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+*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 41959 ***
+
+                  A Source Book of Philippine History
+
+  To Supply a Fairer View of Filipino Participation and Supplement the
+                       Defective Spanish Accounts
+
+                   PHILIPPINE PROGRESS PRIOR TO 1898
+
+
+
+                  By AUSTIN CRAIG and CONRADO BENITEZ
+
+    Of the College of Liberal Arts Faculty of the University of the
+                              Philippines
+
+
+              Philippine Education Co., Inc., Manila, 1916
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+The following 720 pages are divided into two volumes, each of which,
+for the convenience of the reader, is paged separately and has its
+index, or table of contents:
+
+
+VOLUME I
+
+I. The Old Philippines' Industrial Development
+
+(Chapters of an Economic History)
+
+I.--Agriculture and Landholding at the time of the Discovery
+and Conquest. II.--Industries at the Time of Discovery and
+Conquest. III.--Trade and Commerce at the Time of Discovery and
+Conquest. IV.--Trade and Commerce; the Period of Restriction. V.--The
+XIX Century and Economic Development.
+
+By Professor Conrado Benitez
+
+II. The Filipinos' Part in the Philippines' Past
+
+(Pre-Spanish Philippine History A. D. 43-1565; Beginnings of Philippine
+Nationalism.)
+
+By Professor Austin Craig
+
+
+VOLUME II
+
+III. The Former Philippines thru Foreign Eyes
+
+(Jagor's Travels in the Philippines; Comyn's State of the Philippines
+in 1810; Wilkes' Manila and Sulu in 1842; White's Manila in 1819;
+Virchow's Peopling of the Philippines; 1778 and 1878; English Views
+of the People and Prospects of the Philippines; and Karuth's Filipino
+Merchants of the Early 1890s)
+
+Edited by Professor Craig
+
+
+Made in Manila--Press of E. C. McCullough & Co.--The Work of Filipinos
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+EDITOR'S EXPLANATIONS AND ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
+
+
+This work is pre-requisite to the needed re-writing of Philippine
+history as the story of its people. The present treatment, as a chapter
+of Spanish history, has been so long accepted that deviation from
+the standard story without first furnishing proof would demoralize
+students and might create the impression that a change of government
+justified re-stating the facts of the past in the way which would
+pander to its pride.
+
+With foreigners' writing, the extracts herein have been extensive, even
+to the inclusion of somewhat irrelevant matter to save any suspicion
+that the context might modify the quotation's meaning. The choice of
+matter has been to supplement what is now available in English, and,
+wherever possible, reference data have taken the place of quotation,
+even at the risk of giving a skeletony effect.
+
+Another rule has been to give no personal opinion, where a quotation
+within reasonable limits could be found to convey the same idea, and,
+where given, it is because an explanation is considered essential. A
+conjunction of circumstances fortunate for us made possible this
+publication. Last August the Bureau of Education were feeling
+disappointment over the revised school history which had failed to
+realize their requirements; the Department of History, Economics and
+Sociology of the University were regretting their inability to make
+their typewritten material available for all their students; and
+Commissioner Quezon came back from Washington vigorously protesting
+against continuing in the public schools a Philippine history text
+which took no account of what American scholarship has done to
+supplement Spain's stereotyped story. Thus there were three problems
+but the same solution served for all.
+
+Commissioner Rafael Palma, after investigation, championed furnishing
+a copy of such a book as the present work is and Chairman Leuterio of
+the Assembly Committee on Public Instruction lent his support. With
+the assistance of Governor-General Harrison and Speaker Osmeña,
+and the endorsement of Secretary Martin of the Department of Public
+Instruction, the Bureau of Education obtained the necessary item
+in their section of the general appropriation act. Possibly no one
+deserves any credit for conforming to plain duty, but after listing
+all these high officials, it may not be out of place to mention that
+neither has there come from any one of them, nor from any one else
+for that matter, any suggestion of what should be said or left unsaid
+or how it should be said, nor has any one asked to see, or seen,
+any of our manuscript till after its publication. Insular Purchasing
+Agent Magee, who had been, till his promotion, Acting Director of the
+Bureau of Education, Director Crone, returned from the San Francisco
+Exposition, and Acting Auditor Dexter united to smoothe the way for
+rapid work so the order placed in January is being filled in less than
+three months. Three others whose endorsements have materially assisted
+in the accomplishment of the work are President Villamor of our
+University, Director Francisco Benitez of its School of Education, and
+Director J. A. Robertson of the Philippine Library. And in recalling
+the twelve years of study here which has shown the importance of
+these notes there come to mind the names of those to whom I have
+been accustomed to go for suggestion and advice: Mariano Ponce,
+of the Assembly Library, Manuel Artigas, of the Filipiniana Section
+of the Philippines Library, Manuel Iriarte of the Executive Bureau
+Archives, Dr. T. H. Pardo de Tavera and Epifanio de los Santos,
+associates in the Philippine Academy, Leon and Fernando Guerrero,
+Jaime C. De Veyra, Valentin Ventura, of Barcelona, J. M. Ramirez, of
+Paris, the late Rafael del Pan, José Basa, of Hongkong, and Doctor
+Regidor, of London, all Filipinos, Doctor N. M. Saleeby, H. Otley
+Beyer, Dr. David P. Barrows, now of the University of California,
+along with assistance from the late Professor Ferdinand Blumentritt,
+of Leitmeritz, Dr. C. M. Heller, of Dresden, and the authorities of
+the British Museum, Congressional Library, America Institute of Berlin,
+University of California Library, and the Hongkong and Shanghai public
+libraries and Royal Asiatic Society branches.
+
+It is due the printer, Mr. Frederic H. Stevens, manager of
+E. C. McCullough & Co.'s press; Mr. John Howe who figured out
+a sufficient and satisfactory paper supply despite the war-time
+scarcity; and Superintendent Noronha, that after the first vigorous
+protests against departures from established printing-house usages,
+they loyally co-operated in producing a book whose chief consideration
+has been the reader's use. Paper, ink, special press-work and the
+clear-cut face chosen for the hand-set type have combined to get
+a great deal more matter into the same space without sacrifice of
+legibility; putting minor headings in the margin has been another
+space-saver which as well facilitates reference, while the omission of
+the customary blank pages and spaces between articles has materially
+aided in keeping down unnecessary bulk. Printed in the usual style
+this book should have run over twelve hundred octavo pages as against
+its under two-thirds that number of a but slightly larger page.
+
+And finally, my colleague, Professor Conrado Benitez, besides
+furnishing promptly his part of the manuscript has been chief adviser
+and most zealous in carrying out our joint plan.
+
+
+Austin Craig.
+
+University of the Philippines,
+    March 27, 1916.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+                                                                Page
+
+ I.--The Old Philippines' Industrial Development,
+     by Conrado Benitez                                            1
+
+II.--The Filipinos' Part in the Philippines' Past:
+
+    Pre-Spanish Philippine history, A. D. 43-1565.
+    (Introduction, by Austin Craig)                               77
+    Pre-historic civilization in the Philippines,
+    by Elsdon Best                                                79
+    A thousand years of Philippine history before the coming
+    of the Spaniards, by Austin Craig                             91
+    Translation by W. W. Rockhill of a Chinese book of 1349      102
+    Spanish unreliability; early Chinese rule over Philippines;
+    and reason for indolence in Mindanao; from Salmon's
+    "Modern History," 1744                                       104
+    Bisayans in Formosa, by Dr. Terrien de Lacouperie            105
+    The Tagalog Tongue, by José Rizal                            106
+    Philippine tribes and languages, by Prof. Ferdinand
+    Blumentritt                                                  107
+    Beginnings of Philippine Nationalism (Introduction,
+    by Austin Craig)                                             118
+    The Friar Domination in the Philippines, by M. H.
+    del Pilar                                                    119
+    Archbishop Martinez's secret defense of his Filipino
+    clergy                                                       121
+    Nineteenth century discontent                                128
+    The liberal governor-general of 1869-1871, by Austin
+    Craig                                                        132
+    The rebellion in the Philippine Islands, by John Foreman     133
+    Filipinos with Dewey's squadron, from the Hongkong
+    Telegraph                                                    136
+    A prediction of 1872                                         136
+
+Reproductions of twelve early maps relating to Further India
+and the Philippines.                              Following page 136
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+PHILIPPINE PROGRESS PRIOR TO 1898
+
+
+THE OLD PHILIPPINES' INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT
+
+Chapters of an Economic History
+
+by Conrado Benitez, A. M. (Chicago)
+
+Assistant Professor of Economics and Sociology in the University of
+the Philippines
+
+
+    I. Agriculture and Landholding at the time of the Discovery and
+       Conquest.
+   II. Industries at the Time of Discovery and Conquest.
+  III. Trade and Commerce at the Time of Discovery and Conquest.
+   IV. Trade and Commerce; the Period of Restriction.
+    V. The XIX Century and Economic Development.
+
+
+PHILIPPINE EDUCATION CO., INC., MANILA, 1916
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+FILIPINO WRITERS QUOTED IN "THE OLD PHILIPPINES' INDUSTRIAL
+DEVELOPMENT":
+
+
+Citizens of the Philippine Islands, "Memorial to the Council,"
+Manila, 1586.
+Gobernadorcillo Nicolas Ramos, "Affidavit for Governor Dasmariñas,"
+Cubao, 1591.
+Chief Miguel Banal, "Petition to the King of Spain," Manila, 1609.
+Governor Manuel Azcarraga y Palmero, "La Libertad de Comercio en las
+Islas Filipinas," Madrid, 1872.
+Gregorio Sangclanco y Gozon, LL. D., "El Progreso de Filipinas,"
+Madrid, 1884.
+Dr. Jose Rizal Mercado y Alonso, "Annotations to Morga's Sucesos de
+las Islas Filipinas," Paris, 1890.
+Rizal's La Indolencia de los Filipinos, Madrid. 1889.
+T. H. Pardo de Tavera, M. D., "Philippine Census, Volume I, History,"
+Manila, 1903.
+Tavera's Resultados del Desarrollo Economico de Filipinas, Manila,
+1912.
+Antonio M. Regidor, D.C.L., (with J. Warren T. Mason), "Commercial
+Progress in the Philippine Islands," London, 1905.
+
+
+Made in Manila--Press of E. C. McCullough & Co.--The Work of Filipinos
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+INTRODUCTION
+
+Need of more study of Philippine Economic Development.
+
+
+The Spanish writers, and with them the Filipinos as well as, to a
+great extent, writers of Philippine treatises in other languages,
+have over-emphasized the political history of the Philippines. The
+history of this country has been regarded but as the history of the
+Spaniards in it, and not of its people, the Filipinos. [1] Hence
+arises the need of studying our history from the point of view of
+the development of our people, especially to trace and show the part
+played by them in Philippine social progress as a whole. [2]
+
+The study of the economic history of a country is important also
+because economic forces play a great part in the development of any
+people. Indeed, some claim that all history may be explained in terms
+of economic motives. This is known as the economic interpretation
+of history. [3] Without going into the controversy centering around
+this theory, we can readily see that what we know as civilization
+has a two-fold basis, the physical and the psychical. And it is only
+after the physical basis is secured, that further psychical advance
+is possible. "Among all species, and in every stage of evolution,
+the extent of aggregation and its place or position are determined
+by external physical conditions. Even when men have become united by
+sympathies and beliefs, the possibility of perpetuating their union is
+a question of the character and resources of their environment. The
+distribution of food is the dominating fact. Animals and men dwell
+together where a food supply is found, or may be certainly and easily
+produced. Other physical circumstances of the environment, however,
+such as temperature and exposure, surface and altitude, which make life
+in some places comparatively easy, in others difficult or impossible,
+exert an influence not to be overlooked." (Franklin Henry Giddings,
+The Principles of Sociology, p. 82. New York: 1911.)
+
+We need not trace the history of early civilizations to show the
+influence exerted by physical factors. We need only to recall the
+motives, familiar to all, which led to the discovery of America,
+namely, the closing of the trade routes to the East through the
+conquest of the Turks. And the history of this country itself furnishes
+many illustrations. Both ancient and modern writers have had a good
+deal to say about the strategic position of the Philippine Islands
+in relation to the countries bordering around the Pacific Ocean. [4]
+It was that central geographical position which explained the marked
+predominance of Manila as a trade depot over all the other ports in the
+Orient, at one time in our history. That was, furthermore, the reason
+why the Spaniards kept the country; they wanted to use it "as a means
+to be nearer, and to reach more quickly, the rich country of spices,
+and then the continent of Asia, Japan, and the Orient in general." [5]
+
+Finally, we should distinguish the various causes that explain
+historical events. For example, a good deal of what has been known
+as the religious question in this country, is not concerned with
+religion at all, but chiefly with economics. It is not always easy to
+distinguish these various causes; a fact which only goes to explain
+the one-sided point of view which has prevailed till the present. But,
+that the questions connected with the means of getting a living were
+considered paramount, even long before the formal exposition of the
+economic interpretation of history, may be seen from the words of
+the provincials of the religious orders in a remonstrance addressed
+to the governor and captain-general of the Philippines, wherein they
+depicted the deplorable conditions in the Islands:
+
+"Third, all the Christian Indians would be more steadfast and rooted
+in the holy faith, and would become effective and most suitable
+instruments for (gaining) new conversions of infidels (and) apostates,
+the infidels themselves beholding the abundant wealth and profit,
+and other benefits, of the Christian Indians; FOR IT IS THE TEMPORAL
+WELFARE EVIDENT TO THEIR SENSES WHICH, AS EXPERIENCE TEACHES US,
+STRONGLY INFLUENCES BOTH CLASSES OF INDIANS, TO BE CONVERTED OR TO
+MAINTAIN THEMSELVES IN THE CHRISTIAN FAITH." [6]
+
+
+
+Divisions of present work.
+
+The present work is built around a group of ideas briefly summarized
+as follows: The first three chapters portray the industries and
+commerce at the time of the coming of the Spaniards; and explain
+the causes that led to their decline; the fourth chapter dwells
+upon the era of restriction, and the Manila-Acapulco trade, which,
+for over two centuries, dominated this country, and has had such
+depressing effect upon economic growth; the last chapter takes up
+the era of liberalism, during the nineteenth century, and shows how
+the opening of the Philippines to foreign influence resulted in the
+development of its natural resources. Any attempt to trace Philippine
+economic development in the past three centuries must necessarily
+start, not so much with a detailed account of how the industries
+developed as with an exposition of how they were not developed. On
+the other hand, the remarkable social progress of the last half of
+the nineteenth century, following the opening of the markets of the
+world to Philippine products, is an encouraging indication of probable
+social advance yet to be attained.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+I. AGRICULTURE AND LANDHOLDING AT THE TIME OF THE DISCOVERY AND
+CONQUEST
+
+
+Agriculture.
+
+At the time of the arrival of the Spaniards, agriculture in the
+Philippines was in a comparatively prosperous condition. [7] The
+Filipinos cultivated rice, which, as today, formed their chief article
+of food. They grew also sugar-cane, coconuts, indigo, sweet potatoes,
+and other tubers, various kinds of bananas, the betel-nut palm, the
+tamarind, lansone, and several varieties of legumes, [8] The hemp
+plant was likewise grown, and as we shall see later on, was used
+at the time for making the so-called "sinamay" cloth. [9] Cotton
+was cultivated, and furnished the material for weaving. Among the
+native fruits mentioned by Morga are: "sanctors, mabolos, tamarinds,
+nancas, custard-apples, papaws, guavas, and everywhere many oranges,
+of all kinds--large and small, sweet and sour; citrons, lemons, and
+ten or twelve varieties of very healthful and palatable bananas." [10]
+
+With the coming of the Spaniards, very many plants which are commonly
+considered to be indigenous in this country, were introduced. [11]
+The most important economic plant imported since Spanish discovery
+was the tobacco, which today forms one of the staple crops, though
+it took many years before it came to anything like its present
+position. The cacao nut also was imported. Among the most commonly
+known of the others are; maize, peanut, papaya, and, also pineapple,
+and sweet potato. [12] All of these plants came from Mexico. [13]
+Coffee was introduced from Europe. [14]
+
+
+
+
+Live stock.
+
+The Filipinos at the time of discovery had domestic animals, dogs,
+cats, pigs, goats and buffaloes, i.e. carabaos. [15] "There were no
+horses, mares, or asses in the islands, until the Spaniards had them
+brought from China and brought them from Nueva Espana." [16]
+
+The Kings of Spain in their instructions to the governors-general
+of the Philippines were solicitous about this matter of supplying
+this country with sufficient live stock to carry on farm work. [17]
+The early accounts of expeditions to find food for the Spaniards show
+that chickens were raised by the Filipinos. [18]
+
+It has been truly said that the Filipino has been affected by the
+centuries of Spanish sovereignty far less on his material side than
+he has on his spiritual. [19] For as we read the early accounts
+about agricultural life at the time of discovery and conquest,
+and compare it with that of a decade ago, we do not find any marked
+change or advance. [20] The early Filipinos knew how to construct
+implements for the cultivation of their rice, such as for hulling
+and separating the chaff from the grain; and they had wooden mortars
+and pestles for pounding and whitening rice. Then, the women did most
+of the work of pounding the rice for use, whereas today, the men do
+it. [21] Furthermore, in the early days, the system of irrigating
+the rice fields that is used today was known and practiced. [22]
+Of course, the so-called caingin method of cultivation prevailed,
+but the considerable amounts of rice which at various times were
+contributed by the Filipinos for the support of the Spanish conquerors
+could not have been produced under such a crude system of cultivation,
+but only by the more advanced one, which closely resembled that of
+the present time. [23]
+
+
+
+
+Land holding.
+
+The lands of the ancient Filipinos were divided among the whole
+barangay, so that each one had his holding and no resident of one
+barangay was allowed to cultivate lands in another barangay unless he
+had acquired them by inheritance, gift, or purchase. In some barangays
+the lands belonged to the chief through purchase from the original
+owners. In some localities the chiefs or principal personages also
+owned the fisheries, and their rights were respected. [24]
+
+With the coming of the Spaniards, lands were assigned to the colonists,
+of which they were to have perpetual ownership after four years'
+residence. [25] Encomiendas of the Indians were also granted to
+the discoverers and conquerors. [26] It is in connection with the
+administration of these encomiendas that we find in the annals of the
+Philippines many accounts of abuses and extortions practiced on the
+natives, and the consequent revolts. It must not, however, be supposed
+that the Filipinos were actually dispossessed of their lands by the
+king; for, although according to the constitutional law of the Indies
+the land and the soil in all colonies were the domain of the king [27]
+and, therefore, could be assigned to deserving persons, there were
+royal decrees intended to protect the natives in their time-honored
+possession. [28] The question of land ownership has, however, from
+earliest times been the source of conflicts between the religious
+orders and the people. Without going into the technical,--and perhaps
+today, academic,--question of which side had the better legal argument,
+the fact cannot be denied that the Filipinos had always protested,
+throughout the various centuries of contact with the Spaniards,
+against what they considered to be usurpation of their lands. [29]
+
+
+
+
+
+
+II. INDUSTRIES AT THE TIME OF DISCOVERY AND CONQUEST
+
+
+Shipbuilding.
+
+One of the most important industries in the Philippines during this
+period was shipbuilding. We would naturally expect this industry to
+be developed among the Filipinos, for they belong to a seafaring race
+that for centuries had been pushing their way northward and taking
+possession of the islands of this part of the Pacific; furthermore,
+once settled in this country, they had abundant supply of good timber
+for building purposes. [30] Morga described the various kinds of
+ships and boats used by the Filipinos. [31] There seems to be no
+doubt that the Filipinos have forgotten much of what they knew about
+shipbuilding. [32]
+
+The Spaniards took advantage of the abundance of materials in this
+country, and engaged in shipbuilding on a large scale. Shipyards
+were established at various places, [33] and to them the Filipinos
+were compelled to go and work. To the honor and glory of Spain,
+some of the largest ships in the world at that time were built in
+the Philippines. [34]
+
+When the role played by the Filipinos in the history of Spanish
+achievement in the Philippines comes to be finally written, their
+share, in the form of service, direct--and indirect--and suffering of
+different kinds, will occupy a considerable part of the account. [35]
+First of all, the many lives sacrificed in connection with the
+building of ships should be considered. [36] Then, the effect on
+the industries of the country was disastrous. [37] Besides, very
+frequently the laborers were not paid their wages. [38] And worse than
+the physical cruelties practiced on them, the Filipinos were not only
+helping the King in the extension of his empire, but also those who
+actually abused them [39] to get rich. It is not strange, therefore,
+that we should find good intentioned persons, among them the early
+religious men--who wrote to the King and prayed for redress. [40]
+In this connection, it is of interest to add that the Filipinos who
+served as seamen in the galleons suffered as much as their brethren
+who built the ships. [41]
+
+It is clear now why it is that the shipbuilding industry caused many
+revolts. [42] An interesting effect of the hardships suffered by the
+Filipinos was the migration of many of them to New Spain, and their
+settlement there. [43]
+
+
+
+
+Fishing.
+
+As, next to rice, fish formed an important part of the diet of the
+Filipinos, we find them engaged in the fishing industry at the time
+of discovery and conquest. Magellan and his party saw many fishing
+boats near the coasts of the islands passed by them. "All the shores
+of this bay (Manila) are well provided with abundant fisheries, of
+all kinds." [44] The other islands were described to have many large
+fisheries also. [45] The inland waters, too, furnished the inhabitants
+with abundant fish supply.
+
+Most of the devices used today for catching fish were known then to
+the ancient Filipinos. "The natives' method of catching them is by
+making corrals of bejucos. They catch the fish inside these corrals,
+having made the enclosures fast by means of stakes. They also catch the
+fish in wicker baskets made from the bejucos, but most generally with
+atarrayas (a species of fishing net), esparaveles (a round fishing
+net, which is jerked along by the fisher through rivers and shallow
+places), other small barrederas (a net of which the meshes are closer
+and tighter than those of common nets, so that the smallest fish may
+not escape it), and with hand lines and hooks." [46] The salambao
+was also used. [47]
+
+Fishing for pearl oysters and other precious products of the sea was
+also a developed industry at the time of discovery and conquest. These
+products were exported to other countries. [48]
+
+
+
+
+Mining and metal work.
+
+The early accounts abound in glowing descriptions of the mining
+wealth of this country. "In many (indeed in most) islands are found
+amber and civet, and gold mines--these especially in the mountain
+ranges of Pangasinan and Paracale, and in Pampanga. [49] Consequently
+there was hardly any Filipino who did not possess chains and other
+articles of gold, according to the chroniclers. Indeed, many of the
+early settlers in the country saw no other evidence of wealth but
+the mines and metals. [50]
+
+The early Filipinos did not only know how to work mines, but also
+knew the art of metal working. From the precious metals they made
+jewelry and all kinds of ornaments. [51] They also used metal for
+some of their weapons. [52] And the most noteworthy evidence of their
+progress in working metals was their use of firearms. [53]
+
+Chief among the industries connected with the various kinds of palms
+found in the Philippines was the distillation of the sap into alcohol,
+a process known to the Filipinos long before Spanish arrival. "They
+draw a great quantity of wine from the palm-trees; one Indian can
+in one forenoon obtain two arrobas of sap from the palm-trees that
+he cultivates. It is sweet and good, and is used in making great
+quantities of brandy, excellent vinegar, and delicious honey." [54]
+"Their drink is a wine made from the tops of coco and nipa palm,
+of which there is great abundance. They are grown and tended like
+vineyards, although without so much toil and labor. Drawing off
+the 'tuba,' they distilled it, using for alembics their own little
+furnaces and utensils, to a greater or less strength, and it becomes
+brandy. This is drunk throughout the islands." [55]
+
+Other uses similar to those of today were made of the different parts
+of the coconut and other palms. [56]
+
+
+
+
+Textile industries.
+
+Weaving was one of the industries well-known to the Filipinos long
+before the coming of the Spaniards. Contemporary writers all speak
+of the great quantity of cloths, especially cotton, woven in the
+country. [57] Says Sande: "All know how to raise cotton and silk,
+and everywhere they know how to spin and weave for clothing." [58]
+
+Besides cotton, the fibers of the abacá or hemp plant was also used
+for weaving; in fact, the latter must have been used even before
+the former. [59] They wove cloths also from Piña, and from silk
+imported from China. [60] The women knew the art of making lace and
+of embroidery. [61]
+
+
+
+
+Miscellaneous industries.
+
+That the Filipinos first seen by the Spaniards were not wandering
+savages, as commonly assumed by later day writers, is shown by the
+manner in which they built their houses--which very much resembled
+those of today [62],--and fixed their settlements. [63] It is from
+such and other similar facts that Rizal, [64] and other writers,
+[65] claimed for the early Filipinos a higher degree of culture than
+they were given credit for.
+
+Among the other industries at the time of discovery and conquest
+were: the manufacture of gun-powder; hunting for edible birds' nests,
+and exporting them to China; preparing hides, especially of deer,
+for export to Japan. [66] "As they possess many civet cats, although
+smaller than those of Guinea, they make use of the civet and trade
+it. [67] They also carved the statues of their anitos." [68]
+
+
+
+
+Conclusion.
+
+To quote Rizal, "All the histories of those first years, in short,
+abound in long accounts about the industry and agriculture of
+the natives. Mines, gold-washings, looms, farms, barter, naval
+construction, raising of poultry and stock, weaving of silk and
+cotton, distilleries, manufactures of arms, pearl fisheries, the civet
+industry, the horn and hide industry, etc., are things encountered
+at every step, and, considering the time and the conditions in the
+islands, prove that there was life, there was activity, there was
+movement." [69]
+
+Other evidences could be presented to strengthen the conclusion
+advanced here. [70]
+
+The only question that remains to be answered is that asked by Rizal:
+"How then, and in what way, was that active and enterprising infidel
+native of ancient times converted into the lazy and indolent Christian,
+as our contemporary writers say?" In connection with the discussion
+of ancient industries we had occasion to see that the Filipinos had
+neglected and even forgotten many such industries. Of this fact there
+is plenty of reliable proof. [71]
+
+What were the causes that led to the decay of these old
+industries? "First came the wars, the internal disorders which
+the new change of affairs naturally brought with it." [72] Then, as
+already pointed out, the effect of shipbuilding was fatal to the very
+lives of the people. [73] Add to these the abuses practiced by the
+encomenderos, and it is easy to understand the reason for the decline
+of the industries at the time. [74] However, in this connection, the
+benefits arising out of Spanish conquest should not be forgotten. [75]
+
+
+
+
+
+
+III. TRADE AND COMMERCE AT THE TIME OF DISCOVERY AND CONQUEST
+
+
+Centuries before Spanish discovery the Filipinos were in regular
+intercourse with the neighboring countries of China, Japan, Borneo,
+and others. In the work of Chao Ju-kua, a Chinese geographer of
+the thirteenth century, there is a chapter on Philippine trade,
+from which we learn that the "foreign traders import porcelain,
+commercial gold, iron vases for perfumes, leaden objects, glass,
+pearls of all colors, iron needles," [76] black damask, and other silk
+fabrics, fish nets, and tin, and also silk umbrellas, and a kind of
+basket woven from rattan. In exchange, the Filipinos exported cotton
+(perhaps the "kapok" or tree cotton), yellow wax, strange cloth
+(foreign cloth: sinamay, a light fabric made from abacá,--and other
+textiles of the country.--Blumentritt's note), coconuts, onions,
+(camotes?--Blumentritt's note), and fine mats; also pearls, shells
+(i. e., tortoise-shell.--Blumentritt's note), betelnuts, and jute
+(yuta) textiles. (Yu-ta seems to be the abacá.--Blumentritt's
+note). [77]
+
+
+
+
+Domestic trade.
+
+The first Spaniards who came to the Philippines observed a lively
+commercial intercourse, not only among the peoples of the different
+islands, but also with the near-by countries. [78] The chief method
+of exchange was by means of barter, [79] though oftentimes gold dust
+was used.
+
+With the coming of the Spaniards, domestic trade was upset. First
+of all, restrictions were imposed upon trade; communication between
+the villages was restrained. [80] Though later ordinances allowed
+freedom of commerce between villages and provinces, [81] the spirit
+of restriction predominated until modern times. [82]
+
+Then, the government officials, though in many decrees and ordinances
+prohibited to engage in trade, [83] used their position as a means
+of gaining profits in trade. [84] This evil prevailed till later
+days. [85] However, as seen by Dr. Tavera, trading by the officials
+was not without its good effect. [86]
+
+
+
+
+Trade relations with oriental countries.
+
+The coming of the Spaniards opened a new market to the products of
+the Orient, and Manila soon became the great distributing center of
+the East. [87] "The merchants and business men form the bulk of the
+residents of the islands, because of the great amount of merchandise
+brought there--outside of native products--from China, Japan, Maluco,
+Malacca, Siam, Cambojia, Borneo, and other districts." [88]
+
+From China, from thirty to forty ships sailed every year usually
+in March, and reached Manila in fifteen or twenty days; here the
+traders sold their goods, and, with the exception of some of the
+larger dealers, returned towards the end of May or during the first
+days of June, in order to avoid the stormy season. Morga gives a
+detailed list of the goods imported from China. [89]
+
+The merchandise brought by the Chinese were unloaded into champans
+(bancas), and taken to the Parian (Chinese quarter), or to other houses
+and magazines outside of the city, and there freely sold. No Spaniard,
+Sangley (Chinese trader), or any other person was allowed to go to the
+ship to buy or trade merchandise, food, or anything else. The purchase
+price was paid in silver and reals, for the Sangleys did not want gold,
+or any other articles, and would not take other things to China.
+
+From Nagasaki, Japan, came Japanese and Portuguese merchants, who
+brought excellent wheat-flour and highly prized salt meats. [90]
+The bulk of the merchandise was used in the country. Returning to
+Japan, during the months of June and July, they carried with them
+raw Chinese silk, gold, deerskin, and brazil-wood for their dyes;
+also honey, manufactured wax, palm and Castilian wine, civet-cats,
+large tibors in which to store their tea, glass, cloth, and other
+curiosities from Spain.
+
+From the Moluccas, Malacca, and India, the Portuguese imported many
+articles, [91] and in return took with them to the Moluccas rice,
+wine, crockery-ware, and other wares needed there; to Malacca, gold
+and money, besides a few special trinkets and curiosities from Spain,
+and emeralds.
+
+Smaller vessels belonging to natives of Borneo also came to Manila,
+bringing well-made palm-mats, a few slaves, sago, and tibors; large
+and small jars, and excellent camphor; these articles were bought
+more by the Filipinos than by the Spaniards. The Borneans took with
+them wine and rice, cotton cloth, and other wares of the Philippines.
+
+"Very seldom a few vessels came from Siam and Camboja, carrying
+'benzoin, ivory, and cotton cloth; rubies and sapphires, badly cut
+and set; a few slaves; rhinoceros horns, and the hides, hoofs, and
+teeth of this animal; and other goods.'" [92]
+
+It was the goods that were imported into Manila by the Oriental
+traders, especially the Chinese, that formed the bulk of the
+commerce between the Philippines and New Spain. The only products
+of Philippine industry dealt with in the so-called galleon trade
+were gold, cotton cloth, mendriñaque, and cakes of white and yellow
+wax. [93] By buying from the Oriental traders their merchandise, and
+sending them to Mexico, the Spaniards in the Philippines made fabulous
+profits. It is due to this trade that those engaged in it amassed
+great wealth in a short time, and Manila became a great distributing
+center of the East. [94] The prosperity of Manila during the first
+years after the conquest is attributed to the fact that commerce was
+then unrestrained. [95] To the same cause was due the settlement of
+many Chinese and Japanese and other Orientals in the country. [96]
+To say, however, that the later restrictions upon commerce killed
+off all prosperity, would not be justified. [97]
+
+
+
+
+IV. TRADE AND COMMERCE: THE PERIOD OF RESTRICTIONS
+
+
+Hardly had wealth been created by the commerce of the first years
+after the conquest, when the policy of restriction found its strong
+supporters in the merchants of Cadiz and Seville, who, accustomed to
+monopolize the trade with America, looked with jealous eyes upon the
+rapidly growing prosperity of Manila, the new center of trade. The
+cotton and silk cloths from China were underselling in Mexico those
+coming from Spain and Peru, and a good deal of the silver was going,
+not to Spain, but to the East; hence, the long drawn-out rivalry
+between Manila, on the one hand, and Cadiz, and Seville, on the other,
+with America as a third party, also working for her own interest. This
+commercial activity was the phenomenon which dominated the Philippines
+for over two centuries, and had such marked influence upon its whole
+economic development.
+
+Before giving the various decrees passed from time to time to
+regulate this commerce, it is advisable to discuss the arguments
+advanced by the two sides. The Spanish merchants contended that
+the competition of goods coming from the East would destroy the
+manufactures on the Peninsula; and, further, that the sending of
+silver to the Orient, would drain the supply available for Spain, and,
+therefore, in accordance with the mercantilist doctrine, should be
+prevented. Manila answered by saying that the goods that she exported
+to New Spain were different from those coming from Spain; therefore,
+there was really no competition between them. In other words, the
+demand for either kind of goods was separate from, and independent
+of, the demand for the other. [98] Other arguments were advanced to
+prove that Manila should be treated with consideration; the driving
+out of the Dutch from the Moluccas by the Philippine government,
+[99] the preservation of the missionary conquests in the Far East,
+[100] and the maintenance of the prestige of the Spanish crown, [101]
+all of these would result from the maintenance of the Philippines,
+by making it possible for her to support herself with the galleon
+trade. These, added to the fact that the trade with New Spain was
+not so profitable as commonly reported [102] on account of the many
+perils involved in it, entitled Manila to a more liberal treatment.
+
+
+
+
+Restrictions.
+
+The continued protests of the Spanish merchants finally led to the
+prohibition of the shipment from New Spain to Perú or Tierra-Firme
+of Chinese cloths brought from the Philippines. [103] "And in order
+that what was prohibited in one way might not be obtained in another,
+decrees were despatched on February 6 and December 18, 1591, ordering
+the total cessation of commerce between the islands and Perú. That
+was later extended to Tierra-Firme and Guatimala, by decrees of
+January 12, 1593, and July 5, 1595, forbidding the trade of China
+and its merchandise to all the Indias, except to Nueva España, which
+was left open to the Philippines." [104] In 1593 a decree absolutely
+limited the trade between Mexico and the Philippines to 250,000 pesos
+annually for the exports to Mexico, and to 500,000 pesos for the
+imports from Mexico, [105] to be carried in two ships not to exceed
+three hundred tons burden. [106] It was also decreed that "no person
+trade or traffic in the kingdom or in any part of China, and that
+no goods be shipped from that kingdom to the Philippine Islands, on
+the account of the merchants of those islands. The Chinese themselves
+shall convey their goods at their own account and risk, and sell them
+there by wholesale." [107] Further, it was ordered that "the Chinese
+merchandise and articles which have been and shall be shipped from
+Filipinas to Nueva España, can and shall be consumed there only,
+or shipped to these kingdoms after paying the duties. They can not
+be taken to Perú, Tierra-Firme, or any other part of the Indias,
+under penalty of confiscation...." [108]
+
+"Fortunately," says Azcarraga, [109] "that tyrannical provision,
+meeting with the opposition of the private interests, which it
+so greatly injured, and among which were included those of the
+authorities and officials who were called upon to enforce it--was
+prevented from being carried in force, and thus, in reality, the
+Acapulco trade continued unlimited until the year 1604, when, by
+another decree the enforcement of previous laws was ordered." [110]
+However, evasion of the law was a common practice, and the galleons
+usually carried very much more cargo than was allowed. The abuses
+became so apparent that in 1635, at the instigation of the merchants
+of Cadiz and Seville, a special commissioner was sent to Manila, [111]
+who strictly enforced the law. And, in order to prevent all evasions
+of the law, it was decreed in 1636 to the viceroys of Perú and New
+Spain "to prohibit and suppress, without fail, this commerce and
+trade between both kingdoms, by all the ways and means possible." [112]
+
+The rest of the seventeenth century found Manila still engaged in a
+great commercial controversy with the merchants of Spain; the endless
+number of petitions sent from the Philippines to the king bears ample
+testimony to the magnitude of the problem. [113]
+
+Further petition from Manila resulted in the decreeing in 1702 that in
+the Philippine Islands two ships should be built, each of 500 toneladas
+burden, which should transport the goods permitted to that trade; that
+the citizens should be authorized to convey in these to Nueva España
+the amount of 300,000 pesos in their products and other commodities,
+and on the return to the Philippines to carry 600,000 pesos in silver,
+allowing 100 per cent gain minus the duties and expenses. [114] It was
+further provided in the decree that in the enumeration of the traders
+should be included the Spaniards in the country, and the military men
+stationed in the port of Cavite, excluding, however, ecclessiatical
+ministers, whether secular or regular, and foreigners. [115] And
+he who had no goods to lade was not allowed to give up his right in
+favor of a third person, but a new distribution was made. [116]
+
+Induced by protests by Cadiz and Seville based on the ground that the
+galleons carried more cargo than allowed, and that the great abundance
+of silk in America had caused the decrease of the textile industry,
+thus causing the decline of factories in Toledo, Valencia, Seville,
+and Granada, a royal decree of January 8, 1718, prohibited the carrying
+in the galleon of silk, woven or raw, from China. [117] The only trade
+which could be carried on was in linen goods, porcelain, wax, cinnamon,
+cloves, and other goods which were not brought from Spain. [118]
+
+More petitions came from Manila, and, finally, a royal decree of
+June 17, 1724, repealed that of 1720, and allowed once more the
+importation of Chinese silk. [119] An attempt on the part of the
+Viceroy of Mexico to put a stop to the importation of Chinese silk
+resulted in the royal decree of April 8, 1734, which, besides allowing
+trade in silk, increased the amount of the trade permitted to Manila
+to 500,000 pesos of investment and 1,000,000 of returns. [120]
+
+The galleon trade continued during the rest of the eighteenth century,
+until 1811 when the last galleon sailed from Manila, and 1815, when
+the final return voyage was made. The next period in the history of
+Philippine commerce is characterized by the opening of the country
+to foreign influence.
+
+Before, however, going into the next period let us see who were
+entitled to participate in the galleon trade. The right to ship was
+known as boleta or ticket, and there were as many boletas as divisions
+in the ship. On the average there were 1,500 such divisions, each
+worth from 200 to 225 pesos, a good portion of which were given to
+the governor-general, the religious corporations, the regidores, the
+favorites and privileged, and the widows of retired Spaniards. Those
+who had no capital to invest in merchandise sold their boletas to the
+merchants, and in spite of prohibition, this practice continued with
+impunity. The cargo consisted chiefly of Chinese and Indian silk and
+cotton cloths, and gold ornaments, and were sold at one hundred per
+cent profit in New Spain. [121] Almost all the merchants secured
+loans from the "Obras Pias," [122] which were funds donated for
+pious purposes, and two-thirds of which loaned at the following rate
+of interest: for Acapulco, fifty per cent; for China, twenty-five
+per cent; for India, thirty-five per cent; the rest of the funds
+formed the reserve. Besides the merchandise and silver the galleons
+transported the official correspondence, arms, troops, missionaries,
+and public officials. The officers of the galleon were highly paid. The
+commander, who had the title of general, made 40,000 pesos per voyage,
+the pilot about 20,000, [123] and the mates, 9,000 each. Most of the
+crew were natives. [124]
+
+
+
+
+Effects of the galleon trade
+
+What were the effects of the Manila-Acapulco trade upon the economic
+growth of the Philippines? There are two answers to this question. On
+the one hand, those who believe that the policy of restriction was
+necessary in order to protect the industries of Spain, of course,
+say that such policy was beneficial. Furthermore, it is alleged
+that no other economic activity could have been possible during the
+early part of Spanish domination because, at the time, there were
+no products of the country which would serve as the basis of a rich
+and flourishing commerce; there was no capital sufficient to exploit
+the natural resources of the Philippines. And to show that Manila
+was benefited by acting as a distributing point of Oriental goods,
+the prosperity of Singapore and Hongkong is cited; what prosperity
+would these cities enjoy if it were not for the fact that they act
+as entrepots of the East? [125] The very retention of the Philippines
+depended upon its ability to support itself in part, and the profits
+from the trade as a whole made that possible.
+
+On the other hand, the galleon trade absorbed too much of the attention
+of the Spaniards, [126] and caused the neglect of Philippine extractive
+industries, especially agriculture. [127] It attracted the Spaniards
+into Manila, and, thus, left the rest of the country without the
+benefit of whatever good they could have done; and in Cebu, the point
+was reached when, at one time, there was not a sufficient number of
+persons to fill the offices of alcalde and regidores, and it was
+necessary to assign to the city a few boletas from Manila. [128]
+Lastly, it enriched only the few, [129] and the resulting economic
+depression checked the growth of population. [130]
+
+Not everything, however, is to be attributed to the influence of the
+galleon trade; a good deal of the neglect of the country's natural
+resources was due to Spanish dislike of industrial activity. Azcarraga
+explains that characteristic by saying that the eight centuries
+of continuous struggle to drive out the Moors from Spain created a
+chivalrous spirit and a love of risky undertakings; the discovery of
+the New World furnished a wide sphere of action to that adventurous
+spirit, and the resulting emigration to the newly discovered lands
+depopulated the Peninsula to such an extent that labor could be
+had neither for the factories nor for agriculture. "The current of
+precious metals flowing into Spain from the mines of Mexico and Perú
+fascinated the Spaniards; created easy-going and indolent habits;
+held them off the mechanical arts, formerly called servile, and all
+desired to gird the word and enjoy the spoils of conquest." [131]
+This was the real cause of the decadence of Spanish industries, and
+not, as alleged by the monopolists of Spain, the competition of the
+Manila-Acapulco trade. With such causes operating to check development,
+it is no wonder that Philippine industries were in a primitive state
+down to the last years of Spanish domination.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+V. THE NINETEENTH CENTURY AND ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT
+
+
+Towards the close of the eighteenth century there were events which
+indicated the coming of greater liberty. Direct communication was
+established in 1765 between Manila and Spain by means of a warship
+which was to sail annually from Cadiz, with European goods, and to
+come back loaded, not only with the products of the Philippines,
+but also with Oriental merchandise, including goods from China and
+Japan. However, the innovation was not well received in Manila, due
+perhaps to the monopolistic habit of the merchants, and, in 1783,
+these annual voyages were discontinued. [132]
+
+The coming of Governor José de Basco y Vargas marked a new era in the
+economic history of the country, for two important events happened
+during his term: the establishment of the Sociedad Económica de
+Amigos del Pais, in 1781, and of the Real Compañía de Filipinas,
+in 1785. These may be considered to be the most serious attempts
+of Spain throughout her rule, to develop the natural resources of
+the Philippines.
+
+
+
+The Sociedad Económica de Amigos del País.
+
+Basco's idea was to make the Philippines economically self-sufficing,
+and not dependent on Mexico. For this reason, he encouraged the
+development of agriculture by offering prizes to those who would
+excel in the cultivation of cotton, spices, sugar and silk; those who
+would open up the various kinds of mines; those who invented useful
+things, and those who excelled in the arts and sciences. Likewise, he
+issued circulars and pamphlets explaining the method of cultivating
+the different Philippine crops. In order to get the community's
+co-operation in carrying out his economic plan, he induced the King
+to issue a decree establishing the Economic Society. In spite of
+serious opposition on the part of many, the society was auspiciously
+inaugurated in 1782. It seemed, however, as if Basco's ideas were
+too advanced for his time, for the society led a declining life up
+to 1822. A memoir published by the Society [133], and containing
+a list of its achievements, shows its activity to have consisted of
+discussions of economic subjects; the publication of pamphlets dealing
+with the cultivation of coffee, sugar, indigo, silk, gutta-percha,
+hemp, cacao, and other plants; the offering of prizes to persons who
+succeeded in weaving cloths, making dyes, inventing hemp-stripping
+machines, and contributing other useful things to agriculture;
+and the introduction of agricultural implements of various kinds
+from the United States. The Society lived for over a century, till
+1890. Another means resorted to by Basco to free the Philippines from
+its dependence on Mexico was the establishment of the tobacco monopoly
+by the government. This proved to be a good source of revenue, and,
+at the same time, was instrumental in bringing into cultivation
+large tracts of land. However, the evils attending it were many;
+the abuses of the government officials in enforcing the regulations,
+and in trying to make profits for themselves; the lack of incentive
+on the part of the producer to improve the quality of his tobacco;
+the existence of smuggling and bribery, and the poverty of the farmer;
+all these were attributed to the tobacco monopoly. [134]
+
+
+
+The Royal Company.
+
+The second important event during Basco's rule was the establishment
+of the "Real Compañía de Filipinas" by royal decrece of March 10,
+1785. The capital of the company was fixed at eight million pesos
+divided into 32,000 shares of two hundred and fifty pesos each;
+the king bought four thousand shares, and the citizens of Manila
+were allowed three thousand. The chief object of the company was
+to establish commercial relations among the different colonies,
+and also between the colonies and Spain; to supply Manila with the
+products of Europe, and, in return, to carry to Spain not only the
+products of the Philippines, but also the merchandise coming from the
+Oriental countries. The second important object was the encouragement
+of Philippine agriculture, as shown in section four of the charter,
+which required the company to invest four per cent. of its net profits
+in some extractive industries, chiefly agriculture. In order to help
+the company, all the laws and decrees which prohibited the importation
+of Oriental cloths into Spain, were repealed, and the products of the
+Philippines were exempted from all kinds of duties both in Manila and
+in Spain. Furthermore, the merchants of Manila were allowed to go
+to the Asiatic ports for trade, and the Chinese who came to Manila
+were allowed to trade freely without subjecting themselves to any
+restrictions. However, the old Manila-Acapulco trade was not to be
+disturbed, for the company could not send ships to Acapulco.
+
+The company encouraged the production of silk, [135] indigo,
+[136] sugar, [137] cotton, [138] and especially of pepper and other
+spices. For this purpose it bought lands, established posts in Ilocos,
+Bataan, Cavite, and Camarines, and offered prizes. It also gave
+stimulus to manufacturing by establishing textile factories.
+
+In spite of the special protection and privileges granted to the
+company, it declined from year to year. In 1805 it was rechartered,
+and given fifteen years of life and the same privileges as before;
+its capital was fixed at twelve and a half million pesos divided
+into shares of two hundred and fifty pesos each; foreigners were
+allowed to own shares; and the ships were allowed to sail directly
+from the Asiatic ports without stopping at Manila; and finally the
+three-year privilege, [139] allowed to foreigners at the request
+of the company in 1789, of importing into Manila Asiatic goods, and
+exporting the products of the country, was made perpetual. In 1830
+its privileges were revoked, and Manila was left open to foreign
+commerce and navigation.
+
+What were the causes that led to the ill success of the Royal
+Company? Among the minor causes mentioned was the indifference
+of the residents of the Philippines; for, as Zuñiga says, [140]
+"taught to gain in New Spain what is necessary for their comfort,
+without any more work than sending a memorial once every year, it is
+hard for them to engage in a commerce which is servile and vexatious;
+and, accustomed to exorbitant profits, they cannot adapt themselves
+to the gradual profits in a store; * * *. Furthermore, the company
+neglected to import the goods from Europe, such as wines and groceries,
+which the foreign ships brought at great profit."
+
+It also failed to establish direct trade relations with China and
+India, but depended solely on buying the goods which were brought
+there by the Chinese and other foreign traders; hence, it had to pay
+higher prices for the Oriental goods it sent to Europe. The company,
+too, overestimated the importance of certain Philippine products,
+especially spices, which were produced much more cheaply in Sumatra and
+Java. Though allowed to invest only four per cent of its net profits in
+agriculture during the first years of its existence, it invested great
+sums in buying lands, made advances to the producers; in other words,
+it engaged in much speculation, which proved disastrous. It also gave
+premature attention to the development of manufacturing. The chief
+cause, however, of the failure of the company was the fact that it
+was not given control of the Manila-Acapulco trade, which continued
+to absorb the attention of the very men, who, because of experience
+in the country, would have helped the Company during its formative
+years. [141]
+
+According to Dr. Tavera, the Royal Company introduced capital, which
+was essential for economic development. [142]
+
+
+
+
+The opening of the ports.
+
+Even before the coming of Basco, the taking of Manila by the English
+in 1762 had a good economic effect, for it acquainted England with
+the natural resources of the Philippines, and the possibilities for
+material development. [143] Perhaps as a result of the information
+thus gained, we find an English commercial house obtaining permission
+to establish itself in Manila in 1809. And in 1814, probably due to
+the liberalizing influence of the war of independence just closed in
+Spain, it was stipulated that all colonial ports still restricted
+should be opened to foreign traffic, and that foreigners should be
+allowed to enter, and engage in commercial activities; thus was swept
+away the restrictive colonial policy, which had prevailed among the
+European nations, and which Spain was the very last to abandon. In the
+beginning, however, there was need of special royal permission for each
+foreign house established. Later on the permission of the Governor
+General only sufficed. [144] An earlier edict of the Philippine
+government, repeated in 1828 and again in 1840, forbade foreigners to
+sell at retail or to enter the provinces to carry on business of any
+kind. [145] In 1842 there were in Manila thirty-nine Spanish shipping
+and commercial houses, and about a dozen foreign houses, of which seven
+or eight were English, two were Americans, one was French, and another
+Danish, while consuls of France, the United States, Denmark, Sweden,
+and Belgium resided there. [146] By about 1859, according to Bowring,
+there were in Manila seven English, three American, two French, two
+Swiss, and one German commercial establishments; and in the other
+ports, there was no European business house, except one in Iloilo,
+where there was an English firm of which the British vice-consul was
+the directing partner. [147]
+
+Once Manila was opened, the advocates of greater freedom did not rest
+content with only one free port, because there were great difficulties
+in connection with the exportation of products from the places far
+from Manila. The products of the Ilocano provinces, southern Luzon,
+and the Visayas, and even Mindanao, had all to be taken to Manila,
+and from there, exported. Thus, the system entailed unnecessary risks,
+waste of time, and extra expense. [148] Accordingly, at the request
+of the government of the Philippines, Royal Order of September 29,
+1855, approved the opening of the ports of Sual (Pangasinan), Iloilo,
+and Zamboanga. And lastly, by Royal Decree of July 30, 1860, Cebu,
+which up to that time was obliged to send her products for exportation
+either to Manila or Iloilo, was opened.
+
+
+
+Effects of the opening of the ports.
+
+Taking the increase of exports as an indication of greater agricultural
+and commercial activity, we find that, with the opening of the ports,
+exports increased; and these now consisted of the products of the
+country, instead of manufactured goods brought from elsewhere in the
+Orient. [149] By 1839, the Philippines exported 2,674,220 pesos of her
+own products, as against 500,000 pesos in 1810. [150] Sugar in 1782,
+was the only product which was attracting any attention, because at the
+time, thirty-thousand piculs of it had been exported; in 1840, 146,661
+piculs were exported; in 1854 the amount had increased to 566,371,
+almost four times greater than in 1840; and in 1857 the amount reached
+714,059 piculs. [151] Similarly, the amount of hemp exported increased,
+in spite of the fact that it found its way in the world's market for
+the first time only in the early part of the nineteenth century. [152]
+
+The same effect that was observed in connection with the opening of
+Manila followed that of the other ports. The production of the regions
+around the new ports increased as shown by export statistics, and
+commercial activity was stimulated, as shown in the greater movement
+of ships. For example, Sual in 1857 sent abroad twelve ships with rice,
+and two hundred and twenty-five ships to Manila, also loaded with rice;
+in 1860, sixty ships went abroad, and one hundred and seventy-two
+to Manila, loaded mostly with the same cargo. Again, although in the
+first three or four years there were no marked increase in her exports,
+Iloilo by 1859 began to show signs of increasing productivity. [153]
+Its total value of exports, which in 1858 amounted to 82,000 pesos,
+had increased to 1,000,000 pesos in 1863.
+
+Furthermore, the opening of Iloilo encouraged production in the
+island of Negros. Previous to the new era the conditions there were
+described thus: "... before the happy event that we are considering,
+that island was uncultivated, thinly populated, and above all, without
+any kind of production to keep commerce alive; besides the Governor,
+the Alcalde mayor, and the curates sent by the religious orders,
+there were no other Spaniards; only one European, a French doctor by
+the name of Gaston, had settled there, cultivating sugar cane, and
+now and then sending some cargoes to Manila. [154] Again, Jagor tells
+us that in 1857 there was not one iron mill to be found on the island;
+and that in working with the wooden mill, about 30% of the sap remained
+in the cane, even after it had been thrice passed through. However,
+the old wooden presses were disappearing, and were being supplanted
+by iron mills run by steam or carabao. These mills the natives had no
+difficulty in obtaining because they could get them on credit from
+the warehouses of the English importers. Instead of the old Chinese
+cast-iron pans which were in use, far superior articles had been
+imported from Europe; and many large factories worked by steam power
+and with all modern improvements had been established. In agriculture,
+likewise, great progress was noticeable. Improved plows, carts, and
+good farming implements generally were to be had in plenty. [155]
+After the opening, the 4,000 piculs of sugar produced in Negros in
+1856 had increased to 100,000 in 1864 for exportation; there were
+25 Europeans in the same year, 7 machines run by steam in the towns
+of Bacolod, Minuluan, and Bago, and 45 run by animal power. Similar
+advance characterized the other parts of the islands. [156]
+
+The increased production, due to the improved methods of cultivation,
+had a great effect on the inhabitants of the islands, for, not only did
+it bring about greater welfare because of more adequate satisfaction
+of their necessities, but also because it developed a demand for other
+necessities; hence, raising the standard of living. Referring to the
+same phenomenon in Iloilo Mr. Loney in a report as vice-consul of Great
+Britain, said that the current testimony of all the elder residents
+in the province was that during the last few years a very marked
+change had taken place in the dress and general exterior appearance
+of the inhabitants of the large pueblos, owing in great measure to
+the comparative facility with which they obtained articles which
+were formerly either not imported, or the price of which placed them
+beyond their reach. In the interior of the houses the same change was
+observable in the furniture and other arrangements, and the evident
+wish to add ornamental to the more necessary articles of household
+use. [157]
+
+And since the opening of the ports, a great many people, especially
+mestizos, who before traded in manufactured goods purchased in Manila,
+abandoned their business, and, unable to compete with the Chinese
+dealers, had betaken themselves to the raising of sugar, and other
+products to the great benefit of the country. [158] And, thus, the
+greater exploitation of natural resources gave rise to the demand for
+better means of communication, [159] and other material improvements.
+
+The material progress of the Filipinos wrought great changes in
+the social population, mind, and structure. Though not affecting
+the majority of the people, economic advance paved the way for
+the development of the spirit of independence and criticism, which
+characterizes an independent and stable middle class. It was that
+class, which, because of contact with the new ideas brought by the
+newcomers, and of increasing material power, first questioned the
+abuses of the government, and demanded social reforms. [160]
+
+Furthermore, the law that all the energy in the growth and activity of
+a population is derived from the physical world, and hence, density of
+population is dependent on material progress, is well illustrated by
+the increase of population in this country during the last century,
+especially its first half. [161] In turn, density of population made
+possible further social progress. [162]
+
+
+
+
+Conclusion.
+
+Why is it that writers attribute great significance to the coming of
+the foreign business men, especially the American and British? [163]
+Why was it that the opening of the ports, and the coming of the
+foreigners, resulted in the material progress of the country? Two
+circumstances are of prime importance in considering the growth of
+new settlements, and the conditions determining their economic and
+social progress. The first is whether or not they possess markets
+for commodities which their natural resources enable the people to
+produce easily. This condition is important for, without markets in
+other communities new countries can possess no material advantage over
+old ones in the production of wealth. Now, the opening of Philippine
+ports to foreigners brought our products in contact with the world's
+market, without which it would have been useless to attempt to produce
+any more than what was required by the local demand. In other words,
+the world's demand for the commodities we produce easily, served as
+an effective stimulus to further production.
+
+The second circumstance affecting the growth of a new country is
+the extent to which the people are able to secure the co-operation
+of capital from older communities to assist them. There are several
+ways by which capital may co-operate in the development of a new
+territory. The first is, where capital in the form of stocks of
+commodities of all kinds is advanced or sold upon credit by the
+commercial houses. This has been used in this country. The example of
+Mr. Nicholas Loney, an Englishman, agreeing to be paid for his sugar
+machineries with the increased earnings due to the use, by the Filipino
+planters, of such machines, is a good illustration of how foreign
+capital could be utilized to advantage by all parties concerned. On
+the one hand, the planter improved his method of cultivation,
+thereby increasing his produce, and, on the other, the foreign
+merchant sold more of his imported machineries, and exported more of
+the products of the Philippines to his country. [164] Furthermore,
+labor is not without some benefit, for the payment of higher wages is
+then possible. The second way by which capital may co-operate is by
+providing transportation facilities to connect a new country with the
+markets, and especially with those so necessary to its prosperity;
+for example, by organizing steamboat companies, building important
+roads, and, above all, constructing railroads. This also was done
+in this country; the building of the Manila-Dagupan railroad, for
+example, has had a remarkable influence upon the economic progress
+of the provinces through which it passed.
+
+Thus is explained why it is that the opening of the Philippines to
+the outside world caused great social changes.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+II. THE FILIPINOS' PART IN THE PHILIPPINES' PAST
+
+Pre-Spanish Philippine History
+A. D. 43-1565
+
+
+Pre-Spanish Philippine History during the first years of the
+conversion-conquest was tabooed because of its pagan and infidel
+associations. Whatever had to do with the past, the many records
+there must have been in a land where literacy is reported to have been
+general, was religiously destroyed by the missionaries. Likewise the
+converts, and it was almost an unanimous conversion, were exhorted
+to banish from their memories all traditions and recollections as
+they valued their immortal souls. Thus was repeated, on a much larger
+scale and more effectively, the Christianizing of England's Saxons.
+
+The possibility of classical references to the archipelago had at
+first to be generally ignored, even had the early European comers
+been educated men, which for the most part they were not. Spain's
+occupation was based on discovery from the New World and it would
+have been considered like championing Portugal's rival claims to
+circulate accounts of earlier Asiatic associations.
+
+The contempt in which the Chinese were held acted to prevent much
+mention of their former knowledge of the islands though scanty
+references, apparently unwittingly, have occasionally crept into some
+of the first chronicles.
+
+Similarly a prejudice consequent upon the 1762-3 occupation of Manila
+banned English histories of the Indian Archipelago. Then during the
+last decades of Spain's final century of rule her apologists sought to
+minimize the lamentable lack of progress since the first few decades
+by ascribing savagery to the people Legaspi found.
+
+A suggestion of the antagonism to historical research appears in the
+frequent assertions of Spanish writers from 1888 to 1898 that the
+only Philippine history was the chapter of Spanish history dealing
+with Spain in the Philippines. More emphatic proof is the bitter
+criticism of the early Spanish historian Morga whose 1609 "Events
+in the Philippines" Doctor Rizal was blamed for republishing. That
+Spaniards were not ignorant of the Philippines' past may be proved by
+Raimundo Geler, who, in a book issued in Madrid during the liberal
+régime of 1869, made a brief summary of what foreign writers had
+gleaned from Arabian sources about the early Filipinos, but with the
+return of the Bourbon dynasty to power he had to withdraw his work from
+circulation till the claim is made that only a single copy remains.
+
+Dr. Ferdinand Blumentritt, the Austrian professor, seems to have
+pioneered in applying modern critical methods to extract the
+true narrative from conflicting early authorities, in the later
+1880s. Isabelo de los Reyes, a Filipino born in the Ilocos provinces,
+tried to make deductions to fill out this narrative and supplemented
+it with materials from folk-lore. Dr. T. H. Pardo de Tavera, another
+Filipino, sought the aid of philology, dealing with the considerable
+Sanscrit element in the local dialects. To Juan Luna, also a Filipino,
+belongs the credit for the first essays in Philippine historical
+paintings, for he availed himself of European museums to depict his
+characters in the real costumes of their times. And Mariano Ponce,
+in the Filipino students' Madrid review La Solidaridad, popularized
+the chief events and prominent personalities of the conquest period.
+
+Dr. José Rizal, greatest of all Filipinos, however, excelled all
+the rest. His is the first history from the Filipino view point (to
+be found in The Philippines a Century Hence, The Indolence of the
+Filipinos, and his annotations to Morga's History). His was the first
+systematic work by a Filipino in zoology, philology, and ethnology as
+aids to history; and as well his was the earliest Filipino interest
+in the Chinese records referring to these Islands. It was in 1887,
+in Dresden, Germany, that Rizal conferred with Dr. A. B. Meyer and
+Professor Blumentritt on the Chua Ju-Kua account of Manila in the
+middle of the thirteenth century which had just been translated
+by Dr. Friedrich Hirth, an extract from the work begun in 1885 and
+continuing over ten years.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+PRE-HISTORIC CIVILIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES
+
+By Elsdon Best
+
+(Polynesian Society, Journal, Vol. 1)
+
+
+When a powerful and highly civilized nation comes in contact with
+a barbaric and isolated people, who have nevertheless advanced many
+steps on the road of progress, it would naturally be thought that the
+superior and conquering race would endeavor to collect and place on
+record information concerning such people: their manners, customs,
+language, religion, and traditions. Unfortunately, in the case
+of the Spanish conquests of the XVI century, that nation appears
+never to have considered it a duty to hand down to posterity any
+detailed description of the singularly interesting races they had
+vanquished. As it was with the Gaunches of the Canaries, the Aztecs
+of Mexico, and the Quichuas of Peru, so was it with the Chamorro of
+the Ladrones, and the Tagalog-Bisayan tribes of the Philippines. The
+same vandal spirit that prompted the conquistadores to destroy the
+Maya and Aztec literature also moved them to demolish the written
+records of the Philippine natives, and but few attempts were made to
+preserve relics or information concerning them. The Spanish priests,
+as the lettered men of those times, were the persons we should look
+to for such a work, but in their religious ardor they thought only
+of the subjugation and conversion of the natives, and so, with the
+sword in one hand and crucifix in the other, they marched through
+that fair land ignoring and destroying the evidences of a strange
+semi-civilization which should have been to them a study of the
+deepest interest. Fortunately, however, there were a few in that
+period who were interested in such matters, and who wrote accounts
+of the state of culture of the islanders of that early date. Some
+of these MSS. have been preserved in the archives of Manila and have
+lately attracted the attention of Spanish scholars.
+
+Such is the article from which the greater part of these notes is
+taken. In the volume for 1891 of the Revista Ibero-Americana, published
+at Madrid, there appeared a series of papers contributed by the Bishop
+of Oviedo, and entitled La antigua civilización de las Islas Filipinas,
+in which he gives a very interesting description of the natives and
+their mode of life. The source of this information is an old folio
+manuscript written on rice-paper in the year 1610 from data collected
+at the period of the Spanish conquest of the Philippines by Legaspi. It
+is extended to the year 1606, and relates minutely the condition of
+the islanders prior to the arrival of the Spanish. The codex is divided
+into five books, and these again into 183 capitulos, or chapters. The
+writer lived in the group for twenty-nine years in order to complete
+his work, which is authorised by authentic signatures of responsible
+persons. Extracts have also been made from Miguel de Loarca's account
+of the Philippines written in 1583, Dampier's voyage in the Pinkerton
+collection, and Antonio de Morga's Sucesos de las Islas Filipinas.
+
+The first historical existence of the Malay proper is traced to
+Menangkabau in the Island of Sumatra, from whence they have spread
+over the islands of the East India Archipelago, and by their vigor,
+energy and skill have made themselves masters of the original
+inhabitants. At an early period they probably received instruction
+from Hindoo immigrants in the arts of working metals, spinning,
+weaving, etc. As to the whence of the various Malayan tribes of
+the Philippines, it is most probable that they originally reached
+the Archipelago from Borneo, or the Malay Peninsula. From northern
+Borneo the Sulu islands form a series of stepping stones across
+to Mindanao. As the Tagalog language is looked upon as one of the
+purest of Malay dialects, and contains the least number of Sanscrit
+words, it may be inferred from this that the race has occupied the
+islands from an early date. It is possible that the first settlers
+were carried thither by ocean currents, and that the Kuro Siwo, or
+Black Current, which sweeps up past Luzon, is also responsible for
+the existence of the Kabaran (a Malay tribe) in Formosa. From ancient
+times boats and men have drifted up from the Malay Islands to Japan,
+and W. E. F. Griffis, in his "Mikado's Empire," states that Shikoku
+and Kiushiu were inhabited by a mixed race descended from a people who
+had come from Malaysia and southeast Asia. It is most probable that
+Micronesia was settled from the Philippine Group, which thus became
+the meeting ground of the northern migration of Polynesians from Samoa,
+and the Micronesians proper. The Spanish codex before mentioned states
+that the Tagalog-Bisayan tribes were thought to be derived from the
+coast of Malabar and Malacca, and that, according to tradition, they
+arrived at the islands in small vessels called barangayan under the
+direction of dato or maguinoo (chiefs or leaders), who retained their
+chieftainship after the landing as the basis of a social organization
+of a tribal kind, and that every barangay (district or tribal division)
+was composed of about fifty families. Nothing definite appears to
+have been obtained from their traditions as to the original habitat
+of the race, and this may be accounted for by the supposition that
+the migration occurred at a remote period, and that all knowledge of
+their former home was lost. When a migratory race takes possession of
+new regions it maintains little or no correspondence with those left
+behind; thus in time they forget their old habitations, and their
+geographical knowledge is reduced to obscure and fading traditions.
+
+On arriving at their new home the invaders must have ejected the
+indigenous Aieta from the low-lying country, and driven them back
+into the mountains. Juan de Salcedo, the Cortes of the Philippines,
+in his triumphal march round the island of Luzon, was unable to
+conquer many of the hill tribes, both Aieta and Tagalog, some of
+whom have remained independent until the present time. The Spanish
+Government forbade all intercourse with these mountaineers, on pain
+of one hundred lashes and two years' imprisonment, and this edict
+had the effect of preserving the ruder, non-agricultural hill-races.
+
+This invading race of Malays was divided into many different tribes,
+the principal ones being the Tagalog of Luzon and the Bisayan of the
+southern isles. The Tagalog, or Ta-Galoc, were the most numerous,
+and were endowed with all the valor and politeness which can be
+expected in a semi-civilized people. The Pampangan and Camarine tribes
+were noted for their generosity. The Cagayans were a brave people,
+but easily civilized. The Bisayans were also called Pintados, or
+"painted ones," by the Spanish, from their custom of tattooing the
+body. Within this community of tribes there are numerous differences
+of dialects and customs, clothing, character, and physical structure,
+which in many cases indicate obvious traces of foreign mixture.
+
+As a race, the Philippine natives of the Malayan tribes are of moderate
+stature, well-formed, and of a coppery-red color, or, as Morga quaintly
+describes them, "They were of the color of boiled quinces, having
+a clever disposition for anything they undertook: sharp, choleric,
+and resolute." Both men and women were in the habit of anointing
+and perfuming their long black hair, which they wore gathered in a
+knot or roll on the back of the head. The women, who were of pleasing
+appearance, adorned their hair with jewels, and also wore ear-pendants
+and finger-rings of gold. The men had little or no beard, and both
+sexes were distinguished for their large, black eyes. The Zambales,
+or Beheaders, shaved the front part of the head, and wore on the
+skull a great lock of loose hair, which custom also obtained among
+the ancient Chamorro of the Ladrones. Most of the tribes filed their
+teeth, and stained them black with burnt coconut shell; while among
+the Bisayans the upper teeth were bored, and the perforations filled
+with gold, a singular custom observed by Marco Polo in China, and which
+was also practised in ancient Peru and Egypt. Many of the tribes are
+spoken of by the early Spanish navigators as being endowed with fair
+intellectual capacities, possessing great powers of imitation, sober,
+brave, and determined. The Tagalog character, according to some later
+writers, is difficult to define: the craniologist and physiognomist
+may often find themselves at fault. They are great children, their
+nature being a singular combination of vices and virtues.
+
+The costume of the men consisted of a short-sleeved cotton tunic
+(chinina), usually black or blue, which came below the waist, a
+colored cotton waistcloth, or kilt (bahaque), extending nearly to
+the knee, and over this a belt or sash of silk a handbreadth wide,
+and terminating in two gold tassels. On the right side hung a dagger
+(bararao) three palms long, and double-edged, the hilt formed of
+ivory or gold, and the sheath of carabao-hide. They wore a turban
+(potong) on the head, and also leg-bands of black reeds or vines
+such as are seen among the Papuans of New Guinea. Chains, bracelets
+(calombiga), and armlets of gold, cornelian and agate were much worn,
+and he was reckoned a poor person who did not possess several gold
+chains. Hernando Requel, writing home to Spain, stated: "There is
+more gold in this island of Luzon than there is iron in Biscaya."
+
+The Tinguianes had a peculiar custom of wearing tightly-compressed
+bracelets, which stopped the growth of the forearm, and caused the
+hand to swell. Women wore the tapis, a bordered and ornamented cloth
+wrapped round the body, which was confined by a belt, and descended
+to the ankles. The bust was covered with a wide-sleeved camisita,
+or waist (baro), to which was sometimes added a handkerchief. The
+women of Luzon were without headdress, but made use of a parasol of
+palm leaves (payong). Among the Bisayans the women wore a small cap
+or hood, and in the northern isles they were permitted the luxury
+of being carried on the shoulders of slaves. Both sexes wore the
+same dress among the Ilokanos, the chief article of attire being a
+loose coat (cabaya) similar to those of the Chinese. The dress of
+the Chief's wives was more elegant than that of women of the common
+people (timaguas). They wore white robes, and others of crimson
+silk, plain or interwoven with gold, and trimmed with fringes and
+trinkets. From their ears were suspended golden pendants of excellent
+workmanship, and on their fingers and ankles were massive gold rings
+set with precious stones. The timaguas and slaves went barefooted,
+but the upper class wore shoes, the women being daintily shod with
+velvet shoes embroidered with gold. "Both men and women were very
+cleanly and elegant in their persons and dress, and of a goodly mien
+and grace; they took great pains with their hair, rejoicing in its
+blackness, washing it with the boiled bark of a tree called gogo,
+and anointing it with musk oil and other perfumes. They bathed daily,
+and looked upon it as a remedy for almost every complaint. On the
+birth of a child the mother repaired to the nearest stream, and bathed
+herself and the little one, after which she returned to her ordinary
+occupation. Women were well treated among these people, and had for
+their employment domestic work, needle work, in which they excelled,
+the spinning and weaving of silk and cotton into various fabrics,
+and also the preparation of the hemp, palm, and banana fibers.
+
+The Philippine natives, with the exception of some of the hill tribes,
+were diligent agriculturists, this being their chief occupation. In
+some mountainous regions they adopted a system of terrace cultivation
+similar to that of China, Peru, and Northern Mexico in bygone times,
+and which may also be seen in Java. They cultivated rice, sweet
+potatoes, bananas, coconuts, sugar-cane, palms, various vegetable
+roots and fibrous plants. They hunted the wild carabao, deer and wild
+boar. The flesh of the carabao, or water buffalo, was preserved for
+future use by being cut into slices and dried in the sun, when it
+was called tapa. Rice was prepared by being boiled, then pounded in
+a wooden mortar and pressed into cakes, thus forming the bread of the
+country. They made palm wine (alac or mosto) from the sap of various
+species of palms. Food was stored in raised houses similar to the
+pataka of the Maori. The first fruits of the harvest were devoted
+to the deified spirits of ancestors, called anito. The Bisayans,
+when planting rice, had the singular custom of offering a portion
+of the seed at each corner of the field as a sacrifice. The ordinary
+dainty among the islanders was the buyo or betel quid, consisting of
+a leaf of betel pepper (tambul or siri) smeared over with burnt lime
+and wrapped round a piece of areca nut (bonga).
+
+"The Filipinos," says the old Spanish padre "lived in houses (bahai)
+built of bamboo six feet from the ground." These dwellings were
+supplied with cane screens in the place of divisions and doors. The
+elevated floor, where they ate and slept, was also made of split
+cane, and the whole structure was secured by reeds and cords for
+want of nails. They ascended to these houses by a portable ladder,
+which was removed when the inmates went out, a sign that no person
+might approach the dwelling, which was otherwise unsecured. The house
+was surrounded by a verandah, and in one apartment were the household
+utensils, dishes and plates of earthenware, and copper vessels for
+various purposes. They had, moreover, in their houses some low tables
+and chairs, also boxes, called tampipi, which served for the purpose of
+keeping wearing apparel and jewels. Their bedding consisted usually of
+mats manufactured from various fibers. The houses of the chiefs were
+much larger and better constructed than those of the timaguas. Many
+of their villages were built on the banks of rivers and the shores of
+lakes and harbors, so that they were surrounded by water, in the manner
+of the seaside dwellings of New Guinea and the Gulf of Maracaibo. Among
+the Tinguianes tree houses were made use of. In these they slept
+at night in order to avoid being surprised by enemies, and defended
+themselves by hurling down stones upon the attacking party, exactly
+in the same manner as the natives of New Britain do to this day.
+
+The external commerce of the Tagalog tribes was principally with
+China, of which nation there were vessels in Manila on the arrival of
+the Spanish. They are also said to have had intercourse with Japan,
+Borneo, and Siam. They had no coined money, but to facilitate trade
+they utilized gold as a medium of exchange in the form of dust and
+ingots, which were valued by weight. Magellan speaks of their system
+of weights and measures. These people were skilful shipwrights and
+navigators. The Bisayans were in the habit of making piratical forays
+among the isles. Their vessels were of various kinds, some being
+propelled by oars or paddles, and others were provided with masts and
+sails. Canoes were made of large trees, and were often fitted with
+keels and decks, while larger vessels, called virey and barangayan,
+were constructed of planks fastened with wooden bolts. The rowers,
+with paddles (busey) or oars (gayong), timed their work to the voices
+of others, who sung words appropriate to the occasion and by which
+the rowers understood whether to hasten or retard their work. Above
+the rowers was a platform (bailio) on which the fighting men stood
+without embarrassing the rowers, and above this again was the carang,
+or awning. They sometimes used outriggers (balancoire) on both sides
+of the vessel. The laip and tapaque were vessels of the largest kind,
+some carrying as many as two hundred and fifty men. The barangayan,
+a type of vessel used from the earliest times, was singularly like
+those of the ancients described by Homer.
+
+Society among the Tagalog-Bisayan tribes was divided into three
+classes, the chiefs and nobles, the common people (timagua), and
+the slaves. The principal of every group, styled maguinoo among
+the Tagalogs, bagani by the Manobos, and dato by the Bisayans,
+was the only political, military, and judicial authority. These
+chieftainships were hereditary, and the same respect was shown to
+the women as to the men of the ruling families. Their power over
+the people was despotic, they imposed a tribute upon the harvests,
+and could at any time reduce a subject to slavery, or dispose of
+his property and children. The slaves were divided into two classes:
+the sanguihuileyes, who were in entire servitude as also were their
+children, lived and served in the houses of their masters; while the
+namamahayes lived in houses of their own, and only worked as slaves
+on special occasions, such as at harvesting and housebuilding. Among
+this latter class there obtained a peculiar half-bond system, which
+may be explained thus: In the event of a free man marrying a slave
+woman, and their having only one son, that child would be half free
+and half enslaved--that is, he would work one month for his owner and
+the next for himself. If they had more than one child, the first born
+would follow the condition of the father, the second of the mother,
+and so on. If there were uneven numbers, the last born was half free
+and half bond. Slaves were bought, sold, and exchanged like ordinary
+merchandise. In their social manners these people were very courteous,
+more especially the Luzon tribes. They never spoke to a superior
+without removing their turban. They then knelt upon one knee, raised
+their hands to their cheeks, and awaited authority to speak. The hongi,
+or nose-pressing salutation of the Polynesians, was an ancient custom
+in the Philippine Group, and on the island of Timor. It also obtained
+among the Chamorro of the Ladrones, who termed it tshomiko. The
+Philippine natives addressed all superiors in the third person, and
+added to every sentence the word po, equivalent to Sir. They were
+given to addresses replete with compliments, and were fond of music
+of the cud, a guitar with two strings of copper wire. In regard to
+judicial matters, all complaints were brought before the dato of the
+barangay (district) for examination. Though they had no written laws,
+they had established rules and customs by which all disputes were
+settled, and the chiefs recovered their fees by seizing the property
+not only of the vanquished party, but also of his witnesses. Trial
+by ordeal was common, the usual mode being that of plunging the arm
+into a vessel of boiling water and taking out a stone off the bottom;
+or a lighted torch was placed in the hands of the accused, and if
+the flame flickered towards him he was pronounced guilty. Theft was
+sometimes punished by death, in which case, the condemned was executed
+by the thrust of a lance. In some cases the punishment was by being
+reduced to slavery. Loans with excessive interest were ordinary, the
+debtor and his children often becoming enslaved to the lender. Verbal
+insults were punished with great severity. It was also regarded as a
+great insult to step over a sleeping person, and they even objected to
+awakening one asleep. This seems to refer to the widespread belief of
+the soul leaving a sleeping body. Their worst curse was "May thou die
+sleeping." The male children underwent a species of circumcision at
+an early age, which was but preparatory to further rites. Their oaths
+of fidelity, in conventions of peace and friendship, were ratified by
+the ceremony of bloodbrotherhood, in which a vein of the arm being
+opened, the flowing blood was drunk by the other party. Among these
+people was sometimes seen that singular mania for imitation called
+by the Javanese sakit latar, on the Amoor olon, in Siberia, inuira,
+and in the Philippines malimali. This peculiar malady, presumably by
+the result of a deranged nervous system, manifests itself as far as
+I can gather, in the following manner, the afflicted person is seized
+with a desire to copy or imitate the action and movements of others,
+and will do the most extraordinary and ridiculous things to attain his
+object. The despair induced by this strange mania and its consequent
+ridicule, urges the unfortunate to end his life in the dreaded
+Amok. These unfortunates were sometimes attacked by the amok frenzy.
+
+It is certain that gold and copper mines have been worked in the
+islands from early times. The copper ore was smelted, and worked
+into various utensils and implements, and the gold was formed into
+ornaments, or used, as a medium of exchange. The ruder mountain
+tribes brought much gold from the interior and traded it to the
+lowland people in exchange for various coveted articles. Several of
+the tribes were in the habit of tattooing the body, the Bisayans being
+the most noted for the practice. The Catalangan Iraya used for tattoo
+patterns, and as decorations for sacred places, certain marks and
+characters which appeared to be of Chinese or Japanese origin. The
+Iraya proper used only straight and simple curved lines like those
+of the Aieta. The Ysarog (Issaro), a primitive race of mountaineers,
+who have been isolated for centuries, are said by later writers to
+resemble the Dyaks of Borneo. Time was reckoned in former days by
+suns and moons, and feasts were held on the occurrence of certain
+astronomical phenomena. Brass gongs were much used at these feasts,
+and also on war expeditions.
+
+Such are some of the notes collected in reference to this interesting
+race. These Tagalogs, Bisayans, Pampangans and Cagayanes were despised
+by their Iberian conquerors as being ignorant savages; but, as the
+good old padre says in his MS., they were worthy of being placed
+on a superior level to certain ancient people who possess a more
+illustrious fame. And who shall say it was not so?
+
+The various tribes of the Philippines were frequently at war with each
+other, as seems to be the invariable rule where a race is broken up
+into many separate divisions. The weapons used in former times were
+the bow and arrow, the lance, long curved knives, and in the southern
+isles the blow pipe (sarbacan), for propelling poisoned darts. The
+arrows and lances were pointed with iron and bone, or were simply
+hardened with fire. Their defensive armour consisted of carved wooden
+shields (carans), inlaid with tortoise-shell and mother-of-pearl,
+which covered them from head to foot, and also cuirasses formed of
+bamboo. It is not clear whether they manufactured artillery, but they
+certainly used cannon of iron and bronze before the advent of the
+Spanish, at which time the Mindanao tribes held strongly fortified
+positions--defended with cannon. These fortifications consisted of
+earthworks and stockades, sometimes surrounded by morasses. Such
+were the defences of the town of the Chief Rahamora when Legaspi
+attacked it. This town consisted of four thousand houses, and,
+having destroyed it, the victorious Spaniards built on its site, in
+1571, the city of Manila. The poison used for the sarbacan darts was
+either derived from certain trees, or, it is said, from the saliva of
+a green lizard (chacon). The natives are said by Morga to have used
+this poison in order to kill the Spanish, for whom they had conceived
+a most bitter hatred.
+
+The Manobos and Zambals were the most savage tribes. The Manobos
+surprised their enemies while asleep, slaughtered the men, and enslaved
+the women and children. The priest opened the breast of the first
+victim with the sacred knife, took out the heart, and ate it. This
+tribe also sacrificed slaves to the god of war, to whom the color red
+was sacred. They were also head-hunters, and hung these trophies to
+the roofs of their houses. The Zambals, a fierce and savage tribe,
+were also head-hunters, as their name signifies, and were in the
+habit of extracting and eating the brains of slain enemies. Among
+the Ifugaos the lasso is said to have been used as a weapon.
+
+In regard to marriage customs, there was one peculiar form worthy
+of observation. When a man wished to marry he went to live with his
+prospective father-in-law, thus becoming a member of the household,
+and as such he worked at whatever duties were imposed upon him. This
+lasted sometimes for several years. If the family became dissatisfied
+with him he was dismissed, but if all went well he paid over to the
+parents what was known as "the price of the mother's milk"--that is,
+a compensation for the rearing of his wife. During the probationary
+period the young man assumed the name of bagontao, and the girl
+that of dalaga. They were much given to the practice of divination
+during the period of the wedding festivities, which lasted for several
+days. Although polygamy did not exist in a legal sense, yet concubinage
+was common. The first woman married, however, was the only legitimate
+wife (inasaba). To the inferior wives were assigned the various
+domestic labors, the milking of the carabao-cows, and the rearing of
+ducks, swans, geese, and pigeons. The women, in paying visits or in
+walking abroad, were attended by a following of maids and slaves. In
+various tribes the Assuan, an evil deity, was supposed to exercise an
+evil influence over women in labor, and at such a time the husband
+mounted the house-roof, or stationed himself, before the door, and,
+with lance or dagger in hand, cut, and slashed vigorously at the air
+in order to drive away the dreaded spirit. Among these people also
+obtained that strange and world-wide custom known among anthropologists
+as the couvade the origin of which it is difficult to conjecture. In
+China and Africa, in Egypt and South America, in Malabar and Corsica,
+among the Basques, Caribs, Burmese, and many other races, this singular
+custom of simulated maternity seems to have originated independently.
+
+The language of the Philippines was divided into many different
+dialects, of which the Tagalog, an abundant and copious tongue,
+was the most perfect specimen. These, together with the languages
+of various outlying groups, can be traced to the same origin by
+unequivocal marks of affinity, both in word formation and grammatical
+construction. In spite of various linguistic changes it has been
+noted by Le Gobien that the language of the Carolines bears a
+strong resemblance to the Tagalog, and the same may be said of the
+ancient Chamorro tongue. The Battak speech of Sumatra is said to be
+closely allied to the Tagalog. Prichard states that the Malagasi
+resembles Tagalog more than it does any other Malayan tongue. The
+Tagalog-Bisayan-languages are said by several writers to be the most
+highly developed of this family, and are in a transition state between
+the agglutinative and inflective stages. Von Humboldt considered
+the Tagalog to be the parent language of the Malay type, but this
+was denied by Crawfurd. In the Javanese, one hundred and ten words
+per thousand are Sanscrit, in Malay fifty, in the Bugi, seventeen,
+in Tagalog one and a half, and in Malagasi there are none. It might
+be inferred from this that the Tagalog-Bisayan migrations from the
+southwest took place prior to, or about, the sixth century of our
+era, about which time the Hindu religion was introduced into the East
+Indies, bringing with it many Sanscrit terms. The native languages
+hold their own in the Philippines. Pickering, in his "Races of Man,"
+states that the Tagalog is still the chief language of Luzon, being
+in general use in all the interior towns.
+
+In respect to religion, the more advanced of the tribes appeared
+to have arrived at the stage of intellectual progress when Nature
+worship begins to give place to a dim idea of a Supreme Being, a
+Maker of all things. This protecting genius, to whom they offered
+sacrifices, was called Bathalang Meicapal. These people had a vague
+conception of a future state in which the good were rewarded and
+the wicked punished. Among the Bisayans, Ologan was the term for
+Heaven in their ancient religion, and their Hell was Solad. The
+souls of their dead were said to pass to the mountain of Medias in
+the Oton district. Tigbalan was the name of a forest demon among
+the northern tribes, who was treated with great respect. In passing
+beneath a tree a native would invariably say "Tavit po,"--that is,
+"By your leave, my lord." They practised fire worship and fetishism
+and paid homage to the Sun, Moon, rainbow, to animals, birds, and
+even to trees, and to rocks of peculiar appearance. The worship of
+birds appears to have been confined to two species, the bathala,
+a small blue bird, and the maylupa, a species of crow or kite. The
+trees, rocks, and headlands which were close to contrary currents,
+or places dangerous to navigation, were objects of veneration and
+dread, and the deities of these places were propitiated by offerings
+of food, or were supposed to be quelled by a flight of arrows being
+discharged against them. Influenced by terror, they venerated the
+crocodile, calling it nono, or grandfather, and it was sometimes
+tamed and cherished by the priests. These huge saurians were extremely
+dangerous, and many natives lost their lives by them, for which reason
+they constructed enclosures for bathing purposes. The Manobos revered
+the lightning, and believed thunder to be its voice. The Bisayans held
+that all who perished in battle or were killed by crocodiles became
+divata. The divata or anito were guardian spirits, and among some
+tribes were represented by idols of gold, ivory, or stone. There were
+anito of the cultivations, of the rains, of the sea, cocoanut trees,
+also of newly-born children, and of children during the period of
+lactation. Again there were family anito, a species of household
+gods, who protected the family, and who were principally deified
+ancestors, having, it is said, ascended to heaven on the rainbow
+(balangao). Images representing these were kept in the houses, or in
+the vacant space beneath them, and slaves were sometimes sacrificed
+in their honor. It has been denied by some writers that the Philippine
+natives had any idols or images, or any places set apart for religious
+ceremonies, but the account of Cavendish, the adventurous English
+navigator, who visited the Philippines in 1588, states: "These people
+wholly worship the Devil, who appears unto them in divers horrible
+forms, and they worship him by making figures of these forms, which
+they keep in caverns and special houses, offering to them perfumes and
+food, and calling them anito or licha." The MS. which we quote says:
+"These people lacked capacious temples, neither had they sacred days
+set apart for religious practices, but they had at the entrances to
+their towns, and even close to their houses, small chapels or rooms
+consecrated to the anito, and to the offering of sacrifices. In
+these places were deposited offerings of food to sustain the souls
+of the dead in their journey of three days which divided death from
+the re-incarnation which ensued. Before the figures also were placed
+small braziers burning perfumes, and plates of sago and fruits."
+
+The priests of these tribes were known as catalona in the north,
+and as babailan among the Bisayans. They were the sorcerers, or
+"medicine men," and rude beyond measure was their art in curing,
+consisting generally of the imaginary extraction of pebbles, leaves,
+or pieces of cane from the affected part. The priests possessed great
+authority among the people. In their invocations to the anito they
+sometimes deceived the spectators by a peculiar sound produced by
+burning the kernels of the cashew (casuy); "and at all times," says
+the padre, "they were assisted by the devil." The secret of these
+frauds was transmitted by inheritance, or was sold to the highest
+bidder, and after being consecrated the priests did no other work
+than net-making or weaving cloth.
+
+As to their sacrifices, the object of them in many cases was to gain a
+knowledge of the future. Among other modes, they practised divination
+by an examination of the victim's entrails, and also by the stars,
+both widely spread customs. In the case of prolonged illness a new
+house was built, and the patient removed to it. The priestess being
+summoned, she sacrificed according to the wealth of the offerers,
+sometimes a tortoise, and sometimes as many as three slaves. The house
+was filled with small tables, on which were placed refreshments, and
+which correspond with the number of guests. The priestess performed a
+sacred dance, purified and sacrificed the victim, and with the warm
+blood sprinkled the most distinguished of the guests, distributing
+to the remainder small copper bells. After repeating an incantation
+the entrails were examined after the manner of the Roman augurs, by
+the priests, who were often seized with convulsions, made grotesque
+contortions, foamed at the mouth, and finally announced the sentence
+of the death, or recovery of the patient. If the omen was of health,
+a revel was held, and the valor of the patient's family and ancestors
+celebrated with songs. If the omen was of death, they diverted the
+mind of the patient by dancing, drinking, singing his praises,
+and persuading him that the gods removed him from this world in
+order to elevate him to the dignity of anito. At the close of the
+proceedings the priest received presents of gold and food from
+the guests. Sacrifices which were offered before undertaking a war
+or assault were conducted in a similar manner. Others, which were
+arranged by the chiefs, and dedicated to the principle of good, were
+celebrated with feasting and dancing to the sound of their primitive
+music. The best dancer was invited by the priest to give the fatal
+thrust, and the flesh of sacrificed hogs was distributed among the
+guests, who looked upon it as sacred food.
+
+The Philippine natives had a firm belief in omens and superstitions
+of many kinds. Thus, in the house of the fishermen, new nets
+were not spoken of until they had been tested and found reliable,
+and among hunters the merits of dogs recently acquired were not
+discussed until they had been successful in catching game. A belief
+in the invulnerability (anting) of certain persons was a common
+superstition. A pregnant woman was not allowed to cut her hair for fear
+the infant should be bald. Much importance was attached to dreams, of
+which they were anxious to divine the meaning. In order to navigate
+their seas with safety it was not permitted to carry in the vessel
+either animals or land birds, nor even to name them; and in like
+manner, when travelling by land, they did not mention things which
+pertained to the sea. Before embarking on a voyage they caused the
+boat to oscillate and observed carefully to which side it inclined
+the most. If to the right, it was accepted as a good omen, but if to
+the left, it was an evil omen. They also tied together many cords,
+and one end being made fast, would rub the other between the hands,
+and by observing the manner in which the cords became entangled, they
+inferred the good or evil fortune which fate had in store for them.
+
+The geogony of primitive and semi-civilized races always contains an
+element of interest, and that of the Philippine natives was certainly a
+singular belief. The creators of the earth were the sky and the kite,
+and the sea. After the bird had flown many times across the ocean,
+and found nothing to alight upon, the sky, in quarreling with the sea,
+caused the bird to throw huge rocks with the aim of subduing it. These
+rocks became islands, and the earth generally.
+
+The tradition of the origin of man is as follows: "Two logs of bamboo,
+impelled by the waves, were cast on shore at the feet of the bird,
+which becoming enraged, began to pick them to pieces, when there
+appeared from the first log a man, and from the second a woman,
+thus proving the monogeny of the human species." The man succeeded in
+gaining the affections of the woman, and from them are descended the
+whole human race. The dispersion of the race throughout the world was
+caused by a family quarrel. The many children of the primal couple
+lived independent in the house of the parents, which displeased the
+father, who belabored them with a cudgel, and expelled them from
+the house. Some concealed themselves in the house, and from them
+are descended the maguinoo, or chiefs. Others went out openly from
+the house, and these were the fathers of the timagua (timawa) or
+freemen, and yet others took refuge in the cooking-sheds and beneath
+the house. From these last sprang the slaves. Finally, those who were
+banished, and never returned, became the ancestors of distant people,
+and remote tribes. It is worthy of note that, on the arrival of the
+Spanish, they were supposed by the natives to be the descendants of
+the last-mentioned migration. The various animals are also said by
+tradition to have been derived from other logs of bamboo; and the
+fact that the monkey came from one close to that which contained man,
+explains satisfactorily the resemblance between them.
+
+Respecting their idea of a future life, the belief was, that preceding
+the state of happiness after death, there was a series of incarnations
+or purifications of the soul, which successive transmigrations took
+place in a cluster of one and fifty islands, on which were sheltered
+the souls of the dead. In those beautiful isles departed spirits
+enjoyed perpetual youth. In this paradise there were trees always
+loaded with ripe fruits, and fastened to the earth by chains of gold,
+which served as roots. Of gold also were the ornaments, the bells,
+ear-rings (panica), the cloths (isine), and many other things. The
+shores of the sea were formed of pure rice, and there was also a
+sea of milk, and another of linogao, which is rice boiled with milk
+or fat. Yet another sea was of blood, and on the bank of this grew
+plants, whose flowers had petals of flesh ready for eating.
+
+These people held primitive notions concerning original sin, and
+also cherished a belief in the punishments and rewards of a future
+life. They accounted for the coming of death into the world in the
+following manner: Far back in the very night, the god Laon possessed
+a most beautiful fish which was his delight, also a tree which bore
+the most luscious fruits. The offenders killed the fish and plucked
+the fruit. For this offence Laon caused men to die in all ages.
+
+Such was then the state of civilization among the Tagalog-Bisayan
+tribes at the time when the Malay Mohammedans, and the Spanish
+conquistadores attempted, from opposite points, to introduce their
+religions into the archipelago. The Moros of the Sulu Islands were
+beginning to overrun the Philippines on the arrival of the Spanish,
+and would eventually have Mohammedanised the entire group. The
+Philippine natives at this time were in a singularly interesting stage
+of intellectual progress. They had lived through the crude fetishism
+of savagedom, and were emerging from the second stage of religious
+feeling, during which they had evolved, out of the contemplation of
+Nature, one of those wonderful mythologies which are met with among so
+many nations. They were beginning to renounce the old Nature worship,
+of which the central figure was a Supreme Maker.
+
+It has been truly said that nothing requires such calm and impartial
+judgment as the inquiry into the moral and religious condition of
+uncivilized races. The co-evolution of religion and civilization
+is an extremely interesting subject to the student of anthropology,
+when he notes the gradual refinement of the national religion as the
+culture of the race improves, and the degradation of that religion
+when a race retrogrades in civilization. It is one of the many grand
+problems, based on the retributive laws of Nature, which confront the
+enquirer into that great and wonderful mystery--the development of the
+human race. Well it is for him who can learn from the savage Aieta,
+or the semi-civilized Tagalog, a lesson in the evolution of the human
+intellect; but, unfortunately, so many who have golden opportunities
+of studying the intellect and works of uncultured man are careless of
+those matters, and look with contempt upon the noblest of studies. They
+cannot interest themselves in the struggling intellect of primitive
+man; they no longer understand the craving of youth for advancement;
+they disdain to look upon the dawn of intellectual day.
+
+These are the most interesting points procured from the aforementioned
+works on the Philippine Islands, a land which we call new, but in
+which the events of the Tagalog-Bisayan migrations were but as of
+yesterday. Here, as elsewhere, the rude savage retreats before a
+superior race, but the receptive Tagalog attaches himself to the
+civilization of his conquerors. He had already advanced himself to
+the difficult highway that leads from barbarism to a higher culture,
+and was thus enabled to receive the teachings of his Iberian invaders;
+but he who would seek the indigenous Aieta must look for him in the
+distant recesses of the primeval forest, or in the dark and gloomy
+cañons of the great ranges.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+A THOUSAND YEARS OF PHILIPPINE HISTORY BEFORE THE COMING OF THE
+SPANIARDS
+
+By Austin Craig
+
+
+The Philippine History of which one is apt to think when that subject
+is mentioned covers hardly a fourth of the Islands' book-recorded
+history.
+
+These records are not the romantic dream of a Paterno that under
+the name Ophir the Philippines with their gold enriched Solomon
+(10th century B. C.). There are solider grounds than any plausible
+explanations that Manila hemp (abaká) was Strabo's (A. D. 21) "ta
+seerika," the cloth made of "a kind of flax combed from certain barks
+of trees." The shadowy identification of the Manilas with Ptolemy's
+Maniolas (c. A. D. 130) is not in their class. Nor, to accept them,
+is recourse needed to farfetched deductions like Zuñiga's that the
+American Continent received Israel's ten lost tribes, and thence,
+through Easter Island, Magellan's archipelago was peopled. Their
+existence saves us from having to accept such references as how
+Simbad the sailorman (Burton: The Arabian Nights, Night 538 et
+seq.) evidently made some of his voyages in this region, though it
+would not be uninteresting to note that the great Roc is a bird used
+in Moro ornament, the "ghoul" of the Thousand and One Nights is the
+Filipino Asuang and that the palm-covered island which was believed to
+be a colossal tortoise because it shook might well have been located
+where the Philippine maps indicate that earthquakes are most frequent.
+
+The records hereinafter to be cited are for the most part of the
+prosaic kind, all the more reliable and valuable because they are
+inclined to be dry and matter-of-fact. They make no such demand
+upon imagination as Europe's pioneer traveller's tales, for instance
+the sixteenth century chart which depicted America as inhabited by
+headless people with eyes, nose and mouth located in the chest.
+
+The British Museum's oriental scholar (Douglas: Europe and the Far
+East, Cambridge, 1904) states that by the beginning of the Chou dynasty
+(B. C. 1122-255) intercourse had been established at Canton with
+eight foreign nations. Duties as early as 990 B. C. were levied,
+and among the imports figure birds, pearls and tortoise shell,
+products of the Philippines, but the origin of these has not been
+investigated. "Reliable history," says Dr. Pott (A Sketch of Chinese
+History, Shanghai, 1908), "does not extend further back than the
+middle of the Chou dynasty (B. C. 722). * * * After the time of the
+Chou dynasty we come to more solid ground, for at the beginning of
+the Han dynasty (B.C. 206) the custom originated of employing Court
+chroniclers to write a daily account of governmental proceedings. These
+diaries were kept secret and stored away in iron chests until the
+dynasty they chronicled had passed away; then they were opened and
+published, and so form the basis of our knowledge of the events that
+had transpired while the dynasty was in existence."
+
+Philippine history, however, has attracted only incidental interest
+in the translating of these voluminous chronicles so that while
+the first three mentions hereafter to be cited are well within the
+reliable history period they have not been verified and are valuable
+only as suggesting more definitely where to investigate.
+
+Dr. von Moellendorf, a sinologist, formerly German consul in Manila,
+states that the Philippines were once called "Gold" in China,
+because of their considerable export thither of the precious yellow
+metal. This parallels the Malay province named "Silver" (Perak or
+Pilak). Further he refers to Becker's Geology of the Philippines where
+(on page 90 of the reprint) F. Karusch gives a former German Consul
+in Manila as authority for gold having been exported to China during
+the third century. If the Chinese authority for this can be found it
+will destroy the value of Dr. Groeneveldt's observation (Notes on the
+Malay Archipelago and Malacca compiled from Chinese sources; Batavia,
+1876, p. 4) on his quotation from the history of the Liang dynasty
+(Book 54, p. 1):
+
+
+   "In the time of Sun Ch'uean of the house of Wu (A. D. 222-251)
+    two functionaries, called Chu-ying and K'antai, were ordered to
+    go to the south; they went to or heard from a hundred or more
+    countries and made an account of them."
+
+
+The commentator admits that "what these countries were is not stated,"
+but believes the "Malay islands were not amongst them, otherwise their
+name would have appeared at that time already in the annals of China."
+
+Since only a beginning has as yet been made in studying the voluminous
+records of China, a little further investigation may easily result
+in establishing this early date.
+
+The last of the early three possible references to the Philippines,
+classed only as introductory because of their uncertain character,
+is from the narrative of Fahien, the details of whose home voyage
+seem to suggest that he passed in the vicinity of, if not through,
+this group of islands. This Buddhist priest in A. D. 400 went
+overland to India (Groeneveldt, Notes, p. 6) in search of Buddhist
+books and fifteen years later came back by sea in Indian vessels
+via Ceylon and Java. Shortly after his death a book was published,
+written from his narratives, giving "an account of Buddhist countries"
+(Fo Kuo Chi). After staying five months in Java where "heretics and
+Brahmans flourished but the law of Buddha hardly deserved mention,"
+Fahien embarked in May, 414, on a large merchant vessel with a crew
+of over two hundred and provisioned for fifty days. Steering a north
+east course for Canton, when over a month out they struck a typhoon,
+"a sudden dark squall accompanied by pelting rain." The Brahmans
+felt that the priest of the rival religion was a Jonah and wanted
+to land him on one of the neighboring islands but were dissuaded by
+a trader representing the danger that would be to all on coming to
+China. The weather continued very dark and the pilots did not know
+their situation. Finally on the 78th day, with water almost gone
+and provisions short, they determined to change their course since
+they had already exceeded the usual fifty days for the run. So on
+a northwest route in twelve days more they reached not Canton but
+Shantung, nearly thirteen degrees farther north. Now this voyage
+on a map works out that they passed the Philippines about the time
+that marooning the priest on an island was under discussion, and, as
+St. John notes (The Indian Archipelago, London 1853, Vol. I, p. 103),
+"The Philippines * * * occupy the only part of the Archipelago liable
+to hurricanes." Apparently the land was then unfamiliar to these
+early navigators.
+
+No voyages of discovery were attempted by the Chinese but,
+creeping along the coast, they finally came to the Malay
+Peninsula and they worked from one island to another in the Indian
+Archipelago. (Groeneveldt, p. 1.) By this roundabout course in
+connection with the great island of Borneo, then called Polo and
+noted to have sent envoys to China in 518, 523 and 616, we find the
+Sulu islands suggested. The reference reads "at the east of this
+country is situated the land of the Rakshas (or lawless persons, or
+pirates.)" These were stated to have the same customs as the Poli
+people, unerring in throwing a saw-edged (wooden) discus knife,
+but using other weapons like those in China, in ways resembling
+Cambodia and with products like Siam's. Murder and theft were
+punished by cutting off the hands and adultery by chaining together
+the legs for a year. In the dark of the moon came the sacrifices,
+bowls of wine and eatables set adrift on the surface of the water,
+as Bornean tribes supposed to be akin to the Bisayans and Tagalogs
+now are doing. The Polans collected coral and trained parrots to talk,
+and so probably did the men of Sulu. In their ears were the teeth of
+wild beasts and a piece of home-made cotton cloth was wrapped about
+their waists, sarong fashion. Their markets they held at night and
+they were accustomed to keep their faces covered.
+
+Next in point of time is a reference through Southern Formosa,
+called by the Chinese P'i-sho-ye, which the author of "China before
+the Chinese" (De Lacouperie) believes is only a miscalling of Bisaya,
+and former Consul Davidson of Formosa corroborates this both on Chinese
+authority (Ma Touan-lin) and from local traditions. (Davidson: The
+Island of Formosa Past and Present, New York, 1903).
+
+"Bands of uncivilized Malays" from the south drove into the interior
+the Formosans with whom the Chinese earlier had been familiar. So on
+the next expedition from the mainland, in 605, the Chinese leader was
+surprised to find on the coast strange inhabitants with whom he could
+not communicate. His surmise that the newcomers were Malays led the
+next expedition to take with it interpreters from different southern
+Malayan islands, of whom at least one made himself understood. The
+immigrants kept up communication with Luzon and on their rafts raided
+coast towns of China, as will be later seen.
+
+Pangasinan once extended much farther north in Luzon and Mr. Servillano
+de la Cruz, a University of the Philippines student specializing in
+the history of that province, describes rafts of bamboo bound together
+with vines, of a size which two men can lift, yet used on rivers and
+by people venturing as far as four miles from the coast upon them.
+
+The chronological order takes us again to the south.
+
+A "Ka-ling" mentioned in the old Chinese history of the T'ang dynasty
+(618-906) has been, it seems to me, wrongly identified by the Dutch
+scholar Groeneveldt (Notes on the Malay Archipelago, p. 12) as Java
+on the assumption that Pali or Po-li was Sumatra. Since it is much
+more probable that Poli is only an older form of Poni, Brunei, our
+Borneo (Hose and McDougall: Pagan Tribes of Borneo, London, 1912,
+Vol. I), Kaling rather should be looked for as an island off the
+eastern side of Borneo, Cambodia to the north, the sea to the south,
+and on the western side of the island of Dva-pa-tan, which might have
+been the old, and more extensive, district of Dapitan on the northwest
+of Mindanao. Directions are so general that the fixing of the spot
+is only guess work, yet the probability puts it within the southern
+(Sulu) part of the Philippine Archipelago.
+
+The walls of the city were of palisades as were those enclosing Fort
+Santiago's Moro predecessor. The king's palace was a two-story affair
+thatched with coir from the abundant coco palms and the throne of
+the monarch was an ivory couch. Using neither spoons nor chopsticks,
+food was handled with that manual dexterity of which the Tondo tribune
+has recently been complaining as contributory to cholera. The palm
+wine was obtained just as tuba is now prepared.
+
+The older history was considered vague and in its revision, called "the
+new history," fuller details appear, among them another name (Djava,
+Djapa or Dayapo (Dva-apo?)). The larger houses were covered with palm
+leaves and like the king's equipped with ivory couches. Bamboo mats
+are also mentioned and the exports are given as tortoise shell, gold
+and silver, rhinoceros-horns, and ivory. The ivory might have been
+white camagon, since it was used for furniture, and the rhinoceros
+horns could have been imported. The rapid intoxication from the
+native drink is emphasized and, contrary to the American traveller
+(Rev. Arthur J. Browne) who attributed the introduction of vice here to
+his soldier-countrymen, a virulent venereal disease is mentioned. The
+alternative name of the island turns out to belong to the place on it
+where the king resided and he is said to be a descendant of Ki-yen
+who had lived more to the east in the town of Pa-lu-ka-si. Of his
+thirty-two high ministers Datu Kan-liung was chief and twenty-eight
+small neighboring countries owed him allegiance, as the twenty-eight
+islands would to a powerful Sulu sultan. (As to number of islands,
+see Saleeby's History of Sulu, Manila, 1908, p. 15.)
+
+A royal mountain resort overlooking the sea was Lang-pi-ya, a name
+for which, like the others, Groeneveldt finds it difficult to name a
+counterpart in Java, in this case noting "we think it advisable not
+to insist upon the above identification." The latitude would seem
+to have been in the Sulu neighborhood for at the summer solstice an
+8-foot gnomon cast, on the south side, a 2.4-foot shadow.
+
+Between 627 and 649 envoys to China accompanied the tribute bearers
+from Dva-ha-la and Dva-pa-tan (Dapitan?), receiving acknowledgments
+under the Chinese Emperor's great seal. Dva-ha-la also asked for good
+horses, and got them.
+
+Then in 674 there was an ideal ruler, a woman named Sima, of whom a
+story is told similar to one remembered in Korea, and somewhat like
+the tales of China's Golden Age, that a foreign king (prince of Arabs)
+to test the reports he had heard sent a bag of gold to be left in the
+road. There it remained undisturbed till the heir apparent happened
+to step over it. The incensed queen was dissuaded by her ministers
+from killing him but, saying his fault lay in his feet, insisted
+on cutting these off, finally, however, compromising on amputating
+the toes. Not only was this an example to the whole nation but it
+so frightened the Arab king that he did not carry out his planned
+attack. This variation of the Queen of Sheba-Solomon anecdotes is
+common in Chinese history, and its extensive use was probably due
+to the same sort of local adaptation as later made an orientalized
+Dido story of land-measurement trickery spread so quickly after the
+coming of the Europeans. Groeneveldt suggests the Arab prince might
+have been one of the Arab chiefs in the Archipelago, which would by
+our identification nicely fit with Bornean conditions.
+
+Between 766 and 779 three Ka-ling envoys visited China and in 813
+four slaves (Groeneveldt thinks negroes), assorted colored parrots,
+"pinka-birds"--whatever these may have been, and other gifts were
+presented to their powerful neighbor. A title of "Left Defender
+of the office of the Four Inner Gates" came to the ambassador who,
+by cleverly seeking to relinquish this title to his younger brother,
+secured imperial praise and the coveted honor for two members of his
+family instead of one.
+
+In 827 and 835 were two embassies, and between 837 and 850 an envoy
+presented female musicians as the tribute gift. (Account summarized
+from Groeneveldt, pp. 12-15.)
+
+"The great sea southwest of Hainan," says he, "* * * has in it
+Triple-joint currents (Shan-ho-lin). The waves break here violently,
+dividing into three currents: one flows south and is the sea which
+forms the highway to foreign lands; one flows north and is the sea of
+Canton (and Amoy) * * * one flows eastward and enters the boundless
+place, which is called the Great Eastern Ocean Sea.
+
+"Ships in the southern trade, both going and coming, must run through
+the Triple-joint currents. If they have the wind, in a moment they
+are through it. But if on getting into the dangerous place there is no
+wind, the ship cannot get out and is wrecked in the three currents. *
+* * It is said that, in the Great Eastern Ocean Sea there is a long
+bank of sand and rocks some myriads of li (705 yards or 2-5 mile) in
+length. It marks the gulf leading to Hades (Wei-lu). In olden times
+there was an ocean-going junk which was driven by a great westerly wind
+to within hearing distance of the roar of the waves falling into Wei-lu
+of the Great Eastern Ocean. No land was to be seen. Suddenly there
+arose a strong easterly wind and the junk escaped its doom. (Hirth
+and Rockhill, Chau Ju-Kua, note 3, p. 185.)
+
+Such superstition, like that of the Pillars of Hercules, in the
+Strait of Gibraltar, naturally restrained explorations so that the
+first voyages across the China sea came from Manila.
+
+The earliest account of Filipino traders comes through a brief
+mention in a French ethnologist's notes on foreigners in China
+(Henry St. Denis, Ethnographie, II, 502, according to Rockhill)
+that in 982 merchants from Manila visited Canton for trade. They
+probably were not pioneers as it is related that they came with
+valuable merchandise. This was about the time (between 976 and 983)
+when the Canton trade was declared a state monopoly. Over two centuries
+a maritime customs service had existed in that port, reorganized in
+971 because of the greatly increased foreign trade.
+
+From 1174 to 1190 (Chau Ju-Kua's account, Hirth and Rockhill, p. 165)
+the Formosan Bisayan chiefs were in the habit of assembling parties of
+several hundreds to make sudden raids on villages of the neighboring
+Chinese coast. There murders innumerable and even cannibalism were
+charged against them, though perhaps there should be some discount
+upon these unfavorable statements as even today enemies are not always
+reliable authorities upon their adversaries.
+
+They placed great value upon iron, even to the extent of attaching
+ropes, of over a hundred feet in length, to their spears so that
+these might be recovered after each throw.
+
+Such was their fondness for all forms of iron that those surprised
+by them would throw away spoons or chopsticks of that metal so
+while the pursuers were stopping to pick these up they could gain
+a start. Once in the house the door had only to be closed and they
+would be distracted from the attack by sight of an iron knocker which
+they would wrench off and then immediately depart with it.
+
+The soldiers decoyed them with mail-covered horsemen and in their mad
+struggle to strip off the armor they would meet their death without
+being sensible of their danger. Bamboo lashed into rafts conveyed
+them over the waters and when hard pressed facilitated their escape
+for these, folded up like screens, were easy to lift and swim off with.
+
+A collector of customs (the Chau Ju-Kua before quoted) of Chinchew,
+the port in the Amoy district later made famous by Marco Polo, from
+personal investigation obtained data as to the Philippines which he
+published in a geography written between 1209 and 1214 (B. Laufer,
+Relations of Chinese to the Philippines, Washington, 1907, p. 24).
+
+Under "Mai," an island north of Borneo, he is supposed to include
+Western Luzon, and the Island of Mindoro, which Blumentritt thinks
+(Versuch einer Ethnographie der Philippinen, 65) had the name
+"Mait," or black, from the former negrito population. The opening
+description, now held to be of Manila, tells of about a thousand
+families who occupied both banks of a water-course. Some people wore
+only waist-cloths while others draped themselves in a sort of cotton
+sheet, getting presumably much the same effect as may be seen among
+the feminine bathers on the Tondo beach any Sunday morning.
+
+Little bronze idols of unknown origin were to be found in the grassy
+region outside the village, for Mr. Rockhill is careful to translate
+"idols" instead of "Buddhas," holding that the word has the more
+general meaning often. Yet because the later idols of the country
+were of wood and clay one wonders where bronze idols would be made at
+that time if not in a Buddhist land. Manila was a peaceable community
+then, and peaceful too, for the fierce pirates of the south had not
+yet gotten into the habit of coming there, still less had settled,
+as they were to do two centuries later.
+
+The traders' ships anchored in front of the quarters of the chiefs,
+to whom they presented the white silk parasols which these dignitaries
+were accustomed to use. There the market was held, and the shore
+people at once went on board, mixing in friendly fashion with the
+newcomers. Nor was there fear of loss, for such then was the Manilans'
+honesty that even when some one helped himself and took away goods
+without being seen he could be relied on in due season to faithfully
+account for them. The period was usually eight or nine months so that,
+though not travelling the greatest distance, those trading to Manila
+were among the latest in getting back to China.
+
+The trade was without money, a barter of the country's yellow wax (a
+medium grade), cotton, pearls, tortoise shell, medicinal betel nuts,
+and native cloth, for imported porcelain, trade gold, iron censers,
+leads, colored glassbeads and iron needles. Names of other settlements
+in this region may be what we now call the Babuyanes islands, Polillo
+island, off the East coast, Lingayen in Pangasinan, Luzon perhaps used
+of East Luzon and (according to Luther M. Parker, a graduate student
+in the University of the Philippines, 1913-14) Lian in Batangas.
+
+For the group called "the three islands," Calamianes, Palawan and
+Busuanga are the closest resemblances to the curious names of the
+Chinese narrative, though B. Laufer in his notes to Fay Cole's Chinese
+pottery in the Philippines (Field Museum Bulletin) suggests another
+for Calamianes.
+
+Local customs were said not to differ particularly from the ways of
+Mai. The country, grand in its scenery, had many ridges and ranges
+of cliffs rose from the shore, steep as the walls of a house.
+
+Each tribe had about a thousand families (which seems to be only
+another way of saying that the tribes were large rather than an
+effort at statistics) and they lived in wattled huts in commanding
+situations difficult of access. The sight of women bringing water
+from the streams in jars gracefully and easily carried on the head,
+two or three being borne one above another, still amazes and interests
+us as it did the Chinese geographer's informant.
+
+In more remote valleys lurked the negritoes, nesting in the trees
+the author alleges. They were stunted in stature, with eyes round
+and yellow, curly hair, and teeth exposed by their parted lips. In
+groups of three or five they would ambuscade some unwary wayfarer and
+many fell victims to their cunning and deadly arrows. But throwing
+a porcelain bowl would make them forget their murderous purpose and
+off they would go, leaping and shouting in joy.
+
+The country folk evidently did not inspire in the traders the same
+confidence these felt toward the Manilans. Their ships would anchor
+in midstream and none went ashore till there had been sent one or
+two hostages to be retained till the trading was over. Drum beating
+announced their arrival, when the local traders raced for the ship
+carrying, evidently as samples, cotton, yellow wax, and home made
+cloth, and coconut heart mats, whatever this last may have meant. In
+case of disagreement over prices the chiefs of the traders came
+in person, when, after a mutually satisfactory settlement had been
+reached, there would be presents given,--silk umbrellas, porcelain
+and rattan baskets, probably the first two from the visitors and the
+last from the people. Then the barter was concluded ashore. Three
+or four days was the usual stop in each place when the ships sailed
+to another anchorage, for each of the settlements was independent
+of its neighbors. The Chinese goods were porcelain, black damask,
+and other silks, beads of all colors leaden sinkers for nets, and tin.
+
+Polillo, on the Pacific coast, was also, but less frequently,
+visited, to obtain two prized varieties of coral. There local
+customs and commercial usages were the same as on the other side of
+the archipelago, but though the settlements were more populous the
+coral was hard to get and so there was little trade. The coast, too,
+was dangerous, with the sea full of "bare ribs of rock with jagged
+tooth-like blasted trees, their points and edges sharper than swords
+and lances." Ships tacked far out from shore in passing to avoid
+these perils, and besides the people were "of cruel disposition and
+given to robbery."
+
+Northern Formosa, during this period, was not visited by Chinese for
+there were no goods of special importance to be gotten there while the
+people were also given to robbery, but Formosan goods,--yellow wax,
+native gold, buffalo tails, and jerked leopard-meat, were brought to
+the Philippines for sale.
+
+For 1349, in an unpublished translation by Mr. Rockhill of "A
+Description of the Barbarians of the Isles (Tao-i-chih-lio) by Wang
+Ta-yuan is mentioned the "three archipelagoes," if that is the proper
+way to distinguish between Chao-ju-kua's Sanhsu and the present
+San-tao. Islands were for the Chinese merely places distant by a
+sea route from each other rather than our "bodies of land completely
+surrounded by water."
+
+This author's region was to the east of a very curious range of
+mountains if one may translate the name "taki-shan." It was divided
+by a triple peak and there was range upon range of mountains which
+suggests to Mr. Rockhill the Pacific coast of Luzon south of Cape
+Engaño.
+
+As now, the soil was poor and the crops sparse, while the heated
+climate was variable.
+
+The old question of a lost white tribe, attributed so often to
+Mindoro, is raised by mention of "some males and females," being
+"white." Perhaps the breeding principle that a second cross sometimes
+reverts to the original type may be the explanation. Chinese mestizos
+have seemed to me whiter here than European blends with Filipinas
+where no Chinese strain was present. Their delicate beauty suggests
+the Caucasians from whom the earliest Chinese may have taken wives
+in the remote past before they came to the "eighteen provinces." The
+first Spaniards comment also on exceedingly fair Filipinas and as
+the Caucasian type is the European ideal of beauty it probably
+resulted that such mixed marriages as occurred were with these
+Chinese mestizas. The prejudice of new converts against pagans,
+linked with the humiliation to which the Chinese residents in the
+Philippines were subject during Spain's rule here, led to covering
+up and ignoring all Chinese relations and is a very good reason why
+even where known there is today reluctance to admit descent from the
+oldest of civilized races. Yet before the Spaniards came both in the
+Philippines and in the lands from which successive immigrations of
+Filipinos have come, the Chinese traders ranked with the aristocracy
+and Chinese wives were sought by royalty.
+
+A trait by no means died out was a fondness for jewelry shown by
+stowaways on board junks for Chinchew. When their money was all
+expended on personal adornments they returned home, there to be
+honored as travelled personages, the distinction of having visited
+China raising them above even their own fathers and the older men.
+
+The 1349 account of Mai, or Manila, credits the people with "customs
+chaste and good." Both men and women wore their hair done up in a
+knot and clothed themselves in blue cotton shirts. Since the earlier
+notice, within the century and a quarter interval, Hindu influence
+had become manifest for a sort of suttee is related. New widows with
+shaven heads would lie fasting beside their husband's corpses for seven
+days. Then if still alive they could eat but were never permitted to
+remarry and many when the husband's body was placed on the funeral pyre
+accompanied it into the flames. The region must have been populous for
+on the burial of a chief of renown two or three thousand slaves would
+be buried in his tomb. The imports show more luxuries; red taffetas,
+ivory and trade silver figuring in the later list.
+
+Sulu comes in for mention with fields losing their fertility in the
+third year of cultivation. Sago, fish, shrimps and shell fish made up
+the diet and the people, with cut hair, wore black turbans as may now
+be seen in parts of Borneo, and dressed in sarongs. Boiling seawater
+for salt, making rum and weaving were their occupations ashore, and
+dyewoods of middling quality, beeswax, tortoise-shell and pearls,
+surpassing in roundness and whiteness, were their exports.
+
+Laufer (Relations of Chinese to the Philippines, p. 251) gives 1372
+as the date of the first tribute embassy to China from the Philippine
+peoples under their present name of "Luzon-men," then designating
+principally Manilans (Ming Chronicles chap. 323, p. 110 according
+to his reference). Luzon was then stated to be situated in the South
+Sea very close to Chinchew, Fukien province.
+
+The ruler of the great Middle Kingdom in return sent an official to
+the king of Luzon with gifts of silk gauze embroidered in gold and
+colors. The commentator adds a well founded caution against accepting
+the word "first" as meaning anything other than that the chronicler
+was unfamiliar with previous notices.
+
+Laufer quotes from the Ming Chronicles of the Malayan tribe
+F'ing-ka-shi-lau whom he concludes are the Pangasinanes, inhabitants of
+the western and southern shores of Lingayen Bay, Luzon, but in earlier
+days apparently extending further north. Early in the XV century they
+had a small realm of their own, sending an embassy to China in 1406
+and presenting the emperor as gifts "with excellent horses, silver
+and other objects" and receiving in return paper money and silks. In
+1408 the chief was accompanied by an imposing retinue of two headmen
+from each village subject to his authority and these in turn each
+accompanied by some of his retainers. This time the imperial gifts
+were paper money for the sub-chiefs and for each hundred men six
+pieces of an open-work variegated silk, for making coats, and linings.
+
+Besides a 1410 embassy from Pangasinan there was another tribute
+party from Luzon headed by one Ko-Ch'a-lao who brought products of
+his country, among which gold was most prominent. This last party
+came because in 1405 the Emperor Yung-lo had sent a high Chinese
+officer to Luzon to govern that country. Here is definite political
+identification with the Chinese empire. In 1407 it is probable this
+moral force of respect for the superior culture of what was the Rome of
+the Orient witnessed also a physical demonstration, for in that year
+the eunuch Cheng-ho set sail, with his 62 large ships bearing 27,800
+soldiers, on the expedition which explored as far as the Arabian Gulf
+and required the nominal allegiance of the numerous countries visited
+during repeated voyages extending over thirty years.
+
+Ian C. Hannah states in his "Eastern Asia: A History" that outside
+the North of Toh Chow, in Shantung province, by a little mosque,
+is yet marked the burial place of a former sultan of Sulu who died
+on a visit to the Emperor Yung-lo in 1417.
+
+In the same year, Sulu's eastern, western and village rajahs with
+their wives, children and headmen all came to the Chinese court with
+tribute, and another tribute mission from Sulu arrived in 1420.
+
+About the middle of the XV century, Doctors Hose and McDougall
+in their history of Borneo (Pagan Tribes of Borneo, London, 1912,
+chap. 1) assert, a Bisayan was king of Brunei. This Alakber Tala,
+later to be called Sultan Mohammed, introduced Arabic doctrines
+into his kingdom and the use of Arabic writing made his reign the
+beginning of Brunei's local recorded history. His great grandnephew,
+Makoda Ragan, had Arab and Chinese as well as Bisayan blood, a fact
+remembered to this day by having representatives of these three races
+officiating at the king's coronation, and the fourth official on these
+occasions is dressed in ancient Bisayan costume. Makoda Ragah, also
+called Sultan Bulkiah, is spoken of as the most heroic character in
+Bornean history and conquered the Sulu islands, and sent expeditions
+to Manila, the second time seizing the place. His wife, the first
+queen of the Philippines of whom we know, was a Javan princess. This
+great king was accidentally killed by his wife's bodkin. It was this
+monarch or his son who died in 1575 that so impressed the chronicler
+of Magellan's expedition.
+
+Corroboration for this considerable historic association comes in
+the Chinese jars found in the oldest burial caves as well as prized
+among the more remote hill tribes as ancestral possessions, handed
+down from so remote an antiquity that their origin has long been
+forgotten and they are now venerated as objects that came from heaven
+(Fay Cole: Chinese Pottery in the Philippines). The four-toed dragon
+claw designs place them among the Chinese manufacture of not later
+than the last of the XIV century.
+
+Legend is not lacking, either, for a tradition of Tapul (Saleeby: The
+Origin of the Malayan Filipinos, p. 1) relates that a Chinese rajah who
+anchored his boat at the south of their island had his daughter stolen
+in the night by the "dewas." She was hidden in a bamboo stalk and there
+found by the solitary male who had hatched out of a roc's egg. Their
+daughter, the earliest recorded Chinese mestiza, was, according to
+Doctor Saleeby again, the grandmother of the Chiefs of Sulu.
+
+The very name Luzon is not the time-honored rice mortar, La-sung,
+but Luzong of which John Crawfurd (History of the Indian Archipelago,
+vol. 1, p. 324) says: "The term, I have no doubt, is Chinese, for the
+Chinese, who destroy the sound of all other native names of countries,
+or use barbarisms of their own, apply the word Lusong familiarly and
+correctly." They even associate it with their famous dynasty of that
+name and have a joke of their own at the expense of the Spaniards
+(B. Laufer: The Chinese in the Philippines).
+
+Naming in pairs is common enough by Chinese to make it seem more
+than a mere coincidence that these islands are called "Liu sung,"
+while their neighbors to the north were originally "Liu Kiu."
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+(Translation, by Hon. W. W. Rockhill, of a Chinese book of 1349,
+by Wang Ta-yuan, Description of the Barbarians of the Isles
+(Tao-i-chih-lio).)
+
+San-tao.
+
+It is to the east of Ta-ki-shan. (1). It is divided by a triple peak,
+and there are range upon range of mountains. The people live along
+the roadsides. The soil is poor and the crops sparse. The climate
+is of varying degrees of heat. Among the males and females some
+are white. The men knot their hair on the tops of their heads; the
+women do it up in a chignon behind. They wear a single garment. The
+men frequently get on board junks and come to Ch'uanchou (in
+Fu-kien). When the brokers there have got all the money out of
+their bags for ornaments for their persons, they go home, where
+their countrymen show them great honor at which even fathers and old
+men may not grumble, for it is a custom to show honor to those who
+come from China. The people boil seawater to make salt, and ferment
+sugar-cane juice to make liquor. They have a ruler (or chief). The
+natural products are beeswax, cotton, and cotton stuffs. In trading
+with them use is made of copper beads, blue and white porcelain cups,
+small figured chintzes, pieces of iron and the like. Secondary to them
+there is T'a-p'ei, Hai-tan, Pa-numg-ki, Pu-li-lao, Tung-liu-li. They
+are only noted here as they have no very remarkable products.
+
+
+
+1) The San hsü of Chao Ju-kua were Kia-ma-yen (Calamian), Pa-lao-yu
+(Palawan?), and Pa-ki-nung (Busuanga?). The San-tao of our author
+seems to be a more restricted area, presumably the coast south of
+Cape Engano, which may be his Ta-ki shan. The San hsü of Chao were
+dependencies of Ma-i which probably included all of the northern and
+western portions of Luzon, if not all the island.
+
+2) Chao Ju-kua states that in San hsü were "many lofty ridges and
+ranges of cliffs which rise steep as the walls of a house."
+
+3) T'a-pei defies identification. Hai-tan is found already
+in Chao's book, it is the Aeta, the Negrito aborigines of the
+Philippines. Pa-nung-ki must be an error for Pa-ki-nung; Pu-li-lao
+is Chao's P'u-li-lu (Polillo island) and Tung Liu-li is also in all
+likelihood an error for Tung Liu-hsin and may mean "Eastern Luzon." See
+Hirth and Rockhill, op. sup. cit., 160, where these names are wrongly
+divided; we should read Li Kin and Tung Liu-hsin.
+
+In reference to what our author says of white colored natives in
+the Philippines, I have been assured that such is the fact; I,
+unfortunately, cannot now recall on which island they have been
+found. (Mindoro, probably albinos.--A. C.)
+
+
+
+
+Ma-i.
+
+The island is flat and broad. It is watered by a double branched
+stream. The soil is rich. The climate is rather hot. In their customs
+they are chaste and good. Both men and women do up their hair in a
+knot behind. They wear a blue cotton shirt. When any woman mourns her
+husband, she shaves her head and fasts for seven days, lying beside her
+husband. Most of them nearly die, but if, after seven days, they are
+not dead, their relatives urge them to eat. Should they get quite well
+they may not remarry during their whole lives. There are some even who,
+to make manifest their wifely devotion, when the body of their dead
+husband has been consumed, get into the funeral pyre and die. At the
+burial of a chief of renown they put to death two or three thousand
+slaves to bury with him. The people boil sea-water to make salt,
+and ferment treacle to make spirits. The native products are cotton,
+beeswax, tortoise-shell, betelnuts and chintzes. The goods used
+in trading are caldrons, pieces of iron, colored cotton stuffs, red
+taffetas, ivory, sycee shoes and the like. The natives and the traders
+having agreed on prices, they let the former carry off the goods and
+later on they bring the amount of native products agreed upon. The
+traders trust them, for they never fail to keep their bargains.
+
+
+
+Cf. Chu-fan-chih Hirth and Rockhill, op. sup. cit., 159-162. It refers
+to the custom of the people building their dwellings along the banks of
+streams and not in villages. It refers also at length to the honesty
+of the natives in their dealings with the Chinese traders. The custom
+of suttee was evidently introduced into the islands subsequent to Chao
+Ju-kua's time (1225), brought there of course, from India or Java,
+otherwise the earlier writer would probably have noted it.
+
+
+
+
+Su-lu.
+
+This place has the Shih-i island as a defense. The fields of the
+island of three years cultivation are lean; they can grow millet
+and wheat. The people eat shahu (sago), fish, shrimps, and shell
+fish. The climate is half hot. The customs are simple. Men and women
+cut their hair, wear a black turban, and a piece of chintze with a
+minute pattern tied around them. They boil sea-water to make salt,
+and ferment the juice of the sugar-cane to make spirits. They earn
+a living by weaving chu pu. They have a ruler. The native products
+include laka-wood of middling quality, beeswax, tortoise-shell,
+and pearls. These Su-lu pearls are whiter and rounder than those
+got at Sha-li-pa-tan (Jurfattan of the Arabs, on Malabar coast),
+Tisan-kiang (gulf of Manár), and other places. Their price is very
+high. The Chinese use them for head ornaments. When they are off-color
+they are classed as "unassorted." There are some over an inch in
+diameter. The large pearls from this country fetch up to seven or
+eight hundred ting. All below this are little pearls. Pearls worth
+ten thousand taels and upwards, or worth from three or four hundred
+to a thousand taels, come from the countries of the western Ocean and
+from Ti-san-kiang (near Ceylon); there are none here (in Su-lu). The
+goods used in trading here are dark gold, trade silver Pa tu-la
+cotton cloth, blue beads Chu (choufu) china-ware, pieces of iron,
+and such like things. Hsi-yang chao-kung tien-lu, 1.20 (Su-lu) says,
+"this country is in the Eastern Sea. Its trade centre is the island of
+Shih-ch'i. In 1417 its eastern raja Pa-tu-ko pa-ta-la, its western raja
+Pa-tu-ko pa-su-li, and its village raja Pa-tu-ko pa-la-pu came with
+their wives, children, and headmen to court with tribute. Again in 1420
+there came a tribute mission from Su-lu. See Rouffaer, op. sup. cit.,
+IV., 391. He gives us the equivalents of these names, Paduka Bohol,
+Paduka Suli, and Paduka Prabu. Duarte Barbosa, 203, says of the Sulu
+(Solor) islands that "all around this island the Moros gather much
+seed pearl and fine pearls of perfect color and not round."
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+SPANISH UNRELIABILITY; EARLY CHINESE RULE OVER PHILIPPINES; AND REASON
+FOR INDOLENCE IN MINDANAO
+
+Mr. Salmon's "Modern History," London, 1744, Vol. I, pp. 92-93.
+
+
+The Portuguese were no sooner in possession of Malacca, but they
+discovered the Moluccas or Spice islands; at which time Magallanes
+returning home and not being rewarded according to his expectations,
+as has been hinted above, offered his service to the Emperor Charles
+the Fifth, proposing to discover a passage to these very Spice islands
+by sailing westward, which he apprehended would bring them within the
+Emperor's share, according to the agreement above mentioned, that all
+countries which should be discovered westward should belong to Spain,
+as all the discoveries eastward were to belong to Portugal.
+
+The Spaniards who lived to return home again, gave a very extravagant
+account of the inhabitants which has since appeared to have little
+truth in it. They afterwards sailed into the 50th degree of South
+latitude, where they pretended to meet with a monstrous race of
+giants, which have never been heard of since; and, among other
+improbable stories, tell us that their way of letting blood there
+was by chopping a great gash in their arms and legs with a hatchet,
+instead of using a lancet; and the way of vomiting their patients
+was by thrusting an arrow a foot and a half long down their throats.
+
+So little credit is to be given to some discoverers, especially where
+they happen to be people of no judgment, and who have little regard
+for truth, as it happened in this case where the commander, Magellan,
+and most of the officers died in the voyage, and very few besides
+the common sailors returned to give an account of the expedition.
+
+Magellan was killed in a skirmish with the natives; having a little
+before his death received intelligence that the Molucca islands,
+which he came out in search of, were not far distant; and his ships,
+afterwards pursuing the voyage, arrived at Tidore, one of the Moluccas,
+on the 8th day of November, 1521. In these islands they were kindly
+received by the respective Princes and suffered to build a fort and
+erect a factory at Tidore; they also left one of their ships which
+was leaky there to be refitted, which the Portuguese afterwards took
+as a prize and ruined their factory.
+
+These islands were probably first peopled from the continent of China,
+being formerly under the Emperor of China's government; who deserted
+them, it seems, on account of their being too remote from the rest of
+his dominion; but their religious rights, as well as several other
+customs they retained when the Spanish came thither, show that the
+people were of Chinese extraction.
+
+The Mindanayans are said to be an ingenious, witty people and active
+enough when they have a mind to it; but for the most part very lazy
+and thievish, and will not work unless compelled to it by hunger; but
+our author attributes their want of industry chiefly to the tyranny
+of the government, which will not suffer them to enjoy the wealth
+they acquire, and therefore they never endeavor to lay up anything.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+BISAYANS IN FORMOSA
+
+(Dr. Terrien de Lacouperie, Formosa Notes; Hertford, 1887, p. 39.)
+
+
+There are other evidences of importance, which show that the Chinese
+were acquainted with the dark-skinned occupiers of Formosa as
+originated from the Philippine Archipelago. The Yang tchou wen Kao
+(v. Geo. Kleinwachter, The History of Formosa under the Chinese,
+p. 345) says that "the island of Tai-wan (or Formosa), which was
+formerly called Ki-lung, was originally a part of the Liu-Kiu state,
+which was founded by some descendants of the Ha-la. The author
+does not say what the Ha-la are, assuming that his readers are
+acquainted with that name, so that we must look elsewhere for the
+wanted explanations. I find it in the Miao Man hoh tchi (k. III,
+ff. 6-7), "A Description of the Miao and Man Tribes," by Tsao
+Shu-K'iao of Shanghai. The entry about that people is amongst those
+of the South. They are described as "dark, with deep-set eyes,"
+a peculiarity which the Chinese stated to be that of the kun-lun
+men, as we have seen above. The author of the Miao Man hoh tchi says
+also that the Hala do not know the practice of chewing betel and he
+proceeds with some details on their clothes and customs in so far
+as they are peculiar to themselves, but they are unimportant. Now
+these Ha-la of the Chinese are simply the Gala, commonly Ta-gala,
+with the usual Ta [165] prefix of the Philippine Islands and the
+statements agree entirely with the inferences of ethnologists deduced
+from travellers' reports as to the parentship of several tribes of
+aborigines of Formosa with the Tagal population of the Philippines.
+
+The Chinese ethnographical notices of the Sung Dynasty on the Liu
+Kiu islands, including as it does all the islands from Japan to the
+Philippines, states that next to Liu-Kiu lies the country of the
+P'i-she-ye [166] in which we must I think recognize the Bisayas,
+the most diffused population of the Philippines, and next to the
+Tagalas in importance.
+
+They made a raid on the coasts of Fuhkien at Tsiuen-tchou during the
+period A. D. 1174-1189 and caused a great deal of havoc. They are
+described as naked savages with large eyes, greatly covetous of iron
+in any shape, using bamboo rafts and a sort of javelin attached by a
+long string and which they throw on their enemy (cf. Ma Tuanlin, Wen
+hien t'ung K'ao; d'Hervey de St. Denis, Ethnographie de Matouanlin,
+Vol. 1, p. 425). These people travelling on rafts could not have
+come from afar, and therefore may be supposed to have come over to
+the Chinese coast from Formosa. In which probable case, this ought
+to have resulted from an emigration of them to the great island.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+THE TAGALOG TONGUE
+
+By Jose Rizal
+
+
+Tagalog belongs to the agglutinative branch of languages. For a long
+time it was believed to be one of the dialects of Malay, through that
+language having been the first of the family known to Europeans. But
+later studies, by comparing the Malay-Polynesian idioms with one
+another, have succeeded in showing how slight is the basis for this
+supposition. The conjugation of the Tagalog verbs, far from being
+derived from the Malay verbs, contains in itself every form of that's
+and besides some from other dialects.
+
+Although in Tagalog as at present spoken and written (slightly
+different from ancient Tagalog), there are to be found many Sanscrit,
+Spanish and Chinese words, nevertheless the structure of the language
+still retains its own distinctive character. These foreign words are
+stitched to the fabric much as gems are set in jewels; they could
+come off and something else be substituted without the framework
+losing its form.
+
+Like every other language, Tagalog has its alphabet; composed of five
+vowels and fourteen consonants.
+
+The vowels are: A, E, I, O, U.
+
+A is pronounced clear and full as in all other languages. The same
+may be said of I and U.
+
+E and O only are found in the last syllable, or in the next to the
+last when that begins with the same vowel. In these cases E or O can
+be likewise represented by I or U, since the sounds of these final,
+or penultimate, vowels partake of both sounds. For example, in mabuti
+or mabute, the final I or E sounds like the final Y of the English
+words pity and beauty, where Y has a sound intermediate between E and
+I; leeg or liig is pronounced with a vowel which resembles E as much
+as it does I.
+
+In the same way, O in the words dulo, ubod, look, has the value of
+a vowel intermediate between O and U.
+
+The consonants are: B, D, G, G, H, K, L, M, N, P, R, S, T, Y.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+PHILIPPINE TRIBES AND LANGUAGES
+
+By Prof. Ferdinand Blumentritt.
+
+
+Notwithstanding the rich literature concerning the peoples and
+languages of the Philippine Archipelago, there is no book or
+publication in which are catalogued the names of the tribes and the
+languages, and this appears the more inexcusable, since both Spanish
+and Philippine writers, with few exceptions, handle these names very
+carelessly, so that great confusion must ensue. The prevailing bad
+form in the Philippines, of transferring the name of one people or
+family (Stamm) to another, who possess similarities of any kind with
+the first, either in manner of life, or even only in culture grade
+in the widest sense of the term, has its counterpart in a second
+bad fashion of making several peoples out of one by replacing the
+folk name with the tribal names. Only with the greatest pains and
+thought is it possible to extricate one's self from this labyrinth of
+nomenclature. After thorough search, I am convinced that many names
+reported to me must be eliminated, since they owe their existence to
+mistakes in penmanship or printing, to ridicule, misunderstanding,
+or error, as I have proved in single instances. However, I have
+been convinced that by a closer and intelligent exploration of the
+archipelago, it would not only be possible to make many corrections,
+particularly in orthography, but that new names would also be added,
+especially from northern Luzon and from the interior of other islands.
+
+I have introduced into this catalogue all the variations of published
+names known to me, and briefly the description of tribal locations and
+reports on their culture grades, especially their religion. Besides
+the Negritos, I differentiate only Malay peoples (Stamme) in
+general, because here regard for different principles of grouping
+and subdividing of the Malay race would appear to serve no good end
+and perhaps prove troublesome. Obsolete forms of names are carefully
+marked with a cross. Where I, as with the Talaos, Mardicas, and Cafres,
+take note of foreign peoples or castes on the islands, it is because
+Spanish authors have erroneously set them down as Philippine. On the
+other hand, in order to draw attention to a few names customary in
+the country for races and castes, I have included the following, not
+belonging here in strict accordance with the title of this article:
+Castila, Cimarrones, Indios, Infieles, Insulares, Mestizos, Montaraz,
+Peninsulares, Remontados, and Sangley:
+
+
+Abacas.--Heathen Malay people, who lived in the dense forests of
+Caraballo Sur (Luzon). Warlike, probably head-hunters. In the last
+century they were Christianized, and in their territory the parish
+of Caranglan (province of Nueva Ecija) was founded, where their
+descendants lived as peaceful Christians. They have a language of
+their own, but appear now to be thoroughly Tagalized.
+
+Abra-Igorots, Igorots of Abra.--Collective title for the head-hunters
+living in the province of Abra (Luzon). Belong for the most part to
+the Guinaanes.
+
+Abulon.--The name of a group of wild peoples living in the mountain
+regions of Zambales. They are perhaps identical with the Zambales
+and Igorots.
+
+Adang.--A folk with a language of their own, who dwell about a mountain
+of the same name in the province of Ilocos Norte. According to the
+Augustians P. Buzeta and P. Bravo, they are a mixture of Malays
+and Negritos. But the first-named element is more prevalent than
+the second. Their customs resemble those of the Apayaos, their next
+neighbors; still they do not appear to be head-hunters.
+
+Aeta, see Negrito. (Variants: Aheta, Eta, Aita, Aigta, Ita, Atta,
+Agta, Inagta, Até, Atá, etc., from the Tagalog, ita, itim, Malay itam,
+Bicol, ytom, black).
+
+Agutainos.--Name of the natives of Malay race in the island of Agutaya,
+in the Cuyo archipelago (province of Calamianes). They have their
+own dialect, called Agutaino; are Christianized and civilized.
+
+Alibaon, Alibabaun.--Not the name of a people, but, it seems, a title
+of the Moro chief, settled on the bay of Davao.
+
+Alimut.--This name is cited in the form Igorots of Alimut. Supposed
+to be the tribe of head-hunters who lived in June, 1889, in the lately
+erected comandancia Quiangan and on the banks of the river Alimut. In
+this case they should belong to the Mayoyao or Ifugao family (Luzon).
+
+Altasanes or Altabanes.--In both forms a head-hunting people of
+northwestern Nueva Vizcaya (Luzon) is known. The correct spelling of
+the name should be decided. They appear to have no language of their
+own and perhaps belong to the Mayoyaos and Ifugaos.
+
+Apayaos.--Warlike head-hunters, having their own language and dwelling
+in the northwestern portion of the province of Cagayan (Luzon) and the
+adjoining portions of Ilocos Norte and Abra. Buzeta and Bravo report
+that they are not full-blood Malays, but mixed with Negritos. It must
+not be forgotten, however, that the Spanish authors have such mixtures
+ready made. Dark hair is a mixture of Negrito blood; clear skin or
+yellowish is the result of crossing with Chinese or Japanese. They
+are partly Christianized. Some Spanish authors declare their language
+to be Mandaya, but this is improbable.
+
+Variants: Apayos, Apoyaos. (Consult also Vol. VIII, folio series
+of the Royal Ethnographic Museum in Dresden, by A. B. Meyer, with
+A. Schadenberg.)
+
+Aripas.--A Malay language, spoken by a peaceable people. They live
+near Nacsiping and Tubang (Luzon). They are heathen, but a portion of
+them have been converted to Christianity. With these new Christians
+the village of Aripa has been founded.
+
+Atas (also Ataas, Itaas).--(1) A powerful people of unknown origin, who
+occupy the head waters of the rivers Davas, Tuganay, and Libaganum,
+and their country extends in the eastern portion of the province
+of Misamis (Mindanao) to the home of the Bukidnones. Little is
+known about the Atás; they appear to be a mixture of Negritos and
+Malays. They have a language of their own. Their name means "dwellers
+in highlands." Variants: Ataas, Itaas. (2) A mixture of Bicols and
+Negritos in Camarines Sur. [On the confounding of Atás with Aetas,
+consult A. B. Meyer, 1899, p. 18. The Atás are not pure Negritos.--Tr.]
+
+Até.--Name which the Tagbanuas of Palawan (Paragua) give to the
+Negritos.
+
+Atta.--Dialect spoken by the Negritos of the province of Cagayan
+(Luzon).
+
+Baganis.--No people is known under this name, as Moya erroneously
+asserts; it is the title conferred on every Manobo warrior who has
+slain seven enemies.
+
+Bagobos.--A heathen and bloodthirsty people of Malay derivation and
+with an idiom of their own. Their home is at the foot of the volcano
+of Apo (Davao, in Mindanao). There are detached Christian settlements
+of them.
+
+Balugas.--(1) Collective title for dark mixed people of Malay and
+Negrito race, derived from the Tagalog word baloga, "black mixed
+one." Balugas are to be found in several portions of central Luzon. (2)
+Some authors identify Aetas with Balugas. Camarca calls the black,
+woolly savages of the mountains in Camumusan "Negros Balugas," so it
+seems that in certain regions more or less pure-blooded Negritos were
+called by this name.
+
+Banaos.--[In northern Luzon. See A. B. Meyer, with A. Schadenberg, in
+Vol. VIII, folio series of the Royal Ethnographic Museum, in Dresden.]
+
+Bangal-Bangal.--The Dulanganes are so called by the Moros.
+
+Bangot.--A name conferred on various bands of Manguianes in Mindoro,
+for the place and mode of life. So called are (1), by the Socol and
+Bulalacao, those Manguianes who inhabit the plains; and (2) those
+Manguianes of Mongoloid type who have their dwelling places on the
+banks of the streams south of Pinamalayan.
+
+Banuaon.--Name of the Manobos tribe from which the Christian settlement
+of Amporo, in the district of Surigao (Mindanao), was formed.
+
+Barangan.--Name borne by those Manguian hordes who occupy the most
+elevated stations in the Mangarin Mountains (Mindoro).
+
+Batak.--Another name for the Tinitianos, especially those that dwell
+in the neighborhood of Punta Tinitia and the Bubayán Creek, on the
+island of Palawan.
+
+Batan.--The inhabitants of Batanes Island were and are enumerated
+by Spanish authors among the Ibanags or Cagayanes. According to
+Dr. T. H. Pardo this is incorrect, for their idiom differs not only
+from the Ibanag but from all others in the Philippines, having the
+sound of "tsch," unknown elsewhere in the archipelago, and a nasal
+sound like that of the French "en." They are therefore to be separated
+from the Cagayanes.
+
+Bayabonan.--Name of a supposed Malay people with a language of their
+own, living as neighbors to the Gamunanges on the mountain slopes
+eastward from Tuao, in Cagayan (Luzon). They are heathen and little
+is known of them save the name.
+
+Beribi.--Manguianes domiciled between Socol and Bulalacao, living on
+the mountains. (Compare Bangot.)
+
+Bicol.--Autonym of those natives of Malay race who inhabit the
+peninsula of Camarines in Luzon and some outlying islands. On the
+arrival of the Spaniards they were somewhat civilized and had a
+kind of writing. They are Christians, still a section of them live
+under the names Igorots, or Cimarrones, mostly mixed with Negrito
+blood, in the wilds of Isarog, Iriga, Buhi, Caramuan, etc., wild,
+and plunged in the deepest heathendom. The official spelling of
+the name is Vicol. This is clear, since in Spanish the letter v,
+especially before e or i, is sounded like German b.
+
+Bilanes.--A Malay people occupying, according to latest accounts, a
+larger area than I have attributed to them in my ethnographic chart
+of Mindanao, here thoroughly penetrated also by other stocks. The
+Sarangani islands, lying off the southern point of Mindanao, are
+inhabited by them. They are heathen, of peaceable disposition. Their
+language is characterized by the possession of the letter f. The
+proper form of their name ought to be Buluan, so that they have the
+same title as the lake. They must then at first have been called
+Tagabuluan (Taga = whence, from there). (Compare Tagabelies.)
+
+Variants: Buluanes, Buluan, Vilanes, Vilaanes.
+
+Bisayas.--Officially written Visayas. A Malay people who, on the
+arrival of the Spaniards, had a culture and an art of writing of
+their own. They inhabit the islands named after them, besides the
+northern and the eastern coast of Mindanao, with small intrusions of
+heathen populations that have become Visayised since the converted
+tribes--Manobos, Buquidnones, Subanos, Mandayas, etc., have been taught
+the Visaya language in the schools. Also Zamboango and Cottobato show
+Visaya settlements. Among them are to be counted the Mundos. At the
+time of the discovery they painted (or tattooed) their bodies, on
+which account they received from the Spaniards the name of Pintados,
+which stuck to them even till the eighteenth century. They are
+Christians. Their language is divided into several dialects, of which
+the Cebuano and Panayano are most important. (Compare Calamiano,
+Halayo, Hiliguayna, Caraga. Blumentritt places their number at
+2,500,000 and upward. Globus, 1896, LXX, p. 213.)
+
+Bontok-Igorots.--Collective name of the head-hunting peoples living
+in the province of Bontok, to whom also the Guinaanes belong.
+
+Bouayanan.--A heathen folk in the interior of Palawan. The name
+appears to mean "crocodile men."
+
+Buhuanos, Bujuanos.--A heathen folk related to the Igorots
+(head-hunters?), dwelling in the province of Isabela de Luzon. They
+are warlike in nature.
+
+Bulalacaunos.--A wild people of Malay race (without Negrito mixture?),
+having its own (?) idiom. It is to be found in the interior of the
+northern part of the island of Palawan (Paragua) and in Calamianes
+islands.
+
+Buluanes, see Bilanes.
+
+Bungananes.--A warlike, head-hunting (?) people, who live in the
+provinces of Nueva Vizcaya and Isabela de Luzon. Except the name,
+almost nothing is known of them, and in my view this is not certain.
+
+Bukidnones, Buquidnones.--A heathen Malay people living in the
+eastern part of the district of Misamis (Mindanao), from Ibigan to
+Punta Divata (the coast is settled chiefly by Visayas), and along
+the Rio de Tagoloan. Lately they have been partly Christianized. The
+Spaniards conferred on them the name of Monteses, "dwellers in the
+mountains," which is a translation of their name.
+
+Bukil, Buquil.--Name of different Manguiana tribes of Mindoro:
+(1) the Manguianes mixed with Negrito blood, whose homes are in the
+vicinity of Bacoo and Subaan; (2) those that dwell on the spurs of the
+mountains between Socol and Bulalacao, and show a pure Malay type;
+(3) in Pinamalayan they are called Manguianes of Mongoloid type,
+who inhabit the plains; (4) the Manguianes who dwell on the banks
+of the rivers are named Mangarin. In view of the fact that Bukil is
+identical with Bukid, and can be applied only to tribes living in
+mountain forests, it appears to me that the settlements given under
+3 and 4 are incorrect.
+
+Buquitnon.--A "race" by this name, on the island of Negros, until
+recently unknown (used in La Oceañía Española, Manila, August 9,
+1889, copied from the Provenir de Visayas.) The Buquitnon are said
+to be a heathen tribe of about 40,000 souls that has its homes on the
+mountains of Negros, not massed together and not to be distinguished
+from the Visayas living on the coast. Whether the Carolanos are
+identical with them is hard to say. The name Buquitnon and also
+Buquidnon in Mindanao means mountaineers, upland forest dwellers,
+yet are the Buquitnon, of Negros, and the Buquidnon, of Mindanao,
+to be strongly distinguished from each other.
+
+Buriks.--Under this name figures a pretended Igorot people in all
+publications devoted to the Igorots, but Dr. Hans Meyer found that
+Burik applies to any Igorot who is tattooed in a certain manner. I did
+not believe this until a Philippine friend, Eduardo P. Casal, wrote
+that the Igorots in the Philippine Exposition in Madrid, in 1887,
+had confirmed the statement of Dr. Meyer.
+
+Busaos.--From Spanish accounts the Busaos are a separate division
+of Igorots. Dr. Hans Meyer has reported that the Basaos, or Bisaos,
+through manner, costume, and custom, are to be numbered rather with
+the Guiaanes and Bontok-Igorots than with the Igorots proper.
+
+Cafres.--No native people by this name. The Papuan slaves brought to
+Manila by the Portuguese at the end of the sixteenth and the beginning
+of the seventeenth century were so called. (The abolition of slavery
+under Philip II arrested this traffic.)
+
+Cagayanes.--A Malay language group. Their dwelling places are the Rio
+Grande de Cagayan (Luzon) from Furao to the mouth, the Babuyanes and
+Batanes islands, although the people of the last named are by some
+authors made an independent stock. (Compare Batan.) The Cagayanes
+had at the time of the Spanish discovery a civilization of their
+own. They are Christians. Their language is Ibanag. From them are
+to be sharply discriminated the people of Cagayan, in Mindanao,
+belonging to the Visayan stock.
+
+Calaganes.--A small Malayan people who live on the Casilaran Creek
+(Bay of Davao, Mindanao). Partly converted to Christianity.
+
+Calamiano.--Buzeta and Bravo understand by Calamiano a Visaya dialect
+which was made up of Tagalog mixed with Visaya and spoken by the
+Christians of northern Palawan (Paragua) and Calamianes islands. Pere
+Fr. Juan de San Antonio has preached in Calamiano and composed in it
+a catechism. The existence of the Calamiano language should therefore
+be unassailable, but A. Marche has declared that it does not exist.
+
+Calauas (pronounced Calawas).--A Malay people, heathen and
+peaceable. They live near Malauec, in the valleys of the Rio Chico
+de Cagayan (Luzon), and on the strip of land called Partido de
+Itavés. Their language is called Itavés also, but others declare their
+speech to be identical with the Malauec. The portion of the Calauas
+who hold the Itavés land are by some authors called Itaveses. I am
+not sure whether there may not have been a misunderstanding here.
+
+Calibuganes.--So are called in western Mindanao the mixtures of Moros
+and Subanos.
+
+Calingas.--(1) In northern Luzon, Calinga is the collective designation
+for "wild" natives, independent heathen, as, in northwestern Luzon,
+the word Igorot is applied. (2) This term is specially attached
+(a) to that warlike people of Malay descent who live between Rio
+Cagayan Grande and Rio Abulug, and are marked by their Mongoloid
+type; (b) according to Semper, also the Irayas. (See Die Calingas,
+by Blumentritt, in Das Ausland, 1891, No. 17, pp. 328-331.)
+
+Camucones, Camocones.--Name of the Moro pirates who inhabit the little
+islands of the Sulu group east of Tawi-Tawi, and the islands between
+these and Borneo; but on the last the name Tirones is also conferred.
+
+Cancanai, Cancanay.--Igorot dialect spoken in the northwest of Benguet.
+
+Caragas.--In older works are so named the warlike and Christian
+inhabitants of the localities subdued by the Spaniards on the east
+coast of Mindanao, and, indeed, after their principal city, Caraga. It
+has been called, if not a peculiar language, a Visaya dialect, while
+now only Visaya (near Manobo and Mandaya) is spoken, and an especial
+Caraga nation is no longer known. I explain this as follows: Already
+at that time newly arrived Manobos and Mandayas were settled who spoke
+Visaya only imperfectly. This Visaya muddle and the mixture of Visayas
+and newcomers are to be identified with the Caraga, if in the end,
+under the first, the Mandaya is not to be directly understood.
+
+Variants: Caraganes†, Calaganes (to be distinguished from Calaganes
+of Davao), Caragueños (now the name of the inhabitants of Daraga la
+Nueva and Caraga.)
+
+Carolanos.--Diaz Arenas so designates the heathen and wild natives
+who inhabit the mountain lands of Negros, especially the Cordillera,
+of Cauyau. They appear to be of Malay stock, transplanted Igorots
+from Negros. Practically nothing is known concerning them. Compare
+Buquitnon.
+
+Castilas.--Native name for Spaniards and other Europeans in the
+Philippine Islands.
+
+Catalanganes.--A Malay people of Mongoloid type. They live in the flood
+plain of the Catalangan river (province of Isabela de Luzon). They are
+heathen and peaceable, and have the same language as the Irayas. (Half
+Tagala and half Chinese, Brinton, American Anthropologist, 1898, XI,
+p. 302.)
+
+Cataoan.--A dialect spoken by the Igorots of the district of Lepanto,
+living in the valley of the Abra River.
+
+Catubanganes, or Catabangenes.--Warlike heathen, settled in the
+mountains of Guinayangan, in the province of Tayabas (Luzon). Through
+lack of available information nothing can be said about their race
+affiliations, whether they be pure Malay or Negrito-Malay. They are
+probably Remontados mixed with Negrito blood and gone wild.
+
+Cebuano.--Dialect, Visaya.
+
+Cimarrones.--This characterization ("wild," "gone wild") is given to
+heathen tribes of most varied affiliations, living without attachment
+and in poverty, chiefly posterity of the Remontados. (See note by
+A. B. Meyer, 1899, p. 12.--Translator.)
+
+Coyuvos.--The natives of Cuyo archipelago (province of Calamianes),
+with exception of those who belong to the stock of Agutainos. According
+to A. Marche, the Coyuvos appear to be Christianized Tagbanuas. For
+that reason would the idiom called official Coyuvo be the Tagbanua.
+
+Culamanes.--Another name for the Manobos, who live on the southern
+portion of the east coast of Davao Bay, the so-called coast of Culaman.
+
+Dadayag.--A Malay people, who occupy the mountain wilds in the western
+part of Cabagan (province of Cagayan). They have a language of their
+own and are warlike heathen as well as head-hunters.
+
+Variant: Dadaya.
+
+Dapitan (Nacion de)†.--Title conferred in the sixteenth century on the
+Visayas of the present comandancia of Dapitan (province of Misamis,
+Mindanao).
+
+Dayhagang†.--According to S. Mas, before the arrival of the Spaniards,
+the progeny of Borneo-Malays and Negrito women were so called.
+
+Dulanganes.--This heathen people occupy the southern part of the
+district of Davao. The name signifies "wild men." It is not known
+whether they are pure bloods or Malays with infusion of Negrito
+blood. I believe that the Malay type predominates. Since they
+also bear the name of Gulanganes, perhaps, more properly, it is
+to be suspected that they form with the Mangulangas, Manguangas,
+and Guiangas (q. v.) a single linguistic group, or at least a stock
+closely related to them. This is merely a conjecture. By the Moros
+they are called Bangal-Bangal.
+
+Dumagat.--A name conferred on the Negritos of the northeast coast
+of Luzon and by older non-Spanish writers on coast dwellers of
+Samar, Leyte, and Mindoro. Latterly it has come about that the Tagal
+name Dumagat (from dagat, "sea," "dweller on the strand," "skillful
+sailor," etc.) has been taken for the name of a people. (A. B. Meyer,
+1899, p. 11, calls the Dumagates Negrito half-breeds of the island
+of Alabat, quoting Steen Bille, Reise der Galathea, 1852, Vol. I,
+p. 451.--Translator.)
+
+Durugmun.--The Manguianes of Mongoloid type are so called who
+occupy the highest portions of the mountains around Pinamalayan
+(Mindoro). They are called also Buchtulan.
+
+Etas, see Negritos.
+
+Gaddanes.--A Malay head-hunting people, with a language of their own,
+settled in the provinces of Isabela and Cagayan, but especially in
+the comandancia of Saltan (Luzon). The Gaddanes of Bayombong and
+Bagabag are Christians; the rest are heathen.
+
+Gamungan, Gamunanganes.--A Malay people having their own idiom, and
+inhabiting the mountain provinces in the eastern and northeastern
+portions of Tuao (province of Cagayan, Luzon). They are heathen.
+
+Guiangas, Guangas.--A Malay people in the northeastern and northern
+part of Davao (Mindanao). They are heathen and do not differ greatly
+from the Bagobo, their neighbors; on the other hand, according to the
+accounts of the Jesuit missionaries, their speech differs totally
+from those of the heathen tribes near by, and for that reason it
+is difficult to learn. On account of their wildness  they are much
+decried. The variants, Guanga and Gulanga, which mean "forest people,"
+give rise to the bare suspicion that they are a fragment of the
+little-known tribe who, according to location, lived scattered in
+southern Mindanao under the names: Manguangas, Mangulangas, Dulanganes.
+
+Guimbajanos (pronounced Gimbahanos).--The historians of the
+seventeenth century, under this title, designated a wild, heathen
+people, apparently of Malay origin, living in the interior of Sulu
+Island. Their name is derived from their war drum (guimba). Later
+writers are silent concerning them. In modern times the first mention
+of them is by P. A. de Pazos and by a Manila journal, from which
+accounts they are still at least in Carodon and in the valley of the
+Loo; it appears that a considerable portion of them, if not the entire
+people, have received Islam.
+
+Variants: Guinbajanos, Guimbanos, Guimbas, Quimpanos.
+
+Guinaanes (pronounced Ginaanes).--A Malay head-hunting people
+inhabiting the watershed of the Rio Abra and Rio Grande de Cagayan
+(Luzon), as well as the neighboring region of Isabela and Abra. They
+are heathen; their language possesses the letter f.
+
+Variants: Guianes, Ginan, Quinaanes, Quinanes. (See A. B. Meyer, with
+A. Schadenberg, Volume VIII, folio series, Royal Ethnographic Museum,
+Dresden, 1890.)
+
+Gulanga, see Guianga.
+
+Gulanganes, see Dulanganes.
+
+Halaya†.--A Visaya dialect spoken in the interior of Panay.
+
+Haraya.--A Visaya dialect spoken in the interior of the island of
+Panay, nearly identical with the foregoing.
+
+Hiliguayna†.--A Visaya dialect spoken on the coast of the island of
+Panay. Variants: Hiligueyna, Hiligvoyna.
+
+Hillunas, Hilloonas, see Illanos.
+
+Ibalones†.--Ancient name of Bicols, especially those of Albay.
+
+Ibanag.--Name of the language spoken by the Cagayanes. They possess
+the letter f.
+
+Idan, Idaan.--The Idan, sought by non-Spanish authors on the islands
+of Palawan (Paragua) and Sulu, have not been found.
+
+Ifugaos.--A dreaded Malay head-hunting people who inhabit the provinces
+of Nueva Vizcaya and Isabela and the lately formed comandancia of
+Quiangan. To them belong the Quianganes, Silipanos, etc. They are
+heathen. Their language possesses the sound of f.
+
+Ifumangies.--According to Diaz Arenas, this name applies to a tribe
+of Igorots who were then (1848) in the province of Nueva Vizcaya. The
+f in their name leads to the suspicion that they are Ifugaos.
+
+Ibilaos.--A Malay head-hunting people, having also apparently Negrito
+blood in their veins. They are heathen and inhabit the border lands
+of Nueva Vizcaya and Nueva Ecija.
+
+Igorots.--With the name Ygolot the first chroniclers characterized
+the warlike heathen who now inhabit Benguet, therefore the pure
+Igorots. Later, the name extended to all the head-hunters of northern
+Luzon; still later it was made to cover the Philippine islanders
+collectively, and to-day the title is so comprehensive that the
+name Igorot is synonymous with wild. According to Hans Meyer, the
+name applies only to the Igorots of Lepanto and Benguet, who speak
+the dialects Inibaloi, Cancanai, Cataoan, and a fourth (Suflin?),
+that of the Berpe Data.
+
+Variant: Ygolot, Ygulut.
+
+(A Chinese-Japanese Tagala group. Brinton, Amer. Anthropologist,
+1898, XI, p. 302. Consult A. B. Meyer, with A. Schadenberg,
+in Vol. VIII, folio series of the Royal Ethnographic Museum, in
+Dresden, 1890; and Die Igoroten von Pangasinan, F. Blumentritt,
+in Mittheil. T. K. K. Geogr. Gesellschaft in Wien, 1900. hft. 3 u. 4.)
+
+Ilamut.--Name of an Igorot tribe always mentioned together with that of
+Altsanes. If this tribe really exists, its home is in the Cordilleras
+which separate Benguet from Nueva Vizcaya, and is to be sought,
+indeed, in the last-named province, especially in Quiangan. They may
+be identical with the Alimut.
+
+Ilanos, Illanos.--The Moros dwelling in the territory of Illano,
+Mindanao. Their name should be connected with Lanao, "lake,"
+since their land incloses Lake Dagum, or Lanao. This conjecture is
+strengthened through the names Lanun, Lanaos, Malanaos, existing in
+the neighborhood. (Consult A. B. Meyer, 1899, p. 18, on the Hillunas,
+"Correcting Quatrefages and Hamy Crania Ethnica," 1882, p. 178,
+where they are called Negrito.--Translator.)
+
+Ileabanes.--According to Diaz Arenas there existed an Igorot tribe
+of this name (1848) in the province of Nueva Vizcaya.
+
+Ilocanos.--A Malay people, with language of their own. At the discovery
+they had their peculiar culture and an alphabet. They inhabit the
+provinces of Ilocos Norte, Ilocos Sur, Union, and form the civic
+population of Abra, whose Tinguian peasants they Ilocanise. Since
+they are fond of wandering, their settlements are scattered in other
+provinces of Luzon, as Benguet, Pampanga, Cagayan, Isabela de Luzon,
+Pangasinan, Zambales, and Nueva Ecija. They are to be found as far
+as the east coast of Luzon. They are Christians and civilized. (The
+Ilocanos of the northwest are markedly Chinese in appearance and
+speech. Brinton, Amer. Anthropologist, 1898, XI, p. 302. Consult
+A. B. Meyer, with A. Schadenberg, in Vol. VIII, folio series, of the
+Royal Ethnographic Museum in Dresden, 1890.)
+
+Ilongotes.--A Malay people of apparent Mongoloid type, inhabiting
+the borders of Nueva Vizcaya, Isabela, and Principe, and known also
+in Nueva Ecija. They are bloodthirsty head-hunters. (In the eastern
+Cordillera, a rather pure but wild Tagala horde. Brinton, American
+Anthropologist, 1898, p. 302.)
+
+Indios.--Under this title the Spanish understand the non-Mohammedanized
+natives of Malay descent, especially those Christianized and civilized.
+
+Infieles.--Heathen, uncivilized peoples of Malay descent; were so
+named by the Spaniards.
+
+Inibaloi.--Name of the dialect spoken by the Igorots Agnothales.
+
+Insulares.--Spaniards born in the Philippine Archipelago.
+
+Irapis.--After Mas, a subdivision of Igorots.
+
+Irayas.--A Malay people mixed with Negrito blood, who dwell south of
+the Catalanganes and in the western declivities of the Cordillera of
+Palanan (Luzon). They speak the same language as the Catalanganes,
+and are likewise heathen. Their name seems to mean "dwellers on the
+plains," "owners of plains." To them the collective name Calinga is
+applied. (Consult A. B. Meyer, with A. Schadenberg, in Vol. VIII,
+folio series, of the Royal Ethnographic Museum in Dresden, 1890.)
+
+Isinays (Isinayas, Isinay).--In the eighteenth century the heathen
+population of the then mission province of Ituy were so called,
+which includes the present communities of Aritao, Dupax, Banibang,
+Bayombong (Nueva Vizcaya, Luzon). It is not certain whether they are
+a separate people or are identical with Gaddanus, Italones, or Ifugaos.
+
+Italones.--A head-hunting Malay people who inhabit the mountain wilds
+of Nueva Vizcaya (Luzon). They are heathen, only a small part of them
+having embraced Christianity.
+
+Ita, see Negritos.
+
+Itaas, see Atas.
+
+Itanegas, Itaneg, Itaveg. See Tinguianes.
+
+Itaves.--So used the language of the Calauas to be called; still
+there are authors who affirm that these two are different. Nothing
+certain is known concerning this name, which is also written Itaues,
+Itanes. From latest accounts, this is a dialect of Gaddan.
+
+Itetapanes (Itetapaanes).--According to Buzeta and Bravo, a
+head-hunting Malay people mixed with Negrito blood, living on the
+western borders of Isabela de Luzon and perhaps also in Bontok.
+
+Ituis.--According to Mas, a subdivision of Igorots. Nothing more is
+known. Compare Isinays.
+
+Ivanha.--Form of Ibanag.
+
+Joloanos.--The Moros of Sulu.
+
+Jacanes, see Yacanes.
+
+Kianganes, see Quianganes. (Meyer has Kingianes, 1899.)
+
+Jumangi, see Humanchi.
+
+Humanchi.--Heathen people of central Luzon (?); written Jumangi.
+
+Latan.--Another name for the Manguianes who inhabit the plains of
+Mangarin (Mindoro).
+
+Lanaos, see Illanos and Malanaos.
+
+Lanun, see Illanos.
+
+Laut, see Samales-Laut.
+
+Lingotes, see Ilongotes.
+
+Loacs.--Not a separate people, but the name of a very poor Tagacaolo
+tribe who dwell in the mountain forests of San Augustin Peninsula
+(Mindanao).
+
+Lutangas.--A Mohammedan mixed race of Moros and Subanos, who inhabit
+the island of Olutanga and the adjacent coast of Mindanao.
+
+Lutaos, Lutayos.--Moros of the district of Zamboanga and frequently
+called Illanos. It appears to be the Hispanicized form of the Malay
+Orang-Laut.
+
+Maguindanaos (Mindanaos).--Another of the Moros who inhabit the valley
+of the Rio Palangui or Rio Grande de Mindanao. To them belong also
+the Moros of Sarangani Islands and partly those of Davao Bay. (See the
+Maguindanaos, by Blumentritt, Das Ausland, 1891, No. 45, pp. 886-892.)
+
+Malanaos.--Common name of those Moros, specially of Ilanos, who
+inhabit the shores of Malanas Lake (Mindanao).
+
+Malancos.--A tribe alleged to be settled in Mindanao, but the name
+is plainly an error for Malanaos.
+
+Malauec.--In an anonymous author of "Apuntes interesantes sobre
+las islas Filipinas," (Madrid, 1870), and quoting V. Barrantes,
+the common language of commerce of Malaneg (province of Cagayan) is
+so called; but on the last named also (only) Ibanag is spoken. Other
+authors understand by this the language of the Nabayuganes or that of
+the Calaluas. The suspicion is also well founded that by Malauec is
+meant a lingua franca made up from various tongues. It is difficult
+to extract the truth from these conflicting accounts.
+
+Mamanuas.--A Negrito people inhabiting the interior of Surigao
+Peninsula (northeast Mindanao). Semper and others have called them a
+bastard race, but the Jesuit missionaries, who have turned a great
+number of them to Christianity, call them "los verdaderos negritos
+aborigines de Mindanao." (On the Mamanuas consult A. B. Meyer,
+Distribution of the Negritos, Dresden, 1899, p. 17.--Translator.)
+
+Mananapes.--A heathen people alleged to dwell in the interior of
+Mindanao, possibly a tribe of Buquidnones or Manobos.
+
+Mandaya.--In some authors this is the name of the Apayas language,
+which is somewhat doubtful.
+
+Mandayas.--A bloodthirsty Malay and bright-colored head-hunting people
+in the comandancia of Bislig and the district of Davao (Mindanao). They
+are heathen, partly converted to Christianity by the Jesuits.
+
+Mancayaos.--Not a separate people, but merely the warriors among the
+Manobos, who carry lances.
+
+Manguangao.--Under this name the Jesuits near Catel (comandancia
+Bislig, east Mindanao) characterized the heathen inhabitants. By the
+same authors the heathen living on the upper tributaries of the Rio
+Agusan, Rio Manat, and Rio Batutu are called Manguangas and Mangulangas
+(forest people). Pere Pastells identifies Manguangas and Mangulangas
+and says that they inhabit the head waters of the Rio Salug (which
+does not agree with Montano's communications). From all which it
+results that Manguangas is a collective name and stands in connection
+with that of the Dulanganes and Guiangas. Perhaps all the folk named
+belong to one people. They are heathen and of the Malay race.
+
+Manguianes.--The heathen, unaffiliated natives inhabiting the
+interior of Mindoro, Romblon, and Tablas. Manguian (forest people)
+is a collective name of different languages and races. According to
+R. Jordana, the Manguianes of Mindoro are divided into four branches,
+one of which, Bukil or Buquel, is a bastard race of Negritos, while a
+second in external appearance reminds one of Chinese Mestizos, and on
+that account it is to be regarded as a Mongoloid type. The other two
+are pure Malay. To the name Manguianes (which calls to mind Magulangas)
+specially belong only (1) those Manguianes who live in the mountains
+near Mangarin and (2) only those between Socol and Bulacao who dwell
+on the river banks. The remaining tribes bear different names--Bangot,
+Buquil, Tadianan, Beribi, Durugmun, Buctulan, Tiron, and Lactan. The
+Manila journals speak of Manguianes of Paragua (Palawan). These have
+naught to do with those of Mindoro, since on Paragua this title in
+its meaning of "forest people" is applied to all wild natives of
+unknown origin.
+
+Mangulangas, see Manguangas.
+
+Manobos.--A Malay head-hunting people, sedentary, chiefly in the
+river valley of middle Rio Agusan (district of Swigao), as well as at
+various points in the districts of Davao (Mindanao). A considerable
+portion have been converted through Jesuit missionaries; the rest
+are heathens. The correct form of the name is Manuba, or, better,
+Man-Suba; that is, "river people." The name in earlier times was
+frequently extended to other heathen tribes of Mindanao. (On the
+relationship of Manobos with Indonesians, an allophyllic branch of
+the white race, see remark of Brinton on Quatrefages and Hamy in
+American Anthropologist, 1898, Vol. XI, p. 297.)
+
+Mardicas†.--In the war between Spain and Holland (seventeenth century)
+the mercenaries from the Celebes, Macassars, and the Moluccas were
+so called.
+
+Maritimos.--The Remontados, who inhabit the islands and rocks on the
+north coast of Camarines Norte. (The island of Alabat, on the east
+coast of Luzon, is peopled by Negrito half-breeds, called Dumagat
+and Maritimos.--A. B. Meyer.)
+
+Mayoyaos.--A Malay head-hunting people, who inhabit the southwest
+corner of Isabela and the northwest angle of Nueva Vizcaya. The
+Mayoyaos belong, without doubt, to the Ifugao linguistic stock.
+
+Mestizo.--Mixture. Mestizo Peninsulo, Mestizo Español, Mestizo
+Privilegiado, mixture of Spaniards and natives; Mestizo Chino, Mestizo
+Sangley, Mestizo Tributante, or mixture of Chinese with natives.
+
+Mindanaos, see Maguindanaos.
+
+Montaraz, Montesinos.--Collective name for heathen mountain peoples
+and also for Remontados.
+
+Monteses.--(1) Collective name in the same sense as Montaraz; (2)
+Spanish name for Buquidnones and Buquitnon.
+
+Moros.--Mohammedan Malays in the south of the archipelago, southern
+Palawan, Balabac, Sulu Islands, Basilan, western and partly the
+southern coast of Mindanao, as well as the territorio illano and the
+Rio Grande region and the Sarangani islands. Various subdivisions
+have been recognized: Maguindanaos, Illanos, Samales, Joloanos, etc.
+
+(In the sixteenth century, 1521-1565, the Moros of Brunei (Borneo)
+propagated Islam among the brown race of the Philippines.)
+
+Mundos.--Heathen tribes inhabiting the wilds of Panay and Cebu. Buzeta
+and Bravo regard them as Visaya Remontados gone wild. Baron Huegel
+says that their customs resemble those of the Igorots. This is a
+contradiction, in which more stress is laid on the testimony of the
+two Augustinians, that Mundos is misused as a collective name, like
+Igorots, Maguianes, etc.
+
+Nabayuganes.--A warlike, head-hunting people of Malay origin, dwelling
+westward from Malaneg or Malanec (province of Cagayan). They appear
+to be related to the Guinaanes.
+
+Negrito.--(Native names: Aeta, Até (Palawan), Eta, Ita, Mamanua
+(northeast Mindanao), old Spanish name, Negrillo, Negros del País). The
+woolly-haired, dark-colored aborigines of the land who, in miserable
+condition, live scattered among the Malay population in various
+parts of Luzon, Mindoro (?), Tablas, Panay, Busuanga (?), Culion (?),
+Palawan, Negros, Cebu, and Mindanao. There are supposed to be 20,000
+of them. They are also spoken of under the word Balugas. The Negrito
+idiom of the province of Cagayan is called Atta.
+
+("It may be regarded as proved that Negritos are found in Luzon,
+Alabat, Corregidor, Panay, Tablas, Negros, Cebu, northeastern Mindanao,
+and Palawan. It is questionable whether they occur in Guimaias
+(island south of Panay), Mindoro."--A. B. Meyer, 1899, p. 19.
+
+Upon the Negritos, consult A. B. Meyer: The Negritos of the
+Philippines, publications of the Royal Ethnographic Museum of Dresden,
+1893, Vol. IX, 10 pl., folio; also, The Distribution of the Negritos,
+Dresden, 1899; Montano, Mission aux Philippines, 1885; Marche, Lucon
+et Palaouan, 1887.--Translator.)
+
+Palauanes.--Another name for Tagbanuas, perhaps their original
+name, from which the island of Paragua got the name Isla de los
+Palauanes. The u in these names equals the German w and the English v.
+
+Pampangos.--A Malay language group who, at the arrival of the
+Spaniards, possessed a civilization and method of writing of its
+own. The people inhabit the province of Pampanga, Porac, and single
+locations in Nueva Ecija, Bataan, and Zambales. They are Christians.
+
+Panayano.--Dialect of Visaya.
+
+Pangasinanes.--A Malay language group which already at the time of
+the conquest had its own civilization and writing. The people inhabit
+the larger part of Pangasinan and various localities of Zambales,
+Nueva Ecija, Benguet, and Porac (?). They are Christians.
+
+Panguianes, see Pungianes.
+
+Panuipuyes (Panipuyes).--A tribe of so-called Igorots. Their dwellings
+were to be sought in the western portion of Nueva Vizcaya or Isabela
+de Luzon.
+
+Peninsulares.--European Spaniards.
+
+Pidatanos.--In the back country of Libungan, therefore not far from
+the delta of the Rio Grande de Mindanao, dwell, as the Moros report,
+a heathen mountain people bearing the name of Pidatanos. Probably
+they have not a separate language, but belong to one of the well-known
+families, perhaps the Manguangas.
+
+Pintados,† see Visayas.
+
+Pungianes.--Tribe of Mayoyaos.
+
+Quianganes.--(Pronounced Kianganes). A head-hunting people, settled
+in 1889 in the comandancia of Quiangan (Luzon), for that reason
+belonging to the Ifugao linguistic family. (See Die Kianganes (Luzon),
+by Blumentritt, Das Ausland, Stuttgart, 1891, pp. 129-132.)
+
+Quimpano, see Quimbazanos.
+
+Quinanes, see Guinaanes.
+
+Remontados.--Name of civilized natives who have given up the civilized
+life and fled to the mountain forests.
+
+Samales.--(1) A small Malay people living on the island of Samal in
+the Gulf of Davao (Mindanao). They are heathen, but they are partly
+converted to Christianity. (2) Another name for the Moros who inhabit
+the islands lying between Basilan and Sulu.
+
+Samales-Laut.--The Moros who inhabit the coasts of Basilan. Compare
+Samales (2).
+
+Sameacas.--Some authors speak of them as the aborigines of Basilan
+pushed back into the interior by the Moros. According to Claudio
+Montero y Gay, they are heathen.
+
+Sangley.--A name borne in early times by Chinese settled in the
+Philippines. Going into disuse.
+
+(It is thought that the Chinese were not numerous on the islands
+until the settlement of the Spaniards had established commerce
+with Acapulco, introducing Mexican silver, greatly coveted by the
+Celestials.--Translator.)
+
+Sanguiles.--(1) Until most recent times by this name was understood
+a people in the little-known southern part of the district of Davao
+(Mindanao). The Jesuit missionaries have found no people bearing this
+name; it seems, therefore, that Sanguiles was a collective title for
+the Bilanes, Dulanganes, and Manobos, who occupied the most southern
+part of Mindanao, the peninsula of the volcano Sanguil or Saragana. (2)
+Moros Sanguiles means those Moros who dwell in the part of the south
+coast of Mindanao (district of Davao) lying between the Punto de Craan
+and the Punta Panguitan or Tinaka. They also appear to have received
+their name from the volcano of Sanguil.
+
+Silipanes.--A heathen head-hunting people having its abode in the
+province of Nueva Vizcaya (and comandancia Quiangan). It belongs to the
+Ifugao linguistic family. (Consult A. B. Meyer, with A. Schadenberg, in
+Vol. VIII, folio series, Royal Ethnographic Museum in Dresden, 1890.)
+
+Subanos.--(Properly Subanon, "river people.") A heathen people of
+Malay extraction, who occupy the entire peninsula of Sibuguey (west
+Mindanao), with exception of a single strip on the coast. (See Die
+Subanos (Mindanao), by Blumentritt, Das Ausland, Stuttgart, 1891,
+pp. 392-395.)
+
+Suflin.--An Igorot dialect. The f in the name would hint at Guinaanes
+or Ifugaos. The official nomenclature in 1865 so characterizes a
+dialect spoken in Bontok.
+
+Tabanus, see Tagbanuas.
+
+Tadianan.--Another name for those Mongoloid Manguianes who live in
+the mountain vales of Pinamalayan (Mindoro).
+
+Tagabaloyes.--In a chart of the Philippines for 1744, by P. Murillo
+Velardi, S. J., this name is to be seen west of Caraga and Bislig
+(Mindanao). English authors speak of the Tagabaloyes, Waitz mentions
+their clear color, and Mas calls them Igorots. Others add that they
+were Mestizos of Indians and Japanese, and more fables to the same
+effect. Their region has been well explored, but only Manobos and
+Mandayas have been found there. The last named are clear colored,
+so Tagabaloyes seems to be another name for Mandayas. The name sounds
+temptingly like Tagabelies.
+
+Variants: Tagbalvoys, Tagabaloyes, Tagobalooys, etc.
+
+Tagabawas.--Dr. Montano reports that this is not a numerous people
+and that it is made up of a mixture of Manabos, Bagobos, and
+Tagacaolos. Their dwelling places are scattered on both sides of
+Davao Bay (Mindanao), especially near Rio Hijo.
+
+Tagabelies.--A heathen people of Malay origin, living in the region
+between the Bay of Sarangani and Lake Buluan (Mindanao). Since they
+call themselves Tagabulu (people of Bulu), it is suspected that
+they, like the Buluanes or Bilanes, derive their name from the lake
+mentioned.
+
+Tagabotes.--A people of Mindanao mentioned in the Ilustración Filipina
+(1860, No. 17).
+
+Tagabulu, see Tagabelies, also Tagabuli.
+
+Tagacaolos.--A Malay, heathen people. Their settlements are scattered
+among those of other tribes on both sides of the Gulf of Davao
+(Mindanao). Compare also Loac. Their name Taga-ca-olo would mean
+"dwellers on the river sources."
+
+Variant: Tagalaogos.
+
+Tagalos, Tagalog (elsewhere Tagalas).--A Malay people of ancient
+civilization, possessing already an alphabet in pre-Spanish times. They
+are Christians, and inhabit the provinces and territory of the
+following: Manila, Corregidor, Cavite, Bataan, Bulacan, Batangas,
+Infanta, Laguna, Mindoro; in less degree, Tayabas, Zambales, Nueva
+Ecija, Isabela, and Principe. They form, with the Visayas and Ilocanos,
+the greater part of the native population, as well by their numbers
+as by their grade of culture. Their language is called Tagalog. (See
+Brinton, American Anthropologist, 1898, XI, pp. 303-306.)
+
+Tagbalvoys, see Tagabaloyes.
+
+Tagbanuas.--A Malay people mixed with Negrito blood. They are heathen,
+with exception of the Calmianos, and appear to have formerly stood
+on higher culture grade, for A. Marche found them in possession
+of an alphabet of their own. They inhabit the island of Palawan
+(Paragua) and the Calamianes. The Moros of Palawan are partly
+Tagbanuas. Variant: Tabanuas. (See Dean Worcester, Philippine Islands,
+1898, p. 99.--Translator.)
+
+Tagobalooys, see Tagabaloys.
+
+Talaos.--This newly christened name belongs to no Philippine people,
+but is the Spanish title of the inhabitants of the Dutch island
+Talaut. They come to southern Mindanao to purchase provisions.
+
+Tandolanos.--Wild natives living on the west coast of Palawan, between
+Punta Diente and Punta Tularan. As they are also called Igorots they
+appear to belong to the Malay race.
+
+Teduray, see Tirurayes.
+
+Tegurayes.--A variant form of Tirurayes.
+
+Tinguianes.--A heathen people of Malay origin and peaceable
+disposition. Their home is the province of Abra and the bordering
+parts of Ilocos Norte and Ilocos Sur. They have also villages in
+Union (Luzon). The Tinguianes converted to Christianity are strongly
+Ilocanised. Variants: Itanega,† Itaneg,† Itaveg,† Tingues.† (See
+Brinton's note on the identification of Tinguianes with Indonesians, an
+allophyllic branch of the white race, by Quatrefages and Hamy. American
+Anthropologist, 1898, Vol. XI, p. 297. Consult A. B. Meyer, with
+A. Schadenberg, in Volume VIII, folio series, Royal Ethnographic
+Museum, in Dresden, 1890.)
+
+Tinitianes.--A heathen people, probably of Malay origin. They inhabit
+a strip of land north of Bubayan Creek, Palawan. (A. B. Meyer, 1899,
+pp. 9, 19, quotes Blumentritt's The Natives of the Island of Palawan
+and of the Calamanian Group (Globus, Braunschweig, 1891, Vol. LIX,
+pp. 182, 183), to the effect that the Tinitianes are probably only
+Negrito half-breeds.--Translator.)
+
+Tinivayanes.--Moros (?) or heathen (?). Said to live along the Rio
+Grande de Mindanao.
+
+Tino.--Name of the language of the Zambales.
+
+Tiron.--Separate name of those Manguianes of Mindoro who inhabit the
+highest mountain regions in the surroundings of Naujan.
+
+Tirones†.--The Moro pirates of the province of Tiron in Borneo and
+the islands near-by are so called.
+
+Tirurayes.--A peaceable heathen people of Malay origin. They live in
+the district of Cottabato, in the mountains west of the Rio Grande
+de Mindanao. The Christian Tirurayes live in Tamontaca. Variants:
+Teduray, Tirulay.
+
+Vicol, see Bicol.--(Vicol is preferable.)
+
+Vilanes, see Bilanes.--(Vilanes is preferable.)
+
+Visayas, see Bisayas.--(This spelling is preferable to Bisayas.)
+
+Ygolot, see Igorots.
+
+Ycanes--According to P. P. Cavallería, S.J., the Moros dwelling in
+the interior of the island are so called. (Compare Jacanes, Sameacas,
+and Samales-Lautes.)
+
+Yvgades, see Gaddanes.
+
+Zambales.--A civilized, Christianized people of Malay origin,
+living in the province of the same name. Those called by different
+writers Igorotes de Zambales, Cimarrones de Zambales, are posterity
+of Remontados. Their language is Tino.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+THE BEGINNINGS OF PHILIPPINE NATIONALISM
+
+
+The third of a thousand years during which Spain misgoverned the
+archipelago that Magellan had discovered for her was a period of
+Philippine preparation.
+
+Divided already so each town was jealous of its neighbors and anxious
+to enlist the Europeans in waging war upon them, the Filipinos were
+an easy conquest for soldiers whose first military maxim was Rome's
+"Divide and Conquer."
+
+The conquest might better be called a conversion for the cross did much
+more to establish and maintain Spain's authority than the sword. And
+the new religion formed a bond of union, perhaps the only one which
+could have brought together such diverse elements.
+
+Spanish catholicism was not merely a Spanish church, the church was
+Spain. There was therefore no humiliation over subjugation, rather
+exultation in having found salvation.
+
+The people were seafaring folk with the sturdiness such a life
+gives. Their chiefs were their captains, and, in waters that are
+the home of the typhoon, leadership, if in no other way than by the
+survival of the fittest, came to the most capable.
+
+Women held high position, for with their husband so much away not only
+the household but all the family affairs were under their control,
+a condition still notable. Thus the home influence in which the
+children grew up was not that of the Orient, a shut-in Zenana with,
+for the child's first model, a mother who had been a slave and now
+as mistress was a tyrant, but the youth of the Philippines earlier
+saw the real world and had training from mothers who knew its ways.
+
+There were gradations of rank, but people were constantly falling from
+the higher to the lower so that these had ambitious persons among
+them seeking to regain their former estate and arousing ambition
+among their fellows. And the condition of even the lowest was not
+hopeless. So well ordered was society that even slaves had rights and
+knew them; had too the civic courage to stand up for them against
+their masters. Witness the story of the surprise of the Spaniards
+who heard slaves saying to their masters, "What is there in it for
+me in this?", when orders were given them.
+
+Nor should it be thought that the wholesale conversion betrayed
+weakness of character. The islands had had a nature religion, the
+belief of an artistic people, that their Gods would delight in and
+frequent the most beautiful spots. Then came the religion of Mahomet
+with a system which reason readily recognized as superior, but before
+it was fairly established there arrived another religion which not
+only commended itself to reason but appealed to the artistic sense,
+both in larger measure than either of its predecessors.
+
+Those who had felt exalted in the glory of the tropical sun, found
+comfort in the moonbeams' softer radiance, had sought the leafy
+recesses of the forest for reflection and were soothed and sustained
+by the musical murmurs of mountain cascades found greater comfort
+and a higher gratification in the rites and ceremonies of a church
+which has ever been the patron of art and consecrates all that is
+beautiful in music, painting and sculpture to adorn its sanctuaries
+and dignify its worship.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+THE FRIAR DOMINATION IN THE PHILIPPINES
+
+By "Plaridel" (Marcelo H. del Pilar).
+
+
+Three centuries have passed since the blood of Legaspi and of Sikatuna
+mingled in a cup of which both partook in token of eternal friendship,
+thus ratifying their oaths to fuse thenceforward into a single
+ideal the aspiration of Spain and the Philippines. But the passage
+of time, instead of making firmer this fusion, has only strengthened
+the predominance of the religious orders who have turned the islands
+into a colony exploited by friars.
+
+No one is ignorant of the rebellion of the friars against the highest
+political and religious authorities of the archipelago; nor is anyone
+ignorant of the violent death of some, the coercion exercised on
+others and the vexations visited upon all those who in governing the
+country have dared to place the interests of the motherland of the
+Catholic religion before the convents.
+
+The immunity of those implicated and the predominance of the rebellious
+elements compel the unhappy belief that Spain has already abdicated
+the sovereignty in favor of Philippine friarism.
+
+So it is worth while to dissipate this erroneous impression. Sad is it
+to think that the planning of Charles V and Philip II, the efforts of
+Magellan and Elcano, the sufferings of Villalobos, the prudence and
+the valor of Legaspi, the sacrifices of Salcedo, Lavezares, Goiti,
+and the others, only served as a stepping-stone for enthroning the
+friar orders.
+
+The Filipino people are passing in these moments through an interesting
+period. Already they have manifested their aversion to the friars,
+and I believe the time has come to draw attention to the aspirations
+which palpitate in their bosoms.
+
+On the one hand their future and on the other the attitude of China,
+Japan and other nations which from Europe and Asia have fixed their
+gaze on the map of Oceanica, offer to the thoughtful man problems of
+deep seriousness which perhaps may be resolved in time to forestall
+and smooth out future difficulties.
+
+Luna's palette has revived the recollection of the "Blood Compact"
+between Legaspi and Sikatuna, and the Filipino cannot view without
+regret the powerful intervention of the friar interests which,
+blocking every tendency toward fraternity between Spain and the
+Philippines, are creating a difficult situation by increasing the
+former's unfriendliness and the latter's burdens. For this they rely
+on the difference of language between the governing and the governed
+classes; and to maintain that difference, to impede popular instruction
+and to prevent at all cost that the people and their government shall
+come to understand each other is the best way to maintain them in
+perpetual antagonism.
+
+How far this plan has already gone can be estimated by analyzing the
+relations of the friarocracy with the official institution which makes
+up the organization of the towns of the Philippines. As everywhere
+else, in the Philippines the relation of residents to the municipal
+officers is of the utmost importance. The petty governor, or chief of
+the village, in each locality constitutes the channel of communication
+and the agency for carrying out the ideas of the government, and
+according to the activity or inertness of this element the plan of
+the higher authorities works out effectively or suffers sad shipwreck.
+
+The parish priest has no vote in these elections, but controls them
+because in his hands is the veto power. In forwarding the returns for
+the ratification of the election result, the parish priest makes two
+reports: one is public in character and is limited to setting forth
+the grade of instruction of the candidate in the official language;
+the other is confidential and under no restrictions whatever.
+
+The candidate who has no legal impediment, unless he is of the
+priest's following, will turn out disqualified in some other way,
+thanks to the confidential report. He will be anti-Spanish, an agitator
+(filibustero), separatist, and if this report cannot be controverted
+the candidate of the town meeting will be thrown out. The parish
+priest, in the final result, is master of the situation.
+
+In carrying on their municipal duties, the local authorities are
+dependent upon the parish priest. For a report on the conduct of a
+resident, a hundred of the principal men are not enough; the vital
+point is having the "O. K." of the parish priest. In turning in the
+tax rolls of the neighborhood, his signature is necessary. For the
+calling to the colors of the young men to whom the lot has fallen
+to serve as soldiers, the parish priest's "approved;" to validate
+accounts and other official documents, the parish priest's "approved;"
+in everything and for everything there is demanded as the essential
+requisite the approval of the parish priest.
+
+In exchange there exists no corrective provision which regulates the
+conditions under which the parish priest may grant or withhold this
+approval. He grants or withholds it according to his own free will or
+as he is directed by his ecclesiastical superiors. The chief local
+authority is the only one on whom falls this burden of regularizing
+his acts with the indispensable approval of the parish priest. If
+the parish priest refuses it, then the chief incurs the discipline
+of his superiors.
+
+Manifold are the functions of the chief local authority in the
+Philippines. Aside from his judicial duties, he has charge of the
+administration, of the tax collecting, of the port, etc., and, given
+the dependence upon the parish priest in which he finds himself,
+it is not to be wondered at that the latter controls even to the
+official correspondence, in fact retaining the right to authorize
+its transmission.
+
+Orders from above are complied with when it so pleases the Most
+Reverend Parish Priest. If the higher authority attempts to impose
+and require energetic compliance with his commands, the parish
+priest communicates it to one of the superiors of his order, and this
+obtains the overthrowing of the official. For it he has an argument
+incontrovertible and of magic effect, to wit, that it endangers
+the national indivisibility. If it is an effort to open a road and
+the parish priest doesn't want it, then it endangers the national
+indivisibility. Or if the public health requires that dead bodies
+should not be taken into the church, still it is no reason,--it would
+imperil the national indivisibility.
+
+And in everything, the same tendency.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+ARCHBISHOP MARTINEZ'S SECRET DEFENSE OF HIS FILIPINO CLERGY
+
+(Translated from a copy obtained from the Manila Executive Bureau
+Archives)
+
+
+Your Serene Highness: The undersigned archbishop respectfully addresses
+your highness, impelled by a true love of country as well as from a
+sense of the duty incumbent upon him of working for the tranquillity
+of his archdiocese. Frequently has it been disturbed and altered by
+the turning over of the curacies of the secular clergy which some
+years since were granted to the friar orders. This has been the cause
+of an antagonism between the two branches of the clergy each time
+more marked, and is taking a turn which sooner or later can become
+untoward for our beloved Spain.
+
+Merely to fix the time of the beginning of this antagonism do I
+mention the royal decree of July 8th, 1826, by which there were
+restored to the religious communities the curacies in charge of the
+secular clergy since the second period of the governorship of Don
+Simon de Anda y Salazar. Just as this measure, as the native priests
+had those parishes for over half a century and considered them then
+theirs, they felt it a great hardship each time when, on the death or
+transfer of one of their number, a friar was put in to replace him. On
+the death of the parish priest of San Simon, in this present year,
+the last of the provisions of said royal order was carried out.
+
+One may cite, as another cause contributing to the growing antagonism,
+the royal order of March 9th, 1849, which takes away from the secular
+clergy and gives to the friars seven more parishes in Cavite, namely:
+Bacoor, Cavite Viejo, and Silang to the Recollect Augustinians;
+and Santa Cruz and San Francisco de Malabon, Naic and Indan to the
+Dominicans. By reason of their having become vacant five of these
+have already been turned over.
+
+But what brought the antagonism to a crisis and filled the native
+priesthood with indignation was the royal order of September 10th,
+1861, to which and to its results the subscriber has in mind especially
+to call the exalted attention of your Highness.
+
+Article 13 of the royal decree of July 30th, 1859 (relative to the
+establishment of a government for Mindanao), arranged that the Jesuit
+priests should take charge of the parishes and religious duties of
+that island then held and attended to by the Recollect Friars of
+the Province of San Nicolas de Tolentino. It thus became necessary
+to have some workable plan for carrying the arrangement into effect,
+and the above mentioned royal order of September 10th was given for
+this purpose, besides indemnifying the Recollects by assigning to
+their administration curacies in Cavite Province or elsewhere (in
+the archdiocese of Manila according to a later provision) which had
+been under the native clergy. The circumstances under which this
+royal decree was issued deserve careful examination. In the first
+place, there was then no archbishop, a condition under which the
+sacred canons enjoin and counsel prudence, when no innovation of
+any kind shall be introduced; secondly the opinion of the customary
+ecclesiastical authority was not asked, though here on matters of
+much less importance numerous endorsements are the rule; thirdly,
+your Highness is already aware how the priest nominated to the mitre
+of Manila knew nothing of the anomalous ecclesiastical administration
+nor of the usages and customs (the reason why he would have renounced
+such a heavy responsibility and only did accept after strong urging)
+and so there had to elapse considerable time before he could learn
+enough of the matter to cause him to complain of it. The foregoing
+facts are respectfully submitted to Your Highness.
+
+When, toward the close of May, 1862, the writer took possession of his
+archbishopric, he found the native clergy extraordinarily excited and
+on every hand was urged to request the revocation of the September
+10th royal order aforesaid. Unconvinced by petitions and appeals,
+rather, then in his heart persuaded that the Supreme Government could
+give him good and sufficient reason for taking so serious a step,
+the archbishop was disposed to comply as he has complied, cheerfully
+and to the letter. If he courteously declined to award the Antipolo
+curacy to the Recollects, it was because he understood this was a
+request not warranted by the royal order, and he could not have been
+far out of the way when the State Council formally upheld his judgment
+as appears in the royal order of May 19th where the formula used is
+"Having listened to the State Council," one indicating action against
+their advice. Moreover now, after long residence in the country, with
+some knowledge of the church conditions and of its running and of
+affairs and persons, each time I see with greater clearness that the
+complaints of the native clergy are not without foundation, that there
+ought to be some effort to conform the royal order of September 10th,
+1861, to the rules of propriety and equity, and that if one observes
+its results, one must conclude that it does not conform entirely to
+those of wise policy. Briefly I shall explain these assertions.
+
+The Supreme Government was within its rights in entrusting to the
+recognized zeal of the Jesuit Fathers the curacies and missions of
+Mindanao, the law on the Royal Patronship in the code of the Indies
+authorizing such action. Worthy, too, of praise is it that there should
+be recognition of the Recollect Fathers' services and compensation
+for the loss of their Mindanao religious establishments, because,
+although many of these were founded by the early Jesuit Fathers,
+yet the Recollects were then in possession of them and had made them
+theirs by right of prescription. But if it had been taken into account
+that likewise the native priests' services merited appreciation (for
+under unfavorable vicissitudes they have always borne themselves as
+faithful subjects of Spain and in the parochial ministry as coadjutors,
+theirs is even the hardest part of the charge), then by no means
+would so deserving a class have been wronged to reward any other,
+and there would have been sought some gentler and equitable way of
+carrying out the wishes of the Government. The very diocese of Cebu,
+within whose borders at that time belonged the island of Mindanao,
+in fact offered no obstacle since it would have been only justice to
+have not compensated the Recollects with the parishes of other friars,
+for to them had been previously granted all the curacies of the Island
+of Negros, which belonged to the native clergy, for want of persons
+of that class.
+
+The curacies of the aforesaid diocese were two hundred and
+thirty-seven, of which forty-eight belonged to the secular clergy. The
+scant resources of Cebu's theological seminary, its lack of professors
+and the students' ignorance of the Spanish language, knowledge of
+which is indispensable in the study of Latin and moral theology, not
+only prevented the preparation of a sufficient number of priests for
+the control of the above-mentioned parishes, but also detracted from
+the success of those needed as coadjutors to aid the parish priests in
+the administration of the sacraments and the care of the sick. That
+seminary rightly should be called a college because the natives go
+to it for the purpose of learning Spanish, and most of them leave
+when they only have half learned the language. Suffice it to say
+that there have been, and still are within the former boundaries
+of the Bishopric of Cebu towns (not compact but confined to distant
+and scattered barriers) seventeen thousand and more souls where the
+spiritual administration rests on a single friar priest, usually
+advanced in years, too. For this reason it cannot be doubted that its
+zealous prelate would have welcomed the assistance of twenty-seven
+friars who could have taken charge of that number of parishes, because
+manifestly this would have improved the parochial administration,
+and still there would have been left him twenty-one curacies with
+which to reward those coadjutors who were distinguished among their
+scanty number for virtue, learning, and hard work.
+
+Though the Archdiocese of Manila lacked ministers to attend to all
+the spiritual necessities of the faithful (for the force scarcely
+suffices under normal conditions to respond to the most urgent calls),
+nevertheless it formed a striking contrast in this matter to the
+Diocese of Cebu.
+
+The Archbishopric had at the time approximately one million four
+hundred thousand inhabitants, with one hundred and ninety-one parishes
+served by both classes of clergy. Deduct from this number assigned to
+the secular clergy those which had to be returned by order of the Royal
+Decree of 1826, those which the Royal Order of 1849 commanded to be
+given the Recollects and the Dominicans, and the twenty-seven which,
+by the order of September 10th, 1861, the parishes and missions they
+had had to surrender to the Jesuits in Mindanao, and there are only
+twelve left to reward deserving coadjutors. The priests of this class,
+comparing them with those of Cebu, are very numerous, for there are
+not four cases where coadjutors are not provided on the scale of
+one for parishes of 4,000, two for 8,000, three for 12,000, and so
+on up to Taal, which has seven coadjutors. But let us continue the
+comparison of the two dioceses.
+
+Though the diocese of Cebu has few who understand the Spanish
+language, there are many in Manila and adjacent provinces who speak
+it; and in contrast to the limited facilities of the Cebu seminary,
+the archdiocese has the University of Sto. Tomas and the colleges
+of San Juan de Letran and of San José, where numerous students
+are studying Latin, philosophy, theology and the sacred canons. Nor
+should one omit the seminary of San Carlos in spite of the fact that,
+because of difficulties elsewhere enumerated, it is not of a standard
+commensurate with the importance of the capital of the Philippine
+Archipelago, a land conquered and held by Spain primarily for religious
+reasons. Do not the foregoing facts prove that the losses suffered
+by the Recollects should be compensated with curacies in the diocese
+of Cebu, and not with those of Manila?
+
+The spirit inspiring the Royal Order of September 10th, 1861, seems
+no more in conformity with policy and equity, when the native priests
+compare the missions and curacies relinquished by the Recollects
+with those they received in exchange in this Archbishopric. If Your
+Highness will have the goodness to glance over the accompanying table,
+perhaps you may agree with them and also may observe, as they do,
+that if to the term "indemnization" (which should only mean making
+good the actual loss) there is to be given the broader meaning that
+the present result suggests, then there will be many who will want to
+be damaged in order to get back ten-fold the value of what they lose.
+
+It is worthy of especial note that, despite the Antipolo parish having
+few parishioners, such is the devotion on the part of the towns toward
+the image of the Virgin venerated there, so great are the crowds who
+from even more remote provinces during the month of May repair to
+this celebrated shrine, and so many and so large are the largesses
+for masses ordered that this is considered the pearl of the curacies,
+one of the fattest parishes in all the Archipelago. So it is not
+at all to be wondered at that the secular clergy have especially
+regretted its loss, and there is good reason for asserting that the
+Royal Order of May 19th, 1864, is far from harmonizing with the order
+of September 10th, 1861.
+
+Besides the facts above set forth, which have created and continued
+antagonism and animosity between the secular and regular clergy, it
+is necessary to add another for your Highness' better understanding
+of the discontent of the native priests.
+
+To fill a vacancy in the curacy of San Rafael, Bulacan Province,
+occasioned by the death of its parish priest, seventy days' notice was
+given of a competition, the time expiring February 17th, 1868. The
+examinations were held in the manner prescribed by Pope Benedict
+XIV on the 21, 22 and 23rd, and seventeen candidates presented
+themselves. Their papers were already graded and the highest three
+eligibles selected to be certified to the Vice Royal Patron on March
+2nd, but the day previous the Diocesan prelate received a communication
+from him transmitting a brief by the Provincial of the Augustinian
+arguing that the said curacy should be adjudged theirs.
+
+I at once replied begging the Vice Royal Patron not to disturb the
+course of the competition because the secular clergy were already in
+possession of the curacy and the candidates had acquired a right to
+it by the holding of the competition while the objection had not been
+made at the proper time. This was to be without prejudice to later
+going fully into the claim raised by the Reverend Provincial, which
+turned upon the question of ownership. The reply denied this just
+petition on the ground that would prejudice the question grievously,
+conferring the right to possession with the title of ownership. I
+made clearly apparent the error which had been incurred, and received
+a reply that "the Vice Royal Patron was not in the habit of changing
+a decision once it had been decreed."
+
+The question of ownership resulted equally unsatisfactorily. To the
+case were attached the original canonical order for the creation issued
+in 1746 at the instance of the Vice Royal Patron and in conformity
+with the canonical custom and the laws of the Indies. Likewise there
+were submitted certified copies of the nomination of the parish priest
+who served the parish from the last named date to 1808, since which
+date as the Provincial admitted "it had been bestowed on competition
+and appointment by the Vice Royal Patron on secular priests." Against
+its having been a canonical foundation, the most legal and strongest
+of claims, and to a continuous, undisturbed, unquestioned and clear
+possession for one hundred twenty years, the Provincial offered
+that his order had claimed the curacy within a few days of its
+establishment. He did in fact submit two documents which were written
+by the Provincial of San Juan de Dios, to which order the hacienda
+of San Rafael had belonged. But in one hundred and twenty-two years
+it had not been found convenient to push the claim, possibly because
+at first the curacy had only some eighty poverty-stricken natives,
+herders and laborers, while now it has over three thousand souls.
+
+Likewise it was argued that since the Royal warrant of July 8th, 1826,
+monastic orders had been returned to their charges in the state and
+conditions they had when these were secularized by the Royal Warrant
+of December 11th, 1776, the curacy of San Rafael must be included
+because of the situation within the territory ceded to them. One must,
+however, remember that this curacy could not be secularized, because
+from its foundation it had been secular, and the two Royal warrants
+mentioned are not applicable except by making the laws retroactive,
+since the curacy was created thirty years before the Royal Warrant
+of 1776 was issued.
+
+These arguments, with others of the weakest character, were set forth
+in a lengthy and hazy brief fathered by the Administrative Council,
+and as the Vice Royal Patron endorsed it without changing a letter,
+the matter was closed, because, although the undersigned petitioned
+the Vice Royal Patron to submit the case to the Supreme Government's
+decision, enclosing an opinion from two attorneys, he could not gain
+this point and out of respect to the highest authority of the Island
+(whose prestige he has ever endeavored to sustain) he desisted from
+further effort. This result produced a real scandal among the native
+priests and greatly enhanced their grief over so great and repeated
+losses.
+
+The chief cause of the obstacles which in every direction the clergy
+of the country encounter is a public sentiment in vogue for some
+years back, which unreasonably opposes having any native parish
+priest. Those who think thus entirely forget the facts, allowing
+their imagination to freely rove in the realm of imagination. Certain
+is it that if the ecclesiastical establishment of the Archipelago
+were being for the first time set up and it were possible to bring
+from Spain enough priests to attend to the spiritual needs of its
+populous parishes, scarcely would there be found a Spaniard of any
+intelligence to whom such an arrangement would not seem the politic
+course. But the question is not theoretic, on the contrary it is
+eminently practical, and before it is settled there is no escape from
+the previous examination of others which offer serious difficulties,
+for example, considering the present cooling of religious ardor, what
+likelihood is there of obtaining a considerable number of young men
+willing to abandon their home country and go to lend their services in
+spiritual ministrations in so distant a clime, especially one which
+is reputed bad for the health? Could the public treasury without
+difficulty meet the expenses necessary for establishing colleges and
+maintaining professors and students, and for fitting out and paying
+the fares of so many persons from the Peninsula to the Philippine
+Islands? And even if this offered no difficulty and putting aside
+present conditions, is there nothing to fear from keeping the native
+clergy in their present growing bitterness? Let anybody put himself
+in their place and reflect upon the series of measures heretofore
+mentioned and he cannot but recognize how enormous have been the
+damages they have suffered, and that those with which they are
+still threatened give over-sufficient and powerful motives that,
+notwithstanding their timidity, should change to hostility their
+former fidelity and respect for the Spaniards.
+
+Formerly the native priests controlled the curacies of the provinces
+of Zambales, Bataan, and Pampanga. Of these they were dispossessed
+and when they felt that with the taking away of these parishes all
+their ills had ended, they received fresh, ruder shocks which renewed
+and inflamed the wound. Consequently it is no longer possible to
+characterise as class hatred their resentment against the friars,
+though that was the proper term while the natives attributed their ill
+fortune to the ambition and power of the monastic order. Now, after
+repeated proofs, they are convinced that the government is assisting
+the friars' immoderate aspirations; and that in the opinion of these
+same priests of the country there has been adopted the policy of
+reducing them to insignificance, they pass over the ancient barrier,
+direct their glances higher, and what was formerly only hostility to
+the friars is changing into anti-Spanish sentiment. I do not hesitate
+to assert that if the Anglo-Americans or the English were to possess
+themselves of the Philippine Archipelago they surely would show the
+natives more consideration than they are receiving at the hands of
+the Spaniard. And so, Your Royal Highness, to escape an imaginary
+risk there is being created a real and true danger.
+
+It will be readily understood that for the full carrying out of the
+Royal Order of September 10th there will have to elapse a period
+as long as that (from 1826 till the present) taken for completing
+the turning over of the curacies assigned the friars under the Royal
+Warrant before mentioned. And likewise it must be understood that as
+the resentment of the natives is renewed each time that they lose
+a curacy (as has just happened with the loss of Rosario parish in
+Batangas province and of Cavite of which the Recollects are going
+to take charge by way of compensation for the parish of Dapitan and
+Lubugan mission, which they relinquished to the Jesuit fathers last
+July) their hearts are filled with bitter grief, and so far from its
+finding any relief, it is embittered, as seeing themselves without
+any assistance at all while on the other hand the influence of their
+adversaries is increasing on every hand. It is more urgent to furnish
+prompt relief for their discontent and exasperation since if the
+effervescence which I noticed in them on my return from the Vatican
+council continues for any considerable length of time it will give an
+opportunity for the sentiments of the native clergy spreading among
+their parents, relatives, and the entire Filipino people, with whom
+they are in closer touch than are the friars, and so the evil might
+take on grave proportions.
+
+It will not be hidden from the exalted acumen of Your Highness that
+it is highly desirable and even necessary to put out this small fire
+which might by mischance change itself into a formidable conflagration,
+which perhaps in the first stage of slight apprehension might serve
+the purpose of those who are trying to spread vain terrors, and I say
+vain, because in spite of the strictest investigation, until now there
+has been no positive proof to justify the accusation latterly directed
+against the secular clergy, for the reason set forth that the writer
+is of the opinion that the Royal Order of September 10th, and the
+explanation thereof insofar as they affect the Archbishopric of Manila,
+should be changed restoring matters by prompt and effective measures
+to the conditions and state in which they were when the Mindanao
+curacies and missions were turned over by the Recollect friars to
+the Jesuit fathers; that the Recollect should be compensated with
+other parishes in the Diocese of Cebu and the Jaro Diocese, which
+was taken from them in 1867, according to the number of parishes
+supplied in each of them by the secular clergy, to make up for the
+lack of native priests which is experienced in both; and, lastly,
+that there be ordered the reference to the Minister of Ultramar of the
+original case instituted at the suggestion of the Provincial (now the
+Procurator) of the Calced Augustinians (i. e., Recollects), regarding
+the holding of the parish of San Rafael, Bulac province, in order that
+it may be investigated and reach a solution in accordance with justice,
+which in the judgment of the secular clergy it is now far from being.
+
+The writer earnestly implores Your Excellency so to adjust the matter,
+with full confidence that it will not only calm the inquietude of
+their minds, but also that, reenforced by the gratitude of the never
+tarnished loyalty of the Filipino native clergy, it may tighten
+more and more the ties that unite this fruitful Archipelago to our
+beloved Spain.
+
+May God preserve for many years the life of Your Highness and grant him
+amplest wisdom and favor for the well-being of the Catholic religion
+and of our beloved fatherland.
+
+
+GREGORIO,
+Archbishop of Manila.
+
+
+Manila, December 31, 1870.
+
+
+HIS SERENE HIGHNESS
+The Regent of the Kingdom.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+NINETEENTH CENTURY DISCONTENT
+
+(In Madrid review: "La Politica de España en Filipinas" in a
+series. "Las Insurrecciones de Filipinas," beginning with Vol. I,
+p. 44.)
+
+
+1807.--The political troubles and intrigues of the Court between Godoy,
+Maria Luisa and Ferdinand VII reached the Philippines (as had the
+errors of Carlos III and those of a celebrated American archbishop,
+a great reformer).
+
+In spite of the vigilance of the authorities an outbreak occurred in
+Ilokos, at first controlled by the missionaries, who put themselves
+at the head of the loyal towns, but soon it broke out again, the
+insurgents making themselves masters of the town of Pigdig and
+conquering the king's forces there. An Augustinian friar (parish
+priest of Batac) preached obedience to the sovereign but a woman
+immediately made a speech in opposition, saying not to believe the
+priest for they all were deceivers who in the name of God, of the
+Gospel and of the King only beguiled them so the Spaniards might
+despoil them and suck their blood; that the friars were Spaniards
+like the rest. The priest preached again next day and got the people
+to take arms, cheering for the king, march to the mountains of Patae
+where he maintained them all at his own expense.
+
+1811.--In this same region, there was another uprising to change
+the religion, setting up a new God called Lingao. The principales
+(former town-chiefs--C.) and cabezas de barangay (vice-chiefs for
+wards--C.) conspired with the igorots and other persons, madmen and
+savages of Cagayan, to exterminate the Spaniards, but they were found
+out by the friars who informed the Government in time to thwart so
+terrible a plot.
+
+1814.--At the beginning of the year, against the advice of the friars,
+General Gardoqui set out to publish the Constitution of 1812 and the
+Indians took so seriously the equality between themselves and the
+Spaniards that they began to rebel, refusing to pay the tribute and
+slight taxes placed upon them. They would not recognize the authority
+of the principales and barangay chiefs and in some towns of Ilokos
+they went so far as to set free the prisoners.
+
+Ferdinand VII abolished the Constitution of 1812, which had so pleased
+the Indians, and then arose a conspiracy because the Indians believed
+the abolition of the Constitution was due to the intrigues of the
+Spaniards and the missionaries to deprive them of the equality over
+which they had gotten so enthusiastic. With the organic law of 1812
+they had thought themselves free, happy, and independent, with no
+tribute to pay nor any authority to obey.
+
+Other insurrections followed in 1820, 1828, 1837, 1844, 1854, 1863,
+1869, 1872, 1883, and 1888. (Also in 1896 and 1898--C.)
+
+The fatal consequences of the imprudent proclamation of the
+constitution of Cadiz in the Philippines produced a certain lack
+of social discipline and led to uprisings. A pitiable one was the
+catastrophe of 1820, when, with excuse of cholera, the Indians
+assassinated countless Chinese and many foreigners who were in
+Manila. The hatred against the French (from Napoleon's attempt to make
+his brother King of Spain in place of Ferdinand VII.--C.) the pretext
+which caused the American conspiracies--had come even there. Let us
+cover with a veil the horrible picture, only saying that the ones
+chiefly guilty of this international crime were the acting Captain
+General Folgueras, weak and not far-seeing, and the Alcalde of Tondo
+(a position corresponding to the later Governor of Manila) who was
+a Spaniard of the country (creole) named Varela, more ignorant,
+impressionable and of worse and bad faith than any Indian.
+
+The archbishop and all the clergy sallied forth in procession
+through the streets of Binondo, yet nevertheless did not succeed in
+pacifying the insurgents, who now commenced to attack by word the
+same missionaries until the peninsulars united with the friars, in
+obliging Folgueras, who had shut himself up in the walled city, to
+display energy and military skill. For the affair was not alone with
+the foreigners and Chinese, but was taking very serious proportions.
+
+The political events happening in the Peninsula from 1820-1823,
+likewise had in the Philippines their echo. A vast conspiracy was
+discovered by various native women who denounced it to the friars,
+so there were exiled to Spain several persons, among whom figured
+officers of the army. But there was great laxity by the authorities
+because they left there other conspirators, among them a creole captain
+named Novales who gathered up the scattered threads of the conspiracy.
+
+The Auditor de Guerra (Judge Advocate--C.) asked that Novales be
+likewise exiled and watched very closely, even in exile, but General
+Martinez, a goodhearted fellow and more than goodhearted, simple,
+and unsuspecting, was content to order him to Mindanao to chase
+pirates in the province of Cagayan de Misamis.
+
+Mr. Gironiere relates that Novales went to see him on the morning
+that he received the order to embark and told him that the Spanish
+Government had repented of having distrusted him. According to Estado
+de Filipinos he did not embark because of bad weather. According to
+Mr. Gironiere he returned to Manila that same night. This was June
+2. On guard at the palace of the Captain General was Lieutenant Ruiz,
+a mestizo and a conspirator like Novales, and Novales' brother was
+in Fort Santiago, the only fort of Manila. Fortunately for Spain and
+for General Martinez the Governor resided outside the walled limits
+of Manila in Malacañang Palace, as it was then the season of greatest
+heat. The mutineers (free from all difficulty, for the authorities,
+despite the warnings of the friars, did nothing to prevent the
+rebellion) assassinated the Teniente del Rey, Folgueras, who so
+expiated his weakness of the year 1820, and it was not without labor
+that the Coronel del Rey, Sta. Romana, escaped death, deserting his
+poor wife, for she then was in the family way. However the Indians,
+more humane than their bloodthirsty leaders were not anxious to
+assassinate her, and they made prisoners and kept safe many Spanish
+officials who had scorned and ridiculed the predictions of the
+patriotic missionaries.
+
+Although it was in the late hours of the night, the shouts of "Long
+Live Emperor Novales" awoke the Mayor de Plaza, Duro, who bravely ran
+to the Parian gate and taking the guard that was there, entered with
+it into the barracks of the mutineers. The one who opened the door
+was Novales' own brother for he was too accustomed to discipline
+to refuse obedience. Thus the Spanish party was organized in the
+artillery barracks.
+
+The friars preached to the multitude submission and due obedience to
+the King and of the grave sin committed in rising against the generous
+Spanish nation.
+
+Novales, who had returned to the barracks, found the door shut by
+his own brother and with his plans upset, took possession of the
+cathedral. Some unknown persons kept him out of the Government Palace,
+where he could have maintained himself for some time, and finally he
+was abandoned by his own troops. This was through the efforts of the
+Spanish friars, for the rebels threw down their guns, fearful of the
+wrath of God, and cried "Long live the king." Novales was captured
+at the Real Gate and Ruiz made prisoner and manacled, by the Indians
+themselves, in the district of Tondo. The other mutineers were easily
+apprehended and shot, to the number of 23.
+
+So fell the most astute of the Filipino conspirators who, helped
+on by unwise reforms, tried to raise the country against the mother
+fatherland. At midnight he was banished, at 2 proclaimed Emperor of
+the Philippines, and at 5 in the afternoon shot in the back.
+
+1828.--Had another conspiracy. Two army officers, brothers, like
+the Novales brothers, put themselves at the front of a separatist
+movement which broke out in Manila in consequence of the excitement
+which there was in the country because of the famous interpretations
+which the Indians anew were making of the Constitution of Cadiz. That
+was suppressed too, not without first reenforcing the army with Spanish
+troops which till then had not regularly and permanently existed in
+the country.
+
+In 1836-1837 the Acting Governor, Salazar, had not a little to do with
+the consequences of the uprising of La Granjo and the uncloistering
+of the Religious orders in Spain.
+
+The Indians were divided into two factions, one wanted that the
+friars should leave the Islands and as well the other Spaniards
+(castilas). The other said it was better that the other Spaniards
+should go away and leave the friars in charge of the Government. The
+missionaries appeased the trouble, saying that they and the other
+Spaniards were in the islands in the name of God and of the King and
+one and all sought only the Indians' happiness and well being.
+
+The imprudence of a few Spaniards of high position very quickly
+produced a new conflict, because while some wanted that the
+Constitution should be sworn to, others believed it perilous to
+introduce political reforms of such great importance. The excitement
+was increased by the appointment of General Camba who had been
+there before and was favorable to certain Filipinos. The relief
+of the general, with great scandal, came after sixteen months of
+administration. This was because of the suspicion of the Government
+of Maria Cristina who realized his undesirability and the perils
+which the conduct of Camba could bring to the archipelago.
+
+A stormy passage was made, and shortly after their arrival, a
+meeting of the commanders of the different vessels was convened by
+Commodore Dewey on board the flagship Olympia, and the plans for the
+operations of the fleet were discussed. The bombastic proclamation
+of Governor-General Basilio Augustin y Davila was read over to the
+commanders, and occasioned much merriment. It was resolved to have
+copies made of the proclamation, to be read out to the men on the
+different ships. Mr. Williams' narration of the position of affairs
+in Manila, and the hasty but ineffective measures for the defence,
+more especially the extinguishing of lights on the coasts and the
+instructions issued to neutral vessels entering Manila harbor to take
+a pilot at Corregidor Island to avoid dangers from mines, torpedoes,
+etc., were somewhat lightly regarded, the latter instruction being
+received with much laughter as an antique dodge to frighten the enemy.
+
+The conference concluded, the commanders departed to their
+respective vessels, with orders to get ready to steam off
+immediately. Mr. Williams, late United States Consul at Manila, went
+on board the Baltimore and the rebel leader Alejandrino was berthed on
+the transport Zafiro. Consul Rounsevelle Wildman and the two rebels
+who accompanied Alejandrino to the fleet then boarded the Fame. The
+commanders having made known their orders, the ships were weighed,
+and amidst great enthusiasm the fleet steamed out of Mirs Bay. The
+fleet left in double line, the Olympia and Baltimore leading.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+THE LIBERAL GOVERNOR-GENERAL OF 1869-1871
+
+By Austin Craig
+
+
+In July of 1869 a new Governor-General arrived in Manila. He was a
+soldier who could prove his valor by wounds gained in many successful
+battles which had brought him to the rank of Lieutenant General. The
+nobility of his family, almost as distinguished as royalty, gave him
+precedence among aristocrats. Wealth, too, he had. Yet he was Manila's
+first democratic governor.
+
+Unusual were the circumstances of his coming and epoch-making were
+the events of his administration.
+
+The Philippines had been loyal to the royal family of Spain during
+the Napoleonic wars and the withdrawal of their representation in
+the Cortes, which occurred at intervals for a third of a century, had
+not disturbed that loyalty. Yet now there had come a governor-general
+who represented a government in power through the expulsion of their
+sovereign. It was revolutionary, and the excitement over the news
+was increased by De La Torre's reversal of all precedents.
+
+The stately guard of halberdiers was dismissed and the highest official
+of the land mixed in society unceremoniously. A proclamation announced
+him to be at the people's service at all hours for whatever complaints
+they might have, and deeds promptly followed his words.
+
+The alleged outlaws, who were really persons who had been wronged in
+the land troubles, were pardoned and from their number under their
+former chief was organized a corps of rural guards which speedily
+brought a theretofore unknown tranquillity.
+
+No wonder the Filipinos gave to the new administration an honor unknown
+to his predecessors, the spontaneous tribute of a popular serenade.
+
+Twenty-one months passed and De La Torre was replaced by Izquierdo, for
+whom he conscientiously compiled an explanation of his administration
+that the new authority might intelligently carry on the work. But
+reaction came, those who had applauded De La Torre for that reason
+found themselves in disfavor.
+
+As a precaution Governor De La Torre had had all foreign mail examined
+and the list of men of liberal ideas thus obtained was the basis of
+the persecutions which followed the executions and wholesale exiling
+nominally connected with Cavite.
+
+An old man, he retired to his family estates, once broad but sadly
+shrunken through his years of liberality. There from Pozorubio he
+wrote his defence against the charge of being responsible for the
+uprising of Cavite.
+
+Contrast the brave words of the Governor-General upon his first coming
+to the Philippines, and his expressions after the conclusion of his
+office when he was upon the defensive.
+
+"As good, honored and loyal, you are recognized as our brothers. * * *
+I shall indicate to you the salient features that will characterize my
+administration, which I hope will be as my character dictates, foreign
+to all kinds of repression, because command is more pleasant when it is
+chosen by those who are under the necessity of being affected by it."
+
+And on the defensive: "I have governed, with justice and, honesty,
+conformably to the special laws of that country, without consenting
+or permitting the slightest alteration in them, and what is more,
+without permitting in the newspapers of Manila any discussion nor
+even any allusion as to whether or no it were desirable to alter or
+modify those laws."
+
+Yet that was the most liberal period of Philippine history under
+Spanish rule. Twenty odd years later another liberal Governor of the
+Philippines defended himself against the charge of too great humanity
+by telling of how many men he had ordered shot.
+
+Sorry indeed was Spain when a De La Torre had to save himself with his
+countrymen in the Peninsula by exaggerating his despotism and a Blanco
+found his only defense in magnifying his brutality. There's a contrast
+with the present régime which marks 1898 as the beginning of different
+days, and the men of the old era are entitled to the charitable
+consideration which belongs to those who come out of great tribulation.
+
+Biographical details and incidents of De La Torre's administration
+would detract from the one great lesson which paints the past
+in its true colors and reveals how the Filipino people found
+themselves without hope and came to resort to the weapon of despair,
+insurrection. The outcome of the events of 1869 was the origin of
+the events of 1896.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+THE REBELLION IN THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
+
+(A British magazine article of 1896, by John Foreman.)
+
+
+At this crisis, when the development of Japan is attracting public
+attention, the following paragraph in a recent issue of the St. James
+Gazette would be highly instructive were it based on real facts. That
+journal says:--
+
+"This revolt, in fact, is really a consequence, to some extent,
+of the rising power of Japan in Far Eastern waters. Having acquired
+Formosa and become ambitious of a territorial and commercial empire,
+the eyes of the Japanese have lately been eagerly directed towards
+the next islands to the south; and the weakness of Spain is regarded
+as the opportunity of Japan. But it is quite another matter whether
+the European powers will take the same view."
+
+Those who have been long resident in the Far East and are well informed
+on the subject do not take that view at all. From the facts which
+I am about to give regarding this rebellion it will be clearly seen
+that the above statement is merely a hypothetical conjecture.
+
+A plot was formed, at the instance of rich Chinese half-breeds,
+to murder all the Europeans. The priests choose to call this secret
+society "freemasonry," whilst the conspirators themselves style their
+body the "Katipunan," which simply means the "League." Each member,
+on being sworn in, made the "blood compact," which consists of an
+incision in the arm or leg whence the blood was taken to inscribe
+the roll of brotherhood. The general massacre of whites was to have
+taken place on the night of the 20th of August last, but at almost
+the last hour a woman came to Father Mariano Gil, the parish priest of
+Tondo--a suburb of Manila--and paved the way for a repentant member of
+the League to make his full confession of the plot under a promise of
+immunity from punishment. The promise was given and the confession
+made. An hour afterwards the civil guard was on the track of the
+principal leaders of the movement. Three hundred known malcontents
+were arrested in a few hours in the capital and adjacent provinces of
+Bulacan and Pampanga and further arrests having since been effected
+daily, the Manila prisons are overcrowded with suspects and proved
+delinquents. Room for more is being made by the periodical shipping
+off of batches of prisoners to the Caroline Islands, Mindanao Island,
+Fernando Po, and other distant possessions. I have just learnt from the
+secretary of the military court that at this moment there are 4,377
+individuals awaiting trial by court-martial. Many of the richest men
+in the colony, the leaders of Manila society, such as it is, figure
+amongst the promoters of this conspiracy. Pedro Rojas, a wealthy
+Chinese half-caste and popularly supposed to be the prime mover of
+the rebellion, accepted the hospitality of the Governor-General
+in his palace only forty-eight hours before the hour destined to
+witness the general massacre. The most curious fact--which no one
+dares to discuss in public--is that this man, denounced by all,
+was allowed to quietly leave the colony. He embarked in a steamer,
+ostensibly for Spain, but left it at Singapore and is supposed to
+be residing in some Asiatic port to watch events. The arch-agitator,
+José Rizal, who had been purging himself of his former misdemeanors
+by a two years' banishment to the south, was sent as a prisoner to
+Spain, where he was confined in the Catalunian fortress of Montjuich
+for a few days and then shipped back to Manila for trial.
+
+It appears that some months ago a deputation of Philippine natives went
+to Japan and presented a petition to the Mikado, praying his Majesty
+to annex these Islands. The petition was signed, it is said, by 5,000
+natives and half-breeds. The Japanese Government, far from regarding
+the troubled condition of Spanish affairs as their opportunity,
+forwarded the petition to the Spanish Government, thus the names
+of 5,000 disaffected persons became known to the authorities here
+and were inscribed in their Black Book. No measures, however, were
+taken until the storm was about to burst. Intense excitement prevailed
+amongst the Europeans as the names of the 300 arrested were disclosed,
+for they were not mostly individuals known to us personally or by
+repute. But since then three months have lingered on, with the daily
+arrests of so many men of position that we are prepared to meet the
+most startling event with perfect equanimity.
+
+On the 23rd of August the leading newspaper of Manila published
+a stirring article, ringing with high patriotism, which concluded
+with an appeal to the Spaniards to go en masse to Government House
+the next day to discuss a proposal for extraordinary measures. They
+closed their offices and shops and went. It looked like a Sunday or
+a three-cross saint day. The Governor-General refused to receive
+them, and fined the newspaper $500, which was raised at once by
+public subscription. Indignation was openly expressed. A cablegram
+was sent to the Home Government asking for one thousand troops,
+etc. The reply came advising the immediate dispatch of 2,000 men,
+two millions of cartridges, 6,000 Remington rifles, and the gunboats
+Isla de Luzon and Isla de Cuba. Every fortnight, indeed, has brought
+fresh supplies of troops, which now make a total in the colony of
+about 10,000 Spanish regulars under arms.
+
+On the 26th of August one thousand rebels appeared at Caloocan,
+four miles from Manila. They murdered some Chinese and took others
+prisoners. They were held back by the gendarmerie until reinforcements
+of cavalry came from the capital, but just before the squadron of
+troops arrived the rebels fled. The cavalry scoured the district
+and returned to Manila the next day. I saw them pass over the Bridge
+of Spain. There was tremendous excitement. Groups formed about the
+Escolta--the principal business street--discussing the situation. For
+days no one met another without having some news, real or imaginary,
+to disclose. Business was, and still is, much interrupted. Market
+people, washmen, traders of all sorts from outside, were afraid to
+venture along the approaches to the city. Two days passed--three days
+passed, there was really no fresh event. The nervous tension of the
+amazed population began to slacken. A reaction set in, and whilst
+precautions were discussed and everybody was prepared to say what he
+should do, the Caloocan onslaught began to be talked of as a mere
+filibustering expedition which would break up at the first smell
+of powder, and simply go to swell the ranks of the ever-existing
+brigand bands. The Governor-General refused to proclaim martial
+law. The circumstances were declared to be not sufficiently grave to
+warrant that measure being taken, and the public were settling down
+into a state of acquiescence with that view when, like a bombshell,
+the news of a far more serious raid fell upon Manila. On Sunday,
+30th of August, before daybreak, the rebels again concentrated at
+San Juan del Monte, four miles from the city walls. An artilleryman
+was murdered, and an attempt was made to seize the powder-magazine,
+whilst several of the loyalists were wounded.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+FILIPINOS WITH DEWEY'S SQUADRON
+
+(Hongkong Telegraph, April 28, 1898.)
+
+
+The United States Asiatic Squadron left Mirs Bay yesterday afternoon
+for the Philippines. It was previously arranged that the fleet should
+have left on Tuesday, but the departure was delayed to await the
+arrival of Mr. O. F. Williams and several officers who had stayed
+behind for dispatches. As we have already intimated, Mr. Williams
+and the officers were stormstayed on Tuesday and had to return to
+Hongkong. * * * * * * Meanwhile Mr. Rounsevelle Wildman, United
+States Consul at Hongkong, and Mr. Williams had had interviews with
+several of the Philippine rebel chiefs who were deported to Hongkong,
+and arrangements were made that one of their number, J. Alejandrino,
+should accompany the squadron, and act as the intermediary between
+the Americans and rebels. Yesterday morning, about eight o'clock,
+Mr. Wildman, Mr. Williams, the United States officers, newspaper
+representatives, and J. Alejandrino, accompanied by two rebel friends,
+started in the Fame to make their way to the fleet.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+A PREDICTION OF 1872
+
+
+(From the London and China Telegraph of March 22, 1872,
+retranslated.) Reviewing the Cavite uprising, it concludes:
+
+"The magnificent resources of these Islands have been neglected
+too long, whatever has been done toward their development is due
+to Anglo-Saxons whose efforts have been impeded by every possible
+means through the indifferent and indolent ideas of the Spanish
+government. As to the future government of the Philippines, could our
+government, or the American, be induced to accept any responsibility no
+one would benefit more than they from a change in affairs so necessary
+to the due development of the rich and magnificent products of that
+soil. Therefore the best thing that the inhabitants there could do
+would be to establish their independence under a republican form of
+government, making use in this of some of the Anglo-Saxons who now
+reside among them.
+
+"The local government would be acting with practical wisdom did it
+not oppose a peaceable revolution. That a separation has to take
+place is inevitable. The power of Spain to govern distant colonies
+has disappeared, never to return.
+
+"We cannot, however, end this article without paying a merited
+tribute of respect to the gallant Governor and Captain-General. His
+proclamation, which we published in the last issue of the London and
+China Telegraph, is worthy of the most exalted patriotism. He had
+the duty of stifling the revolution, but now it will be found that
+its spirit is like the fabled seven-headed serpent."
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+NOTES
+
+
+[1] "This modest work, which does not pretend to be without mistakes,
+and perhaps other flaws, has a special interest in that it treats of a
+matter about which the historians of those islands had hardly occupied
+themselves. The chronicles written by the laborious ecclesiastics, the
+only books of history which may be consulted about the Philippines,
+contain nothing but descriptions of the campaigns against the Dutch,
+the wars against the infidels--in the Archipelago as well as on the
+continent of Asia--the rebellions of the natives in some provinces,
+so easily suppressed, the bloody encounters with the Chinese settled
+in the islands, portentous miracles, progress of the missions in
+China, Annam and Japan, famous conflicts between the ecclesiastical
+jurisdiction and the civil power represented by the Governor General
+and the Real Acuerdo, great crimes, other notable events of different
+kinds and changes in the personnel and form of administration of
+the country.
+
+"But in all these works, though useful and important, there is
+observed, among others, the absence of antecedents relative to
+economic and mercantile legislation, the scarcity of data to show the
+development of wealth of the country and of its commercial movement,
+the lack of a critical analysis of the legal provisions concerning
+such activities, and of their influence on the decadence or progress
+of production and commerce." (Manuel Azcarraga y Palmero, Gobernador
+civil cesante de Manila, Alcalde mayor que ha sido de Cagayan y de
+Bulacan, Auditor honorario de Marina, etc., La Libertad de Comercio
+en las Islas Filipinas.--Madrid, 1872, pp. 9-10.)
+
+[2] " * * * The result is that Spanish writers, with them the
+Filipinos, and to a great extent the writers of Philippine treatises
+in other languages (drawing hastily upon Spanish sources), have over
+emphasized the political history of this Philippine record. Of course,
+in Spain and the Spanish countries long-standing habit makes it the
+tendency to look to government for everything, and to think of all
+amelioration of evils and all incitements to progress as coming from
+above; while social and economic conditions in the Philippines are such
+as to emphasize this tendency, the aristocracy of wealth and education
+standing apart from the masses and being, to the latter, identified in
+the main with the government, with the "powers above." Nevertheless, it
+is to be insisted that social and economic progress in the Philippines
+during the last half-century should be considered separately and
+studied more practically than they have been thus far." (Le Roy's
+Bibliographical Notes.--Bl. and Rb., Vol. 52, 134.)
+
+[3] For detailed discussion of this theory, see The Economic
+Interpretation of History, by E. R. A. Seligman. Also, History
+of Civilization in England, by H. T. Buckle, Vol. I, Chapter II,
+Influence Exercised by Physical Laws over Organization of Society and
+the Character of Individuals. This chapter is reprinted in Sociology
+and Social Progress, by T. N. Carver.
+
+[4] "In many ways the next decade of the history of the Philippines
+may resemble the splendid development of the neighboring country
+of Japan. Both countries have in past times been isolated more or
+less from the life and thought of the modern world. Both are now
+open to the full current of human affairs. Both countries promise
+to play an important part in the politics and commerce of the Far
+East. Geographically, the Philippines occupy the more central
+and influential position, and the success of the institutions
+of the Philippines may react upon the countries of southeastern
+Asia and Malaysia to an extent that we cannot appreciate or
+foresee." (Dr. D. P. Barrows, A History of the Philippines, pp. 9-10.)
+
+"Manila was also the commercial center of the Far East, and the
+entrepôt through which the kingdoms of eastern Asia exchanged
+their wares. Here came great fleets of junks from China laden with
+stores. Morga fills nearly two pages with an enumeration of their
+merchandise, which included all manner of silks, brocades, furniture,
+pearls and gems, fruits, nuts, tame buffalo, geese, horses and mules,
+all kinds of animals, 'even to birds in cages, some of which talk and
+others sing and which they make perform a thousand tricks; there are
+innumerable other gewgaws and knickknacks, which among Spaniards are
+in much esteem.'
+
+"Each year a fleet of thirty to forty vessels sailed with the new moon
+in March. The voyage across the China Sea, rough with the monsoons,
+occupied fifteen or twenty days, and the fleet returned at the end of
+May or the beginning of June. Between October and March there came,
+each year, Japanese ships from Nagasaki which brought wheat, silks,
+objects of art, and weapons, and took away from Manila the raw silk
+of China, gold, deer horns, woods, honey, wax, palm-wine, and wine
+of Castile.
+
+"From Malacca and India came fleets of the Portuguese subjects
+of Spain, with spices, slaves, Negroes and Kafirs, and the rich
+productions of Bengal, India, Persia, and Turkey. From Borneo, too,
+came the smaller craft of the Malays, who from their boats sold the
+fine palm mats, the best of which still come from Cagayan de Sulu
+and Borneo, slaves, sago, water-pots and glazed earthenware, black
+and fine. From Siam and Cambodia also, but less often, there came
+trading-ships. Manila was thus a great emporium for all the countries
+of the East, the trade of which seems to have been conducted largely
+by and through the merchants of Manila." (Ibid., pp. 173-174.)
+
+"Their position, whether in a political or a commercial point of view,
+is strikingly advantageous. With India and the Malay Archipelago
+on the west and south, the islands of the fertile Pacific and the
+rising empires of the new world on the east, the vast market of
+China at their doors, their insular position and numerous rivers
+affording a facility of communication and defence to every part of
+them, an active and industrious population, climates of almost all
+varieties, a soil so fertile in vegetable and mineral productions as
+almost to exceed credibility; the Philippine Islands alone, in the
+hands of an industrious and commercial nation, and with a free and
+enlightened government would have become a mighty empire--they are--a
+waste!" (Bl. and Rb., Vol. 51, pp. 74-75, Remarks on the Philippine
+Islands, 1819-22, by "An Englishman.")
+
+[5] " * * * No one who has studied this subject with care can get
+rid of the idea that the religious aim was not the chief basis of
+the activities connected with the occupation of the Philippines. It
+was purely commercial. It was only later that the religious element
+acquired greater strength. * * * "
+
+" * * * In such mercantile activities, the Philippines played the
+role of a central market for the distribution of products between
+the West and East,--a work which was of greatest importance. * * *
+These Islands were not only a great commercial market, but also a
+great religious center. * * * "
+
+" * * * No one who has followed the opportunities offered to these
+Islands, can doubt the importance that they will have, due to their
+geographic position, in the modern commercial market which is opened
+to them with the establishment of their new means of communication
+with the world. (Referring to the Panama Canal.) These Islands,
+and not Japan, or Hongkong will bind the East with the West." ("The
+Importance of the Study of Philippine Geography,"--Lecture delivered
+by Dr. J. A. Robertson, before the Asociación Geográfica de Filipinas,
+November 27, 1912.)
+
+[6] Manila, October 7, 1701. (The Philippine Islands, 1493-1898--Blair
+and Robertson, Vol. 44, p. 139.)
+
+[7] "Historia General de Filipinas," Jose Montero y Vidal, Vol. 1,
+p. 66.
+
+[8] "Purposely introduced species comprise those of various other
+tropical countries that, for reason of their economic importance,
+have been introduced either in prehistoric or within historic
+times. Naturally the first plants introduced were those of the Malayan
+region that were familiar to the original invaders or their successors
+in western Malaya, and these include such species as Job's tears (Coix
+lachryma-jobi L.), the more common form of use for ornamental purposes,
+another form cultivated for food; sugar cane (Saccharum officinarum
+L.), as a source of sugar; lemon grass (Andropogon citratus DC),
+used as a condiment; vetiver (Andropogon zizanioides Urb.), for its
+aromatic root; sorghum (Andropogon sorghum L.), for food; Italian
+millet (Setaria italica Beauv.), for food; rice (Oryza sativa L.), for
+food; bamboos (Bambusa vulgaris Schrad., and B. blumeana Schultes),
+for purposes of construction; coconut (Cocos nucifera L.), for food
+(this species is unquestionably of American origin, but reached the
+Orient long before the advent of Europeans); betel-nut palm (Areca
+catechu L.), for its stimulating properties; sweet flag (Acorus calamus
+L.), medicinal; taro (Colocasia esculentum Schott), food; yam, "ubi"
+(Dioscorea alata L.), for food; garlic (Allium sativum L.), for food;
+various varieties of the banana (Musa paradisiaca L.), for food;
+various zingiberaceous plants (Kaempferia galanga L., Curcuma zedoaria
+L., C. longa L., Zingiber zerumbet Sm., and Z. officinale Rosc),
+for condiments, etc.; betel-pepper (Piper betel L.) for use with the
+betel-nut for chewing; bread fruit (Artocarpus communis Forst.),
+and the jak fruit (A. integrifolia L. f.), for food; amaranths
+(Amaranthus gangeticus L., A. caudatus L.), for ornamental purposes
+and food; "libato" (Basella rubra L.), for food; champaca (Michelia
+champaca L.), for its fragrant  flowers (this may have been introduced
+later by the Spaniards); siempre viva (Bryophyllum pinnatum Kurz),
+for medical purposes; horse radish tree (Moringa oleifera Lam.),
+for food and medicine; sappan (Caesalpinia sappan L.), for dyeing;
+the tamarind (Tamarindus indica L.), for food; indigo (Indigofera
+tinctoria L.), for dye; "caturay" (Sesbania grandiflora Pers.),
+for its edible flowers and its resinous exudation; the pigeon pea
+(Cajanus cajan Merr.), for food; the cow pea (Vigna sesquipedalis L.),
+for food; the asparagus pea (psophocarpus tetragonolobus DC.), for
+food; "batao" (Dolichos lablab L.), for food; the mungo (Phaseolus
+radiatus L.), for food; various citrus fruits, such as the pomelo
+(Citrus decumana Murr.), the lime (C. lima Lunan.), and varieties
+of the orange (C. aurantium L.), for food; the santol (Sandoricum
+koetjape Merr.), for food; the lansone (Lansium domesticum Jack),
+for food; some euphorbias (E. tirucalli L.), for medicine; "iba"
+(Cicca disticha L.), for food; crotons (Codiaeum variegatum Blume),
+for ornamental purposes; castor oil plant (Ricinus communis L.), for
+medicine; croton oil plant (Croton tiglium L.), for medicine and for
+poisoning fish; balsam (Impatiens balsamina L.), for medicine and for
+ornamental purposes; cotton (Gossypium sp.), for textile purposes;
+silk cotton tree (Ceiba pentandra Gaertn.) for its fibrous floss;
+various Eugenias (E. jambolana Lam., E. malaccensis L., E. jambos L.,
+and E. javanica L.), for food; "papua" (Nothopanax fruticosum Miq.),
+for medicine and for ornamental purposes; jasmine (Sasminum sambac
+Ait.), for its fragrant flowers; "solasi" (Ocimum basilicum L., and
+O. sanctum L.), for condiments; sesame (Sesamum orientale L.) for its
+oily seed; the bottle gourd (Lagenaria leucantha Rusby), for food;
+the sponge gourd (Luffa cylindrica Roem. and L. acutangula Roxb.),
+for food; the "condol" (Benincasa hispida Cogn.), for food; and the
+"ampalaya" (Momordica charantia L.) for food.
+
+From an examination of the above list it will readily be seen that
+a great number of species were purposely introduced in prehistoric
+times from various parts of the East, chiefly through Malaya, for one
+reason or another, usually for their food value or for other reasons
+of economic importance. It is quite certain that none of the species
+enumerated above are natives of the Philippines, and it is equally
+certain that none reached the Archipelago without the aid of man. Again
+it is equally certain that, with possibly very few exceptions, all
+these species were introduced by the early Malay invaders, by their
+successors, or by peoples of various other nationalities with whom
+they came in contact, long before the advent of the Europeans in the
+Orient."--"Notes on the Flora of Manila with special reference to the
+Introduced Element. E. D. Merrill. The Philippine Journal of Science,
+Vol. VII, No. 3, Sec. C. Botany, pp. 192-194.
+
+[9] "If we exclude the abacá plant (Musa textilis Née) and the various
+trees yielding timbers, gums, and resins, a few palms, some bamboos,
+the rattans, etc., it will be found that practically all the species
+now found in the Archipelago that are of the greatest importance
+in the economy of the native, whether for food, for condiments,
+for clothing, for dyes, for ornamental purposes, and very many for
+medicinal purposes, have originated outside of the Philippines, and
+have purposely been introduced at one time or another." (The Flora
+of Manila, E. D. Merrill, Ibid.)
+
+[10] Sucesos de las Islas Filipinos, Antonio de Morga, Chap. 8. In
+Blair and Robertson Vol. 16, p. 87.
+
+"Instead of olives and other pickled fruit, they have a green fruit,
+like walnuts, which they call "paos." (Pahó.) Some are small,
+and others larger in size, and when prepared they have a pleasant
+taste. They also preserve "charas" in pickle brine, and all sorts
+of vegetables and greens, which are very appetizing. There is much
+ginger, and it is eaten green, pickled, and preserved." (Ibid. p. 97).
+
+[11] Merrill: Flora of Manila.
+
+[12] However, both Dr. Tavera (Census of the Philippine Islands,
+Vol. I, p. 329), and Montero y Vidal (Historia General de Filipinas,
+Vol. I, p. 66.), state that the sweet potato was being cultivated here
+at the time of the conquest. Pigafetta also mentions it in his account.
+
+[13] The American element in the Philippine flora is of peculiar
+interest as showing the effect of commerce on the vegetation of a
+country. Even with the limited communication between the Philippines
+and Mexico, it is surprising to consider the number of American forms
+introduced here through the medium of the galleons in the years
+when all communication between Spain and the Philippines was via
+Mexico. From the time of the Spanish conquest up to the year 1815,
+a period of nearly 300 years, the government galleons sailed annually
+for Manila, first from Navidad and later from Acapulco, on the western
+coast of Mexico. These galleons carried not only the civil, military,
+and ecclesiastical authorities between Spain and the Philippines via
+Mexico, but also other travellers, merchants, etc., as well as large
+quantities of merchandise.
+
+At an early date various Spanish officials, but, apparently, chiefly
+the priests, introduced here the various species of economic value,
+food plants, medicinal plants, fruits, etc., that were familiar to
+their countrymen in tropical America, most often bringing seeds,
+but in some cases most certainly living plants. Undoubtedly many
+species were introduced at that time that failed to become established
+here. Among the American species purposely introduced from Mexico may
+be mentioned the following: "Maize (Zea mays L.), introduced for food;
+the "pineapple" (Ananas sativus Schultes), for its edible fruit and
+its fiber; maguey (Agave cantula Roxb.), for its fiber; the tuberose
+(Polianthes tuberosa L.), for its fragrant flowers; the spider lily
+(Hymenocallis tenuiflora Herb.), for ornamental purposes; the canna
+(Canna indica L.), for ornamental purposes; arrowroot (Marania
+arundinacea L.), for food; "aposotis" (Chenopodium ambrosioides
+L.), for medical purposes; four o'clock (Mirabilis jalapa L.),
+for ornamental purposes; "libato" (Anredera scandens Moq.); various
+species of Anona (A. muricata L., A. reticulata L., and A. squamosa
+L.), for their edible fruits; the avocado (Persea americana Mill.),
+for its edible fruit; the Mexican poppy (Argemone mexicana L.), for
+ornamental purposes or for medicine; "camanchile" (Pithecolobium
+dulce Benth.), for its tanbark and its edible fruit; "aroma"
+(Acacia farnesiana Willd.) for its fragrant flowers; "ipel-ipel"
+(Leucaena glauca Benth.), as a hedge plant; the sensitive plant
+(Mimosa pudica L.), for ornamental purposes; "cabellero" (Caesalpinia
+pulcherrima Sw.), for ornamental purposes; "acapulco" (Cassia alata
+L.), for medicinal purposes; the "peanut" (Arachis hypogaea L.), for
+food; indigo (Indigofera suffruticosa Mill.), for dye; "madre cacao"
+(Gliricidia sepium Steud.), for hedges and for ornamental purposes; the
+lima bean (Phaseolus lunatus L.), for food; the yam bean (Pachyrrhizus
+erosus Urb.), for its edible root; the bilimbi and carambola (Averrhoa
+bilimbi L., and A. carambola L.), for their edible fruits; physic nut
+(Jatropha curcas L.), for medicine, as well as J. multifida L. for
+ornamental purposes; cassava (Manihot utilissima Pohl), for food;
+the cashew nut (Anacardium occidentale L.), for its edible fruit;
+"ciruelas" (Spondias purpurea L,.), for its edible fruit; "cotton"
+(Gossypium braziliense Macf.), for textile purposes; "cacao"
+(Theobroma cacao L.), the source of chocolate and cacao; acheute
+(Bixa Orellana L.), for dye; the "papaya" (Carica papaya L.), for
+its edible fruit; various species of cacti (Nopalea and Cereus), for
+ornamental purposes; the guava (Psidium guajava L.), for its edible
+fruit; the "chico" (Achras sapota L.), for its edible fruit; the "chico
+mamey" (Lucuma mammosa L.), for its edible fruit; the "sapote negro"
+(Diospyros ebenaster Retz.), for its edible fruit; the temple flower
+(Plumeria acutifolia Poir.), for its fragrant flowers; the periwinkle
+(Lochnera rosea Reichb.), for its ornamental flowers; "campanello"
+(Thevetia neriifolia Juss. and Allamanda caihartica L.), for ornamental
+and medicinal purposes; some species of convolvuli (Ipomoea nil Roth,
+Quamoclit pinnata Boj., Colonictyon aculeatum House), for ornamental
+purposes, and the "sweet potato" (Ipomoea batatas Poir.), for food;
+lantana (Lantana camara L.), for ornamental purposes; "dama de
+noche" (Cestrum nocturnum L.), for its fragrant flowers; "tobacco"
+(Nicotiana tabacum L.); the tomato (Lycopersicum esculentum Mill.);
+the peppers (Capsicum frutescens L. and C. annuum L.), for condiments
+and for food; some ornamental Bignoniaceae (Crescentia alata HBK.,
+and Tecoma stans Juss.); (?) the squash (Curcubita maxima Duch.),
+for food; some ornamental Compositae (Tagetes erecta L., Helianthus
+annuus L., Cosmos caudatus HBK., and C sulphureus Cav.), and "ayapana"
+(Eupatorium triplinerve Vahl), for medicine."
+
+(Merrill: Flora of Manila, pp. 198-199.)
+
+[14] On the whole, agriculture was not the chief aim of Spanish
+colonization. "How little attention, on the whole, the conquistadores
+directed to agricultural colonies, considering their various
+services in the transplantation of domestic animals, cereals, and
+vegetables from the Old to the New World, is very clearly shown by
+Peter Martyr, who condemns the expedition to Florida with the words:
+"For what purpose do we need such products as are identical with
+those of southern Europe?" It is true that Columbus's second voyage of
+discovery had a settlement in view, and for that reason was provided
+with domestic animals, seeds, etc. It was a failure, however, owing
+to the mutinous spirit of the Spaniards. The regions which were best
+adapted to agricultural colonies, as, for example, Caracas, Guiana,
+Buenos Ayres, were neglected by the Spaniards for centuries. ("The
+Spanish Colonial Policy," Wilhelm Roscher (1904), pp. 2-3.)
+
+"It is a strange thing that the Spaniards who go to those regions
+(The Philippines) honestly to make a small fortune do not engage more
+in agriculture, in a country where there is so much virgin land and
+of such great fertility, where labor is extremely cheap, and the crop
+easily and profitably sold." (La Libertad de Comercio en Filipinas,
+Manuel Azcarraga y Palmero, p. 27.)
+
+" * * * the Spaniards cared but little for the cultivation of the
+lands." (The Ecclesiastical System in the Philippines, Manuel Buzeta,
+O. S. A., and Felipe Bravo, O. S. A., Madrid, 1850. From their
+Diccionario de las Islas Filipinas. In Bl. and Rb., Vol. 28, p. 285.
+
+[15] Montero y Vidal, "Historia General de Filipinas," Vol. I, p. 67.
+
+[16] "Beef is eaten, cattle being raised abundantly in stockfarms in
+many different parts of the islands. The cattle are bred from those
+of China and Nueva España. The Chinese cattle are small, and excellent
+breeders. Their horns are very small and twisted, and some cattle can
+move them. They have a large hump upon the shoulders, and are very
+manageable beasts. * * * There is abundance of flesh of wild game,
+such as venison, and wild boars, and in some parts porcupines. There
+are many buffaloes, which are called carabaos, which are raised in the
+fields and are spirited; others are brought tame from China; these are
+very numerous, and very handsome. These last are used only for milking,
+and their milk is thicker and more palatable than that of cows. Goats
+and kids are raised, although their flesh is not savory, because of the
+humidity of the country. These animals sicken and die for that reason,
+and because they eat certain poisonous herbs. Ewes and rams, although
+often brought from Nueva España, never multiply. Consequently there
+are none of these animals, for the climate and pasturage has not as
+yet seemed suitable for them. There were no horses, mares, or asses,
+in the islands, until the Spaniards had them brought from China and
+brought them from Nueva España. Asses and mules are very rare, but
+there are many horses and mares. Some farms are being stocked with
+them, and those born (mixed breeds for the most part) turn out well,
+and have good colors, are good tempered and willing to work, and
+are of medium size. Those brought from China are small, very strong,
+good goers, treacherous, quarrelsome, and bad-tempered. Some horses
+of good colors are brought from Japan. They have well-shaped bodies,
+thick hair, large fetlocks, large legs and front hoofs, which make them
+look like draft-horses. Their heads are rather large, and their mouths
+rather hard. They run but slowly, but walk well, and are spirited and
+of much mettle. The daily feed of the horses consists throughout the
+year of green provender, besides rice in the husk, which keeps them
+very fat." (Morga's Sucesos, 1609, Bl. and Rb. Vol. 16, pp. 89-91.)
+
+[17] "The islands, as I am told, need stallions, mares and cows,
+and other domestic animals. In order that they may be bred there
+in numbers, I am writing to the viceroy of Nueva España, to send
+to the said islands twelve mares, two stallions, twenty cows,
+and two bulls. You shall ask him for these as you pass there, and
+shall take them with you in your vessels as you go upon your voyage;
+and whatever you think needful for the animals can be brought from
+China and Japan. You shall order those farmers who are about to go
+to the said islands, and the chiefs, to tame and breed buffaloes, so
+that with all these animals there may be sufficiency to carry on the
+farming, and for other needful services." (Instruction to Dasmariñas
+of Felipe II, Aug. 9, 1589;--Bl. and Rb. Vol. 7, p. 156.).
+
+Also, Instructions to Tello, 1596, Bl. and Rb., Vol. 9, p. 236.
+
+[18] "There are plenty of fowls like those of Castilla, and others
+very large, which are bred from fowls brought from China. They are
+very palatable, and make fine capons. Some of these fowls are black in
+feather, skin, flesh, and bones, and are pleasant to the taste. Many
+geese are raised, as well as swans, ducks, and tame pigeons brought
+from China."
+
+(Antonio de Morga, Sucesos de las Islas Filipinos, Chap. 8.--Bl. and
+Rb., Vol. 16, p. 90.)
+
+[19] "The material surroundings of the Filipino before the arrival of
+the Spaniards were in nearly every way quite as they are today. The
+"center of population" of each town today, with its great church,
+tribunal, stores and houses of stone and wood, is certainly in marked
+contrast; but the appearance of a barrio of little distance from
+the center is today probably much as it was then. Then, as now,
+the bulk of the people lived in humble houses of bamboo and nipa
+raised on piles above the dampness of the soil; then, as now, the
+food was largely rice and the excellent fish which abound in river
+and sea. There were on the water the same familiar bancas and fish
+corrals, and on land the rice fields and coconut groves. The Filipinos
+had then most of the present domesticated animals,--dogs, cats, goats,
+chickens, and pigs,--and perhaps in Luzon the domesticated buffalo,
+although this animal was widely introduced into the Philippines from
+China after the Spanish conquest. Horses followed the Spaniards and
+their numbers were increased by the bringing in of Chinese mares,
+whose importation is frequently mentioned.
+
+"The Spaniards introduced also the cultivation of tobacco, coffee,
+and cacao, and perhaps also the native corn of America, the maize,
+although Pigafetta says they found it already growing in the Bisayas.
+
+"The Filipino has been affected by these centuries of Spanish
+sovereignty far less on his material side than he has on his spiritual,
+and it is mainly in the deepening and elevating of his emotional
+and mental life and not in the bettering of his material condition
+that advance has been made." (Dr. D. P. Barrows, A History of the
+Philippines, pp. 106-107).
+
+[20] "The planters keep working the soil almost as they used to
+do three centuries ago." Memoria sobre los Montes de Filipinas,
+Sebastian Vidal y Soler; Madrid, 1874, p. 74.)
+
+[21] Antonio de Morga, "Sucesos de las Islas Filipinas,"
+chap. 8. Rival's note to this says: This work, although not laborious,
+is generally performed now by the men, while the women do only the
+actual cleaning of the rice. (Bl. and Rb., Vol. 16, p. 79).
+
+[22] "The lands which they inhabited were divided among the whole
+barangay, especially the irrigated portion, and thus each one knew his
+own." Customs of the Tagalogs, Juan de Plasencia, O. S. F.; Manila,
+October 21, 1589. Blair and Robertson, Vol. 7, p. 174.
+
+[23] See Chapter II, as to evidences of prosperity of the Filipinos
+at the time of the coming of the Spaniards.
+
+Caingin system described: "They reported that the country was so
+fertile that when natives desired to plant their rice they only burn
+a part of the mountain and, without any further plowing or digging,
+they make holes with a stick in the soil, and drop some grains of
+rice in them. This was their manner of sowing; and, after covering the
+rice with the same earth, they obtained very heavy crops." (Historia
+de la Provincia del Santo Rosario de la Orden de Predicadores, Diego
+Aduarte, O. P., Manila, 1640.--Bl. and Rb., Vol. 32, p. 199.)
+
+[24] "Customs of the Tagalogs," Juan de Plasencia: "* * * * The lands
+on the 'tingues' or mountain-ridges, are not divided, but owned in
+common by the barangay. Consequently, at the time of the rice harvest,
+any individual of any particular barangay, although he may come from
+some other village, if he commences to clear any land may sow it, and
+no one can compel him to abandon it. There are some villages (as, for
+example, Pila de la Laguna) in which these nobles, or maharlicas, paid
+annually to the dato a hundred gantas of rice. The reason of this was
+that, at the time of their settlement there, another chief occupied the
+lands, which the new chief upon his arrival, bought with his own gold;
+and therefore the members of his barangay paid him for the arable land,
+and he divided it, among those whom he saw fit to reward. But now,
+since the advent of the Spaniards, it is not so divided. * * *
+
+"The chiefs in some villages had also fisheries, with established
+limits, and sections of the rivers for markets. At these no one could
+fish, or trade in the markets, without paying for the privilege,
+unless he belonged to the chief's barangay or village." (Bl. and Rb.,
+Vol. 7, pp. 174-175.)
+
+Also, T. H. Pardo de Tavera, Census of the Philippines, 1903, Vol. I,
+p. 325.
+
+[25] Expedition of Ruy Lopez de Villalobos. (Résumé of Contemporaneous
+Documents, Talavera, July 6, 1541.--Bl. and Rb., Vol. 2, p. 54.)
+
+[26] The origin of the encomienda "was in the REPARTIMIENTO, which
+at first (1497) meant a grant of lands in a conquered country;
+it was soon extended to include the natives dwelling thereon, who
+were compelled to till the land for the conqueror's benefit. In 1503
+ENCOMIENDAS were granted, composed of a certain number of natives,
+who were compelled to work. The word ENCOMIENDA is a term belonging
+to the military orders (from the ranks of which came many officials
+appointed for the colonies) and corresponds to our word commandery. It
+is defined by Helps (practically using the same language of Solorzano,
+the eminent Spanish jurist), as a right conceded by royal bounty,
+to well-deserving persons in the Indies, to receive and enjoy for
+themselves the tributes of the natives who should be assigned to
+them, with a charge of providing for the good of those natives in
+spiritual and temporal matters, and of inhabiting and defending the
+provinces where these ENCOMIENDAS should be granted to them." (Note,
+Bl. and Rb., Vol. 2, p. 54.)
+
+[27] "According to the constitutional law of the Indies the
+land and the soil in all colonies were the domain of the king;
+therefore the encomiendas, which were granted only to discoverers
+and other men of conspicuous merit, were to be considered not so
+much as landed estates as public offices. (Compare "Recopilación,"
+'IV 8, 9, 11.) The encomendero was appointed and sworn (law of 1532)
+for the express purpose of giving his natives military protection
+(law of 1552) and of promoting politically and religiously their
+conversion to civilization (laws of 1509, 1554, 1580). Whoever
+neglected to do this lost his encomienda (laws of 1536, 1551). It is
+characteristic that the Spaniards so readily combined the functions
+of discoverers, pacificators, and founders of settlements; as a
+matter of fact most of the Indian races were led to civil life,
+in our sense of the word, by them. In order to prevent extortion
+no encomendero could own a house in his village or stay there more
+than one night (law of 1609, 1618). Not even his nearest relatives
+or his slaves could enter the encomienda (law of 1574, 1550, and
+often). He was forbidden to maintain any industrial establishment
+in the encomienda (law of 1621), or to take into his house any
+of the inhabitants (law of 1528). That the natives were free men,
+that they could not be sold by an encomendero, was recognized in
+many laws. ("Recopilación," VI, 2, I, II). After the legislation of
+1542 some of the natives were the immediate subjects of the king,
+and the rest dependents attached to the encomiendas. The former paid
+three-fourths of their taxes to the treasury, and the latter the same
+proportion to their landlords. The right of holding an encomienda was
+granted, regularly for two generations, except in New Spain, where,
+on account of the very unusual services rendered by the conquerors,
+it was granted for three and even four generations. (Ibid. VI, 11,
+14.) During the 18th century many of the families of the landlords
+died out and their possessions were not again granted. The authorities
+always interested themselves in the cause of the natives, until at
+length Charles III abolished the encomiendas." (W. Roscher (1904)
+"The Spanish Colonial System," pp. 4-5.)
+
+[28] "Let such allotments be made without prejudice to the natives,
+retaining for them their arable lands, gardens, and pastures, so
+that all shall be cared for." (Foundation of the Audiencia of Manila,
+Felipe II; Aranjuez, May 5, 1583.--Bl. and Rb., Vol. 5, p. 292.)
+
+"I was petitioned on behalf of the said islands, to order that
+encomiendas be granted with the condition and obligation upon the
+encomenderos that some patch of ground should be cultivated, and that
+the farmers and natives should be aided so that they also may till
+and cultivate. I charged Gomez Perez strictly in his instructions with
+this, and now I charge you too. You shall grant lands and homesteads,
+cattle and horses for breeding and farming, both to the natives,
+and to the settlers and farmers. Inasmuch as the execution of this
+is important, you shall advise me of the conditions of former days
+and what ordinances you shall enact, so that what is advisable may
+be done during your term." (Instructions to Tello, Felipe II, Toledo,
+May 25, 1596.--Bl. and Rb., Vol. 9, p. 237.)
+
+(To the same effect, Instructions to Dasmariñas, Felipe II, San
+Lorenzo, August 9, 1589. Ibid., Vol. 7, p. 157).
+
+[29] On July 25, 1609, Don Miguel Banal, a Filipino chief of Quiapo,
+sent a petition to the King, for redress against what he considered a
+usurpation of his lands. The petition begins thus: "Sire:--In former
+years the archbishop of these Philippine Islands, on petition of the
+natives of the village of Quiapo, which is near the city of Manila,
+wrote to your Majesty, informing you that the fathers of the Society
+of Jesus--under pretext that the former dean of this holy church
+of Manila, whom your Majesty has lately appointed archbishop, had
+sold them a garden lying back of our village--have been insinuating
+themselves more and more into our lands and taking more than what was
+assigned them by the dean; and that we had scarcely any land remaining
+in the village for our fields, and even for our houses. The petition
+begged your royal Majesty to remedy this and protect us under your
+royal clemency, since we are natives, who cannot defend ourselves
+by suits, as we are a poor people, and it would be a matter with a
+religious order. (Nothing was heard from the King, and in the meantime,
+petitioner was forcibly ejected from his own lands, and a house built
+by him thereon, destroyed.) For I fear that I can find no one to
+aid me in the suits that the fathers are about to begin against me,
+or who will appear for my justice, since I have even been unable to
+find any one who dared to write this letter for me. This letter is
+therefore written by my own hand and in my own composition, and in the
+style of a native not well versed in the Spanish language. Also in the
+meanwhile will you order the fathers not to molest me in the ancient
+possession that I have inherited from my fathers and grandfathers, who
+were chiefs of the said village." (Bl. and Rb., Vol. 14, pp. 327-329.)
+
+A letter from Felipe III to Silva, refers to above petition and
+orders thus: "Having examined it in my Council for the Yndias, it has
+appeared best to order and command you, as I do to inform me of what
+has occurred in this matter, and is occuring, and in the meantime to
+take such measures as are expedient. Madrid, on the 7th of December,
+1610." (Bl. and Rb., Vol. 17, pp. 151-152.)
+
+[30] "For the above reason there is a large supply of lumber, which
+is cut and sawed, dragged to the rivers, and brought down, by the
+natives. This lumber is very useful for houses and buildings, and
+for the construction of small and large vessels. Many very straight
+trees, light and pliable, are found, which are used as masts for
+ships and galleons. Consequently, vessels of any size may be fitted
+with masts from these trees, made of one piece of timber, without its
+being necessary to splice them or make them of different pieces. For
+the hulls of the ships, the keels, futtock-timbers, top-timbers, and
+any other kinds of supports and braces, compass-timbers, transomes,
+knees small and large, and rudders, all sorts of good timber are easily
+found; as well as good planking for the sides, decks, and upper-works,
+from very suitable woods." (Antonio de Morga, Sucesos de las Islas
+Filipinas.--Chapter 8, Bl. and Rb., Vol. 16, pp. 84-87.)
+
+[31] "Their ships and boats are of many kinds; for on the rivers and
+creeks inland they use certain very large canoes, each made from one
+log, and others fitted with benches and made from planks, and built
+up on keels. They have vireys and barangays, which are certain,
+quick, and light vessels that lie low in the water, put together
+with little wooden nails. These are as slender at the stern as at
+the bow, and they can hold a number of rowers on both sides, who
+propel their vessels with 'bucceyes' or paddles, and with 'gaones,'
+on the outside of the vessels; and they time their rowing to the
+accompaniment of some who sing in their language refrains by which
+they understand whether to hasten or retard their rowing. Above the
+rowers is a platform or gangway, built of bamboo, upon which the
+fighting men stand, in order not to interfere with the rowing of
+the oarsmen. In accordance with the capacity of the vessels, is the
+number of men on these gangways. From that place they manage the sail,
+which is square and made of linen, and hoisted on a support or yard
+made of two thick bamboos, which serves as a mast. When the vessel
+is large, it also has a foresail of the same form. Both yards, with
+their tackle, can be lowered upon the gangway when the weather is
+rough. The helmsmen are stationed in the stern to steer. It carries
+another bamboo framework on the gangway itself; and upon this when
+the sun shines hot, or it rains, they stretch an awning made from
+some mats, woven from palm-leaves. These are very bulky and close,
+and are called 'cayanes.' Thus all the ship and its crew are covered
+and protected. There are also other bamboo frameworks for each side
+of the vessel, which are as long as the vessel, and securely fastened
+on. They skim the water, without hindering the rowing, and serve as
+a counterpoise, so that the ship cannot overturn nor upset, however
+heavy the sea, or strong the wind against the sail.
+
+"It may happen that the entire hull of these vessels, which have
+no decks, may fill with water and remain between wind and water,
+even until it is destroyed and broken up, without sinking, because
+of these counterpoises. These vessels have been used commonly through
+the islands since olden times. They have other larger vessels called
+'lapis,' and 'tapaques,' which are used to carry their merchandise,
+and which are very suitable, as they are roomy and draw but little
+water. They generally drag them ashore every night, at the mouths
+of rivers and creeks, among which they always navigate without going
+into the open sea or leaving the shore. All the natives can row and
+manage these boats. Some are so long that they can carry one hundred
+rowers on a side and thirty soldiers above to fight. The boats commonly
+used are barangays and vireys, which carry a less crew and fighting
+force. Now they put many of them together with iron nails instead
+of the wooden pegs and the joints in the planks, while the helms and
+bows have beaks like Castilian boats." (Antonio de Morga, Sucesos de
+las Islas Filipinas.--Ch. 8, Bl. and Rb., Vol. 16, pp. 82-84.)
+
+[32] "The Filipinos, like the inhabitants of the Marianas, who are
+no less skilful and dexterous in navigation, far from progressing,
+have retrograded; since, although boats are now built in the islands,
+we might assert that they are all after European models. The boats
+that held one hundred rowers to a side and thirty soldiers have
+disappeared. The country that once, with primitive methods, built
+ships of about 2,000 toneladas, today (1890) has to go to foreign
+ports, as Hongkong, to give the gold wrenched from the poor, in
+exchange for unserviceable cruisers. The rivers are blocked up, and
+navigation in the interior of the islands is perishing, thanks to the
+obstacles created by a timid and mistrusting system of government; and
+there scarcely remains in the memory anything but the name of all that
+naval architecture. It has vanished, without modern improvements having
+come to replace it in such proportion as during the past centuries has
+occurred in adjacent countries." (Rizal's note to Morga.--Bl. and Rb.,
+Vol. 16, p. 84.)
+
+[33] "The shipyards of the galleons built during Don Juan de Silva's
+term were thirty, forty, fifty, sixty, seventy, and eighty leguas from
+the city of Manila, in different places; namely, on the island of
+Marinduque, where the galleon San Juan Bautista was built, which is
+forty leguas from Manila; in the province of Camarines at Dalupanes
+were built Nuestra Señora de Guadalupe, and the Angel de la Guardia
+(i. e. Guardian Angel), fifty leguas from Manila; in the province of
+Ibalon at Bagatan were built San Felipe and Santiago, eighty leguas
+from Manila; in Mindoro was built the galleon San Juan Bautista, fifty
+leguas from Manila; in Marinduque was built the almiranta San Marcos,
+forty leguas from Manila; in Masbate was built the royal flagship
+Salvador, seventy leguas from Manila, in the point where the fleets
+anchor; in the port of Cavite, six galleys; in the city of Manila,
+two." (Sebastian de Pineda; Mexico, 1619.--Bl. and Rb., Vol. 18,
+pp. 173-174.)
+
+[34] "Governor Don Diego de Salcedo, considering the many oppressions
+that were experienced by the provinces near Manila from the continual
+cutting of timber and building of galleons--a necessary evil and
+one in which the wrongs that are committed in it can be obviated
+only with great difficulty--very prudently determined to build the
+galleon Nuestra Señora del Buen Socorro in the province of Albay. He
+entrusted its execution to the commander Diego de Arévalo who was
+most experienced in maritime matters. He appointed him alcalde-mayor
+of the adjoining province of Camarines for the better expedition
+of the timber-cutting, putting him under greater obligations (to
+do well) by the future reward of commander of the galleon which
+he was about to build. In order that that galleon might be built
+more quickly and finished sooner, he sent as chief overseer his
+lieutenant master-of-camp, Don Agustin de Cepeda Carnacedo, who was
+then master-of-camp of the army of these islands for his Majesty,
+in order that he might live in the port of Albay. He did that with
+so great care that in little more than one year the largest and best
+galleon that had yet been seen in the islands was built--and very
+few so large have been seen in European seas, and extremely few that
+are larger. For that purpose the woods of Filipinas are the best that
+can be found in all the universe." (Casimiro Diaz, O. S. A.; Manila,
+1718. Conquistas, in Bl. and Rb., Vol. 37, pp. 250-251.)
+
+[35] "Those who cut these woods and build these ships and galleys
+are Indian natives of the said islands. They are carpenters, who are
+called cagallanes or pandais, in their language. Those Indians who
+are no more than woodcutters, and serve only as hewers and planers
+of wood, are paid each seven or eight reals a month, and are given
+daily rations of one-half celemin of rice. Those of better trades than
+the latter generally earn ten to twelve reals a month. Those who are
+masters--the ones who lay out, prepare, round, and make the masts,
+yards, and topmasts are each paid three or four pesos of eight reals
+a month, and double rations." (Philippine Ships and Shipbuilding,
+Sebastian de Pineda (1619).--Bl. and Rb., Vol. 18, p. 174.)
+
+[36] "When a fleet was being prepared in Cavite there were generally
+one thousand four hundred of these carpenters there. Just now there
+are very few, for when the Mindanao enemies burned one galleon and
+two petaches in the past year, one thousand six hundred and seventeen,
+which were being built in the shipyard of Pantao, sixty leguas from the
+city of Manila, they captured more than four hundred of the workmen,
+and killed more than two hundred others; while many have died through
+the severe work in the building. And because they have been paid
+for five years nothing except a little aid, many have fled from the
+land; and so few remain that when the last ships sailed from the
+city of Manila last year, six hundred and eighteen, there were not
+two hundred of those Indians in Cavite." (Ships and Shipbuilding,
+Sebastian de Pineda, 1619.--Bl. and Rb., Vol. 18, pp. 174-175.)
+
+
+
+"As above stated, it will be necessary for Governor Don Alonso Fajardo
+to devise immediate means for building galleons and to repair the six
+at Manila. I regard the present building of ships in that country
+as impossible. For with the former ships and fleets and with the
+depredations and deaths caused by the enemy in those districts the
+natives are quite exhausted; for, as I said above, in the former
+years of six hundred and seventeen the Mindanao enemy captured four
+hundred native carpenters and killed more than two hundred others. The
+year before that, six hundred and sixteen, in the expedition made by
+Don Juan de Silva to the strait of Cincapura, where he died, it was
+found from lists that more than seven hundred Indians, of those taken
+as common seamen (of whom more than two hundred were carpenters),
+died on that expedition. Before that, in the year six hundred and
+fourteen, the said Mindanao enemy captured in the islands of Pintados
+nine hundred odd Indians, of whom but few have been ransomed. In the
+shipbuilding and in the hauling of wood many have died. Consequently,
+on account of all combined, there is a lack of natives for the above
+works. Therefore your Majesty must order the said Don Alonso Fajardo,
+governor and captain-general of the said islands, that in case galleons
+are to be built, it should not be in the islands--on the one hand,
+on account of the short time that those woods last, and on the other
+because of the lack in that land of natives (occurring through the
+above-mentioned causes, and because those natives in the islands
+are serving in the fleets as common seamen and carpenters)." (Ibid.,
+pp. 182-183.)
+
+[37] "The shipbuilding carried on in these islands on your Majesty's
+account is the total ruin and death of these natives, as all tell
+me. For, in addition to the danger caused by it in withdrawing them
+from the cultivation of their lands and fields--whereby the abundance
+of foods and fruits of the country is destroyed--many of them die from
+severe labor and harsh treatment. Joined to this is another evil,
+namely, that every Indian who takes part in the shipbuilding is
+aided by all the neighborhood where he lives with a certain number
+of pesos, on account of the small pay that is given them in behalf
+of your Majesty. Hence many are being harassed and worn out by these
+methods, and a great expense is being caused to your Majesty's royal
+treasury." (Letter to Felipe III, Alonso Fajardo de Tenza, Cavite,
+Aug. 10, 1618; Bl. and Rb., Vol. 18, pp. 130-131.)
+
+[38] "Item: That the governor be warned to endeavor to avoid, as far
+as possible, the injuries inflicted upon the natives in the cutting of
+wood and in personal services; for they sometimes draft them in the
+planting season or at harvest, so that they lose their fields, as I
+have seen. In addition to this, many times they do not pay the Indians,
+because there is no money in the treasury, which is continually short
+of funds. This often arises from the fact that they do not estimate
+and consider the needs of the Indians with the amount of money that is
+available; and consequently all the Indians complain. Finally, when
+the said Indians are paid, it is done by the hand of the chiefs or
+cabezas de barangay, who generally keep the money." (Reforms Needed
+in Filipinas, by H. de los Rios Coronel.--Bl. and Rb., Vol. 18,
+pp. 315-316.)
+
+[39] "The loss of so many ships caused us great sadness of heart. The
+greatest hardship fell to the Indians, for they cannot live without
+ships. When one is lost it is necessary to build another, and that
+means the cutting of wood. Six or eight thousand Indians are assembled
+for that task, and go to the mountains. On them falls the vast labor
+of cutting and dragging the timber in. To that must be added the blows
+that are rained down upon them, and the poor pay, and bad nourishment
+that they receive. At times, religious are sent to protect and defend
+them from the infernal fury of some Spaniards. Moreover, in the timber
+collected for one ship there is (actually enough) for two ships. Many
+gain advantage at the cost of the Indians' sweat, and later others
+make a profit in Cavite, as I have seen." (D. F. Navarrete, O. P.;
+1676, from his Tratados Históricos.--Bl. and Rb., Vol. 38, pp. 42-43.)
+
+[40] "* * * I must remind your Majesty that the islands are at the
+end of their resources, as far as the Indians in them are concerned;
+for it is they who bring the timber from the forests for the said
+shipbuilding. I have thought of an expedient for this, in order not to
+complete the destruction of the Indians; it is, to ask the viceroys
+of your Majesty in Nueva España and Pirú to send vessels here. * *
+*" (Letter to Felipe IV, by Sebastian Hurtado de Corcuera, Cavite,
+July 11, 1636.--Bl. and Rb., Vol. 26, p. 289.)
+
+[41] "Item. That it be ordered that the common seamen who serve in
+the said ships, who are always Indian natives, be all men of that
+coast, who are instructed how to navigate; and that they be made to
+wear clothes, with which to shelter themselves from the cold; for,
+because they do not, most of them die in high latitudes, of which he
+(the writer) is a witness. Inasmuch as the factor enrolls other Indians
+who live in the interior, and who do not know the art of sailing,
+and as they are a wretched people, they are embarked without clothes
+to protect them against the cold, so that when each new dawn comes
+there are three or four dead men (a matter that is breaking his heart);
+besides, they are treated inhumanly and are not given the necessaries
+of life, but are killed with hunger and thirst. If he were to tell in
+detail the evil that is done to them, it would fill many pages. He
+petitions your Majesty to charge your governor straitly to remedy
+this." (Reforms Needed in Filipinas, Hernando de los Rios Coronel,
+1619-1620.--Bl. and Rb., Vol. 18, pp. 299-300.)
+
+[42] "This has been the cause of tumults and insurrections, such as
+that of Palapag in 1649, and that of the province of Pampanga in 1660;
+and, in the time of Governor Don Juan de Silva, that of 1614, because
+of the considerable felling of timber which was occasioned by so much
+shipbuilding as was caused by the undertaking against the Dutch. Then,
+most of the provinces of these islands mutinied and almost rose in
+insurrection; and there was danger of a general outbreak, had not
+the religious who were ministers in the provinces reduced the minds
+of the natives to quiet; for they, overburdened by so heavy a load,
+were at the point of desperation." (Casimiro Diaz, O.S.A.; Manila,
+1718, Conquistas.--Bl. and Rb., Vol. 37, p. 212.)
+
+[43] "Those islands have so few natives, that if your Majesty does not
+expressly order no vessels to be constructed in them, not any of their
+people will be left, for as a result the events that have happened in
+those islands for the last eight years, both murders and captivities,
+many of those who have been left, who are constantly coming to Nueva
+España, every year as common seamen in the vessels that regularly sail,
+remain in Nueva España. In the galleon Espíritu Santo which came last
+year, six hundred and eighteen, were seventy-five native Indians as
+common seamen, but not more than five of the entire number returned
+in the said galley. If your Majesty does not have that corrected,
+the same thing will occur every year, and should your Majesty not
+correct it, the following things will occur. The first is the great
+offense committed against our Lord, for many (indeed most) of those
+native Indians of the Filipinas Islands who come as common seamen
+are married in those said islands; and, inasmuch as they are unknown
+in Nueva España, they remarry here. Another wrong follows which is
+very much to the disservice of your Majesty and your royal treasury,
+which is caused by the said Indian natives of the Filipinas Islands
+who come as common seamen and remain in Nueva España; and if it
+is not checked in time, it will cause considerable injury to these
+kingdoms. This consists in the fact that there are in Nueva España
+so many of those Indians who come from Filipinas Islands who have
+engaged in making palm wine along the other seacoast, that of the
+South Sea, and which they make with stills, as in Filipinas, that it
+will in time become a part reason for the natives of Nueva España,
+who now use the wine that comes from Castilla, to drink none except
+what the Filipinos make. For since the natives of Nueva España are
+a race inclined to drink and intoxication, and the wine made by
+the Filipinos is distilled and as strong as brandy, they crave it
+rather than the wine from España. Consequently it will happen that
+the trading fleets (from Spain) will bring less wine every year,
+and what is brought will be more valuable every year. So great is
+the traffic in this (palm wine) at present on the coast of Navidad,
+among the Apusabalcos, and throughout Colima, that they lead beasts
+of burden with this wine in the same way as in España. By postponing
+the speedy remedy that this demands, the same thing might also happen
+to the vineyards of Piru. It can be averted, provided all the Indian
+natives of the said Filipinas Islands are shipped and returned to
+them, that the palm groves and vessels with which that wine is made
+be burnt, the palm-trees felled, and severe penalties imposed on
+whomever remains or returns to make that wine.
+
+"Incited by their greed in that traffic, all the Indians who have
+charge of making that wine go to the port of Acapulco when the ships
+reach there from Manila, and lead away with them all the Indians who
+come as common seamen. For that reason, and the others above mentioned,
+scarcely any of them return to the said Filipinas Islands. From that it
+also results that your Majesty loses the royal revenues derived from
+those islands, inasmuch as all those Indians are tributaries there,
+and when absent pay nothing." (Ships and Shipbuildings, by Sebastian
+de Pineda, 1619.--Bl. and Rb., Vol. 18, pp. 183-185.)
+
+[44] Antonio de Morga, Sucesos de las Islas Filipinos,
+Chap. 8.--Bl. and Rb., Vol. 16, p. 108.
+
+[45] Relación de las Islas Filipinas, Miguel de Loarca; Arévalo,
+June, 1582.--Bl. and Rb., Vol. 5, p. 73.
+
+[46] Sucesos de las Islas Filipinas, Antonio de Morga,
+Chap. 8.--Bl. and Rb., Vol. 16, p. 96.
+
+[47] Report of Conditions in the Philippines, Antonio de Morga,
+Manila, June 8, 1598.--Bl. and Rb., Vol. 10, pp. 85-86.
+
+"The fishing is done with salambaos, and with fine-meshed nets; with
+which they block up the bay and kill the small fish. These nets ought
+not to be employed, and the size of the mesh should be regulated so
+that the supply of fish will not be exhausted; for already experience
+has demonstrated that they are not so abundant as formerly."
+
+Night fishing was also practiced. "What we call pitch in this
+region is a resin from which the natives make candles in order to
+use in their night-fishing, and is the same as the copal of Nueva
+España, or at the most differs from it very little in color, smell,
+and taste." (Expedition of Miguel Lopez de Legazpi. [Résumé of
+Contemporaneous Documents, 1558-68.]--Bl. and Rb., Vol. 2, p. 153.)
+
+Artificial fish-culture seems to have been introduced by the Japanese
+before the Spanish arrival. "The greatest of the Japanese industries,
+which they taught the natives, was breeding ducks and fishes for
+export. The rivers and coast waters of the Archipelago provided
+splendid feeding grounds for numerous varieties of fish and fowl, and
+the Japanese assisted nature's breeding process, particularly in the
+case of fishes in a manner followed by present day experts. The roe
+were transported to safe places for development, tanks were used to
+guard small fish from harm, and various other precautionary measures
+were adopted properly to rear the fish. To the early Spaniards, the
+pisciculture of the Filipinos was regarded almost as a new art, so much
+more advanced it was than fish breeding methods in Europe." (Commercial
+Progress in the Philippine Islands, Antonio M. Regidor and J. Warren
+T. Mason, 1905.)
+
+[48] In some of these islands pearl oysters are found, especially
+in the Calamianes, where some have been obtained that are large
+and exceedingly clear and lustrous. Neither is this means of profit
+utilized. (By the Spaniards, he means, as is clear from the preceding
+paragraph, which states that, "if the industry and efforts of the
+Spaniards were to be converted into the working of the gold, as
+much would be obtained from any one of these islands as from those
+provinces which produce the most in the world. But since they attend
+to other means of gain rather than to this, as will be told in due
+time, they do not pay the proper attention to this matter.") In all
+parts, seed pearls are found in the ordinary oysters, and there are
+oysters as large as a buckler. From the (shells of the) latter the
+natives manufacture beautiful articles. There are also very large
+turtles in all the islands. Their shells are utilized by the natives,
+and sold as an article of commerce to the Chinese and Portuguese,
+and other nations who go after them and esteem them highly, because
+of the beautiful things made from them.
+
+"On the coasts of any of these islands are found many small white
+snail shells, called siguei. The natives gather them and sell them by
+measure to the Siamese, Cambodians, Pantanes, and other peoples of the
+mainland. It serves there as money, and those nations trade with it,
+as they do with cacaobeans in Nueva España." (Antonio de Morga, Sucesos
+de las Islas Filipinas, Chap. 8.--Bl. and Rb., Vol. 16, p. 103.)
+
+[49] Description of Filipinas Islands, Bartholome de Letona,
+1662.--Bl. and Rb., Vol. 36, p. 201.
+
+"All these islands are, in many districts, rich in placers and mines
+of gold, a metal which the natives dig and work. However, since the
+advent of the Spaniards in the land, the natives proceed more slowly
+in this, and content themselves with what they already possess in
+jewels and gold ingots, handed down from antiquity and inherited
+from their ancestors. This is considerable for he must be poor and
+wretched who has no gold chains, calombigas (bracelets), and earrings.
+
+Some placers and mines were worked at Paracale in the province of
+Camarines, where there is good gold mixed with copper. This commodity
+is also traded in the Ilocos, for at the rear of this province,
+which borders the seacoast, are certain lofty and rugged mountains
+which extend as far as Cagayan. On the slopes of these mountains,
+in the interior, live many natives, as yet unsubdued, and among whom
+no incursion has been made, who are called Ygolotes. These natives
+possess rich mines, many of gold and silver mixed. They are wont to
+dig from them only the amount necessary for their wants. They descend
+to certain places to trade this gold (without completing its refining
+or preparation), with the Ilocos; there they exchanged it for rice,
+swine, carabaos, cloth and other things that they need. The Ilocos
+complete its refining and preparation, and by their medium it is
+distributed throughout the country. Although an effort has been made
+with these Ygolotes to discover their mines, and how they work them,
+and their method of working the metal, nothing definite has been
+learned, for the Ygolotes fear that the Spaniards will go to seek
+them for their gold, and say that they keep the gold better in the
+earth than in their houses.
+
+There are also many gold mines and placers in the other islands,
+especially among the Pintados, on the Botuan River in Mindanao,
+and in Sebu, where a mine of good gold is worked, called Taribon. If
+the industry and efforts of the Spaniards were to be converted into
+the working of the gold, as much would be obtained from any one of
+these islands as from those provinces which produce the most in the
+world. But since they attend to other means of gain rather than to
+this, they do not pay the proper attention to this matter." (Antonio
+de Morga, Sucesos; Bl. and Rb., Vol. 16, pp. 101-103.)
+
+[50] Memorial to the Council by Citizens of the Philippine Islands;
+July 26, 1586.--Bl. and Rb., Vol. 6, p. 223.
+
+"In this island, there are many gold mines, some of which have been
+inspected by the Spaniards, who say that the natives work them as
+is done in Nueva España with the mines of silver; and, as in those
+mines, the vein of ore here is continuous. Assays have been made,
+yielding so great wealth, that I shall not endeavor to describe them,
+lest I be suspected of lying. Time will prove the truth."
+
+Las nuevas quescriven de las yslas del Poniente, Hernando Riquel y
+otros. Mexico, January 11, 1574.--Bl. and Rb., Vol. 3, p. 243.
+
+[51] "They are the best and most skilful artificers in jewels and gold
+that we have seen in this land. Almost all the people of Los Camarines
+pursue this handicraft." Letter from Guido de Lavezaris to Felipe II,
+Manila, July 17, 1574.--Bl. and Rb., Vol. 3, p. 273.)
+
+"During these five days, the Moros had, little by little, given two
+hundred taels of impure gold, for they possess great skill in mixing
+it with other metals. They give it an outside appearance so natural
+and perfect, and so fine a ring, that unless it is melted they can
+deceive all men, even the best of silversmiths." (Relation of the
+Voyage to Luzon, 1570.--Bl. and Rb., Vol. 3, p. 81.)
+
+"There are some chiefs in this island who have on their persons ten
+or twelve thousand ducats' worth of gold in jewels--to say nothing of
+the lands, slaves, and mines that they own. There are so many of these
+chiefs that they are innumerable. Likewise the individual subjects
+of these chiefs have a great quantity of the said jewels of gold,
+which they wear on their persons--bracelets, chains, and earrings
+of solid gold, daggers of gold, and other very rich trinkets. These
+are generally seen among them, and not only the chiefs and freemen
+have plenty of these jewels, but even slaves possess and wear golden
+trinkets upon their persons, openly and freely." (Reply to Fray Rada's
+'Opinion,' Guido de Lavezaris and others; Manila, June, 1574.--Bl. and
+Rb., Vol. 3, p. 267.)
+
+[52] "About their necks they wear gold necklaces, wrought like spun
+wax, and with links in our fashion, some larger than others. On their
+arms they wear armlets of wrought gold, which they call calombigas,
+and which are very large and made in different patterns. Some wear
+strings of precious stones--cornelians and agates; and other blue and
+white stones, which they esteem highly. They wear, around the legs some
+strings of these stones, and certain cords, covered with black pitch
+in many foldings, as garters." (Antonio de Morga, Sucesos.--Bl. and
+Rb., Vol. 16, pp. 76-77.)
+
+[53] "The people are the most valiant yet found in these regions;
+they possess much good armour--as iron corselets, greaves, wristlets,
+gauntlets, and helmets--and some arquebuses and culverins." (Letter
+from Guido de Lavezaris to Felipe II, Manila, July 17, 1574.--Bl. and
+Rb., Vol. 3, p. 273.)
+
+"At the waist they carry a dagger four fingers in breadth, the blade
+pointed, and a third of a vara in length; the hilt is of gold or
+ivory. The pommel is open and has two cross bars or projections,
+without any other guard. They are called bararaos. They have
+two cutting edges, and are kept in wooden scabbards, or those of
+buffalo-horn, admirably wrought."
+
+(This weapon has been lost, and even its name is gone. A proof of the
+decline into which the present Filipinos have fallen is the comparison
+of the weapons that they manufacture now, with those described to us
+by the historians. The hilts of the talibones now are not of gold
+or ivory, nor are their scabbards of horn, nor are they admirably
+wrought.--Rizal.)
+
+(Morga's Sucesos, Bl. and Rb., Vol. 16, p. 81 and note 65.)
+
+"Since they have seen the Spaniards use their weapons, many of the
+natives handle the arquebuses and muskets quite skilfully. Before
+the arrival of the Spaniards they had bronze culverins and other
+pieces of cast iron, with which they defended their forts and
+settlements, although their powder is not so well refined as that of
+the Spaniards." (Ibid., p. 82.)
+
+"This intercourse and traffic had acquainted the Filipinos with many
+of the accessories of civilized life long before the arrival of the
+Spaniards. Their chiefs and datos dressed in silks, and maintained
+some splendor of surroundings; nearly the whole population of the
+tribes of the coast wrote and communicated by means of a syllabary;
+vessels from Luzon traded as far south as Mindanao and Borneo, although
+the products of Asia proper came through the fleets of foreigners;
+and perhaps what indicates more clearly than anything else the
+advance the Filipinos were making through their communication with
+outside people is their use of firearms. Of this point there is no
+question. Everywhere in the vicinity of Manila, on Lubang, in Pampanga,
+at Cainta and Laguna de Bay, the Spaniards encountered forts mounting
+small cannon, or lantakas. The Filipinos seem to have understood,
+moreover, the arts of casting cannon and of making powder. The first
+gun-factory established by the Spaniards was in charge of a Filipino
+from Pampanga." (Dr. D. P. Barrows, A History of the Philippines,
+pp. 101-102.)
+
+[54] (Relación de las Islas Filipinas, Miguel de Loarca; Arévalo,
+June, 1582.--Bl. and Rb., Vol. 5, p. 169.)
+
+[55] Antonio de Morga, Sucesos, Chap. 8.--Bl. and Rb., Vol. 16, p. 80.
+
+[56] "The coconuts furnish a nutritious food when rice is scarce. From
+the nut-shells they make dishes, and (from the fibrous husk)
+match-cords for their arquebuses; and with the leaves they make
+baskets." (Relación, Miguel de Loarca; Arévalo, June, 1852.--Bl. and
+Rb., Vol. 5, p. 169.)
+
+See also First Voyage Around the World, Antonio Pigafetta.--Bl. and
+Rb., Vol. 33, p. 105, for description of how the palm sap was obtained,
+oil made, and of other uses of the coconut.
+
+[57] Relación, Miguel de Loarca; June, 1582.--Bl. and Rb., Vol. 5,
+pp. 34-188.
+
+Conquest of the Island of Luzon. Manila, April 20, 1572.--Bl. and Rb.,
+Vol. 3, p. 171.
+
+[58] Relation and Description of the Philippine Islands, Francisco
+de Sande; Manila, June 8, 1577.--Bl. and Rb., Vol. 4, p. 98.
+
+"Cotton is raised abundantly throughout the islands. It is spun and
+sold in the skein to the Chinese and other nations, who come to get
+it. Cloth of different patterns is also woven from it, and the natives
+also trade that. Other cloths, called medriñiques, are woven from
+the banana leaf." (Sucesos de las Islas Filipinas, Antonio de Morga;
+Bl. and Rb., Vol. 16, p. 106.)
+
+Cotton was woven into sail. "The canvas (lienzo) from which the sails
+are made in the said islands is excellent, and much better than what is
+shipped from España, because it is made from cotton. There are certain
+cloths (lienzos) which are called mantsa from the province of Ilocos,
+for the natives of that province manufacture nothing else, and pay
+your Majesty their tribute in them. They last much longer than those
+of España." (Philippine Ships and Shipbuilding, Sebastian de Pineda,
+1619.--Bl. and Rb., Vol. 18, p. 178.)
+
+[59] Relation of the Western Islands called Filipinas, Diego de
+Artieda, 1573.--Bl. and Rb., Vol. 3, p. 203.
+
+Fray Rada's Opinion, Guido de Lavezaris and others, Manila, June,
+1574.--Bl. and Rb., Vol. 3, p....
+
+"The island of Zubu produces a small quantity of rice, borona, and
+millet and little or no cotton; for the cloth which the natives use
+for their garments is made from a kind of banana. From this they make
+a sort of cloth resembling colored calico, which the natives call
+medriñaque (Relación, Miguel de Loarca, June, 1582.--Bl. and Rb.,
+Vol. 5, pp. 43-45.)
+
+[60] T. H. Pardo de Tavera, Census, 1903, Vol. I, p. 329.
+
+[61] Ibid. "The women have needlework as their employment and
+occupation, and they are very clever at it, and at all kinds of
+sewing. They weave cloth and spin cotton, and serve in houses of
+their husbands and fathers. (Antonio de Morga, Sucesos.--Bl. and Rb.,
+Vol. 16, p. 79.)
+
+[62] "Their houses are constructed of wood, and are built of planks
+and bamboo, raised high from the ground on large logs, and one must
+enter them by means of ladders. They have rooms like ours; and under
+the house they keep their swine, goats, and fowls." (Antonio Pigafetta,
+First Voyage Around the World.--Bl. and Rb., Vol. 33, p. 153.)
+
+"The houses and dwellings of all these natives are universally set
+upon stakes and arigues (i. e., columns) high above the ground. Their
+rooms are small and the roofs low. They are built and tiled with wood
+and bamboos, and covered and roofed with nipa-palm leaves. Each house
+is separate, and is not built adjoining another. In the lower part
+are enclosures made by stakes and bamboos, where fowls and cattle are
+reared, and the rice pounded and cleaned. One ascends into the houses
+by means of ladders that can be drawn up, which are made from two
+bamboos. Above are their open batalanes (galleries) used for household
+duties; the parents and (grown) children live together. There is
+little adornment and finery in the houses, which are called bahandin.
+
+"Besides these houses, which are those of the common people, and those
+of less importance, there are the chiefs' houses. They are built upon
+trees and thick arigues, with many rooms and comforts. They are well
+constructed of timber and planks, and are strong and large. They are
+furnished and supplied with all that is necessary, and are much finer
+and more substantial than the others. They are roofed, however, as
+are the others, with the palm-leaves called nipa." (Antonio de Morga,
+Sucesos.--Bl. and Rb., Vol. 16, pp. 117-118.)
+
+[63] "The edifices and houses of the natives of all these Filipinas
+Islands are built in a uniform manner, as are their settlements;
+for they always build them on the shores of the sea, between rivers
+and creeks. The natives generally gather in districts or settlements
+where they sow their rice, and possess their palm trees, nipa and
+banana groves, and other trees, and implements for their fishing and
+sailing." Ibid., p. 117.)
+
+[64] Especially in La Indolencia de los Filipinos, in "La Solidaridad,"
+1890, which develops the idea advanced by Sangcianco y Gozon.
+
+[65] "* * * As already seen, we must reject so often reiterated of
+late years that the early missionaries found nomadic or half-fixed
+clans and taught them the ways of village life. Village life there
+was already, to some extent, and it was upon this that the friars
+built. Doubtless they modified it greatly until in time it approached
+in most ways as closely to European village life as might be expected
+in tropical islands whose agricultural resources are not as yet
+well developed. From the first there would be a tendency to greater
+concentration about the churches, beginning with the rude structures
+of cane and thatch, which are replaced before 1700 in all the older
+settlements by edifices of stone, frequently massive and imposing,
+especially, so as they tower over the acres of bamboo huts about them,
+from the inmates of which have come the forced labor which built
+them. From the first, too, it was to the interest of the Spanish
+conquerors, lay and priestly, to improve the methods of communication
+between the communities which formed their centers of conversion or
+of exploration and collection of tribute. Yet to represent either
+the friars or the soldiers as great pathfinders and reconstructors
+of wilderness is the work of ignorance. When Legaspi's grandson,
+Juan de Salcedo, made his memorable marches through northern Luzon,
+bringing vast acres under the dominion of Spain with a mere handful of
+soldiers, he found the modern Bigan a settlement of several thousand
+people; his successors in the conquest of the Upper Kagayan Valley,
+one of the most backward portions of the archipelago to-day, reported
+a population of forty thousand in the region lying around the modern
+Tuguegarao, and so it was quite commonly everywhere on the seacoasts
+and on the largest rivers. Some very crude deductions have been made
+as to the conquest period by writers of recent years who assume that
+the natives were at the beginning mere bands of wandering savages,
+and that all the improvements visible in their external existence
+to-day were brought about in these early years." (James A. LeRoy,
+The Americans in the Philippines, Vol. I, pp. 8-10.)
+
+"The friar missionaries did not bring about the first settlement and
+conquests under Legaspi; they did not blaze the way in wildernesses
+and plant the flag of Spain in outlying posts long in advance of
+the soldiers, the latter profiting by their moral-suasion conquests
+to annex great territories for their own plunder; they did not find
+bloodthirsty savages, wholly sunk in degradation, and in the twinkling
+of an eye convert them to Christianity, sobriety, and decency, * * *;
+they did not teach wandering bands of huntsmen or fishermen how to
+live peacefully in orderly settlements, how to cultivate the soil,
+erect buildings (except the stone churches), and did not bind these
+villages together by the sort of roads and bridges which we have today,
+though they had considerable share in this work, especially in later
+time; they did not find a squalid population of 400,000 to 750,000
+in the archipelago, and wholly by the revolution wrought by them in
+ways of life make it possible for that population to increase by ten
+or twenty times in three centuries." (Ibid., pp. 10-11.)
+
+[66] Relación de las Islas Filipinas, Pedro Chirino, S. J., Roma
+1604.--Bl. and Rb., Vol. 12, p. 188.
+
+[67] Morga's Sucesos.--Bl. and Rb., Vol. 16, p. 105.
+
+[68] Census of the Philippine Islands, 1903, Vol. I, p. 329.
+
+[69] In La Indolencia de los Filipinos, Rizal continues thus:
+
+"And if this, which is deduction, does not convince any minds imbued
+with unfair prejudices, perhaps of some avail may be the testimony of
+the oft-quoted Dr. Morga, who was Lieutenant-Governor of Manila for
+seven years and after rendering great service in the Archipelago was
+appointed criminal judge of the Audiencia of Mexico and Counsellor
+of the Inquisition. His testimony, we say, is highly credible, not
+only because all his contemporaries have spoken of him in terms that
+border on veneration but also because his work, from which we take
+these citations, is written with great circumspection and care, as well
+with reference to the authorities in the Philippines as to the errors
+they committed. 'The natives,' says Morga, in chapter VII, speaking of
+the occupations of the Chinese, 'are very far from exercising those
+trades and have even forgotten much about farming, raising poultry,
+stock and cotton, and weaving cloth AS THEY USED TO DO IN THEIR
+PAGANISM AND FOR A LONG TIME AFTER THE COUNTRY WAS CONQUERED.'"
+
+"The whole of Chapter VIII of his work deals with this moribund
+activity, this much-forgotten industry, and yet in spite of that,
+how long is his eighth chapter!
+
+"And not only Morga, not only Chirino, Colin, Argensola, Gaspar de
+San Agustin and others agree in this matter, but modern travelers,
+after two hundred and fifty years, examining the decadence and misery,
+assert the same thing. Dr. Hans Meyer, when he saw the unsubdued
+tribes cultivating beautiful fields and working energetically, asked
+if they would not become indolent when they in turn should accept
+Christianity and a paternal government.
+
+"Accordingly, the Filipinos, in spite of the climate, in spite of
+their few needs (they were less then than now), were not the indolent
+creatures of our time, and, as we shall see later on, their ethics
+and their mode of life were not what is now complacently attributed
+to them."
+
+Rizal has the following, to say about the abundance of wealth in
+this country:
+
+"Wealth abounded in the islands. Pigafetta tells us of the abundance
+of foodstuffs in Paragua and of its inhabitants, who nearly all
+tilled their own fields. At this island the survivors of Magellan's
+expedition were well received and provisioned. A little later, these
+same survivors captured a vessel, plundered and sacked it, and took
+prisoner in it the chief of the Island of Paragua (!) with his son
+and brother.
+
+"In this same vessel they captured bronze lombards, and this is the
+first mention of artillery of the Filipinos, for these lombards were
+useful to the chief of Paragua against the savages of the interior.
+
+"They let him ransom himself within seven days, demanding 400 measures
+(cavanes?) of rice, 20 pigs, 20 goats, and 450 chickens. This is the
+first act of piracy recorded in Philippine history. The chief of
+Paragua paid everything, and moreover voluntarily added coconuts,
+bananas, and sugar-cane jars filled with palm-wine. When Caesar
+was taken prisoner by the corsairs and required to pay twenty-five
+talents ransom, he replied: 'I'll give you fifty, but later I'll
+have you all crucified!' The chief of Paragua was more generous: he
+forgot. His conduct, while it may reveal weakness, also demonstrates
+that the islands were abundantly provisioned. This chief was named
+Tuan Mahamud; his brother, Guantil, and his son, Tuan Mahamed. (Martin
+Mendez, Purser of the Ship "Victoria": Archivos de Indias, Ibid.)
+
+[70] I have already said that all of it is thickly populated, and
+that it has a great abundance of rice, fowls, and swine, as well
+as great numbers of buffaloes, deer, wild boars, and goats; it
+also produces great quantities of cotton and colored cloths, wax,
+and honey; and date palms abound. In conclusion, it is very well
+supplied with all the things above mentioned, and many others which
+I shall not enumerate. It is the largest island which has thus far
+been discovered in these regions. As I say, it is well populated and
+very rich in gold mines. There is much trade with China. That part of
+it which has thus far been conquered and pacified, the governor has
+begun to allot to the conquerors." Conquest of the Island of Luzon,
+Manila, April 20, 1572. (Bl. and Rb., Vol. 3, pp. 171-172.)
+
+"This province (Pampanga) possesses many rivers and creeks that
+irrigate it. They all flow and empty into the bay. This province
+contains many settlements of natives and considerable quantities
+of rice, fruits, fish, meat, and other foods." (Antonio de Morga's
+Sucesos, 1609.--Bl. and Rb., Vol. 16, p. 108.)
+
+(Rizal's Note:--"This province had decreased so greatly in population
+and agriculture, a half century later, that Gaspar de San Agustin
+said: 'Now it no longer has the population of the past, because of
+the insurrection of that province, when Don Sabiniano Manrique de
+Lara was governor of these islands, and because of the incessant
+cutting of the timber for the building of his Majesty's ships, which
+prevents them from cultivating their extremely fertile plain.' Later,
+when speaking of Guagua or Wawa, he says: 'This town was formerly
+very wealthy because of its many chiefs, and because of the abundant
+harvests gathered in its spacious plains, which are now submerged by
+the water of the sea.'" (Ibid.)
+
+"In reply to the fourth question he stated that, before the coming
+of the Spaniards, all the natives lived in their villages, applying
+themselves to the sowing of their crops and the care of their
+vineyards, and to the pressing of wine; others planting cotton,
+or raising poultry and swine, so that all were at work; moreover,
+the chiefs were obeyed and respected, and the entire country well
+provided for. But all this has disappeared since the coming of the
+Spaniards." (Testimony of Nicolas Ramos, chief of Cubao village
+and governor of same, under oath, in compliance with order of
+G. P. Dasmariñas "forbidding" the Indians to wear Chinese stuff;
+April 9, 1591.--Bl. and Rb., Vol. 8, p. 87.)
+
+[71] "* * * Many islands and villages are devastated and almost wiped
+out, partly by the Spaniards or because of them, and partly by famines
+of which, or at the beginning of them, the Spaniards were the reason;
+for either by fear or to get rid of the Spaniards the natives NEGLECTED
+THEIR SOWING, and when they wished to sow then anguish came to them,
+and consequently many people have died of hunger." (Augustinian
+Memoranda, 1373.--Bl. and Rb., Vol. 34, p. 279.)
+
+"After the end of the war the need of the city began, for, because
+of not having Sangleys who worked at the trades, and brought in
+all the provisions, there was no food, nor any shoes to wear,
+not even at excessive prices. The native Indians are very far from
+exercising those trades, and have even forgotten much of farming,
+and the raising of fowls, cattle, and cotton, and the weaving of
+cloth, which they used to do in the days of their paganism and for
+a long time after the conquest of the country. In addition to this,
+people thought that Chinese vessels would not come to the islands
+with food and merchandise, on account of the late revolution. * * *"
+(Antonio de Morga's Sucesos, 1601.--Bl. and Rb., Vol. 16, pp. 42-43).
+
+[72] In La Indolencia, Rizal further says:
+
+"It was necessary to subject the people either by cajolery or force;
+there were fights, there was slaughter; those who had submitted
+peacefully seemed to repent of it; insurrections were suspected,
+and some occurred; naturally there were executions, and many capable
+laborers perished. Add to this condition of disorder the invasion of
+Limahong, add the continual wars into which the inhabitants of the
+Philippines were plunged to maintain the honor of Spain, to extend
+the sway of her flag in Borneo, in the Moluccas and in Indo-China;
+to repel the Dutch foe: costly wars, fruitless expeditions, in which
+each time thousands and thousands of native archers and rowers were
+recorded to have embarked, but whether they returned to their homes was
+never stated. Like the tribute that once upon a time Greece sent to the
+Minotaur of Crete, the Philippine youth embarked for the expedition,
+saying good-by to their country forever: on their horizon were the
+stormy sea, the interminable wars, the rash expeditions. Wherefore,
+Gaspar de San Agustin says: 'Although anciently there were in this
+town of Dumangas many people, in the course of time they have very
+greatly diminished because the natives are the best sailors and most
+skillful rowers on the whole coast, and so the governors  in the port
+of Iloilo take most of the people from this town for the ships that
+they send abroad. * * * When the Spaniards reached this island (Panay)
+it is said that there were on it more than fifty thousand families;
+but these diminished greatly; * * * and at present they may amount
+to some fourteen thousand tributaries.' From fifty thousand families
+to fourteen thousand tributaries in little over half a century!
+
+We would never get through, had we to quote all the evidence of the
+authors regarding the frightful diminution of the inhabitants of the
+Philippines in the first years after the discovery. In the time of
+their first bishop, that is, ten years after Legaspi, Philip II said
+that they had been reduced to less than two-thirds."
+
+[73] La Indolencia de los Filipinos:
+
+"In order to make headway against so many calamities, to secure their
+sovereignty and take the offensive in these disastrous contests, to
+isolate the warlike Sulus from their neighbors in the south, to care
+for the needs of the empire of the Indies (for one of the reasons why
+the Philippines were kept, as contemporary documents prove, was their
+strategical position between New Spain and the Indies), to wrest from
+the Dutch their growing colonies of the Moluccas and get rid of some
+troublesome neighbors, to maintain, in short, the trade of China with
+New Spain, it was necessary to construct new and large ships which,
+as we have seen, costly as they were to the country for their equipment
+and the rowers they required, were not less so because of the manner in
+which they were constructed. Fernando de los Rios Coronel, who fought
+in these wars and later turned priest, speaking of these King's ships,
+said: 'As they were so large the timber needed was scarcely to be
+found in the forests (of the Philippines!), and thus it was necessary
+to seek it with great difficulty in the most remote of them, where,
+once found, in order to haul and convey it to the shipyard the towns
+of the surrounding country had to be depopulated of natives, who get it
+out with immense labor, damage, and cost to them. The natives furnished
+the masts for a galleon, according to the assertion of the Franciscans,
+and I heard the governor of the province where they were cut, which
+is Laguna de Bay, say that to haul them seven leagues over very broken
+mountains 6,000 natives were engaged three months, without furnishing
+them food, which the wretched native had to seek for himself.'
+
+"And Gaspar de San Agustin says: 'In these times (1690), Bacolor has
+not the people that it had in the past, because of the uprising in
+that province when Don Sabiniano Manrique de Lara was Governor of
+these islands and because of the continual labor of cutting limber
+for his Majesty's shipyards, WHICH HINDERS THEM FROM CULTIVATING THE
+VERY FERTILE PLAIN THEY HAVE'."
+
+[74] "The Indians, upon seeing that wealth excited the rapacity of
+the encomenderos and soldiers, abandoned the working of the mines,
+and the religious historians assert that they counseled them to a
+similar action in order to free them from annoyances. Nevertheless,
+according to Colin (who was 'informed by well-disposed natives'),
+more than 100,000 pesos of gold annually, conservatively stated,
+was taken from the mines during his time, after eighty years of
+abandonment. According to a 'manuscript of a grave person who had
+lived long in these islands,' the first tribute of the two provinces
+of Ilocos and Pangasinan alone amounted to 109,500 pesos. A single
+encomendero, in 1587, sent 3,000 taheles of gold in the 'Santa Ana,'
+which was captured by Cavendish." (Rizal's Notes to Antonio de Morga's
+Sucesos, 1609, Bl. and Rb., Vol. 16, p. 101.)
+
+"If this is not sufficient to explain the depopulation of the islands
+and the abandonment of industry, agriculture and commerce, then
+add 'the natives who were executed, those who left their wives and
+children and fled in disgust to the mountains, those who were sold
+into slavery to pay the taxes levied upon them,' as Fernando de los
+Rios Coronel says; add to all this what Philip II said in reprimanding
+Bishop Salazar about 'natives sold by some encomenderos to others,
+those flogged to death, the women who are crushed to death by their
+heavy burdens, those who sleep in the fields and there bear and nurse
+their children and die bitten by poisonous vermin, the many who are
+executed and left to die of hunger and those who eat poisonous herbs *
+* * and the mothers who kill their children in bearing them,' and you
+will understand how in less than thirty years the population of the
+Philippines was reduced one-third. We are not saying this: it was said
+by Gaspar de San Agustin, the preeminently anti-Filipino Augustinian,
+and he confirms it throughout the rest of his work by speaking every
+moment of the state of neglect in which lay the farms and fields
+once so flourishing and so well cultivated, the towns thinned that
+had formerly been inhabited by many leading families!
+
+"How is it strange, then, that discouragement may have been infused
+into the spirit of the inhabitants of the Philippines, when in the
+midst of so many calamities they did not know whether they would see
+sprout the seed they were planting, whether their field was going to
+be their grave or their crop would go to feed their executioner? What
+is there strange in it, when we see the pious but impotent friars of
+that time trying to free their poor parishioners from the tyranny
+of the encomenderos by advising them to stop work in the mines,
+to abandon their commerce, to break up their looms, pointing out to
+them heaven for their whole hope, preparing them for death as their
+only consolation?"--(La Indolencia.--Rizal.)
+
+[75] "* * * Doubtless if we could see the whole character of the
+Spanish rule in those decades, we should see that the actual condition
+of the Filipino had improved and his grade of culture had risen. No one
+can estimate the actual good that comes to a people in being brought
+under the power of a government able to maintain peace and dispense
+justice. Taxation is sometimes grievous, corruption without excuse;
+but almost anything is better than anarchy.
+
+"Before the coming of the Spaniards, it seems unquestionable that the
+Filipinos suffered greatly under two terrible grievances that afflict
+barbarous society--in the first place, warfare, with its murder,
+pillage, and destruction, not merely between tribe and tribe, but
+between town and town, such as even now prevail in the wild mountains
+of northern Luzon, among the primitive Malayan tribes; and in the
+second place, the weak and poor man was at the mercy of the strong
+and the rich.
+
+"The establishment of Spanish sovereignty had certainly mitigated,
+if it did not wholly remedy, these conditions. 'All of these
+provinces,' Morga could write, 'are pacified and are governed from
+Manila, having alcaldes mayores, corregidors, and lieutenants,
+and dispense justice. The chieftains (principales), who formerly
+held the other natives in subjection, no longer have power over
+them in the manner which they tyrannically employed, which is not
+the least benefit these natives have received in escaping from such
+slavery.'" (Dr. D. P. Barrows, History of the Philippines, p. 166.)
+
+[76] Chao Ju-kua's Description of the Philippines.--Bl. and Rb.,
+Vol. 34, pp. 183-191.
+
+Rizal, La Indolencia. (All quotations from this work are taken from
+the Derbyshire translation.):
+
+"Indolence in the Philippines is a chronic malady, but not a
+hereditary one. The Filipinos have not always been what they are,
+witnesses whereto are all the historians of the first years after
+the discovery of the Islands.
+
+"Before the arrival of the Europeans, the Malayan Filipinos carried
+on an active trade, not only among themselves but also with all the
+neighboring countries. A Chinese manuscript of the 13th century,
+translated by Dr. Hirth (Globus, Sept. 1889), which we will take
+up at another time, speaks of China's relations with the islands,
+relations purely commercial, in which mention is made of the activity
+and honesty of the traders of Luzon, who took the Chinese products
+and distributed them throughout all the islands, traveling for nine
+months, and then returned to pay religiously even for the merchandise
+that the Chinamen did not remember to have given them. The products
+which they in exchange exported from the islands were crude wax,
+cotton, pearls, tortoise-shell, betelnuts dry-goods, etc."
+
+[77] The method of trading is thus described by Chao Ju-kua:
+
+"When (Chinese) merchantmen arrive at that port they cast anchor
+at a place (called) the place of Mandarins. That place serves
+them as a market, or site where the products of their countries are
+exchanged. When a vessel has entered into the port (its captain) offers
+presents consisting of white parasols and umbrellas which serve them
+for daily use. The traders are obliged to observe these civilities
+in order to be able to count on the favor of those gentlemen.
+
+"In order to trade, the savage traders are assembled (the Chinese
+call all foreigners savages except the Japanese, Koreans, and people
+of Anam.--Blumentritt) and have the goods carried in baskets, and
+although the bearers are often unknown, none of the goods are ever
+lost or stolen. The savage traders transport these goods to other
+islands, and thus eight or nine months pass until they have obtained
+other goods of value equivalent to those that have been received
+(from the Chinese). This forces the traders of the vessels to delay
+their departure, and hence it happens that the vessels that maintain
+trade with Ma-yi are the ones that take the longest to return to
+their country." * * *
+
+"When foreign traders come to one of their villages, they must not
+touch the ground, but must remain aboard their vessel, which is
+anchored in the middle of the current, and announce their presence
+by beat of drum. Thereupon the savage traders approach in their
+light craft, in which they carry cotton, yellow wax, strange cloth,
+coconuts, onions, and fine mats, and all those things they offer
+for sale in exchange (for the articles of the Chinese). In case of
+misunderstanding in the price of the goods, it is necessary to summon
+the chief of the traders of that place, so that he may present himself
+in person, and arrange the tariff to the satisfaction of all." * * *
+
+[78] The first thing noticed by Pigafetta, who came with Magellan in
+1521, on arriving at the first island of the Philippines, Samar, was
+the courtesy and kindness of the inhabitants and their commerce. "To
+honor our captain," he says, "they conducted him to their boats where
+they had their merchandise, which consisted of cloves, cinnamon,
+pepper, nutmegs, mace, gold and other things; and they made us
+understand by gestures that such articles were to be found in the
+islands to which we were going."
+
+Further on he speaks of the vessels and utensils of solid gold that he
+found in Butuan, where the people worked mines. He describes the silk
+dresses, the daggers with long gold hilts and scabbards of carved wood,
+the gold sets of teeth, etc. Among cereals and fruits he mentions rice,
+millet, oranges, lemons, panicum, etc.
+
+That the islands maintained relations with neighboring countries and
+even with distant ones is proven by the ships from Siam, laden with
+gold and slaves, that Magellan found in Cebu. These ships paid certain
+duties to the King of the island. In the same year, 1521, the survivors
+of Magellan's expedition met the son of the Rajah of Luzon, who,
+as captain-general of the Sultan of Borneo and admiral of his fleet,
+had conquered for him the great city of Lave (Sarawak?). Might this
+captain, who was greatly feared by all his foes, have been the Rajah
+Matanda whom the Spaniards afterwards encountered in Tondo in 1570?
+
+In 1539 the warriors of Luzon took part in the formidable contests
+of Sumatra, and under the orders of Angi Siry Timor, Rajah of Batta,
+conquered and overthrew the terrible Alzadin, Sultan of Atchin,
+renowned in the historical annals of the Far East. (Marsden, Hist. of
+Sumatra, Chap. XX.)
+
+At that time, that sea where float the islands like a set of emeralds
+on a paten of bright glass, that sea was everywhere traversed by junks,
+paraus, barangays, vintas, vessels swift as shuttles, so large that
+they could maintain a hundred rowers on a side (Morga); that sea bore
+everywhere commerce, industry, agriculture, by the force of the oars
+moved to the sound of warlike songs of the genealogies and achievements
+of the Philippine divinities. (Colin, Labor Evangelica, Chap. XV.)
+
+
+
+Legaspi's expedition met in Butuan various traders of Luzon with
+their boats laden with iron, wax cloths, porcelain, etc. (Gaspar de
+San Agustin), plenty of provisions, activity, trade, movement in all
+the southern islands.
+
+They arrived at the Island of Cebu, "abounding in provisions, with
+mines and washings of gold, and peopled with natives," as Morga says;
+"very populous, and at a port frequented by many ships that came
+from the islands and kingdoms near India," as Colin says; and even
+though they were peacefully received discord soon arose. The city was
+taken by force and burned. The fire destroyed the food supplies and
+naturally famine broke out in that town of a hundred thousand people,
+as the historians say, and among the members of the expedition,
+but the neighboring islands quickly relieved the need, thanks to the
+abundance they enjoyed. (La Indolencia, Rizal.)
+
+Dr. J. A. Robertson in a note to the English translation of this
+work says:
+
+"There is no doubt of the frequency of interisland trade among the
+peoples of the Philippines at an early period. Trade was stimulated
+by the very fact that the Malay peoples, except those who have been
+driven into the mountainous interiors, are by their very nature a
+seafaring people. The fact of an interisland traffic is indicative
+of a culture above that possessed by a people in the barbarian stage
+of culture. Of course, there was considerable Chinese trade as well
+throughout the islands."
+
+[79] "Their customary method of trading was by bartering one thing for
+another, such as food, cloth, cattle, fowls, lands, houses, fields,
+slaves, fishing-grounds, and palm-trees (both nipa and wild). Sometimes
+a price intervened, which was paid in gold, as agreed upon, or in metal
+bells brought from China. These bells they regard as precious jewels;
+they resemble large pans and are very sonorous. They play upon these
+at their feasts, and carry them to the war in their boats instead
+of drums and other instruments. There are often delays and terms for
+certain payments, and bondsmen who intervene and bind themselves, but
+always with usurious and excessive profits and interests." (Antonio
+de Morga, Sucesos; Bl. and Rb., Vol. 16, p. 128.)
+
+[80] "The natives are free to move from one island to another, and from
+one province to another, and pay their tribute for that year in which
+they move and change their residence in the place to which they move;
+and to move from a Christian village that has instruction to another
+village possessing it. But on the other hand, they may not move from
+a place having instruction to one without it, nor in the same village
+from one barangay to another, nor from one faction to another. In
+this respect, the necessary precautions are made by the government,
+and the necessary provisions by the Audiencia, so that this system
+may be kept, and so that all annoyances resulting from this moving
+of the settled natives of one place to another may be avoided.
+
+"Neither are the natives allowed to go out of their villages for trade,
+except by permission of the governor, or of his alcaldes-mayores
+and justices, or even of the religious, who most often have been
+embarrassed by this, because of the instruction. This is done so that
+the natives may not wander about aimlessly when there is no need of it,
+away from their homes and settlements." (Morga's Sucesos.--Bl. and Rb.,
+Vol. 16, pp. 162-163.)
+
+[81] "17. (Commerce is to be free to all Indians of whatever
+jurisdiction they be, throughout the Philippines; and no license is
+required, nor can any fee be charged. This will ensure a good supply
+of provisions and other necessities, and promote the cultivation of
+the land. Good treatment must be shown to them, and their passage
+from one place to another facilitated, under penalty of a fine of 100
+pesos, and a charge in the residencia of the one who transcends this
+order.)" (Ordinances of Good Government by Corcuera, 1642, and Cruzat
+y Gongora, 1696.--Bl. and Rb., Vol. 50, p. 203).
+
+[82] "70. (Interprovincial trade of the various products shall not be
+prohibited, as such prohibition is in violation of law vii, título
+xviii, book iv and law xxv, título i, book vi, in accordance with
+which laws trade is to be encouraged. The Indians may cut timber in
+accordance with law xiv, título xvii, book iv. The desire to gain,
+however, shall not be allowed to cause the Indians to send out of
+any province the products necessary for its conservation. This may
+be prohibited with the consent of the father minister, from whom the
+alcalde-mayor shall ask a certification for his own protection. Without
+the certification, he shall not make such prohibition, under penalty
+of the penalties of the preceding ordinance. The natives shall pay
+no fees for the privilege of interprovincial trade; and, if any
+alcalde-mayor violates this, he shall incur a fine of 100 pesos,
+besides the responsibility of making good all the loss occasioned
+by his action. This shall be a charge in the residencia.) (Raon's
+Ordinance, February 26, 1768.--Bl. and Rb., Vol. 50, pp. 250-251.)
+
+This is one of the reasons adduced by Rizal to explain the decay of
+agriculture in this country:
+
+"Of no little importance were the hindrances and obstacles that from
+the beginning were thrown in the farmers's way by the rulers, who were
+influenced by childish fear and saw everywhere signs of conspiracies
+and uprisings. The natives were not allowed to go to their labors,
+that is, their farms, without permission of the governor, or of his
+agents and officers and even of the priests as Morga says. Those who
+know the administrative slackness and confusion in a country where
+the officials work scarcely two hours a day; those who know the
+cost of going to and returning from the capital to obtain a permit;
+those who are aware of the petty retaliations of the little tyrants
+will well understand how with this crude arrangement it is possible
+to have the most absurd agriculture. True it is that for some time
+this absurdity, which would be ludicrous had it not been so serious,
+has disappeared; but even if the words have gone out of use other
+facts and other provisions have replaced them. The Moro pirate has
+disappeared but there remains the outlaw who infests the fields and
+waylays the farmer to hold him for ransom. Now then, the government,
+which has a constant fear of the people, denies to the farmers even
+the use of a shotgun, or if it does allow it does so very grudgingly
+and withdraws it at pleasure; whence it results with the laborer,
+who, thanks to his means of defense, plants his crops and invests
+his meager fortune in the furrows that he has so laboriously opened,
+that when his crop matures, it occurs to the government, which is
+impotent to suppress brigandage, to deprive him of his weapon;
+and then, without defense and without security he is reduced to
+inaction and abandons his field, his work, and takes to gambling as
+the best means of securing a livelihood. The green cloth is under
+the protection of the government, it is safer! A mournful counselor
+is fear, for it not only causes weakness but also in casting aside
+the weapons strengthens the very persecutor!"--(La Indolencia.)
+
+[83] There were other earlier decrees to the same effect as the
+following:
+
+"6. (Alcaldes-mayor and corregidors are not to accept any presents,
+even of food, during the term of their office, as their hands
+will be bound thereby. They must pay a just price for what they
+purchase. During the term of their office they are not to purchase a
+ranch or any lands in the territory of their jurisdiction; neither are
+their secretaries or alguacils-mayor to buy them: for many evils follow
+therefrom. They are to build no sailing craft under any consideration,
+'under penalty of loss thereof and two hundred pesos, applied half to
+fines for the treasury and fortifications, because of the great harm
+caused to the natives by such constructions. For when you need any
+vessel, you can charter one.' Likewise they are forbidden to engage
+in any trade with the natives and citizens of their jurisdiction,
+either directly or through agents.") (Ordinances of Good Government,
+by Corcuera, 1642.--Bl. and Rb., Vol. 50, p. 195.)
+
+[84] "106. The chief aim of the alcaldes-mayor, corregidors, and
+assistants, is trade. They buy up by wholesale the products of the
+land, especially rice and other food supplies, exactly as is said above
+concerning the religious of certain curacies, and their interpreters
+and helpers.
+
+
+
+"111. It is not advantageous for these alcaldes-mayor and corregidors,
+or their assistants or friends, to receive the royal collections,
+for they perpetrate the numberless frauds and cheats, both against
+the royal treasury and against the Indians; and there is no remedy for
+this, as they themselves administer justice. They hold the collections
+in their possession for a long time, trading with them, and the royal
+treasury is the loser." (Report of Conditions in the Philippines,
+by Antonio de Morga; Bl. and Rb., Vol. 10, pp. 94-95.)
+
+Referring to the religious men, Morga says in the same report:
+
+"2. They trade and make a profit in their districts, from rice, wax,
+wine, gold, boats, fowls, cloth, and deerskins, to the great detriment
+of the Indians, as well as that of the entire country.
+
+"3. They deal openly in merchandise of the above-mentioned articles,
+as well as in those of China, in the trade with Nueva España."
+
+"Before the governor Don Gonzalo Ronquillo came, there were not more
+than three or four alcaldes-mayor in all these islands; but now there
+are sixteen and most of them are men who came with him. As they came
+poor, and as the salaries are small, they have taken the Indians--as
+all affirm, and it is common talk--at the time for harvesting rice;
+and they buy up all other provisions, and many profit by selling them
+again. In this way everything has become dear, because, as they have
+forbidden the Indians to trade and traffic, they sell at whatever
+price they wish. Formerly the Indians brought their products to the
+gates, and sold it at very low prices; for they are satisfied with
+very little gain, which is not true of the Spaniards." (Affairs in the
+Philippine Islands, Fray Domingo de Salazar. (Manila, 1593).--Bl. and
+Rb., Vol. 5, p. 217.)
+
+[85] Rizal, La Indolencia.--"We will not cite our own experiences,
+for aside from the fact that we do not know which to select, critical
+persons may reproach us with partiality; neither will we cite those
+of other Filipinos who write in the newspapers; but we shall confine
+ourselves to translating the words of a modern French traveler who
+was in the Philippines for a long time:
+
+"'The good curate,' he says with reference to the rosy picture a
+friar had given him of the Philippines, 'had not told me about the
+governor, the foremost official of the district, who was too much
+taken up with the ideal of getting rich to have time to tyrannize over
+his docile subjects; the governor, charged with ruling the country
+and collecting the various taxes in the government's name, devoted
+himself almost wholly to trade; in his hands the high and noble
+functions he performs are nothing more than instruments of gain. He
+monopolizes all the business and instead of developing on his part
+the love of work, instead of stimulating the too natural indolence
+of the natives, he with abuse of his powers thinks only of destroying
+all competition that may trouble him or attempt to participate in his
+profits. It matters little to him that the country is impoverished,
+without cultivation, without commerce, without industry, just so the
+governor is quickly enriched!"
+
+[86] Resultados del Desarrollo Económico de Filipinas; in "Revista
+Económica," November, 1912:
+
+"In imposing a tax payable in articles of food or dress, the
+foundations of the Philippine industry were unwittingly laid. It is
+natural for a person manufacturing a piece of cloth for the purpose
+of paying tribute with it to have an interest in making another like
+piece to sell or to exchange for some other needed object. At the same
+time, as the encomendero and alcaldes mayores engaged in trade sold
+the articles received as tribute, a market for industrial products
+was in this wise created which provoked a demand for such merchandise."
+
+[87] Azcarraga, La Libertad de Comercio de Filipinas, p. 40.
+
+"To this abundance and fertility was added the proximity of China,
+India, Japan, Malacca, and Maluco. From China they not only began to
+ship their riches in silks and glazed earthenware, as soon as they
+learned of our wealth of four and eight real pieces: * * *." (Relación
+de las Islas Filipinas, Pedro Chirino, S. J.; Roma, 1604.--Bl. and Rb.,
+Vol. 12, p. 191.)
+
+[88] Morga's Sucesos.--Bl. and Rb., Vol. 16, p. 176.
+
+[89] "These vessels come laden with merchandise, and bring wealthy
+merchants who own ships, and servants and factors of other merchants
+who remain in China. They leave China with the permission and leave of
+the Chinese viceroys and mandarins. The merchandise that they generally
+bring and sell to the Spaniards consists of raw silk in bundles, of
+the fineness of two strands ("dos cabezas"), and other silk of poorer
+quality; fine untwisted silk, white and of all colors, wound in small
+skeins; quantities of velvets, some plain, and some embroidered in
+all sorts of figures, colors, and fashions--others with body of gold,
+and embroidered with gold; woven stuffs and brocades, of gold and
+silver upon silk of various colors and patterns; quantities of gold
+and silver thread in skeins over thread and silk--but the glitter
+of all the gold and silver is false, and only on paper; damasks,
+satins, taffetans, gorvaranes, picotes (coarse stuff made of goat's
+hair, or a glossy silk stuff; probably the latter is intended in
+the text. Gorvaran or gorgoran is a sort of silk grogram), and other
+cloths of all colors, some finer and better than others; a quantity
+of linen made from grass, called 'lencensuelo' (handkerchief). (This
+fabric is now called Piña); and white cotton cloth of different kinds
+and qualities, for all uses. They also bring musk, benzoin, and ivory;
+many bed ornaments, hangings, coverlets, and tapestries of embroidered
+velvet; damask and gorvaran of different shades; tablecloths, cushions,
+and carpets; horse-trappings of the same stuff, and embroidered with
+glass beads and seed-pearls; also some pearls and rubies, sapphires
+and crystal-stones; metal basins, copper kettles, and other copper and
+cast-iron pots; quantities of all sorts of nails, sheet-iron, tin and
+lead; saltpetre and gunpowder. They supply the Spaniards with wheat
+flour; preserves made of orange, peach, 'scorzonera,' pear, nutmeg,
+and ginger, and other fruits of China; salt pork and other salt meats;
+live fowls of good breed, and very fine capons; quantities of green
+fruit, oranges of all kinds; excellent chestnuts, walnuts, pears, and
+'chicueyes' (both green and dried, a delicious fruit); quantities of
+fine thread of all kinds, needles, and knick-knacks; little boxes and
+writing-cases; beds, tables, chairs, and gilded benches, painted in
+many figures and patterns. They bring domestic buffaloes; geese that
+resemble swans; horses, some mules and asses; even caged birds, some
+of which talk, while others sing, and they make them play innumerable
+tricks. The Chinese furnish numberless other gewgaws and ornaments
+of little value and worth, which are esteemed among the Spaniards;
+besides a quantity of fine crockery of all kinds; canganes, (this
+must be the cloth and not the porcelain of Kaga, which even today
+is so highly esteemed.--Rizal), sines, and black and blue robes;
+'tacley,' which are beads of all kinds; strings of cornelians, and
+other beads and precious stones of all colors; pepper and other spices;
+and rarities--which, did I refer to them all, I would never finish,
+nor have sufficient paper for it." (Ibid., pp. 178-180.)
+
+[90] "They also bring some fine woven silk goods of mixed colors;
+beautiful and finely-decorated screens done in oil and gilt; all kinds
+of cutlery; many suits of armor, spears, catans, and other weapons,
+all finely wrought; writing cases, boxes and small cases of wood,
+japanned and curiously marked; other pretty gewgaws; excellent fresh
+pears; barrels and casks of good salt tunny; cages of sweet-voiced
+larks, called "fimbaros;" and other trifles." (Ibid., p. 183.)
+
+[91] "* * * They take merchandise consisting of spices--cloves,
+cinnamon, and pepper; slaves, both black and Cafres; cotton cloth
+of all sorts, fine muslins (caniquies), linens, gauzes, rambuties,
+and other delicate and precious cloths; amber, and ivory; cloths edged
+with pita, for use as bed covers; hangings, and rich counterpanes from
+Vengala (Bengal), Cochin, and other countries; many gilt articles
+and curiosities; jewels of diamonds, rubies, sapphires, topazes,
+balas-rubies, and other precious stones, both set and loose; many
+trinkets and ornaments from India; wine, raisins, and almonds;
+delicious preserves, and other fruits brought from Portugal and
+prepared in Goa; carpets and tapestries from Persia and Turquia, made
+of fine silks and wools; beds, writing-cases, parlor-chairs, and other
+finely-guilded furniture, made in Macao; needle-work in colors and
+in white, of chain-lace and royal point lace, and other fancy-work
+of great beauty and perfection. Purchases of all the above are made
+in Manila, and paid in reals and gold. The vessels return in January
+with the brisas, which is their favorite monsoon. They carry to Maluco
+provisions of rice and wine, crockery-ware, and other wares needed
+there; while to Malacca they take only the gold or money, besides a
+few special trinkets and curiosities from España, and emeralds. The
+royal duties are not collected from these vessels." (Morga's Sucesos,
+1609.--Bl. and Rb., Vol. 16, pp. 184-185.)
+
+[92] Ibid., pp. 185-186.
+
+[93] Ibid., p. 186.
+
+[94] "All of these things (referring to the trade of the Philippines)
+make life in that region pleasant and an object of desire to men; and
+indeed it seems a copy of that Tyre so extolled by Ezequiel." (Relación
+de las Islas Filipinas, Pedro Chirino.--Bl. and Rb., Vol. 13, p. 192.)
+
+"The capital of our colony was, therefore, a few years after the
+conquest, an emporium of wealth which, by its commercial activity,
+gained in those seas the title of Pearl of the Orient." (La Libertad
+de Comercio, Azcarraga, p. 41.)
+
+"The commerce of these islands began with their second discovery and
+the first settlement, which was in the year 1565. However, it was at
+the first scanty and of little weight, until during the government
+of Guido de Labazarris, in the year 1576, the trade of China was
+introduced, and with it considerable profits, which extended it freely
+to Nueva España, Guatimala, Tierrafirme, and Perú, by a royal decree
+of April 14, 1579." (Informatory Memorial addressed to the king, Juan
+Grau y Monfalcon; Madrid, 1637.--Bl. and Rb., Vol. 27, pp. 157-158.)
+
+[95] "For thirty years after the conquest the commerce of the
+islands was unrestricted and their prosperity advanced with great
+rapidity." (Historical Introduction, E. G. Bourne.--Bl. and Rb.,
+Vol. 1, p. 61.)
+
+"As for the second point, the amount of the commerce, this was formerly
+without any limitation; and during the time (which was short) while
+that condition lasted the islands acquired what strength and wealth
+and grandeur they now possess." (Juan Grau y Monfalcón in Extracto
+Historial by Antonio Alvarez de Abreu; Madrid, 1736.--Bl. and Rb.,
+Vol. 30, p. 50.)
+
+This is the point of view taken by Azcarraga in his La Libertad de
+Comercio en Filipinas.
+
+[96] "In 1603, that is, when our colony had only thirty-two years
+of existence, there were already in the capital 25,000 Chinese,
+and the number of Japanese must have been also quite considerable,
+since they formed a colony which occupied the barrios of San Anton
+and San Miguel, at present inhabited by natives and a great portion
+of the white population." (Azcarraga, La Libertad de Comercio, p. 44.)
+
+[97] "37. Accordingly the commerce of this city is extensive, rich,
+and unusually profitable; for it is carried on by all these Chinese
+and their ships, with those of all the islands above mentioned and
+of Tonquin, Cochinchina, Camboja, and Siam--four separate kingdoms,
+which lie opposite these islands on the continent of Great China--and
+of the gulfs and the numberless kingdoms of Eastern India, Persia,
+Bengala, and Ceilan, when there are no wars; and of the empire and
+kingdom of Xapon. The diversity of the peoples, therefore, who are
+seen in Manila and its environs is the greatest in the world; for
+these include men from all kingdoms and nations--España, Francia,
+Inglaterra, Italia, Flandes, Alemania, Dinamarca, Suecia, Polonia,
+Moscobia; people from all the Indias, both eastern and western; and
+Turks, Greeks, Moros, Persians, Tartars, Chinese, Japanese, Africans,
+and Asiatics. And hardly is there in the four quarters of the world
+a kingdom, province, or nation which has not representatives here, on
+account of the voyages that are made hither from all directions--east,
+west, north, and south." Description of Filipinas Islands, Bartholomé
+de Letona, O. S. F.; La Puebla, Mexico, 1662.--Bl. and Rb., Vol. 36,
+p. 205.)
+
+[98] "Number 96. Distinctions in products from the islands, and their
+qualities with respect to those of España.
+
+"All these products that are trafficked from the islands are
+divided into six (sic) classes. The first is of silk, in skeins,
+thread, and trama. The second, the silk textiles. The third, the
+cotton textiles. The fourth, the products of the islands. The fifth,
+other small wares and articles that are brought. Of these, the last
+class amounts to but little, and is not harmful to the commerce
+of España, as it is composed of rarities and foreign products. The
+fourth class, namely, that of the products of the islands, by that
+very fact ought to be exported--a claim that is founded on justice;
+since it is not usual to prohibit to any province its own trade, and
+the exportation of its products wherever they may have a sale, even
+though foreign commerce be denied to it. Besides, this sort has the
+characteristic of the third, namely, that these wares are so cheap
+that their like cannot be supplied from España, as has been said,
+on account of the great difference of their prices. (In the margin:
+"In number 95.") Hence, the wares of these kingdoms would not be
+used any more, even did those of the islands fail; nor less, even if
+there were an over-supply. For the Indians and negroes care only for
+the linens of China and Filipinas, and, if they do not have them,
+they get along without them; for they have no wealth to give eight
+reals for what costs them one and one-half reals. One thousand bales
+of linen which is shipped from Sevilla in each trading fleet always
+finds a sale, and no more can be carried (to Nueva España)--because
+that would create a lack in España, and it would, moreover, be too
+advantageous to the foreigners, to whom almost all this commodity
+belongs. Two thousand bales of cotton textiles exported from Manila
+are also consumed (there); and the fact that there is less or more does
+not cause any considerable loss in the linen made from flax and hemp,
+nor does it involve much money; for the two thousand bales of cotton
+are worth one hundred and fifty thousand pesos, while one thousand of
+fine linen are worth more than one million." (Informatory Memorial
+addressed to the King, Juan Grau y Monfalcon, Procurator General;
+Madrid, 1637.--Bl. and Rb., Vol. 27, pp. 200-201.)
+
+[99] Ibid., pp. 98-104.
+
+[100] Ibid., pp. 115-116.
+
+[101] Ibid., pp. 120.
+
+[102] Ibid., pp. 186-197.
+
+[103] Ibid., p. 158.
+
+[104] Ibid.
+
+[105] Recopilación de Leyes, Lib. IX, Tit. XXXV, Ley VI. In Bl. and
+Rb., Vol. 17, pp. 30-31. Jan. 11, 1593.
+
+[106] Ibid., Ley XV.--Bl. and Rb., Vol. 17, pp. 31-32. Jan. 11, 1593.
+
+[107] Ibid., Ley XXXIV.--Bl.and Rb., Vol. 17, p. 32. Jan. 11, 1593.
+
+[108] Ibid., Ley LXVIII.--Bl. and Rb., Vol. 17, p. 33. Jan. 11, 1593.
+
+[109] La Libertad de Comercio, p. 49.
+
+[110] Recopilación, Lib IX, Tit. XXXV, Leyes LXXIV, LXXV, and
+LXXVI.--Bl. and Rb., Vol. 17, pp. 42-44.
+
+[111] Pedro Quiroga.
+
+[112] Recopilación, ibid., Ley LXXVIII.--Bl. and Rb., Vol. 17,
+pp. 44-45.
+
+[113] As to the effect of these restrictions Azcarraga says: "* * *
+thus, at the end of that century, there was nothing but poverty and
+discontent in the city; the white population had hardly increased;
+commerce, confined within the narrow sphere of periodic voyages
+to Acapulco, was languishing, without attempting to engage in any
+other kind of traffic; and poverty was reflected even in the very
+troops stationed in the city, who did duty unshod and without uniform
+(camisa), frequently committing robberies at the Chinese stores. * * *"
+(La Libertad, p. 54.)
+
+[114] Extracto Historial, Antonio Alvarez de Abreu.--Bl. and Rb.,
+Vol. 44, p. 231.
+
+[115] Ibid., p. 236.
+
+[116] Ibid., p. 232.
+
+[117] Ibid., pp. 256-258.
+
+Also Azcarraga, La Libertad, pp. 58-59.
+
+[118] Royal decree of October 27, 1720, enforcing that of 1718,
+provides further that: "The values of the lading which the said ships
+are to carry from the Philippines to the port of Acapulco may be up
+to the amount of 300,000 pesos, which must come invested strictly
+and solely in the following kinds of merchandise: gold, cinnamon,
+elephants, wax, porcelain, cloves, pepper, cambayas, and linens
+woven with colors (lienzos pintados), chitas, chintzes, gauzes,
+lampotes, Hilocos blankets, silk floss and raw silk spun, cordage,
+and other commodities which are not silks." These ships are prohibited
+from carrying silken fabrics, "satins, pitiflores, velvets, damasks,
+Pekin silks (Pequines), sayasayas, brocades, plain satins, grograms,
+taffetas; silver and gold brocades; embroidered pieces of silk stuff
+for (covers of) beds, the (hangings for) drawing-rooms (estrados),
+and women's petticoats; silken gauzes flowered with gold and silver;
+pattern pieces for petticoats, figured or embroidered; dressing-gowns,
+chimones, or made-up garments; hose, ribbons, or handkerchiefs;
+or any fabric which contains silk." (Commerce in the Philippines
+with Nueva España, 1640-1736, by Antonio Alvarez de Abreu; Madrid,
+1736. (From Extracto Historial.--Bl. and Rb., Vol. 44, pp. 266-268.)
+
+[119] Ibid., p. 306.
+
+[120] Extracto Historial, Antonio Alvarez de Abreu.--Bl. and Rb.,
+Vol. 45, pp. 57-59.
+
+[121] For a detailed list of the goods sent to Mexico, and as to what
+was done with them there, see Informatory Memorial addressed to the
+King, Juan Grau y Monfalcon, 1637.--Bl. and Rb., Vol. 27, pp. 198-200.
+
+"Number 95. Trade of the islands necessary in Nueva España, because
+of their goods.
+
+"In regard to the first part, which pertain to the merchandise,
+the trade of the Filipinas is so necessary today in Nueva España,
+that the latter country finds it as difficult as do the islands to
+get along without that trade; and its lack cannot be supplied with
+merchandise from these kingdoms. The wares taken to Acapulco are
+plain and figured velvets, satins, and damasks; grograms, taffetas,
+and picotes; headdresses and stockings; silk, loose and twisted, in
+skeins, that reeled on spindles, and woven; thread; tramas, plushes,
+and other silk stuffs and textiles. Of cotton, there are sinavafas,
+fine glazed buckrams (bocacies), glazed linen (olandilla), fine
+muslins (canequies), and semianas; and of cotton and silk, beds,
+curtains, coverlets, quilts, and other pieces. (They also carry)
+civet, musk, and amber; gold and pearls; crockery-ware, cabinets,
+and articles made of wood and other things; and the products of the
+islands themselves, of which mention has been made (in the margin:
+"In number 15"). But the bulk of the commerce is reduced to the silk
+and cotton textiles; for there is but little else that is rare or
+elegant, or that has much export. From the skeined silk, and the silk
+thread, and trama are manufactured in Nueva España velvets, veils,
+headdresses, passementeries, and many taffetas, which were taken to
+Perú when there were ships that went to Callao, and to other parts
+of the Indias--where the black, brown, and silver-colored goods that
+are sent from Sevilla do not arrive in good shape, because the sea
+rots them. It is known that the skein silk of China is more even and
+elegant for delicate and smooth fabrics than is the Misteca which is
+produced in that kingdom; besides that, there is less of the latter
+kind than is necessary in the country. By this trade and manufacture,
+more than fourteen thousand persons support themselves in Mexico, La
+Puebla, and Antequera, by their looms, the whole thing being approved
+by royal decrees. Of the cotton textiles, linens (lienzos) are used
+in Nueva España more than any other stuff, as they are so cheap that
+they sell for one and one-half or two reals per vara. Therefore, they
+are desired by the Indians and negroes; and when these are lacking,
+even though there should be an over-supply of the linens of Europa,
+they do not want them or use them, as those are dear and not so much
+used by them; and they get along with their own cloths from Campeche
+or La Guasteca, and others that they weave."
+
+[122] "The basis of it was, and is, the funds called "Obras Pías"
+(Pious Works). These are funds under various denominations, whose
+origin was the piety of well-meaning Spaniards, who dying rich have
+bequeathed large sums for the purpose of lending to deserving traders
+to commerce or continue their career with. The administration of
+these is confided to various religious and charitable institutions,
+or to civil associations--the trustees forming a board, at which
+the sums to be lent, etc., are determined. Their statutes differ
+in many unessential points; but their general tenor is the same,
+viz., that sums not exceeding two-thirds of the fund shall be lent on
+respondentia at certain rates of interest, which are fixed according
+to the risk of the voyages; and these, when repaid, shall be added,
+principal and interest, to the original fund. The interests are 25 per
+cent. to Acapulco, 15 to Bengal, and so in proportion. The total of
+the capitals of these establishments (there are 12 or 14 of them),
+amounted to about three millions and a half of dollars in 1820,
+of which about two millions are due to the funds on various risks,
+principally those of New Spain: of this the major part is considered
+as lost by those best qualified to judge of the subject.
+
+"The principal employ of these funds has been in the commerce to
+Acapulco; and from the facility with which capital was procured,
+the excessive gambling spirit which this introduced, as well as the
+system of mutual accommodations from the trustees of different funds,
+and the utter absence of the wholesome restraint of public examinations
+of their accounts, it has resulted that more harm than good has been
+done by these establishments. The original intentions are entirely
+perverted, a few small sums being lent to young adventurers (when they
+have powerful friends), but far the greatest part is employed by the
+trustees themselves under the name of a relation or friend." (Remarks
+on the Philippine Islands, and their capital Manila, 1819-1822,
+by an Englishman.--Bl. and Rb., Vol. 51, pp. 148-149.)
+
+[123] Zuñiga, Estadismo de las Islas Filipinas.
+
+Historia General de Filipinas, José Montero y Vidal, Chapter XXVIII.
+
+[124] It is represented that the seamen are allowed to carry each
+30 pesos' worth of goods as a private investment, in order to
+encourage Spaniards to enter the marine service; but this ought
+to be increased to 300 pesos (the allowance made to the men on the
+fleets that go to the Indias), for more Spaniards are needed on the
+Acapulco trade-route--hardly one-third of the men on the galleon
+being of Spanish birth, the rest being Indians--and on the rivera of
+Cavite." Extracto Historial, Antonio Alvarez Abreu, 1736.--Bl. and Rb.,
+Vol. 44, Pp. 307-308.
+
+[125] Azcarraga, La Libertad, pp. 81-95.
+
+[126] "This trade and commerce is so great and profitable, and
+easy to control--for it only lasts three months in the year, from
+the time of the arrival of the ships with their merchandise, until
+those vessels that go to Nueva España take that merchandise--that
+the Spaniards do not apply themselves to, or engage in, any other
+industry. Consequently, there is no husbandry or field-labor worthy of
+consideration. Neither do the Spaniards work the gold mines or placers,
+which are numerous. They do not engage in many other industries that
+they could turn to with great profit, if the Chinese trade should fail
+them. That trade has been very hurtful and prejudicial in this respect,
+as well as for the occupations and farm industries in which the
+natives used to engage. Now the latter are abandoning and forgetting
+those labors. Besides, there is the great harm and loss resulting
+from the immense amount of silver that passes annually by this way
+(of the trade), into the possession of infidels, which can never,
+by any way, return into the possession of the Spaniards." (Morga's
+Sucesos.--Bl. and Rb. Vol. 16, p. 187).
+
+"When, without risking any capital of his own, the merchant might
+thus share the enormous profits of this trade, with no more exertion
+than signing the invoices and letters (they were written by Indian
+clerks), and receiving the treasure on the return of the vessel, it
+is not surprising that for nearly two centuries they neglected all
+the other commercial advantages which surrounded them, or that such
+a commerce produced such merchants; the history of it and of them for
+that period may be confined to a few words:--they were agents of the
+merchants of Madras and Bengal, receiving and shipping their goods,
+and returning their proceeds, while their profits were confined to
+a large commission on them." (Remarks on the Philippine Islands and
+on their capital Manila, 1819-1822, by an Englishman.--Bl. and Rb.,
+Vol. 51, p. 150.)
+
+[127] "... This I say, then, Sire, that it is a most pitiable thing
+that there is not a man in all these Philippine Islands--Spaniard, or
+of any other nation--saving some religious, who make their principal
+aim and intent the conversion of these heathen, or the increase of
+the Christian faith; but they are only moved by their own interests
+and seek to enrich themselves, and if it happened that the welfare
+of the natives was an obstacle to this they would not hesitate,
+if they could, to kill them all in exchange for their temporal
+profit. And since this is so, what can your Majesty expect will
+happen if this continues? From this inordinate greed arises the
+violation of your Majesty's decrees and mandates, as everyone is
+a merchant and trader--and none more so than the governor, who has
+this year brought ruin upon the country. There comes each year from
+Nueva España a million in money, contrary to the mandate of your
+Majesty, all of which passes on to the heathen of China. From here,
+in violation of your Majesty's decrees, cargoes are loaded for the
+Peruvians and the merchants of Mexico, without leaving room for those
+of this country--especially the poor, who are unable to secure any
+interest therein except for a wretched bundle which is allowed them
+as a cargo. If I were to go into the multitude of evils which are
+connected with this, I should have to proceed ad infinitum." (Letters
+from the archbishop of Manila to Felipe II; Ignacio de Santibañez;
+Manila, June 24 and 26, (1598);--Bl and Rb. Vol 10, p. 145.)
+
+[128] Azcarraga: La Libertad, p. 68.
+
+[129] "By this system for two centuries the South American market for
+manufactures was reserved exclusively for Spain, but the protection did
+not prevent Spanish industry from decay and did retard the well-being
+and progress of South America. Between Mexico and the Philippines a
+limited trade was allowed, the profits of which were the perquisites
+of the Spaniards living in the Philippines and contributed to the
+religious endowments. But this monopoly was of no permanent advantage
+to the Spanish residents. It was too much like stock-jobbing, and
+sapped all spirit of industry. Zúñiga says that the commerce made a
+few rich in a short time and with little labor, but they were very
+few; that there were hardly five Spaniards in Manila worth $100,000,
+nor a hundred worth $40,000, the rest either lived on the King's pay
+or in poverty. 'Every morning one could see on the streets of Manila,
+in greatest poverty and asking alms, the sons of men who had made a
+fine show and left much money, which their sons had squandered because
+they had not been well trained in youth.' The great possibilities
+of Manila as an entrepôt of the Asiatic trade were unrealized; for
+although the city enjoyed open trade with the Chinese, Japanese,
+and other orientals, it was denied to Europeans and the growth of
+that conducted by the Chinese and others was always obstructed by
+the lack of return cargoes owing to the limitations placed upon the
+trade with America and to the disinclination of the Filipinos to
+work to produce more than was enough to insure them a comfortable
+living and pay their tributes. That the system was detrimental to the
+economic progress of the islands was always obvious and its evils were
+repeatedly demonstrated by Spanish officials. Further it was not only
+detrimental to the prosperity of the islands but it obstructed the
+development of Mexico." (Historical Introduction, by Edward Gaylord
+Bourne.--Bl. and Rb., Vol. 1, pp. 67-68.)
+
+[130] "Trade between America and the Far East all passed for a time
+through the port of Manila. This commerce was greatly desired by the
+Spanish colonists of Mexico, Perú, and Chile, but the selfish and
+rapacious merchants of Spain so influenced the policy of the mother
+country as to throttle this trading and prevent for more than two
+hundred years the legitimate development of the islands. From the
+early part of the seventeenth century until 1837 the Philippines
+were in the grasp of a protective monopoly, which not only prevented
+the productive development of the soil, but kept the Filipinos down
+to those necessarily restricted numbers which attend a population
+that raises nothing in excess of its daily needs. If there is one
+thing to be learned from this and every other study of increase of
+population in a fertile and tropical country it is that population
+increases in exact proportion to the agricultural production and
+export." (Dr. D. P. Barrows, in Philippine Census, 1903, Vol. 1,
+p. 247.)
+
+[131] "* * * All thrifty activity was regarded as despicable. No
+trader had a seat in the Cortes of Aragon. As late as 1781 the
+Academy of Madrid was obliged to offer as the subject for a prize
+essay the proposition that there was nothing derogatory in the useful
+arts. Every tradesman and manufacturer sought only to make enough
+money to enable him to live on the interest of it or to establish a
+trust fund for his family. If he was successful he either entered a
+cloister or went to another province in order to pass for a noble. In
+Cervantes we find the maxim: 'Whoever wishes to make his fortune
+seeks the church, the sea (i. e., service in America), or the king's
+house.' The highest ambition of the nation in its golden age was to
+be to Europe just what the nobility, the clergy, and the army were
+to single nations. Consequently there was an enormous preponderance
+of personal service in the industrial organism, and much of this
+was purely for ostentation. Nowhere in the world were there so many
+nobles, so many officers, civil and military, so many lawyers and
+clerks, priests and monks, so many students and school-boys, with
+their servants. But as truly, nowhere in the world were there so
+many beggars and vagabonds." (The Spanish Colonial System, by Wilhelm
+Roscher, pp. 3-4.)
+
+[132] Azcarraga, pp. 117-118.
+
+[133] See Bl. and Rb., Vol. 52, pp. 307-322. Also Vidal, Historia
+General de Filipinas, Vol. 2, pp. 285-297; Mas, Informe Sobre el
+Estado de las Islas Filipinas en 1842, part II, pp. 28-31; and the
+Boletin de la Sociedad Económica for the different years.
+
+[134] Jagor, Travels in the Philippines, chapter 25.
+
+Memoria Sobre el Desestanco del Tabaco en las Islas Filipinas, José
+Jimeno Agius, Manila, 1871.
+
+[135] "* * * at the time of Basco there were in Camarines four and
+a half million mulberry trees, and this was one of the results of
+the industrious administration of that famous governor, and of the
+first patriotic attempts of the Economic Society, so ably aided by
+the alcalde mayor, Don Martin Ballesteros, who later became factor of
+the Company in said province. At the request of the Society the first
+seeds were sent to Manila in 1780 by an Augustinian by the name of
+Fray Pedro Galiano; the director of the Company decided at all cost
+to stimulate this production, by advancing big sums * * (and) thought
+of introducing Chinese laborers for this purpose, and even proposed to
+bring over families from Granada, Valencia, and Murcia, well acquainted
+with this kind of industry; and, according to report of those agents,
+the first crops gave good results because of the continuous sprouting
+of the leaves, possibly the harvesting of even nine crops in each
+year. They were assured too, that according to Chinese experts, the
+silk of the country was inferior to that of Nanking, but very much
+superior to that of Canton." (Azcarraga, p. 133.)
+
+[136] "The cultivation of the indigo had already been encouraged
+and improved by another Augustinian, Fray Matias Octavo, with the
+generous aid of a worthy merchant of Manila, Don Diego Garcia Herreros,
+applying the method then used at Guatemala; (thus) it was possible
+in 1784 to make a shipment, by the warship Asuncion, which found a
+good market in Cadiz. With these antecedents, the Company did not
+have to do much to exploit this product, and limited itself to making
+advances to the farmers for the purchase of implements needed * * *,
+and buying everything that was offered for sale; thus in 1786 it was
+able to export one hundred and forty quintals of this valuable article,
+and double that in 1788." (Ibid., pp. 133-134).
+
+[137] "With the same eagerness the Company devoted itself to promote
+the cultivation of the sugar cane, and very soon began to reap the
+harvest of its well-calculated attempts, and shipped for the Peninsula
+in 1786 eight hundred and sixty arrobas, and in 1788, nine thousand
+six hundred and sixty three arrobas for the same place, and for China
+and India; and thus this article continued to progress, always heading
+the list of exports from the country, since in a memorial or report
+sent to the king in 1790 by Governor Don Felix Berenguer de Marquina,
+it is stated that the amount of sugar exported the year before was
+between forty and fifty thousand piculs." (Ibid., pp. 134-135.)
+
+[138] Azcarraga says that upon cotton, which--at different times,
+especially during the revolutionary war in the United States--had
+been recommended to the chiefs of the provinces as an article to
+whose cultivation they should especially devote themselves, the
+company placed a great deal of hope, because of its good quality;
+it could compete with what the English exported from the coasts of
+Malabar, and thus, by promoting its cultivation in great scale, at
+the same time that the projected textile factories of the country
+would be supplied with raw materials, it would supply the constant
+demand of China; these expectations were confirmed by the good sale
+which the first shipment of one hundred and fifty sacks to China had,
+and thus the directors adopted this article as the chief commodity
+for its trade. (Ibid.)
+
+[139] Text of decree is given in Montero y Vidal, Historia, Vol. 2,
+pp. 302-303.
+
+[140] Estadismo, Vol. 1, p. 273.
+
+[141] Azcarraga, Chapters 9, 10, and 11; Mas, Part II, pp. 31-35;
+Vidal, Historia, Vol. II, pp. 297-307.
+
+[142] In this way a new element was introduced which was essential
+for economic development: capital. Up to that time money had
+been scarce and it was all derived from local sources: owing to
+the conditions to which we have heretofore referred our community
+was obliged to furnish its own capital. It was necessarily small,
+first, on account of the slight productive forces, second, because
+of the easy destruction of acquired property, which was dissipated
+in fires and storms principally. In those first days of our history,
+the preservation and transmission from one generation to another
+of created and inherited wealth was, as it is even now, a problem
+almost impossible of solution. The general construction of houses,
+manufactured from such weak and transient elements as cane and nipa,
+does not leave us in a condition to conserve: it leaves us rather
+in a condition of easy destruction, as may be readily understood. So
+it is, that we get the benefit of only a small part of the property
+acquired by the generations that have gone before us. Where will
+you find even the trace of so many millions of cane and nipa houses
+which have absorbed the money earned by past generations? Destroyed
+by fire and storms. In their destruction was also involved all the
+industrial production, all the labor converted into capital represented
+by furniture, books, manuscripts, cloths, jewelry, coins, articles, of
+practical utility, religious, artistic and every sort of objects which
+ran the same precarious risk and had the same ephemeral existence as
+our flimsy cane and nipa houses."--Results of the Economic Development
+of the Philippines.
+
+[143] "The taking of Manila in 1762 by the English had subsequently
+great influence on our future. They, during the occupation of Manila,
+had an opportunity to know the natural resources of this country,
+the condition of abandonment and neglect of agriculture and commerce,
+and the contempt that was felt for them, and realize the possibilities
+that existed for material development as understood by the British. As
+a result of such contact with the Filipinos  English commerce was able
+to understand the conditions of our archipelago until then entirely
+unknown, owing to the conditions of their tutelar sequestration,
+and, on their part, the authorities and prominent persons of Manila
+had occasion to observe, during the short period of the occupation
+of Manila, what the English were who had been reputed as the enemies
+par excellence of the Roman Catholic Apostolic religion. It is said
+that they appropriated to themselves the money that they found in the
+treasury, which, on the other hand, we must assume, was found empty,
+both because Anda y Salazar took with him what he could find there
+to organize the war, and because private persons concealed their
+treasure. From whatever source it may have come, either brought by
+them as was really the case, or taken from the Filipinos, the fact
+was, that in order to maintain themselves, they spent a great deal
+of money and placed in movement the dormant activity of all whom they
+found within their reach." (Ibid.)
+
+[144] Azcarraga, pp. 151-152; also Mas, under Comercio Exterior, p. 2.
+
+[145] "The first result was the collision of the new arrivals with
+the exploiters of the old order, whose peaceful possession of a
+livelihood which suited them--because nobody questioned it or disturbed
+it--was suddenly threatened by the competition of more active, more
+industrious, better prepared and richer individuals, supported by firms
+located in the most important centers of the commercial world. In the
+same manner as, by arrival of the Spaniards, the old Filipino caciques
+were subjected to the Spanish officials, now the caciques who dominated
+during the period of tutelar sequestration found themselves immediately
+supplanted and converted into something lower than the new caciques of
+the economic order. They (the former) understood that such supremacy
+would give them (the latter) supremacy in everything. To defend their
+position they had recourse to the anti-foreign sentiments of the entire
+community; foreigners had always been regarded as the enemies of Spain
+and God; they must be the enemies of the Filipinos, too. The crusade
+was not new; it had been used before with excellent results at the
+time of the English domination. This campaign was hardly started when
+the cholera for the first time made its appearance in Manila. Taking
+advantage of that event, which was also called providential, the rumor
+was started that the foreigners had poisoned the waters of the Pasig,
+with the results that in 1820 the people of Manila exterminated the
+foreigners who were then residing at the capital." (Tavera, Ibid.)
+
+[146] Le Roy, The Americans in the Philippines, Vol. 1, p. 33,
+Diccionario Geográfico-Estadistíco-Historico de las Islas Filipinas,
+Manuel Buzeta and Felipe Bravo, (Madrid, 1850-1851).
+
+[147] Bowring, A Visit to the Philippines (London, 1859), p. 301.
+
+[148] Mas, under Comercio Exterior, pp. 28-29; also Azcarraga,
+Chapter 13.
+
+[149] "The merchants and even all the residents of Manila during the
+epoch of the Acapulco (trade), firmly believed that the interruption
+of its voyages would be the infallible and total ruin of the colony,
+and that upon them depended even the maintenance of the inhabitants
+of the farms. However, experience has demonstrated the error in which
+they were." (Mas, Ibid., pp. 2-3.)
+
+After giving a table of imports and exports for 1810, Mas says:
+"From this statement it is seen that at that epoch the commerce of the
+Philippines was reduced mostly to receiving funds from New Spain, and,
+in return, remitting articles of China and India; that the importation
+of foreign goods consumed in the Philippines amounted to 900,000 pesos,
+and the exportation of the products of the country, such as sugar,
+indigo, hide, etc., did not amount to 500,000 pesos. The gains,
+therefore, from that traffic, for which Manila was only a port of
+exchange, were divided between the merchants who had the monopoly
+of the galleon, but the wealth of the territory received but small
+advantages from it." (Ibid.)
+
+[150] Mas, Ibid., p. 4.
+
+[151] Azcarraga, p. 18.
+
+[152] An item in the memoir published by the Sociedad Económica de
+Amigos del País (Manila, 1860), containing a list of its achievements,
+is to the effect that on August 8, 1834, "abacá" was exported for
+the first time. (See Bl. and Rb., Vol. 52, p. 317.)
+
+Azcarraga (p. 19) gives the following figures for hemp:
+
+                           Piculs
+                           exported.
+
+                    1840    83,790
+                    1845   102,490
+                    1850   123,410
+                    1853   221,518
+                    1857   327,574
+                    1858   412,502
+
+
+[153] Azcarraga (p. 167) gives the following figures for Iloilo:
+
+
+                   Foreign Countries.   Manila.
+                   Piculs of Sugar.     Piculs of sugar.
+
+            1859         9,344          77,488
+            1860        40,176          72,592
+            1861        44,256          29,312
+            1862       102,464          98,912
+            1863       170,832          80,000
+
+
+[154] Azcarraga, pp. 168-169.
+
+[155] Jagor, (Spanish edition, Madrid, 1874), p. 255.
+
+[156] "From these dates (referring to the opening of the ports) the
+prosperity of the Philippines advanced steadily and rapidly without
+interruption until the outbreak of the Philippine revolution six
+years ago. To this period is due the propagation of the hemp fields of
+Ambos Camarines, Albay, and Sorsogon; the planting of the innumerable
+coconut groves; the sugar haciendas of Pampanga and Negros; the tobacco
+fields of Cagayan and the Ilocos provinces; the coffee of Batangas,
+and the utilization everywhere of the specially adapted soils for
+the production of these admirable articles of trade. One thing is to
+be noticed, and is important in estimating the future development of
+the islands. The money that was invested here was not brought in by
+capitalists but was made here. Haciendas arose from small beginnings,
+and this continued prosperity apparently suffered no diminution
+or check until it was interrupted by the ravages and desolation of
+warfare. * * *" (Barrows, Census of the Philippine Islands (1903),
+Vol. 1, p. 446.)
+
+[157] Bowring, p. 410.
+
+"The Filipinos gave a proof of their intelligence and of their
+aspirations by sending their children to Manila to be educated,
+buying furniture, mirrors, articles of luxury for their homes and
+persons; buying pianos, carriages, objects imported from the United
+States and Europe which came their way, owing to foreign trade. These
+articles caused a revelation which produced a revolution in the
+social mind, thanks to that veritable revolution of an economic
+character which permitted the only possible development--the material
+development." (Tavera, Ibid.)
+
+[158] Jagor, ibid., p. 256.
+
+[159] "The needs of commerce, demanded not by the poor but by the
+powerful, were attended to; for that reason roads were made, bridges
+were built, new highways of communication were opened, public safety
+was organized in a more efficient manner, the abuses of the dominators
+had greater publicity and, therefore, were fewer and more combated,
+the mail service was improved, Spaniards and other Europeans penetrated
+into the provinces, the natives themselves were permitted to go from
+one pueblo to another and change their residence, and the Filipinos
+were able to place themselves in contact with the civilized world,
+emerging from their prolonged and harmful sequestration, thanks to
+the workings of economic forces." (Tavera, Ibid.)
+
+[160] "During the previous epoch the so-called natural resources
+constituting the extractive industries--consisting of the collection of
+the spontaneous products of nature--were exploited: whereas freedom of
+trade brought about the development of agriculture which had already
+been initiated by the Real Compañía. In Ilocos, indigo was made, in
+Batangas, Pampanga, Bulacan, Laguna and the Visayas, sugar-cane was
+cultivated and sugar made; in Albay abaca was produced. Bigan, Taal,
+Balayan, Batangas, Albay, Nueva Caceres, Cebu, Molo, Jaro, Iloilo
+began to be covered with solidly constructed buildings; their wealthy
+citizens would come to Manila, make purchases, become acquainted with
+the great merchants, who entertained them in their quality as customers
+whose trade they needed; they visited the Governor-General, who would
+receive them according to the position that their money gave them;
+they came to know the justices of the Supreme Court, the provincials
+of the religious orders; they brushed up, as a result of their contact
+with the people of the capital and, on returning to their pueblo,
+they took in their hearts and minds the germ of what was subsequently
+called, "subversive ideas" and, later still, "filibusterismo."
+
+"The opening of the Suez Canal brought us nearer to Europe, and,
+carried along by the current of economical nature, came the ideas
+and principles of a political character which did no less than to
+revolutionize the ideas predominant in a country which had existed so
+completely separated from the nations of the modern world. Already the
+"brutes loaded with gold" dared to discuss with their curate, complain
+against the alcalde, defend their homes against the misconduct of
+the lieutenant or sergeant of the police force; such people were
+starting to emancipate themselves insensibly as a consequence of
+their economic independence. Their money permitted them effectively
+to defend questions involving money first, then, those of a moral
+character--they were becoming actually "insolent" according to the
+expression of the dominators: in reality, they were beginning to
+learn to defend their rights." (Tavera, Ibid.)
+
+[161] For a good discussion of the growth of population since Spanish
+conquest down to 1903, see Census of the Philippine Islands, Vol. 1,
+pp. 442-445.
+
+[162] This principle is stated as follows: "The beginnings of social
+evolution * * * are always to be found in a bountiful environment.
+Moreover, density of population follows abundance of food, whether
+the supplies are obtained from the soil directly, or indirectly,
+in exchange for manufactures; and other things being equal, the
+activity and the progress of society depend, within limits, on the
+density of population.
+
+A sparse population, scattered over a poor soil, can carry on
+production only by primitive methods and on a small scale. It can
+have only the most rudimentary division of labor; it cannot have
+manufacturing industries, or good roads, or a rapid interchange
+of intelligence; all of which, together with a highly developed
+industrial organization and a perfect utilization of capital, are
+possible to the populations that are relatively dense.
+
+A highly developed political life, too, is found only where population
+is compact. Civil liberty means discussion, and discussion is dependent
+on the frequent meeting of considerable bodies of men who have varied
+interests and who look at life from different points of view. Movements
+for the increase of popular freedom have usually started in towns.
+
+Education, religion, art, science, and literature are all dependent on
+a certain density of population. Schools, universities, churches, the
+daily newspaper, great publishing houses, libraries, and museums come
+only when the population per square mile is expressed by more than one
+unit, and their decay is one of the first symptoms that population is
+declining. * * *."--Franklin H. Giddings, The Principles of Sociology,
+(New York, 1911), pp. 366-367.
+
+[163] "These changes show how important it was to establish at
+different points, extending over two hundred miles of the Archipelago,
+commercial centers, where it was desirable that foreigners should
+settle. Without these latter, and the facilities afforded to credit
+which hereby ensued, the sudden rise and prosperity of Iloilo would
+not have been possible, inasmuch as the mercantile houses in that
+capital would have been debarred from trading with unknown planters
+in distant provinces, otherwise than for ready money." Jagor, Travels
+in the Philippines. (London, 1875), p. 304.
+
+Azcarraga, pp. 168-177; 197-198.
+
+Le Roy, Bibliographical Notes, 1860-1898.--Bl. and Rb., Vol. 52,
+pp. 112-114.
+
+[164] Jagor gives credit to the two American houses in the Philippines
+for the development of the abacá into an important article of
+export. These American houses in the first years sank large sums
+of money in advance loans, and were only able to get the business
+on a paying basis when, in 1863, they were permitted to establish
+warehouses and presses in the provinces at the principal points where
+the crop was produced, and to deal directly with the producers. Jagor
+(Spanish edition, p. 264); Le Roy, The Americans in the Philippines,
+Vol. 1, pp. 33-34.
+
+For an interesting discussion of the struggle between England and
+the United States for supremacy in the Philippines, and the role
+played by the English banks in that struggle, see a pamphlet entitled
+Commercial Progress in the Philippine Islands, by Antonio M. Regidor
+and J. Warren T. Mason, (1905).
+
+[165] This prefix does not seem, however, to be genuine in the
+language, so that the Chinese have mistaken the first syllable Ta for
+their own word (adjective preposed) ta "great", and dropped it with
+their usual contempt for foreign nations. But all this is conjectural.
+
+[166] apparently Sanskrit ... some such sound as ... Vaisadja.--Parker
+(China, London, 1901.)--C.
+
+
+
+
+
+End of Project Gutenberg's Philippine Progress Prior to 1898, by Various
+
+*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 41959 ***