated or to render purely -conjecturally. At times there is a lacuna in the original text itself. -When the Assyrian scribe was unable to read the tablet he was copying, -either because the characters had been effaced by time or because their -Babylonian forms were unknown to him, he wrote the word _khibi_, 'it is -wanting,' and left a blank in his text. It is not wonderful, therefore, -that what is really a fine piece of literature reads tamely and poorly -in its English dress, more especially when we remember that the -decipherer is compelled to translate literally, and cannot have recourse -to those idiomatic paraphrases which are permissible when we are dealing -with known languages. - -But it must be confessed that many of the best compositions of Babylonia -are spoilt for us by the references to a puerile superstition, and the -ever-present dread of witchcraft and magic which they contain. A good -example of this curious mixture of exalted thought and debasing -superstition is the following hymn to the Sun-god:-- - - 'O Sun-god, king of heaven and earth, director of things - above and below, - O Sun-god, thou that clothest the dead with life, delivered - by thy hands, - judge unbribed, director of mankind, - supreme in mercy for him that is in trouble, - bidding the child and offspring come forth, light of the - world, - creator of all thy land, the Sun-god art thou! - O Sun-god, when the bewitchment for many days - is bound behind me and there is no deliverer, - the expulsion of the curse and return of health are brought - about (by thee). - Among mankind, the flock of the god Ner, whatever be their - names, he selects me: - after trouble he fills me with rest, - and day and night I stand undarkened. - In the anguish of my heart and the sickness of my body - there is ... - O father supreme, I am debased and walk to and fro. - In misery and affliction I held myself (?). - My littleness (?) I know not, the sin I have committed I - knew not. - I am small and he is great: - The walls of my god may I pass. - O bird stand still and hear the hound! - O Sun-god stand still and hear me! - The name of the evil bewitchment that has been brought - about overpower, - whether the bewitchment of my father, or the bewitchment of - my begetter, - or the bewitchment of the seven branches of the house of my - father, - or the bewitchment of my family and my slaves, - or the bewitchment of my free-born women and concubines, - or the bewitchment of the dead and the living, or the - bewitchment of the adult and the suckling (?), - or the bewitchment of my father and of him who is not my - father. - To father and mother be thou a father, and to brother and - child be thou a father. - To friend and neighbour be thou a father, and to handmaid - and man be thou a father. - To the field thou hast made and thy ... be thou a father. - May the name of my god be a father where there is no - justice. - To mankind, the flock of the god Ner, whatever be their - names, who are in field and city, - speak, O Sun-god, mighty lord, and bid the evil enchantment - be at rest.' - -Even the science of the Babylonians and their Assyrian disciples was not -free from superstition. Astronomy was mixed with astrology, and their -observation of terrestrial phenomena led only to an elaborate system of -augury. The false assumption was made that an event was caused by -another which had immediately preceded it; and hence it was laid down -that whenever two events had been observed to follow one upon the other, -the recurrence of the first would cause the other to follow again. The -assumption was an illustration of the well-known fallacy: 'Post hoc, -ergo propter hoc.' It produced both the pseudo-science of astrology and -the pseudo-science of augury. - -The standard work on astronomy, as has already been noted, was that -called 'The Observations of Bel,' compiled originally for the library of -Sargon I at Accad. Additions were made to it from time to time, the -chief object of the work being to notice the events which happened after -each celestial phenomenon. Thus the occurrences which at different -periods followed a solar eclipse on a particular day were all duly -introduced into the text and piled, as it were, one upon the other. The -table of contents prefixed to the work showed that it treated of -various matters--eclipses of the sun and moon, the conjunction of the -sun and moon, the phases of Venus and Mars, the position of the -pole-star, the changes of the weather, the appearance of comets, or, as -they are called, 'stars with a tail behind and a corona in front,' and -the like. The immense collection of records of eclipses indicates the -length of time during which observations of the heavens had been carried -on. As it is generally stated whether a solar eclipse had happened -'according to calculation' or 'contrary to calculation,' it is clear -that the Babylonians were acquainted at an early date with the -periodicity of eclipses of the sun. The beginning of the year was -determined by the position of the star Dilgan ([alpha] Aurigae) in -relation to the new moon at the vernal equinox, and the night was -originally divided into three watches. Subsequently the _kasbu_ or -'double hour' was introduced to mark time, twelve _kasbu_ being -equivalent to a night and day. Time itself was measured by a clepsydra -or water-clock, as well as by a gnomon or dial. The dial set up by Ahaz -at Jerusalem (2 Kings xx. 11) was doubtless one of the fruits of his -intercourse with the Assyrians. - -The Zodiacal signs had been marked out and named at that remote period -when the sun was still in Taurus at the beginning of spring, and the -equator had been divided into sixty degrees. The year was -correspondingly divided into twelve months, each of thirty days, -intercalary months being counted in by the priests when necessary. The -British Museum possesses fragments of a planisphere from Nineveh, -representing the sky at the time of the vernal equinox, the -constellation of Tammuz or Orion being specially noticeable upon it. -Another tablet contains a table of lunar longitudes. - -With all this attention to astronomical matters it is not surprising -that every great city boasted of an observatory, erected on the summit -of a lofty tower. Astronomers were appointed by the state to take charge -of these observatories, and to send in fortnightly reports to the king. -Here are specimens of them, the first of which is dated B.C. 649:--'To -the king, my lord, thy servant Istar-iddin-pal, one of the chief -astronomers of Arbela. May there be peace to the king, my lord, may -Nebo, Merodach, and Istar of Arbela, be favourable to the king, my lord. -On the twenty-ninth day we kept a watch. The observatory was covered -with cloud: the moon we did not see. (Dated) the month Sebat, the first -day, the eponymy of Bel-kharran-Sadua.' 'To the king, my lord, thy -servant Abil-Istar. May there be peace to the king, my lord. May Nebo -and Merodach be propitious to the king, my lord. May the great gods -grant unto the king, my lord, long days, soundness of body, and joy of -heart. On the twenty-seventh day (of the month) the moon disappeared. On -the twenty-eighth, twenty-ninth, and thirtieth days, we kept a watch for -the eclipse of the sun. But the sun did not pass into eclipse. On the -first day the moon was seen during the day. During the month Tammuz -(June) it was above the planet Mercury, as I have already reported to -the king. During the period when the moon is called Anu (_i.e._, from -the first to the fifth days of the lunar month), it was seen declining -in the orbit of Arcturus. Owing to the rain the horn was not visible. -Such is my report. During the period when the moon was Anu, I sent to -the king, my lord, the following account of its conjunction:--It was -stationary and visible below the star of the chariot. During the period -when the moon is called Bel (_i.e._, from the tenth to the fifteenth -day), it became full; to the star of the chariot it approached. Its -conjunction (with the star) was prevented; but its conjunction with -Mercury, during the period when it was Anu, of which I have already sent -a report to the king, my lord, was not prevented. May the king, my lord, -have peace!' - -Astronomical observations imply a knowledge of mathematics, and in this -the Babylonians and Assyrians seem to have excelled. Tables of squares -and cubes have been found at Senkereh, the ancient Larsa, and a series -of geometrical figures used for augural purposes presupposes a sort of -Babylonian Euclid. The mathematical unit was 60, which was understood as -a multiple when high numbers had to be expressed, IV, for example, -standing for (4 X 60 =) 240. Similarly, 60 was the unwritten denominator -of fractional numbers. The plan of an estate outside the gate of Zamama -at Babylon, and belonging to the time of Nebuchadnezzar, has been -discovered, while the famous Hanging Gardens of that city were watered -by means of a screw. - -Medicine also was in a more advanced state than might have been -expected. Fragments of an old work on medicine have been found, which -show that all known diseases had been classified, and their symptoms -described, the medical mixtures considered appropriate to each being -compounded and prescribed quite in modern fashion. Here is one of them: -'For a diseased gall-bladder, which devours the top of a man's heart -like a ring(?) ... within the sick (part), we prepare cypress-extract, -goats' milk, palm-wine, barley, the flesh of an ox and bear, and the -wine of the cellarer, in order that the sick man may live. Half an ephah -of clear honey, half an ephah of cypress-extract, half an ephah of -_gamgam_ herbs, half an ephah of linseed, half an ephah of ..., half an -ephah of _imdi_ herbs, half an ephah of the seed of _tarrati_, half an -ephah of calves' milk, half an ephah of _senu_ wood, half an ephah of -_tik_ powder, half an ephah of the ... of the river-god, half an ephah -of _usu_ wood, half an ephah of mountain medicine, half an ephah of the -flesh(?) of a dove, half an ephah of the seed of the ..., half an ephah -of the corn of the field, ten measures of the juice of a cut herb, ten -measures of the tooth of the sea (sea-weed), one ephah of putrid -flesh(?), one ephah of dates, one ephah of palm-wine and _insik_, and -one ephah of the flesh(?) of the entrails; slice and cut up; or mix as a -mixture, after first stirring it with a reed. On the fourth day observe -(the sick man's) countenance. If it shows a white appearance his heart -is cured; if it shows a dark appearance his heart is still devoured by -the fire; if it shows a yellow appearance during the day, the patient's -recovery is assured; if it shows a black appearance he will grow worse -and will not live. For the swelling(?), slice (the flesh of) a cow which -has entered the stall and has been slaughtered during the day. Seethe it -in water and calves' milk. Drink the result in palm-wine. Drink it -during the day.' - -Generally, however, the prescriptions are not so elaborate as this. They -are more usually of this nature: 'For low spirits, slice the root of the -destiny tree, the root of the _susum_ tree, two or three other vegetable -compounds, and the tongue of a dog. Drink the mixture either in water or -in palm-wine.' - -Even medical science, however, was invaded by superstition. In place of -trying the doctor's prescription, a patient often had the choice allowed -him of having recourse to charms and exorcisms. Thus the medical work -itself permits him to 'place an incantation on the big toe of the left -foot and cause it to remain' there, the incantation being as follows: 'O -wind, my mother, wind, wind, the handmaid of the gods art thou; O wind -among the storm-birds; yea, the water dost thou make stream down, and -with the gods thy brothers liftest up the glory of thy wisdom.' At other -times a witch or sorceress was called in, and told to 'bind a cord twice -seven times, binding it on the sick man's neck and on his feet like -fetters, and while he lies in his bed to pour pure water over him.' -Instead of the knotted cord verses from a sacred book might be -employed, just as phylacteries were, and still are, among the Jews. Thus -we read: 'In the night-time let a verse from a good tablet be placed on -the head of the sick man in bed.' The word translated 'verse' is -_masal_, the Hebrew _m[^a]sh[^a]l_, which literally signifies a -'proverb' or 'parable.' It is curious to find the witch by the side of -the wizard in Babylonia. 'The wise woman,' however, was held in great -repute there, and just as the witches of Europe were supposed to fly -through the air on a broomstick so it was believed that the witches of -Babylonia could perform the same feat with the help of a wooden staff. - -[Illustration] - - - * * * * * - - - - -CHAPTER V. - -MANNERS AND CUSTOMS; TRADE AND GOVERNMENT. - - -The monuments of Assyria do not give us the same assistance as those of -Egypt in learning about the manners and customs of its inhabitants. We -find there no tombs whose pictured walls set before us the daily life -and doings of the people. We have to acquire our knowledge from the -bas-reliefs of the royal palaces, which represent to us rather the pomp -of the court and the conquest of foreign nations than scenes taken from -ordinary Assyrian life. It is only incidentally that the manners and -customs of the lower classes are depicted. It is true that we can learn -a good deal from the contract-tablets and other kinds of what may be -called the private literature of Babylonia and Assyria. At present, -however, but a small portion of these has been examined, and a -literature can never paint so fully and distinctly the manners and -customs of the day as the picture or sculpture on the wall. It is only -in times comparatively modern that the novelist has sought to give a -faithful portrait of the life of the peasant and artisan. - -The dress of the upper classes in Assyria did not differ essentially -from that of the well-to-do Oriental of to-day. In time of peace the -king was dressed in a robe which reached to the ankles, bound round the -waist with a broad belt, while a mantle was thrown over his shoulders, -and a tiara or fillet was worn on his head. The tiara sometimes -resembled the triple tiara of the Pope, sometimes was of cone-like -shape, and the fillet was furnished with two long bandelettes which fell -down behind. The robe and mantle were alike richly embroidered and edged -with fringes. The arms were left bare, except in so far as they could be -covered by the mantle, and a heavy pair of bracelets encircled each, the -workmanship of the jewelry being similar to that of the chain which was -worn round the neck. The feet were shod with sandals which had a raised -part behind to protect the heels, and they were fastened to the feet by -a ring through which the great toe passed, and a latchet over the -instep. Sandals of precisely the same character are still used in -Mesopotamia. The monarch's dress in war was similar to that used in time -of peace, except that he carried a belt for daggers, while a fringed -apron took the place of the mantle. Boots laced in front were also -sometimes substituted for the sandals. - -The upper classes, and more especially the officials about court, wore a -costume similar to that of the king, only of course, less rich and -costly. In all cases they were distinguished by the long fringed -sleeveless robe which descended to the ankles. The dress of the soldiers -and of the common people generally was quite different. It consisted -only of the tunic, over which in all probability the long robe of the -wealthy was worn, and which did not quite reach the knees. Sometimes a -sort of jacket was put on above it, and, in a few instances, a simple -kilt seems to take its place. The kilt was frequently worn under the -tunic, which was fastened round the waist by a girdle or sword-belt. The -arms, legs, and feet, were bare. Some of the soldiers, however, wore -sandals, and others, more particularly the cavalry, wore boots, which -were laced in front, and came half way up the leg. The upper part of the -legs was occasionally protected by drawers of leather or chain-armour, -and we even find tunics made of the same materials. Helmets were also -employed, but the common soldier usually covered his head with a simple -skull-cap. - -The dress of the women consisted of a long tunic and mantle, and a -fillet for confining the hair. - -The king and his officers rode in chariots even when on a campaign. In -crossing mountains the chariots often had to be carried on the shoulders -of men or animals, their wheels being sometimes first taken off for the -purpose. The chariot was large enough to contain not only the king but -an umbrella-bearer and a charioteer as well. The latter held the reins -in both hands, each rein being single and fastened to either side of a -snaffle-like bit. When in the field the royal chariot was followed by a -bow-bearer and a quiver-bearer, as well as by led horses, intended to -assist the monarch to escape, should the fortune of battle turn against -him. The chariot was drawn by two horses, a third horse being usually -attached to it by a thong in order to take the place of one of the other -two if an accident occurred. - -[Illustration: ASSYRIAN KING IN HIS CHARIOT.] - -Beside the chariots the army was accompanied by a corps of cavalry. In -the time of the first Assyrian Empire the cavalry-soldier rode on the -bare back of the horse, with his knees crouched up in front of him; -subsequently saddles were introduced, though not stirrups. - -The cavalry was divided into two corps--the heavy and the light-armed. -The latter were armed only with the bow and arrow and a guard for the -wrist, and were chiefly employed in skirmishing. Most of the archers, -however, belonged to the infantry. The Assyrians were particularly -skilled in the use of the bow, and their superiority in war was probably -in great measure due to it. Besides the bow they employed the spear, the -short dagger or dirk, and the sword, which was of two kinds. The -ordinary kind was long and straight, the less usual kind being curved, -like a scimetar. For defence, round shields, of no great size, were -carried. - -Only the king and the chief nobles were allowed the luxury of a tent. -The common soldier had to sleep on the ground, wrapped up in a blanket -or plaid. The tent was probably of felt, and had an opening in the -centre through which the smoke of a fire might escape. Not only, -however, was a sleeping-tent carried for the king, a cooking-tent was -carried also. So also was the royal chair, called a _nimedu_, on which -the monarch sat when stationary in camp. The chair may be seen in the -bas-relief, now in the British Museum, which represents Sennacherib -sitting upon it in front of the captured town of Lachish. Above is a -short inscription which tells us that 'Sennacherib, the king of legions, -the king of Assyria, sat on an upright throne, and the spoil of the city -of Lachish passed before him.' - -There were various means for assaulting a hostile town. Sometimes -scaling-ladders were used, sometimes the walls were undermined with -crowbars and pickaxes; sometimes a battering-ram was employed armed -with one or two spear-like projections; sometimes fire was applied to -the enemy's gates. Other engines are mentioned in the inscriptions, but -as they have not been found depicted on the monuments it is difficult to -identify them. - -[Illustration: SIEGE OF A CITY.] - -The barbarities which followed the capture of a town would be almost -incredible, were they not a subject of boast in the inscriptions which -record them. Assur-natsir-pal's cruelties were especially revolting. -Pyramids of human heads marked the path of the conqueror; boys and girls -were burned alive or reserved for a worse fate; men were impaled, flayed -alive, blinded, or deprived of their hands and feet, of their ears and -noses, while the women and children were carried into slavery, the -captured city plundered and reduced to ashes, and the trees in its -neighbourhood cut down. During the second Assyrian Empire warfare was a -little more humane, but the most horrible tortures were still exercised -upon the vanquished. How deeply-seated was the thirst for blood and -vengeance on an enemy is exemplified in a bas-relief which represents -Assur-bani-pal and his queen feasting in their garden while the head of -the conquered Elamite king hangs from a tree above. - -The Assyrians made use of chairs, tables, and couches. A piece of -sculpture from Khorsabad introduces us to a scene in which the priests -of the king are seated, two on a chair on either side of a four-legged -table. Their sandals are removed, as was the custom among the Greeks -when eating. In the luxurious days of Assur-bani-pal the couch seems to -have partially taken the place of the chair, since in the scene alluded -to above the king is depicted reclining, though the queen sits in a -chair by his side. The number of different kinds of food mentioned in -the inscriptions seems to imply that the Assyrians were fond of good -living. The common people, it is true, lived mostly on bread, fruit, and -vegetables; but the monuments show us soldiers engaged in slaughtering -and cooking oxen and sheep. - -Wine was the usual beverage at a banquet, and the Assyrians appear to -have resembled the Persians in their indulgence in it. Various sorts of -wine are enumerated in the inscriptions, most of which were imported -from abroad. Among the most highly prized was the wine of Khilbun or -Helbon, which is mentioned in Ezek. xxvii. 18, and was grown near -Damascus at a village still called Halb[^u]n. Besides grape-wine, -palm-wine, made from dates, was brought from Babylon, and beer, milk, -cream, butter or ghee, and oil, were all much used. At a feast the wine -was ladled out of a large vase into cups, which were then presented to -the guests. - -The table was ornamented with flowers, and musicians were hired to amuse -the banqueters. No less than seven or eight different musical -instruments were known, among them the harp, the lyre, and the -tambourine. The lyre seems to have been specially employed at feasts, -and the harp for the performance of sacred music. The instrumental music -was at times accompanied by the voice, and bands of musicians celebrated -the triumphant return of the king from war. - -Polygamy was permitted--at all events to the monarch--and the palace was -accordingly guarded by a whole army of eunuchs. They were generally in -attendance on the sovereign, like the scribes whose offices were -continually needed in both peace and war. Another attendant must not be -forgotten--the servant who stood behind the king armed with a fly-flap, -and was almost a necessity in hot weather. Considering the number of -captives carried away every year to Assyria in the successful campaigns -of its rulers, slaves must have been very plentiful in Nineveh. Indeed, -after the Arabian campaign of Assur-bani-pal we are told that a camel -was sold for half a shekel of silver, and that a man was worth a -correspondingly small sum. - -Next to hunting men the chief employment and delight of an Assyrian king -was to hunt wild beasts. Tiglath-Pileser I had hunted elephants in the -land of the Hittites, as the Egyptian Pharaohs had done before him; -subsequently the extinction of the elephant in Western Asia caused his -successors to content themselves with lesser game. The reem or wild bull -and the lion became their favourite sport, smaller animals like the -gazelle, the hare, and the wild ass being left to their subjects to -pursue. It was not until the reign of Assur-bani-pal that the lion-hunt -ceased to be a dangerous and exciting pastime. With Esar-haddon, -however, the old race of warrior kings had come to an end, and the new -king introduced a new style of sport. The lions were now caught and kept -in cages, until they were turned out for a royal _battue_. As they had -to be whipped into activity, neither the monarch nor his companions -could have run much risk of being harmed. - -The Assyrians were not an agricultural people like the Babylonians. -Nevertheless, the kings had their paradises or parks, and the wealthier -classes their gardens or shrubberies. The garden was planted with trees -rather than with flowers or herbs, and afforded a shady retreat during -the summer months. Tiglath-Pileser I had even established a sort of -botanical garden, in which he tried to acclimatise some of the trees he -had met with in his campaigns. He tells us of it: 'As for the cedar, the -_likkarin_ tree, and the almug, from the countries I have conquered, -these trees, which none of the kings my fathers that were before me had -planted, I took, and in the gardens of my land I planted, and by the -name of garden I called them; whatsoever in my land there was not I -took, and I established the gardens of Assyria.' The gardens were -abundantly watered from the river or canal, by the side of which they -were usually planted. Summer-houses were built in the midst of them, and -as early as the time of Sennacherib we meet with a 'hanging garden,' -grown on the roof of a building. - -Fishing was carried on with a line merely, and without a rod. The -fisherman sat on the bank, or else swam in the water, supporting himself -on an inflated skin. - -These inflated skins were largely used in warfare for conveying troops -and animals across a stream. The chief officers, along with their -chariots and commissariat, were ferried across in boats, but the -soldiers had to strip, and with the help of the skins convey themselves, -their arms, the horses, and other baggage to the opposite bank. - -At times a pontoon-bridge of boats was constructed, at other times the -Assyrian army was fortunate enough to meet with bridges of stone or -wood. In fact, such bridges existed on all the main roads which it -traversed. Western Asia was more thickly populated then than is at -present the case, and the roads were not only more numerous than they -are to-day, but better kept. Hence the ease and rapidity with which -large bodies of men were moved by the Assyrian kings from one part of -Asia to another. Where a road did not already exist, it was made by the -advancing army, timber being cleared and a highway thrown up for the -purpose. - -As road-makers the Assyrians seem to have anticipated the Romans. Both -their military and their trading instincts led them in this direction. -It was only when they came to the water that their career was checked. -Excellent as they were as soldiers, they never became sailors. The boats -of the Tigris and Euphrates were either rafts or circular coracles of -skins stretched on a wooden framework. When Sennacherib wished to attack -the Chaldeans of Bit-Yagina in their place of refuge on the Persian -Gulf, he had to transport Phoenicians from the west to build his -galleys, and to navigate them afterwards. It was the Babylonians 'whose -cry was in their ships;' the Assyrians fought and traded on shore. - -It was not until the rise of the Second Assyrian Empire that the trade -of Assyria became important. The earlier kings had gone forth to war for -the sake of booty or out of mere caprice; Tiglath-Pileser II and his -successors aimed at getting the commerce of the world into the hands of -their own subjects. The fall of Carchemish and the overthrow of the -Phoenician cities enabled them to carry out their design. Nineveh became -a busy centre of trade, from whence caravans went and returned north and -south, east and west. The old Hittite standard of weight, called 'the -maneh of Carchemish' by the Assyrians, was made the ordinary legal -standard, and Aramaic became the common language of trade. Not -unfrequently an Aramaic docket accompanies an Assyrian contract tablet, -stating briefly what were its contents and the names of the chief -contracting parties. These contract tablets have to do with the sale and -lease of houses, slaves, and other property, as well as with the amount -of interest to be paid upon loans. We learn from them that the rate of -interest was usually as low as four per cent., and when objects like -bronze were borrowed as three per cent. House property naturally varied -in value. A house sold at Nineveh on the sixteenth of Sivan or May, B.C. -692, fetched one maneh of silver or[L]9, the average price of a slave. -Thus, three Israelites, as Dr. Oppert believes, were sold by a -Phoenician on the twentieth of Ab or July, B.C. 709, for[L]27, -retractation or annulment of the sale being subject to a penalty of -about[L]230, part of which was to go to the temple of Istar of Arbela. -Twenty years later, however, as many as seven slaves, among them an -Israelite, Hoshea, and his two wives, were sold for the same price, -while we find a girl handed over by her parents to an Egyptian lady -Nit[^o]kris, who wished to marry her to her son Takhos, for the small -sum of[L]2 10_s_. The last deed of sale, by the way, proves that wives in -Assyria could sometimes be bought. - -All deeds and contracts were signed and sealed in the presence of a -number of attesting witnesses, who attached their seals, or, if they -were too poor to possess any, their nail-marks, to the documents. It was -then enclosed in an outer coating of clay, on which an abstract of its -contents was given. Sometimes a further document on papyrus was fastened -to it by means of a string. - -It was only in the case of the monarch himself that the signatures of -attesting witnesses were dispensed with. The British Museum possesses a -sort of private will made by Sennacherib in favour of Esar-haddon, when -the latter was not as yet heir-apparent to the throne. In this no -witnesses are mentioned, and it is considered sufficient that the -document should be lodged in the imperial archives. It runs as follows: -'I, Sennacherib, king of legions, king of Assyria, bequeathe armlets of -gold, quantities of ivory, a platter of gold, ornaments and chains for -the neck, all these beautiful things of which there are heaps, and three -sorts of precious stones, 1-1/2 manehs and 2-1/2 shekels in weight, to -Esar-haddon, my son, whose name was afterwards changed to -Assur-sar-illik-pal by my wish. I have deposited the treasure in the -house of Amuk. Thine is the kingdom, O Nebo, our light!' Payments, it -must be remembered, were still made by weight, coined money not having -been introduced until after the time of Nebuchadnezzar. - -The business-like character of the trading community of Nineveh will -best be gathered from the documents themselves which have been left to -us. It will, therefore, not be out of place to add here translations of -some of the contract tablets:-- - - I. 'Ten shekels of the best silver for the head of Istar of - Nineveh, which Bil-lubaladh has lent on a loan in the presence - of Mannu-ki-Arbela [here follow three seals]; the silver is to - have interest paid upon it at four per cent. The silver has - been given on the third day of the month. (Dated) the third - day of Sebat, in the eponymy of Rimmon-lid-ani. The witnesses - (are) Khatpi-sumnu, Rahu, Ziru-yukin, Neriglissor, Ebed-Nebo - of Selappa, Musezib-Assur, Nebo-sallim-sunu, Khanni, and - Bel-sad-ili.' - -Then follow two lines and a half of Aramaic, the first of which contains -the name of Mannu-ki-Arbela. - - II. 'Two talents of bronze, the property of Istar of Arbela, which - Mannu-ki-Arbela gives to the goddess in the month Ab, in the - presence of Samas-akhi-erba; if they are given, interest shall - be paid on them at three per cent. (Dated) the eleventh day of - Sivan, in the eponymy of Bamba (B.C. 676), before the - witnesses: Istar-bab-esses, Kua, Sarru-ikbi, Dumku-pani-sarri, - and Nebo-bilua.' - - III. 'Four manehs of silver, according to the standard of - Carchemish, which Neriglissor, in the presence of - Nebo-sum-iddin, son of Nebo-rahim-baladhi, the superintendent - of the Guards at Dur-Sargon (Khorsabad), lends out at five - shekels of silver per month interest. (Dated) the twenty-sixth - day of the month of Iyyar, in the eponymy of Gabbaru (B.C. - 667). The witnesses are: Nebo-pal-iddin, Nebo-nirar, the - holder of the two pens, Akhu-ramu of the same office, - Assur-danin-sarri of the same office, Disi the astronomer, - Samas-igir-sumeli (?), Sin-kasid-kala, the executioner, and - Merodach ... the astronomer.' - - IV. 'The nail-mark of Sar-ludari, the nail-mark of Atar-suru, the - nail-mark of the woman Amat-Suhla, the wife of Bel-dur, - belonging to the third regiment, owners of the house which is - sold. [Then follow four nail-marks.] The whole house, with its - woodwork and its doors, situated in the city of Nineveh, - adjoining the houses of Mannu-ki-akhi and El-kiya, near the - markets (?), has been sold, and Tsil-Assur, the astronomer, an - Egyptian, has received it for one maneh of silver, according - to the royal standard (9 pound), in the presence of Sar-ludari, - Atar-suru, and Amat-suhla, the wife of Bel-dur. The full price - has been paid. This house has been bought. Withdrawal from the - contract and agreement is forbidden. Whoever shall act - fraudulently (?) at any time, or from among these men who have - sworn to the contract and agreement with Tsil-Assur, shall be - fined ten manehs of silver (90 pound). The witnesses are: - Susanku-khatnanis, Kharmaza, the captain; Rasuh, the pilot; - Nebo-dur-sanin, the foreign traveller; Kharmaza, the chief - pilot; Sin-sar-utsur and Zedekiah. (Dated) the sixteenth day - of Sivan, in the eponymy of Zaza (B.C. 692), the Governor of - Arpad. In the presence of Samas-yukin-akhi, Latturu, and - Nebo-sum-utsur.' - - V. 'The seal of (Dagon-melech) the master of the slaves.--Imannu, - the woman U ... and Melech-ur [Melchior], three persons, have - been sold, and thou, O Enuma-ili, the holder of the - highplaces which have been erected at the entrance to - Dur-Sargon, hast received them from Dagon-melech for three - manehs of silver (27 pound) according to the standard of - Carchemish. The full price hast thou paid. These slaves have - been bought and taken. Withdrawal from the contract and - agreement is forbidden. Whoever shall act fraudulently (?) at - any time, and shall deceive and injure me (?), whether - Dagon-melech or his brothers, or the sons of his brothers, - whether small or great, who have sworn to the contract and - agreement on behalf of Enuma-ili, his sons and grandsons, - shall pay ... (manehs) of silver, and one maneh of gold to - Istar of Arbela, and shall return the price to the owners with - ten per cent. interest. Then he will be quit of his contract - and agreement, and will not have bought. The witnesses (are): - Adda the astronomer, Akhu-irame the astronomer, Pakakha - [Pekah] the chief of the ..., Nadbi-Yahu [Nadabiah] the - principal ... Bel-sime-ani, Bin-dikiri, Khim-Istar, and Tabni - the astronomer, the recipient of the document. (Dated) the - twentieth day of Ab, in the eponymy of Mannu-ki-Assur-lih' - (B.C. 709). - -It will be noticed that the Israelitish witnesses to the last deed of -sale, Pekah and Nadabiah, hold public offices, though the exact nature -of them is at present unknown. We may conclude from this that some of -the Samaritan captives were allowed to live in Nineveh, and so far from -being in a condition of slavery were able to be in the service of the -state. Among the earliest known examples of Israelitish or Jewish -writing are seals which probably belong to a period anterior to the -Babylonish Exile, and have been found at Diarbekr and other places in -the neighbourhood of the Tigris and Euphrates. It is also possible that -the great banking firm of Egibi, which flourished at Babylon from the -time of Sennacherib and Esar-haddon to that of Darius and Xerxes, and -carried on business transactions as extensive as those of the -Rothschilds of to-day, was of Israelitish origin. At all events the name -Egibi is not Babylonian, while it is a very exact Babylonian transcript -of the Biblical name Jacob. - -The contract tablets throw a good deal of light upon Assyrian law. In -its main outlines it did not differ much from our own. Precedents and -previous decisions seem to have been held in as high estimation as among -our own lawyers. The king was the supreme court of appeal, and copies -exist of private petitions preferred to him on a variety of matters. -Judges were appointed under the king, and prisons were established in -the towns. An old Babylonian code of moral precepts addressed to princes -denounces the ruler who listens to the evil advice of his courtiers, and -does not deliver judgment 'according to the statutes,' 'the law-book,' -and 'the writing of the god Ea.' The earliest existing code of laws is -one which goes back to the Accadian epoch, and contains an express -enactment for protecting the slave against his master. How far it was -made the basis of subsequent Semitic legislation it is difficult to say; -in one respect, at all events, it differed considerably from the law -which followed it. This was in the position it assigned to women. Among -the Accadians, the woman was the equal of man; in fact, she ranked -before the husband in matters relating to the family; whereas among the -Semites she was degraded to a very inferior rank. It is curious to find -the Semitic translator of an Accadian text invariably changing the order -in which the words for man and woman, male and female occur in the -original. In the Accadian the order is 'woman and man,' in the -Assyro-Babylonian translation, 'man and woman.' - -The high-roads were placed under the charge of commissioners, and in -Babylonia, where brick-making was an important occupation, the -brick-yards as well. Certain of the taxes, which were raised alike from -citizens and aliens, were devoted to the maintenance of them. -Unfortunately we know but little at present of the precise way in which -the taxes were levied, and the principle on which they were distributed -among the various classes of the population. In Babylonia, however, the -tenant does not seem to have paid much to the government, since we are -told of him that after handing over one-third of the produce of an -estate to his landlord, he might keep the rest of it for himself. There -is no hint that any portion of it was distrained for the state. - -As in modern Turkey, the imperial exchequer after the time of -Tiglath-Pileser II was supplied by fixed contributions from the separate -provinces and large towns. Thus Nineveh itself was assessed at thirty -talents. The best way, however, of giving an idea of the assessment is -by a translation of the few fragments of the assessment lists of the -Second Empire which have been preserved to us. - - I. 'To be expended on linen cloths. Fifty (talents). - Thirty talents. The tribute of Nineveh. Ten talents - for firewood (?). - Twenty talents of Assyria, from the same city, for the - equipment of the fleet. - Ten talents of Assyria, a fresh assessment. In all - (from Assyria) 274 talents. - Twenty talents for the harem of the palace. Expended - on linen cloths. - - * * * * * - - Five talents. The tribute of Calah. To be expended - on firewood (?). - Four talents of Assyria, from the same city. Thirty - talents for the highlands. - Ten talents from the city of Enil, for the lowlands. - ... talents from the city of Nisibis. Twenty - talents for 600.... - ( ... talents) from the city of Alikhu, for 600 - dresses. - ( ... talents) for six vestures of linen. Three - talents for _ep[^a]_. - ( ... talents ...) for keeping the gates in - repair. - ( ... talents) for the tax-gatherer. Two talents - from the city of Alikhu. - ( ... talents) for chariots and for wheels. - ( ... talents) for the astronomer. Three talents for - women's robes. - ( ... talents) for the throne of the palace in the - middle of the city. Two talents for gala dresses. - ( ... talents) for the throne of the palace (in the - middle of the city). Two talents ten manehs 500 - (shekels). - ... in the city of Assur ... again. - ... the city of Kalzu[7], two talents (for) - three conduits. - ( ... talents) from the city of Enil, for the persons - of the overseers. - (Assessment of) the country of Assyria; two talents for - the house of the tax-gatherer; two talents for the - right side (of the house); five talents for the - completion (of the assessment). - ( ... talents) from the nobles, and two talents from - the librarians, for firewood (?) each year. - - [7] Now Shamameh, south-west Arbela. - - * * * * * - - To be expended on linen cloths: ten talents from the - land of Risu. - (For) the servants of the palace and the people of - Nineveh. - - * * * * * - - ... (for) seats, five talents from their attendants - (Levied) every year from the lowlands. - The payment to be made by the tax-gatherer: two - talents for the male and female spinners. - - * * * * * - - (For) the house of the Master of the Singers: one - talent for their coverings. - Also for the house of the singing men themselves. - ... for the keep of the war-chariot. In all 190 - talents ten manehs. - - * * * * * - - ... manehs for his awning. To be expended in - full. - ... manehs for the broad streets of the public - road: seven talents ten manehs besides. - Forty manehs and a shekel and (?) a sleeved dress; - twenty-two talents for wood. - At six per cent. on each shekel let him put out the - money at triple interest. - - * * * * * - - Two talents without the linen. Fifteen talents ten - manehs for the same personage. - - * * * * * - - Three talents ten manehs for the custom-house. - Thirty talents ten manehs on (?) slaves. - Two manehs for wine-presses. The money to be put - out at double interest. - - * * * * * - - For rods: one talent (levied on) the north side (of - the city). In all, twenty-two talents to be invested. - Altogether thirty talents twenty-one manehs out of - fifty-three talents. - In the presence of the princes the money raised on the - slaves to be invested. - - * * * * * - - [Here follows the endorsement of the tax-collectors:] - - We receive no bribes: we give what we take.' - - II. 'Thirty talents (are annually received) from Arpad. - One hundred talents from Carchemish. - Thirty talents from the city of the Kuans.[8] - Fifteen talents from Megiddo. - Fifteen talents from Mannutsuate. - ... talents from Zemar (Gen. x. 18). - ... talents from Hadrach (Zech. ix. 1). - - [8] The Kue or Kuans inhabited the northern and eastern - shores of the Gulf of Antioch. M. Fran[,c]ois Lenormant - has ingeniously suggested that in 1 Kings x. 28, we - ought to read (with a slight change of vowel punctuation), - 'And Solomon had horses brought out of Egypt, and out - of Kue the king's merchants received a drove at a price.' - - * * * * * - - ... talents to be put out at interest; fifty talents - to be melted into bronze. - It is weighed in the presence of the princes. - (The tribute) of Damascus, Arpad, Carchemish, Kue, - Tsubud, Zemar, and Meon-Zemar.' - -In spite of the fragmentary character of these lists, and the difficulty -of understanding them perfectly in consequence of their brevity and the -omission of prepositions, we may nevertheless glean from them a fair -idea of the method in which the imperial exchequer of Assyria was -replenished, and the objects to which the taxes and tribute were -devoted. A considerable amount must have gone to the great army of -officials by whom the Second Empire was administered. 'The great king,' -it was true, was autocratic like the Russian Czar, but like the Russian -Czar he was also controlled by a bureaucracy which managed the -government under him. In military matters alone he was supreme, though -even here two commanders-in-chief stood at his side, ready to take his -place in the command of the troops whenever age or disinclination -detained him at home. The lists of Assyrian officials which we possess -are very lengthy, and their titles seem almost endless. At the head came -the two commanders-in-chief, the Turtannu or Tartan of the right, and -the Turtannu of the left, doubtless so called from their position on the -right and left of the king. Next to them were the Chamberlain or -superintendent of the singing men and women, and then after five other -officials whose posts are obscure, the 'Rab-sak' or 'Rab-shakeh.' His -title means literally 'chief of the princes,' and he corresponded to the -Vizier or Prime Minister of the Turkish Empire. Among other public -offices we may notice that of the astronomer, who was supported by the -state like the rest, and who ranked immediately after the -'superintendent of the camel-stables.' The latter again was inferior in -rank to the 'captain of the watch,' 'the captain of fifty,' 'the -overseer of the vineyards,' and 'the overseer of the quays.' - -Such, then, was the constitution of the great Assyrian Empire, which -first endeavoured to organise Western Asia into a single homogeneous -whole, and in effecting its purpose cared neither for justice nor for -humanity. Nineveh was 'full of lies and robbery,' but it was God's -instrument in chastising His chosen people, and in preparing the way for -the ages that were to come, and for a while, therefore, it was allowed -to 'make the earth empty' and 'waste.' But the day came when its work -was accomplished, and the measure of its iniquity was full. Nineveh, -'the bloody city,' fell, never to rise again and the doom pronounced by -Nahum was fulfilled. For centuries the very site of the imperial city -remained unknown, and the traveller and historian alike put the vain -question: 'Where is the dwelling of the lions, and the feeding-place of -the young lions, where the lion, even the old lion, walked, and the -lion's whelp, and none made them afraid?' - -[Illustration] - - - * * * * * - - - - - APPENDIX. - - TRANSLATIONS FROM ASSYRIAN TEXTS RELATING TO THE - HISTORY OF THE KINGDOMS OF ISRAEL AND JUDAH. - - - _From the inscription of Shalmaneser II, found at Kurkh, on the right - bank of the Tigris, to the south-east of Diarbekr._ - -'In the eponymy of Dayan-Assur (B.C. 854) on the 14th of the month Iyyar -I left the city of Nineveh. The river Tigris I crossed. I approached the -cities of Giammu on the river Balikh. The fear of my lordship, the sight -of my strong weapons they feared, and in the service of themselves they -slew Giammu their lord. I descended into the cities of Kitlala and -Tul-sa-abil-akhi [the mound of the son of the brother]; I caused my gods -to enter his palaces; a plundering in his palaces I made. I opened his -store-chambers; his treasures I seized. His goods, his spoil, I carried -off; to my city of Assur I brought (them). From the city of Kitlala I -departed; to the city of the Fort of Shalmaneser [Tul-Barsip, the -Barsamps[^e] of Ptolemy] I approached. In boats of inflated skins for -the second time I crossed the Euphrates at its flood. The tribute of the -kings of the further bank of the Euphrates; of Sangar of Carchemish; of -Kundaspi of Komag[^e]n[^e]; of Arame the son of Gusi; of Lalli of -Malatiyeh; of Khayani, the son of Gabari; of Girparuda of the Patinians; -and of Girparuda of the Gamgumians; silver, gold, lead, bronze, and -vases of bronze (in) the city of Assur-tamsukha-atsbat, on the further -bank of the Euphrates, and above the river Saguri [the Sajur], which -the Hittites call the city of Pethor, in the midst (of it) I received. -From the Euphrates I departed. The city of Khalman [Aleppo] I -approached; they feared battle; they embraced my feet. Silver and gold I -received as their tribute; I offered sacrifices before the god Rimmon of -Khalman. From the city of Khalman I departed; to two cities of Irkhulena -of Hamath I approached. The cities of Adennu [the Eden of Amos i. 5], -Barga and Argana his royal city I captured.[9] His spoil, his goods, and -the treasures of his palaces I brought out. To his palaces I set fire. -From the city of Argana I departed, the city of Karkar [Aroer] I -approached. (His) royal city of Karkar I threw down, dug up, and burned -with fire. 1,200 chariots, 1,200 horsemen, and 20,000 men of Hadadezer -of Damascus, 700 chariots, 700 horsemen, and 10,000 men of Ahab -[Akhabbu] of Israel, 500 men of Kue, 1,000 men from Egypt, 10 chariots, -and 10,000 men from the land of Irkanat, 200 men of Matinu-Baal of -Arvad, 200 men from the land of Usanat, 30 chariots, and 10,000 men of -Adon-Baal of Sizan, 1,000 camels of Gindibuh of the land of the Arabians -[Arba'[^a]], 200 men of Bahsa son of Rukhubi [Rehob] of Ammon, these -twelve kings (Irkhulena) brought to his help, and to (make) war and -battle against me they had come. With the exalted help which Assur the -lord rendered, with the mighty weapons which the great protector who -goes before me bestowed, I fought with them. From the city of Karkar to -the city of Guzau I overthrew them. 14,000 of their troops I slew with -weapons. Like Rimmon, the air-god, I caused the storm to come forth upon -them. I filled the surface of the water with their (wrecks). I laid low -their wide-spread forces with weapons. The low ground of the district -received (?) their corpses. To give life to its inhabitants I have -enlarged its border (?); that it might support them I divided (it) among -its people. The river Orontes I reached close to the banks. In the midst -of this battle I took from them their chariots, their horsemen, their -horses and their teams.' - - [9] On the bronze gates of Balaw[^a]t Adennu is written Ad[^a] and Barga - Parga. - - - _From the Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser II._ - -'In my eighteenth year for the sixteenth time I crossed the Euphrates. -Hazael, of Damascus, advanced to battle; 1,121 of his chariots, 470 of -his horsemen, along with his camp I took from him.' - - - _From a Fragment of the Annals of Shalmaneser II._ - -'In my eighteenth year for the sixteenth time I crossed the Euphrates. -Hazael, of Damascus, trusted in the might of his army, and assembled his -army without number. He made Mount Shenir, the highest peak of the -mountains which are as you come to Mount Lebanon, his fortress. I fought -with him; I overthrew him; 16,000 of his fighting men I slew with -weapons, 1,121 of his chariots, 470 of his horsemen, along with his -camp, I took from him. To save his life he ascended (the country); I -pursued after him. In Damascus, his royal city, I shut him up; his -plantations I cut down. To the mountains of the Hauran I went; cities -innumerable I threw down, I dug up, I burned with fire; their spoil -innumerable I carried away. To the mountains of Baal-rosh at the -promontory of the sea I went; I made an image of my majesty there. At -that time I received the tribute of the Tyrians, of the Sidonians, and -of Jehu, son of Omri.' - - - _From the Inscription of Rimmon-nirari III._ - -'Conqueror from the highroad of the rising sun, of the lands of Kip, -Ellip [Ekbatana], Kharkhar, Arazias, Mesu, the Medes, Girubbunda to its -whole extent, Munna, Barsua, Allabria, Abdadana, Nahri to its extreme -frontiers, and Andiu, whose situation is remote, the mountainous -border-land to its extreme frontiers, as far as the great sea of the -rising sun [the Persian Gulf], from the Euphrates, and the lands of the -Hittites, of Phoenicia to its whole extent, of Tyre, of Sidon, of Omri -[Samaria], of Edom, and of Philistia as far as the great sea of the -setting sun [the Mediterranean], to my yoke I subjected (them), payment -of tribute I imposed upon them. To the land of Damascus I went; I shut -up Marih, king of Syria, in Damascus, his royal city. The fear of the -brilliance of Assur, his lord, overwhelmed him, and he took my feet; he -offered homage. 2,300 talents of silver, 20 talents of gold, 3,000 -talents of bronze, 5,000 talents of iron, garments of damask and linen, -a couch of ivory, a sun-shade of ivory, I took, I carried to (Assyria). -His spoil, his goods innumerable, I received in Damascus, his royal -city, in the midst of his palace.' - - - _From Fragments of the Annals of Tiglath-Pileser II._ - -I. 'They had embraced the mountain of Baal-tsephon [Mount Kasios] as far -as the range of Amanus, the land of Zittu (?), the land of Sau to its -whole extent, the province of the cities of Kar-Rimmon and Hadrach -(Zech. ix. 1), the province of the city of Nukudina, the land of Khazu -[Huz] as far as the cities in the circuit of the city of Ar[^a], the -cities, all of them, the cities in their circuit, the mountain of Sarbua -to its whole extent, the cities of Askhan and Yadab, Mount Yaraku to its -whole extent, the cities of ... ri, Ellitarbi, and Zit[^a]nu as far as -the midst of the city of Atinni ... and the city of Buname, nineteen -districts belonging to Hamath, together with the cities in their circuit -in the direction of the sea of the setting sun [the Mediterranean], -which in their faithlessness made revolt to Azariah, I turned into the -territory of Assyria. My governors and officers I appointed over them.' - -II. 'The tribute of Kustaspi of Komag[^e]n[^e], Rezon of Damascus, -Menahem of Samaria, Hiram of Tyre, Sibitti-Baal of Gebal, Urikki of Kue, -Pisiris of Carchemish, Eniel of Hamath, Parammu of Samahla, Tarkhu-lara -of Gamgum, Sulumal of Milid [Malatiyeh], Dadilu of Kolkhis, Vas-surme of -Tubal, Uskhitti of Tuna, Urpalla of Tukhan, Tukhamme of Istunda, Urimme -of Khusimna, and Zabibieh, queen of the Arabians, gold, silver, lead, -iron, elephants' hides, elephants' tusks, tapestries of blue and purple, -oak-wood, weapons for service, a royal tent, sheep with bundles of their -wool, purple dye, the dyed feathers of flying birds, nine of their wings -coloured blue, horses, mules, oxen, sheep, and wethers, camels and -she-camels, together with their young ones, I received. In my ninth year -Assur my lord regarded me and to the countries of Kipsi, Irangi, -Tazakki, Media, Zualzas, Matti, and Umliyas I went.' - -III. 'The towns of Gil(ead) and Abel-(beth-Maachah) in the province of -Beth-Omri [Samaria], the widespread (district of Naphta)li to its whole -extent I turned into the territory of Assyria. My (governors) and -officers I appointed (over them). Khanun of Gaza who had fled before my -weapons escaped (to the land) of Egypt. The city of Gaza (his royal city -I captured. Its spoils), its gods (I carried away. My name) and the -image of my majesty (I set up) in the midst of the temple of ... the -gods of their land I counted (as a spoil) and ... like a bird ... to his -land I restored him and (imposed tribute upon him. Gold), silver, -garments of damask and linen (along with other objects) I received. The -land of Beth-Omri ... a selection of its inhabitants (with their goods) -I transported to Assyria. Pekah their king I put to death, and I -appointed Hosea to the sovereignty over them. Ten (talents of gold, ... -of silver as) their tribute I received, and I transported them (to -Assyria).' - - - _From the Inscriptions of Sargon._ - -I. '(In the beginning of my reign) the city of Samaria I besieged, I -captured; 27,280 of its inhabitants I carried away; fifty chariots in -the midst of them I collected, and the rest of their goods I seized; I -set my governor over them and laid upon them the tribute of the former -king (Hosea).' - -II. '(Sargon) the conqueror of the Thamudites, the Ibadidites, the -Marsimanites, and the Khapayans,[10] the remainder of whom was carried -away and whom he transported to the midst of the land of Beth-Omri.' - - [10] Identified by Delitzsch with the Ephah of Gen. xxv. 4, and - Is. lx. 6. - -III. 'The Thamudites, the (Ibadidites), the Marsimanites and the -Khapayans, distant Arab tribes, who inhabit the desert, of whom no -scholar or envoy knew, and who had never brought their tribute to the -kings my (fathers), I slaughtered in the service of Assur, and -transported what was left of them, setting them in the city of Samaria.' - -IV. '(In my ninth expedition and eleventh year) the people of the -Philistines, Judah, Edom and the Moabites who dwell by the sea, who owed -tribute and presents to Assur my lord, plotted rebellion, men of -insolence, who in order to revolt against me carried their bribes for -alliance to Pharaoh king of Egypt, a prince who could not save them, and -sent him homage. I, Sargon, the established prince, the reverer of the -worship of Assur and Merodach, the protector of the renown of Assur, -caused the warriors who belonged to me entirely to pass the rivers -Tigris and Euphrates during full flood, and that same Yavan [of Ashdod], -their king, who trusted in his (forces), and did not (reverence) my -sovereignty, heard of the progress of my expedition to the land of the -Hittites [Syria], and the fear of (Assur) my (lord) overwhelmed him, and -to the border of Egypt ... he fled away.' - - - _From a Cylinder of Esar-haddon._ - -'I assembled the kings of Syria and the land beyond the [Mediterranean] -sea, Baal king of Tyre, Manasseh king of Judah, Kaus-gabri king of Edom, -Mizri[11] king of Moab, Zil-Baal king of Gaza, Metinti king of Ashkelon, -Ikausu king of Ekron, Melech-asaph king of Gebal, Matan-Baal king of -Arvad, Abi-Baal king, of Shamesh-merom, Pedael king of Beth-Ammon, and -Ahimelech king of Ashdod, twelve kings of the sea-coast; Ekistor king of -Idalion, Pylagoras king of Khytros, Kissos king of Salamis, Ithuander -king of Paphos, Eri[^e]sos king of Soloi, Damasos king of Kurion, Rumesu -king of Tamassos, Damusi king of Carthage, Unasagusu king of Lidir, and -Butsusu king of Nur[^e], ten kings of the land of Cyprus in the middle -of the sea.' - - [11] That is 'the Egyptian;' cf. 2 Sam. xxiii. 20, 21. - - - * * * * * - - - - - INDEX - - - A. - -Accadians, invented the cuneiform system of writing, founded the chief -cities and civilisation of Babylonia; erected the earliest known -monuments; the language may be called the Latin of Asia, 24; the -Accadians first used hieroglyphics or pictures painted on papyrus -leaves, from which the cuneiform characters were formed; afterwards soft -clay was stamped with cuneitic symbols, and then sun-dried; general use -of writing and materials employed; characters changed, 93-95; Sarzec's -recent discovery at Tel-Loh, 95. - -Adar, a solar deity; pronunciation of name not quite certain; it forms a -part of the name Adrammelech, 66. - -Adrammelech, one of the gods of Sepharvaim brought to Samaria by the -colonists settled there; probably representing some particular attribute -of the Sun-god; also the name of one of Sennacherib's regicide sons, 46, -66. - -Ahaz, king of Judah, called Jehoahaz in the inscriptions; bribed Pul to -attack the Syrians and Israelites; and himself became tributary, 36. - -Allat, the goddess queen of the underworld, 76. - -APPENDIX.--Translations from Assyrian texts relating to the kingdoms of -Israel and Judah: - - I. Inscription of Shalmaneser II, found at Kurkh, 146-8. - II. The Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser II, 148. - III. From a Fragment of Shalmaneser II, 148. - IV. From the Inscription of Rimmon-nirari III, 148-9. - V. From Fragments of the Annals of Tiglath-Pileser II, 149-151. - VI. From the Inscriptions of Sargon, 151-2. - VII. From a Cylinder of Esar-haddon, 152. - -Aramaic, commonly used by the Jews, after the captivity, and became the -common language of trade, 132-3. - -Ararat or Armenia, long a dangerous neighbour; Tiglath-Pileser II -invaded the country, invested Van, and devastated the surrounding -country, 35. - -Armies composed of charioteers, light and heavy armed cavalry and -infantry, and were variously equipped with bows, swords, and daggers, -126. - -Armies crossing streams; the common soldiers on inflated skins; the -chief officers, chariots, and commissariat in boats, or on pontoon -bridges, 131. - -Assessment lists of the provinces and large towns after the time of -Tiglath-Pileser II; the places and amounts paid to the imperial -exchequer, 140-3. - -Assur, the name of a city on the western bank of the Tigris, and the -capital of the country or district named after it; Assur was a -descriptive appellation signifying 'water-boundary' at first, but was -slightly changed by the Semitic conquerors so as to mean 'gracious;' the -name of Sar, the god of the firmament, in time, was confused with that -of the patron deity, and Assur thus came to signify the city, country, -and the deity; hence Assur represented at the same time the power and -constitution of Assyria, the 'gracious' god, and the primeval firmament; -ruins now called Kalah Sherghat, 21-2. - -Assur-bani-pal, probably 'the great and noble Asnapper;' succeeded his -father, Esar-haddon, 48; he was luxurious, ambitious, and cruel, but a -most magnificent patron of literature; he kept scribes constantly -engaged on new editions of rare or older works; entrusted his armies to -his generals, and before his death found the empire irretrievably -weakened; his lion hunts compared with those of his warlike -predecessors; Egyptian revolt crushed, and Tirhakah again a fugitive, -No-Amon plundered, and two obelisks carried as trophies to Nineveh, 51; -Tyre surrendered and the Lydians paid tribute; fall of Elam, Shushan -razed, and captive kings compelled to drag Assur-bani-pal's chariot -through Nineveh, 51-2; the Arabs severely punished, and the Armenians of -Van sought an alliance; rebellion headed by his brother the Babylonian -viceroy, with the assistance of Egypt, Palestine, and Arabia, and hired -Karian and Ionian mercenaries; Egypt now threw off the yoke; Cuthah was -reduced by famine, and Samas-yukin perished in the flames of his palace; -Elam ravaged again and the last king became a fugitive, 52. - -Assur-natsir, one of the most energetic and ferocious warrior kings, -also a great builder of palaces; restored Calah, formed a library, and -made the city his favourite residence, 28-9. - -Assur-nirari, the last of his line, ascended the throne in troublous -time; Assur, the capital, rose in revolt; the cities and outlying -districts were surging with discontent; ten years later the army -rebelled, and the monarch and his dynasty fell together, 33. - -Assyrian book, with illustration from the original in the British -Museum, 98. - -Assyrian _campaigns_ at first undertaken for the sake of plunder and -exacting tribute; made but little effort to retain their conquests, till -the time of the Second Empire, 33. - -Assyrian _history_ scarcely known till Bel-kapkapi became king; decline -of Assyrian power and influence, and revived by Assur-dayan II and his -warlike successors, who conquered the Babylonians, Hittites, and -Phoenicians, 34-7. - -Assyrian _law_ relied greatly on precedents and decisions; the king -supreme, and appointed the judges; in its general principles resembled -the English; earliest code, Accadian, 138. - -Assyrian _literature_, wide range of subjects, included history, legend, -poetry, astronomy, and astrology, &c.; letters of the king, reports of -astronomers and generals, 102. - -Assyrian _palace_, built of brick on a raised platform; description, -extent of courts and royal chambers; the observatory built in stages on -the west side; exaggerated forms of columnar architecture used; -apertures which served as windows protected in winter by heavy folds of -tapestry, 86-8. - -Assyrian _sculptures_, mostly in relief; three periods traceable; -characteristics and comparison with Egyptian art; colour used on the -bas-reliefs, 89-90. - -Assyrian _Semites_, allied in blood and language to the Hebrews, -Aramaeans, and Arabs; the Babylonians a mixed race, partly Semites and -Accadians, the original possessors of the soil of Chaldea, 24. - -Assyrians and Babylonians contrasted, 66-7. - -Assyro-Babylonians excelled in a knowledge of mathematics; tables of -squares and cubes and geometrical figures have been found at Senkereh, -and the plan of an estate at Babylon, 118. - - - B. - -Babel, tower of, and the dispersion, 82-3. - -Babylonian _myth_ of the seven evil spirits warring against the moon; -flight of Samas and Istar; and the demons put to flight by Merodach; -explanation of the myth, 78. - -Babylonian _story_ of the god Zu stealing the lightning of Bel compared -with that of the Greek Prometheus, 78. - -Balaw[^a]t, colossal doors of, the work of native artists, description -of the bronze framework and reliefs; explanatory texts relating to -Shalmaneser's campaigns; Carchemish and Armenian warriors depicted, 30. - -Banquets, wines of various kinds used; those of Helbon most highly -prized; other luxuries common; the tables ornamented with flowers, and -musicians hired to entertain the guests, 128-9. - -Bel-kapkapi, the founder of the kingdom of Assur; its extent and varying -frontiers; the inhabitants Semites, 27. - -B[^e]r[^o]ssus' great work of seventy-two books translated into Greek, -102. - -Blissful lot of the spirit of Ea-bani described in the epic of -Gisdhubar, 76-7. - -Botta and Layard's excavation brought to light Dur-Sargon and Nineveh, -26. - -Bridges common on all the great roads through Western Asia in the -earliest ages; used for war and trade; the country then more populous, -and the roads numerous and well kept, 131-2. - - - C. - -Calah founded by Shalmaneser I, whose descendants reigned six -generations; it became the seat of royalty under Assur-natsir-pal and -Shalmaneser II, 27-9; the palace rebuilt by Assur-etil-ilani, son of -Assur-bani-pal, 53. - -Chairs, tables, and couches used at meals, 128. - -Chaldaean account of the Deluge, and its relation to the Scriptural -narrative; the two compared and contrasted, 81-2. - -Chariots often carried across mountains on the shoulders of men, or -animals; the royal chariot contained the king and two attendants, and -was followed by a guard and led horses, 124. - -Charms and exorcisms used for curing diseases; the knotted cord and -leaves from a sacred book; repute of the witch and wizard, 120-1. - -Code of moral precepts addressed to princes and courtiers; earliest -Accadian law book expressly protected slaves, 138. - -Colossi dragged from the quarries on land by means of sledges, and on -rivers and canals by rafts; Sennacherib directed the removal of winged -bulls and deities from Balad, 90-3. - -Contract tablets relating to loans, sales, leases of houses, and other -property: tablets translated: i. Loan of silver and interest paid on it; -ii. Loan of bronze; iii. Loan of silver; iv. Sale of a house; v. Sale of -slaves, 135-7. - -Contrasts between the Assyrians and Babylonians, 66-7. - -Creation legend from Cuthah, described chaos, and the formation of -monsters, followed by more perfect creatures; the legend from -Assur-bani-pal's library and its remarkable resemblance to the account -in Genesis; Assyrian account, 79, 80-1. - -Cylinder, part of, containing Hezekiah's name, transcribed into -ordinary characters, 104-5; compared with one of Nebuchadnezzar's -inscriptions; transliteration and translation of part of the -inscription, 107-8. - -Cyrus permitted the Assyrians to return to their old capital, and -released the Jewish exiles from Babylon, 53-4. - - - D. - -Datilla, the river of death, at the mouth of the Euphrates, where -Gisdhubar saw the Chaldaean Noah after his translation; but in later -times the entrance to Hades and the site of the earthly Paradise were -removed to more unknown regions, 76. - -Death of Tammuz lamented by Jewish females in the temple at Jerusalem, -65. - -Deeds and contracts signed and sealed in the presence of witness, or -nail marks made by those unable to write, and the documents carefully -preserved, 133. - -Defects in the tablets caused by the ignorance of the scribes, 112-3. - -Deluge sent as a punishment for the wickedness of mankind, 82. - -Descent of Istar into Hades in search of Tammuz, one of the most popular -old Babylonian myths; her passage through the seven gates of the -underworld, and appearance before Allat; the myth explained, 64-5. - -Dread of witchcraft and magic; referred to in hymn to the Sun-god, -113-5. - -Dress of all classes; the king in time of peace; the upper classes, -soldiers, common people, and women, 123-4. - -Dur-Sargina, the modern Khorsabad, built by Sargon, in the form of a -square, surrounded by walls forty-six feet thick; the outer wall was -flanked with towers; description of the palace and its courts; the royal -chambers; the observatory built in stages, 86-7. - - - E. - -Ea (the god), the deep, or ocean-stream, supposed to surround the earth -like a serpent; his symbol, attributes, and title; Eridu the chief seat -of his worship, near the sacred grove where the tree of life and -knowledge had its roots; Ea, a benevolent deity, who taught the art of -healing and culture to mankind; his wife, Dav-kina, presided over the -lower world, 59. - -Eclipse of the sun and revolt of city of Assur, 33. - -Educated Assyrians and traders conversant with several languages, 101. - -Education widely diffused throughout Babylonia; few unable to read and -write, 95. - -Egibi, eminent bankers during the reigns of Sennacherib and Esar-haddon, -to Darius and Xerxes; the name a very exact transcript of the Biblical -Jacob, 138. - -Eponyms, officers after whom the year was named; lists determine both -the Assyrian and Biblical chronology, 102. - -Erimenas, king of Armenia, completely defeated near Malatiyeh in -Kappadokia, 46. - -Esar-haddon, shortly after his father's murder, defeated his insurgent -brothers and Erimenas, near Malatiyeh, and was then proclaimed king; he -possessed military genius and political tact, and was the first king who -conciliated the conquered nations; Egypt was subdued; Babylon rebuilt, -and the plunder and the gods returned to the inhabitants; Manasseh -brought captive before him; trade diverted into Assyrian channels, and -secured by a daring march to Huz and Buz; terrified the Arabs; drove -Teispes westwards; worked the copper mines of Media; exacted tribute -from Cyprus, where he obtained some of the materials of his palace at -Nineveh, 46-8; he completely overran Egypt, divided the country into 27 -satrapies placed under governors watched by Assyrian garrisons, 48. - -Esar-haddon II, called Sarakos by the Greeks, on ascending the throne -was surrounded by foes; the frontier towns fell quickly, and a public -fast was proclaimed and prayers offered to the gods to ward off the doom -of Nineveh, but the city was besieged, captured, and destroyed, 53. - -Etana, the Babylonian Titan, and his exploits, 83; legend ascribed to -Nis-Sin, 110. - - - F. - -Fables, riddles, and proverbs anciently, as now, the delight of -Orientals; riddle propounded to Nergal and the other gods, 109. - -Fate of Nineveh after its iniquity was full; the very site unknown for -ages, 53. - -Fishing carried on with a line merely, 131. - -Forbidden foods; fasts and humiliations in times of public calamity, -73. - - - G. - -Gisdhubar epic; structure and contents; each of its twelve books -corresponded to one of the signs of the zodiac; history of the Deluge -contained in the eleventh book; Gisdhubar a solar hero, and his -adventures compared with the labours of H[^e]racl[^e]s; resemblance of -Accadian and Greek myths; date of the epic more than 2000 years before -Christ; formed of older lays put together to form a single poem, 110-12. - -Goyim, over which Tidal was king, probably comprised in Gutium, or -Kurdistan, 23. - - - H. - -Hadadezer (the Biblical Benhadad) of Damascus formed a confederacy with -Hamath and Israel against the Assyrians; Ahab's contingent; rout of the -allies at Karkar, or Aroer, 31. - -Hades a dreary abode, where spirits flitted, like bats, among the -crowned phantoms of heroes; palace of Allat, where the waters of life, -near the golden throne, restored to life and the upper air those who -drank of them; entrance, the River Datilla, 75-6. - -Hanging gardens, watered by means of a screw, 118. - -Hazael utterly routed by Shalmaneser II on the heights of Shenir; camp, -chariots, and carriages captured, and siege laid to Damascus, 31. - -Helbon noted for its wines; still called Halb[^u]n, 127. - -Highroads and brickyards placed under commissioners, 131-2. - -Human sacrifices an Accadian institution; children burnt to death as -expiatory offerings by their fathers, 75. - -Hymn to the Sun-god, a mixture of exalted thought and debasing -superstition, 113-5. - -Hymns in honour of the different deities collected into a sacred book; -Semitic translations made, but the hymns recited long afterwards in the -original Accadian language, 67-8. - - - I. - -Inferior deities classed among 'the 300 spirits of heaven' and 'the 600 -spirits of earth,' 57. - -Inscription containing Hezekiah's name transliterated and translated, -101-8. - -Israelite officials witnesses of deed of sale, 137. - -Istar, the great Accadian goddess, unlike the Beltis or Bilat, wife of -Baal, had independent attributes as strongly marked as those of the -gods, and was known as the evening star, 57; she became the Semitic -Ashtoreth, and was the goddess of love, war, and the chase; she was -associated with Tammuz; her different attributes, temples, and worship -in different places, 62-4. - - - J. - -Jehu's tribute to Shalmaneser II, gold and silver drinking vessels, a -sceptre, and spear handles, 32. - -Jewish seals probably earlier than the Babylonish exile found at -Diarbekr and other places near the Tigris and Euphrates, 138. - - - K. - -Kandalanu, viceroy of Babylon twenty-two years; the father of -Nabopolassar, 53. - -Karkar or Aroer, battle of, and defeat of Benhadad and his allies, 31. - -Khumbaba the tyrant, slain by Gisdhubar 'in the land of the pine trees,' -111. - -King only supreme in military affairs, and assisted by two -commanders-in-chief; lists of officials, their titles and duties, 144. - - - L. - -Legend of Lubara, the plague demon, smiting the evil-doers of Babylon -and Erech, and its partial resemblance to the angel of the Lord standing -with a drawn sword over Jerusalem as a punishment of David's sins, 78. - -Libraries early established in all the great cities, as Assur, Calah, -and Nineveh; the last filled by Assur-bani-pal with copies of the -plundered books of Babylonia, 99; lexical and grammatical phrase books, -and lists of the names of animals, birds, reptiles, fish, stones, -vegetables, and titles of military and civil officers, were contained in -the different books stored up for reference, 100-1; all the branches of -learning then known were included; also dispatches of generals, reports -of astronomers, royal letters, and lists of eponyms, 102. - -Library of Nineveh, rich in poetical literature, comprised epics, hymns -to the gods, psalms, and songs; songs to Assur of Assyrian origin, the -epics, Babylonian, Accadian, and partly Semitic, by native poets, -109-10. - -Liturgy contained rubrics for particular days, and direction of the -priests, 68. - - - M. - -March, order of, in a campaign; the king and his attendants, -charioteers, heavy and light cavalry, bowmen and infantry variously -equipped, 125-6; king and nobles only allowed tents; a royal chair -called a _nimedu_ carried for the king's use; bas-relief of Sennacherib -seated on one, before Lachish, 126. - -Medicines, classification of diseases, prescriptions, and incantations, -119-20. - -Merodach, originally a form of the Sun-god; a benevolent and -intercessory deity, represented as continually passing between earth and -heaven, informing Ea of the sufferings of mankind, and striving to -alleviate them; he destroyed the demon Tiamat, and was commonly -addressed as 'Bel' or 'Lord;' his star Jupiter; and his wife Zir-panitu, -60. - -Merodach-Baladan's envoys induced Hezekiah to join the confederacy of -Phoenicia, Moab, Edom, Philistia, and Egypt, against the Assyrians; but -Sargon's rapid movements surprised them; Phoenicia and Judah were -overrun, and Ashdod burnt before the arrival of the Egyptians; -Merodach-Baladan in his own country made vigorous efforts to repel the -attack of the conqueror on his return; but the Elamite allies were put -to flight, and Sargon entered Babylon in triumph; the following year -Merodach-Baladan was pursued to Beth-Yagina, which was taken by storm, -and the defenders sent in chains to Nineveh; Merodach-Baladan escaped, -and two years afterwards again seized Babylon, but was defeated at the -battle of Kis, and a second time became a fugitive, 40-1. - -Modes of assaulting fortified towns, and fearful atrocities committed by -the conquerors, 126-8. - -Monotheists who flourished in Chaldaea in pre-Semitic times, resolved -the various deities into manifestations of one supreme god, Anu; old -hymns refer to 'the one god,' 58-9. - -Myths common to all old forms of faith, 77-8. - - - N. - -Nabopolassar renounced his allegiance to Nineveh, and prepared the way -for his son Nebuchadnezzar's empire, 53. - -Names of Assyrian kings explained, 54. - -Nebo the god of oratory and literature, said to have invented the -cuneiform system of writing; great temple at Borsippa dedicated to him; -his worship carried to Canaan, as seen in the names of a city and a -mountain; had a temple at Bahrein under the name of Enzak; as a -planetary deity he represented Mercury, and was often adored as Nusku, -perhaps, the Nisroch of the Bible, 61. - -Nergal, the god of hunting and war, also presided with Anu over the -regions of the dead, 65. - -Nineveh, probably coeval with the city of Assur, but only became the -capital at a much later period; after the fall of the Assyrian Empire -its site was forgotten for ages; Rich's conjecture verified by Layard's -excavations, and its buried treasures again brought to light, 25-6. - - - O. - -'Observations of Bel,' the great work on astronomy and astrology, -compiled at Accad for Sargon, mostly a record of eclipses of the sun and -moon, conjunctions and phases of Venus and Mars; the time of the new -year; the zodiacal signs named, and the divisions of the year, 102, -115-6. - -Observatories in all the great cities; specimens of the astronomers' -fortnightly reports, 117-8. - -Official lists and titles almost endless; rank and office of the -principal, 144. - -Omens, work on, in 137 books compiled for Sargon, known to the last days -of the Empire, 102. - -Ox-driver's labour song in the fields, 109. - - - P. - -Paradises or parks planted by the kings; gardens and shrubberies -containing summer-houses by the wealthy; hanging garden, 130-1. - -Penitential psalms composed at a very remote period, one of the finest -addressed to Istar, 71-3. - -Phoenician galley builders and sailors employed by Sennacherib on the -Persian Gulf in his attack on the last refuge of the Chaldaeans, 132. - -Planisphere from Nineveh, and a table of lunar longitudes, 116-7. - -Polygamy practised by the king, and the palace guarded by eunuchs, 129. - -Prayer after a bad dream, 70. - -Prayer of an Assyrian court for the king, 76. - -Prayers to Bel and various deities on different occasions, 68-70. - -Private will of Sennacherib in favour of Esar-haddon, 134. - -Proud boast of the Babylonian monarch about exalting his throne above -the stars, and sitting in the assembly of the gods, 77. - -Pul, a military adventurer, seized the crown, B.C. 743, and assumed the -name of Tiglath-Pileser II; he was an able ruler, a good general, and a -skilful administrator, and consolidated the empire by deporting the -turbulent populations to distant homes, and importing others; he divided -the empire into provinces, and fixed the annual tribute; he endeavoured -to subvert the power of the Hittites of Carchemish, and turn the trade -of Asia Minor into Assyrian channels, and render Syria and Phoenicia -tributary, 34; he annexed Northern Babylonia, punished the Kurds, -utterly defeated Sarduris and his confederates, and captured Arpad after -a siege of two years; he stormed Hamath, and transplanted part of the -inhabitants to Armenia; he received tribute from the Syrian kings, and -Menahem, Rezon, Hiram, and Pisiris; he blockaded Van, and ravaged the -surrounding country, 35-6; he was heavily bribed by Ahaz to attack Rezon -and Pekah; Damascus was invested and forced to surrender through famine, -and forces were sent against the Ammonites, Moabites, and Philistines; -on the fall of Damascus it was plundered and the inhabitants -transplanted to Kir; Babylonia was reduced, and under his original name -of Pul, he assumed the title of King of Sumir (Shinar) and Accad, 37. - - - R. - -Relative rank of women in Accadian and Babylonian times, 139. - -Religion of Assyria, including deities and beliefs borrowed from -Babylonia; but the Semites had greatly modified the original Accadian -conceptions; belief of the _Zi_, evil and good spirits; diseases caused -by demoniacal possession, and only curable by exorcisms and charms; the -spirits most dreaded those who had been raised to the position of gods, -as Anu, Mul-ge, and Ea; spirits of the heavenly bodies, 55-6; curious -contrasts: polytheism and monotheism, 83-4; victories ascribed to Assur, -and wars undertaken in his name: inconsistency and changes in the cult -explained; inferiority to the faith of Israel, 84-5. - -Rents paid by tenants of land in Babylonia, 139. - -Repetition of the names of the gods, and its efficacy, 73. - -Resen, name found in the inscriptions, but the site not yet determined; -its meaning, 22-3. - -Rimmon or Ramman, 'the thunderer,' the god of the atmosphere, rain, and -storms; his cult extended to Syria, and he appears to have been the -chief deity of Damascus, where he was known as Hadad or Dadda, 61. - -Rimmon-nirari I, inscriptions of: his wars against the Babylonians, -Kurds, and Shuites, 27. - -Roads formed and kept in good condition, 131-2. - -Rowandiz, where the ark is supposed to have rested; a snow-clad peak, -'the mountain of the world,' and 'the mountain of the East;' thought to -be the abode of the gods, and the support of the vault of heaven, 77, -82. - -Royal hunts, at first wild elephants and lions; but under Esar-haddon -had degenerated into a _battue_ of tamed animals kept in cages for the -purpose, 129, 130. - - - S. - -Sabbath early known, but confounded with the feast of the New Moon; kept -on the seventh, fourteenth, twenty-first, and twenty-eighth day of the -lunar month, 73-4. - -Sale of Israelitish slaves by a Phoenician; another sale afterwards of -seven persons included an Israelite called Hoshea and his two wives, -133. - -Samas, the Sun-god, was the son of Sin, in accordance with the -astronomical view of the old Babylonians; he was really only a form of -Merodach, though in historical times the two were separated, and -received different cults; originally identical with Tammuz, through the -myth of Istar, separate attributes were assigned to him, and Tammuz -became a deity distinct from Samas, 61-2. - -Samas-Rimmon, Shalmaneser's second son, quelled the revolt against his -father, and succeeded him as king of Assyria, 32. - -Sar, the god of the firmament; afterwards confused with the name of the -patron deity of the capital of the country, 22. (_See_ Assur.) - -Sargon, a usurper, claimed royal descent; was an able general, but a -rough and energetic ruler, 37-8; two years after his accession captured -Samaria, and removed the inhabitants to Gozan; he found the task of -cementing together the empire formed by Tiglath-Pileser by no means -easy; Babylonia had thrown off the yoke, and submitted to -Merodach-Baladan; Elam threatened him on the south; the Kurds renewed -their depredations on the east; the Hittites of Carchemish were -unsubdued, Syria held with difficulty, and Egypt appeared as a new -enemy, 38; he drove the Elamites back into their own country, suppressed -the revolt of Hamath, and burnt the city; put Yahu-bihdi or Ilu-bihdi to -a horrible death, marched along the coast of Palestine, and roused the -Egyptian army at Raphia, taking its ally the king of Gaza captive, 38-9; -he stormed Carchemish, took Pisiris prisoner, and the allies fled -northward; the city was plundered, and an Assyrian satrap appointed over -it; he had now gained the high road of the caravan trade between Eastern -and Western Asia; the Hittite allies continued the struggle six years, -when Van submitted, and its king Ursa committed suicide; Cilicia and -Tubal were placed under an Assyrian governor, and the city of Malatiyeh -was razed to the ground, 39; Merodach-Baladan had formed a powerful -combination against Sargon in the west, of Judah, Phoenicia, Edom, -Philistia, and Egypt, but before the confederates were ready to act -together, Sargon overran Palestine, captured Jerusalem, and burnt -Ashdod; he next hurled his forces against Babylonia, compelled the -Elamites to retire, and entered the capital in triumph; the following -year he pursued Merodach-Baladan to Beth-Yagin, which was taken by -storm, and the defenders sent in chains to Nineveh, but Merodach-Baladan -escaped, 40-1; extent of Sargon's empire, and conquests; murdered by his -own soldiers in Dur-Sargon, his new city, 41; succeeded by his son -Sennacherib, 41. - -Science mixed with superstition; astronomy with astrology: the -observation of nature with augury, 115; modes of measuring time and -determining the beginning of the year, 116. - -Script characters generally used for official and private documents; -this mode of writing clear, well-defined, and continued nearly the same -till the fall of Nineveh; clay tablets small, but well baked in a kiln; -characters sometimes very minute, and must have been formed with the aid -of a magnifying glass, 96-7. - -Sennacherib had been brought up in the purple; was weak, boastful, and -cruel, and only preserved the empire by the help of his father's -veterans and generals; Merodach-Baladan escaped from captivity, and -again seized Babylon, but was driven from the country after the battle -of Kis, 41-2; Sennacherib next invaded Phoenicia and Judah and the -neighbouring countries; Assyrian account of the battle of Eltekeh; -capture of illustrious persons and spoil; his boast of cities taken and -tribute; but entire silence about the terrible disaster he sustained -near Jerusalem, and his precipitate flight; the following year he -suppressed Nergal-yusezib's revolt, and appointed Assur Nadin-sumi -viceroy of Babylon, 42-5; pursued the Chaldaean refugees and destroyed -their last settlements on the Persian Gulf, 45; Elam next invaded -Babylonia, and placed Nergal-yusezib on the throne; defeated the -Assyrians near Nipur, but died soon afterwards; he was succeeded by -Musezib, who defied the power of Assyria nearly four years, but was -beaten in the decisive battle of Khalule; the following year Sennacherib -captured Babylon, and gave it up to fire and the sword; the inhabitants -were sold into slavery, and the waters of the Araxes canal overflowed -the ruined city; his Cilician campaign the last; the rest of his life -spent in constructing canals, aqueducts, and rebuilding the palace at -Nineveh; he was murdered by his two elder sons whilst worshipping in the -temple of his god, 46. - -Shalmaneser I said to have built Calah, and his descendants reigned -uninterruptedly six generations, 27. - -Shalmaneser II, his great military successes and long reign, the climax -of the first Assyrian empire; his annals contained on a monolith near -Diarbekr, a small obelisk, and on the bronze framework of the gates of -Balaw[^a]t; Jehu one of his tributaries; his campaign against the Kurds, -Van, and the Manna or Minni; compelled the Hittites to sue for peace, -and recaptured Pethor, 29-31; defeated Benhadad and his allies at Aroer -or Karkar, and twelve years afterwards completely crushed the power of -Hazael on the heights of Shenir, laid siege to Damascus, ravaged the -Hauran, and marched to Baal-rosh, where his image was carved on the -rocky promontory, 31-2; little further attempted by the king, besides -exacting tribute from distant regions; revolt of his eldest son, joined -by twenty-seven cities, put down by the energy and military capacity of -Samas-Rimmon, 31-2. - -Shalmaneser III, a usurper of Tinu; he attempted the capture of Tyre, -began a war against Israel, but had scarcely laid siege to Samaria when -he died or was murdered, and was succeeded by Sargon, another usurper, -37. - -Sin, the Moon-god, called Agu or Acu by the Accadians, was the patron -deity of Ur; had a famous temple in the ancient city of Harran, where he -was symbolised by an upright cone of stone; his emblem was the crescent -moon, 62. - - - T. - -Table of Semitic Babylonian kings arranged in dynasties, which traces -them back to B.C. 2330; a recent discovery, 102. - -Tables of squares and cubes found at Larsa, also geometrical figures -used for augury; the mathematical unit, and mode of expression, 132-3. - -Temple, Assyro-Babylonian, and its points of resemblance to Solomon's, -74-5; entrances to temples and palaces guarded by colossal figures of -winged bulls; temples filled with images of the gods, great and small, -which were supposed to confer special sanctity on the place; offerings -of two kinds, sacrifices and meal offerings; no traces of human -sacrifices among the Assyrians, although an Accadian institution; -referred to in an old astrological work, where children were allowed to -be offered by the fathers as expiatory sacrifices, 74-5. - -Tiamat, the dragon, destroyed by Merodach, 60, 78-9. - -Tiglath-Pileser I, his conquests in Cilicia, Kurdistan; defeated the -Moschi, Hittites, and their Colchian allies, and erected a memorial of -his exploits near the sources of the Tigris; he garrisoned Pethor with -Assyrian soldiers, and on his return to Nineveh planted a park with -strange trees brought back with him during his campaigns; he invaded -Babylonia, and was at first repulsed, but was victorious afterwards, -ravaged the country, and captured Babylon, 28. - -Tower of Babel, building destroyed by winds in the night, and 'great and -small,' as well as their speech confounded by Anu, 82-3. - -Trade, its rise and growth under the Second Empire; fall of Carchemish -and the Phoenician cities; the standard of weight, 'the maneh,' and -Aramaic, the language of commerce, 132-3. - - - V. - -Van, the capital of Ararat, successfully resisted the Assyrians, whilst -the country far and near was wasted for a space of 450 miles, 36; -submitted to Sargon, and its king Ursa committed suicide, 39; Van sought -an alliance with Assur-bani-pal, 52. - - - W. - -Witches and wizards held in high repute, 121. - -Woman's position in Accad and Babylonia, 139. - - - X. - -Xisuthros, the Chaldaean Noah, sails in a ship containing others beside -his own family, steered by a pilot; whilst the flood was at its height, -sent out a raven, dove, and swallow, to ascertain how far the waters had -abated; his vessel rested on Rowandiz, and Xisuthros, immediately after -his descent, sacrificed to the gods, and was translated to the land of -immortality, 81-2. - - - Z. - -Zu, 'the divine storm bird,' who stole the lightning of Bel, the -parallel of the Greek story of Prometheus, 78. - - - * * * * * - - - - - INDEX OF SCRIPTURE REFERENCES. - - - Page - - Gen. x. 11 22 - Gen. x. 18 143 - Gen. xiv. 1 23 - - Deut. iii. 9 31 - Deut. xxii. 49 61 - - Josh. xv. 59 58 - Josh. xix. 38 58 - - 1 Kings viii. 13 12 - 1 Kings x. 28 143 - - 2 Kings xv. 19 35 - 2 Kings xvi. 10 37 - 2 Kings xvii. 30 60, 65 - 2 Kings xvii. 31 66 - 2 Kings xviii. 26 101 - 2 Kings xviii. 30 101 - 2 Kings xix. 37 61 - 2 Kings xx. 11 116 - - 2 Chron. xxxiii. 11 47 - - Ezra ii. 29 61 - Ezra iv. 10 48 - - Is. x. 34 13 - Is. xiv. 9 76 - Is. xiv. 13, 14 77 - Is. xix. 25 14 - Is. xx. 1 40 - Is. xxii. 14 14 - Is. xliv. 17 64 - Is. li. 27 30 - Is. li. 30 30 - - Ezek. viii. 14 65 - Ezek. xxiii. 14 86 - Ezek. xxvii. 18 128 - - Nahum i. 8 25 - Nahum ii. 6, 8, 12 25 - Nahum iii. 8 15, 51 - - Zech. ix. 1 143 - - HARRISON & SONS, Printers in Ordinary to Her Majesty, St. Martin's Lane - - - - - * * * * * - - - - -Transcriber's note: - -Table of Contents edited with additional entries for user convenience. - -Punctuation has been standardised. - -Page references to pages 104 and 105 are to illustrations on the -two previous pages. - -Ditto marks in the Indexes have been replaced with the actual words. - -This book was written in a period when many words had not become -standarized in their spelling. Numerous words have multiple spelling -variations in the text. These have been left unchanged unless noted -below: - - Page 6 - added hyphen for consistency (Assur-bani-pal and his - Queen). - - Page 49 - missing '(' added to caption (From the original in the - British Museum.). - - Page 54 - removed extraneous open single quotation mark - (Solomon, the god of peace). - - Page 115 - missing "'" added ('Post hoc, ergo propter hoc.'). - - Page 132 - Beth-Yagina is called Bit-Yagina, left unchanged. - - Page 149 - typographical error 'eities' corrected (the cities in their). - - Page 160 - typographical error 'Assyriam' corrected (of the Assyrian). - - Page 162 - typographical error 'Merodoch' corrected (Merodach-Baladan had - formed). - - - -***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ASSYRIA, ITS PRINCES, PRIESTS AND -PEOPLE*** - - -******* This file should be named 42033.txt or 42033.zip ******* - - -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: -http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/4/2/0/3/42033 - - - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions -will be renamed. - -Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no -one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation -(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without -permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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