diff options
Diffstat (limited to '41832.txt')
| -rw-r--r-- | 41832.txt | 22553 |
1 files changed, 22553 insertions, 0 deletions
diff --git a/41832.txt b/41832.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..ce9a543 --- /dev/null +++ b/41832.txt @@ -0,0 +1,22553 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Golden Bough (Third Edition, Vol. 3 of +12) by James George Frazer + + + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with almost no +restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under +the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or +online at http://www.gutenberg.org/license + + + +Title: The Golden Bough (Third Edition, Vol. 3 of 12) + +Author: James George Frazer + +Release Date: January 12, 2013 [Ebook #41832] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: US-ASCII + + +***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE GOLDEN BOUGH (THIRD EDITION, VOL. 3 OF 12)*** + + + + + + The Golden Bough + + A Study in Magic and Religion + + By + + James George Frazer, D.C.L., LL.D., Litt.D. + + Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge + + Professor of Social Anthropology in the University of Liverpool + + Third Edition. + + Vol. III. + + Part II + + Taboo and the Perils of the Soul + + New York and London + + MacMillan and Co. + + 1911 + + + + + +CONTENTS + + +Preface. +Chapter I. The Burden Of Royalty. + § 1. Royal and Priestly Taboos. + § 2. Divorce of the Spiritual from the Temporal Power. +Chapter II. The Perils Of The Soul. + § 1. The Soul as a Mannikin. + § 2. Absence and Recall of the Soul. + § 3. The Soul as a Shadow and a Reflection. +Chapter III. Tabooed Acts. + § 1. Taboos on Intercourse with Strangers. + § 2. Taboos on Eating and Drinking. + § 3. Taboos on shewing the Face. + § 4. Taboos on quitting the House. + § 5. Taboos on leaving Food over. +Chapter IV. Tabooed Persons. + § 1. Chiefs and Kings tabooed. + § 2. Mourners tabooed. + § 3. Women tabooed at Menstruation and Childbirth. + § 4. Warriors tabooed. + § 5. Manslayers tabooed. + § 6. Hunters and Fishers tabooed. +Chapter V. Tabooed Things. + § 1. The Meaning of Taboo. + § 2. Iron tabooed. + § 3. Sharp Weapons tabooed. + § 4. Blood tabooed. + § 5. The Head tabooed. + § 6. Hair tabooed. + § 7. Ceremonies at Hair-cutting. + § 8. Disposal of Cut Hair and Nails. + § 9. Spittle tabooed. + § 10. Foods tabooed. + § 11. Knots and Rings tabooed. +Chapter VI. Tabooed Words. + § 1. Personal Names tabooed. + § 2. Names of Relations tabooed. + § 3. Names of the Dead tabooed. + § 4. Names of Kings and other Sacred Persons tabooed. + § 5. Names of Gods tabooed. + § 6. Common Words tabooed. +Chapter VII. Our Debt To The Savage. + Note. Not To Step Over Persons And Things. +Index. +Footnotes + + + + + + + [Cover Art] + +[Transcriber's Note: The above cover image was produced by the submitter +at Distributed Proofreaders, and is being placed into the public domain.] + + + + + +PREFACE. + + +The term Taboo is one of the very few words which the English language has +borrowed from the speech of savages. In the Polynesian tongue, from which +we have adopted it, the word designates a remarkable system which has +deeply influenced the religious, social, and political life of the Oceanic +islanders, both Polynesians and Melanesians, particularly by inculcating a +superstitious veneration for the persons of nobles and the rights of +private property. When about the year 1886 my ever-lamented friend William +Robertson Smith asked me to write an article on Taboo for the Ninth +Edition of the _Encyclopaedia Britannica_, I shared what I believe to have +been at the time the current view of anthropologists, that the institution +in question was confined to the brown and black races of the Pacific. But +an attentive study of the accounts given of Taboo by observers who wrote +while it still flourished in Polynesia soon led me to modify that view. +The analogies which the system presents to the superstitions, not only of +savages elsewhere, but of the civilised races of antiquity, were too +numerous and too striking to be overlooked; and I came to the conclusion +that Taboo is only one of a number of similar systems of superstition +which among many, perhaps among all races of men have contributed in large +measure, under many different names and with many variations of detail, to +build up the complex fabric of society in all the various sides or +elements of it which we describe as religious, social, political, moral +and economic. This conclusion I briefly indicated in my article. My +general views on the subject were accepted by my friend Robertson Smith +and applied by him in his celebrated _Lectures_ to the elucidation of some +aspects of Semitic religion. Since then the importance of Taboo and of +systems like it in the evolution of religion and morality, of government +and property, has been generally recognised and has indeed become a +commonplace of anthropology. + +The present volume is merely an expansion of the corresponding chapter in +the first edition of _The Golden Bough_. It treats of the principles of +taboo in their special application to sacred personages, such as kings and +priests, who are the proper theme of the book. It does not profess to +handle the subject as a whole, to pursue it into all its ramifications, to +trace the manifold influences which systems of this sort have exerted in +moulding the multitudinous forms of human society. A treatise which should +adequately discuss these topics would far exceed the limits which I have +prescribed for myself in _The Golden Bough_. For example, I have barely +touched in passing on the part which these superstitions have played in +shaping the moral ideas and directing the moral practice of mankind, a +profound subject fraught perhaps with momentous issues for the time when +men shall seriously set themselves to revise their ethical code in the +light of its origin. For that the ethical like the legal code of a people +stands in need of constant revision will hardly be disputed by any +attentive and dispassionate observer. The old view that the principles of +right and wrong are immutable and eternal is no longer tenable. The moral +world is as little exempt as the physical world from the law of ceaseless +change, of perpetual flux. Contemplate the diversities, the +inconsistencies, the contradictions of the ethical ideas and the ethical +practice, not merely of different peoples in different countries, but of +the same people in the same country in different ages, then say whether +the foundations of morality are eternally fixed and unchanging. If they +seem so to us, as they have probably seemed to men in all ages who did not +extend their views beyond the narrow limits of their time and country, it +is in all likelihood merely because the rate of change is commonly so slow +that it is imperceptible at any moment and can only be detected by a +comparison of accurate observations extending over long periods of time. +Such a comparison, could we make it, would probably convince us that if we +speak of the moral law as immutable and eternal, it can only be in the +relative or figurative sense in which we apply the same words to the +outlines of the great mountains, by comparison with the short-lived +generations of men. The mountains, too, are passing away, though we do not +see it; nothing is stable and abiding under or above the sun. We can as +little arrest the process of moral evolution as we can stay the sweep of +the tides or the courses of the stars. + +Therefore, whether we like it or not, the moral code by which we regulate +our conduct is being constantly revised and altered: old rules are being +silently expunged and new rules silently inscribed in the palimpsest by +the busy, the unresting hand of an invisible scribe. For unlike the public +and formal revision of a legal code, the revision of the moral code is +always private, tacit, and informal. The legislators who make and the +judges who administer it are not clad in ermine and scarlet, their edicts +are not proclaimed with the blare of trumpets and the pomp of heraldry. We +ourselves are the lawgivers and the judges: it is the whole people who +make and alter the ethical standard and judge every case by reference to +it. We sit in the highest court of appeal, judging offenders daily, and we +cannot if we would rid ourselves of the responsibility. All that we can do +is to take as clear and comprehensive a view as possible of the evidence, +lest from too narrow and partial a view we should do injustice, perhaps +gross and irreparable injustice, to the prisoners at the bar. Few things, +perhaps, can better guard us from narrowness and illiberality in our moral +judgments than a survey of the amazing diversities of ethical theory and +practice which have been recorded among the various races of mankind in +different ages; and accordingly the Comparative Method applied to the +study of ethical phenomena may be expected to do for morality what the +same method applied to religious phenomena is now doing for religion, by +enlarging our mental horizon, extending the boundaries of knowledge, +throwing light on the origin of current beliefs and practices, and thereby +directly assisting us to replace what is effete by what is vigorous, and +what is false by what is true. The facts which I have put together in this +volume as well as in some of my other writings may perhaps serve as +materials for a future science of Comparative Ethics. They are rough +stones which await the master-builder, rude sketches which more cunning +hands than mine may hereafter work up into a finished picture. + +J. G. Frazer. + +CAMBRIDGE, +_1st February 1911_. + + + + + +CHAPTER I. THE BURDEN OF ROYALTY. + + + + +§ 1. Royal and Priestly Taboos. + + +(M1) At a certain stage of early society the king or priest is often +thought to be endowed with supernatural powers or to be an incarnation of +a deity, and consistently with this belief the course of nature is +supposed to be more or less under his control, and he is held responsible +for bad weather, failure of the crops, and similar calamities.(1) To some +extent it appears to be assumed that the king's power over nature, like +that over his subjects and slaves, is exerted through definite acts of +will; and therefore if drought, famine, pestilence, or storms arise, the +people attribute the misfortune to the negligence or guilt of their king, +and punish him accordingly with stripes and bonds, or, if he remains +obdurate, with deposition and death.(2) Sometimes, however, the course of +nature, while regarded as dependent on the king, is supposed to be partly +independent of his will. His person is considered, if we may express it +so, as the dynamical centre of the universe, from which lines of force +radiate to all quarters of the heaven; so that any motion of his--the +turning of his head, the lifting of his hand--instantaneously affects and +may seriously disturb some part of nature. He is the point of support on +which hangs the balance of the world, and the slightest irregularity on +his part may overthrow the delicate equipoise. The greatest care must, +therefore, be taken both by and of him; and his whole life, down to its +minutest details, must be so regulated that no act of his, voluntary or +involuntary, may disarrange or upset the established order of nature. Of +this class of monarchs the Mikado or Dairi, the spiritual emperor of +Japan, is or rather used to be a typical example. He is an incarnation of +the sun goddess, the deity who rules the universe, gods and men included; +once a year all the gods wait upon him and spend a month at his court. +During that month, the name of which means "without gods," no one +frequents the temples, for they are believed to be deserted.(3) The Mikado +receives from his people and assumes in his official proclamations and +decrees the title of "manifest or incarnate deity" (_Akitsu Kami_) and he +claims a general authority over the gods of Japan.(4) For example, in an +official decree of the year 646 the emperor is described as "the incarnate +god who governs the universe."(5) + +(M2) The following description of the Mikado's mode of life was written +about two hundred years ago:--(6) + +"Even to this day the princes descended of this family more particularly +those who sit on the throne, are looked upon as persons most holy in +themselves, and as Popes by birth. And, in order to preserve these +advantageous notions in the minds of their subjects, they are obliged to +take an uncommon care of their sacred persons, and to do such things, +which, examined according to the customs of other nations, would be +thought ridiculous and impertinent. It will not be improper to give a few +instances of it. He thinks that it would be very prejudicial to his +dignity and holiness to touch the ground with his feet; for this reason +when he intends to go anywhere, he must be carried thither on men's +shoulders. Much less will they suffer that he should expose his sacred +person to the open air, and the sun is not thought worthy to shine on his +head. There is such a holiness ascribed to all the parts of his body that +he dares to cut off neither his hair, nor his beard, nor his nails. +However, lest he should grow too dirty, they may clean him in the night +when he is asleep; because, they say, that which is taken from his body at +that time, hath been stolen from him, and that such a theft doth not +prejudice his holiness or dignity. In ancient times, he was obliged to sit +on the throne for some hours every morning, with the imperial crown on his +head, but to sit altogether like a statue, without stirring either hands +or feet, head or eyes, nor indeed any part of his body, because, by this +means, it was thought that he could preserve peace and tranquillity in his +empire; for if, unfortunately, he turned himself on one side or the other, +or if he looked a good while towards any part of his dominions, it was +apprehended that war, famine, fire, or some other great misfortune was +near at hand to desolate the country. But it having been afterwards +discovered, that the imperial crown was the palladium, which by its +immobility(7) could preserve peace in the empire, it was thought expedient +to deliver his imperial person, consecrated only to idleness and +pleasures, from this burthensome duty, and therefore the crown is at +present placed on the throne for some hours every morning. His victuals +must be dressed every time in new pots, and served at table in new dishes: +both are very clean and neat, but made only of common clay; that without +any considerable expense they may be laid aside, or broke, after they have +served once. They are generally broke, for fear they should come into the +hands of laymen, for they believe religiously, that if any layman should +presume to eat his food out of these sacred dishes, it would swell and +inflame his mouth and throat. The like ill effect is dreaded from the +Dairi's sacred habits; for they believe that if a layman should wear them, +without the Emperor's express leave or command, they would occasion +swellings and pains in all parts of his body." To the same effect an +earlier account of the Mikado says: "It was considered as a shameful +degradation for him even to touch the ground with his foot. The sun and +moon were not even permitted to shine upon his head. None of the +superfluities of the body were ever taken from him, neither his hair, his +beard, nor his nails were cut. Whatever he eat was dressed in new +vessels."(8) + +(M3) Similar priestly or rather divine kings are found, at a lower level +of barbarism, on the west coast of Africa. At Shark Point near Cape +Padron, in Lower Guinea, lives the priestly king Kukulu, alone in a wood. +He may not touch a woman nor leave his house; indeed he may not even quit +his chair, in which he is obliged to sleep sitting, for if he lay down no +wind would arise and navigation would be stopped. He regulates storms, and +in general maintains a wholesome and equable state of the atmosphere.(9) +On Mount Agu in Togo, a German possession in West Africa, there lives a +fetish or spirit called Bagba, who is of great importance for the whole of +the surrounding country. The power of giving or withholding rain is +ascribed to him, and he is lord of the winds, including the Harmattan, the +dry, hot wind which blows from the interior. His priest dwells in a house +on the highest peak of the mountain, where he keeps the winds bottled up +in huge jars. Applications for rain, too, are made to him, and he does a +good business in amulets, which consist of the teeth and claws of +leopards. Yet though his power is great and he is indeed the real chief of +the land, the rule of the fetish forbids him ever to leave the mountain, +and he must spend the whole of his life on its summit. Only once a year +may he come down to make purchases in the market; but even then he may not +set foot in the hut of any mortal man, and must return to his place of +exile the same day. The business of government in the villages is +conducted by subordinate chiefs, who are appointed by him.(10) In the West +African kingdom of Congo there was a supreme pontiff called Chitome or +Chitombe, whom the negroes regarded as a god on earth and all-powerful in +heaven. Hence before they would taste the new crops they offered him the +first-fruits, fearing that manifold misfortunes would befall them if they +broke this rule. When he left his residence to visit other places within +his jurisdiction, all married people had to observe strict continence the +whole time he was out; for it was supposed that any act of incontinence +would prove fatal to him. And if he were to die a natural death, they +thought that the world would perish, and the earth, which he alone +sustained by his power and merit, would immediately be annihilated.(11) +Similarly in Humbe, a kingdom of Angola, the incontinence of young people +under the age of puberty used to be a capital crime, because it was +believed to entail the death of the king within the year. Of late the +death penalty has been commuted for a fine of ten oxen inflicted on each +of the culprits. This commutation has attracted thousands of dissolute +youth to Humbe from the neighbouring tribes, among whom the old penalty is +still rigorously exacted.(12) Amongst the semi-barbarous nations of the +New World, at the date of the Spanish conquest, there were found +hierarchies or theocracies like those of Japan;(13) in particular, the +high pontiff of the Zapotecs in Southern Mexico appears to have presented +a close parallel to the Mikado. A powerful rival to the king himself, this +spiritual lord governed Yopaa, one of the chief cities of the kingdom, +with absolute dominion. It is impossible, we are told, to overrate the +reverence in which he was held. He was looked on as a god whom the earth +was not worthy to hold nor the sun to shine upon. He profaned his sanctity +if he even touched the ground with his foot. The officers who bore his +palanquin on their shoulders were members of the highest families; he +hardly deigned to look on anything around him; and all who met him fell +with their faces to the earth, fearing that death would overtake them if +they saw even his shadow. A rule of continence was regularly imposed on +the Zapotec priests, especially upon the high pontiff; but "on certain +days in each year, which were generally celebrated with feasts and dances, +it was customary for the high priest to become drunk. While in this state, +seeming to belong neither to heaven nor to earth, one of the most +beautiful of the virgins consecrated to the service of the gods was +brought to him." If the child she bore him was a son, he was brought up as +a prince of the blood, and the eldest son succeeded his father on the +pontifical throne.(14) The supernatural powers attributed to this pontiff +are not specified, but probably they resembled those of the Mikado and +Chitome. + +(M4) Wherever, as in Japan and West Africa, it is supposed that the order +of nature, and even the existence of the world, is bound up with the life +of the king or priest, it is clear that he must be regarded by his +subjects as a source both of infinite blessing and of infinite danger. On +the one hand, the people have to thank him for the rain and sunshine which +foster the fruits of the earth, for the wind which brings ships to their +coasts, and even for the solid ground beneath their feet. But what he +gives he can refuse; and so close is the dependence of nature on his +person, so delicate the balance of the system of forces whereof he is the +centre, that the least irregularity on his part may set up a tremor which +shall shake the earth to its foundations. And if nature may be disturbed +by the slightest involuntary act of the king, it is easy to conceive the +convulsion which his death might provoke. The natural death of the +Chitome, as we have seen, was thought to entail the destruction of all +things. Clearly, therefore, out of a regard for their own safety, which +might be imperilled by any rash act of the king, and still more by his +death, the people will exact of their king or priest a strict conformity +to those rules, the observance of which is deemed necessary for his own +preservation, and consequently for the preservation of his people and the +world. The idea that early kingdoms are despotisms in which the people +exist only for the sovereign, is wholly inapplicable to the monarchies we +are considering. On the contrary, the sovereign in them exists only for +his subjects; his life is only valuable so long as he discharges the +duties of his position by ordering the course of nature for his people's +benefit. So soon as he fails to do so, the care, the devotion, the +religious homage which they had hitherto lavished on him cease and are +changed into hatred and contempt; he is dismissed ignominiously, and may +be thankful if he escapes with his life. Worshipped as a god one day, he +is killed as a criminal the next. But in this changed behaviour of the +people there is nothing capricious or inconsistent. On the contrary, their +conduct is entirely of a piece. If their king is their god, he is or +should be also their preserver; and if he will not preserve them, he must +make room for another who will. So long, however, as he answers their +expectations, there is no limit to the care which they take of him, and +which they compel him to take of himself. A king of this sort lives hedged +in by a ceremonious etiquette, a network of prohibitions and observances, +of which the intention is not to contribute to his dignity, much less to +his comfort, but to restrain him from conduct which, by disturbing the +harmony of nature, might involve himself, his people, and the universe in +one common catastrophe. Far from adding to his comfort, these observances, +by trammelling his every act, annihilate his freedom and often render the +very life, which it is their object to preserve, a burden and sorrow to +him. + +(M5) Of the supernaturally endowed kings of Loango it is said that the +more powerful a king is, the more taboos is he bound to observe; they +regulate all his actions, his walking and his standing, his eating and +drinking, his sleeping and waking.(15) To these restraints the heir to the +throne is subject from infancy; but as he advances in life the number of +abstinences and ceremonies which he must observe increases, "until at the +moment that he ascends the throne he is lost in the ocean of rites and +taboos."(16) In the crater of an extinct volcano, enclosed on all sides by +grassy slopes, lie the scattered huts and yam-fields of Riabba, the +capital of the native king of Fernando Po. This mysterious being lives in +the lowest depths of the crater, surrounded by a harem of forty women, and +covered, it is said, with old silver coins. Naked savage as he is, he yet +exercises far more influence in the island than the Spanish governor at +Santa Isabel. In him the conservative spirit of the Boobies or aboriginal +inhabitants of the island is, as it were, incorporate. He has never seen a +white man and, according to the firm conviction of all the Boobies, the +sight of a pale face would cause his instant death. He cannot bear to look +upon the sea; indeed it is said that he may never see it even in the +distance, and that therefore he wears away his life with shackles on his +legs in the dim twilight of his hut. Certain it is that he has never set +foot on the beach. With the exception of his musket and knife, he uses +nothing that comes from the whites; European cloth never touches his +person, and he scorns tobacco, rum, and even salt.(17) + +(M6) Among the Ewe-speaking peoples of the Slave Coast, in West Africa, +"the king is at the same time high priest. In this quality he was, +particularly in former times, unapproachable by his subjects. Only by +night was he allowed to quit his dwelling in order to bathe and so forth. +None but his representative, the so-called 'visible king,' with three +chosen elders might converse with him, and even they had to sit on an +ox-hide with their backs turned to him. He might not see any European nor +any horse, nor might he look upon the sea, for which reason he was not +allowed to quit his capital even for a few moments. These rules have been +disregarded in recent times."(18) The king of Dahomey himself is subject +to the prohibition of beholding the sea,(19) and so are the kings of +Loango(20) and Great Ardra in Guinea.(21) The sea is the fetish of the +Eyeos, to the north-west of Dahomey, and they and their king are +threatened with death by their priests if ever they dare to look on +it.(22) It is believed that the king of Cayor in Senegal would infallibly +die within the year if he were to cross a river or an arm of the sea.(23) +In Mashonaland down to recent times the chiefs would not cross certain +rivers, particularly the Rurikwi and the Nyadiri; and the custom was still +strictly observed by at least one chief within the last few years. "On no +account will the chief cross the river. If it is absolutely necessary for +him to do so, he is blindfolded and carried across with shouting and +singing. Should he walk across, he will go blind or die and certainly lose +the chieftainship."(24) So among the Mahafalys and Sakalavas in the south +of Madagascar some kings are forbidden to sail on the sea or to cross +certain rivers.(25) The horror of the sea is not peculiar to kings. The +Basutos are said to share it instinctively, though they have never seen +salt water, and live hundreds of miles from the Indian Ocean.(26) The +Egyptian priests loathed the sea, and called it the foam of Typhon; they +were forbidden to set salt on their table, and they would not speak to +pilots because they got their living by the sea; hence too they would not +eat fish, and the hieroglyphic symbol for hatred was a fish.(27) When the +Indians of the Peruvian Andes were sent by the Spaniards to work in the +hot valleys of the coast, the vast ocean which they saw before them as +they descended the Cordillera was dreaded by them as a cause of disease; +hence they prayed to it that they might not fall ill. This they all did +without exception, even the little children.(28) Similarly the inland +people of Lampong in Sumatra are said to pay a kind of adoration to the +sea, and to make it an offering of cakes and sweetmeats when they behold +it for the first time, deprecating its power of doing them mischief.(29) + +(M7) Among the Sakalavas of southern Madagascar the chief is regarded as a +sacred being, but "he is held in leash by a crowd of restrictions, which +regulate his behaviour like that of the emperor of China. He can undertake +nothing whatever unless the sorcerers have declared the omens favourable: +he may not eat warm food: on certain days he may not quit his hut; and so +on."(30) Among some of the hill tribes of Assam both the headman and his +wife have to observe many taboos in respect of food; thus they may not eat +buffalo, pork, dog, fowl, or tomatoes. The headman must be chaste, the +husband of one wife, and he must separate himself from her on the eve of a +general or public observance of taboo. In one group of tribes the headman +is forbidden to eat in a strange village, and under no provocation +whatever may he utter a word of abuse. Apparently the people imagine that +the violation of any of these taboos by a headman would bring down +misfortune on the whole village.(31) + +(M8) The ancient kings of Ireland, as well as the kings of the four +provinces of Leinster, Munster, Connaught, and Ulster, were subject to +certain quaint prohibitions or taboos, on the due observance of which the +prosperity of the people and the country, as well as their own, was +supposed to depend. Thus, for example, the sun might not rise on the king +of Ireland in his bed at Tara, the old capital of Erin; he was forbidden +to alight on Wednesday at Magh Breagh, to traverse Magh Cuillinn after +sunset, to incite his horse at Fan-Chomair, to go in a ship upon the water +the Monday after Bealltaine (May day), and to leave the track of his army +upon Ath Maighne the Tuesday after All-Hallows. The king of Leinster might +not go round Tuath Laighean left-hand-wise on Wednesday, nor sleep between +the Dothair (Dodder) and the Duibhlinn(32) with his head inclining to one +side, nor encamp for nine days on the plains of Cualann, nor travel the +road of Duibhlinn on Monday, nor ride a dirty black-heeled horse across +Magh Maistean. The king of Munster was prohibited from enjoying the feast +of Loch Lein from one Monday to another; from banqueting by night in the +beginning of harvest before Geim at Leitreacha; from encamping for nine +days upon the Siuir; and from holding a border meeting at Gabhran. The +king of Connaught might not conclude a treaty respecting his ancient +palace of Cruachan(33) after making peace on All-Hallows Day, nor go in a +speckled garment on a grey speckled steed to the heath of Dal Chais, nor +repair to an assembly of women at Seaghais, nor sit in autumn on the +sepulchral mounds of the wife of Maine, nor contend in running with the +rider of a grey one-eyed horse at Ath Gallta between two posts. The king +of Ulster was forbidden to attend the horse fair at Rath Line among the +youths of Dal Araidhe, to listen to the fluttering of the flocks of birds +of Linn Saileach after sunset, to celebrate the feast of the bull of +Daire-mic-Daire, to go into Magh Cobha in the month of March, and to drink +of the water of Bo Neimhidh between two darknesses. If the kings of +Ireland strictly observed these and many other customs, which were +enjoined by immemorial usage, it was believed that they would never meet +with mischance or misfortune, and would live for ninety years without +experiencing the decay of old age; that no epidemic or mortality would +occur during their reigns; and that the seasons would be favourable and +the earth yield its fruit in abundance; whereas, if they set the ancient +usages at naught, the country would be visited with plague, famine, and +bad weather.(34) + +(M9) The kings of Egypt were worshipped as gods,(35) and the routine of +their daily life was regulated in every detail by precise and unvarying +rules. "The life of the kings of Egypt," says Diodorus, "was not like that +of other monarchs who are irresponsible and may do just what they choose; +on the contrary, everything was fixed for them by law, not only their +official duties, but even the details of their daily life.... The hours +both of day and night were arranged at which the king had to do, not what +he pleased, but what was prescribed for him.... For not only were the +times appointed at which he should transact public business or sit in +judgment; but the very hours for his walking and bathing and sleeping with +his wife, and, in short, performing every act of life were all settled. +Custom enjoined a simple diet; the only flesh he might eat was veal and +goose, and he might only drink a prescribed quantity of wine."(36) +However, there is reason to think that these rules were observed, not by +the ancient Pharaohs, but by the priestly kings who reigned at Thebes and +in Ethiopia at the close of the twentieth dynasty.(37) Among the Karen-nis +of Upper Burma a chief attains his position, not by hereditary right, but +on account of his habit of abstaining from rice and liquor. The mother, +too, of a candidate for the chieftainship must have eschewed these things +and lived solely on yams and potatoes so long as she was with child. +During that time she may not eat any meat nor drink water from a common +well. And if her son is to be qualified for the office of chief he must +continue to observe these habits.(38) + +(M10) Of the taboos imposed on priests we may see a striking example in +the rules of life prescribed for the Flamen Dialis at Rome, who has been +interpreted as a living image of Jupiter, or a human embodiment of the +sky-spirit.(39) They were such as the following:--The Flamen Dialis might +not ride or even touch a horse, nor see an army under arms,(40) nor wear a +ring which was not broken, nor have a knot on any part of his garments; no +fire except a sacred fire might be taken out of his house; he might not +touch wheaten flour or leavened bread; he might not touch or even name a +goat, a dog,(41) raw meat, beans,(42) and ivy; he might not walk under a +vine; the feet of his bed had to be daubed with mud; his hair could be cut +only by a free man and with a bronze knife, and his hair and nails when +cut had to be buried under a lucky tree; he might not touch a dead body +nor enter a place where one was burned;(43) he might not see work being +done on holy days; he might not be uncovered in the open air; if a man in +bonds were taken into his house, the captive had to be unbound and the +cords had to be drawn up through a hole in the roof and so let down into +the street. His wife, the Flaminica, had to observe nearly the same rules, +and others of her own besides. She might not ascend more than three steps +of the kind of staircase called Greek; at a certain festival she might not +comb her hair; the leather of her shoes might not be made from a beast +that had died a natural death, but only from one that had been slain or +sacrificed; if she heard thunder she was tabooed till she had offered an +expiatory sacrifice.(44) + +(M11) Among the Grebo people of Sierra Leone there is a pontiff who bears +the title of Bodia and has been compared, on somewhat slender grounds, to +the high priest of the Jews. He is appointed in accordance with the behest +of an oracle. At an elaborate ceremony of installation he is anointed, a +ring is put on his ankle as a badge of office, and the door-posts of his +house are sprinkled with the blood of a sacrificed goat. He has charge of +the public talismans and idols, which he feeds with rice and oil every new +moon; and he sacrifices on behalf of the town to the dead and to demons. +Nominally his power is very great, but in practice it is very limited; for +he dare not defy public opinion, and he is held responsible, even with his +life, for any adversity that befalls the country. It is expected of him +that he should cause the earth to bring forth abundantly, the people to be +healthy, war to be driven far away, and witchcraft to be kept in abeyance. +His life is trammelled by the observance of certain restrictions or +taboos. Thus he may not sleep in any house but his own official residence, +which is called the "anointed house" with reference to the ceremony of +anointing him at inauguration. He may not drink water on the highway. He +may not eat while a corpse is in the town, and he may not mourn for the +dead. If he dies while in office, he must be buried at dead of night; few +may hear of his burial, and none may mourn for him when his death is made +public. Should he have fallen a victim to the poison ordeal by drinking a +decoction of sassywood, as it is called, he must be buried under a running +stream of water.(45) + +(M12) Among the Todas of Southern India the holy milkman (_palol_), who +acts as priest of the sacred dairy, is subject to a variety of irksome and +burdensome restrictions during the whole time of his incumbency, which may +last many years. Thus he must live at the sacred dairy and may never visit +his home or any ordinary village. He must be celibate; if he is married he +must leave his wife. On no account may any ordinary person touch the holy +milkman or the holy dairy; such a touch would so defile his holiness that +he would forfeit his office. It is only on two days a week, namely Mondays +and Thursdays, that a mere layman may even approach the milkman; on other +days if he has any business with him, he must stand at a distance (some +say a quarter of a mile) and shout his message across the intervening +space. Further, the holy milkman never cuts his hair or pares his nails so +long as he holds office; he never crosses a river by a bridge, but wades +through a ford and only certain fords; if a death occurs in his clan, he +may not attend any of the funeral ceremonies, unless he first resigns his +office and descends from the exalted rank of milkman to that of a mere +common mortal. Indeed it appears that in old days he had to resign the +seals, or rather the pails, of office whenever any member of his clan +departed this life. However, these heavy restraints are laid in their +entirety only on milkmen of the very highest class.(46) Among the Todas +there are milkmen and milkmen; and some of them get off more lightly in +consideration of their humbler station in life.(47) Still, apart from the +dignity they enjoy, the lot even of these other milkmen is not altogether +a happy one. Thus, for example, at a place called Kanodrs there is a +dairy-temple of a conical form. The milkman who has charge of it must be +celibate during the tenure of his office: he must sleep in the calves' +house, a very flimsy structure with an open door and a fire-place that +gives little heat: he may wear only one very scanty garment: he must take +his meals sitting on the outer wall which surrounds the dairy: in eating +he may not put his hand to his lips, but must throw the food into his +mouth; and in drinking he may not put to his lips the leaf which serves as +a cup, he must tilt his head back and pour the liquid into his mouth in a +jet from above. With the exception of a single layman, who is allowed to +bear the milkman company, but who is also bound to celibacy and has a bed +rigged up for him in the calves' house, no other person is allowed to go +near this very sacred dairy under any pretext whatever. No wonder that +some years ago the dairy was unoccupied and the office of milkman stood +vacant. "At the present time," says Dr. Rivers, "a dairyman is appointed +about once a year and holds office for thirty or forty days only. So far +as I could ascertain, the failure to occupy the dairy constantly is due to +the very considerable hardships and restrictions which have to be endured +by the holder of the office of dairyman, and the time is probably not far +distant when this dairy, one of the most sacred among the Todas, will +cease altogether to be used."(48) + + + + +§ 2. Divorce of the Spiritual from the Temporal Power. + + +(M13) The burdensome observances attached to the royal or priestly office +produced their natural effect. Either men refused to accept the office, +which hence tended to fall into abeyance; or accepting it, they sank under +its weight into spiritless creatures, cloistered recluses, from whose +nerveless fingers the reins of government slipped into the firmer grasp of +men who were often content to wield the reality of sovereignty without its +name. In some countries this rift in the supreme power deepened into a +total and permanent separation of the spiritual and temporal powers, the +old royal house retaining their purely religious functions, while the +civil government passed into the hands of a younger and more vigorous +race. + +(M14) To take examples. In a previous part of this work we saw that in +Cambodia it is often necessary to force the kingships of Fire and Water +upon the reluctant successors,(49) and that in Savage Island the monarchy +actually came to an end because at last no one could be induced to accept +the dangerous distinction.(50) In some parts of West Africa, when the king +dies, a family council is secretly held to determine his successor. He on +whom the choice falls is suddenly seized, bound, and thrown into the +fetish-house, where he is kept in durance till he consents to accept the +crown. Sometimes the heir finds means of evading the honour which it is +sought to thrust upon him; a ferocious chief has been known to go about +constantly armed, resolute to resist by force any attempt to set him on +the throne.(51) The savage Timmes of Sierra Leone, who elect their king, +reserve to themselves the right of beating him on the eve of his +coronation; and they avail themselves of this constitutional privilege +with such hearty goodwill that sometimes the unhappy monarch does not long +survive his elevation to the throne. Hence when the leading chiefs have a +spite at a man and wish to rid themselves of him, they elect him king.(52) +Formerly, before a man was proclaimed king of Sierra Leone, it used to be +the custom to load him with chains and thrash him. Then the fetters were +knocked off, the kingly robe was placed on him, and he received in his +hands the symbol of royal dignity, which was nothing but the axe of the +executioner.(53) It is not therefore surprising to read that in Sierra +Leone, where such customs have prevailed, "except among the Mandingoes and +Suzees, few kings are natives of the countries they govern. So different +are their ideas from ours, that very few are solicitous of the honour, and +competition is very seldom heard of."(54) Another writer on Sierra Leone +tells us that "the honour of reigning, so much coveted in Europe, is very +frequently rejected in Africa, on account of the expense attached to it, +which sometimes greatly exceeds the revenues of the crown."(55) A +reluctance to accept the sovereignty in the Ethiopian kingdom of Gingiro +was simulated, if not really felt, as we learn from the old Jesuit +missionaries. "They wrap up the dead king's body in costly garments, and +killing a cow, put it into the hide; then all those who hope to succeed +him, being his sons or others of the royal blood, flying from the honour +they covet, abscond and hide themselves in the woods. This done, the +electors, who are all great sorcerers, agree among themselves who shall be +king, and go out to seek him, when entering the woods by means of their +enchantments, they say, a large bird called _liber_, as big as an eagle, +comes down with mighty cries over the place where he is hid, and they find +him encompass'd by lyons, tygers, snakes, and other creatures gather'd +about him by witchcraft. The elect, as fierce as those beasts, rushes out +upon those who seek him, wounding and sometimes killing some of them, to +prevent being seiz'd. They take all in good part, defending themselves the +best they can, till they have seiz'd him. Thus they carry him away by +force, he still struggling and seeming to refuse taking upon him the +burthen of government, all which is mere cheat and hypocrisy."(56) + +(M15) The Mikados of Japan seem early to have resorted to the expedient of +transferring the honours and burdens of supreme power to their infant +children; and the rise of the Tycoons, long the temporal sovereigns of the +country, is traced to the abdication of a certain Mikado in favour of his +three-year-old son. The sovereignty having been wrested by a usurper from +the infant prince, the cause of the Mikado was championed by Yoritomo, a +man of spirit and conduct, who overthrew the usurper and restored to the +Mikado the shadow, while he retained for himself the substance, of power. +He bequeathed to his descendants the dignity he had won, and thus became +the founder of the line of Tycoons. Down to the latter half of the +sixteenth century the Tycoons were active and efficient rulers; but the +same fate overtook them which had befallen the Mikados. Immeshed in the +same inextricable web of custom and law, they degenerated into mere +puppets, hardly stirring from their palaces and occupied in a perpetual +round of empty ceremonies, while the real business of government was +managed by the council of state.(57) In Tonquin the monarchy ran a similar +course. Living like his predecessors in effeminacy and sloth, the king was +driven from the throne by an ambitious adventurer named Mack, who from a +fisherman had risen to be Grand Mandarin. But the king's brother Tring put +down the usurper and restored the king, retaining, however, for himself +and his descendants the dignity of general of all the forces. +Thenceforward the kings or _dovas_, though invested with the title and +pomp of sovereignty, ceased to govern. While they lived secluded in their +palaces, all real political power was wielded by the hereditary generals +or _chovas_.(58) The present king of Sikhim, "like most of his +predecessors in the kingship, is a mere puppet in the hands of his crafty +priests, who have made a sort of priest-king of him. They encourage him by +every means in their power to leave the government to them, whilst he +devotes all his time to the degrading rites of devil-worship, and the +ceaseless muttering of meaningless jargon, of which the Tibetan form of +Buddhism chiefly consists. They declare that he is a saint by birth, that +he is the direct descendant of the greatest king of Tibet, the canonised +Srongtsan Gampo, who was a contemporary of Mahomed in the seventh century +A.D. and who first introduced Buddhism to Tibet." "This saintly lineage, +which secures for the king's person popular homage amounting to worship, +is probably, however, a mere invention of the priests to glorify their +puppet-prince for their own sordid ends. Such devices are common in the +East."(59) The custom regularly observed by the Tahitian kings of +abdicating on the birth of a son, who was immediately proclaimed sovereign +and received his father's homage, may perhaps have originated, like the +similar custom occasionally practised by the Mikados, in a wish to shift +to other shoulders the irksome burden of royalty; for in Tahiti as +elsewhere the sovereign was subjected to a system of vexatious +restrictions.(60) In Mangaia, another Polynesian island, religious and +civil authority were lodged in separate hands, spiritual functions being +discharged by a line of hereditary kings, while the temporal government +was entrusted from time to time to a victorious war-chief, whose +investiture, however, had to be completed by the king. To the latter were +assigned the best lands, and he received daily offerings of the choicest +food.(61) The Mikado and Tycoon of Japan had their counterparts in the +Roko Tui and Vunivalu of Fiji. The Roko Tui was the Reverend or Sacred +King. The Vunivalu was the Root of War or War King. In one kingdom a +certain Thakambau, who was the War King, kept all power in his own hands, +but in a neighbouring kingdom the real ruler was the Sacred King.(62) +Similarly in Tonga, besides the civil king or _How_, whose right to the +throne was partly hereditary and partly derived from his warlike +reputation and the number of his fighting men, there was a great divine +chief called _Tooitonga_ or "Chief of Tonga," who ranked above the king +and the other chiefs in virtue of his supposed descent from one of the +chief gods. Once a year the first-fruits of the ground were offered to him +at a solemn ceremony, and it was believed that if these offerings were not +made the vengeance of the gods would fall in a signal manner on the +people. Peculiar forms of speech, such as were applied to no one else, +were used in speaking of him, and everything that he chanced to touch +became sacred or tabooed. When he and the king met, the monarch had to sit +down on the ground in token of respect until his holiness had passed by. +Yet though he enjoyed the highest veneration by reason of his divine +origin, this sacred personage possessed no political authority, and if he +ventured to meddle with affairs of state it was at the risk of receiving a +rebuff from the king, to whom the real power belonged, and who finally +succeeded in ridding himself of his spiritual rival.(63) The king of the +Getae regularly shared his power with a priest, whom his subjects called a +god. This divine man led a solitary life in a cave on a holy mountain, +seeing few people but the king and his attendants. His counsels added much +to the king's influence with his subjects, who believed that he was +thereby enabled to impart to them the commands and admonitions of the +gods.(64) At Athens the kings degenerated into little more than sacred +functionaries and it is said that the institution of the new office of +Polemarch or War Lord was rendered necessary by their growing +effeminacy.(65) American examples of the partition of authority between a +king and a pope have already been cited from the early history of Mexico +and Colombia.(66) + +(M16) In some parts of western Africa two kings reign side by side, a +fetish or religious king and a civil king, but the fetish king is really +supreme. He controls the weather and so forth, and can put a stop to +everything. When he lays his red staff on the ground, no one may pass that +way. This division of power between a sacred and a secular ruler is to be +met with wherever the true negro culture has been left unmolested, but +where the negro form of society has been disturbed, as in Dahomey and +Ashantee, there is a tendency to consolidate the two powers in a single +king.(67) Thus, for example, there used to be a fetish king at New Calabar +who ranked above the ordinary king in all native matters, whether +religious or civil, and always walked in front of him on public occasions, +attended by a slave who held an umbrella over his head. His opinion +carried great weight.(68) The office and the causes which led to its +extinction are thus described by a missionary who spent many years in +Calabar: "The worship of the people is now given especially to their +various _idems_, one of which, called Ndem Efik, is a sort of tutelary +deity of the country. An individual was appointed to take charge of this +object of worship, who bore the name of King Calabar; and likely, in +bypast times, possessed the power indicated by the title, being both king +and priest. He had as a tribute the skins of all leopards killed, and +should a slave take refuge in his shrine he belonged to Ndem Efik. The +office, however, imposed certain restrictions on its occupant. He, for +instance, could not partake of food in the presence of any one, and he was +prohibited from engaging in traffic. On account of these and other +disabilities, when the last holder of the office died, a poor old man of +the Cobham family, no successor was found for him, and the priesthood has +become extinct."(69) One of the practical inconveniences of such an office +is that the house of the fetish king enjoys the right of sanctuary, and so +tends to become little better than a rookery of bad characters. Thus on +the Grain Coast of West Africa the fetish king or Bodio, as he is called, +"exercises the functions of a high-priest, and is regarded as protector of +the whole nation. He lives in a house provided for him by the people, and +takes care of the national fetiches. He enjoys some immunities in virtue +of his office, but is subject to certain restrictions which more than +counterbalance his privileges. His house is a sanctum to which culprits +may betake themselves without the danger of being removed by any one +except by the Bodio himself."(70) One of these Bodios resigned office +because of the sort of people who quartered themselves on him, the cost of +feeding them, and the squabbles they had among themselves. He led a +cat-and-dog life with them for three years. Then there came a man with +homicidal mania varied by epileptic fits; and soon afterwards the +spiritual shepherd retired into private life, but not before he had lost +an ear and sustained other bodily injury in a personal conflict with this +very black sheep.(71) + +(M17) At Porto Novo there used to be, in addition to the ordinary monarch, +a King of the Night, who reigned during the hours of darkness from sunset +to sunrise. He might not shew himself in the street after the sun was up. +His duty was to patrol the streets with his satellites and to arrest all +whom he found abroad after a certain hour. Each band of his catchpoles was +led by a man who went about concealed from head to foot under a conical +casing of straw and blew blasts on a shell which caused every one that +heard it to shudder. The King of the Night never met the ordinary king +except on the first and last days of their respective reign; for each of +them invested the other with office and paid him the last honours at +death.(72) With this King of the Night at Porto Novo we may compare a +certain king of Hawaii who was so very sacred that no man might see him, +even accidentally, by day under pain of death; he only shewed himself by +night.(73) + +(M18) In some parts of the East Indian island of Timor we meet with a +partition of power like that which is represented by the civil king and +the fetish king of western Africa. Some of the Timorese tribes recognise +two rajahs, the ordinary or civil rajah, who governs the people, and the +fetish or taboo rajah (_radja pomali_), who is charged with the control of +everything that concerns the earth and its products. This latter ruler has +the right of declaring anything taboo; his permission must be obtained +before new land may be brought under cultivation, and he must perform +certain necessary ceremonies when the work is being carried out. If +drought or blight threatens the crops, his help is invoked to save them. +Though he ranks below the civil rajah, he exercises a momentous influence +on the course of events, for his secular colleague is bound to consult him +in all important matters. In some of the neighbouring islands, such as +Rotti and eastern Flores, a spiritual ruler of the same sort is recognised +under various native names, which all mean "lord of the ground."(74) +Similarly in the Mekeo district of British New Guinea there is a double +chieftainship. The people are divided into two groups according to +families, and each of the groups has its chief. One of the two is the war +chief, the other is the taboo (_afu_) chief. The office of the latter is +hereditary; his duty is to impose a taboo on any of the crops, such as the +coco-nuts and areca nuts, whenever he thinks it desirable to prohibit +their use. In his office we may perhaps detect the beginning of a priestly +dynasty, but as yet his functions appear to be more magical than +religious, being concerned with the control of the harvests rather than +with the propitiation of higher powers. The members of another family are +bound to see to it that the taboo imposed by the chief is strictly +observed. For this purpose some fourteen or fifteen men of the family form +a sort of constabulary. Every evening they go round the village armed with +clubs and disguised with masks or leaves. All the time they are in office +they are forbidden to live with their wives and even to look at a woman. +Hence women may not quit their houses while the men are going their +rounds. Further, the constables on duty are prohibited from chewing betel +nut and drinking coco-nut water, lest the areca and coco-nuts should not +grow. When there is a good show of nuts, the taboo chief proclaims that on +a certain day the restriction will come to an end.(75) In Ponape, one of +the Caroline Islands, the kingship is elective within the limits of the +blood royal, which runs in the female line, so that the sovereignty passes +backwards and forwards between families which we, reckoning descent in the +male line, should regard as distinct. The chosen monarch must be in +possession of certain secrets. He must know the places where the sacred +stones are kept, on which he has to seat himself. He must understand the +holy words and prayers of the liturgy, and after his election he must +recite them at the place of the sacred stones. But he enjoys only the +honours of his office; the real powers of government are in the hands of +his prime-minister or vizier.(76) + + + + + +CHAPTER II. THE PERILS OF THE SOUL. + + + + +§ 1. The Soul as a Mannikin. + + +(M19) The foregoing examples have taught us that the office of a sacred +king or priest is often hedged in by a series of burdensome restrictions +or taboos, of which a principal purpose appears to be to preserve the life +of the divine man for the good of his people. But if the object of the +taboos is to save his life, the question arises, How is their observance +supposed to effect this end? To understand this we must know the nature of +the danger which threatens the king's life, and which it is the intention +of these curious restrictions to guard against. We must, therefore, ask: +What does early man understand by death? To what causes does he attribute +it? And how does he think it may be guarded against? + +(M20) As the savage commonly explains the processes of inanimate nature by +supposing that they are produced by living beings working in or behind the +phenomena, so he explains the phenomena of life itself. If an animal lives +and moves, it can only be, he thinks, because there is a little animal +inside which moves it: if a man lives and moves, it can only be because he +has a little man or animal inside who moves him. The animal inside the +animal, the man inside the man, is the soul. And as the activity of an +animal or man is explained by the presence of the soul, so the repose of +sleep or death is explained by its absence; sleep or trance being the +temporary, death being the permanent absence of the soul. Hence if death +be the permanent absence of the soul, the way to guard against it is +either to prevent the soul from leaving the body, or, if it does depart, +to ensure that it shall return. The precautions adopted by savages to +secure one or other of these ends take the form of certain prohibitions or +taboos, which are nothing but rules intended to ensure either the +continued presence or the return of the soul. In short, they are +life-preservers or life-guards. These general statements will now be +illustrated by examples. + +(M21) Addressing some Australian blacks, a European missionary said, "I am +not one, as you think, but two." Upon this they laughed. "You may laugh as +much as you like," continued the missionary, "I tell you that I am two in +one; this great body that you see is one; within that there is another +little one which is not visible. The great body dies, and is buried, but +the little body flies away when the great one dies." To this some of the +blacks replied, "Yes, yes. We also are two, we also have a little body +within the breast." On being asked where the little body went after death, +some said it went behind the bush, others said it went into the sea, and +some said they did not know.(77) The Hurons thought that the soul had a +head and body, arms and legs; in short, that it was a complete little +model of the man himself.(78) The Esquimaux believe that "the soul +exhibits the same shape as the body it belongs to, but is of a more subtle +and ethereal nature."(79) According to the Nootkas of British Columbia the +soul has the shape of a tiny man; its seat is the crown of the head. So +long as it stands erect, its owner is hale and hearty; but when from any +cause it loses its upright position, he loses his senses.(80) Among the +Indian tribes of the Lower Fraser River, man is held to have four souls, +of which the principal one has the form of a mannikin, while the other +three are shadows of it.(81) The Malays conceive the human soul +(_semangat_) as a little man, mostly invisible and of the bigness of a +thumb, who corresponds exactly in shape, proportion, and even in +complexion to the man in whose body he resides. This mannikin is of a thin +unsubstantial nature, though not so impalpable but that it may cause +displacement on entering a physical object, and it can flit quickly from +place to place; it is temporarily absent from the body in sleep, trance, +and disease, and permanently absent after death.(82) + +(M22) The ancient Egyptians believed that every man has a soul (_ka_) +which is his exact counterpart or double, with the same features, the same +gait, even the same dress as the man himself. Many of the monuments dating +from the eighteenth century onwards represent various kings appearing +before divinities, while behind the king stands his soul or double, +portrayed as a little man with the king's features. Some of the reliefs in +the temple at Luxor illustrate the birth of King Amenophis III. While the +queen-mother is being tended by two goddesses acting as midwives, two +other goddesses are bringing away two figures of new-born children, only +one of which is supposed to be a child of flesh and blood: the +inscriptions engraved above their heads shew that, while the first is +Amenophis, the second is his soul or double. And as with kings and queens, +so it was with common men and women. Whenever a child was born, there was +born with him a double which followed him through the various stages of +life; young while he was young, it grew to maturity and declined along +with him. And not only human beings, but gods and animals, stones and +trees, natural and artificial objects, everybody and everything had its +own soul or double. The doubles of oxen and sheep were the duplicates of +the original oxen or sheep; the doubles of linen or beds, of chairs or +knives, had the same form as the real linen, beds, chairs, and knives. So +thin and subtle was the stuff, so fine and delicate the texture of these +doubles, that they made no impression on ordinary eyes. Only certain +classes of priests or seers were enabled by natural gifts or special +training to perceive the doubles of the gods, and to win from them a +knowledge of the past and the future. The doubles of men and things were +hidden from sight in the ordinary course of life; still, they sometimes +flew out of the body endowed with colour and voice, left it in a kind of +trance, and departed to manifest themselves at a distance.(83) + +(M23) So exact is the resemblance of the mannikin to the man, in other +words, of the soul to the body, that, as there are fat bodies and thin +bodies, so there are fat souls and thin souls;(84) as there are heavy +bodies and light bodies, long bodies and short bodies, so there are heavy +souls and light souls, long souls and short souls. The people of Nias (an +island to the west of Sumatra) think that every man, before he is born, is +asked how long or how heavy a soul he would like, and a soul of the +desired weight or length is measured out to him. The heaviest soul ever +given out weighs about ten grammes. The length of a man's life is +proportioned to the length of his soul; children who die young had short +souls.(85) The Fijian conception of the soul as a tiny human being comes +clearly out in the customs observed at the death of a chief among the +Nakelo tribe. When a chief dies, certain men, who are the hereditary +undertakers, call him, as he lies, oiled and ornamented, on fine mats, +saying, "Rise, sir, the chief and let us be going. The day has come over +the land." Then they conduct him to the river side, where the ghostly +ferryman comes to ferry Nakelo ghosts across the stream As they thus +attend the chief on his last journey, they hold their great fans close to +the ground to shelter him, because, as one of them explained to a +missionary, "His soul is only a little child."(86) People in the Punjaub +who tattoo themselves believe that at death the soul, "the little entire +man or woman" inside the mortal frame, will go to heaven blazoned with the +same tattoo patterns which adorned the body in life.(87) Sometimes, +however, as we shall see, the human soul is conceived not in human but in +animal form. + + + + +§ 2. Absence and Recall of the Soul. + + +(M24) The soul is commonly supposed to escape by the natural openings of +the body, especially the mouth and nostrils. Hence in Celebes they +sometimes fasten fishhooks to a sick man's nose, navel, and feet, so that +if his soul should try to escape it may be hooked and held fast.(88) A +Turik on the Baram River, in Borneo, refused to part with some hook-like +stones, because they, as it were, hooked his soul to his body, and so +prevented the spiritual portion of him from becoming detached from the +material.(89) When a Sea Dyak sorcerer or medicine-man is initiated, his +fingers are supposed to be furnished with fish-hooks, with which he will +thereafter clutch the human soul in the act of flying away, and restore it +to the body of the sufferer.(90) But hooks, it is plain, may be used to +catch the souls of enemies as well as of friends. Acting on this principle +head-hunters in Borneo hang wooden hooks beside the skulls of their slain +enemies in the belief that this helps them on their forays to hook in +fresh heads.(91) When an epidemic is raging, the Goajiro Indians of +Colombia attribute it to an evil spirit, it may be the prowling ghost of +an enemy. So they hang strings furnished with hooks from the roofs of +their huts and from all the trees in the neighbourhood, in order that the +demon or ghost may be caught on a hook and thus rendered powerless to harm +them.(92) Similarly the Calchaquis Indians to the west of Paraguay used to +plant arrows in the ground about a sick man to keep death from getting at +him.(93) One of the implements of a Haida medicine-man is a hollow bone, +in which he bottles up departing souls, and so restores them to their +owners.(94) When any one yawns in their presence the Hindoos always snap +their thumbs, believing that this will hinder the soul from issuing +through the open mouth.(95) The Marquesans used to hold the mouth and nose +of a dying man, in order to keep him in life by preventing his soul from +escaping;(96) the same custom is reported of the New Caledonians;(97) and +with the like intention the Bagobos of the Philippine Islands put rings of +brass wire on the wrists or ankles of their sick.(98) On the other hand, +the Itonamas in South America seal up the eyes, nose, and mouth of a dying +person, in case his ghost should get out and carry off others;(99) and for +a similar reason the people of Nias, who fear the spirits of the recently +deceased and identify them with the breath, seek to confine the vagrant +soul in its earthly tabernacle by bunging up the nose or tying up the jaws +of the corpse.(100) Before leaving a corpse the Wakelbura in Australia +used to place hot coals in its ears in order to keep the ghost in the +body, until they had got such a good start that he could not overtake +them.(101) Esquimaux mourners plug their nostrils with deerskin, hair, or +hay for several days,(102) probably to prevent their souls from following +that of their departed friend; the custom is especially incumbent on the +persons who dress the corpse.(103) In southern Celebes, to hinder the +escape of a woman's soul at childbirth, the nurse ties a band as tightly +as possible round the body of the expectant mother.(104) The +Minangkabauers of Sumatra observe a similar custom; a skein of thread or a +string is sometimes fastened round the wrist or loins of a woman in +childbed, so that when her soul seeks to depart in her hour of travail it +may find the egress barred.(105) Among the Kayans of Borneo illness is +attributed to the absence of the soul; so when a man has been ill and is +well again, he attempts to prevent his soul from departing afresh. For +this purpose he ties the truant into his body by fastening round his wrist +a piece of string on which a _lukut_, or antique bead, is threaded; for a +magical virtue appears to be ascribed to such beads. But lest the string +and the bead should be broken and lost, he will sometimes tattoo the +pattern of the bead on his wrist, and this is found to answer the purpose +of tethering his soul quite as well.(106) Again, the Koryak of +North-Eastern Asia fancy that if there are two sick people in a house and +one of them is at the last extremity, the soul of the other is apt to be +lured away by the soul of the dying man; hence in order to hinder its +departure they tie the patient's neck by a string to the bands of the +sleeping-tent and recite a charm over the string so that it may be sure to +detain the soul.(107) And lest the soul of a babe should escape and be +lost as soon as it is born, the Alfoors of Celebes, when a birth is about +to take place, are careful to close every opening in the house, even the +keyhole; and they stop up every chink and cranny in the walls. Also they +tie up the mouths of all animals inside and outside the house, for fear +one of them might swallow the child's soul. For a similar reason all +persons present in the house, even the mother herself, are obliged to keep +their mouths shut the whole time the birth is taking place. When the +question was put, Why they did not hold their noses also, lest the child's +soul should get into one of them? the answer was that breath being exhaled +as well as inhaled through the nostrils, the soul would be expelled before +it could have time to settle down.(108) Popular expressions in the +language of civilised peoples, such as to have one's heart in one's mouth, +or the soul on the lips or in the nose, shew how natural is the idea that +the life or soul may escape by the mouth or nostrils.(109) + +(M25) Often the soul is conceived as a bird ready to take flight. This +conception has probably left traces in most languages,(110) and it lingers +as a metaphor in poetry. But what is metaphor to a modern European poet +was sober earnest to his savage ancestor, and is still so to many people. +The Bororos of Brazil fancy that the human soul has the shape of a bird, +and passes in that shape out of the body in dreams.(111) According to the +Bilqula or Bella Coola Indians of British Columbia the soul dwells in the +nape of the neck and resembles a bird enclosed in an egg. If the shell +breaks and the soul flies away, the man must die. If he swoons or becomes +crazed, it is because his soul has flown away without breaking its shell. +The shaman can hear the buzzing of its wings, like the buzz of a mosquito, +as the soul flits past; and he may catch and replace it in the nape of its +owner's neck.(112) A Melanesian wizard in Lepers' Island has been known to +send out his soul in the form of an eagle to pursue a ship and learn the +fortunes of some natives who were being carried off in it.(113) The soul +of Aristeas of Proconnesus was seen to issue from his mouth in the shape +of a raven.(114) There is a popular opinion in Bohemia that the parting +soul comes forth from the mouth like a white bird.(115) The Malays carry +out the conception of the bird-soul in a number of odd ways. If the soul +is a bird on the wing, it may be attracted by rice, and so either +prevented from taking wing or lured back again from its perilous flight. +Thus in Java when a child is placed on the ground for the first time (a +moment which uncultured people seem to regard as especially dangerous), it +is put in a hen-coop and the mother makes a clucking sound, as if she were +calling hens.(116) Amongst the Battas of Sumatra, when a man returns from +a dangerous enterprise, grains of rice are placed on his head, and these +grains are called _padiruma tondi_, that is, "means to make the soul +(_tondi_) stay at home." In Java also rice is placed on the head of +persons who have escaped a great danger or have returned home unexpectedly +after it had been supposed that they were lost.(117) Similarly in the +district of Sintang in West Borneo, if any one has had a great fright, or +escaped a serious peril, or comes back after a long and dangerous journey, +or has taken a solemn oath, the first thing that his relations or friends +do is to strew yellow rice on his head, mumbling, "Cluck! cluck! soul!" +(_koer, koer, semangat_). And when a person, whether man, woman, or child, +has fallen out of a house or off a tree, and has been brought home, his +wife or other kinswoman goes as speedily as possible to the spot where the +accident happened, and there strews rice, which has been coloured yellow, +while she utters the words, "Cluck! cluck! soul! So-and-so is in his house +again. Cluck! cluck! soul!" Then she gathers up the rice in a basket, +carries it to the sufferer, and drops the grains from her hand on his +head, saying again, "Cluck! cluck! soul!"(118) Here the intention clearly +is to decoy back the loitering bird-soul and replace it in the head of its +owner. In southern Celebes they think that a bridegroom's soul is apt to +fly away at marriage, so coloured rice is scattered over him to induce it +to stay. And, in general, at festivals in South Celebes rice is strewed on +the head of the person in whose honour the festival is held, with the +object of detaining his soul, which at such times is in especial danger of +being lured away by envious demons.(119) For example, after a successful +war the welcome to the victorious prince takes the form of strewing him +with roasted and coloured rice "to prevent his life-spirit, as if it were +a bird, from flying out of his body in consequence of the envy of evil +spirits."(120) In Central Celebes, when a party of head-hunters returns +from a successful expedition, a woman scatters rice on their heads for a +similar purpose.(121) Among the Minangkabauers of Sumatra the old rude +notions of the soul seem to be dying out. Nowadays most of the people hold +that the soul, being immaterial, has no shape or form. But some of the +sorcerers assert that the soul goes and comes in the shape of a tiny man. +Others are of opinion that it does so in the form of a fly; hence they +make food ready to induce the absent soul to come back, and the first fly +that settles on the food is regarded as the returning truant. But in +native poetry and popular expressions there are traces of the belief that +the soul quits the body in the form of a bird.(122) + +(M26) The soul of a sleeper is supposed to wander away from his body and +actually to visit the places, to see the persons, and to perform the acts +of which he dreams. For example, when an Indian of Brazil or Guiana wakes +up from a sound sleep, he is firmly convinced that his soul has really +been away hunting, fishing, felling trees, or whatever else he has dreamed +of doing, while all the time his body has been lying motionless in his +hammock. A whole Bororo village has been thrown into a panic and nearly +deserted because somebody had dreamed that he saw enemies stealthily +approaching it. A Macusi Indian in weak health, who dreamed that his +employer had made him haul the canoe up a series of difficult cataracts, +bitterly reproached his master next morning for his want of consideration +in thus making a poor invalid go out and toil during the night.(123) The +Indians of the Gran Chaco are often heard to relate the most incredible +stories as things which they have themselves seen and heard; hence +strangers who do not know them intimately say in their haste that these +Indians are liars. In point of fact the Indians are firmly convinced of +the truth of what they relate; for these wonderful adventures are simply +their dreams, which they do not distinguish from waking realities.(124) + +(M27) Now the absence of the soul in sleep has its dangers, for if from +any cause the soul should be permanently detained away from the body, the +person thus deprived of the vital principle must die.(125) There is a +German belief that the soul escapes from a sleeper's mouth in the form of +a white mouse or a little bird, and that to prevent the return of the bird +or animal would be fatal to the sleeper.(126) Hence in Transylvania they +say that you should not let a child sleep with its mouth open, or its soul +will slip out in the shape of a mouse, and the child will never wake.(127) +Many causes may detain the sleeper's soul. Thus, his soul may meet the +soul of another sleeper and the two souls may fight; if a Guinea negro +wakens with sore bones in the morning, he thinks that his soul has been +thrashed by another soul in sleep.(128) Or it may meet the soul of a +person just deceased and be carried off by it; hence in the Aru Islands +the inmates of a house will not sleep the night after a death has taken +place in it, because the soul of the deceased is supposed to be still in +the house and they fear to meet it in a dream.(129) Similarly among the +Upper Thompson Indians of British Columbia, the friends and neighbours who +gathered in a house after a death and remained there till the burial was +over were not allowed to sleep, lest their souls should be drawn away by +the ghost of the deceased or by his guardian spirit.(130) The Lengua +Indians of the Gran Chaco hold that the vagrant spirits of the dead may +come to life again if only they can take possession of a sleeper's body +during the absence of his soul in dreams. Hence, when the shades of night +have fallen, the ghosts of the departed gather round the villages, +watching for a chance to pounce on the bodies of dreamers and to enter +into them through the gateway of the breast.(131) Again, the soul of the +sleeper may be prevented by an accident or by physical force from +returning to his body. When a Dyak dreams of falling into the water, he +supposes that this accident has really befallen his spirit, and he sends +for a wizard, who fishes for the spirit with a hand-net in a basin of +water till he catches it and restores it to its owner.(132) The Santals +tell how a man fell asleep, and growing very thirsty, his soul, in the +form of a lizard, left his body and entered a pitcher of water to drink. +Just then the owner of the pitcher happened to cover it; so the soul could +not return to the body and the man died. While his friends were preparing +to burn the body some one uncovered the pitcher to get water. The lizard +thus escaped and returned to the body, which immediately revived; so the +man rose up and asked his friends why they were weeping. They told him +they thought he was dead and were about to burn his body. He said he had +been down a well to get water, but had found it hard to get out and had +just returned. So they saw it all.(133) A similar story is reported from +Transylvania as follows. In the account of a witch's trial at Muehlbach in +the eighteenth century it is said that a woman had engaged two men to work +in her vineyard. After noon they all lay down to rest as usual. An hour +later the men got up and tried to waken the woman, but could not. She lay +motionless with her mouth wide open. They came back at sunset and still +she lay like a corpse. Just at that moment a big fly came buzzing past, +which one of the men caught and shut up in his leathern pouch. Then they +tried again to waken the woman, but could not. Afterwards they let out the +fly; it flew straight into the woman's mouth and she awoke. On seeing this +the men had no further doubt that she was a witch.(134) + +(M28) It is a common rule with primitive people not to waken a sleeper, +because his soul is away and might not have time to get back; so if the +man wakened without his soul, he would fall sick. If it is absolutely +necessary to rouse a sleeper, it must be done very gradually, to allow the +soul time to return.(135) A Fijian in Matuku, suddenly wakened from a nap +by somebody treading on his foot, has been heard bawling after his soul +and imploring it to return. He had just been dreaming that he was far away +in Tonga, and great was his alarm on suddenly wakening to find his body in +Matuku. Death stared him in the face unless his soul could be induced to +speed at once across the sea and reanimate its deserted tenement. The man +would probably have died of fright if a missionary had not been at hand to +allay his terror.(136) Some Brazilian Indians explain the headache from +which a man sometimes suffers after a broken sleep by saying that his soul +is tired with the exertions it made to return quickly to the body.(137) A +Highland story, told to Hugh Miller on the picturesque shores of Loch +Shin, well illustrates the haste made by the soul to regain its body when +the sleeper has been prematurely roused by an indiscreet friend. Two young +men had been spending the early part of a warm summer day in the open air, +and sat down on a mossy bank to rest. Hard by was an ancient ruin +separated from the bank on which they sat only by a slender runnel, across +which there lay, immediately over a miniature cascade, a few withered +stalks of grass. "Overcome by the heat of the day, one of the young men +fell asleep; his companion watched drowsily beside him; when all at once +the watcher was aroused to attention by seeing a little indistinct form, +scarce larger than a humble-bee, issue from the mouth of the sleeping man, +and, leaping upon the moss, move downwards to the runnel, which it crossed +along the withered grass stalks, and then disappeared among the +interstices of the ruin. Alarmed by what he saw, the watcher hastily shook +his companion by the shoulder, and awoke him; though, with all his haste, +the little cloud-like creature, still more rapid in its movements, issued +from the interstice into which it had gone, and, flying across the runnel, +instead of creeping along the grass stalks and over the sward, as before, +it re-entered the mouth of the sleeper, just as he was in the act of +awakening. 'What is the matter with you?' said the watcher, greatly +alarmed, 'what ails you?' 'Nothing ails me,' replied the other; 'but you +have robbed me of a most delightful dream. I dreamed I was walking through +a fine rich country, and came at length to the shores of a noble river; +and, just where the clear water went thundering down a precipice, there +was a bridge all of silver, which I crossed; and then, entering a noble +palace on the opposite side, I saw great heaps of gold and jewels; and I +was just going to load myself with treasure, when you rudely awoke me, and +I lost all.' "(138) + +(M29) Still more dangerous is it in the opinion of primitive man to move a +sleeper or alter his appearance, for if this were done the soul on its +return might not be able to find or recognise its body, and so the person +would die. The Minangkabauers of Sumatra deem it highly improper to +blacken or dirty the face of a sleeper, lest the absent soul should shrink +from re-entering a body thus disfigured.(139) Patani Malays fancy that if +a person's face be painted while he sleeps, the soul which has gone out of +him will not recognise him, and he will sleep on till his face is +washed.(140) In Bombay it is thought equivalent to murder to change the +aspect of a sleeper, as by painting his face in fantastic colours or +giving moustaches to a sleeping woman. For when the soul returns it will +not know its own body and the person will die.(141) The Coreans are of +opinion that in sleep "the soul goes out of the body, and that if a piece +of paper is put over the face of the sleeper he will surely die, for his +soul cannot find its way back into him again."(142) The Servians believe +that the soul of a sleeping witch often leaves her body in the form of a +butterfly. If during its absence her body be turned round, so that her +feet are placed where her head was before, the butterfly soul will not +find its way back into her body through the mouth, and the witch will +die.(143) The Esthonians of the island of Oesel think that the gusts which +sweep up all kinds of trifles from the ground and whirl them along are the +souls of old women, who have gone out in this shape to seek what they can +find. Meantime the beldame's body lies as still as a stone, and if you +turn it round her soul will never be able to enter it again, until you +have replaced the body in its original position. You can hear the soul +whining and whimpering till it has found the right aperture.(144) +Similarly in Livonia they think that when the soul of a were-wolf is out +on his hateful business, his body lies like dead; and if meanwhile the +body were accidentally moved, the soul would never more find its way into +it, but would remain in the body of a wolf till death.(145) In the +picturesque but little known Black Mountain of southern France, which +forms a sort of link between the Pyrenees and the Cevennes, they tell how +a woman, who had long been suspected of being a witch, one day fell asleep +at noon among the reapers in the field. Resolved to put her to the test, +the reapers carried her, while she slept, to another part of the field, +leaving a large pitcher on the spot from which they had moved her. When +her soul returned, it entered the pitcher and cunningly rolled it over and +over till the vessel lay beside her body, of which the soul thereupon took +possession.(146) + +(M30) But in order that a man's soul should quit his body, it is not +necessary that he should be asleep. It may quit him in his waking hours, +and then sickness, insanity, or death will be the result. Thus a man of +the Wurunjeri tribe in Victoria lay at his last gasp because his spirit +(_murup_) had departed from him. A medicine-man went in pursuit and caught +the spirit by the middle just as it was about to plunge into the sunset +glow, which is the light cast by the souls of the dead as they pass in and +out of the underworld, where the sun goes to rest. Having captured the +vagrant spirit, the doctor brought it back under his opossum rug, laid +himself down on the dying man, and put the soul back into him, so that +after a time he revived.(147) The Karens of Burma are perpetually anxious +about their souls, lest these should go roving from their bodies, leaving +the owners to die. When a man has reason to fear that his soul is about to +take this fatal step, a ceremony is performed to retain or recall it, in +which the whole family must take part. A meal is prepared consisting of a +cock and hen, a special kind of rice, and a bunch of bananas. Then the +head of the family takes the bowl which is used to skim rice, and knocking +with it thrice on the top of the house-ladder says: "_Prrrroo!_ Come back, +soul, do not tarry outside! If it rains, you will be wet. If the sun +shines, you will be hot. The gnats will sting you, the leeches will bite +you, the tigers will devour you, the thunder will crush you. _Prrrroo!_ +Come back, soul! Here it will be well with you. You shall want for +nothing. Come and eat under shelter from the wind and the storm." After +that the family partakes of the meal, and the ceremony ends with everybody +tying their right wrist with a string which has been charmed by a +sorcerer.(148) Similarly the Lolos, an aboriginal tribe of western China, +believe that the soul leaves the body in chronic illness. In that case +they read a sort of elaborate litany, calling on the soul by name and +beseeching it to return from the hills, the vales, the rivers, the +forests, the fields, or from wherever it may be straying. At the same time +cups of water, wine, and rice are set at the door for the refreshment of +the weary wandering spirit. When the ceremony is over, they tie a red cord +round the arm of the sick man to tether the soul, and this cord is worn by +him until it decays and drops off.(149) So among the Kenyahs of Sarawak a +medicine-man has been known to recall the stray soul of a child, and to +fasten it firmly in its body by tying a string round the child's right +wrist, and smearing its little arm with the blood of a fowl.(150) The +Ilocanes of Luzon think that a man may lose his soul in the woods or +gardens, and that he who has thus lost his soul loses also his senses. +Hence before they quit the woods or the fields they call to their soul, +"Let us go! let us go!" lest it should loiter behind or go astray. And +when a man becomes crazed or mad, they take him to the place where he is +supposed to have lost his soul and invite the truant spirit to return to +his body.(151) The Mongols sometimes explain sickness by supposing that +the patient's soul is absent, and either does not care to return to its +body or cannot find the way back. To secure the return of the soul it is +therefore necessary on the one hand to make its body as attractive as +possible, and on the other hand to shew the soul the way home. To make the +body attractive all the sick man's best clothes and most valued +possessions are placed beside him; he is washed, incensed, and made as +comfortable as may be; and all his friends march thrice round the hut +calling out the sick man's name and coaxing his soul to return. To help +the wanderer to find its way back a coloured cord is stretched from the +patient's head to the door of the hut. The priest in his robes reads a +list of the horrors of hell and the dangers incurred by souls which +wilfully absent themselves from their bodies. Then turning to the +assembled friends and the patient he asks, "Is it come?" All answer "Yes," +and bowing to the returning soul throw seed over the sick man. The cord +which guided the soul back is then rolled up and placed round the +patient's neck, who must wear it for seven days without taking it off. No +one may frighten or hurt him, lest his soul, not yet familiar with its +body, should again take flight.(152) + +(M31) Some of the Congo tribes believe that when a man is ill, his soul +has left his body and is wandering at large. The aid of the sorcerer is +then called in to capture the vagrant spirit and restore it to the +invalid. Generally the physician declares that he has successfully chased +the soul into the branch of a tree. The whole town thereupon turns out and +accompanies the doctor to the tree, where the strongest men are deputed to +break off the branch in which the soul of the sick man is supposed to be +lodged. This they do and carry the branch back to the town, insinuating by +their gestures that the burden is heavy and hard to bear. When the branch +has been brought to the sick man's hut, he is placed in an upright +position by its side, and the sorcerer performs the enchantments by which +the soul is believed to be restored to its owner.(153) The soul or shade +of a Dene or Tinneh Indian in the old days generally remained invisible, +but appeared wandering about in one form or another whenever disease or +death was imminent. All the efforts of the sufferer's friends were +therefore concentrated on catching the roving shade. The method adopted +was simple. They stuffed the patient's moccasins with down and hung them +up. If next morning the down was warm, they made sure that the lost soul +was in the boots, with which accordingly they carefully and silently shod +their suffering friend. Nothing more could reasonably be demanded for a +perfect cure.(154) An Ottawa medicine-man has been known to catch a stray +soul in a little box, which he brought back and inserted in the patient's +mouth.(155) + +(M32) Pining, sickness, great fright, and death are ascribed by the Battas +or Bataks of Sumatra to the absence of the soul (_tendi_) from the body. +At first they try to beckon the wanderer back, and to lure him, like a +fowl, by strewing rice. Then the following form of words is commonly +repeated: "Come back, O soul, whether thou art lingering in the wood, or +on the hills, or in the dale. See, I call thee with a _toemba bras_, with +an egg of the fowl Rajah _moelija_, with the eleven healing leaves. Detain +it not, let it come straight here, detain it not, neither in the wood, nor +on the hill, nor in the dale. That may not be. O come straight home!"(156) +Sometimes the means adopted by the Battas to procure the return of a sick +person's soul are more elaborate. A procession sets out from the village +to the tuck of drum to find and bring home the strayed soul. First goes a +person bearing a basket which contains cakes of rice-meal, rice dyed +yellow, and a boiled fowl's egg. The sorcerer follows carrying a chicken, +and behind him walks a man with a black, red, and white flag. A crowd of +sympathisers brings up the rear. On reaching the spot where the lost soul +is supposed to tarry, they set up a small bamboo altar, and the sorcerer +offers on it the chicken to the spirit of the place, the drums beating all +the time. Then, waving his shawl to attract the soul of the sick man, he +says: "Come hither, thou soul of So-and-So, whether thou sittest among the +stones or in the mud. In the house is thy place. We have besought the +spirit to let thee go." After that the procession reforms and marches back +to the village to the roll of drums and the clash of cymbals. On reaching +the door of the house the sorcerer calls out to the inmates, "Has it +come?" and a voice from within answers, "It is here, good sorcerer." At +evening the drums beat again.(157) A number of plants, including rice, a +species of fig, and garlic, are supposed by the Battas to possess +soul-compelling virtue and are accordingly made use of by them in rites +for the recovery of lost souls. When a child is sick, the mother commonly +waves a cloth to beckon home its wandering spirit, and when a cock crows +or a hen cackles in the yard, she knows that the prodigal has returned. If +the little sufferer persists in being ill in spite of these favourable +omens, the mother will hang a bag of rice at the head of her bed when she +goes to sleep, and next morning on getting up she measures the rice. If +the rice has increased in volume during the night, as it may do in a +moisture-laden atmosphere, she is confident that the lost soul has indeed +come home to stay.(158) The Kayans of Borneo fasten packets of rice, +flesh, and fish to the window in the roof through which the wandering soul +of a sick man is expected to return home. The doctor sits cross-legged on +a mat under the open window with a display of pretty things spread out +temptingly before him as baits to entice the spirit back to its deserted +tabernacle. From the window hangs a string of precious corals or pearls to +serve the returning prodigal as a ladder and so facilitate his descent +into the house. The lower end of the string is attached to a bundle +composed of wooden hooks, a fowl's feather, little packets of rice, and so +forth. Chanting his spells, the doctor strokes the soul down the string +into the bundle, which he then deposits in a basket and hides in a corner +till the dusk of the evening. When darkness has fallen, he blows the +captured soul back into the patient's head and strokes the sufferer's arm +downwards with the point of an old spear in order to settle the soul +firmly in his body.(159) Once when a popular traveller was leaving a Kayan +village, the mothers, fearing that their children's souls might follow him +on his journey, brought him the boards on which they carry their infants +and begged him to pray that the souls of the little ones would return to +the familiar boards and not go away with him into the far country. To each +board was fastened a looped string for the purpose of tethering the +vagrant spirits, and through the loop each baby was made to pass a chubby +finger to make sure that its tiny soul would not wander away.(160) When a +Dyak is dangerously ill, the medicine-men may say that his soul has +escaped far away, perhaps to the river; then they will wave a garment or +cloth about to imitate the casting of a net, signifying thereby that they +are catching the soul like a fish in a net. Or they may give out that the +soul has escaped into the jungle; and then they will rush out of the house +to circumvent and secure it there. Or again they may allege that it has +been carried away over seas to some unknown land; and then they will play +at paddling a boat to follow it across the great water. But more commonly +their mode of treatment is as follows. A spear is set up in the middle of +the verandah with a few leaves tied to it and the medicine-boxes of the +medicine-men laid at its foot. Round this the doctors run at full speed, +chanting the while, till one of them falls down and lies motionless. The +bystanders cover him with a blanket, and wait while his spirit hies away +after the errant soul and brings it back. Presently he comes to himself, +stares vacantly about like a man awaking from sleep, and then rises, +holding the soul in his clenched right hand. He then returns it to the +patient through the crown of his head, while he mutters a spell.(161) +Among the Dyaks of the Kayan and Lower Melawie districts you will often +see, in houses where there are children, a basket of a peculiar shape with +shells and dried fruits attached to it. These shells contain the remains +of the children's navel-strings, and the basket to which they are fastened +is commonly hung beside the place where the children sleep. When a child +is frightened, for example by being bathed or by the bursting of a +thunderstorm, its soul flees from its body and nestles beside its old +familiar friend the navel-string in the basket, from which the mother +easily induces it to return by shaking the basket and pressing it to the +child's body.(162) The Toboongkoos of Central Celebes believe that +sickness in general is caused by the departure of the soul. To recover the +wanderer a priest will set out food in the courtyard of the sufferer's +house and then invoke the soul, promising it many fine things if it will +only come back. When he thinks it has complied with his request, he +catches it in a cloth which he keeps ready for the purpose. This cloth he +afterwards claps on the sick man's head, thereby restoring to him his lost +soul.(163) + +(M33) In an Indian story a king conveys his soul into the dead body of a +Brahman, and a hunchback conveys his soul into the deserted body of the +king. The hunchback is now king and the king is a Brahman. However, the +hunchback is induced to shew his skill by transferring his soul to the +dead body of a parrot, and the king seizes the opportunity to regain +possession of his own body.(164) A tale of the same type, with variations +of detail, reappears among the Malays. A king has incautiously transferred +his soul to an ape, upon which the vizier adroitly inserts his own soul +into the king's body and so takes possession of the queen and the kingdom, +while the true king languishes at court in the outward semblance of an +ape. But one day the false king, who played for high stakes, was watching +a combat of rams, and it happened that the animal on which he had laid his +money fell down dead. All efforts to restore animation proved unavailing +till the false king, with the instinct of a true sportsman, transferred +his own soul to the body of the deceased ram, and thus renewed the fray. +The real king in the body of the ape saw his chance, and with great +presence of mind darted back into his own body, which the vizier had +rashly vacated. So he came to his own again, and the usurper in the ram's +body met with the fate he richly deserved.(165) In another Indian story a +Brahman reanimates the dead body of a king by conveying his own soul into +it. Meantime the Brahman's body has been burnt, and his soul is obliged to +remain in the body of the king.(166) In a Chinese story we read of a monk +in a Buddhist monastery who used from time to time to send his soul away +out of himself. Whenever he was thus absent from the body, he took the +precaution of locking the door of his cell. On one of these occasions an +envoy from the north arrived and put up at the monastery, but there was no +cell for him to pass the night in. Then he looked into the cell of the +brother whose soul was not at home, and seeing his body lying there +motionless, he battered the door in and said, "I will lodge here. The man +is dead. Take the body and burn it." His servants obeyed his orders, the +monks being powerless to interfere. That very night the soul came back, +only to find its body reduced to ashes. Every night it could be heard +crying, "Where shall I settle?" Those who knew him then opened their +windows, saying, "Here I am." So the soul came in and united itself with +their body, and the result was that they became much cleverer than +before.(167) Similarly the Greeks told how the soul of Hermotimus of +Clazomenae used to quit his body and roam far and wide, bringing back +intelligence of what he had seen on his rambles to his friends at home; +until one day, when his spirit was abroad, his enemies contrived to seize +his deserted body and committed it to the flames.(168) It is said that +during the last seven years of his life Sultan Bayazid ate nothing that +had life and blood in it. One day, being seized with a great longing for +sheep's trotters, he struggled long in this glorious contest with his +soul, until at last, a savoury dish of trotters being set before him, he +said unto his soul, "My soul, the trotters are before thee; if thou +wishest to enjoy them, leave the body and feed on them." Hardly had he +uttered these words when a living creature was seen to issue from his +mouth and drink of the juice in the dish, after which it endeavoured to +return whence it came. But the austere sultan, determined to mortify his +carnal appetite, prevented it with his hand from entering his mouth, and +when it fell to the ground commanded that it should be beaten. The pages +kicked it to death, and after this murder of his soul the sultan remained +in gloomy seclusion, taking no part or interest in the affairs of +government.(169) + +(M34) The departure of the soul is not always voluntary. It may be +extracted from the body against its will by ghosts, demons, or sorcerers. +Hence, when a funeral is passing the house, the Karens of Burma tie their +children with a special kind of string to a particular part of the house, +lest the souls of the children should leave their bodies and go into the +corpse which is passing. The children are kept tied in this way until the +corpse is out of sight.(170) And after the corpse has been laid in the +grave, but before the earth has been shovelled in, the mourners and +friends range themselves round the grave, each with a bamboo split +lengthwise in one hand and a little stick in the other; each man thrusts +his bamboo into the grave, and drawing the stick along the groove of the +bamboo points out to his soul that in this way it may easily climb up out +of the tomb. While the earth is being shovelled in, the bamboos are kept +out of the way, lest the souls should be in them, and so should be +inadvertently buried with the earth as it is being thrown into the grave; +and when the people leave the spot they carry away the bamboos, begging +their souls to come with them.(171) Further, on returning from the grave +each Karen provides himself with three little hooks made of branches of +trees, and calling his spirit to follow him, at short intervals, as he +returns, he makes a motion as if hooking it, and then thrusts the hook +into the ground. This is done to prevent the soul of the living from +staying behind with the soul of the dead.(172) On the return of a Burmese +or Shan family from a burial, old men tie up the wrists of each member of +the family with string, to prevent his or her "butterfly" or soul from +escaping; and this string remains till it is worn out and falls off.(173) +When a mother dies leaving a young baby, the Burmese think that the +"butterfly" or soul of the baby follows that of the mother, and that if it +is not recovered the child must die. So a wise woman is called in to get +back the baby's soul. She places a mirror near the corpse, and on the +mirror a piece of feathery cotton down. Holding a cloth in her open hands +at the foot of the mirror, she with wild words entreats the mother not to +take with her the "butterfly" or soul of her child, but to send it back. +As the gossamer down slips from the face of the mirror she catches it in +the cloth and tenderly places it on the baby's breast. The same ceremony +is sometimes observed when one of two children that have played together +dies, and is thought to be luring away the soul of its playmate to the +spirit-land. It is sometimes performed also for a bereaved husband or +wife.(174) The Bahnars of eastern Cochin-China think that when a man is +sick of a fever his soul has gone away with the ghosts to the tombs. At +sunset a sorcerer attempts to lure the soul back by offering it +sugar-cane, bananas, and other fruits, while he sings an incantation +inviting the wanderer to return from among the dead to the land of the +living. He pretends to catch the truant soul in a piece of cotton, which +he then lays on the patient's head.(175) When the Karo-Bataks of Sumatra +have buried somebody and are filling in the grave, a sorceress runs about +beating the air with a stick. This she does in order to drive away the +souls of the survivors, for if one of these souls happened to slip into +the grave and to be covered up with earth, its owner would die.(176) Among +some of the Dyak tribes of south-eastern Borneo, as soon as the coffin is +carried to the place of burial, the house in which the death occurred is +sprinkled with water, and the father of the family calls out the names of +all his children and the other members of his household. For they think +that the ghost loves to decoy away the souls of his kinsfolk, but that his +designs upon them can be defeated by calling out their names, which has +the effect of bringing back the souls to their owners. The same ceremony +is repeated on the return from the burial.(177) It is a rule with the +Kwakiutl Indians of British Columbia that a corpse must not be coffined in +the house, or the souls of the other inmates would enter the coffin, and +they, too, would die. The body is taken out either through the roof or +through a hole made in one of the walls, and is then coffined outside the +house.(178) In the East Indian island of Keisar it is deemed imprudent to +go near a grave at night, lest the ghosts should catch and keep the soul +of the passer-by.(179) The Kei Islanders believe that the spirits of their +forefathers, angry at not receiving food, make people sick by detaining +their souls. So they lay offerings of food on the grave and beg their +ancestors to allow the soul of the sick to return, or to drive it home +speedily if it should be lingering by the way.(180) + +(M35) In Bolang Mongondo, a district in the west of Celebes, all sickness +is ascribed to the ancestral spirits who have carried off the patient's +soul. The object therefore is to bring back the soul of the sufferer and +restore it to him. An eye-witness has thus described the attempted cure of +a sick boy. The priestesses, who acted as physicians, made a doll of cloth +and fastened it to the point of a spear, which an old woman held upright. +Round this doll the priestesses danced, uttering charms, and chirruping as +when one calls a dog. Then the old woman lowered the point of the spear a +little, so that the priestesses could reach the doll. By this time the +soul of the sick boy was supposed to be in the doll, having been brought +into it by the incantations. So the priestesses approached it cautiously +on tiptoe and caught the soul in the many-coloured cloths which they had +been waving in the air. Then they laid the soul on the boy's head, that +is, they wrapped his head in the cloth in which the soul was supposed to +be, and stood still for some moments with great gravity, holding their +hands on the patient's head. Suddenly there was a jerk, the priestesses +whispered and shook their heads, and the cloth was taken off--the soul had +escaped. The priestesses gave chase to it, running round and round the +house, clucking and gesticulating as if they were driving hens into a +poultry-yard. At last they recaptured the soul at the foot of the stair +and restored it to its owner as before.(181) Much in the same way an +Australian medicine-man will sometimes bring the lost soul of a sick man +into a puppet and restore it to the patient by pressing the puppet to his +breast.(182) In Uea, one of the Loyalty Islands, the souls of the dead +seem to have been credited with the power of stealing the souls of the +living. For when a man was sick the soul-doctor would go with a large +troop of men and women to the graveyard. Here the men played on flutes and +the women whistled softly to lure the soul home. After this had gone on +for some time they formed in procession and moved homewards, the flutes +playing and the women whistling all the way, while they led back the +wandering soul and drove it gently along with open palms. On entering the +patient's dwelling they commanded the soul in a loud voice to enter his +body.(183) In Madagascar when a man was sick or lunatic in consequence of +the loss of his soul, his friends despatched a wizard in haste to fetch +him a soul from the graveyard. The emissary repaired by night to the spot, +and having made a hole in the wooden house which served as a tomb, begged +the spirit of the patient's father to bestow a soul on his son or +daughter, who had none. So saying he applied a bonnet to the hole, then +folded it up and rushed back to the house of the sufferer, saying he had a +soul for him. With that he clapped the bonnet on the head of the invalid, +who at once said he felt much better and had recovered the soul which he +had lost.(184) + +(M36) When a Dyak or Malay of some of the western tribes or districts of +Borneo is taken ill, with vomiting and profuse sweating as the only +symptoms, he thinks that one of his deceased kinsfolk or ancestors is at +the bottom of it. To discover which of them is the culprit, a wise man or +woman pulls a lock of hair on the crown of the sufferer's head, calling +out the names of all his dead relations. The name at which the lock gives +forth a sound is the name of the guilty party. If the patient's hair is +too short to be tugged with effect, he knocks his forehead seven times +against the forehead of a kinsman who has long hair. The hair of the +latter is then tugged instead of that of the patient and answers to the +test quite as well. When the blame has thus been satisfactorily laid at +the door of the ghost who is responsible for the sickness, the physician, +who, as in other countries, is often an old woman, remonstrates with him +on his ill behaviour. "Go back," says she, "to your grave; what do you +come here for? The soul of the sick man does not choose to be called by +you, and will remain yet a long time in its body." Then she puts some +ashes from the hearth in a winnowing fan and moulds out of them a small +figure or image in human likeness. Seven times she moves the basket with +the little ashen figure up and down before the patient, taking care not to +obliterate the figure, while at the same time she says, "Sickness, settle +in the head, belly, hands, etc.; then quickly pass into the corresponding +part of the image," whereupon the patient spits on the ashen image and +pushes it from him with his left hand. Next the beldame lights a candle +and goes to the grave of the person whose ghost is doing all the mischief. +On the grave she throws the figure of ashes, calling out, "Ghost, plague +the sick man no longer, and stay in your grave, that he may see you no +more." On her return she asks the anxious relations in the house, "Has his +soul come back?" and they must answer quickly, "Yes, the soul of the sick +man has come back." Then she stands beside the patient, blows out the +candle which had lighted the returning soul on its way, and strews +yellow-coloured rice on the head of the convalescent, saying, "Cluck, +soul! cluck, soul! cluck, soul!" Last of all she fastens on his right +wrist a bracelet or ring which he must wear for three days.(185) In this +case we see that the saving of the soul is combined with a vicarious +sacrifice to the ghost, who receives a puppet on which to work his will +instead of on the poor soul. In San Cristoval, one of the Melanesian +islands, the vicarious sacrifice takes the form of a pig or a fish. A +malignant ghost of the name of Tapia is supposed to have seized on the +sick man's soul and tied it up to a banyan-tree. Accordingly a man who has +influence with Tapia takes a pig or fish to the holy place where the ghost +resides and offers it to him, saying, "This is for you to eat in place of +that man; eat this, don't kill him." This satisfies the ghost; the soul is +loosed from the tree and carried back to the sufferer, who naturally +recovers.(186) A regular part of the stock-in-trade of a Dyak medicine-man +is a crystal into which he gazes to detect the hiding-place of a lost soul +or to identify the demon who is causing the sickness.(187) In one of the +New Hebrides a ghost will sometimes impound the souls of trespassers +within a magic fence in his garden, and will only consent to pull up the +fence and let the souls out on receiving an unqualified apology and a +satisfactory assurance that no personal disrespect was intended.(188) In +Motlav, another Melanesian island, it is enough to call out the sick man's +name in the sacred place where he rashly intruded, and then, when the cry +of the kingfisher or some other bird is heard, to shout "Come back" to the +soul of the sick man and run back with it to the house.(189) + +(M37) It is a comparatively easy matter to save a soul which is merely +tied up to a tree or detained as a vagrant in a pound; but it is a far +harder task to fetch it up from the nether world, if it once gets down +there. When a Buryat shaman is called in to attend a patient, the first +thing he does is to ascertain where exactly the soul of the invalid is; +for it may have strayed, or been stolen, or be languishing in the prison +of the gloomy Erlik, lord of the world below. If it is anywhere in the +neighbourhood, the shaman soon catches and replaces it in the patient's +body. If it is far away, he searches the wide world till he finds it, +ransacking the deep woods, the lonely steppes, and the bottom of the sea, +not to be thrown off the scent even though the cunning soul runs to the +sheep-walks in the hope that its footprints will be lost among the tracks +of the sheep. But when the whole world has been searched in vain for the +errant soul, the shaman knows that there is nothing for it but to go down +to hell and seek the lost one among the spirits in prison. At the stern +call of duty he does not flinch, though he knows that the journey is +toilsome, and that the travelling expenses, which are naturally defrayed +by the patient, are very heavy. Sometimes the lord of the infernal regions +will only agree to release the soul on condition of receiving another in +its stead, and that one the soul of the sick man's dearest friend. If the +patient consents to the substitution, the shaman turns himself into a +hawk, pounces upon the soul of the friend as it soars from his slumbering +body in the form of a lark, and hands over the fluttering, struggling +thing to the grim warden of the dead, who thereupon sets the soul of the +sick man at liberty. So the sick man recovers and his friend dies.(190) + +(M38) When a shaman declares that the soul of a sick Thompson Indian has +been carried off by the dead, the good physician, who is the shaman +himself, puts on a conical mask and sets off in pursuit. He now acts as if +on a journey, jumping rivers and such like obstacles, searching, talking, +and sometimes engaging in a tussle for the possession of the soul. His +first step is to repair to the old trail by which the souls of heathen +Thompsons went to the spirit-land; for nowadays the souls of Christian +Thompsons travel by a new road. If he fails to find the tracks of the lost +soul there, he searches all the graveyards, one after the other, and +almost always discovers it in one of them. Sometimes he succeeds in +heading off the departing soul by taking a short cut to the other world. A +shaman can only stay a short time there. So as soon as he lays hands on +the soul he is after, he bolts with it. The other souls give chase, but he +stamps with his foot, on which he wears a rattle made of deer's hoofs. At +the rattle of the hoofs the ghosts retreat and he hurries on. A bolder +shaman will sometimes ask the ghosts for the soul, and if they refuse to +give it, he will wrest it from them. They attack him, but he clubs them +and brings away the soul by force. When he comes back to the world, he +takes off his mask and shews his club all bloody. Then the people know he +had a desperate struggle. If he foresees that the harrowing of hell is +likely to prove a tough job, he increases the number of wooden pins in his +mask. The rescued soul is placed by him on the patient's head and so +returned to his body.(191) Among the Twana Indians of Washington State the +descent of the medicine-men into the nether world to rescue lost souls is +represented in pantomime before the eyes of the spectators, who include +women and children as well as men. The surface of the ground is often +broken to facilitate the descent of the rescue party. When the adventurous +band is supposed to have reached the bottom, they journey along, cross at +least one stream, and travel till they come to the abode of the spirits. +These they surprise, and after a desperate struggle, sustained with great +ardour and a prodigious noise, they succeed in rescuing the poor souls, +and so, wrapping them up in cloth, they make the best of their way back to +the upper world and restore the recovered souls to their owners, who have +been seen to cry heartily for joy at receiving them back.(192) + +(M39) Often the abduction of a man's soul is set down to demons. The +Annamites believe that when a man meets a demon and speaks to him, the +demon inhales the man's breath and soul.(193) The souls of the Bahnars of +eastern Cochin-China are apt to be carried off by evil spirits, and the +modes of recovering them are various. If a man suffers from a colic, the +sorcerer may say that in planting sugar-cane, maize or what-not, he has +pierced the stomach of a certain god who lives like a mole in the ground, +and that the injured deity has punished him by abstracting his soul and +burying it under a plant. Hence the cure for the colic is to pull up the +plant and water the hole with millet wine and the blood of a fowl, a goat, +or a pig. Again, if a child falls ill in the forest or the fields, it is +because some devil has made off with its soul. To retrieve this spiritual +loss the sorcerer constructs an apparatus which comprises an egg-shell in +an egg-holder, a little waxen image of the sick child, and a small bamboo +full of millet wine. This apparatus he sets up at a cross-road, praying +the devil to drink the wine and surrender the stolen soul by depositing it +in the egg-shell. Then he returns to the house, and putting a little +cotton to the child's head restores the soul to its owner. Sometimes the +sorcerer lays a trap for the thievish demon, the bait consisting of the +liver of a pig or a fowl and the blood-smeared handle of a little mattock. +At nightfall he sets the trap at a cross-road and lies in wait hard by. +While the devil is licking the blood and munching the liver, the artful +sorcerer pounces out on him, and after a severe struggle wrests the soul +from his clutches, returning to the village victorious, but breathless and +bleeding from his terrific encounter with the enemy of souls.(194) Fits +and convulsions are generally set down by the Chinese to the agency of +certain mischievous spirits who love to draw men's souls out of their +bodies. At Amoy the spirits who serve babies and children in this way +rejoice in the high-sounding titles of "celestial agencies bestriding +galloping horses" and "literary graduates residing halfway up in the sky." +When an infant is writhing in convulsions, the frightened mother hastens +to the roof of the house, and, waving about a bamboo pole to which one of +the child's garments is attached, cries out several times, "My child +So-and-so, come back, return home!" Meantime, another inmate of the house +bangs away at a gong in the hope of attracting the attention of the +strayed soul, which is supposed to recognise the familiar garment and to +slip into it. The garment containing the soul is then placed on or beside +the child, and if the child does not die recovery is sure to follow sooner +or later.(195) Similarly we saw that some Indians catch a man's lost soul +in his boots and restore it to his body by putting his feet into +them.(196) + +(M40) If Galelareese mariners are sailing past certain rocks or come to a +river where they never were before, they must wash their faces, for +otherwise the spirits of the rocks or the river would snatch away their +souls.(197) When a Dyak is about to leave a forest through which he has +been walking alone, he never forgets to ask the demons to give him back +his soul, for it may be that some forest-devil has carried it off. For the +abduction of a soul may take place without its owner being aware of his +loss, and it may happen either while he is awake or asleep.(198) The +Papuans of Geelvink Bay in New Guinea are apt to think that the mists +which sometimes hang about the tops of tall trees in their tropical +forests envelop a spirit or god called Narbrooi, who draws away the breath +or soul of those whom he loves, thus causing them to languish and die. +Accordingly, when a man lies sick, a friend or relation will go to one of +these mist-capped trees and endeavour to recover the lost soul. At the +foot of the tree he makes a peculiar sound to attract the attention of the +spirit, and lights a cigar. In its curling smoke his fancy discerns the +fair and youthful form of Narbrooi himself, who, decked with flowers, +appears and informs the anxious enquirer whether the soul of his sick +friend is with him or not. If it is, the man asks, "Has he done any +wrong?" "Oh no!" the spirit answers, "I love him, and therefore I have +taken him to myself." So the man lays down an offering at the foot of the +tree, and goes home with the soul of the sufferer in a straw bag. Arrived +at the house, he empties the bag with its precious contents over the sick +man's head, rubs his arms and hands with ginger-root, which he had first +chewed small, and then ties a bandage round one of the patient's wrists. +If the bandage bursts, it is a sign that Narbrooi has repented of his +bargain, and is drawing away the sufferer once more to himself.(199) + +(M41) In the Moluccas when a man is unwell it is thought that some devil +has carried away his soul to the tree, mountain, or hill where he (the +devil) resides. A sorcerer having pointed out the devil's abode, the +friends of the patient carry thither cooked rice, fruit, fish, raw eggs, a +hen, a chicken, a silken robe, gold, armlets, and so forth. Having set out +the food in order they pray, saying: "We come to offer to you, O devil, +this offering of food, clothes, gold, and so on; take it and release the +soul of the patient for whom we pray. Let it return to his body, and he +who now is sick shall be made whole." Then they eat a little and let the +hen loose as a ransom for the soul of the patient; also they put down the +raw eggs; but the silken robe, the gold, and the armlets they take home +with them. As soon as they are come to the house they place a flat bowl +containing the offerings which have been brought back at the sick man's +head, and say to him: "Now is your soul released, and you shall fare well +and live to grey hairs on the earth."(200) A more modern account from the +same region describes how the friend of the patient, after depositing his +offerings on the spot where the missing soul is supposed to be, calls out +thrice the name of the sick person, adding, "Come with me, come with me." +Then he returns, making a motion with a cloth as if he had caught the soul +in it. He must not look to right or left or speak a word to any one he +meets, but must go straight to the patient's house. At the door he stands, +and calling out the sick person's name, asks whether he is returned. Being +answered from within that he is returned, he enters and lays the cloth in +which he has caught the soul on the patient's throat, saying, "Now you are +returned to the house." Sometimes a substitute is provided; a doll, +dressed up in gay clothing and tinsel, is offered to the demon in exchange +for the patient's soul, with these words, "Give us back the ugly one which +you have taken away and receive this pretty one instead."(201) + +(M42) Among the Alfoors or Toradjas of Poso, in Central Celebes, a wooden +puppet is offered to the demon as a substitute for the soul which he has +abstracted, and the patient must touch the puppet in order to identify +himself with it. The effigy is then hung on a bamboo pole, which is +planted at the place of sacrifice outside of the house. Here too are +deposited offerings of rice, an egg, a little wood (which is afterwards +kindled), a sherd of a broken cooking-pot, and so forth. A long rattan +extends from the place of sacrifice to the sufferer, who grasps one end of +it firmly, for along it his lost soul will return when the devil has +kindly released it. All being ready, the priestess informs the demon that +he has come to the wrong place, and that there are no doubt much better +quarters where he could reside. Then the father of the patient, standing +beside the offerings, takes up his parable as follows: "O demon, we forgot +to sacrifice to you. You have visited us with this sickness; will you now +go away from us to some other place? We have made ready provisions for you +on the journey. See, here is a cooking-pot, here are rice, fire, and a +fowl. O demon, go away from us." With that the priestess strews rice +towards the bamboo-pole to lure back the wandering soul; and the fowl +promised to the devil is thrown in the same direction, but is instantly +jerked back again by a string which, in a spirit of intelligent economy, +has been previously attached to its leg. The demon is now supposed to +accept the puppet, which hangs from the pole, and to release the soul, +which, sliding down the pole and along the rattan, returns to its proper +owner. And lest the evil spirit should repent of the barter which has just +been effected, all communication with him is broken off by cutting down +the pole.(202) Similarly the Mongols make up a horse of birch-bark and a +doll, and invite the demon to take the doll instead of the patient and to +ride away on the horse.(203) A Yakut shaman, rigged out in his +professional costume, with his drum in his hand, will boldly descend into +the lower world and haggle with the demon who has carried off a sick man's +soul. Not uncommonly the demon proves amenable to reason, and in +consideration of the narrow circumstances of the patient's family will +accept a more moderate ransom than he at first demanded. For instance, he +may be brought to put up with the skin of an Arctic hare or Arctic fox +instead of a foal or a steer. The bargain being struck, the shaman hurries +back to the sufferer's bedside, from which to the merely carnal eye he has +never stirred, and informs the anxious relatives of the success of his +mission. They in turn gladly hasten to provide the ransom.(204) + +(M43) Demons are especially feared by persons who have just entered a new +house. Hence at a house-warming among the Alfoors of Minahassa in Celebes +the priest performs a ceremony for the purpose of restoring their souls to +the inmates. He hangs up a bag at the place of sacrifice and then goes +through a list of the gods. There are so many of them that this takes him +the whole night through without stopping. In the morning he offers the +gods an egg and some rice. By this time the souls of the household are +supposed to be gathered in the bag. So the priest takes the bag, and +holding it on the head of the master of the house, says, "Here you have +your soul; go (soul) to-morrow away again." He then does the same, saying +the same words, to the housewife and all the other members of the +family.(205) Amongst the same Alfoors one way of recovering a sick man's +soul is to let down a bowl by a belt out of a window and fish for the soul +till it is caught in the bowl and hauled up.(206) And among the same +people, when a priest is bringing back a sick man's soul which he has +caught in a cloth, he is preceded by a girl holding the large leaf of a +certain palm over his head as an umbrella to keep him and the soul from +getting wet, in case it should rain; and he is followed by a man +brandishing a sword to deter other souls from any attempt at rescuing the +captured spirit.(207) + +(M44) In Nias, when a man dreams that a pig is fastened under a +neighbour's house, it is a sign that some one in that house will die. They +think that the sun-god is drawing away the shadows or souls of that +household from this world of shadows to his own bright world of radiant +light, and a ceremony must needs be performed to win back these passing +souls to earth. Accordingly, while it is still night, the priest begins to +drum and pray, and he continues his orisons till about nine o'clock next +morning. Then he takes his stand at an opening in the roof through which +he can behold the sun, and spreading out a cloth waits till the beams of +the morning sun fall full upon it. In the sunbeams he thinks the wandering +souls have come back again; so he wraps the cloth up tightly, and quitting +the opening in the roof, hastens with his precious charge to the expectant +household. Before each member of it he stops, and dipping his fingers into +the cloth takes out his or her soul and restores it to the owner by +touching the person on the forehead.(208) The Thompson Indians of British +Columbia think that the setting sun draws the souls of men away towards +it; hence they will never sleep with their heads to the sunset.(209) The +Samoans tell how two young wizards, passing a house where a chief lay very +sick, saw a company of gods from the mountain sitting in the doorway. They +were handing from one to another the soul of the dying chief. It was wrapt +in a leaf, and had been passed from the gods inside the house to those +sitting in the doorway. One of the gods handed the soul to one of the +wizards, taking him for a god in the dark, for it was night. Then all the +gods rose up and went away; but the wizard kept the chief's soul. In the +morning some women went with a present of fine mats to fetch a famous +physician. The wizards were sitting on the shore as the women passed, and +they said to the women, "Give us the mats and we will heal him." So they +went to the chief's house. He was very ill, his jaw hung down, and his end +seemed near. But the wizards undid the leaf and let the soul into him +again, and forthwith he brightened up and lived.(210) + +(M45) The Battas or Bataks of Sumatra believe that the soul of a living +man may transmigrate into the body of an animal. Hence, for example, the +doctor is sometimes desired to extract the patient's soul from the body of +a fowl, in which it has been hidden away by an evil spirit.(211) + +(M46) Sometimes the lost soul is brought back in a visible shape. In +Melanesia a woman, knowing that a neighbour was at the point of death, +heard a rustling in her house, as of a moth fluttering, just at the moment +when a noise of weeping and lamentation told her that the soul was flown. +She caught the fluttering thing between her hands and ran with it, crying +out that she had caught the soul. But though she opened her hands above +the mouth of the corpse, it did not revive.(212) In Lepers' Island, one of +the New Hebrides, for ten days after a birth the father is careful not to +exert himself or the baby would suffer for it. If during this time he goes +away to any distance, he will bring back with him on his return a little +stone representing the infant's soul. Arrived at home he cries, "Come +hither," and puts down the stone in the house. Then he waits till the +child sneezes, at which he cries, "Here it is"; for now he knows that the +little soul has not been lost after all.(213) The Salish or Flathead +Indians of Oregon believe that a man's soul may be separated for a time +from his body without causing death and without the man being aware of his +loss. It is necessary, however, that the lost soul should be soon found +and restored to its owner or he will die. The name of the man who has lost +his soul is revealed in a dream to the medicine-man, who hastens to inform +the sufferer of his loss. Generally a number of men have sustained a like +loss at the same time; all their names are revealed to the medicine-man, +and all employ him to recover their souls. The whole night long these +soulless men go about the village from lodge to lodge, dancing and +singing. Towards daybreak they go into a separate lodge, which is closed +up so as to be totally dark. A small hole is then made in the roof, +through which the medicine-man, with a bunch of feathers, brushes in the +souls, in the shape of bits of bone and the like, which he receives on a +piece of matting. A fire is next kindled, by the light of which the +medicine-man sorts out the souls. First he puts aside the souls of dead +people, of which there are usually several; for if he were to give the +soul of a dead person to a living man, the man would die instantly. Next +he picks out the souls of all the persons present, and making them all to +sit down before him, he takes the soul of each, in the shape of a splinter +of bone, wood, or shell, and placing it on the owner's head, pats it with +many prayers and contortions till it descends into the heart and so +resumes its proper place.(214) In Amboyna the sorcerer, to recover a soul +detained by demons, plucks a branch from a tree, and waving it to and fro +as if to catch something, calls out the sick man's name. Returning he +strikes the patient over the head and body with the branch, into which the +lost soul is supposed to have passed, and from which it returns to the +patient.(215) In the Babar Islands offerings for evil spirits are laid at +the root of a great tree (_wokiorai_), from which a leaf is plucked and +pressed on the patient's forehead and breast; the lost soul, which is in +the leaf, is thus restored to its owner.(216) In some other islands of the +same seas, when a man returns ill and speechless from the forest, it is +inferred that the evil spirits which dwell in the great trees have caught +and kept his soul. Offerings of food are therefore left under a tree and +the soul is brought home in a piece of wax.(217) Amongst the Dyaks of +Sarawak the priest conjures the lost soul into a cup, where it is seen by +the uninitiated as a lock of hair, but by the initiated as a miniature +human being. This the priest pokes back into the patient's body through an +invisible hole in his skull.(218) In Nias the sick man's soul is restored +to him in the shape of a firefly, visible only to the sorcerer, who +catches it in a cloth and places it on the forehead of the patient.(219) +Amongst the Indians of Santiago Tepehuacan, if a child has fallen from the +arms of its bearer and an illness has resulted from the fall, the parents +will take the child's shirt, stretch it out on the spot where the little +one fell, and say, "Come, come, come back to the infant." Then they bring +back a little of the earth wrapped up in the shirt, and put the shirt on +the child. They say that in this manner the spirit is replaced in the +child's body and that he will recover.(220) With this we may compare an +Irish custom reported by Camden. When any one happens to fall, he springs +up again, and turning round thrice to the right, digs the earth with a +sword or knife, and takes up a turf, because they say the earth restores +his shade to him. But if he falls sick within two or three days +thereafter, a woman skilled in these matters is sent to the spot, and +there says: "I call thee, So-and-so, from the East and West, from the +South and North, from the groves, woods, rivers, marshes, fairies white, +red, and black," and so forth. After uttering certain short prayers, she +returns home to the sick person, and whispering in his ear another prayer, +along with a _Pater Noster_, puts some burning coals into a cup of clean +water, and so decides whether the distemper has been inflicted by the +fairies.(221) Here, though Camden is not very explicit, and he probably +did not quite understand the custom he describes, it seems plain that the +shade or soul of a man who has fallen is conceived as adhering to the +ground where he fell. Accordingly he seeks to regain possession of it by +digging up the earth; but if he fails to recover it, he sends a wise woman +to the spot to win back his soul from the fairies who are detaining it. + +(M47) The ancient Egyptians held that a dead man is not in a state to +enter on the life hereafter until his soul has been found and restored to +his mummified body. The vital spark had been commonly devoured by the +malignant god Sit, who concealed his true form in the likeness of a horned +beast, such as an ox or a gazelle. So the priests went in quest of the +missing spirit, slaughtered the animal which had devoured it, and cutting +open the carcase found the soul still undigested in its stomach. +Afterwards the son of the deceased embraced the mummy or the image of his +father in order to restore his soul to him. Formerly it was customary to +place the skin of the slain beast on the dead man for the purpose of +recruiting his strength with that of the animal.(222) + +(M48) Again, souls may be extracted from their bodies or detained on their +wanderings not only by ghosts and demons but also by men, especially by +sorcerers. In Fiji, if a criminal refused to confess, the chief sent for a +scarf with which "to catch away the soul of the rogue." At the sight or +even at the mention of the scarf the culprit generally made a clean +breast. For if he did not, the scarf would be waved over his head till his +soul was caught in it, when it would be carefully folded up and nailed to +the end of a chief's canoe; and for want of his soul the criminal would +pine and die.(223) The sorcerers of Danger Island used to set snares for +souls. The snares were made of stout cinet, about fifteen to thirty feet +long, with loops on either side of different sizes, to suit the different +sizes of souls; for fat souls there were large loops, for thin souls there +were small ones. When a man was sick against whom the sorcerers had a +grudge, they set up these soul-snares near his house and watched for the +flight of his soul. If in the shape of a bird or an insect it was caught +in the snare the man would infallibly die.(224) When a Polynesian mother +desired that the child in her womb should grow up to be a great warrior or +a great thief, she repaired to the temple of the war-god Oro or of the +thief-god Hiro. There the priest obligingly caught the spirit of the god +in a snare made of coco-nut fibre, and then infused it into the woman. +When the child was born, the mother took it to the temple and dedicated it +to the god with whose divine spirit the infant was already possessed.(225) +The Algonquin Indians also used nets to catch souls, but only as a measure +of defence. They feared lest passing souls, which had just quitted the +bodies of dying people, should enter their huts and carry off the souls of +the inmates to deadland. So they spread nets about their houses to catch +and entangle these ghostly intruders in the meshes.(226) + +(M49) Among the Sereres of Senegambia, when a man wishes to revenge +himself on his enemy he goes to the _Fitaure_ (chief and priest in one), +and prevails on him by presents to conjure the soul of his enemy into a +large jar of red earthenware, which is then deposited under a consecrated +tree. The man whose soul is shut up in the jar soon dies.(227) Among the +Baoules of the Ivory Coast it happened once that a chief's soul was +extracted by the magic of an enemy, who succeeded in shutting it up in a +box. To recover it, two men held a garment of the sick man, while a witch +performed certain enchantments. After a time she declared that the soul +was now in the garment, which was accordingly rolled up and hastily +wrapped about the invalid for the purpose of restoring his spirit to +him.(228) Some of the Congo negroes think that enchanters can get +possession of human souls, and enclosing them in tusks of ivory, sell them +to the white man, who makes them work for him in his country under the +sea. It is believed that very many of the coast labourers are men thus +obtained; so when these people go to trade they often look anxiously about +for their dead relations. The man whose soul is thus sold into slavery +will die "in due course, if not at the time."(229) In some parts of West +Africa, indeed, wizards are continually setting traps to catch souls that +wander from their bodies in sleep; and when they have caught one, they tie +it up over the fire, and as it shrivels in the heat the owner sickens. +This is done, not out of any grudge towards the sufferer, but purely as a +matter of business. The wizard does not care whose soul he has captured, +and will readily restore it to its owner if only he is paid for doing so. +Some sorcerers keep regular asylums for strayed souls, and anybody who has +lost or mislaid his own soul can always have another one from the asylum +on payment of the usual fee. No blame whatever attaches to men who keep +these private asylums or set traps for passing souls; it is their +profession, and in the exercise of it they are actuated by no harsh or +unkindly feelings. But there are also wretches who from pure spite or for +the sake of lucre set and bait traps with the deliberate purpose of +catching the soul of a particular man; and in the bottom of the pot, +hidden by the bait, are knives and sharp hooks which tear and rend the +poor soul, either killing it outright or mauling it so as to impair the +health of its owner when it succeeds in escaping and returning to him. +Miss Kingsley knew a Kruman who became very anxious about his soul, +because for several nights he had smelt in his dreams the savoury smell of +smoked crawfish seasoned with red pepper. Clearly some ill-wisher had set +a trap baited with this dainty for his dream-soul, intending to do him +grievous bodily, or rather spiritual, harm; and for the next few nights +great pains were taken to keep his soul from straying abroad in his sleep. +In the sweltering heat of the tropical night he lay sweating and snorting +under a blanket, his nose and mouth tied up with a handkerchief to prevent +the escape of his precious soul.(230) + +(M50) When Dyaks of the Upper Melawie are about to go out head-hunting +they take the precaution of securing the souls of their enemies before +they attempt to kill their bodies, calculating apparently that mere bodily +death will soon follow the spiritual death, or capture, of the soul. With +this intention they clear a small space in the underwood of the forest, +and set up in the clearing one of those miniature houses in which it is +customary to deposit the ashes of the dead. Food is placed in the little +house, which, though raised on four posts, is connected with the ground by +a tiny inverted ladder of the sort up which spirits are believed to swarm. +When these preparations have been completed, the leader of the expedition +comes and sits down a little way from the miniature house, and addressing +the spirits of kinsmen who had the misfortune to be beheaded by their +enemies, he says, "O ghosts of So-and-so, come speedily back to our +village. We have rice in abundance. Our trees all bear ripe fruit. Our +baskets are full to the brim. O ghosts, come swiftly back and forget not +to bring your new friends and acquaintances with you." But by the new +friends and acquaintances of the ghosts he means the souls of the enemies +against whom he is about to lead the expedition. Meantime the other +warriors have hidden themselves close by behind trees and bushes, and are +listening with all their ears. When the cry of an animal is heard in the +forest, or a humming sound seems to issue from the little house, it is a +sign that the ghosts of their friends have come, bringing with them the +souls of their enemies, which are accordingly at their mercy. At that the +lurking warriors leap forth from their ambush, and with brandished blades +hew and slash at the souls of their foemen swarming unseen in the air. +Taken completely by surprise, the panic-stricken souls flee in all +directions, and are fain to hide under every leaf and stone on the ground. +But even here their retreat is cut off. For now the leader of the +expedition is hard at work, grubbing up with his hands every stone and +leaf to right and left, and thrusting them with feverish haste into the +basket, which he at once ties up securely. He now flatters himself that he +has the souls of the enemy safe in his possession; and when in the course +of the expedition the heads of the foe are severed from their bodies, he +will pack them into the same basket in which their souls are already +languishing in captivity.(231) + +(M51) In Hawaii there were sorcerers who caught souls of living people, +shut them up in calabashes, and gave them to people to eat. By squeezing a +captured soul in their hands they discovered the place where people had +been secretly buried.(232) Amongst the Canadian Indians, when a wizard +wished to kill a man, he sent out his familiar spirits, who brought him +the victim's soul in the shape of a stone or the like. The wizard struck +the soul with a sword or an axe till it bled profusely, and as it bled the +man to whom it belonged fell ill and died.(233) In Amboyna if a doctor is +convinced that a patient's soul has been carried away by a demon beyond +recovery, he seeks to supply its place with a soul abstracted from another +man. For this purpose he goes by night to a house and asks, "Who's there?" +If an inmate is incautious enough to answer, the doctor takes up from +before the door a clod of earth, into which the soul of the person who +replied is thought to have passed. This clod the doctor lays under the +sick man's pillow, and performs certain ceremonies by which the stolen +soul is conveyed into the patient's body. Then as he goes home the doctor +fires two shots to frighten the soul from returning to its proper +owner.(234) A Karen wizard will catch the wandering soul of a sleeper and +transfer it to the body of a dead man. The latter, therefore, comes to +life as the former dies. But the friends of the sleeper in turn engage a +wizard to steal the soul of another sleeper, who dies as the first sleeper +comes to life. In this way an indefinite succession of deaths and +resurrections is supposed to take place.(235) + +(M52) Nowhere perhaps is the art of abducting human souls more carefully +cultivated or carried to higher perfection than in the Malay Peninsula. +Here the methods by which the wizard works his will are various, and so +too are his motives. Sometimes he desires to destroy an enemy, sometimes +to win the love of a cold or bashful beauty. Some of the charms operate +entirely without contact; in others, the receptacle into which the soul is +to be lured has formed part of, or at least touched, the person of the +victim. Thus, to take an instance of the latter sort of charm, the +following are the directions given for securing the soul of one whom you +wish to render distraught. Take soil from the middle of his footprint; +wrap it up in pieces of red, black, and yellow cloth, taking care to keep +the yellow outside; and hang it from the centre of your mosquito curtain +with parti-coloured thread. It will then become your victim's soul. To +complete the transubstantiation, however, it is needful to switch the +packet with a birch composed of seven leaf-ribs from a "green" coco-nut. +Do this seven times at sunset, at midnight, and at sunrise, saying, "It is +not earth that I switch, but the heart of So-and-so." Then bury it in the +middle of a path where your victim is sure to step over it, and he will +unquestionably become distraught.(236) Another way is to scrape the wood +of the floor where your intended victim has been sitting, mix the +scrapings with earth from his or her footprint, and knead the whole with +wax from a deserted bees' comb into a likeness of him or her. Then +fumigate the figure with incense and beckon to the soul every night for +three nights successively by waving a cloth, while you recite the +appropriate spell.(237) In the following cases the charm takes effect +without any contact whatever, whether direct or indirect, with the victim. +When the moon, just risen, looks red above the eastern horizon, go out, +and standing in the moonlight, with the big toe of your right foot on the +big toe of your left, make a speaking-trumpet of your right hand and +recite through it the following words: + + + "_OM. I loose my shaft, I loose it and the moon clouds over,_ + _I loose it, and the sun is extinguished._ + _I loose it, and the stars burn dim._ + _But it is not the sun, moon, and stars that I shoot at,_ + _It is the stalk of the heart of that child of the congregation, + So-and-so._ + + _Cluck! cluck! soul of So-and-so, come and walk with me,_ + _Come and sit with me,_ + _Come and sleep and share my pillow._ + _Cluck! cluck! soul._" + + +Repeat this thrice and after every repetition blow through your hollow +fist.(238) Or you may catch the soul in your turban, thus. Go out on the +night of the full moon and the two succeeding nights; sit down on an +ant-hill facing the moon, burn incense, and recite the following +incantation: + + + "_I bring you a betel leaf to chew,_ + _Dab the lime on to it, Prince Ferocious,_ + _For Somebody, Prince Distraction's daughter, to chew._ + _Somebody at sunrise be distraught for love of me,_ + _Somebody at sunset be distraught for love of me._ + _As you remember your parents, remember me;_ + _As you remember your house and house-ladder, remember me._ + _When thunder rumbles, remember me;_ + _When wind whistles, remember me;_ + _When the heavens rain, remember me;_ + _When cocks crow, remember me;_ + _When the dial-bird tells its tales, remember me;_ + _When you look up at the sun, remember me;_ + _When you look up at the moon, remember me,_ + _For in that self-same moon I am there._ + _Cluck! cluck! soul of Somebody come hither to me._ + _I do not mean to let you have my soul,_ + _Let your soul come hither to mine._" + + +Now wave the end of your turban towards the moon seven times each night. +Go home and put it under your pillow, and if you want to wear it in the +daytime, burn incense and say, "It is not a turban that I carry in my +girdle, but the soul of Somebody."(239) + +(M53) Perhaps the magical ceremonies just described may help to explain a +curious rite, of immemorial antiquity, which was performed on a very +solemn occasion at Athens. On the eve of the sailing of the fleet for +Syracuse, when all hearts beat high with hope, and visions of empire +dazzled all eyes, consternation suddenly fell on the people one May +morning when they rose and found that most of the images of Hermes in the +city had been mysteriously mutilated in the night. The impious +perpetrators of the sacrilege were unknown, but whoever they were, the +priests and priestesses solemnly cursed them according to the ancient +ritual, standing with their faces to the west and shaking red cloths up +and down.(240) Perhaps in these cloths they were catching the souls of +those at whom their curses were levelled, just as we have seen that Fijian +chiefs used to catch the souls of criminals in scarves and nail them to +canoes.(241) + +(M54) The Indians of the Nass River, in British Columbia, are impressed +with a belief that a physician may swallow his patient's soul by mistake. +A doctor who is believed to have done so is made by the other members of +the faculty to stand over the patient, while one of them thrusts his +fingers down the doctor's throat, another kneads him in the stomach with +his knuckles, and a third slaps him on the back. If the soul is not in him +after all, and if the same process has been repeated upon all the medical +men without success, it is concluded that the soul must be in the +head-doctor's box. A party of doctors, therefore, waits upon him at his +house and requests him to produce his box. When he has done so and +arranged its contents on a new mat, they take the votary of Aesculapius +and hold him up by the heels with his head in a hole in the floor. In this +position they wash his head, and "any water remaining from the ablution is +taken and poured upon the sick man's head."(242) Among the Kwakiutl +Indians of British Columbia it is forbidden to pass behind the back of a +shaman while he is eating, lest the shaman should inadvertently swallow +the soul of the passer-by. When that happens, both the shaman and the +person whose soul he has swallowed fall down in a swoon. Blood flows from +the shaman's mouth, because the soul is too large for him and is tearing +his inside. Then the clan of the person whose soul is doing this mischief +must assemble and sing the song of the shaman. In time the suffering +sorcerer vomits out the soul, which he exhibits in the shape of a small +bloody ball in the open palms of his hands. He restores it to its owner, +who is lying prostrate on a mat, by throwing it at him and then blowing on +his head. The man whose soul was swallowed has very naturally to pay for +the damage he did to the shaman as well as for his own cure.(243) + + + + +§ 3. The Soul as a Shadow and a Reflection. + + +(M55) But the spiritual dangers I have enumerated are not the only ones +which beset the savage. Often he regards his shadow or reflection as his +soul, or at all events as a vital part of himself, and as such it is +necessarily a source of danger to him. For if it is trampled upon, struck, +or stabbed, he will feel the injury as if it were done to his person; and +if it is detached from him entirely (as he believes that it may be) he +will die. In the island of Wetar there are magicians who can make a man +ill by stabbing his shadow with a pike or hacking it with a sword.(244) +After Sankara had destroyed the Buddhists in India, it is said that he +journeyed to Nepaul, where he had some difference of opinion with the +Grand Lama. To prove his supernatural powers, he soared into the air. But +as he mounted up, the Grand Lama, perceiving his shadow swaying and +wavering on the ground, struck his knife into it and down fell Sankara and +broke his neck.(245) In the Babar Islands the demons get power over a +man's soul by holding fast his shadow, or by striking and wounding +it.(246) Among the Tolindoos of central Celebes to tread on a man's shadow +is an offence, because it is supposed to make the owner sick;(247) and for +the same reason the Toboongkoos of that region forbid their children to +play with their shadows.(248) The Ottawa Indians thought they could kill a +man by making certain figures on his shadow.(249) The Baganda of central +Africa regarded a man's shadow as his ghost; hence they used to kill or +injure their enemies by stabbing or treading on their shadows.(250) Among +the Bavili of West Africa it used to be considered a crime to trample on +or even to cross the shadow of another, especially if the shadow were that +of a married woman.(251) Some Caffres are very unwilling to let anybody +stand on their shadow, believing that they can be influenced for evil +through it.(252) They think that "a sick man's shadow dwindles in +intensity when he is about to die; for it has such an intimate relation to +the man that it suffers with him."(253) The Ja-Luo tribes of Kavirondo, to +the east of Lake Victoria Nyanza, tell of the ancestor of all men, Apodtho +by name, who descended to earth from above, bringing with him cattle, +fowls, and seeds. When he was old, the Ja-Luo plotted to kill him, but for +a long time they did not dare to attack him. At last, hearing that he was +sick, they thought their chance had come, and sent a girl to see how he +was. She took a small horn, used for cupping blood, in her hand, and while +she talked with him she placed the cupping-horn on his shadow. To her +surprise it drew blood. So she returned and told her friends that, if they +wished to kill Apodtho, they must not touch his body, but spear his +shadow. They did so, and he died and turned into a rock, which has ever +since possessed the property of sharpening spears unusually well.(254) In +a Chinese book we read of a sage who examined human shadows by lamplight +in order to discover the fate of their owners. "A man's shadow," he said, +"ought to be deep, for, if so, he will attain honourable positions, and a +great age. Shadows are averse to being reflected in water, or in wells, or +in washing-basins. It was on such grounds that the ancients avoided +shadows, and that in old days _Khue-seu_, _twan-hu_, and other +shadow-treading vermin caused injury by hitting the shadows of men. In +recent times there have been men versed in the art of cauterizing the +shadows of their patients." Another sapient Chinese writer observes: "I +have heard that, if the shadow of a bird is hit with a piece of wood that +was struck by thunder, the bird falls to the ground immediately. I never +tried it, but on account of the matter stated above I consider the thing +certain."(255) The natives of Nias tremble at the sight of a rainbow, +because they think it is a net spread by a powerful spirit to catch their +shadows.(256) + +(M56) In the Banks Islands, Melanesia, there are certain stones of a +remarkably long shape which go by the name of _tamate gangan_ or "eating +ghosts," because certain powerful and dangerous ghosts are believed to +lodge in them. If a man's shadow falls on one of these stones, the ghost +will draw his soul out from him, so that he will die. Such stones, +therefore, are set in a house to guard it; and a messenger sent to a house +by the absent owner will call out the name of the sender, lest the +watchful ghost in the stone should fancy that he came with evil intent and +should do him a mischief.(257) In Florida, one of the Solomon Islands, +there are places sacred to ghosts, some in the village, some in the +gardens, and some in the bush. No man would pass one of these places when +the sun was so low as to cast his shadow into it, for then the ghost would +draw it from him.(258) The Indian tribes of the Lower Fraser River believe +that man has four souls, of which the shadow is one, though not the +principal, and that sickness is caused by the absence of one of the souls. +Hence no one will let his shadow fall on a sick shaman, lest the latter +should purloin it to replace his own lost soul.(259) At a funeral in +China, when the lid is about to be placed on the coffin, most of the +bystanders, with the exception of the nearest kin, retire a few steps or +even retreat to another room, for a person's health is believed to be +endangered by allowing his shadow to be enclosed in a coffin. And when the +coffin is about to be lowered into the grave most of the spectators recoil +to a little distance lest their shadows should fall into the grave and +harm should thus be done to their persons. The geomancer and his +assistants stand on the side of the grave which is turned away from the +sun; and the grave-diggers and coffin-bearers attach their shadows firmly +to their persons by tying a strip of cloth tightly round their +waists.(260) In the Nicobar Islands burial usually takes place at sundown, +before midnight, or at early dawn. In no case can an interment be carried +out at noon or within an hour of it, lest the shadows of the bearers who +lower the body into the earth, or of the mourners taking their last look +at the shrouded figure, should fall into the grave; for that would cause +them to be sick or die. And when the dead has been laid in his last home, +but before the earth is shovelled in upon him, the leaves of a certain +jungle tree are waved over the grave, and a lighted torch is brandished +inside it, to disperse any souls of the sorrowing bystanders that may be +lingering with their departed friend in his narrow bed. Then the signal is +given, and the earth or sand is rapidly shovelled in by a party of young +men who have been standing in readiness to perform the duty.(261) When the +Malays are building a house, and the central post is being set up, the +greatest precautions are taken to prevent the shadow of any of the workers +from falling either on the post or on the hole dug to receive it; for +otherwise they think that sickness and trouble will be sure to +follow.(262) When members of some Victorian tribes were performing magical +ceremonies for the purpose of bringing disease and misfortune on their +enemies, they took care not to let their shadows fall on the object by +which the evil influence was supposed to be wafted to the foe.(263) In +Darfur people think that they can do an enemy to death by burying a +certain root in the earth on the spot where the shadow of his head happens +to fall. The man whose shadow is thus tampered with loses consciousness at +once and will die if the proper antidote be not administered. In like +manner they can paralyse any limb, as a hand or leg, by planting a +particular root in the earth in the shadow of the limb they desire to +maim.(264) Nor is it human beings alone who are thus liable to be injured +by means of their shadows. Animals are to some extent in the same +predicament. A small snail, which frequents the neighbourhood of the +limestone hills in Perak, is believed to suck the blood of cattle through +their shadows; hence the beasts grow lean and sometimes die from loss of +blood.(265) The ancients supposed that in Arabia, if a hyaena trod on a +man's shadow, it deprived him of the power of speech and motion; and that +if a dog, standing on a roof in the moonlight, cast a shadow on the ground +and a hyaena trod on it, the dog would fall down as if dragged with a +rope.(266) Clearly in these cases the shadow, if not equivalent to the +soul, is at least regarded as a living part of the man or the animal, so +that injury done to the shadow is felt by the person or animal as if it +were done to his body. Even the shadows of trees are supposed by the +Caffres to be sensitive. Hence when a Caffre doctor seeks to pluck the +leaves of a tree for medicinal purposes, he "takes care to run up quickly, +and to avoid touching the shadow lest it should inform the tree of the +danger, and so give the tree time to withdraw the medicinal properties +from its extremities into the safety of the inaccessible trunk. The shadow +of the tree is said to feel the touch of the man's feet."(267) + +(M57) Conversely, if the shadow is a vital part of a man or an animal, it +may under certain circumstances be as hazardous to be touched by it as it +would be to come into contact with the person or animal. Thus in the +North-West Provinces of India people believe that if the shadow of the +goat-sucker bird falls on an ox or a cow, but especially on a cow buffalo, +the beast will soon die. The remedy is for some one to kill the bird, rub +his hands or a stick in the blood, and then wave the stick over the +animal. There are certain men who are noted for their powers in this +respect all over the district.(268) The Kaitish of central Australia hold +that if the shadow of a brown hawk falls on the breast of a woman who is +suckling a child, the breast will swell up and burst. Hence if a woman +sees one of these birds in these circumstances, she runs away in +fear.(269) In the Central Provinces of India a pregnant woman avoids the +shadow of a man, believing that if it fell on her, the child would take +after him in features, though not in character.(270) In Shoa any obstinate +disorder, for which no remedy is known, such as insanity, epilepsy, +delirium, hysteria, and St. Vitus's dance, is traced either to possession +by a demon or to the shadow of an enemy which has fallen on the +sufferer.(271) The Bushman is most careful not to let his shadow fall on +the dead game, as he thinks this would bring bad luck.(272) Amongst the +Caffres to overshadow the king by standing in his presence was an offence +worthy of instant death.(273) And it is a Caffre superstition that if the +shadow of a man who is protected by a certain charm falls on the shadow of +a man who is not so protected, the unprotected person will fall down, +overcome by the power of the charm which is transmitted through the +shadow.(274) In the Punjaub some people believe that if the shadow of a +pregnant woman fell on a snake, it would blind the creature +instantly.(275) + +(M58) Hence the savage makes it a rule to shun the shadow of certain +persons whom for various reasons he regards as sources of dangerous +influence. Amongst the dangerous classes he commonly ranks mourners and +women in general, but especially his mother-in-law. The Shuswap Indians of +British Columbia think that the shadow of a mourner falling upon a person +would make him sick.(276) Amongst the Kurnai tribe of Victoria novices at +initiation were cautioned not to let a woman's shadow fall across them, as +this would make them thin, lazy, and stupid.(277) An Australian native is +said to have once nearly died of fright because the shadow of his +mother-in-law fell on his legs as he lay asleep under a tree.(278) The awe +and dread with which the untutored savage contemplates his mother-in-law +are amongst the most familiar facts of anthropology. In the Yuin tribes of +New South Wales the rule which forbade a man to hold any communication +with his wife's mother was very strict. He might not look at her or even +in her direction. It was a ground of divorce if his shadow happened to +fall on his mother-in-law: in that case he had to leave his wife, and she +returned to her parents.(279) In the Hunter River tribes of New South +Wales it was formerly death for a man to speak to his mother-in-law; +however, in later times the wretch who had committed this heinous crime +was suffered to live, but he was severely reprimanded and banished for a +time from the camp.(280) In the Kulin tribe it was thought that if a woman +looked at or spoke to her son-in-law or even his brother, her hair would +turn white. The same result, it was supposed, would follow if she ate of +game which had been presented to her husband by her son-in-law; but she +could obviate this ill consequence by blackening her face, and especially +her mouth, with charcoal, for then her hair would not turn white.(281) +Similarly in the Kurnai tribe of Victoria a woman is not permitted to see +her daughter's husband in camp or elsewhere. When he is present, she keeps +her head covered with an opossum rug. The camp of the mother-in-law faces +in a different direction to that of her son-in-law. A screen of high +bushes is erected between both huts, so that no one can see over from +either. When the mother-in-law goes for firewood, she crouches down as she +goes out or in, with her head covered.(282) In Uganda a man may not see +his mother-in-law nor speak to her face to face. Should they meet by +accident, she must turn aside and cover her head with her clothes; or if +her garments are too scanty for that, she may squat on her haunches and +hide her face in her hands. If he wishes to hold any communication with +her, it must be done through a third person, or through a wall or closed +door. Were he to break these rules, he would certainly be seized with a +shaking of the hands and general debility.(283) Among some tribes of +eastern Africa which formerly acknowledged the suzerainty of the sultan of +Zanzibar, before a young couple had children they might meet neither their +father-in-law nor their mother-in-law. To avoid them they must take a long +roundabout. But if they could not do that, they must throw themselves on +the ground and hide their faces till the father-in-law or mother-in-law +had passed by.(284) Among the Basutos a man may never meet his wife's +mother, nor speak to her, nor see her. If his wife is ill and her mother +comes to nurse her, he must flee the house so long as she is in it; +sentinels are posted to warn him of her departure.(285) In New Britain the +native imagination fails to conceive the extent and nature of the +calamities which would result from a man's accidentally speaking to his +wife's mother; suicide of one or both would probably be the only course +open to them. The most solemn form of oath a New Briton can take is, "Sir, +if I am not telling the truth, I hope I may shake hands with my +mother-in-law."(286) At Vanua Lava in the Banks Islands, a man would not +so much as follow his mother-in-law along the beach until the rising tide +had washed out her footprints in the sand.(287) To avoid meeting his +mother-in-law face to face a very desperate Apache Indian, one of the +bravest of the brave, has been seen to clamber along the brink of a +precipice at the risk of his life, hanging on to rocks from which had he +fallen he would have been dashed to pieces or at least have broken several +of his limbs.(288) Still more curious and difficult to explain is the rule +which forbids certain African kings, after the coronation ceremonies have +been completed, ever to see their own mothers again. This restriction was +imposed on the kings of Benin and Uganda. Yet the queen-mothers lived in +regal state with a court and lands of their own. In Uganda it was thought +that if the king were to see his mother again, some evil and probably +death would surely befall him.(289) + +(M59) Where the shadow is regarded as so intimately bound up with the life +of the man that its loss entails debility or death, it is natural to +expect that its diminution should be regarded with solicitude and +apprehension, as betokening a corresponding decrease in the vital energy +of its owner. An elegant Greek rhetorician has compared the man who lives +only for fame to one who should set all his heart on his shadow, puffed up +and boastful when it lengthened, sad and dejected when it shortened, +wasting and pining away when it dwindled to nothing. The spirits of such +an one, he goes on, would necessarily be volatile, since they must rise or +fall with every passing hour of the day. In the morning, when the level +sun, just risen above the eastern horizon, stretched out his shadow to +enormous length, rivalling the shadows cast by the cypresses and the +towers on the city wall, how blithe and exultant would he be, fancying +that in stature he had become a match for the fabled giants of old; with +what a lofty port he would then strut and shew himself in the streets and +the market-place and wherever men congregated, that he might be seen and +admired of all. But as the day wore on, his countenance would change and +he would slink back crestfallen to his house. At noon, when his once +towering shadow had shrunk to his feet, he would shut himself up and +refuse to stir abroad, ashamed to look his fellow-townsmen in the face; +but in the afternoon his drooping spirits would revive, and as the day +declined his joy and pride would swell again with the length of the +evening shadows.(290) The rhetorician who thus sought to expose the vanity +of fame as an object of human ambition by likening it to an ever-changing +shadow, little dreamed that in real life there were men who set almost as +much store by their shadows as the fool whom he had conjured up in his +imagination to point a moral. So hard is it for the straining wings of +fancy to outstrip the folly of mankind. In Amboyna and Uliase, two islands +near the equator, where necessarily there is little or no shadow cast at +noon, the people make it a rule not to go out of the house at mid-day, +because they fancy that by doing so a man may lose the shadow of his +soul.(291) The Mangaians tell of a mighty warrior, Tukaitawa, whose +strength waxed and waned with the length of his shadow. In the morning, +when his shadow fell longest, his strength was greatest; but as the shadow +shortened towards noon his strength ebbed with it, till exactly at noon it +reached its lowest point; then, as the shadow stretched out in the +afternoon, his strength returned. A certain hero discovered the secret of +Tukaitawa's strength and slew him at noon.(292) The savage Besisis of the +Malay Peninsula fear to bury their dead at noon, because they fancy that +the shortness of their shadows at that hour would sympathetically shorten +their own lives.(293) The Baganda of central Africa used to judge of a +man's health by the length of his shadow. They said, "So-and-so is going +to die, his shadow is very small"; or, "He is in good health, his shadow +is large."(294) Similarly the Caffres of South Africa think that a man's +shadow grows very small or vanishes at death. When her husband is away at +the wars, a woman hangs up his sleeping-mat; if the shadow grows less, she +says her husband is killed; if it remains unchanged, she says he is +unscathed.(295) It is possible that even in lands outside the tropics the +observation of the diminished shadow at noon may have contributed, even if +it did not give rise, to the superstitious dread with which that hour has +been viewed by many peoples, as by the Greeks, ancient and modern, the +Bretons, the Russians, the Roumanians of Transylvania, and the Indians of +Santiago Tepehuacan.(296) In this observation, too, we may perhaps detect +the reason why noon was chosen by the Greeks as the hour for sacrificing +to the shadowless dead.(297) The loss of the shadow, real or apparent, has +often been regarded as a cause or precursor of death. Whoever entered the +sanctuary of Zeus on Mount Lycaeus in Arcadia was believed to lose his +shadow and to die within the year.(298) In Lower Austria on the evening of +St. Sylvester's day--the last day of the year--the company seated round the +table mark whose shadow is not cast on the wall, and believe that the +seemingly shadowless person will die next year. Similar presages are drawn +in Germany both on St. Sylvester's day and on Christmas Eve.(299) The +Galelareese fancy that if a child resembles his father, they will not both +live long; for the child has taken away his father's likeness or shadow, +and consequently the father must soon die.(300) Similarly among some +tribes of the Lower Congo, "if the child is like its mother, father, or +uncle, they think it has the spirit of the person it resembles, and that +that person will soon die. Hence a parent will resent it if you say that +the baby is like him or her."(301) + +(M60) Nowhere, perhaps, does the equivalence of the shadow to the life or +soul come out more clearly than in some customs practised to this day in +south-eastern Europe. In modern Greece, when the foundation of a new +building is being laid, it is the custom to kill a cock, a ram, or a lamb, +and to let its blood flow on the foundation-stone, under which the animal +is afterwards buried. The object of the sacrifice is to give strength and +stability to the building. But sometimes, instead of killing an animal, +the builder entices a man to the foundation-stone, secretly measures his +body, or a part of it, or his shadow, and buries the measure under the +foundation-stone; or he lays the foundation-stone upon the man's shadow. +It is believed that the man will die within the year.(302) In the island +of Lesbos it is deemed enough if the builder merely casts a stone at the +shadow of a passer-by; the man whose shadow is thus struck will die, but +the building will be solid.(303) A Bulgarian mason measures the shadow of +a man with a string, places the string in a box, and then builds the box +into the wall of the edifice. Within forty days thereafter the man whose +shadow was measured will be dead and his soul will be in the box beside +the string; but often it will come forth and appear in its former shape to +persons who were born on a Saturday. If a Bulgarian builder cannot obtain +a human shadow for this purpose, he will content himself with measuring +the shadow of the first animal that comes that way.(304) The Roumanians of +Transylvania think that he whose shadow is thus immured will die within +forty days; so persons passing by a building which is in course of +erection may hear a warning cry, "Beware lest they take thy shadow!" Not +long ago there were still shadow-traders whose business it was to provide +architects with the shadows necessary for securing their walls.(305) In +these cases the measure of the shadow is looked on as equivalent to the +shadow itself, and to bury it is to bury the life or soul of the man, who, +deprived of it, must die. Thus the custom is a substitute for the old +practice of immuring a living person in the walls, or crushing him under +the foundation-stone of a new building, in order to give strength and +durability to the structure, or more definitely in order that the angry +ghost may haunt the place and guard it against the intrusion of enemies. +Thus when a new gate was made or an old gate was repaired in the walls of +Bangkok, it used to be customary to crush three men to death under an +enormous beam in a pit at the gateway. Before they were led to their doom, +they were regaled at a splendid banquet; the whole court came to salute +them; and the king himself charged them straitly to guard well the gate +that was to be committed to their care, and to warn him if enemies or +rebels came to assault the city. The next moment the ropes were cut and +the beam descended on them. The Siamese believed that these unfortunates +were transformed into the genii which they called _phi_.(306) It is said +that when the massive teak posts of the gateways of Mandalay were set up, +a man was bound and placed under each post and crushed to death. The +Burmese believe that men who die a violent death turn into _nats_ or +demons and haunt the spot where they were killed, doing a mischief to such +as attempt to molest the place. Thus their spirits become guardians of the +gates.(307) This theory would explain why such sacrifices appear to be +offered most commonly at thoroughfares, such as gates and bridges, where +ghostly warders may be deemed especially serviceable in keeping; watch on +the multitudes that go to and fro.(308) In Bima, a district of the East +Indian island of Sambawa, the custom is marked by some peculiar features, +which deserve to be mentioned. When a new flag-pole is set up at the +sultan's palace a woman is crushed to death under it; but she must be +pregnant. If the destined victim should be brought to bed before her +execution, she goes free. The notion may be that the ghost of such a woman +would be more than usually fierce and vigilant. Again, when the wooden +doors are set up at the palace, it is customary to bury a child under each +of the door-posts. For these purposes officers are sent to scour the +country for a pregnant woman or little children, as the case may be, and +if they come back empty-handed they must give up their own wives or +children to serve as victims. When the gates are set up, the children are +killed, their bodies stript of flesh, and their bones laid in the holes in +which the door-posts are erected. Then the flesh is boiled with horse's +flesh and served up to the officers. Any officer who refuses to eat of it +is at once cut down.(309) The intention of this last practice is perhaps +to secure the fidelity of the officers by compelling them to enter into a +covenant of the most solemn and binding nature with the ghosts of the +murdered children who are to guard the gates. + +(M61) The practice of burying the measure of a man's shadow, as a +substitute for the man himself, under the foundation-stone of a building +may perhaps throw light on the singular deity whom the people of Kisser, +an East Indian island, choose to guard their houses and villages. The god +in question is nothing more or less than the measuring-tape which was used +to measure the foundations of the house or of the village temple. After it +has served this useful purpose, the tape is wound about a stick shaped +like a paddle, and is then deposited in the thatch of the roof of the +house, where food is offered to it on all special occasions. The deified +measuring-tape of the whole village is that which was used to measure the +foundations of the first house or of the village temple. The handle of the +paddle-like stick on which it is wound is carved into the figure of a +person squatting in the usual posture; and the whole is kept in a rough +wooden box along with one or two figures to act as its guards.(310) It is +possible, though perhaps hardly probable, that these tapes may be thought +to contain the souls of men whose shadows they measured at the foundation +ceremony. + +(M62) As some peoples believe a man's soul to be in his shadow, so other +(or the same) peoples believe it to be in his reflection in water or a +mirror. Thus "the Andamanese do not regard their shadows but their +reflections (in any mirror) as their souls."(311) According to one +account, some of the Fijians thought that man has two souls, a light one +and a dark one; the dark one goes to Hades, the light one is his +reflection in water or a mirror.(312) When the Motumotu of New Guinea +first saw their likenesses in a looking-glass they thought that their +reflections were their souls.(313) In New Caledonia the old men are of +opinion that a person's reflection in water or a mirror is his soul; but +the younger men, taught by the Catholic priests, maintain that it is a +reflection and nothing more, just like the reflection of palm-trees in the +water.(314) The reflection-soul, being external to the man, is exposed to +much the same dangers as the shadow-soul. Among the Galelareese, +half-grown lads and girls may not look at themselves in a mirror; for they +say that the mirror takes away their bloom and leaves them ugly.(315) And +as the shadow may be stabbed, so may the reflection. Hence an Aztec mode +of keeping sorcerers from the house was to leave a vessel of water with a +knife in it behind the door. When a sorcerer entered he was so much +alarmed at seeing his reflection in the water transfixed by a knife that +he turned and fled.(316) In Correze, a district of the Auvergne, a cow's +milk had dried up through the maleficent spells of a neighbouring witch, +so a sorcerer was called in to help. He made the woman whose cow was +bewitched sit in front of a pail of water with a knife in her hand till +she thought she saw the image of the witch in the water, whereupon he made +her stab the image with the knife. They say that if the knife strikes the +image fair in the eye, the person whose likeness it is will suffer a +corresponding injury in his or her eye. This procedure, we are informed, +has been successful in restoring milk to the udders of a cow when even +holy water had been tried in vain.(317) The Zulus will not look into a +dark pool because they think there is a beast in it which will take away +their reflections, so that they die.(318) The Basutos say that crocodiles +have the power of thus killing a man by dragging his reflection under +water. When one of them dies suddenly and from no apparent cause, his +relatives will allege that a crocodile must have taken his shadow some +time when he crossed a stream.(319) In Saddle Island, Melanesia, there is +a pool "into which if any one looks he dies; the malignant spirit takes +hold upon his life by means of his reflection on the water."(320) + +(M63) We can now understand why it was a maxim both in ancient India and +ancient Greece not to look at one's reflection in water, and why the +Greeks regarded it as an omen of death if a man dreamed of seeing himself +so reflected.(321) They feared that the water-spirits would drag the +person's reflection or soul under water, leaving him soulless to perish. +This was probably the origin of the classical story of the beautiful +Narcissus, who languished and died through seeing his reflection in the +water. The explanation that he died for love of his own fair image was +probably devised later, after the old meaning of the story was forgotten. +The same ancient belief lingers, in a faded form, in the English +superstition that whoever sees a water fairy must pine and die. + + + "_Alas, the moon should ever beam_ + _To show what man should never see!--_ + _I saw a maiden on a stream,_ + _And fair was she!_ + + _I staid to watch, a little space,_ + _Her parted lips if she would sing;_ + _The waters closed above her face_ + _With many a ring._ + + _I know my life will fade away,_ + _I know that I must vainly pine,_ + _For I am made of mortal clay,_ + _But she's divine!_" + + +(M64) Further, we can now explain the widespread custom of covering up +mirrors or turning them to the wall after a death has taken place in the +house. It is feared that the soul, projected out of the person in the +shape of his reflection in the mirror, may be carried off by the ghost of +the departed, which is commonly supposed to linger about the house till +the burial. The custom is thus exactly parallel to the Aru custom of not +sleeping in a house after a death for fear that the soul, projected out of +the body in a dream, may meet the ghost and be carried off by it.(322) In +Oldenburg it is thought that if a person sees his image in a mirror after +a death he will die himself. So all the mirrors in the house are covered +up with white cloth.(323) In some parts of Germany and Belgium after a +death not only the mirrors but everything that shines or glitters +(windows, clocks, etc.) is covered up,(324) doubtless because they might +reflect a person's image. The same custom of covering up mirrors or +turning them to the wall after a death prevails in England, Scotland, +Madagascar,(325) and among the Karaits, a Jewish sect in the Crimea.(326) +The Suni Mohammedans of Bombay cover with a cloth the mirror in the room +of a dying man and do not remove it until the corpse is carried out for +burial. They also cover the looking-glasses in their bedrooms before +retiring to rest at night.(327) The reason why sick people should not see +themselves in a mirror, and why the mirror in a sick-room is therefore +covered up,(328) is also plain; in time of sickness, when the soul might +take flight so easily, it is particularly dangerous to project it out of +the body by means of the reflection in a mirror. The rule is therefore +precisely parallel to the rule observed by some peoples of not allowing +sick people to sleep;(329) for in sleep the soul is projected out of the +body, and there is always a risk that it may not return. "In the opinion +of the Raskolniks a mirror is an accursed thing, invented by the +devil,"(330) perhaps on account of the mirror's supposed power of drawing +out the soul in the reflection and so facilitating its capture. + +(M65) As with shadows and reflections, so with portraits; they are often +believed to contain the soul of the person portrayed. People who hold this +belief are naturally loth to have their likenesses taken; for if the +portrait is the soul, or at least a vital part of the person portrayed, +whoever possesses the portrait will be able to exercise a fatal influence +over the original of it. Thus the Esquimaux of Bering Strait believe that +persons dealing in witchcraft have the power of stealing a person's _inua_ +or shade, so that without it he will pine away and die. Once at a village +on the lower Yukon River an explorer had set up his camera to get a +picture of the people as they were moving about among their houses. While +he was focusing the instrument, the headman of the village came up and +insisted on peeping under the cloth. Being allowed to do so, he gazed +intently for a minute at the moving figures on the ground glass, then +suddenly withdrew his head and bawled at the top of his voice to the +people, "He has all of your shades in this box." A panic ensued among the +group, and in an instant they disappeared helter-skelter into their +houses.(331) The Dacotas hold that every man has several _wanagi_ or +"apparitions," of which after death one remains at the grave, while +another goes to the place of the departed. For many years no Yankton +Dacota would consent to have his picture taken lest one of his +"apparitions" should remain after death in the picture instead of going to +the spirit-land.(332) An Indian whose portrait the Prince of Wied wished +to get, refused to let himself be drawn, because he believed it would +cause his death.(333) The Mandan Indians also thought that they would soon +die if their portraits were in the hands of another; they wished at least +to have the artist's picture as a kind of hostage.(334) The Tepehuanes of +Mexico stood in mortal terror of the camera, and five days' persuasion was +necessary to induce them to pose for it. When at last they consented, they +looked like criminals about to be executed. They believed that by +photographing people the artist could carry off their souls and devour +them at his leisure moments. They said that when the pictures reached his +country they would die or some other evil would befall them.(335) The +Canelos Indians of Ecuador think that their soul is carried away in their +picture. Two of them, who had been photographed, were so alarmed that they +came back next day on purpose to ask if it were really true that their +souls had been taken away.(336) Similar notions are entertained by the +Aymara Indians of Peru and Bolivia.(337) The Araucanians of Chili are +unwilling to have their portraits drawn, for they fancy that he who has +their portraits in his possession could, by means of magic, injure or +destroy themselves.(338) + +(M66) The Yaos, a tribe of British Central Africa in the neighbourhood of +Lake Nyassa, believe that every human being has a _lisoka_, a soul, shade, +or spirit, which they appear to associate with the shadow or picture of +the person. Some of them have been known to refuse to enter a room where +pictures were hung on the walls, "because of the _masoka_, souls, in +them." The camera was at first an object of dread to them, and when it was +turned on a group of natives they scattered in all directions with shrieks +of terror. They said that the European was about to take away their +shadows and that they would die; the transference of the shadow or +portrait (for the Yao word for the two is the same, to wit _chiwilili_) to +the photographic plate would involve the disease or death of the shadeless +body. A Yao chief, after much difficulty, allowed himself to be +photographed on condition that the picture should be shewn to none of his +subjects, but sent out of the country as soon as possible. He feared lest +some ill-wisher might use it to bewitch him. Some time afterwards he fell +ill, and his attendants attributed the illness to some accident which had +befallen the photographic plate in England.(339) The Ngoni of the same +region entertain a similar belief, and formerly exhibited a similar dread +of sitting to a photographer, lest by so doing they should yield up their +shades or spirits to him and they should die.(340) When Joseph Thomson +attempted to photograph some of the Wa-teita in eastern Africa, they +imagined that he was a magician trying to obtain possession of their +souls, and that if he got their likenesses they themselves would be +entirely at his mercy.(341) When Dr. Catat and some companions were +exploring the Bara country on the west coast of Madagascar, the people +suddenly became hostile. The day before the travellers, not without +difficulty, had photographed the royal family, and now found themselves +accused of taking the souls of the natives for the purpose of selling them +when they returned to France. Denial was vain; in compliance with the +custom of the country they were obliged to catch the souls, which were +then put into a basket and ordered by Dr. Catat to return to their +respective owners.(342) + +(M67) Some villagers in Sikhim betrayed a lively horror and hid away +whenever the lens of a camera, or "the evil eye of the box" as they called +it, was turned on them. They thought it took away their souls with their +pictures, and so put it in the power of the owner of the pictures to cast +spells on them, and they alleged that a photograph of the scenery blighted +the landscape.(343) Until the reign of the late King of Siam no Siamese +coins were ever stamped with the image of the king, "for at that time +there was a strong prejudice against the making of portraits in any +medium. Europeans who travel into the jungle have, even at the present +time, only to point a camera at a crowd to procure its instant dispersion. +When a copy of the face of a person is made and taken away from him, a +portion of his life goes with the picture. Unless the sovereign had been +blessed with the years of a Methusaleh he could scarcely have permitted +his life to be distributed in small pieces together with the coins of the +realm."(344) Similarly, in Corea, "the effigy of the king is not struck on +the coins; only a few Chinese characters are put on them. They would deem +it an insult to the king to put his sacred face on objects which pass into +the most vulgar hands and often roll on the ground in the dust or the mud. +When the French ships arrived for the first time in Corea, the mandarin +who was sent on board to communicate with them was dreadfully shocked to +see the levity with which these western barbarians treated the face of +their sovereign, reproduced on the coins, and the recklessness with which +they put it in the hands of the first comer, without troubling themselves +in the least whether or not he would shew it due respect."(345) In +Minahassa, a district of Celebes, many chiefs are reluctant to be +photographed, believing that if that were done they would soon die. For +they imagine that, were the photograph lost by its owner and found by +somebody else, whatever injury the finder chose to do to the portrait +would equally affect the person whom it represented.(346) Mortal terror +was depicted on the faces of the Battas upon whom von Brenner turned the +lens of his camera; they thought he wished to carry off their shadows or +spirits in a little box.(347) When Dr. Nieuwenhuis attempted to photograph +the Kayans or Bahaus of central Borneo, they were much alarmed, fearing +that their souls would follow their photographs into the far country and +that their deserted bodies would fall sick. Further, they imagined that +possessing their likenesses the explorer would be able by magic art to +work on the originals at a distance.(348) + +(M68) Beliefs of the same sort still linger in various parts of Europe. +Not very many years ago some old women in the Greek island of Carpathus +were very angry at having their likenesses drawn, thinking that in +consequence they would pine and die.(349) It is a German superstition that +if you have your portrait painted, you will die.(350) Some people in +Russia object to having their silhouettes taken, fearing that if this is +done they will die before the year is out.(351) In Albania Miss Durham +sketched an old man who boasted of being a hundred and ten years old. When +every one recognised the likeness, a look of great anxiety came over the +patriarch's face, and most earnestly he besought the artist never to +destroy the sketch, for he was certain that the moment the sketch was torn +he would drop down dead.(352) An artist in England once vainly attempted +to sketch a gypsy girl. "I won't have her drawed out," said the girl's +aunt. "I told her I'd make her scrawl the earth before me, if ever she let +herself be drawed out again." "Why, what harm can there be?" "I know +there's a fiz (a charm) in it. There was my youngest, that the gorja +drawed out on Newmarket Heath, she never held her head up after, but +wasted away, and died, and she's buried in March churchyard."(353) There +are persons in the West of Scotland "who refuse to have their likenesses +taken lest it prove unlucky; and give as instances the cases of several of +their friends who never had a day's health after being photographed."(354) + + + + + +CHAPTER III. TABOOED ACTS. + + + + +§ 1. Taboos on Intercourse with Strangers. + + +(M69) So much for the primitive conceptions of the soul and the dangers to +which it is exposed. These conceptions are not limited to one people or +country; with variations of detail they are found all over the world, and +survive, as we have seen, in modern Europe. Beliefs so deep-seated and so +widespread must necessarily have contributed to shape the mould in which +the early kingship was cast. For if every person was at such pains to save +his own soul from the perils which threatened it on so many sides, how +much more carefully must _he_ have been guarded upon whose life hung the +welfare and even the existence of the whole people, and whom therefore it +was the common interest of all to preserve? Therefore we should expect to +find the king's life protected by a system of precautions or safeguards +still more numerous and minute than those which in primitive society every +man adopts for the safety of his own soul. Now in point of fact the life +of the early kings is regulated, as we have seen and shall see more fully +presently, by a very exact code of rules. May we not then conjecture that +these rules are in fact the very safeguards which we should expect to find +adopted for the protection of the king's life? An examination of the rules +themselves confirms this conjecture. For from this it appears that some of +the rules observed by the kings are identical with those observed by +private persons out of regard for the safety of their souls; and even of +those which seem peculiar to the king, many, if not all, are most readily +explained on the hypothesis that they are nothing but safeguards or +lifeguards of the king. I will now enumerate some of these royal rules or +taboos, offering on each of them such comments and explanations as may +serve to set the original intention of the rule in its proper light. + +(M70) As the object of the royal taboos is to isolate the king from all +sources of danger, their general effect is to compel him to live in a +state of seclusion, more or less complete, according to the number and +stringency of the rules he observes. Now of all sources of danger none are +more dreaded by the savage than magic and witchcraft, and he suspects all +strangers of practising these black arts. To guard against the baneful +influence exerted voluntarily or involuntarily by strangers is therefore +an elementary dictate of savage prudence. Hence before strangers are +allowed to enter a district, or at least before they are permitted to +mingle freely with the inhabitants, certain ceremonies are often performed +by the natives of the country for the purpose of disarming the strangers +of their magical powers, of counteracting the baneful influence which is +believed to emanate from them, or of disinfecting, so to speak, the +tainted atmosphere by which they are supposed to be surrounded. Thus, when +the ambassadors sent by Justin II., Emperor of the East, to conclude a +peace with the Turks had reached their destination, they were received by +shamans, who subjected them to a ceremonial purification for the purpose +of exorcising all harmful influence. Having deposited the goods brought by +the ambassadors in an open place, these wizards carried burning branches +of incense round them, while they rang a bell and beat on a tambourine, +snorting and falling into a state of frenzy in their efforts to dispel the +powers of evil. Afterwards they purified the ambassadors themselves by +leading them through the flames.(355) In the island of Nanumea (South +Pacific) strangers from ships or from other islands were not allowed to +communicate with the people until they all, or a few as representatives of +the rest, had been taken to each of the four temples in the island, and +prayers offered that the god would avert any disease or treachery which +these strangers might have brought with them. Meat offerings were also +laid upon the altars, accompanied by songs and dances in honour of the +god. While these ceremonies were going on, all the people except the +priests and their attendants kept out of sight.(356) On returning from an +attempted ascent of the great African mountain Kilimanjaro, which is +believed by the neighbouring tribes to be tenanted by dangerous demons, +Mr. New and his party, as soon as they reached the border of the inhabited +country, were disenchanted by the inhabitants, being sprinkled with "a +professionally prepared liquor, supposed to possess the potency of +neutralising evil influences, and removing the spell of wicked +spirits."(357) In the interior of Yoruba (West Africa) the sentinels at +the gates of towns often oblige European travellers to wait till nightfall +before they admit them, fearing that if the strangers were admitted by day +the devil would enter behind them.(358) The whole Mahafaly country in +Madagascar used to be tabooed to strangers of the white race, the natives +imagining that the intrusion of a white man would immediately cause the +death of their king. The traveller Bastard had the greatest difficulty in +overcoming the reluctance of the natives to allow him to enter their land +and especially to visit their holy city.(359) Amongst the Ot Danoms of +Borneo it is the custom that strangers entering the territory should pay +to the natives a certain sum, which is spent in the sacrifice of buffaloes +or pigs to the spirits of the land and water, in order to reconcile them +to the presence of the strangers, and to induce them not to withdraw their +favour from the people of the country, but to bless the rice-harvest, and +so forth.(360) The men of a certain district in Borneo, fearing to look +upon a European traveller lest he should make them ill, warned their wives +and children not to go near him. Those who could not restrain their +curiosity killed fowls to appease the evil spirits and smeared themselves +with the blood.(361) "More dreaded," says a traveller in central Borneo, +"than the evil spirits of the neighbourhood are the evil spirits from a +distance which accompany travellers. When a company from the middle +Mahakam river visited me among the Blu-u Kayans in the year 1897, no woman +shewed herself outside her house without a burning bundle of _plehiding_ +bark, the stinking smoke of which drives away evil spirits."(362) In Laos, +before a stranger can be accorded hospitality, the master of the house +must offer sacrifice to the ancestral spirits; otherwise the spirits would +be offended and would send disease on the inmates.(363) When Madame +Pfeiffer arrived at the village of Hali-Bonar, among the Battas of +Sumatra, a buffalo was killed and the liver offered to her. Then a +ceremony was performed to propitiate the evil spirits. Two young men +danced, and one of them in dancing sprinkled water from a buffalo's horn +on the visitor and the spectators.(364) In the Mentawei Islands, when a +stranger enters a house where there are children, the father or other +member of the family takes the ornament which the children wear in their +hair and hands it to the stranger, who holds it in his hands for a while +and then gives it back to him. This is thought to protect the children +from the evil effect which the sight of a stranger might have upon +them.(365) When a Dutch steamship was approaching their villages, the +people of Biak, an island off the north coast of New Guinea, shook and +knocked their idols about in order to ward off ill-luck.(366) At +Shepherd's Isle Captain Moresby had to be disenchanted before he was +allowed to land his boat's crew. When he leaped ashore, a devil-man seized +his right hand and waved a bunch of palm leaves over the captain's head. +Then "he placed the leaves in my left hand, putting a small green twig +into his mouth, still holding me fast, and then, as if with great effort, +drew the twig from his mouth--this was extracting the evil spirit--after +which he blew violently, as if to speed it away. I now held a twig between +my teeth, and he went through the same process." Then the two raced round +a couple of sticks fixed in the ground and bent to an angle at the top, +which had leaves tied to it. After some more ceremonies the devil-man +concluded by leaping to the level of Captain Moresby's shoulders (his +hands resting on the captain's shoulders) several times, "as if to show +that he had conquered the devil, and was now trampling him into the +earth."(367) North American Indians "have an idea that strangers, +particularly white strangers, are ofttimes accompanied by evil spirits. Of +these they have great dread, as creating and delighting in mischief. One +of the duties of the medicine chief is to exorcise these spirits. I have +sometimes ridden into or through a camp where I was unknown or unexpected, +to be confronted by a tall, half-naked savage, standing in the middle of +the circle of lodges, and yelling in a sing-song, nasal tone, a string of +unintelligible words."(368) + +(M71) When Crevaux was travelling in South America he entered a village of +the Apalai Indians. A few moments after his arrival some of the Indians +brought him a number of large black ants, of a species whose bite is +painful, fastened on palm leaves. Then all the people of the village, +without distinction of age or sex, presented themselves to him, and he had +to sting them all with the ants on their faces, thighs, and other parts of +their bodies. Sometimes when he applied the ants too tenderly they called +out "More! more!" and were not satisfied till their skin was thickly +studded with tiny swellings like what might have been produced by whipping +them with nettles.(369) The object of this ceremony is made plain by the +custom observed in Amboyna and Uliase of sprinkling sick people with +pungent spices, such as ginger and cloves, chewed fine, in order by the +prickling sensation to drive away the demon of disease which may be +clinging to their persons.(370) In Java a popular cure for gout or +rheumatism is to rub Spanish pepper into the nails of the fingers and toes +of the sufferer; the pungency of the pepper is supposed to be too much for +the gout or rheumatism, who accordingly departs in haste.(371) So on the +Slave Coast of Africa the mother of a sick child sometimes believes that +an evil spirit has taken possession of the child's body, and in order to +drive him out, she makes small cuts in the body of the little sufferer and +inserts green peppers or spices in the wounds, believing that she will +thereby hurt the evil spirit and force him to be gone. The poor child +naturally screams with pain, but the mother hardens her heart in the +belief that the demon is suffering equally.(372) In Hawaii a patient is +sometimes pricked with bamboo needles for the sake of hurting and +expelling a refractory demon who is lurking in the sufferer's body and +making him ill.(373) Dyak sorceresses in south-eastern Borneo will +sometimes slash the body of a sick man with sharp knives in order, it is +said, to allow the demon of disease to escape through the cuts;(374) but +perhaps the notion rather is to make the present quarters of the spirit +too hot for him. With a similar intention some of the natives of Borneo +and Celebes sprinkle rice upon the head or body of a person supposed to be +infested by dangerous spirits; a fowl is then brought, which, by picking +up the rice from the person's head or body, removes along with it the +spirit or ghost which is clinging like a burr to his skin. This is done, +for example, to persons who have attended a funeral, and who may therefore +be supposed to be infested by the ghost of the deceased.(375) Similarly +Basutos, who have carried a corpse to the grave, have their hands +scratched with a knife from the tip of the thumb to the tip of the +forefinger, and magic stuff is rubbed into the wound,(376) for the +purpose, no doubt, of removing the ghost which may be adhering to their +skin. Among the Barotse of south-eastern Africa a few days after a funeral +the sorcerer makes an incision in the forehead of each surviving member of +the family and fills it with medicine, "in order to ward off contagion and +the effect of the sorcery which caused the death."(377) When +elephant-hunters in East Africa have killed an elephant they get upon its +carcase, make little cuts in their toes, and rub gunpowder into the cuts. +This is done with the double intention of counteracting any evil influence +that may emanate from the dead elephant, and of acquiring thereby the +fleetness of foot possessed by the animal in its life.(378) The people of +Nias carefully scrub and scour the weapons and clothes which they buy, in +order to efface all connexion between the things and the persons from whom +they bought them.(379) + +(M72) It is probable that the same dread of strangers, rather than any +desire to do them honour, is the motive of certain ceremonies which are +sometimes observed at their reception, but of which the intention is not +directly stated. In the Ongtong Java Islands, which are inhabited by +Polynesians, and lie a little to the north of the Solomon Islands, the +priests or sorcerers seem to wield great influence. Their main business is +to summon or exorcise spirits for the purpose of averting or dispelling +sickness, and of procuring favourable winds, a good catch of fish, and so +on. When strangers land on the islands, they are first of all received by +the sorcerers, sprinkled with water, anointed with oil, and girt with +dried pandanus leaves. At the same time sand and water are freely thrown +about in all directions, and the newcomer and his boat are wiped with +green leaves. After this ceremony the strangers are introduced by the +sorcerers to the chief.(380) In Afghanistan and in some parts of Persia +the traveller, before he enters a village, is frequently received with a +sacrifice of animal life or food, or of fire and incense. The Afghan +Boundary Mission, in passing by villages in Afghanistan, was often met +with fire and incense.(381) Sometimes a tray of lighted embers is thrown +under the hoofs of the traveller's horse, with the words, "You are +welcome."(382) On entering a village in central Africa Emin Pasha was +received with the sacrifice of two goats; their blood was sprinkled on the +path and the chief stepped over the blood to greet Emin.(383) Before +strangers entered the country or city of Benin, custom compelled them to +have their feet washed; sometimes the ceremony was performed in a sacred +place.(384) Amongst the Esquimaux of Cumberland Inlet, when a stranger +arrives at an encampment, the sorcerer goes out to meet him. The stranger +folds his arms and inclines his head to one side, so as to expose his +cheek, upon which the magician deals a terrible blow, sometimes felling +him to the ground. Next the sorcerer in his turn presents his cheek to the +smiter and receives a buffet from the stranger. Then they kiss each other, +the ceremony is over, and the stranger is hospitably received by all.(385) +Sometimes the dread of strangers and their magic is too great to allow of +their reception on any terms. Thus when Speke arrived at a certain +village, the natives shut their doors against him, "because they had never +before seen a white man nor the tin boxes that the men were carrying: 'Who +knows,' they said, 'but that these very boxes are the plundering Watuta +transformed and come to kill us? You cannot be admitted.' No persuasion +could avail with them, and the party had to proceed to the next +village."(386) + +(M73) The fear thus entertained of alien visitors is often mutual. +Entering a strange land the savage feels that he is treading enchanted +ground, and he takes steps to guard against the demons that haunt it and +the magical arts of its inhabitants. Thus on going to a strange land the +Maoris performed certain ceremonies to make it _noa_ (common), lest it +might have been previously _tapu_ (sacred).(387) When Baron +Miklucho-Maclay was approaching a village on the Maclay Coast of New +Guinea, one of the natives who accompanied him broke a branch from a tree +and going aside whispered to it for a while; then stepping up to each +member of the party, one after another, he spat something upon his back +and gave him some blows with the branch. Lastly, he went into the forest +and buried the branch under withered leaves in the thickest part of the +jungle. This ceremony was believed to protect the party against all +treachery and danger in the village they were approaching.(388) The idea +probably was that the malignant influences were drawn off from the persons +into the branch and buried with it in the depths of the forest. Before +Stuhlmann and his companions entered the territory of the Wanyamwesi in +central Africa, one of his men killed a white cock and buried it in a pot +just at the boundary.(389) In Australia, when a strange tribe has been +invited into a district and is approaching the encampment of the tribe +which owns the land, "the strangers carry lighted bark or burning sticks +in their hands, for the purpose, they say, of clearing and purifying the +air."(390) On the coast of Victoria there is a tract of country between +the La Trobe River and the Yarra River, which some of the aborigines +called the Bad Country. It was supposed to act injuriously on strangers. +Hence when a man of another clan entered it he needed some one of the +natives to look after him; and if his guardian went away from the camp, he +deputed another to take his place. During his first visit, before he +became as it were acclimatised, the visitor did nothing for himself as to +food, drinking-water, or lodging. He was painted with a band of white +pipe-clay across the face below the eyes, and had to learn the Nulit +language before going further. He slept on a thick layer of leaves so that +he should not touch the ground; and he was fed with flesh-meat from the +point of a burnt stick, which he removed with his teeth, not with his +lips. His drinking-water was drawn from a small hole in the ground by his +entertainers, and they made it muddy by stirring it with a stick. He might +only take three mouthfuls at a time, each of which he had to let slowly +trickle down his throat. If he did otherwise, his throat would close +up.(391) The Kayans and Kenyahs of Borneo think it well to conciliate the +spirit of the land when they enter a strange country. "The old men, +indeed, trusting to the protection afforded by omens, are in little need +of further aid, but when young boys are brought into a new river of +importance, the hospitality of the local demons is invoked. The Kayans +make an offering of fowls' eggs, which must not be bought on the spot, but +are carried from the house, sometimes for distances so long that the +devotion of the travellers is more apparent than their presents to the +spirits of the land. Each boy takes an egg and puts it in a bamboo split +at the end into four, while one of the older men calls upon the hills, +rocks, trees, and streams to hear him and to witness the offering. Careful +to disguise the true nature of the gift, he speaks of it as _ove_, a yam, +using a form of words fixed by usage. 'Omen bird,' he shouts into the air, +'we have brought you these boys. It is on their account only that we have +prepared this feast. Harm them not; make things go pleasantly; and they +give you the usual offering of a yam. I give this to the country.' The +little ceremony is performed behind the hut where the night is spent, and +the boys wait about for the charm to take effect. The custom of the +Kenyahs shows the same feeling for the unknown and unseen spirits that are +supposed to abound. A fowl's feathers, one for each boy, are held by an +old man, while the youngsters touch his arm. The invocation is quite a +powerful example of native rhetoric: 'Smooth away trouble, ye mystic +mountains, hills, valleys, soil, rocks, trees. Shield the lives of the +children who have come hither.' "(392) When the Toradjas of central +Celebes are on a head-hunting expedition and have entered the enemy's +country, they may not eat any fruits which the foe has planted nor any +animal which he has reared until they have first committed an act of +hostility, as by burning a house or killing a man. They think that if they +broke this rule they would receive something of the soul or spiritual +essence of the enemy into themselves, which would destroy the mystic +virtue of their talismans.(393) It is said that just before Greek armies +advanced to the shock of battle, a man bearing a lighted torch stepped out +from either side and threw his torch into the space between the hosts. +Then they retired unmolested, for they were thought to be sacred to Ares +and inviolable.(394) Now some peoples fancy that when they advance to +battle the spirits of their fathers hover in the van.(395) Hence fire +thrown out in front of the line of battle may be meant to disperse these +shadowy combatants, leaving the issue of the fight to be determined by +more substantial weapons than ghosts can wield. Similarly the fire which +is sometimes borne at the head of an army(396) is perhaps in some cases +intended to dissipate the evil influences, whether magical or spiritual, +with which the air of the enemy's country may be conceived to teem. + +(M74) Again, it is thought that a man who has been on a journey may have +contracted some magic evil from the strangers with whom he has been +brought into contact. Hence, on returning home, before he is readmitted to +the society of his tribe and friends, he has to undergo certain +purificatory ceremonies. Thus the Bechuanas "cleanse or purify themselves +after journeys by shaving their heads, etc., lest they should have +contracted from strangers some evil by witchcraft or sorcery."(397) In +some parts of western Africa when a man returns home after a long absence, +before he is allowed to visit his wife, he must wash his person with a +particular fluid, and receive from the sorcerer a certain mark on his +forehead, in order to counteract any magic spell which a stranger woman +may have cast on him in his absence, and which might be communicated +through him to the women of his village.(398) Every year about one-third +of the men of the Wanyamwesi tribe make journeys to the east coast of +Africa either as porters or as traffickers. Before he sets out, the +husband smears his cheeks with a sort of meal-porridge, and during his +absence his wife may eat no flesh and must keep for him the sediment of +the porridge in the pot. On their return from the coast the men sprinkle +meal every day on all the paths leading to the camp, for the purpose, it +is supposed, of keeping evil spirits off; and when they reach their homes +the men again smear porridge on their faces, while the women who have +stayed at home strew ashes on their heads.(399) In Uganda, when a man +returns from a journey, his wife takes some of the bark cloths from the +bed of one of his children and lays them on her husband's bed; and as he +enters the house, he jumps over one of his wives who has children by him, +or over one of his children. If he neglects to do this, one of his +children or one of his wives will die.(400) When Damaras return home after +a long absence, they are given a small portion of the fat of particular +animals, which is supposed to possess certain virtues.(401) A story is +told of a Navajo Indian who, after long wanderings, returned to his own +people. When he came within sight of his house, his people made him stop +and told him not to approach nearer till they had summoned a shaman. When +the shaman was come "ceremonies were performed over the returned wanderer, +and he was washed from head to foot, and dried with corn-meal; for thus do +the Navajo treat all who return to their homes from captivity with another +tribe, in order that all alien substances and influences may be removed +from them. When he had been thus purified he entered the house, and his +people embraced him and wept over him."(402) Two Hindoo ambassadors, who +had been sent to England by a native prince and had returned to India, +were considered to have so polluted themselves by contact with strangers +that nothing but being born again could restore them to purity. "For the +purpose of regeneration it is directed to make an image of pure gold of +the female power of nature, in the shape either of a woman or of a cow. In +this statue the person to be regenerated is enclosed, and dragged through +the usual channel. As a statue of pure gold and of proper dimensions would +be too expensive, it is sufficient to make an image of the sacred _Yoni_, +through which the person to be regenerated is to pass." Such an image of +pure gold was made at the prince's command, and his ambassadors were born +again by being dragged through it.(403) In some of the Moluccas, when a +brother or young blood-relation returns from a long journey, a young girl +awaits him at the door with a _caladi_ leaf in her hand and water in the +leaf. She throws the water over his face and bids him welcome.(404) Among +the Kayans of Borneo, men who have been absent on a long journey are +secluded for four days in a small hut made specially for the purpose +before they are allowed to enter their own house.(405) The natives of +Savage Island (South Pacific) invariably killed, not only all strangers in +distress who were drifted to their shores, but also any of their own +people who had gone away in a ship and returned home. This was done out of +dread of disease. Long after they began to venture out to ships they would +not immediately use the things they obtained from them, but hung them up +in quarantine for weeks in the bush.(406) + +(M75) When precautions like these are taken on behalf of the people in +general against the malignant influence supposed to be exercised by +strangers, it is no wonder that special measures are adopted to protect +the king from the same insidious danger. In the middle ages the envoys who +visited a Tartar Khan were obliged to pass between two fires before they +were admitted to his presence, and the gifts they brought were also +carried between the fires. The reason assigned for the custom was that the +fire purged away any magic influence which the strangers might mean to +exercise over the Khan.(407) When subject chiefs come with their retinues +to visit Kalamba (the most powerful chief of the Bashilange in the Congo +Basin) for the first time or after being rebellious, they have to bathe, +men and women together, in two brooks on two successive days, passing the +nights under the open sky in the market-place. After the second bath they +proceed, entirely naked, to the house of Kalamba, who makes a long white +mark on the breast and forehead of each of them. Then they return to the +market-place and dress, after which they undergo the pepper ordeal. Pepper +is dropped into the eyes of each of them, and while this is being done the +sufferer has to make a confession of all his sins, to answer all questions +that may be put to him, and to take certain vows. This ends the ceremony, +and the strangers are now free to take up their quarters in the town for +as long as they choose to remain.(408) Before strangers were admitted to +the presence of Lobengula, king of the Matebeles, they had to be treated +with a sticky green medicine, which was profusely sprinkled over them by +means of a cow's tail.(409) At Kilema, in eastern Africa, when a stranger +arrives, a medicine is made out of a certain plant or a tree fetched from +a distance, mixed with the blood of a sheep or goat. With this mixture the +stranger is besmeared or besprinkled before he is admitted to the presence +of the king.(410) The king of Monomotapa, in South-East Africa, might not +wear any foreign stuffs for fear of their being poisoned.(411) The king of +Cacongo, in West Africa, might not possess or even touch European goods, +except metals, arms, and articles made of wood and ivory. Persons wearing +foreign stuffs were very careful to keep at a distance from his person, +lest they should touch him.(412) The king of Loango might not look upon +the house of a white man.(413) We have already seen how the native king of +Fernando Po dwells secluded from all contact with the whites in the depths +of an extinct volcano, shunning the very sight of a pale face, which, in +the belief of his subjects, would be instantly fatal to him.(414) In a +wild mountainous district of Java, to the south of Bantam, there exists a +small aboriginal race who have been described as a living antiquity. These +are the Baduwis, who about the year 1443 fled from Bantam to escape +conversion to Islam, and in their mountain fastnesses, holding aloof from +their neighbours, still cleave to the quaint and primitive ways of their +heathen forefathers. Their villages are perched in spots which deep +ravines, lofty precipices, raging torrents, and impenetrable forests +combine to render almost inaccessible. Their hereditary ruler bears the +title of Girang-Pu-un and unites in his hands the temporal and spiritual +power. He must never quit the capital, and none even of his subjects who +live outside the town are ever allowed to see him. Were an alien to set +foot in his dwelling, the place would be desecrated and abandoned. In +former times the representatives of the Dutch Government and the Regent of +Java once paid a visit to the capital of the Baduwis. That very night all +the people fled the place and never returned.(415) + + + + +§ 2. Taboos on Eating and Drinking. + + +(M76) In the opinion of savages the acts of eating and drinking are +attended with special danger; for at these times the soul may escape from +the mouth, or be extracted by the magic arts of an enemy present. Among +the Ewe-speaking peoples of the Slave Coast "the common belief seems to be +that the indwelling spirit leaves the body and returns to it through the +mouth; hence, should it have gone out, it behoves a man to be careful +about opening his mouth, lest a homeless spirit should take advantage of +the opportunity and enter his body. This, it appears, is considered most +likely to take place while the man is eating."(416) Precautions are +therefore taken to guard against these dangers. Thus of the Battas of +Sumatra it is said that "since the soul can leave the body, they always +take care to prevent their soul from straying on occasions when they have +most need of it. But it is only possible to prevent the soul from straying +when one is in the house. At feasts one may find the whole house shut up, +in order that the soul (_tondi_) may stay and enjoy the good things set +before it."(417) The Zafimanelo in Madagascar lock their doors when they +eat, and hardly any one ever sees them eating.(418) In Shoa, one of the +southern provinces of Abyssinia, the doors of the house are scrupulously +barred at meals to exclude the evil eye, and a fire is invariably lighted, +else devils would enter and there would be no blessing on the meat.(419) +Every time that an Abyssinian of rank drinks, a servant holds a cloth +before his master to guard him from the evil eye.(420) The Warua will not +allow any one to see them eating and drinking, being doubly particular +that no person of the opposite sex shall see them doing so. "I had to pay +a man to let me see him drink; I could not make a man let a woman see him +drink." When offered a drink of _pombe_ they often ask that a cloth may be +held up to hide them whilst drinking. Further, every man and woman must +cook for themselves; each person must have his own fire.(421) The Tuaregs +of the Sahara never eat or drink in presence of any one else.(422) The +Thompson Indians of British Columbia thought that a shaman could bewitch +them most easily when they were eating, drinking, or smoking; hence they +avoided doing any of these things in presence of an unknown shaman.(423) +In Fiji persons who suspected others of plotting against them avoided +eating in their presence, or were careful to leave no fragment of food +behind.(424) + +(M77) If these are the ordinary precautions taken by common people, the +precautions taken by kings are extraordinary. The king of Loango may not +be seen eating or drinking by man or beast under pain of death. A +favourite dog having broken into the room where the king was dining, the +king ordered it to be killed on the spot. Once the king's own son, a boy +of twelve years old, inadvertently saw the king drink. Immediately the +king ordered him to be finely apparelled and feasted, after which he +commanded him to be cut in quarters, and carried about the city with a +proclamation that he had seen the king drink. "When the king has a mind to +drink, he has a cup of wine brought; he that brings it has a bell in his +hand, and as soon as he has delivered the cup to the king, he turns his +face from him and rings the bell, on which all present fall down with +their faces to the ground, and continue so till the king has drank.... His +eating is much in the same style, for which he has a house on purpose, +where his victuals are set upon a bensa or table: which he goes to, and +shuts the door: when he has done, he knocks and comes out. So that none +ever see the king eat or drink. For it is believed that if any one should, +the king shall immediately die." The remnants of his food are buried, +doubtless to prevent them from falling into the hands of sorcerers, who by +means of these fragments might cast a fatal spell over the monarch.(425) +The rules observed by the neighbouring king of Cacongo were similar; it +was thought that the king would die if any of his subjects were to see him +drink.(426) It is a capital offence to see the king of Dahomey at his +meals. When he drinks in public, as he does on extraordinary occasions, he +hides himself behind a curtain, or handkerchiefs are held up round his +head, and all the people throw themselves with their faces to the +earth.(427) Any one who saw the Muata Jamwo (a great potentate in the +Congo Basin) eating or drinking would certainly be put to death.(428) When +the king (_Muata_) of Cazembe raises his glass to his mouth to drink, all +who are present prostrate themselves and avert their faces in such a +manner as not to see him drinking.(429) At Asaba, on the Lower Niger, +where the kings or chiefs number fully four hundred, no one is allowed to +prepare the royal dishes. The chiefs act as their own cooks and eat in the +strictest privacy.(430) The king and royal family of Walo, on the Senegal, +never take their meals in public; it is expressly forbidden to see them +eating.(431) Among the Monbutto of central Africa the king invariably +takes his meals in private; no one may see the contents of his dish, and +all that he leaves is carefully thrown into a pit set apart for that +purpose. Everything that the king has handled is held sacred and may not +be touched.(432) When the king of Unyoro in central Africa went to drink +milk in the dairy, every man must leave the royal enclosure and all the +women had to cover their heads till the king returned. No one might see +him drink. One wife accompanied him to the dairy and handed him the +milk-pot, but she turned away her face while he drained it.(433) The king +of Susa, a region to the south of Abyssinia, presides daily at the feast +in the long banqueting-hall, but is hidden from the gaze of his subjects +by a curtain.(434) Among the Ewe-speaking peoples of the Slave Coast the +person of the king is sacred, and if he drinks in public every one must +turn away the head so as not to see him, while some of the women of the +court hold up a cloth before him as a screen. He never eats in public, and +the people pretend to believe that he neither eats nor sleeps. It is +criminal to say the contrary.(435) When the king of Tonga ate, all the +people turned their backs to him.(436) In the palace of the Persian kings +there were two dining-rooms opposite each other; in one of them the king +dined, in the other his guests. He could see them through a curtain on the +door, but they could not see him. Generally the king took his meals alone; +but sometimes his wife or some of his sons dined with him.(437) + + + + +§ 3. Taboos on shewing the Face. + + +(M78) In some of the preceding cases the intention of eating and drinking +in strict seclusion may perhaps be to hinder evil influences from entering +the body rather than to prevent the escape of the soul. This certainly is +the motive of some drinking customs observed by natives of the Congo +region. Thus we are told of these people that "there is hardly a native +who would dare to swallow a liquid without first conjuring the spirits. +One of them rings a bell all the time he is drinking; another crouches +down and places his left hand on the earth; another veils his head; +another puts a stalk of grass or a leaf in his hair, or marks his forehead +with a line of clay. This fetish custom assumes very varied forms. To +explain them, the black is satisfied to say that they are an energetic +mode of conjuring spirits." In this part of the world a chief will +commonly ring a bell at each draught of beer which he swallows, and at the +same moment a lad stationed in front of him brandishes a spear "to keep at +bay the spirits which might try to sneak into the old chief's body by the +same road as the _massanga_ (beer)."(438) The same motive of warding off +evil spirits probably explains the custom observed by some African sultans +of veiling their faces. The Sultan of Darfur wraps up his face with a +piece of white muslin, which goes round his head several times, covering +his mouth and nose first, and then his forehead, so that only his eyes are +visible. The same custom of veiling the face as a mark of sovereignty is +said to be observed in other parts of central Africa.(439) The Sultan of +Wadai always speaks from behind a curtain; no one sees his face except his +intimates and a few favoured persons.(440) Similarly the Sultan of Bornu +never shewed himself to his people and only spoke to them from behind a +curtain.(441) The king of Chonga, a town on the right bank of the Niger +above Egga, may not be seen by his subjects nor by strangers. At an +interview he sits in his palace concealed by a mat which hangs like a +curtain, and from behind it he converses with his visitor.(442) The Muysca +Indians of Colombia had such a respect for their chiefs that they dared +not lift their eyes on them, but always turned their backs when they had +to address them. If a thief, after repeated punishments, proved +incorrigible, they took him to the chief, and one of the nobles, turning +the culprit round, said to him, "Since you think yourself so great a lord +that you have the right to break the laws, you have the right to look at +the chief." From that moment the criminal was regarded as infamous. Nobody +would have anything to do with him or even speak to him, and he died an +outcast.(443) Montezuma was revered by his subjects as a god, and he set +so much store on their reverence that if on going out of the city he saw a +man lift up his eyes on him, he had the rash gazer put to death. He +generally lived in the retirement of his palace, seldom shewing himself. +On the days when he went to visit his gardens, he was carried in a litter +through a street which was enclosed by walls; none but his bearers had the +right to pass along that street.(444) It was a law of the Medes that their +king should be seen by nobody.(445) The king of Jebu, on the Slave Coast +of West Africa, is surrounded by a great deal of mystery. Until lately his +face might not be seen even by his own subjects, and if circumstances +compelled him to communicate with them he did so through a screen which +concealed him from view. Now, though his face may be seen, it is customary +to hide his body; and at audiences a cloth is held before him so as to +conceal him from the neck downwards, and it is raised so as to cover him +altogether whenever he coughs, sneezes, spits, or takes snuff. His face is +partially hidden by a conical cap with hanging strings of beads.(446) +Amongst the Tuaregs of the Sahara all the men (but not the women) keep the +lower part of their face, especially the mouth, veiled constantly; the +veil is never put off, not even in eating or sleeping.(447) Among the +Arabs men remarkable for their good looks have been known to veil their +faces, especially at festivals and markets, in order to protect themselves +against the evil eye.(448) The same reason may explain the custom of +muffling their faces which has been observed by Arab women from the +earliest times(449) and by the women of Boeotian Thebes in antiquity.(450) +In Samoa a man whose family god was the turtle might not eat a turtle, and +if he helped a neighbour to cut up and cook one he had to wear a bandage +tied over his mouth lest an embryo turtle should slip down his throat, +grow up, and be his death.(451) In West Timor a speaker holds his right +hand before his mouth in speaking lest a demon should enter his body, and +lest the person with whom he converses should harm the speaker's soul by +magic.(452) In New South Wales for some time after his initiation into the +tribal mysteries, a young blackfellow (whose soul at this time is in a +critical state) must always cover his mouth with a rug when a woman is +present.(453) We have already seen how common is the notion that the life +or soul may escape by the mouth or nostrils.(454) + + + + +§ 4. Taboos on quitting the House. + + +(M79) By an extension of the like precaution kings are sometimes forbidden +ever to leave their palaces; or, if they are allowed to do so, their +subjects are forbidden to see them abroad. We have seen that the priestly +king at Shark Point, West Africa, may never quit his house or even his +chair, in which he is obliged to sleep sitting; and that the king of +Fernando Po, whom no white man may see, is reported to be confined to his +house with shackles on his legs.(455) The fetish king of Benin, who was +worshipped as a deity by his subjects, might not quit his palace.(456) +After his coronation the king of Loango is confined to his palace, which +he may not leave.(457) The king of Onitsha, on the Niger, "does not step +out of his house into the town unless a human sacrifice is made to +propitiate the gods: on this account he never goes out beyond the +precincts of his premises."(458) Indeed we are told that he may not quit +his palace under pain of death or of giving up one or more slaves to be +executed in his presence. As the wealth of the country is measured in +slaves, the king takes good care not to infringe the law. One day the +monarch, charmed by some presents which he had received from a French +officer, politely attended his visitor to the gate, and in a moment of +forgetfulness was about to break bounds, when his chamberlain, seizing his +majesty by his legs, and his wives, friends, and servants rushing up, +prevented him from taking so fatal a step. Yet once a year at the Feast of +Yams the king is allowed, and even required by custom, to dance before his +people outside the high mud wall of the palace. In dancing he carries a +great weight, generally a sack of earth, on his back to prove that he is +still able to support the burden and cares of state. Were he unable to +discharge this duty, he would be immediately deposed and perhaps +stoned.(459) The Tomas or Habes, a hardy race of mountaineers who inhabit +Mount Bandiagara in Nigeria, revere a great fetish doctor called the Ogom, +who is not suffered to quit his house on any pretext.(460) Among the +natives of the Cross River in Southern Nigeria the sacred chiefs of +certain villages are confined to their compounds, that is, to the +enclosures in which their houses are built. Such chiefs may be confined +for years within these narrow bounds. "Among these primitive people, the +head chief is often looked upon as half divine, the human representative +of their ancestral god. He regulates their religious rites, and is by some +tribes believed to have the power of making rain fall when they require +it, and of bringing them good harvests. So, being of such value to the +community, he is not permitted, except on very rare occasions, to go +outside his compound, lest evil should befall him, and the whole town have +to suffer."(461) The kings of Ethiopia were worshipped as gods, but were +mostly kept shut up in their palaces.(462) On the mountainous coast of +Pontus there dwelt in antiquity a rude and warlike people named the Mosyni +or Mosynoeci, through whose rugged country the Ten Thousand marched on +their famous retreat from Asia to Europe. These barbarians kept their king +in close custody at the top of a high tower, from which after his election +he was never more allowed to descend. Here he dispensed justice to his +people; but if he offended them, they punished him by stopping his rations +for a whole day, or even starving him to death.(463) The kings of Sabaea +or Sheba, the spice country of Arabia, were not allowed to go out of their +palaces; if they did so, the mob stoned them to death.(464) But at the top +of the palace there was a window with a chain attached to it. If any man +deemed he had suffered wrong, he pulled the chain, and the king perceived +him and called him in and gave judgment.(465) So down to recent times the +kings of Corea, whose persons were sacred and received "honours almost +divine," were shut up in their palace from the age of twelve or fifteen; +and if a suitor wished to obtain justice of the king he sometimes lit a +great bonfire on a mountain facing the palace; the king saw the fire and +informed himself of the case.(466) The Emperor of China seldom quits his +palace, and when he does so, no one may look at him; even the guards who +line the road must turn their backs.(467) The king of Tonquin was +permitted to appear abroad twice or thrice a year for the performance of +certain religious ceremonies; but the people were not allowed to look at +him. The day before he came forth notice was given to all the inhabitants +of the city and country to keep from the way the king was to go; the women +were obliged to remain in their houses and durst not shew themselves under +pain of death, a penalty which was carried out on the spot if any one +disobeyed the order, even through ignorance. Thus the king was invisible +to all but his troops and the officers of his suite.(468) In Mandalay a +stout lattice-paling, six feet high and carefully kept in repair, lined +every street in the walled city and all those streets in the suburbs +through which the king was likely at any time to pass. Behind this paling, +which stood two feet or so from the houses, all the people had to stay +when the king or any of the queens went out. Any one who was caught +outside it by the beadles after the procession had started was severely +handled, and might think himself lucky if he got off with a beating. +Nobody was supposed to peep through the holes in the lattice-work, which +were besides partly stopped up with flowering shrubs.(469) + + + + +§ 5. Taboos on leaving Food over. + + +(M80) Again, magic mischief may be wrought upon a man through the remains +of the food he has partaken of, or the dishes out of which he has eaten. +On the principles of sympathetic magic a real connexion continues to +subsist between the food which a man has in his stomach and the refuse of +it which he has left untouched, and hence by injuring the refuse you can +simultaneously injure the eater. Among the Narrinyeri of South Australia +every adult is constantly on the look-out for bones of beasts, birds, or +fish, of which the flesh has been eaten by somebody, in order to construct +a deadly charm out of them. Every one is therefore careful to burn the +bones of the animals which he has eaten lest they should fall into the +hands of a sorcerer. Too often, however, the sorcerer succeeds in getting +hold of such a bone, and when he does so he believes that he has the power +of life and death over the man, woman, or child who ate the flesh of the +animal. To put the charm in operation he makes a paste of red ochre and +fish oil, inserts in it the eye of a cod and a small piece of the flesh of +a corpse, and having rolled the compound into a ball sticks it on the top +of the bone. After being left for some time in the bosom of a dead body, +in order that it may derive a deadly potency by contact with corruption, +the magical implement is set up in the ground near the fire, and as the +ball melts, so the person against whom the charm is directed wastes with +disease; if the ball is melted quite away, the victim will die. When the +bewitched man learns of the spell that is being cast upon him, he +endeavours to buy the bone from the sorcerer, and if he obtains it he +breaks the charm by throwing the bone into a river or lake.(470) Further, +the Narrinyeri think that if a man eats of the totem animal of his tribe, +and an enemy obtains a portion of the flesh, the latter can make it grow +in the inside of the eater, and so cause his death. Therefore when a man +partakes of his totem he is careful either to eat it all or else to +conceal or destroy the refuse.(471) In the Encounter Bay tribe of South +Australia, when a man cannot get the bone of an animal which his enemy has +eaten, he cooks a bird, beast, or fish, and keeping back one of the +creature's bones, offers the rest under the guise of friendship to his +enemy. If the man is simple enough to partake of the proffered food, he is +at the mercy of his perfidious foe, who can kill him by placing the +abstracted bone near the fire.(472) + +(M81) Ideas and practices of the same sort prevail, or used to prevail, in +Melanesia; all that was needed to injure a man was to bring the leavings +of his food into contact with a malignant ghost or spirit. Hence in the +island of Florida when a scrap of an enemy's dinner was secreted and +thrown into a haunted place, the man was supposed to fall ill; and in the +New Hebrides if a snake of a certain sort carried away a fragment of food +to a spot sacred to a spirit, the man who had eaten the food would sicken +as the fragment decayed. In Aurora the refuse is made up by the wizard +with certain leaves; as these rot and stink, the man dies. Hence it is, or +was, a constant care with the Melanesians to prevent the remains of their +meals from falling into the hands of persons who bore them a grudge; for +this reason they regularly gave the refuse of food to the pigs.(473) In +Tana, one of the New Hebrides, people bury or throw into the sea the +leavings of their food, lest these should fall into the hands of the +disease-makers. For if a disease-maker finds the remnants of a meal, say +the skin of a banana, he picks it up and burns it slowly in the fire. As +it burns, the person who ate the banana falls ill and sends to the +disease-maker, offering him presents if he will stop burning the banana +skin.(474) In German New Guinea the natives take the utmost care to +destroy or conceal the husks and other remains of their food, lest these +should be found by their enemies and used by them for the injury or +destruction of the eaters. Hence they burn their leavings, throw them into +the sea, or otherwise put them out of harm's way. To such an extent does +this fear influence them that many people dare not stir beyond the +territory of their own village, lest they should leave behind them on the +land of their neighbours something by means of which a hostile sorcerer +might do them a mischief.(475) Similar fears have led to similar customs +in New Britain and the other islands of what is now called the Bismarck +Archipelago, off the north coast of New Guinea. There also the natives +bury, burn, or throw into the sea the remains of their meals to prevent +them from falling into the hands of magicians; there also the more +superstitious of them will not eat in another village because they dread +the use which a sorcerer might make of their leavings when their back is +turned. This theory has led to an odd practical result; all the cats in +the islands of the Archipelago go about with stumpy tails. The reason of +the peculiarity is this. The natives sometimes roast and eat their cats; +and unscrupulous persons might be tempted to steal a neighbour's cat in +order to furnish a meal. Accordingly, in the interests of the higher +morality people remove this stumbling-block from the path of their weaker +brothers by docking their cats of a piece of their tails and keeping the +severed portions in a secret place. If now a cat is stolen and eaten, the +lawful owner of the animal has it in his power to avenge the crime: he +need only bury the piece of tail with certain spells in the ground, and +the thief will fall ill. Hence a man will hardly dare to steal and eat a +cat with a stumpy tail, knowing the righteous retribution that would +sooner or later overtake him for so doing.(476) + +(M82) From a like fear, no doubt, of sorcery, no one may touch the food +which the king of Loango leaves upon his plate; it is buried in a hole in +the ground. And no one may drink out of the king's vessel.(477) Similarly, +no man may drink out of the same cup or glass with the king of Fida +(Whydah) in Guinea; "he hath always one kept particularly for himself; and +that which hath but once touched another's lips he never uses more, though +it be made of metal that may be cleansed by fire."(478) Amongst the +Alfoors of Celebes there is a priest called the _Leleen_, whose duty +appears to be to make the rice grow. His functions begin about a month +before the rice is sown, and end after the crop is housed. During this +time he has to observe certain taboos; amongst others he may not eat or +drink with any one else, and he may drink out of no vessel but his +own.(479) An ancient Indian way of injuring an enemy was to offer him a +meal of rice and afterwards throw the remains of the rice into a fishpond; +if the fish swam up in large numbers to devour the grains, the man's fate +was sealed.(480) In antiquity the Romans used immediately to break the +shells of eggs and of snails which they had eaten in order to prevent +enemies from making magic with them.(481) The common practice, still +observed among us, of breaking egg-shells after the eggs have been eaten +may very well have originated in the same superstition. + +(M83) The superstitious fear of the magic that may be wrought on a man +through the leavings of his food has had the beneficial effect of inducing +many savages to destroy refuse which, if left to rot, might through its +corruption have proved a real, not a merely imaginary, source of disease +and death. Nor is it only the sanitary condition of a tribe which has +benefited by this superstition; curiously enough the same baseless dread, +the same false notion of causation, has indirectly strengthened the moral +bonds of hospitality, honour, and good faith among men who entertain it. +For it is obvious that no one who intends to harm a man by working magic +on the refuse of his food will himself partake of that food, because if he +did so he would, on the principles of sympathetic magic, suffer equally +with his enemy from any injury done to the refuse. This is the idea which +in primitive society lends sanctity to the bond produced by eating +together; by participation in the same food two men give, as it were, +hostages for their good behaviour; each guarantees the other that he will +devise no mischief against him, since, being physically united with him by +the common food in their stomachs, any harm he might do to his fellow +would recoil on his own head with precisely the same force with which it +fell on the head of his victim. In strict logic, however, the sympathetic +bond lasts only so long as the food is in the stomach of each of the +parties. Hence the covenant formed by eating together is less solemn and +durable than the covenant formed by transfusing the blood of the +covenanting parties into each other's veins, for this transfusion seems to +knit them together for life.(482) + + + + + +CHAPTER IV. TABOOED PERSONS. + + + + +§ 1. Chiefs and Kings tabooed. + + +(M84) We have seen that the Mikado's food was cooked every day in new pots +and served up in new dishes; both pots and dishes were of common clay, in +order that they might be broken or laid aside after they had been once +used. They were generally broken, for it was believed that if any one else +ate his food out of these sacred dishes, his mouth and throat would become +swollen and inflamed. The same ill effect was thought to be experienced by +any one who should wear the Mikado's clothes without his leave; he would +have swellings and pains all over his body.(483) In Fiji there is a +special name (_kana lama_) for the disease supposed to be caused by eating +out of a chief's dishes or wearing his clothes. "The throat and body +swell, and the impious person dies. I had a fine mat given to me by a man +who durst not use it because Thakambau's eldest son had sat upon it. There +was always a family or clan of commoners who were exempt from this danger. +I was talking about this once to Thakambau. 'Oh yes,' said he. 'Here, +So-and-so! come and scratch my back.' The man scratched; he was one of +those who could do it with impunity." The name of the men thus highly +privileged was _Na nduka ni_, or the dirt of the chief.(484) + +(M85) In the evil effects thus supposed to follow upon the use of the +vessels or clothes of the Mikado and a Fijian chief we see that other side +of the god-man's character to which attention has been already called. The +divine person is a source of danger as well as of blessing; he must not +only be guarded, he must also be guarded against. His sacred organism, so +delicate that a touch may disorder it, is also, as it were, electrically +charged with a powerful magical or spiritual force which may discharge +itself with fatal effect on whatever comes in contact with it. Accordingly +the isolation of the man-god is quite as necessary for the safety of +others as for his own. His magical virtue is in the strictest sense of the +word contagious: his divinity is a fire, which, under proper restraints, +confers endless blessings, but, if rashly touched or allowed to break +bounds, burns and destroys what it touches. Hence the disastrous effects +supposed to attend a breach of taboo; the offender has thrust his hand +into the divine fire, which shrivels up and consumes him on the spot. The +Nubas, for example, who inhabit the wooded and fertile range of Jebel Nuba +in eastern Africa, believe that they would die if they entered the house +of their priestly king; however they can evade the penalty of their +intrusion by baring the left shoulder and getting the king to lay his hand +on it. And were any man to sit on a stone which the king has consecrated +to his own use, the transgressor would die within the year.(485) The +Cazembes, in the interior of Angola, regard their king (the _Muata_ or +_Mambo_) as so holy that no one can touch him without being killed by the +magical power which pervades his sacred person. But since contact with him +is sometimes unavoidable, they have devised a means whereby the sinner can +escape with his life. Kneeling down before the king he touches the back of +the royal hand with the back of his own, then snaps his fingers; +afterwards he lays the palm of his hand on the palm of the king's hand, +then snaps his fingers again. This ceremony is repeated four or five +times, and averts the imminent danger of death.(486) In Tonga it was +believed that if any one fed himself with his own hands after touching the +sacred person of a superior chief or anything that belonged to him, he +would swell up and die; the sanctity of the chief, like a virulent poison, +infected the hands of his inferior, and, being communicated through them +to the food, proved fatal to the eater. A commoner who had incurred this +danger could disinfect himself by performing a certain ceremony, which +consisted in touching the sole of a chief's foot with the palm and back of +each of his hands, and afterwards rinsing his hands in water. If there was +no water near, he rubbed his hands with the juicy stem of a plantain or +banana. After that he was free to feed himself with his own hands without +danger of being attacked by the malady which would otherwise follow from +eating with tabooed or sanctified hands. But until the ceremony of +expiation or disinfection had been performed, if he wished to eat, he had +either to get some one to feed him, or else to go down on his knees and +pick up the food from the ground with his mouth like a beast. He might not +even use a toothpick himself, but might guide the hand of another person +holding the toothpick. The Tongans were subject to induration of the liver +and certain forms of scrofula, which they often attributed to a failure to +perform the requisite expiation after having inadvertently touched a chief +or his belongings. Hence they often went through the ceremony as a +precaution, without knowing that they had done anything to call for it. +The king of Tonga could not refuse to play his part in the rite by +presenting his foot to such as desired to touch it, even when they applied +to him at an inconvenient time. A fat unwieldy king, who perceived his +subjects approaching with this intention, while he chanced to be taking +his walks abroad, has been sometimes seen to waddle as fast as his legs +could carry him out of their way, in order to escape the importunate and +not wholly disinterested expression of their homage. If any one fancied he +might have already unwittingly eaten with tabooed hands, he sat down +before the chief, and, taking the chief's foot, pressed it against his own +stomach, that the food in his belly might not injure him, and that he +might not swell up and die.(487) Since scrofula was regarded by the +Tongans as a result of eating with tabooed hands, we may conjecture that +persons who suffered from it among them often resorted to the touch or +pressure of the king's foot as a cure for their malady. The analogy of the +custom with the old English practice of bringing scrofulous patients to +the king to be healed by his touch is sufficiently obvious, and suggests, +as I have already pointed out elsewhere, that among our own remote +ancestors scrofula may have obtained its name of the King's Evil, from a +belief, like that of the Tongans, that it was caused as well as cured by +contact with the divine majesty of kings.(488) + +(M86) In New Zealand the dread of the sanctity of chiefs was at least as +great as in Tonga. Their ghostly power, derived from an ancestral spirit +or _atua_, diffused itself by contagion over everything they touched, and +could strike dead all who rashly or unwittingly meddled with it.(489) For +instance, it once happened that a New Zealand chief of high rank and great +sanctity had left the remains of his dinner by the wayside. A slave, a +stout, hungry fellow, coming up after the chief had gone, saw the +unfinished dinner, and ate it up without asking questions. Hardly had he +finished when he was informed by a horror-stricken spectator that the food +of which he had eaten was the chief's. "I knew the unfortunate delinquent +well. He was remarkable for courage, and had signalised himself in the +wars of the tribe," but "no sooner did he hear the fatal news than he was +seized by the most extraordinary convulsions and cramp in the stomach, +which never ceased till he died, about sundown the same day. He was a +strong man, in the prime of life, and if any pakeha [European] freethinker +should have said he was not killed by the _tapu_ of the chief, which had +been communicated to the food by contact, he would have been listened to +with feelings of contempt for his ignorance and inability to understand +plain and direct evidence."(490) This is not a solitary case. A Maori +woman having eaten of some fruit, and being afterwards told that the fruit +had been taken from a tabooed place, exclaimed that the spirit of the +chief, whose sanctity had been thus profaned, would kill her. This was in +the afternoon, and next day by twelve o'clock she was dead.(491) An +observer who knows the Maoris well, says, "Tapu [taboo] is an awful +weapon. I have seen a strong young man die the same day he was tapued; the +victims die under it as though their strength ran out as water."(492) A +Maori chief's tinder-box was once the means of killing several persons; +for, having been lost by him, and found by some men who used it to light +their pipes, they died of fright on learning to whom it had belonged. So, +too, the garments of a high New Zealand chief will kill any one else who +wears them. A chief was observed by a missionary to throw down a precipice +a blanket which he found too heavy to carry. Being asked by the missionary +why he did not leave it on a tree for the use of a future traveller, the +chief replied that "it was the fear of its being taken by another which +caused him to throw it where he did, for if it were worn, his tapu" (that +is, his spiritual power communicated by contact to the blanket and through +the blanket to the man) "would kill the person."(493) For a similar reason +a Maori chief would not blow a fire with his mouth; for his sacred breath +would communicate its sanctity to the fire, which would pass it on to the +pot on the fire, which would pass it on to the meat in the pot, which +would pass it on to the man who ate the meat, which was in the pot, which +stood on the fire, which was breathed on by the chief; so that the eater, +infected by the chief's breath conveyed through these intermediaries, +would surely die.(494) + +(M87) Thus in the Polynesian race, to which the Maoris belong, +superstition erected round the persons of sacred chiefs a real, though at +the same time purely imaginary barrier, to transgress which actually +entailed the death of the transgressor whenever he became aware of what he +had done. This fatal power of the imagination working through +superstitious terrors is by no means confined to one race; it appears to +be common among savages. For example, among the aborigines of Australia a +native will die after the infliction of even the most superficial wound if +only he believes that the weapon which inflicted the wound had been sung +over and thus endowed with magical virtue. He simply lies down, refuses +food, and pines away.(495) Similarly among some of the Indian tribes of +Brazil, if the medicine-man predicted the death of any one who had +offended him, "the wretch took to his hammock instantly in such full +expectation of dying, that he would neither eat nor drink, and the +prediction was a sentence which faith effectually executed."(496) Speaking +of certain African races Major Leonard observes: "I have seen more than +one hardened old Haussa soldier dying steadily and by inches, because he +believed himself to be bewitched; so that no nourishment or medicines that +were given to him had the slightest effect either to check the mischief or +to improve his condition in any way, and nothing was able to divert him +from a fate which he considered inevitable. In the same way, and under +very similar conditions, I have seen Kru-men and others die, in spite of +every effort that was made to save them, simply because they had made up +their minds, not (as we thought at the time) to die, but that being in the +clutch of malignant demons they were bound to die."(497) The Capuchin +missionary Merolla da Sorrento, who travelled in the West African kingdom +of Congo in the latter part of the seventeenth century, has described a +remarkable case of death wrought purely by superstitious fear. He says: +"It is a custom that either the parents or the wizards give certain rules +to be inviolably observed by the young people, and which they call +_chegilla_: these are to abstain from eating either some sorts of poultry, +the flesh of some kinds of wild beasts, such and such fruits, roots either +raw or boiled after this or another manner, with several other ridiculous +injunctions of the like nature, too many to be enumerated here. You would +wonder with what religious observance these commands are obeyed. These +young people would sooner chuse to fast several days together, than to +taste the least bit of what has been forbidden them; and if it sometimes +happen that the _chegilla_ has been neglected to have been given them by +their parents, they think they shall presently die unless they go +immediately to receive it from the wizards. A certain young negro, being +upon a journey, lodged in a friend's house by the way: his friend, before +he went out the next morning, had got a wild hen ready for his breakfast, +they being much better than the tame ones. The negro hereupon demanded, +'If it were a wild hen?' His host answered, 'No': then he fell on +heartily, and afterwards proceeded on his journey. About four years after +these two met together again, and the aforesaid negro being not yet +married, his old friend asked him, 'If he would eat a wild hen?' To which +he answered, 'That he had received the _chegilla_, and therefore could +not.' Hereat the host began immediately to laugh, enquiring of him, 'What +made him refuse it now, when he had eaten one at his table about four +years ago?' At the hearing of this the negro immediately fell a trembling, +and suffered himself to be so far possessed with the effects of +imagination, that he died in less than twenty-four hours after."(498) + + + + +§ 2. Mourners tabooed. + + +(M88) Thus regarding his sacred chiefs and kings as charged with a +mysterious spiritual force which so to say explodes at contact, the savage +naturally ranks them among the dangerous classes of society, and imposes +upon them the same sort of restraints that he lays on manslayers, +menstruous women, and other persons whom he looks upon with a certain fear +and horror. For example, sacred kings and priests in Polynesia were not +allowed to touch food with their hands, and had therefore to be fed by +others;(499) and as we have just seen, their vessels, garments, and other +property might not be used by others on pain of disease and death. Now +precisely the same observances are exacted by some savages from girls at +their first menstruation, women after childbirth, homicides, mourners, and +all persons who have come into contact with the dead. Thus, for example, +to begin with the last class of persons, among the Maoris any one who had +handled a corpse, helped to convey it to the grave, or touched a dead +man's bones, was cut off from all intercourse and almost all communication +with mankind. He could not enter any house, or come into contact with any +person or thing, without utterly bedevilling them. He might not even touch +food with his hands, which had become so frightfully tabooed or unclean as +to be quite useless. Food would be set for him on the ground, and he would +then sit or kneel down, and, with his hands carefully held behind his +back, would gnaw at it as best he could. In some cases he would be fed by +another person, who with outstretched arm contrived to do it without +touching the tabooed man; but the feeder was himself subjected to many +severe restrictions, little less onerous than those which were imposed +upon the other. In almost every populous village there lived a degraded +wretch, the lowest of the low, who earned a sorry pittance by thus waiting +upon the defiled. Clad in rags, daubed from head to foot with red ochre +and stinking shark oil, always solitary and silent, generally old, +haggard, and wizened, often half crazed, he might be seen sitting +motionless all day apart from the common path or thoroughfare of the +village, gazing with lack-lustre eyes on the busy doings in which he might +never take a part. Twice a day a dole of food would be thrown on the +ground before him to munch as well as he could without the use of his +hands; and at night, huddling his greasy tatters about him, he would crawl +into some miserable lair of leaves and refuse, where, dirty, cold, and +hungry, he passed, in broken ghost-haunted slumbers, a wretched night as a +prelude to another wretched day. Such was the only human being deemed fit +to associate at arm's length with one who had paid the last offices of +respect and friendship to the dead. And when, the dismal term of his +seclusion being over, the mourner was about to mix with his fellows once +more, all the dishes he had used in his seclusion were diligently smashed, +and all the garments he had worn were carefully thrown away, lest they +should spread the contagion of his defilement among others,(500) just as +the vessels and clothes of sacred kings and chiefs are destroyed or cast +away for a similar reason. So complete in these respects is the analogy +which the savage traces between the spiritual influences that emanate from +divinities and from the dead, between the odour of sanctity and the stench +of corruption. + +(M89) The rule which forbids persons who have been in contact with the +dead to touch food with their hands would seem to have been universal in +Polynesia. Thus in Samoa "those who attended the deceased were most +careful not to handle food, and for days were fed by others as if they +were helpless infants. Baldness and the loss of teeth were supposed to be +the punishment inflicted by the household god if they violated the +rule."(501) Again, in Tonga, "no person can touch a dead chief without +being taboo'd for ten lunar months, except chiefs, who are only taboo'd +for three, four, or five months, according to the superiority of the dead +chief; except again it be the body of Tooitonga [the great divine chief], +and then even the greatest chief would be taboo'd ten months, as was the +case with Finow's wife above mentioned. During the time a man is taboo'd +he must not feed himself with his own hands, but must be fed by somebody +else: he must not even use a toothpick himself, but must guide another +person's hand holding the toothpick. If he is hungry and there is no one +to feed him, he must go down upon his hands and knees, and pick up his +victuals with his mouth: and if he infringes upon any of these rules, it +is firmly expected that he will swell up and die: and this belief is so +strong that Mr. Mariner thinks no native ever made an experiment to prove +the contrary. They often saw him feed himself with his hands after having +touched dead chiefs, and not observing his health to decline, they +attributed it to his being a foreigner, and being governed by different +gods."(502) Again, in Wallis Island "contact with a corpse subjects the +hands to the law of taboo till they are washed, which is not done for +several weeks. Until that purification has taken place, the tabooed +persons may not themselves put food to their mouths; other people render +them that service."(503) A rule of the same sort is or was observed in +various parts of Melanesia. Thus in Fiji the taboo for handling a dead +chief lasted from one to ten months according to his rank; for a commoner +it lasted not more than four days. It was commonly resorted to by the lazy +and idle; for during the time of their seclusion they were not only +provided with food, but were actually fed by attendants or ate their food +from the ground.(504) Similarly in the Motu tribe of New Guinea a man is +tabooed, generally for three days, after handling a corpse, and while the +taboo lasts he may not touch food with his hands. At the end of the time +he bathes and the taboo is over.(505) So in New Caledonia the two men who +are charged with the duty of burying and guarding a corpse have to remain +in seclusion and observe a number of rules of abstinence. They live apart +from their wives. They may not shave or cut their hair. Their food is laid +for them on leaves and they take it up with their mouth or a stick; but +oftener an attendant feeds them, just as he might feed a man whose limbs +were palsied.(506) So among the Nandi of British East Africa persons who +have handled a corpse bathe in a river, anoint their bodies with fat, +partially shave their heads, and live in the hut of the deceased for four +days. All these days they may not be seen by boys or women: they may not +drink milk; and they may not touch food with their hands, but must eat it +with the help of a potsherd or chip of a gourd.(507) Similarly in the +Ba-Pedi and Ba-Thonga tribes of South Africa men who have dug a grave may +not touch food with their fingers till the rites of their purification are +accomplished; meantime they eat with the help of special spoons. If they +broke this rule, it is thought that they would be consumptive.(508) So in +the Ngarigo tribe of New South Wales a novice who has just passed through +the ceremony of initiation has to go away to the mountains and stay there +for a while, sometimes for more than six months, under the charge of one +or more old men; and all the time of his absence among the mountains he +may not touch cooked food with his hands; the food is put into his mouth +by the man who looks after him.(509) + +(M90) Among the Shuswap of British Columbia widows and widowers in +mourning are secluded and forbidden to touch their own head or body; the +cups and cooking-vessels which they use may be used by no one else. They +must build a sweat-house beside a creek, sweat there all night and bathe +regularly, after which they must rub their bodies with branches of spruce. +The branches may not be used more than once, and when they have served +their purpose they are stuck into the ground all round the hut. No hunter +would come near such mourners, for their presence is unlucky. If their +shadow were to fall on any one, he would be taken ill at once. They employ +thorn bushes for bed and pillow, in order to keep away the ghost of the +deceased; and thorn bushes are also laid all around their beds.(510) This +last precaution shews clearly what the spiritual danger is which leads to +the exclusion of such persons from ordinary society; it is simply a fear +of the ghost who is supposed to be hovering near them. Among the Thompson +Indians of British Columbia the persons who handled a corpse and dug the +grave were secluded for four days. They fasted until the body was buried, +after which they were given food apart from the other people. They would +not touch the food with their hands, but must put it into their mouths +with sharp-pointed sticks. They ate off a small mat, and drank out of +birch-bark cups, which, together with the mat, were thrown away at the end +of the four days. The first four mouthfuls of food, as well as of water, +had to be spit into the fire. During their seclusion they bathed in a +stream and might not sleep with their wives. Widows and widowers were +obliged to observe rules of a similar kind. Immediately after the death +they went out and passed through a patch of rose-bushes four times, +probably in order to rid themselves of the ghost, who might be supposed to +stick on a thorn. For a year they had to sleep on a bed of fir-boughs, on +which sticks of rose-bushes were laid; many wore twigs of rose-bush and +juniper in a piece of buckskin on their persons. The first four days they +might not touch their food, but ate with sharp-pointed sticks and spat out +the first four mouthfuls of each meal, and the first four of water, into +the fire. A widower might not fish at another man's fishing-place or with +another man's net; if he did, it would make the place and the net useless +for the season. If he transplanted a trout into another lake, before +releasing it he blew on the head of the fish, and after chewing deer-fat, +he spat some of the grease on its head in order to remove the baneful +effect of his touch. Then he let the trout go, bidding it farewell, and +asking it to propagate its kind in plenty. Any grass or branches that a +widow or widower sat or lay down on withered up. If a widow should break +sticks or boughs, her hands or arms would also break. She might not pick +berries for a year, else the whole crop of berries would fall off the +bushes or wither up. She might not cook food or fetch water for her +children, nor let them lie down on her bed, nor should she lie or sit +where they slept. Sometimes a widow would wear a breech-cloth made of dry +bunch-grass for several days to prevent her husband's ghost from having +intercourse with her.(511) Among the Tinneh or Dene Indians of North-West +America all who have handled a corpse are subject to many restrictions and +taboos. They are debarred for a certain period from eating any fresh meat: +they may never use a knife to cut their food but must tear it with their +teeth: they may not drink out of a vessel in common use, but must employ a +gourd which they carry about for the purpose; and they wear peeled willow +wands about their arms and necks or carry them in their hands as +disinfectants to annul the evil consequences which are supposed to follow +from handling the dead.(512) Among the Indian tribes of Queen Charlotte +Sound a widow or widower goes into special mourning for a month; among the +Koskimos the period of mourning is four months. During this time he or she +lives apart in a very small hut behind the house, eating and drinking +alone, and using for that purpose dishes which are not employed by other +members of the tribe.(513) + +(M91) Among the Agutainos, who inhabit Palawan, one of the Philippine +Islands, a widow may not leave her hut for seven or eight days after the +death; and even then she may only go out at an hour when she is not likely +to meet anybody, for whoever looks upon her dies a sudden death. To +prevent this fatal catastrophe, the widow knocks with a wooden peg on the +trees as she goes along, thus warning people of her dangerous proximity; +and the very trees on which she knocks soon die.(514) So poisonous is the +atmosphere of death that surrounds those to whom the ghost of the departed +may be thought to cleave. In the Mekeo district of British New Guinea a +widower loses all his civil rights and becomes a social outcast, an object +of fear and horror, shunned by all. He may not cultivate a garden, nor +shew himself in public, nor traverse the village, nor walk on the roads +and paths. Like a wild beast he must skulk in the long grass and the +bushes; and if he sees or hears any one coming, especially a woman, he +must hide behind a tree or a thicket. If he wishes to fish or hunt, he +must do it alone and at night. If he would consult any one, even the +missionary, he does so by stealth and at night; he seems to have lost his +voice and speaks only in whispers. Were he to join a party of fishers or +hunters, his presence would bring misfortune on them; the ghost of his +dead wife would frighten away the fish or the game. He goes about +everywhere and at all times armed with a tomahawk to defend himself, not +only against wild boars in the jungle, but against the dreaded spirit of +his departed spouse, who would do him an ill turn if she could; for all +the souls of the dead are malignant and their only delight is to harm the +living.(515) + + + + +§ 3. Women tabooed at Menstruation and Childbirth. + + +(M92) In general, we may say that the prohibition to use the vessels, +garments, and so on of certain persons, and the effects supposed to follow +an infraction of the rule, are exactly the same whether the persons to +whom the things belong are sacred or what we might call unclean and +polluted. As the garments which have been touched by a sacred chief kill +those who handle them, so do the things which have been touched by a +menstruous woman. An Australian blackfellow, who discovered that his wife +had lain on his blanket at her menstrual period, killed her and died of +terror himself within a fortnight.(516) Hence Australian women at these +times are forbidden under pain of death to touch anything that men use, or +even to walk on a path that any man frequents. They are also secluded at +childbirth, and all vessels used by them during their seclusion are +burned.(517) In Uganda the pots which a woman touches while the impurity +of childbirth or of menstruation is on her should be destroyed; spears and +shields defiled by her touch are not destroyed but only purified.(518) No +Esquimaux of Alaska will willingly drink out of the same cup or eat out of +the same dish that has been used by a woman at her confinement until it +has been purified by certain incantations.(519) Amongst some of the +Indians of North America, women at menstruation are forbidden to touch +men's utensils, which would be so defiled by their touch that their +subsequent use would be attended by certain mischief or misfortune.(520) +For instance, in some of the Tinneh or Dene tribes girls verging on +maturity take care that the dishes out of which they eat are used by no +one else. When their first periodical sickness comes on, they are fed by +their mothers or nearest kinswomen, and will on no account touch their +food with their own hands. At the same time they abstain from touching +their heads with their hands, and keep a small stick to scratch their +heads with when they itch. They remain outside the house in a hut built +for the purpose, and wear a skull-cap made of skin to fit very tight, +which they never lay aside till the first monthly infirmity is over. A +fringe of shells, bones, and so on hangs down from their forehead so as to +cover their eyes, lest any malicious sorcerer should harm them during this +critical period.(521) "Among all the Dene and most other American tribes, +hardly any other being was the object of so much dread as a menstruating +woman. As soon as signs of that condition made themselves apparent in a +young girl she was carefully segregated from all but female company, and +had to live by herself in a small hut away from the gaze of the villagers +or of the male members of the roving band. While in that awful state, she +had to abstain from touching anything belonging to man, or the spoils of +any venison or other animal, lest she would thereby pollute the same, and +condemn the hunters to failure, owing to the anger of the game thus +slighted. Dried fish formed her diet, and cold water, absorbed through a +drinking tube, was her only beverage. Moreover, as the very sight of her +was dangerous to society, a special skin bonnet, with fringes falling over +her face down to her breast, hid her from the public gaze, even some time +after she had recovered her normal state."(522) Among the Bribri Indians +of Costa Rica a menstruous woman is regarded as unclean (_bukuru_). The +only plates she may use for her food are banana leaves, which, when she +has done with them, she throws away in some sequestered spot; for were a +cow to find them and eat them, the animal would waste away and perish. And +she drinks out of a special vessel for a like reason; because if any one +drank out of the same cup after her, he would surely die.(523) In the +islands of Mabuiag and Saibai, in Torres Straits, girls at their first +menstruation are strictly secluded from the sight of men. In Mabuiag the +seclusion lasts three months, in Saibai about a fortnight. During the time +of her separation the girl is forbidden to feed herself or to handle food, +which is put into her mouth by women or girls told off to wait on +her.(524) + +(M93) Among many peoples similar restrictions are imposed on women in +childbed and apparently for similar reasons; at such periods women are +supposed to be in a dangerous condition which would infect any person or +thing they might touch; hence they are put into quarantine until, with the +recovery of their health and strength, the imaginary danger has passed +away. Thus, in Tahiti a woman after childbirth was secluded for a +fortnight or three weeks in a temporary hut erected on sacred ground; +during the time of her seclusion she was debarred from touching +provisions, and had to be fed by another. Further, if any one else touched +the child at this period, he was subjected to the same restrictions as the +mother until the ceremony of her purification had been performed.(525) +Similarly in Manahiki, an island of the Southern Pacific, for ten days +after her delivery a woman was not allowed to handle food, and had to be +fed by some other person.(526) In the Sinaugolo tribe of British New +Guinea, for about a month after her confinement a woman may not prepare or +handle food; she may not even cook for herself, and when she is eating the +food made ready for her by her friends she must use a sharpened stick to +transfer it to her mouth.(527) Similarly in the Roro and Mekeo districts +of British New Guinea a woman after childbirth becomes for a time taboo +(_opu_), and any person or thing she may chance to touch becomes taboo +also. Accordingly during this time she abstains from cooking; for were she +to cook food, not only the victuals themselves but the pot and the fire +would be tabooed, so that nobody could eat the victuals, or use the pot, +or warm himself at the fire. Further at meals she may not dip her hand +into the dish and help herself, as the natives commonly do; she must use +for the purpose a long fork, with which she takes up the bananas, sweet +potatoes, yams, and so forth, in order not to contaminate the rest of the +food in the vessel by the touch of her fingers. If she wishes to drink, a +gourd is set before her, and wrapping up her hands in a cloth or coco-nut +fibre she pours the water into a small calabash for her use; or she may +pour the water directly into her mouth without letting the gourd touch her +lips. If anything has to be handed to her, it is not given from hand to +hand but reached to her at the end of a long stick.(528) Similarly in the +island of Kadiak, off Alaska, a woman about to be delivered retires to a +miserable low hovel built of reeds, where she must remain for twenty days +after the birth of her child, whatever the season may be, and she is +considered so unclean that no one will touch her, and food is reached to +her on sticks.(529) In the Ba-Pedi and Ba-Thonga tribes of South Africa a +woman in childbed may not touch her food with her hands all the time of +her seclusion; she must eat with the help of a wooden spoon. They think +that if she touched her victuals she might infect them with her bloody +flux, and that having partaken of such tainted food she would fall into a +consumption.(530) The Bribri Indians regard the pollution of childbed as +much more dangerous even than that of menstruation. When a woman feels her +time approaching, she informs her husband, who makes haste to build a hut +for her in a lonely spot. There she must live alone, holding no converse +with anybody save her mother or another woman. After her delivery the +medicine-man purifies her by breathing on her and laying an animal, it +matters not what, upon her. But even this ceremony only mitigates her +uncleanness into a state considered to be equivalent to that of a +menstruous woman; and for a full lunar month she must live apart from her +housemates, observing the same rules with regard to eating and drinking as +at her monthly periods. The case is still worse, the pollution is still +more deadly, if she has had a miscarriage or has been delivered of a +stillborn child. In that case she may not go near a living soul: the mere +contact with things she has used is exceedingly dangerous: her food is +handed to her at the end of a long stick. This lasts generally for three +weeks, after which she may go home subject only to the restrictions +incident to an ordinary confinement.(531) Among the Adivi or forest Gollas +of Southern India, when a woman feels the first pains of labour, she is +turned clean out of the village and must take up her quarters in a little +hut made of leaves or mats about two hundred yards away. In this hut she +must bring forth her offspring unaided, unless a midwife can be fetched in +time to be with her before the child is born; if the midwife arrives after +the birth has taken place she may not go near the woman. For ninety days +the mother lives in the hut by herself. If any one touches her, he or she +becomes, like the mother herself, an outcast and is expelled from the +village for three months, The woman's husband generally makes a little hut +about fifty yards from hers and stays in it sometimes to watch over her, +but he may not go near her on pain of being an outcast for three months. +Food is placed on the ground near the woman's hut and she takes it. On the +fourth day after the birth a woman of the village goes to her and pours +water on her, but may not come into contact with her. On the fifth day the +villagers clear away the stones and thorny bushes from a patch of ground +about ten yards on the village side of the hut, and to this clearing the +woman removes her hut unaided; no one may help her to do so. On the ninth, +fifteenth, and thirtieth days she again shifts her hut nearer and nearer +to the village; and again once in each of the two following months she +brings her hut still nearer. On the ninetieth day of her seclusion the +woman is called out from her hut, washed, clad in clean clothes, and after +being taken to the village temple is conducted to her own house by a man +of the caste, who performs purificatory ceremonies.(532) + +(M94) These customs shew that in the opinion of some primitive peoples a +woman at and after childbirth is pervaded by a certain dangerous influence +which can infect anything and anybody she touches; so that in the interest +of the community it becomes necessary to seclude her from society for a +while until the virulence of the infection has passed away, when, after +submitting to certain rites of purification, she is again free to mingle +with her fellows. This dread of lying-in women appears to be widespread, +for the practice of shutting them up at such times in lonely huts away +from the rest of the people is very common. Sometimes the nature of the +danger which is apprehended from them is explicitly stated. Thus in the +island of Tumleo, off German New Guinea, after the birth of her first +child a woman is shut up with her infant for five to eight days, during +which no man, not even her husband, may see her; for the men think that +were they to see her, their bodies would swell up and they would die.(533) +Apparently their notion is that the sight of a woman who has just been big +with child will, on the principles of homoeopathic magic, make their +bodies big also to bursting. The Sulka of New Britain imagine that, when a +woman has been delivered of a child, the men become cowardly, weapons lose +their force, and the slips which are to be planted out are deprived of +their power of germinating. Hence they perform a ceremony which is +intended to counteract this mysterious influence on men and plants. As +soon as it is known that a woman has been brought to bed, all the male +population of the village assembles in the men's clubhouse. Branches of a +strong-smelling tree are fetched, the twigs are broken off, the leaves +stripped off and put on the fire. All the men present then seize branches +with young buds. One of them holds ginger in his hand, which, after +reciting a spell over it, he distributes to the others. They chew it and +spit it out on the twigs, and these twigs are afterwards laid on the +shields and other weapons in the house, and also on the slips which are to +be planted; moreover they are fastened on the roofs and over the doorways +of the houses. In this way they seek to annul the noxious infection of +childbirth.(534) Among the Yabim of German New Guinea, when a birth has +taken place in the village, all the inhabitants remain at home next +morning "in order that the fruits of the field may not be spoiled."(535) +Apparently they fear that if they went out to their fields and gardens +immediately after a woman had been brought to bed, they would carry with +them a dangerous contagion which might blight the crops. When a Herero +woman has given birth to a child, her female companions hastily construct +a special hut for her to which she is transferred. Both the hut and the +woman are sacred and "for this reason, the men are not allowed to see the +lying-in woman until the navel string has separated from the child, +otherwise they would become weaklings, and when later they _yumbana_, that +is, go to war with spear and bow, they would be shot."(536) Thus the +Herero like the Sulka appear to imagine that the weakness of a lying-in +woman can, on the principles of homoeopathic magic, infect any men who may +chance to see her. + +(M95) Among the Saragacos Indians of eastern Ecuador, as soon as a woman +feels the travail-pangs beginning, she retires into the forest to a +distance of three or four leagues from her home, where she takes up her +abode in a hut of leaves which has been already prepared for her. "This +banishment," we are told, "is the fruit of the superstition of these +Indians, who are persuaded that the spirit of evil would attach himself to +their house if the women were brought to bed in it."(537) The Esquimaux of +Baffin Land think that the body of a lying-in woman exhales a vapour which +would adhere to the souls of seals if she ate the flesh of any seals +except such as have been caught by her husband, by a boy, or by an aged +man. "Cases of premature birth require particularly careful treatment. The +event must be announced publicly, else dire results will follow. If a +woman should conceal from the other people that she has had a premature +birth, they might come near her, or even eat in her hut of the seals +procured by her husband. The vapor arising from her would thus affect +them, and they would be avoided by the seals. The transgression would also +become attached to the soul of the seal, which would take it down to +Sedna," the mythical mother of the sea-mammals, who lives in the lower +world and controls the destinies of mankind.(538) + +(M96) Some Bantu tribes of South Africa entertain even more exaggerated +notions of the virulent infection spread by a woman who has had a +miscarriage and has concealed it. An experienced observer of these people +tells us that the blood of childbirth "appears to the eyes of the South +Africans to be tainted with a pollution still more dangerous than that of +the menstrual fluid. The husband is excluded from the hut for eight days +of the lying-in period, chiefly from fear that he might be contaminated by +this secretion. He dare not take his child in his arms for the three first +months after the birth. But the secretion of childbed is particularly +terrible when it is the product of a miscarriage, especially _a concealed +miscarriage_. In this case it is not merely the man who is threatened or +killed, it is the whole country, it is the sky itself which suffers. By a +curious association of ideas a physiological fact causes cosmic +troubles!"(539) Thus, for example, the Ba-Pedi believe that a woman who +has procured abortion can kill a man merely by lying with him; her victim +is poisoned, shrivels up, and dies within a week. As for the disastrous +effect which a miscarriage may have on the whole country I will quote the +words of a medicine-man and rain-maker of the Ba-Pedi tribe: "When a woman +has had a miscarriage, when she has allowed her blood to flow, and has +hidden the child, it is enough to cause the burning winds to blow and to +parch the country with heat. The rain no longer falls, for the country is +no longer in order. When the rain approaches the place where the blood is, +it will not dare to approach. It will fear and remain at a distance. That +woman has committed a great fault. She has spoiled the country of the +chief, for she has hidden blood which had not yet been well congealed to +fashion a man. That blood is taboo (_yila_). It should never drip on the +road! The chief will assemble his men and say to them, 'Are you in order +in your villages?' Some one will answer, 'Such and such a woman was +pregnant and we have not yet seen the child which she has given birth to.' +Then they go and arrest the woman. They say to her, 'Shew us where you +have hidden it.' They go and dig at the spot, they sprinkle the hole with +a decoction of _mbendoula_ and _nyangale_ (two sorts of roots) prepared in +a special pot. They take a little of the earth of this grave, they throw +it into the river, then they bring back water from the river and sprinkle +it where she shed her blood. She herself must wash every day with the +medicine. Then the country will be moistened again (by rain). Further, we +(medicine-men) summon the women of the country; we tell them to prepare a +ball of the earth which contains the blood. They bring it to us one +morning. If we wish to prepare medicine with which to sprinkle the whole +country, we crumble this earth to powder; at the end of five days we send +little boys and little girls, girls that yet know nothing of women's +affairs and have not yet had relations with men. We put the medicine in +the horns of oxen, and these children go to all the fords, to all the +entrances of the country. A little girl turns up the soil with her +mattock, the others dip a branch in the horn and sprinkle the inside of +the hole saying, 'Rain! rain!' So we remove the misfortune which the women +have brought on the roads; the rain will be able to come. The country is +purified!"(540) + +(M97) Similarly the Ba-Thonga, another Bantu tribe of South Africa in the +valley of the Limpopo river, attribute severe droughts to the concealment +of miscarriages by women, and they perform the following rites to remove +the pollution and procure rain. A small clearing is made in a thick and +thorny wood, and here a pot is buried in the ground so that its mouth is +flush with the surface. From the pot four channels run in the form of a +cross to the four cardinal points of the horizon. Then a black ox or a +black ram, without a speck of white on it, is killed and the pot is +stuffed with the half-digested grass found in the animal's stomach. Next, +little girls, still in the age of innocence, are sent to draw water, which +they pour into the pot till it overflows into the four channels. After +that the women assemble, strip off their clothes, and covering their +nakedness only with a scanty petticoat of grass they dance, leap, and +sing, "Rain, fall!" Then they go and dig up the remains of the prematurely +born infants and of twins buried in dry ground on a hill. These they +collect in one place. No man may approach the spot. The women would beat +any male who might be so indiscreet as to intrude on their privacy, and +they would put riddles to him which he would have to answer in the most +filthy language borrowed from the circumcision ceremonies; for obscene +words, which are usually forbidden, are customary and legitimate on these +occasions. The women pour water on the graves of the infants and of twins +in order to "extinguish" (_timula_) them, as the natives phrase it; which +seems to imply that the graves are thought to be the source of the +scorching heat which is blasting the country. At the fall of evening they +bury all the remains they have discovered, poking them away in the mud +near a stream. Then the rain will be free to fall.(541) In these +ceremonies the pouring of water into channels which run in the direction +of the four quarters of the heaven is clearly a charm based on the +principles of homoeopathic magic to procure rain. The supposed influence +of twins over the waters of heaven and the use of foul language at +rain-making ceremonies have been illustrated in another part of this +work.(542) + +(M98) Among the natives of the Nguon So'n valley in Annam, during the +first month after a woman has been delivered of a child, all the persons +of the house are supposed to be affected with an evil destiny or ill luck +called _phong long_. If a member of such a household enters another house, +the inmates never fail to say to him, "You bring me the _phong long_!" +Should a member of a family in which somebody is seriously ill have to +enter a house infected by the _phong long_, on returning home he always +fumigates himself with tea leaves or some other plant in order to rid +himself of the infection which he has contracted; for they fear that the +blood of the woman who has been brought to bed may harm the patient. All +the time a house is tainted with the _phong long_, a branch of cactus +(_Euphorbia antiquorum_) or pandanus is hung at the door. The same thing +is done to a house infected by small-pox: it is a danger signal to warn +people off. The _phong long_ only disappears when the woman has gone to +market for the first time after her delivery.(543) A trace of a similar +belief in the dangerous infection of childbirth may be seen in the rule of +ancient Greek religion, which forbade persons who had handled a corpse or +been in contact with a lying-in woman to enter a temple or approach an +altar for a certain time, sometimes for two days.(544) + +(M99) Restrictions and taboos like those laid on menstruous and lying-in +women are imposed by some savages on lads at the initiatory rites which +celebrate the attainment of puberty; hence we may infer that at such times +young men are supposed to be in a state like that of women at menstruation +and in childbed. Thus, among the Creek Indians a lad at initiation had to +abstain for twelve moons from picking his ears or scratching his head with +his fingers; he had to use a small stick for these purposes. For four +moons he must have a fire of his own to cook his food at; and a little +girl, a virgin, might cook for him. During the fifth moon any person might +cook for him, but he must serve himself first, and use one spoon and pan. +On the fifth day of the twelfth moon he gathered corn cobs, burned them to +ashes, and with the ashes rubbed his body all over. At the end of the +twelfth moon he sweated under blankets, and then bathed in water, which +ended the ceremony. While the ceremonies lasted, he might touch no one but +lads who were undergoing a like course of initiation.(545) Caffre boys at +circumcision live secluded in a special hut; they are smeared from head to +foot with white clay; they wear tall head-dresses with horn-like +projections and short skirts like those of ballet-dancers. When their +wounds are healed, all the vessels which they had used during their +seclusion and the boyish mantles which they had hitherto worn are burned, +together with the hut, and the boys rush away from the burning hut without +looking back, "lest a fearful curse should cling to them." After that they +are bathed, anointed, and clad in new garments.(546) + + + + +§ 4. Warriors tabooed. + + +(M100) Once more, warriors are conceived by the savage to move, so to say, +in an atmosphere of spiritual danger which constrains them to practise a +variety of superstitious observances quite different in their nature from +those rational precautions which, as a matter of course, they adopt +against foes of flesh and blood. The general effect of these observances +is to place the warrior, both before and after victory, in the same state +of seclusion or spiritual quarantine in which, for his own safety, +primitive man puts his human gods and other dangerous characters. Thus +when the Maoris went out on the war-path they were sacred or taboo in the +highest degree, and they and their friends at home had to observe strictly +many curious customs over and above the numerous taboos of ordinary life. +They became, in the irreverent language of Europeans who knew them in the +old fighting days, "tabooed an inch thick"; and as for the leader of the +expedition, he was quite unapproachable.(547) Similarly, when the +Israelites marched forth to war they were bound by certain rules of +ceremonial purity identical with rules observed by Maoris and Australian +blackfellows on the war-path. The vessels they used were sacred, and they +had to practise continence and a custom of personal cleanliness of which +the original motive, if we may judge from the avowed motive of savages who +conform to the same custom, was a fear lest the enemy should obtain the +refuse of their persons, and thus be enabled to work their destruction by +magic.(548) Among some Indian tribes of North America a young warrior in +his first campaign had to conform to certain customs, of which two were +identical with the observances imposed by the same Indians on girls at +their first menstruation: the vessels he ate and drank out of might be +touched by no other person, and he was forbidden to scratch his head or +any other part of his body with his fingers; if he could not help +scratching himself, he had to do it with a stick.(549) The latter rule, +like the one which forbids a tabooed person to feed himself with his own +fingers, seems to rest on the supposed sanctity or pollution, whichever we +choose to call it, of the tabooed hands.(550) Moreover among these Indian +tribes the men on the war-path had always to sleep at night with their +faces turned towards their own country; however uneasy the posture they +might not change it. They might not sit upon the bare ground, nor wet +their feet, nor walk on a beaten path if they could help it; when they had +no choice but to walk on a path, they sought to counteract the ill effect +of doing so by doctoring their legs with certain medicines or charms which +they carried with them for the purpose. No member of the party was +permitted to step over the legs, hands, or body of any other member who +chanced to be sitting or lying on the ground; and it was equally forbidden +to step over his blanket, gun, tomahawk, or anything that belonged to him. +If this rule was inadvertently broken, it became the duty of the member +whose person or property had been stepped over to knock the other member +down, and it was similarly the duty of that other to be knocked down +peaceably and without resistance. The vessels out of which the warriors +ate their food were commonly small bowls of wood or birch bark, with marks +to distinguish the two sides; in marching from home the Indians invariably +drank out of one side of the bowl, and in returning they drank out of the +other. When on their way home they came within a day's march of the +village, they hung up all their bowls on trees, or threw them away on the +prairie,(551) doubtless to prevent their sanctity or defilement from being +communicated with disastrous effects to their friends, just as we have +seen that the vessels and clothes of the sacred Mikado, of women at +childbirth and menstruation, of boys at circumcision, and of persons +defiled by contact with the dead are destroyed or laid aside for a similar +reason. The first four times that an Apache Indian goes out on the +war-path, he is bound to refrain from scratching his head with his fingers +and from letting water touch his lips. Hence he scratches his head with a +stick, and drinks through a hollow reed or cane. Stick and reed are +attached to the warrior's belt and to each other by a leathern thong.(552) +The rule not to scratch their heads with their fingers, but to use a stick +for the purpose instead, was regularly observed by Ojebways on the +war-path.(553) + +(M101) For three or four weeks before they went on a warlike expedition, +the Nootka Indians made it an invariable rule to go into the water five or +six times a day, when they washed and scrubbed themselves from head to +foot with bushes intermixed with briars, so that their bodies and faces +were often entirely covered with blood. During this severe exercise they +continually exclaimed, "Good or great God, let me live, not be sick, find +the enemy, not fear him, find him asleep, and kill a great many of them." +All this time they had no intercourse with their women, and for a week +before setting out abstained from feasting and every kind of merriment. +For the last three days they were almost constantly in the water, +scrubbing and lacerating themselves in a terrible manner. They believed +that this hardened their skin, so that the weapons of the enemy could not +pierce them.(554) Before they went out on the war-path the Arikaras and +the Big Belly Indians ("_Gros Ventres_") "observe a rigorous fast, or +rather abstain from every kind of food for four days. In this interval +their imagination is exalted to delirium; whether it be through bodily +weakness or the natural effect of the warlike plans they cherish, they +pretend to have strange visions. The elders and sages of the tribe, being +called upon to interpret these dreams, draw from them omens more or less +favourable to the success of the enterprise; and their explanations are +received as oracles by which the expedition will be faithfully regulated. +So long as the preparatory fast continues, the warriors make incisions in +their bodies, insert pieces of wood in the flesh, and having fastened +leather thongs to them cause themselves to be hung from a beam which is +fixed horizontally above an abyss a hundred and fifty feet deep. Often +indeed they cut off one or two fingers which they offer in sacrifice to +the Great Spirit in order that they may come back laden with scalps."(555) +It is hard to conceive any course of training which could more effectually +incapacitate men for the business of war than that which these foolish +Indians actually adopted. With regard to the Creek Indians and kindred +tribes we are told they "will not cohabit with women while they are out at +war; they religiously abstain from every kind of intercourse even with +their own wives, for the space of three days and nights before they go to +war, and so after they return home, because they are to sanctify +themselves."(556) And as a preparation for attacking the enemy they "go to +the aforesaid winter house, and there drink a warm decoction of their +supposed holy consecrated herbs and roots for three days and nights, +sometimes without any other refreshment. This is to induce the deity to +guard and prosper them, amidst their impending dangers. In the most +promising appearance of things, they are not to take the least nourishment +of food, nor so much as to sit down, during that time of sanctifying +themselves, till after sunset. While on their expedition, they are not +allowed to lean themselves against a tree, though they may be exceedingly +fatigued, after a sharp day's march; nor must they lie by, a whole day to +refresh themselves, or kill and barbicue deer and bear for their war +journey. The more virtuous they are, they reckon the greater will be their +success against the enemy, by the bountiful smiles of the deity. To gain +that favourite point, some of the aged warriors narrowly watch the young +men who are newly initiated, lest they should prove irreligious, and +prophane the holy fast, and bring misfortunes on the out-standing camp. A +gentleman of my acquaintance, in his youthful days observed one of their +religious fasts, but under the greatest suspicion of his virtue in this +respect, though he had often headed them against the common enemy: during +their three days' purification, he was not allowed to go out of the +sanctified ground, without a trusty guard, lest hunger should have tempted +him to violate their old martial law, and by that means have raised the +burning wrath of the holy fire against the whole camp." "Every war captain +chuses a noted warrior, to attend on him and the company. He is called +_Etissu_, or 'the waiter.' Everything they eat or drink during their +journey, he gives them out of his hand, by a rigid abstemious rule,--though +each carries on his back all his travelling conveniencies, wrapt in a deer +skin, yet they are so bigoted in their religious customs in war that none, +though prompted by sharp hunger or burning thirst, dares relieve himself. +They are contented with such trifling allowance as the religious waiter +distributes to them, even with a scanty hand. Such a regimen would be too +mortifying to any of the white people, let their opinion of its violation +be ever so dangerous. When I roved the woods in a war party with the +Indians, though I carried no scrip, nor bottle, nor staff, I kept a large +hollow cane well corked at each end, and used to sheer off now and then to +drink, while they suffered greatly by thirst. The constancy of the savages +in mortifying their bodies, to gain the divine favour, is astonishing, +from the very time they beat to arms, till they return from their +campaign. All the while they are out, they are prohibited by ancient +custom, the leaning against a tree, either sitting or standing; nor are +they allowed to sit in the day-time, under the shade of trees, if it can +be avoided; nor on the ground, during the whole journey, but on such +rocks, stones, or fallen wood, as their ark of war rests upon. By the +attention they invariably pay to those severe rules of living, they weaken +themselves much more than by the unavoidable fatigues of war; but it is +fruitless to endeavour to dissuade them from those things which they have +by tradition, as the appointed means to move the deity, to grant them +success against the enemy, and a safe return home."(557) "An Indian, +intending to go to war, will commence by blacking his face, permitting his +hair to grow long, and neglecting his personal appearance, and also will +frequently fast, sometimes for two or three days together, and refrain +from all intercourse with the other sex. If his dreams are favorable, he +thinks that the Great Spirit will give him success."(558) Among the +Ba-Pedi and Ba-Thonga tribes of south Africa not only have the warriors to +abstain from women, but the people left behind in the villages are also +bound to continence; they think that any incontinence on their part would +cause thorns to grow on the ground traversed by the warriors, and that +success would not attend the expedition.(559) + +(M102) When we observe what pains these misguided savages took to unfit +themselves for the business of war by abstaining from food, denying +themselves rest, and lacerating their bodies, we shall probably not be +disposed to attribute their practice of continence in war to a rational +fear of dissipating their bodily energies by indulgence in the lusts of +the flesh. On the contrary, we can scarcely doubt that the motive which +impelled them to observe chastity on a campaign was just as frivolous as +the motive which led them simultaneously to fritter away their strength by +severe fasts, gratuitous fatigue, and voluntary wounds at the very moment +when prudence called most loudly for a precisely opposite regimen. Why +exactly so many savages have made it a rule to refrain from women in time +of war,(560) we cannot say for certain, but we may conjecture that their +motive was a superstitious fear lest, on the principles of sympathetic +magic, close contact with women should infect them with feminine weakness +and cowardice. Similarly some savages imagine that contact with a woman in +childbed enervates warriors and enfeebles their weapons.(561) Indeed the +Kayans of central Borneo go so far as to hold that to touch a loom or +women's clothes would so weaken a man that he would have no success in +hunting, fishing, and war.(562) Hence it is not merely sexual intercourse +with women that the savage warrior sometimes shuns; he is careful to avoid +the sex altogether. Thus among the hill tribes of Assam, not only are men +forbidden to cohabit with their wives during or after a raid, but they may +not eat food cooked by a woman; nay they should not address a word even to +their own wives. Once a woman, who unwittingly broke the rule by speaking +to her husband while he was under the war taboo, sickened and died when +she learned the awful crime she had committed.(563) + + + + +§ 5. Manslayers tabooed. + + +(M103) If the reader still doubts whether the rules of conduct which we +have just been considering are based on superstitious fears or dictated by +a rational prudence, his doubts will probably be dissipated when he learns +that rules of the same sort are often imposed even more stringently on +warriors after the victory has been won and when all fear of the living +corporeal foe is at an end. In such cases one motive for the inconvenient +restrictions laid on the victors in their hour of triumph is probably a +dread of the angry ghosts of the slain; and that the fear of the vengeful +ghosts does influence the behaviour of the slayers is often expressly +affirmed. The general effect of the taboos laid on sacred chiefs, +mourners, women at childbirth, men on the war-path, and so on, is to +seclude or isolate the tabooed persons from ordinary society, this effect +being attained by a variety of rules, which oblige the men or women to +live in separate huts or in the open air, to shun the commerce of the +sexes, to avoid the use of vessels employed by others, and so forth. Now +the same effect is produced by similar means in the case of victorious +warriors, particularly such as have actually shed the blood of their +enemies. In the island of Timor, when a warlike expedition has returned in +triumph bringing the heads of the vanquished foe, the leader of the +expedition is forbidden by religion and custom to return at once to his +own house. A special hut is prepared for him, in which he has to reside +for two months, undergoing bodily and spiritual purification. During this +time he may not go to his wife nor feed himself; the food must be put into +his mouth by another person.(564) That these observances are dictated by +fear of the ghosts of the slain seems certain; for from another account of +the ceremonies performed on the return of a successful head-hunter in the +same island we learn that sacrifices are offered on this occasion to +appease the soul of the man whose head has been taken; the people think +that some misfortune would befall the victor were such offerings omitted. +Moreover, a part of the ceremony consists of a dance accompanied by a +song, in which the death of the slain man is lamented and his forgiveness +is entreated. "Be not angry," they say, "because your head is here with +us; had we been less lucky, our heads might now have been exposed in your +village. We have offered the sacrifice to appease you. Your spirit may now +rest and leave us at peace. Why were you our enemy? Would it not have been +better that we should remain friends? Then your blood would not have been +spilt and your head would not have been cut off."(565) The people of +Paloo, in central Celebes, take the heads of their enemies in war and +afterwards propitiate the souls of the slain in the temple.(566) In some +Dyak tribes men on returning from an expedition in which they have taken +human heads are obliged to keep by themselves and abstain from a variety +of things for several days; they may not touch iron nor eat salt or fish +with bones, and they may have no intercourse with women.(567) + +(M104) In Logea, an island off the south-eastern extremity of New Guinea, +men who have killed or assisted in killing enemies shut themselves up for +about a week in their houses. They must avoid all intercourse with their +wives and friends, and they may not touch food with their hands. They may +eat vegetable food only, which is brought to them cooked in special pots. +The intention of these restrictions is to guard the men against the smell +of the blood of the slain; for it is believed that if they smelt the +blood, they would fall ill and die.(568) In the Toaripi or Motumotu tribe +of south-eastern New Guinea a man who has killed another may not go near +his wife, and may not touch food with his fingers. He is fed by others, +and only with certain kinds of food. These observances last till the new +moon.(569) Among the tribes at the mouth of the Wanigela River, in New +Guinea, "a man who has taken life is considered to be impure until he has +undergone certain ceremonies: as soon as possible after the deed he +cleanses himself and his weapon. This satisfactorily accomplished, he +repairs to his village and seats himself on the logs of sacrificial +staging. No one approaches him or takes any notice whatever of him. A +house is prepared for him which is put in charge of two or three small +boys as servants. He may eat only toasted bananas, and only the centre +portion of them--the ends being thrown away. On the third day of his +seclusion a small feast is prepared by his friends, who also fashion some +new perineal bands for him. This is called _ivi poro_. The next day the +man dons all his best ornaments and badges for taking life, and sallies +forth fully armed and parades the village. The next day a hunt is +organised, and a kangaroo selected from the game captured. It is cut open +and the spleen and liver rubbed over the back of the man. He then walks +solemnly down to the nearest water, and standing straddle-legs in it +washes himself. All the young untried warriors swim between his legs. This +is supposed to impart courage and strength to them. The following day, at +early dawn, he dashes out of his house, fully armed, and calls aloud the +name of his victim. Having satisfied himself that he has thoroughly scared +the ghost of the dead man, he returns to his house. The beating of +flooring-boards and the lighting of fires is also a certain method of +scaring the ghost. A day later his purification is finished. He can then +enter his wife's house."(570) Among the Roro-speaking tribes of British +New Guinea homicides were secluded in the warriors' clubhouse. They had to +pass the night in the building, but during the day they might paint and +decorate themselves and dance in front of it. For some time they might not +eat much food nor touch it with their hands, but were obliged to pick it +up on a bone fork, the heft of which was wrapped in a banana leaf. After a +while they bathed in the sea and thence forward for a period of about a +month, though they had still to sleep in the warriors' clubhouse, they +were free to eat as much food as they pleased and to pick it up with their +bare hands. Finally, those warriors who had never killed a man before +assumed a beautiful ornament made of fretted turtle shell, which none but +homicides were allowed to flaunt in their head-dresses. Then came a dance, +and that same night the men who wore the honourable badge of homicide for +the first time were chased about the village; embers were thrown at them +and firebrands waved in order, apparently, to drive away the souls of the +dead enemies, who seem to be conceived as immanent in some way in the +headgear of their slayers.(571) Again, among the Koita of British New +Guinea, when a man had killed another, whether the victim were male or +female, he did not wash the blood off the spear or club, but carefully +allowed it to dry on the weapon. On his way home he bathed in fresh or +salt water, and on reaching his village went straight to his own house, +where he remained in seclusion for about a week. He was taboo (_aina_): he +might not approach women, and he lifted his food to his mouth with a bone +fork. His women-folk were not obliged to leave the house, but they might +not come near him. At the end of a week he built a rough shelter in the +forest, where he lived for a few days. During this time he made a new +waist-band, which he wore on his return to the village. A man who has +slain another is supposed to grow thin and emaciated, because he had been +splashed with the blood of his victim, and as the corpse rotted he wasted +away.(572) Among the Southern Massim of British New Guinea a warrior who +has taken a prisoner or slain a man remains secluded in his house for six +days. During the first three days he may eat only roasted food and must +cook it for himself. Then he bathes and blackens his face for the +remaining three days.(573) + +(M105) Among the Monumbos of German New Guinea any one who has slain a foe +in war becomes thereby "unclean" (_bolobolo_), and they apply the same +term "unclean" to menstruous and lying-in women and also to everything +that has come into contact with a corpse, which shews that all these +classes of persons and things are closely associated in their minds. The +"unclean" man who has killed an enemy in battle must remain a long time in +the men's clubhouse, while the villagers gather round him and celebrate +his victory with dance and song. He may touch nobody, not even his own +wife and children; if he were to touch them it is believed that they would +be covered with sores. He becomes clean again by washing and using other +modes of purification.(574) In Windessi, Dutch New Guinea, when a party of +head-hunters has been successful, and they are nearing home, they announce +their approach and success by blowing on triton shells. Their canoes are +also decked with branches. The faces of the men who have taken a head are +blackened with charcoal. If several have taken part in killing the same +victim, his head is divided among them. They always time their arrival so +as to reach home in the early morning. They come rowing to the village +with a great noise, and the women stand ready to dance in the verandahs of +the houses. The canoes row past the _room sram_ or house where the young +men live; and as they pass, the murderers throw as many pointed sticks or +bamboos at the wall or the roof as there were enemies killed. The day is +spent very quietly. Now and then they drum or blow on the conch; at other +times they beat the walls of the houses with loud shouts to drive away the +ghosts of the slain.(575) Similarly in the Doreh district of Dutch New +Guinea, if a murder has taken place in the village, the inhabitants +assemble for several evenings in succession and utter frightful yells to +drive away the ghost of the victim in case he should be minded to hang +about the village.(576) So the Yabim of German New Guinea believe that the +spirit of a murdered man pursues his murderer and seeks to do him a +mischief. Hence they drive away the spirit with shouts and the beating of +drums.(577) When the Fijians had buried a man alive, as they often did, +they used at nightfall to make a great uproar by means of bamboos, +trumpet-shells, and so forth, for the purpose of frightening away his +ghost, lest he should attempt to return to his old home. And to render his +house unattractive to him they dismantled it and clothed it with +everything that to their ideas seemed most repulsive.(578) On the evening +of the day on which they had tortured a prisoner to death, the American +Indians were wont to run through the village with hideous yells, beating +with sticks on the furniture, the walls, and the roofs of the huts to +prevent the angry ghost of their victim from settling there and taking +vengeance for the torments that his body had endured at their hands.(579) +"Once," says a traveller, "on approaching in the night a village of +Ottawas, I found all the inhabitants in confusion: they were all busily +engaged in raising noises of the loudest and most inharmonious kind. Upon +inquiry, I found that a battle had been lately fought between the Ottawas +and the Kickapoos, and that the object of all this noise was to prevent +the ghosts of the departed combatants from entering the village."(580) + +(M106) The executioner at Porto Novo, on the coast of Guinea, used to +decorate his walls with the jawbones of the persons on whom he had +operated in the course of business. But for this simple precaution their +ghosts would unquestionably have come at night to knock with sobs and +groans, in an insufferable manner, at the door of the room where he slept +the sleep of the just.(581) The temper of a man who has just been executed +is naturally somewhat short, and in a burst of vexation his ghost is apt +to fall foul of the first person he comes across, without discriminating +between the objects of his wrath with that nicety of judgment which in +calmer moments he may be expected to display. Hence in China it is, or +used to be, customary for the spectators of an execution to shew a clean +pair of heels to the ghosts as soon as the last head was off.(582) The +same fear of the spirits of his victims leads the executioner sometimes to +live in seclusion for some time after he has discharged his office. Thus +an old writer, speaking of Issini on the Gold Coast of West Africa, tells +us that the "executioners, being reckoned impure for three days, they +build them a separate hut at a distance from the village. Meantime these +fellows run like madmen through the place, seizing all they can lay hands +on; poultry, sheep, bread, and oil; everything they can touch is theirs; +being deemed so polluted that the owners willingly give it up. They +continue three days confined to their hut, their friends bringing them +victuals. This time expired, they take their hut in pieces, which they +bundle up, not leaving so much as the ashes of their fire. The first +executioner, having a pot on his head, leads them to the place where the +criminal suffered. There they all call him thrice by his name. The first +executioner breaks his pot, and leaving their old rags and bundles they +all scamper home."(583) Here the thrice-repeated invocation of the victim +by name gives the clue to the rest of the observances; all of them are +probably intended to ward off the angry ghost of the slain man or to give +him the slip. + +(M107) Among the Basutos "ablution is specially performed on return from +battle. It is absolutely necessary that the warriors should rid +themselves, as soon as possible, of the blood they have shed, or the +shades of their victims would pursue them incessantly, and disturb their +slumbers. They go in a procession, and in full armour, to the nearest +stream. At the moment they enter the water a diviner, placed higher up, +throws some purifying substances into the current. This is, however, not +strictly necessary. The javelins and battle-axes also undergo the process +of washing."(584) According to another account of the Basuto custom, +"warriors who have killed an enemy are purified. The chief has to wash +them, sacrificing an ox in presence of the whole army. They are also +anointed with the gall of the animal, which prevents the ghost of the +enemy from pursuing them any further."(585) Among the Bechuanas a man who +has killed another, whether in war or in single combat, is not allowed to +enter the village until he has been purified. The ceremony takes place in +the evening. An ox is slaughtered, and a hole having been made through the +middle of the carcase with a spear, the manslayer has to force himself +through the animal, while two men hold its stomach open.(586) Sometimes +instead of being obliged to squeeze through the carcase of an ox the +manslayer is merely smeared with the contents of its stomach. The ceremony +has been described as follows: "In the purification of warriors, too, the +ox takes a conspicuous part. The warrior who has slain a man in the battle +is unclean, and must on no account enter his own courtyard, for it would +be a serious thing if even his shadow were to fall upon his children. He +studiously keeps himself apart from the civil life of the town until he is +purified. The purification ceremony is significant. Having bathed himself +in running water, or, if that is not convenient, in water that has been +appropriately medicated, he is smeared by the doctor with the contents of +the stomach of an ox, into which certain powdered roots have been already +mixed, and then the doctor strikes him on the back, sides, and belly with +the large bowel of an ox.... A doctor takes a piece of roasted beef and +cuts it into small lumps of about the size of a walnut, laying them +carefully on a large wooden trencher. He has already prepared charcoal, by +roasting the root of certain trees in an old cracked pot, and this he +grinds down and sprinkles on the lumps of meat on the trencher. Then the +army surrounds the trencher, and every one who has slain a foe in the +battle steps forth, kneels down before the trencher, and takes out a piece +of meat with his mouth, taking care not to touch it or the trencher with +his hands. As he takes the meat, the doctor gives him a smart cut with a +switch. And when he has eaten that lump of meat his purification is +complete. This ceremony is called _Go alafsha dintee_, or 'the +purification of the strikers.' " The writer to whom we owe this +description adds: "This taking of meat from the trencher without using the +hands is evidently a matter of ritual."(587) The observation is correct. +Here as in so many cases persons ceremonially unclean are forbidden to +touch food with defiled hands until their uncleanness has been purged +away. The same taboo is laid on the manslayer by the Bageshu of British +East Africa. Among them a man who has killed another may not return to his +own house on the same day, though he may enter the village and spend the +night in a friend's house. He kills a sheep and smears his chest, his +right arm, and his head with the contents of the animal's stomach. His +children are brought to him and he smears them in like manner. Then he +smears each side of the doorway with the tripe and entrails, and finally +throws the rest of the stomach on the roof of his house. For a whole day +he may not touch food with his hands, but picks it up with two sticks and +so conveys it to his mouth. His wife is not under any such restrictions. +She may even go to mourn for the man whom her husband has killed, if she +wishes to do so.(588) In some Bechuana tribes the victorious warrior is +obliged to eat a piece of the skin of the man he killed; the skin is taken +from about the navel of his victim, and without it he may not enter the +cattle pen. Moreover, the medicine-man makes a gash with a spear in the +warrior's thigh for every man he has killed.(589) Among the Angoni, a Zulu +tribe settled to the north of the Zambesi, warriors who have slain foes on +an expedition smear their bodies and faces with ashes, hang garments of +their victims on their persons, and tie bark ropes round their necks, so +that the ends hang down over their shoulders or breasts. This costume they +wear for three days after their return, and rising at break of day they +run through the village uttering frightful yells to drive away the ghosts +of the slain, which, if they were not thus banished from the houses, might +bring sickness and misfortune on the inmates.(590) In some Caffre tribes +of South Africa men who have been wounded or killed an enemy in fight may +not see the king nor drink milk till they have been purified. An ox is +killed, and its gall, intestines, and other parts are boiled with roots. +Of this decoction the men have to take three gulps, and the rest is +sprinkled on their bodies. The wounded man has then to take a stick, spit +on it thrice, point it thrice at the enemy, and then throw it in his +direction. After that he takes an emetic and is declared clean.(591) + +(M108) In some of these accounts nothing is said of an enforced seclusion, +at least after the ceremonial cleansing, but some South African tribes +certainly require the slayer of a very gallant foe in war to keep apart +from his wife and family for ten days after he has washed his body in +running water. He also receives from the tribal doctor a medicine which he +chews with his food.(592) When a Nandi of British East Africa has killed a +member of another tribe, he paints one side of his body, spear, and sword +red, and the other side white. For four days after the slaughter he is +considered unclean and may not go home. He has to build a small shelter by +a river and live there; he may not associate with his wife or sweetheart, +and he may eat nothing but porridge, beef, and goat's flesh. At the end of +the fourth day he must purify himself by taking a strong purge made from +the bark of the _segetet_ tree and by drinking goat's milk mixed with +blood.(593) Among the Akikuya of British East Africa all who have shed +human blood must be purified. The elders assemble and one of them cuts a +strip of hair from above both ears of each manslayer. After that the +warriors rub themselves with the dung taken from the stomach of a sheep +which has been slaughtered for the occasion. Finally their bodies are +cleansed with water. All the hair remaining on their heads is subsequently +shaved off by their wives. For a month after the shedding of blood they +may have no contact with women.(594) On the contrary, when a Ketosh +warrior of British East Africa, who has killed a foe in battle, returns +home "it is considered essential that he should have connection with his +wife as soon as convenient; this is believed to prevent the spirit of his +dead enemy from haunting and bewitching him."(595) An Angoni who has +killed a man in battle is obliged to perform certain purificatory +ceremonies before he may return to ordinary life. Amongst other things, he +must be sure to make an incision in the corpse of his slain foe, in order +to let the gases escape and so prevent the body from swelling. If he fails +to do so, his own body will swell in proportion as the corpse becomes +inflated.(596) Among the Ovambos of southern Africa, when the warriors +return to their villages, those who have killed an enemy pass the first +night in the open fields, and may not enter their houses until they have +been cleansed of the guilt of blood by an older man, who smears them for +this purpose with a kind of porridge.(597) Herero warriors on their return +from battle may not approach the sacred hearth until they have been +purified from the guilt of bloodshed. They crouch in a circle round the +hearth, but at some distance from it, while the chief besprinkles their +brows and temples with water in which branches of a holy bush have been +placed.(598) Again, ancient Herero custom requires that he who has killed +a man or a lion should have blood drawn from his breast and upper arm so +as to trickle on the ground: a special name (_outoni_) is given to the +cuts thus made; they must be made with a flint, not with an iron +tool.(599) Among the Bantu tribes of Kavirondo, in eastern Africa, when a +man has killed an enemy in warfare he shaves his head on his return home, +and his friends rub a medicine, which generally consists of goat's dung, +over his body to prevent the spirit of the slain man from troubling +him.(600) Exactly the same custom is practised for the same reason by the +Wageia of German East Africa.(601) With the Ja-Luo of Kavirondo the custom +is somewhat different. Three days after his return from the fight the +warrior shaves his head. But before he may enter his village he has to +hang a live fowl, head uppermost, round his neck; then the bird is +decapitated and its head left hanging round his neck. Soon after his +return a feast is made for the slain man, in order that his ghost may not +haunt his slayer.(602) After the slaughter of the Midianites the +Israelitish warriors were obliged to remain outside the camp for seven +days: whoever had killed a man or touched the slain had to purify himself +and his captive. The spoil taken from the enemy had also to be purified, +according to its nature, either by fire or water.(603) Similarly among the +Basutos cattle taken from the enemy are fumigated with bundles of lighted +branches before they are allowed to mingle with the herds of the +tribe.(604) + +(M109) The Arunta of central Australia believe that when a party of men +has been out against the enemy and taken a life, the spirit of the slain +man follows the party on its return and is constantly on the watch to do a +mischief to those of the band who actually shed the blood. It takes the +form of a little bird called the _chichurkna_, and may be heard crying +like a child in the distance as it flies. If any of the slayers should +fail to hear its cry, he would become paralysed in his right arm and +shoulder. At night-time especially, when the bird is flying over the camp, +the slayers have to lie awake and keep the right arm and shoulder +carefully hidden, lest the bird should look down upon and harm them. When +once they have heard its cry their minds are at ease, because the spirit +of the dead then recognises that he has been detected, and can therefore +do no mischief. On their return to their friends, as soon as they come in +sight of the main camp, they begin to perform an excited war-dance, +approaching in the form of a square and moving their shields as if to ward +off something which was being thrown at them. This action is intended to +repel the angry spirit of the dead man, who is striving to attack them. +Next the men who did the deed of blood separate themselves from the +others, and forming a line, with spears at rest and shields held out in +front, stand silent and motionless like statues. A number of old women now +approach with a sort of exulting skip and strike the shields of the +manslayers with fighting-clubs till they ring again. They are followed by +men who smite the shields with boomerangs. This striking of the shields is +supposed to be a very effective way of frightening away the spirit of the +dead man. The natives listen anxiously to the sounds emitted by the +shields when they are struck; for if any man's shield gives forth a hollow +sound under the blow, that man will not live long, but if it rings sharp +and clear, he is safe. For some days after their return the slayers will +not speak of what they have done, and continue to paint themselves all +over with powdered charcoal, and to decorate their foreheads and noses +with green twigs. Finally, they paint their bodies and faces with bright +colours, and become free to talk about the affair; but still of nights +they must lie awake listening for the plaintive cry of the bird in which +they fancy they hear the voice of their victim.(605) + +(M110) In the Washington group of the Marquesas Islands, the man who has +slain an enemy in battle becomes tabooed for ten days, during which he may +hold no intercourse with his wife, and may not meddle with fire. Hence +another has to make fire and to cook for him. Nevertheless he is treated +with marked distinction and receives presents of pigs.(606) In Fiji any +one who had clubbed a human being to death in war was consecrated or +tabooed. He was smeared red by the king with turmeric from the roots of +his hair to his heels. A hut was built, and in it he had to pass the next +three nights, during which he might not lie down, but must sleep as he +sat. Till the three nights had elapsed he might not change his garment, +nor remove the turmeric, nor enter a house in which there was a +woman.(607) In the Pelew Islands, when the men return from a warlike +expedition in which they have taken a life, the young warriors who have +been out fighting for the first time, and all who handled the slain, are +shut up in the large council-house and become tabooed. They may not quit +the edifice, nor bathe, nor touch a woman, nor eat fish; their food is +limited to coco-nuts and syrup. They rub themselves with charmed leaves +and chew charmed betel. After three days they go together to bathe as near +as possible to the spot where the man was killed.(608) + +(M111) When the Tupi Indians of Brazil had made a prisoner in war, they +used to bring him home amid great rejoicings, decked with the gorgeous +plumage of tropical birds. In the village he was well treated: he received +a house and furniture and was married to a wife. When he was thus +comfortably installed, the relations and friends of his captor, who had +the first pick, came and examined him and decided which of his limbs and +joints they proposed to eat; and according to their choice they were bound +to provide him with victuals. Thus he might live for months or years, +treated like a king, supplied with all the delicacies of the country, and +rearing a family of children who, when they were big, might or might not +be eaten with their father. While he was thus being fattened like a capon +for the slaughter, he wore a necklace of fruit or of fish-bones strung on +a cotton thread. This was the measure of his life. For every fruit or +every bone on the string he had a month to live; and as each moon waned +and vanished they took a fruit or a bone from the necklace. When only one +remained, they sent out invitations to friends and neighbours far and +near, who flocked in, sometimes to the number of ten or twelve thousand, +to witness the spectacle and partake of the feast; for often a number of +prisoners were to die the same day, father, mother, and children all +together. As a rule they shewed a remarkable stolidity and indifference to +death. The club with which they were to be despatched was elaborately +prepared by the women, who adorned it with tassels of feathers, smeared it +with the pounded shells of a macaw's eggs, and traced lines on the +egg-shell powder. Then they hung it to a pole, above the ground, in an +empty hut, and sang around it all night. The executioner, who was painted +grey with ashes and his whole body covered with the beautiful feathers of +parrots and other birds of gay plumage, performed his office by striking +the victim on the head from behind and dashing out his brains. No sooner +had he despatched the prisoner than he retired to his house, where he had +to stay all that day without eating or drinking, while the rest of the +people feasted on the body of the victim or victims. And for three days he +was obliged to fast and remain in seclusion. All this time he lay in his +hammock and might not set foot on the ground; if he had to go anywhere, he +was carried by bearers. They thought that, were he to break this rule, +some disaster would befall him or he would die. Meantime he was given a +small bow and passed his time in shooting arrows into wax. This he did in +order to keep his hand and aim steady. In some of the tribes they rubbed +the pulse of the executioner with one of the eyes of his victim, and hung +the mouth of the murdered man like a bracelet on his arm. Afterwards he +made incisions in his breast, arms, and legs, and other parts of his body +with a saw made of the teeth of an animal. An ointment and a black powder +were then rubbed into the wounds, which left ineffaceable scars so +artistically arranged that they presented the appearance of a +tightly-fitting garment. It was believed that he would die if he did not +thus draw blood from his own body after slaughtering the captive.(609) We +may conjecture that the original intention of these customs was to guard +the executioner against the angry and dangerous ghosts of his victims. + +(M112) Among the Natchez of North America young braves who had taken their +first scalps were obliged to observe certain rules of abstinence for six +months. They might not sleep with their wives nor eat flesh; their only +food was fish and hasty-pudding. If they broke these rules, they believed +that the soul of the man they had killed would work their death by magic, +that they would gain no more successes over the enemy, and that the least +wound inflicted on them would prove mortal.(610) When a Choctaw had killed +an enemy and taken his scalp, he went into mourning for a month, during +which he might not comb his hair, and if his head itched he might not +scratch it except with a little stick which he wore fastened to his wrist +for the purpose.(611) This ceremonial mourning for the enemies they had +slain was not uncommon among the North American Indians. Thus the Dacotas, +when they had killed a foe, unbraided their hair, blackened themselves all +over, and wore a small knot of swan's down on the top of the head. "They +dress as mourners yet rejoice."(612) A Thompson River Indian of British +Columbia, who had slain an enemy, used to blacken his own face, lest his +victim's ghost should blind him.(613) When the Osages have mourned over +their own dead, "they will mourn for the foe just as if he was a +friend."(614) From observing the great respect paid by the Indians to the +scalps they had taken, and listening to the mournful songs which they +howled to the shades of their victims, Catlin was convinced that "they +have a superstitious dread of the spirits of their slain enemies, and many +conciliatory offices to perform, to ensure their own peace."(615) When a +Pima Indian has killed an Apache, he must undergo purification. Sixteen +days he fasts, and only after the fourth day is he allowed to drink a +little pinole. During the whole time he may not touch meat nor salt, nor +look on a blazing fire, nor speak to a human being. He lives alone in the +woods, waited on by an old woman, who brings him his scanty dole of food. +He bathes often in a river, and keeps his head covered almost the whole +time with a plaster of mud. On the seventeenth day a large space is +cleared near the village and a fire lit in the middle of it. The men of +the tribe form a circle round the fire, and outside of it sit all the +warriors who have just been purified, each in a small excavation. Some of +the old men then take the weapons of the purified and dance with them in +the circle, after which both the slayer and his weapon are considered +clean; but not until four days later is the man allowed to return to his +family.(616) No doubt the peace enforced by the government of the United +States has, along with tribal warfare, abolished also these quaint +customs. A fuller account of them has been given by a recent writer, and +it deserves to be quoted at length. "There was no law among the Pimas," he +says, "observed with greater strictness than that which required +purification and expiation for the deed that was at the same time the most +lauded--the killing of an enemy. For sixteen days the warrior fasted in +seclusion and observed meanwhile a number of tabus.... Attended by an old +man, the warrior who had to expiate the crime of blood guilt retired to +the groves along the river bottom at some distance from the villages or +wandered about the adjoining hills. During the period of sixteen days he +was not allowed to touch his head with his fingers or his hair would turn +white. If he touched his face it would become wrinkled. He kept a stick to +scratch his head with, and at the end of every four days this stick was +buried at the root and on the west side of a cat's claw tree and a new +stick was made of greasewood, arrow bush, or any other convenient shrub. +He then bathed in the river, no matter how cold the temperature. The feast +of victory which his friends were observing in the meantime at the village +lasted eight days. At the end of that time, or when his period of +retirement was half-completed, the warrior might go to his home to get a +fetish made from the hair of the Apache whom he had killed. The hair was +wrapped in eagle down and tied with a cotton string and kept in a long +medicine basket. He drank no water for the first two days and fasted for +the first four. After that time he was supplied with pinole by his +attendant, who also instructed him as to his future conduct, telling him +that he must henceforth stand back until all others were served when +partaking of food and drink. If he was a married man his wife was not +allowed to eat salt during his retirement, else she would suffer from the +owl disease which causes stiff limbs. The explanation offered for the +observance of this law of lustration is that if it is not obeyed the +warrior's limbs will become stiffened or paralyzed."(617) The Apaches, the +enemies of the Pimas, purify themselves for the slaughter of their foes by +means of baths in the sweat-house, singing, and other rites. These +ceremonies they perform for all the dead simultaneously after their return +home; but the Pimas, more punctilious on this point, resort to their +elaborate ceremonies of purification the moment a single one of their own +band or of the enemy has been laid low.(618) How heavily these religious +scruples must have told against the Pimas in their wars with their +ferocious enemies is obvious enough. "This long period of retirement +immediately after a battle," says an American writer, "greatly diminished +the value of the Pimas as scouts and allies for the United States troops +operating against the Apaches. The bravery of the Pimas was praised by all +army officers having any experience with them, but Captain Bourke and +others have complained of their unreliability, due solely to their rigid +observance of this religious law."(619) In nothing, perhaps, is the +penalty which superstition sooner or later entails on its devotees more +prompt and crushing than in the operations of war. + +(M113) Far away from the torrid home of the Pima and Apaches, an old +traveller witnessed ceremonies of the same sort practised near the Arctic +Circle by some Indians who had surprised and brutally massacred an +unoffending and helpless party of Esquimaux. His description is so +interesting that I will quote it in full. "Among the various superstitious +customs of those people, it is worth remarking, and ought to have been +mentioned in its proper place, that immediately after my companions had +killed the Esquimaux at the Copper River, they considered themselves in a +state of uncleanness, which induced them to practise some very curious and +unusual ceremonies. In the first place, all who were absolutely concerned +in the murder were prohibited from cooking any kind of victuals, either +for themselves or others. As luckily there were two in company who had not +shed blood, they were employed always as cooks till we joined the women. +This circumstance was exceedingly favourable on my side; for had there +been no persons of the above description in company, that task, I was +told, would have fallen on me; which would have been no less fatiguing and +troublesome, than humiliating and vexatious. When the victuals were +cooked, all the murderers took a kind of red earth, or oker, and painted +all the space between the nose and chin, as well as the greater part of +their cheeks, almost to the ears, before they would taste a bit, and would +not drink out of any other dish, or smoke out of any other pipe, but their +own; and none of the others seemed willing to drink or smoke out of +theirs. We had no sooner joined the women, at our return from the +expedition, than there seemed to be an universal spirit of emulation among +them, vying who should first make a suit of ornaments for their husbands, +which consisted of bracelets for the wrists, and a band for the forehead, +composed of porcupine quills and moose-hair, curiously wrought on leather. +The custom of painting the mouth and part of the cheeks before each meal, +and drinking and smoking out of their own utensils, was strictly and +invariably observed, till the winter began to set in; and during the whole +of that time they would never kiss any of their wives or children. They +refrained also from eating many parts of the deer and other animals, +particularly the head, entrails, and blood; and during their uncleanness, +their victuals were never sodden in water, but dried in the sun, eaten +quite raw, or broiled, when a fire fit for the purpose could be procured. +When the time arrived that was to put an end to these ceremonies, the men, +without a female being present, made a fire at some distance from the +tents, into which they threw all their ornaments, pipe-stems, and dishes, +which were soon consumed to ashes; after which a feast was prepared, +consisting of such articles as they had long been prohibited from eating; +and when all was over, each man was at liberty to eat, drink, and smoke as +he pleased; and also to kiss his wives and children at discretion, which +they seemed to do with more raptures than I had ever known them do it +either before or since."(620) + +(M114) Thus we see that warriors who have taken the life of a foe in +battle are temporarily cut off from free intercourse with their fellows, +and especially with their wives, and must undergo certain rites of +purification before they are readmitted to society. Now if the purpose of +their seclusion and of the expiatory rites which they have to perform is, +as we have been led to believe, no other than to shake off, frighten, or +appease the angry spirit of the slain man, we may safely conjecture that +the similar purification of homicides and murderers, who have imbrued +their hands in the blood of a fellow-tribesman, had at first the same +significance, and that the idea of a moral or spiritual regeneration +symbolised by the washing, the fasting, and so on, was merely a later +interpretation put upon the old custom by men who had outgrown the +primitive modes of thought in which the custom originated. The conjecture +will be confirmed if we can shew that savages have actually imposed +certain restrictions on the murderer of a fellow-tribesman from a definite +fear that he is haunted by the ghost of his victim. This we can do with +regard to the Omahas, a tribe of the Siouan stock in North America. Among +these Indians the kinsmen of a murdered man had the right to put the +murderer to death, but sometimes they waived their right in consideration +of presents which they consented to accept. When the life of the murderer +was spared, he had to observe certain stringent rules for a period which +varied from two to four years. He must walk barefoot, and he might eat no +warm food, nor raise his voice, nor look around. He was compelled to pull +his robe about him and to have it tied at the neck even in hot weather; he +might not let it hang loose or fly open. He might not move his hands +about, but had to keep them close to his body. He might not comb his hair +and it might not be blown about by the wind. When the tribe went out +hunting, he was obliged to pitch his tent about a quarter of a mile from +the rest of the people "lest the ghost of his victim should raise a high +wind, which might cause damage." Only one of his kindred was allowed to +remain with him at his tent. No one wished to eat with him, for they said, +"If we eat with him whom Wakanda hates Wakanda will hate us." Sometimes he +wandered at night crying and lamenting his offence. At the end of his long +isolation the kinsmen of the murdered man heard his crying and said, "It +is enough. Begone, and walk among the crowd. Put on moccasins and wear a +good robe."(621) Here the reason alleged for keeping the murderer at a +considerable distance from the hunters gives the clue to all the other +restrictions laid on him: he was haunted and therefore dangerous. The +ancient Greeks believed that the soul of a man who had just been killed +was wroth with his slayer and troubled him; wherefore it was needful even +for the involuntary homicide to depart from his country for a year until +the anger of the dead man had cooled down; nor might the slayer return +until sacrifice had been offered and ceremonies of purification performed. +If his victim chanced to be a foreigner, the homicide had to shun the +native country of the dead man as well as his own.(622) The legend of the +matricide Orestes, how he roamed from place to place pursued by the Furies +of his murdered mother, and none would sit at meat with him, or take him +in, till he had been purified,(623) reflects faithfully the real Greek +dread of such as were still haunted by an angry ghost. When the turbulent +people of Cynaetha, after perpetrating an atrocious massacre, sent an +embassy to Sparta, every Arcadian town through which the envoys passed on +their journey ordered them out of its walls at once; and the Mantineans, +after the embassy had departed, even instituted a solemn purification of +the city and its territory by carrying sacrificial victims round them +both.(624) + +(M115) Among the Kwakiutl Indians of British Columbia, men who have +partaken of human flesh as a ceremonial rite are subject for a long time +afterwards to many restrictions or taboos of the sort we have been dealing +with. They may not touch their wives for a whole year; and during the same +time they are forbidden to work or gamble. For four months they must live +alone in their bedrooms, and when they are obliged to quit the house for a +necessary purpose, they may not go out at the ordinary door, but must use +only the secret door in the rear of the house. On such occasions each of +them is attended by all the rest, carrying small sticks. They must all sit +down together on a long log, then get up, then sit down again, repeating +this three times before they are allowed to remain seated. Before they +rise they must turn round four times. Then they go back to the house. +Before entering they must raise their feet four times; with the fourth +step they really pass the door, taking care to enter with the right foot +foremost. In the doorway they turn four times and walk slowly into the +house. They are not permitted to look back. During the four months of +their seclusion each man in eating must use a spoon, dish, and kettle of +his own, which are thrown away at the end of the period. Before he draws +water from a bucket or a brook, he must dip his cup into it thrice; and he +may not take more than four mouthfuls at one time. He must carry a +wing-bone of an eagle and drink through it, for his lips may not touch the +brim of his cup. Also he keeps a copper nail to scratch his head with, for +were his own nails to touch his own skin they would drop off. For sixteen +days after he has partaken of human flesh he may not eat any warm food, +and for the whole of the four months he is forbidden to cool hot food by +blowing on it with his breath. At the end of winter, when the season of +ceremonies is over, he feigns to have forgotten the ordinary ways of men, +and has to learn everything anew. The reason for these remarkable +restrictions imposed on men who have eaten human flesh is not stated; but +we may surmise that fear of the ghost of the man whose body was eaten has +at least a good deal to do with them. We are confirmed in our conjecture +by observing that though these cannibals sometimes content themselves with +taking bites out of living people, the rules in question are especially +obligatory on them after they have devoured a corpse. Moreover, the +careful treatment of the bones of the victim points to the same +conclusion; for during the four months of seclusion observed by the +cannibals, the bones of the person on whom they feasted are kept +alternately for four days at a time under rocks in the sea and in their +bedrooms on the north side of the house, where the sun cannot shine on +them. Finally the bones are taken out of the house, tied up, weighted with +a stone, and thrown into deep water, "because it is believed that if they +were buried they would come back and take their master's soul."(625) This +seems to mean that if the bones of the victim were buried, his ghost would +come back and fetch away the souls of the men who had eaten his body. The +Gebars, a cannibal tribe in the north of New Guinea, are much afraid of +the spirit of a slain man or woman. Among them persons who have partaken +of human flesh for the first time reside for a month afterwards in a small +hut and may not enter the dwelling-house.(626) + + + + +§ 6. Hunters and Fishers tabooed. + + +(M116) In savage society the hunter and the fisherman have often to +observe rules of abstinence and to submit to ceremonies of purification of +the same sort as those which are obligatory on the warrior and the +manslayer; and though we cannot in all cases perceive the exact purpose +which these rules and ceremonies are supposed to serve, we may with some +probability assume that, just as the dread of the spirits of his enemies +is the main motive for the seclusion and purification of the warrior who +hopes to take or has already taken their lives, so the huntsman or +fisherman who complies with similar customs is principally actuated by a +fear of the spirits of the beasts, birds, or fish which he has killed or +intends to kill. For the savage commonly conceives animals to be endowed +with souls and intelligences like his own, and hence he naturally treats +them with similar respect. Just as he attempts to appease the ghosts of +the men he has slain, so he essays to propitiate the spirits of the +animals he has killed. These ceremonies of propitiation will be described +later on in this work;(627) here we have to deal, first, with the taboos +observed by the hunter and the fisherman before or during the hunting and +fishing seasons, and, second, with the ceremonies of purification which +have to be practised by these men on returning with their booty from a +successful chase. + +(M117) While the savage respects, more or less, the souls of all animals, +he treats with particular deference the spirits of such as are either +especially useful to him or formidable on account of their size, strength, +or ferocity. Accordingly the hunting and killing of these valuable or +dangerous beasts are subject to more elaborate rules and ceremonies than +the slaughter of comparatively useless and insignificant creatures. Thus +the Indians of Nootka Sound prepared themselves for catching whales by +observing a fast for a week, during which they ate very little, bathed in +the water several times a day, sang, and rubbed their bodies, limbs, and +faces with shells and bushes till they looked as if they had been severely +torn with briars. They were likewise required to abstain from any commerce +with their women for the like period, this last condition being considered +indispensable to their success. A chief who failed to catch a whale has +been known to attribute his failure to a breach of chastity on the part of +his men.(628) It should be remarked that the conduct thus prescribed as a +preparation for whaling is precisely that which in the same tribe of +Indians was required of men about to go on the war-path.(629) Rules of the +same sort are, or were formerly, observed by Malagasy whalers. For eight +days before they went to sea the crew of a whaler used to fast, abstaining +from women and liquor, and confessing their most secret faults to each +other; and if any man was found to have sinned deeply he was forbidden to +share in the expedition.(630) In the island of Kadiak, off the south coast +of Alaska, whalers were reckoned unclean during the fishing season, and +nobody would eat out of the same dish with them or even come near them. +Yet we are told that great respect was paid to them, and that they were +regarded as the purveyors of their country.(631) Though it is not +expressly said it seems to be implied, and on the strength of analogy we +may assume, that these Kadiak whalers had to remain chaste so long as the +whaling season lasted. In the island of Mabuiag continence was imposed on +the people both before they went to hunt the dugong and while the turtles +were pairing. The turtle-season lasts during parts of October and +November; and if at that time unmarried persons had sexual intercourse +with each other, it was believed that when the canoe approached the +floating turtle, the male would separate from the female and both would +dive down in different directions.(632) So at Mowat in New Guinea men have +no relation with women when the turtle are coupling, though there is +considerable laxity of morals at other times.(633) Among the Motu of Port +Moresby, in New Guinea, chastity is enjoined before fishing and +wallaby-hunting; they believe that men who have been unchaste will be +unable to catch the fish and the wallabies, which will turn round and jeer +at their pursuers.(634) Among the tribes about the mouth of the Wanigela +River in New Guinea the preparations for fishing turtle and dugong are +most elaborate. They begin two months before the fishing. A headman is +appointed who becomes holy. On his strict observance of the laws of the +dugong net depends the success of the season. While the men of the village +are making the nets, this sanctified leader lives entirely secluded from +his family, and may only eat a roasted banana or two after the sun has +gone down. Every evening at sundown he goes ashore and, stripping himself +of all his ornaments, which he is never allowed to doff at other times, +bathes near where the dugongs feed; as he does so he throws scraped +coco-nut and scented herbs and gums into the water to charm the +dugong.(635) Among the Roro-speaking tribes of British New Guinea the +magician who performs ceremonies for the success of a wallaby hunt must +abstain from intercourse with his wife for a month before the hunt takes +place; and he may not eat food cooked by his wife or by any other +woman.(636) In the island of Uap, one of the Caroline group, every +fisherman plying his craft lies under a most strict taboo during the whole +of the fishing season, which lasts for six or eight weeks. Whenever he is +on shore he must spend all his time in the men's clubhouse (_failu_), and +under no pretext whatever may he visit his own house or so much as look +upon the faces of his wife and womenkind. Were he but to steal a glance at +them, they think that flying fish must inevitably bore out his eyes at +night. If his wife, mother, or daughter brings any gift for him or wishes +to talk with him, she must stand down towards the shore with her back +turned to the men's clubhouse. Then the fisherman may go out and speak to +her, or with his back turned to her he may receive what she has brought +him; after which he must return at once to his rigorous confinement. +Indeed the fishermen may not even join in dance and song with the other +men of the clubhouse in the evening; they must keep to themselves and be +silent.(637) In the Pelew Islands, also, which belong to the Caroline +group, fishermen are likewise debarred from intercourse with women, since +it is believed that any such intercourse would infallibly have a +prejudicial effect on the fishing. The same taboo is said to be observed +in all the other islands of the South Sea.(638) In Mirzapur, when the seed +of the silkworm is brought into the house, the Kol or Bhuiyar puts it in a +place which has been carefully plastered with holy cow-dung to bring good +luck. From that time the owner must be careful to avoid ceremonial +impurity. He must give up cohabitation with his wife; he may not sleep on +a bed, nor shave himself, nor cut his nails, nor anoint himself with oil, +nor eat food cooked with butter, nor tell lies, nor do anything else that +he deems wrong. He vows to Singarmati Devi that if the worms are duly born +he will make her an offering. When the cocoons open and the worms appear, +he assembles the women of the house and they sing the same song as at the +birth of a baby, and red lead is smeared on the parting of the hair of all +the married women of the neighbourhood. When the worms pair, rejoicings +are made as at a marriage.(639) Thus the silkworms are treated as far as +possible like human beings. Hence the custom which prohibits the commerce +of the sexes while the worms are hatching may be only an extension, by +analogy, of the rule which is observed by many races, that the husband may +not cohabit with his wife during pregnancy and lactation. + +(M118) On Lake Victoria Nyanza the Baganda fishermen use a long stout line +which is supported on the surface of the water by wooden floats, while +short lines with baited hooks attached to them depend from it at frequent +intervals. The place where the fisherman makes his line, whether in his +hut or his garden, is tabooed. People may not step over his cords or +tools, and he himself has to observe a number of restrictions. He may not +go near his wife or any other woman. He eats alone, works alone, sleeps +alone. He may not wash, except in the lake. He may not eat salt or meat or +butter. He may not smear any fat on his body. When the line is ready he +goes to the god, asks his blessing on it, and offers him a pot of beer. In +return he receives from the deity a stick or bit of wood to fasten to the +line, and also some medicine of herbs to smoke and blow over the water in +order that the fish may come to the line and be caught. Then he carries +the line to the lake. If in going thither he should stumble over a stone +or a tree-root, he takes it with him, and he does the same with any +grass-seeds that may stick to his clothes. These stones, roots, and seeds +he puts on the line, believing that just as he stumbled over them and they +stuck to him, so the fish will also stumble over them and stick to the +line. The taboo lasts till he has caught his first fish. If his wife has +kept the taboo, he eats the fish with her; but if she has broken it, she +may not partake of the fish. After that if he wishes to go in to his wife, +he must take his line out of the water and place it in a tree or some +other place of safety; he is then free to be with her. But so long as the +line is in the water, he must keep apart from women, or the fish would at +once leave the shore. Any breach of this taboo renders the line useless to +him. He must sell it and make a new one and offer an expiatory offering to +the god.(640) Again, in Uganda the fisherman offers fish to his canoe, +believing that if he neglected to make this offering more than twice, his +net would catch nothing. The fish thus offered to the canoe is eaten by +the fishermen. But if at the time of emptying the traps there is any man +in the canoe who has committed adultery, eaten flesh or salt, or rubbed +his body with butter or fat, that man is not allowed to partake of the +fish offered to the canoe. And if the sinner has not confessed his fault +to the priest and been purified, the catch will be small. When the +adulterer has confessed his sin, the priest calls the husband of the +guilty woman and tells him of her crime. Her paramour has to wear a sign +to shew that he is doing penance, and he makes a feast for the injured +husband, which the latter is obliged to accept in token of reconciliation. +After that the husband may not punish either of the erring couple; the sin +is atoned for and they are able to catch fish again.(641) Among the +Bangala of the Upper Congo, while fishermen are making their traps, they +must observe strict continence, and the restriction lasts until the traps +have caught fish and the fish have been eaten. Similarly Bangala hunters +may have no sexual intercourse from the time they made their traps till +they have caught game and eaten it; it is believed that any hunter who +broke this rule of chastity would have bad luck in the chase.(642) + +(M119) In the island of Nias the hunters sometimes dig pits, cover them +lightly over with twigs, grass, and leaves, and then drive the game into +them. While they are engaged in digging the pits, they have to observe a +number of taboos. They may not spit, or the game would turn back in +disgust from the pits. They may not laugh, or the sides of the pit would +fall in. They may eat no salt, prepare no fodder for swine, and in the pit +they may not scratch themselves, for if they did, the earth would be +loosened and would collapse. And the night after digging the pit they may +have no intercourse with a woman, or all their labour would be in +vain.(643) + +(M120) This practice of observing strict chastity as a condition of +success in hunting and fishing is very common among rude races; and the +instances of it which have been cited render it probable that the rule is +always based on a superstition rather than on a consideration of the +temporary weakness which a breach of the custom may entail on the hunter +or fisherman. In general it appears to be supposed that the evil effect of +incontinence is not so much that it weakens him, as that, for some reason +or other, it offends the animals, who in consequence will not suffer +themselves to be caught. In the Motumotu tribe of New Guinea a man will +not see his wife the night before he starts on a great fishing or hunting +expedition; if he did, he would have no luck. In the Motu tribe he is +regarded as holy that night, and in the morning no one may speak to him or +call out his name.(644) In German East Africa elephant hunters must +refrain from women for several days before they set out for the +chase.(645) We have seen that in the same region a wife's infidelity +during the hunter's absence is believed to give the elephant power over +him so as to kill or wound him.(646) As this belief is clearly a +superstition, based on sympathetic magic, so doubtless is the practice of +chastity before the hunt. The pygmies of the great African forest are also +reported to observe strict continence the night before an important hunt. +It is said that at this time they propitiate their ancestors by rubbing +their skulls, which they keep in boxes, with palm oil and with water in +which the ashes of the bark and leaves of a certain tree (_moduma_) have +been mixed.(647) + +(M121) The Huichol Indians of Mexico think that only the pure of heart +should hunt the deer. The deer would never enter a snare put up by a man +in love; it would only look at it, snort "Pooh, pooh," and go back the way +it came. Good luck in love means bad luck in deer-hunting. But even those +who have been abstinent must invoke the aid of the fire to burn the last +taint or blemish out of them. So the night before they set out for the +chase they gather round the fire and pray aloud, all trying to get as near +as they can to the flaming god, and turning every side of their bodies to +his blessed influence. They hold out their open hands to it, warm the +palms, spit on them, and then rub them quickly over their joints, legs, +and shoulders, as the shamans do in curing a sick man, in order that their +limbs and sinews may be as strong as their hearts are pure for the task of +the morrow.(648) A Carrier Indian of British Columbia used to separate +from his wife for a full month before he set traps for bears, and during +this time he might not drink from the same vessel as his wife, but had to +use a special cup made of birch bark. The neglect of these precautions +would cause the game to escape after it had been snared. But when he was +about to snare martens, the period of continence was cut down to ten +days.(649) The Sia, a tribe of Pueblo Indians, observe chastity for four +days before a hunt as well as the whole time that it lasts, even if the +game be only rabbits.(650) Among the Tsetsaut Indians of British Columbia +hunters who desire to secure good luck fast and wash their bodies with +ginger-root for three or four days, and do not touch a woman for two or +three months.(651) A Shuswap Indian, who intends to go out hunting must +also keep away from his wife, or he would have no luck.(652) Among the +Thompson Indians the grisly-bear hunter must abstain from sexual +intercourse for some time before he went forth to hunt. These Indians +believe that bears always hear what is said of them. Hence a man who +intends to go bear-hunting must be very careful what he says about the +beasts or about his preparations for killing them, or they will get wind +of it and keep out of his way.(653) In the same tribe of Indians some +trappers and hunters, who were very particular, would not eat with other +people when they were engaged, or about to be engaged, in hunting or +trapping; neither would they eat food cooked by any woman, unless she were +old. They drank cold water in which mountain juniper or wild rhubarb had +been soaked, using a cup of their own, which no one else might touch. +Hunters seldom combed their hair when they were on an expedition, but +waited to do so till their return.(654) The reason for this last rule is +certainly not that at such seasons they have no time to attend to their +persons; the custom is probably based on that superstitious objection to +touch the heads of tabooed persons of which some examples have already +been given, and of which more will be adduced shortly. + +(M122) In the late autumn or early winter a few families of the Hidatsa +Indians seek some quiet spot in the forest and pitch their camp there to +catch eagles. After setting up their tents they build a small +medicine-lodge, where the ceremonies supposed to be indispensable for +trapping the eagles are performed. No woman may enter it. The traps are +set on high places among the neighbouring hills. When some of the men wish +to take part in the trapping, they fast and then go by day to the +medicine-lodge. There they continue without food until about midnight, +when they partake of a little nourishment and fall asleep. They get up +just before dawn, or when the morning-star has risen, and go to their +traps. There they sit all day without food or drink, watching for their +prey, and struggling, it may be, from time to time with a captive eagle, +for they always take the birds alive. They return to the camp at sunset. +As they approach, every one rushes into his tent; for the hunter may +neither see nor be seen by any of his fellow-hunters until he enters the +medicine-lodge. They spend the night in the lodge, and about midnight eat +and drink for the first time since the previous midnight; then they lie +down to sleep, only to rise again before dawn and repair anew to the +traps. If any one of them has caught nothing during the day, he may not +sleep at night, but must spend his time in loud lamentation and prayer. +This routine has to be observed by each hunter for four days and four +nights, after which he returns to his own tent, hungry, thirsty, and +tired, and follows his ordinary pursuits till he feels able to go again to +the eagle-traps. During the four days of the trapping he sees none of his +family, and speaks to none of his friends except those who are engaged in +the trapping at the same time. They believe that if any hunter fails to +perform all these rites, the captive eagle will get one of his claws loose +and tear his captor's hands. There are men in the tribe who have had their +hands crippled for life in that way.(655) It is obvious that the severe +fasting coupled with the short sleep, or even the total sleeplessness, of +these eagle-hunters can only impair their physical vigour and so far tend +to incapacitate them for capturing the eagles. The motive of their +behaviour in these respects is purely superstitious, not rational, and so, +we may safely conclude, is the custom which simultaneously cuts them off +from all intercourse with their wives and families. + +(M123) An examination of all the many cases in which the savage bridles +his passions and remains chaste from motives of superstition, would be +instructive, but I cannot attempt it now. I will only add a few +miscellaneous examples of the custom before passing to the ceremonies of +purification which are observed by the hunter and fisherman after the +chase and the fishing are over. The workers in the salt-pans near Siphoum, +in Laos, must abstain from all sexual relations at the place where they +are at work; and they may not cover their heads nor shelter themselves +under an umbrella from the burning rays of the sun.(656) Among the Kachins +of Burma the ferment used in making beer is prepared by two women, chosen +by lot, who during the three days that the process lasts may eat nothing +acid and may have no conjugal relations with their husbands; otherwise it +is supposed that the beer would be sour.(657) Among the Masai honey-wine +is brewed by a man and a woman who live in a hut set apart for them till +the wine is ready for drinking. But they are strictly forbidden to have +sexual intercourse with each other during this time; it is deemed +essential that they should be chaste for two days before they begin to +brew and for the whole of the six days that the brewing lasts. The Masai +believe that were the couple to commit a breach of chastity, not only +would the wine be undrinkable but the bees which made the honey would fly +away. Similarly they require that a man who is making poison should sleep +alone and observe other taboos which render him almost an outcast.(658) +The Wandorobbo, a tribe of the same region as the Masai, believe that the +mere presence of a woman in the neighbourhood of a man who is brewing +poison would deprive the poison of its venom, and that the same thing +would happen if the wife of the poison-maker were to commit adultery while +her husband was brewing the poison.(659) In this last case it is obvious +that a rationalistic explanation of the taboo is impossible. How could the +loss of virtue in the poison be a physical consequence of the loss of +virtue in the poison-maker's wife? Clearly the effect which the wife's +adultery is supposed to have on the poison is a case of sympathetic magic; +her misconduct sympathetically affects her husband and his work at a +distance. We may, accordingly, infer with some confidence that the rule of +continence imposed on the poison-maker himself is also a simple case of +sympathetic magic, and not, as a civilised reader might be disposed to +conjecture, a wise precaution designed to prevent him from accidentally +poisoning his wife. Again, to take other instances, in the East Indian +island of Buru people smear their bodies with coco-nut oil as a protection +against demons. But in order that the charm may be effective, the oil must +have been made by young unmarried girls.(660) In the Seranglao and Gorong +archipelagoes the same oil is regarded as an antidote to poison; but it +only possesses this virtue if the nuts have been gathered on a Friday by a +youth who has never known a woman, and if the oil has been extracted by a +pure maiden, while a priest recited the appropriate spells.(661) So in the +Marquesas Islands, when a woman was making coco-nut oil, she was tabooed +for four or five or more days, during which she might have no intercourse +with her husband. If she broke this rule, it was believed that she would +obtain no oil.(662) In the same islands when a man had placed a dish of +bananas and coco-nuts in an oven of hot stones to bake over night, he +might not go in to his wife, or the food would not be found baked in the +morning.(663) In ancient Mexico the men who distilled the wine known as +_pulque_ from the sap of the great aloe, might not touch a woman for four +days; if they were unchaste, they thought the wine would be sour and +putrid.(664) + +(M124) Among the Ba-Pedi and Ba-thonga tribes of South Africa, when the +site of a new village has been chosen and the houses are building, all the +married people are forbidden to have conjugal relations with each other. +If it were discovered that any couple had broken this rule, the work of +building would immediately be stopped, and another site chosen for the +village. For they think that a breach of chastity would spoil the village +which was growing up, that the chief would grow lean and perhaps die, and +that the guilty woman would never bear another child.(665) Among the Chams +of Cochin-China, when a dam is made or repaired on a river for the sake of +irrigation, the chief who offers the traditional sacrifices and implores +the protection of the deities on the work, has to stay all the time in a +wretched hovel of straw, taking no part in the labour, and observing the +strictest continence; for the people believe that a breach of his chastity +would entail a breach of the dam.(666) Here, it is plain, there can be no +idea of maintaining the mere bodily vigour of the chief for the +accomplishment of a task in which he does not even bear a hand. In New +Caledonia the wizard who performs certain superstitious ceremonies at the +building and launching of a large canoe is bound to the most rigorous +chastity the whole time that the vessel is on the stocks.(667) Among the +natives of the Gazelle Peninsula in New Britain men who are engaged in +making fish-traps avoid women and observe strict continence. They believe +that if a woman were even to touch a fish-trap, it would catch +nothing.(668) Here, therefore, the rule of continence probably springs +from a fear of infecting sympathetically the traps with feminine weakness +or perhaps with menstrual pollution. Every year at the end of September or +the beginning of October, when the north-east monsoon is near an end, a +fleet of large sailing canoes leaves Port Moresby and the neighbouring +Motu villages of New Guinea on a trading voyage to the deltas of the +rivers which flow into the Papuan Gulf. The canoes are laden with a cargo +of earthenware pots, and after about three months they return, sailing +before the north-west monsoon and bringing back a cargo of sago which they +have obtained by barter for their crockery. It is about the beginning of +the south-east monsoon, that is, in April or May, that the skippers, who +are leading men in the villages, make up their minds to go on these +trading voyages. When their resolution is taken they communicate it to +their wives, and from about that time husband and wife cease to cohabit. +The same custom of conjugal separation is observed by what we may call the +mate or second in command of each vessel. But it is not till the month of +August that the work of preparing the canoes for sea by overhauling and +caulking them is taken seriously in hand. From that time both skipper and +mate become particularly sacred or taboo (_helaga_), and consequently they +keep apart from their wives more than ever. Husband and wife, indeed, +sleep in the same house but on opposite sides of it. In speaking of his +wife he calls her "maiden," and she calls him "youth." They have no direct +conversation or dealings with each other. If he wishes to communicate with +her, he does so through a third person, usually a relative of one of them. +Both refrain from washing themselves, and he from combing his hair. "The +wife's position indeed becomes very much like that of a widow." When the +canoe has been launched, skipper, mate, and crew are all forbidden to +touch their food with their fingers; they must always handle it and convey +it to their mouths with a bone fork.(669) A briefer account of the custom +and superstition had previously been given by a native pastor settled in +the neighbourhood of Port Moresby. He says: "Here is a custom of +trading-voyage parties:--If it is arranged to go westward, to procure +arrowroot, the leader of the party sleeps apart from his wife for the time +being, and on until the return from the expedition, which is sometimes a +term of five months. They say if this is not done the canoe of the chief +will be sunk on the return voyage, all the arrowroot lost in the sea, and +he himself covered with shame. He, however, who observes the rule of +self-denial, returns laden with arrowroot, has not a drop of salt water to +injure his cargo, and so is praised by his companions and crew."(670) The +Akamba and Akikuyu of eastern Africa refrain from the commerce of the +sexes on a journey, even if their wives are with them in the caravan; and +they observe the same rule of chastity so long as the cattle are at +pasture, that is, from the time the herds are driven out to graze in the +morning till they come back in the evening.(671) Why the rule should be in +force just while the cattle are at pasture is not said, but we may +conjecture that any act of incontinence at that time is somehow supposed, +on the principles of sympathetic magic, to affect the animals injuriously. +The conjecture is confirmed by the observation that among the Akikuyu for +eight days after the quarterly festivals, which they hold for the sake of +securing God's blessing on their flocks and herds, no commerce is +permitted between the sexes. They think that any breach of continence in +these eight days would be followed by a mortality among the flocks.(672) + +(M125) If the taboos or abstinences observed by hunters and fishermen +before and during the chase are dictated, as we have seen reason to +believe, by superstitious motives, and chiefly by a dread of offending or +frightening the spirits of the creatures whom it is proposed to kill, we +may expect that the restraints imposed after the slaughter has been +perpetrated will be at least as stringent, the slayer and his friends +having now the added fear of the angry ghosts of his victims before their +eyes. Whereas on the hypothesis that the abstinences in question, +including those from food, drink, and sleep, are merely salutary +precautions for maintaining the men in health and strength to do their +work, it is obvious that the observance of these abstinences or taboos +after the work is done, that is, when the game is killed and the fish +caught, must be wholly superfluous, absurd, and inexplicable. But as I +shall now shew, these taboos often continue to be enforced or even +increased in stringency after the death of the animals, in other words, +after the hunter or fisher has accomplished his object by making his bag +or landing his fish. The rationalistic theory of them therefore breaks +down entirely; the hypothesis of superstition is clearly the only one open +to us. + +(M126) Among the Inuit or Esquimaux of Bering Strait "the dead bodies of +various animals must be treated very carefully by the hunter who obtains +them, so that their shades may not be offended and bring bad luck or even +death upon him or his people." Hence the Unalit hunter who has had a hand +in the killing of a white whale, or even has helped to take one from the +net, is not allowed to do any work for the next four days, that being the +time during which the shade or ghost of the whale is supposed to stay with +its body. At the same time no one in the village may use any sharp or +pointed instrument for fear of wounding the whale's shade, which is +believed to be hovering invisible in the neighbourhood; and no loud noise +may be made lest it should frighten or offend the ghost. Whoever cuts a +whale's body with an iron axe will die. Indeed the use of all iron +instruments is forbidden in the village during these four days. These +Inuit have a special name (_nu-na hlukh-tuk_) "for a spot of ground where +certain things are tabooed, or where there is to be feared any evil +influence caused by the presence of offended shades of men or animals, or +through the influence of other supernatural means. This ground is +sometimes considered unclean, and to go upon it would bring misfortune to +the offender, producing sickness, death, or lack of success in hunting or +fishing. The same term is also applied to ground where certain animals +have been killed or have died." In the latter case the ground is thought +to be dangerous only to him who there performs some forbidden act. For +example, the shore where a dead white whale has been beached is so +regarded. At such a place and time to chop wood with an iron axe is +supposed to be fatal to the imprudent person who chops. Death, too, is +supposed to result from cutting wood with an iron axe where salmon are +being dressed. An old man at St. Michael told Mr. Nelson of a melancholy +case of this kind which had fallen within the scope of his own +observation. A man began to chop a log near a woman who was splitting +salmon: both of them died soon afterwards. The reason of this disaster, as +the old man explained, was that the shade or ghost (_inua_) of the salmon +and the spirit or mystery (_yu-a_) of the ground were incensed at the +proceeding. Such offences are indeed fatal to every person who may be +present at the desecrated spot. Dogs are regarded as very unclean and +offensive to the shades of game animals, and great care is taken that no +dog shall get at the bones of a white whale. Should a dog touch one of +them, the hunter might lose his luck; his nets would break or be shunned +by the whales, and his spears would not strike. But in addition to the +state of uncleanness or taboo which arises from the presence of the shades +of men or animals, these Esquimaux believe in uncleanness of another sort +which, though not so serious, nevertheless produces sickness or bad luck +in hunting. It consists, we are told, of a kind of invisible, impalpable +vapour, which may attach itself to a person from some contamination. A +hunter infected by such a vapour is much more than usually visible to +game, so that his luck in the chase is gone until he succeeds in cleansing +himself once more. That is why hunters must avoid menstruous women; if +they do not, they will be unable to catch game.(673) + +(M127) These same Esquimaux of Bering Strait celebrate a great annual +festival in December, when the bladders of all the seals, whales, walrus, +and white bears that have been killed in the year are taken into the +assembly-house of the village. They remain there for several days, and so +long as they do so the hunters avoid all intercourse with women, saying +that if they failed in that respect the shades of the dead animals would +be offended.(674) Similarly among the Aleuts of Alaska the hunter who had +struck a whale with a charmed spear would not throw again, but returned at +once to his home and separated himself from his people in a hut specially +constructed for the purpose, where he stayed for three days without food +or drink, and without touching or looking upon a woman. During this time +of seclusion he snorted occasionally in imitation of the wounded and dying +whale, in order to prevent the whale which he had struck from leaving the +coast. On the fourth day he emerged from his seclusion and bathed in the +sea, shrieking in a hoarse voice and beating the water with his hands. +Then, taking with him a companion, he repaired to that part of the shore +where he expected to find the whale stranded. If the beast was dead he at +once cut out the place where the death-wound had been inflicted. If the +whale was not dead, he again returned to his home and continued washing +himself until the whale died.(675) Here the hunter's imitation of the +wounded whale is probably intended by means of homoeopathic magic to make +the beast die in earnest. Among the Kaniagmuts of Alaska the men who +attacked the whale were considered by their countrymen as unclean during +the fishing season, though otherwise they were held in high honour.(676) + +(M128) The central Esquimaux of Baffin Land and Hudson Bay think that +whales, ground seals, and common seals originated in the severed fingers +of the goddess Sedna. Hence an Esquimau of these regions must make +atonement for each of these animals that he kills, and must observe +strictly certain taboos after their slaughter. Some of the rules of +conduct thus enjoined are identical with those which are in force after +the death of a human being. Thus after the killing of one of these +sea-mammals, as after the decease of a person, it is forbidden to scrape +the frost from the window, to shake the bed or to disturb the shrubs under +the bed, to remove the drippings of oil from under the lamp, to scrape +hair from skins, to cut snow for the purpose of melting it, to work on +iron, wood, stone, or ivory. Furthermore, women are forbidden to comb +their hair, to wash their faces, and to dry their boots and stockings. All +these regulations must be kept with the greatest care after a ground seal +has been killed, because the transgression of taboos that refer to this +animal makes the hands of Sedna very sore. When a seal is brought into the +hut, the women must stop working until it is cut up. After the capture of +a ground seal, walrus, or whale, they must rest for three days. Not all +kinds of work, however, are forbidden; they may mend articles made of +sealskin, but they may not make anything new. Working on the new skins of +caribou, the American reindeer, is strictly prohibited; for a series of +rules forbids all contact between that animal and the sea-mammals. Thus +reindeer-skins obtained in summer may not be prepared before the ice has +formed and the first seal is caught with the harpoon. Later, as soon as +the first walrus has been killed, the work must stop again until the next +autumn. Hence everybody is eager to have his reindeer-skins ready as +quickly as possible, for until that is done the walrus season will not +begin. When the first walrus has been killed a messenger goes from village +to village and announces the news, whereupon all work on reindeer-skins +immediately ceases. On the other hand, when the season for hunting the +reindeer begins, all the winter clothing and the winter tents that had +been in use during the walrus hunting season become tabooed and are buried +under stones; they may not be used again till the next walrus hunting +season comes round. No walrus-hide or thongs made of such hide may be +taken inland, where the reindeer live. Venison may not be put in the same +boat with walrus-meat, nor yet with salmon. If venison or the antlers of +the reindeer were in a boat which goes walrus-hunting, the boat would be +liable to be broken by the walrus. The Esquimaux are not allowed to eat +venison and walrus on the same day, unless they first strip naked or put +on clothing of reindeer-skin that has never been worn in hunting walrus. +The transgression of these taboos gives umbrage to the souls of walrus; +and a myth is told to account for the mutual aversion of the walrus and +the reindeer. And in general the Esquimaux say that Sedna dislikes the +reindeer, wherefore they may not bring the beast into contact with her +favourites, the sea-mammals. Hence the meat of the whale and the seal, as +well as of the walrus, may not be eaten on the same day with venison. It +is not permitted that both sorts of meat lie on the floor of the hut or +behind the lamps at the same time. If a man who has eaten venison in the +morning happens to enter a hut in which seal meat is being cooked, he is +allowed to eat venison on the bed, but it must be wrapped up before it is +carried into the hut, and he must take care to keep clear of the floor. +Before they change from one food to the other the Esquimaux must wash +themselves. + +(M129) But even among the sea-beasts themselves there are rules of mutual +avoidance which these central Esquimaux must observe. Thus a person who +has been eating or hunting walrus must strip naked or change his clothes +before he eats seal; otherwise the transgression will become fastened to +the soul of the walrus in a manner which will be explained presently. +Again, the soul of a salmon is very powerful, and its body may not be +eaten on the same day with walrus or venison. Salmon may not be cooked in +a pot that has been used to boil any other kind of meat; and it must +always be cooked at some distance from the hut. The salmon-fisher is not +allowed to wear boots that have been used in hunting walrus; and no work +may be done on boot-legs till the first salmon has been caught and put on +a boot-leg. Once more the soul of the grim polar bear is offended if the +taboos which concern him are not observed. His soul tarries for three days +near the spot where it left his body, and during these days the Esquimaux +are particularly careful to conform rigidly to the laws of taboo, because +they believe that punishment overtakes the transgressor who sins against +the soul of a bear far more speedily than him who sins against the souls +of the sea-beasts.(677) + +(M130) The native explanation of the taboos thus enjoined on hunters among +the central Esquimaux has been given us by the eminent American +ethnologist Dr. Franz Boas. As it sets what may be called the spiritual +basis of taboo in the clearest light, it deserves to be studied with +attention. + +(M131) The goddess Sedna, he tells us, the mother of the sea-mammals, may +be considered to be the chief deity of the central Esquimaux. She is +supposed to bear supreme sway over the destinies of mankind, and almost +all the observances of these tribes have for their object to retain her +good will or appease her anger. Her home is in the lower world, where she +dwells in a house built of stone and whale-ribs. "The souls of seals, +ground seals, and whales are believed to proceed from her house. After one +of these animals has been killed, its soul stays with the body for three +days. Then it goes back to Sedna's abode, to be sent forth again by her. +If, during the three days that the soul stays with the body, any taboo or +proscribed custom is violated, the violation (_pitssete_) becomes attached +to the animal's soul, and causes it pain. The soul strives in vain to free +itself of these attachments, but is compelled to take them down to Sedna. +The attachments, in some manner not explained, make her hands sore, and +she punishes the people who are the cause of her pains by sending to them +sickness, bad weather, and starvation. If, on the other hand, all taboos +have been observed, the sea-animals will allow themselves to be caught; +they will even come to meet the hunter. The object of the innumerable +taboos that are in force after the killing of these sea-animals, +therefore, is to keep their souls free from attachments that would hurt +their souls as well as Sedna. + +(M132) "The souls of the sea-animals are endowed with greater powers than +those of ordinary human beings. They can see the effect of contact with a +corpse, which causes objects touched by it to appear dark in colour; and +they can see the effect of flowing human blood, from which a vapour rises +that surrounds the bleeding person and is communicated to every one and +every thing that comes in contact with such a person. This vapour and the +dark colour of death are exceedingly unpleasant to the souls of the +sea-animals, that will not come near a hunter thus affected. The hunter +must therefore avoid contact with people who have touched a body, or with +those who are bleeding, more particularly with menstruating women or with +those who have recently given birth. The hands of menstruating women +appear red to the sea-animals. If any one who has touched a body or who is +bleeding should allow others to come in contact with him, he would cause +them to become distasteful to the seals, and therefore to Sedna as well. +For this reason custom demands that every person must at once announce if +he has touched a body, and that women must make known when they are +menstruating or when they have had a miscarriage. If they do not do so, +they will bring ill-luck to all the hunters. + +(M133) "These ideas have given rise to the belief that it is necessary to +announce the transgression of any taboo. The transgressor of a custom is +distasteful to Sedna and to the animals, and those who abide with him will +become equally distasteful through contact with him. For this reason it +has come to be an act required by custom and morals to confess any and +every transgression of a taboo, in order to protect the community from the +evil influence of contact with the evil-doer. The descriptions of Eskimo +life given by many observers contain records of starvation, which, +according to the belief of the natives, was brought about by some one +transgressing a law, and not announcing what he had done. + +(M134) "I presume the importance of the confession of a transgression, +with a view to warning others to keep at a distance from the transgressor, +has gradually led to the idea that a transgression, or, we might say, a +sin can be atoned for by confession. This is one of the most remarkable +traits among the religious beliefs of the central Eskimo. There are +innumerable tales of starvation brought about by the transgression of a +taboo. In vain the hunters try to supply their families with food; gales +and drifting snow make their endeavours fruitless. Finally the help of the +_angakok_(678) is invoked, and he discovers that the cause of the +misfortune of the people is due to the transgression of a taboo. Then the +guilty one is searched for. If he confesses, all is well; the weather +moderates, and the seals allow themselves to be caught; but if he +obstinately maintains his innocence, his death alone will soothe the wrath +of the offended deity.... + +(M135) "The transgressions of taboos do not affect the souls of game +alone. It has already been stated that the sea-mammals see their effect +upon man also, who appears to them of a dark colour, or surrounded by a +vapour which is invisible to ordinary man. This means, of course, that the +transgression also affects the soul of the evil-doer. It becomes attached +to it, and makes him sick. The _angakok_(679) is able to see these +attachments with the help of his guardian spirit, and is able to free the +soul from them. If this is not done, the person must die. In many cases +the transgressions become fastened also to persons who come in contact +with the evil-doer. This is especially true of children, to whose souls +the sins of their parents, and particularly of their mothers, become +readily attached. Therefore, when a child is sick, the _angakok_ first of +all, asks its mother if she has transgressed any taboos. The attachment +seems to have a different appearance, according to the taboo that has been +violated. A black attachment is due to removing oil-drippings from under +the lamp, a piece of caribou-skin represents the scrapings removed from a +caribou-skin at a time when such work was forbidden. As soon as the mother +acknowledges the transgression of a taboo, the attachment leaves the +child's soul, and the child recovers. + +(M136) "A number of customs may be explained by the endeavours of the +natives to keep the sea-mammals free from contaminating influences. All +the clothing of a dead person, the tent in which he died, and the skins +obtained by him, must be discarded; for if a hunter should wear clothing +made of skins that had been in contact with the deceased, these would +appear dark, and the seal would avoid him. Neither would a seal allow +itself to be taken into a hut darkened by a dead body; and all those who +entered such a hut would appear dark to it, and would be avoided. + +"While it is customary for a successful hunter to invite all the men of +the village to eat of the seal that he has caught, they must not take any +of the seal-meat out of the hut, because it might come in contact with +persons who are under taboo, and thus the hunter might incur the +displeasure of the seal and of Sedna. This is particularly strictly +forbidden in the case of the first seal of the season. + +"A woman who has a new-born child, and who has not quite recovered, must +eat only of seals caught by her husband, by a boy, or by an aged man; else +the vapour arising from her body would become attached to the souls of +other seals, which would take the transgression down to Sedna, thus making +her hands sore. + +"Cases of premature birth require particularly careful treatment. The +event must be announced publicly, else dire results will follow. If a +woman should conceal from the other people that she has had a premature +birth, they might come near her, or even eat in her hut of the seals +procured by her husband. The vapour arising from her would thus affect +them, and they would be avoided by the seals. The transgression would also +become attached to the soul of the seal, which would take it down to +Sedna."(680) + +(M137) In these elaborate taboos so well described by Dr. Boas we seem to +see a system of animism in the act of passing into religion. The rules +themselves bear the clearest traces of having originated in a doctrine of +souls, and of being determined by the supposed likes and dislikes, +sympathies and antipathies of the various classes of spirits toward each +other. But above and behind the souls of men and animals has grown up the +overshadowing conception of a powerful goddess who rules them all, so that +the taboos come more and more to be viewed as a means of propitiating her +rather than as merely adapted to suit the tastes of the souls themselves. +Thus the standard of conduct is shifted from a natural to a supernatural +basis: the supposed wish of the deity or, as we commonly put it, the will +of God, tends to supersede the wishes, real or imaginative, of purely +natural beings as the measure of right and wrong. The old savage taboos, +resting on a theory of the direct relations of living creatures to each +other, remain in substance unchanged, but they are outwardly transformed +into ethical precepts with a religious or supernatural sanction. In this +gradual passage of a rude philosophy into an elementary religion the place +occupied by confession as a moral purgative is particularly interesting. I +can hardly agree with Dr. Boas that among these Esquimaux the confession +of sins was in its origin no more than a means of warning others against +the dangerous contagion of the sinner; in other words, that its saving +efficacy consisted merely in preventing the innocent from suffering with +the guilty, and that it had no healing virtue, no purifying influence, for +the evil-doer himself. It seems more probable that originally the +violation of taboo, in other words, the sin, was conceived as something +almost physical, a sort of morbid substance lurking in the sinner's body, +from which it could be expelled by confession as by a sort of spiritual +purge or emetic. This is confirmed by the form of auricular confession +which is practised by the Akikuyu of British East Africa. Amongst them, we +are told, "sin is essentially remissable; it suffices to confess it. +Usually this is done to the sorcerer, who expels the sin by a ceremony of +which the principal rite is a pretended emetic: _kotahikio_, derived from +_tahika_, 'to vomit.' "(681) Thus among these savages the confession and +absolution of sins is, so to say, a purely physical process of relieving a +sufferer of a burden which sits heavy on his stomach rather than on his +conscience. This view of the matter is again confirmed by the observation +that these same Akikuyu resort to another physical mode of expelling sin +from a sinner, and that is by the employment of a scapegoat, which by +them, as by the Jews and many other people, has been employed as a vehicle +for carting away moral rubbish and dumping it somewhere else. For example, +if a Kikuyu man has committed incest, which would naturally entail his +death, he produces a substitute in the shape of a he-goat, to which by an +ignoble ceremony he transfers his guilt. Then the throat of the animal is +cut, and the human culprit is thereby purged of his sin.(682) + +(M138) Hence we may suspect that the primary motive of the confession of +sins among savages was self-regarding; in other words, the intention was +rather to benefit the sinner himself than to safeguard others by warning +them of the danger they would incur by coming into contact with him. This +view is borne out by the observation that confession is sometimes used as +a means of healing the sick transgressor himself, who is supposed to +recover as soon as he has made a clean breast of his transgression. Thus +"when the Carriers are severely sick, they often think that they shall not +recover, unless they divulge to a priest or magician every crime which +they may have committed, which has hitherto been kept secret. In such a +case they will make a full confession, and then they expect that their +lives will be spared for a time longer. But should they keep back a single +crime, they as firmly believe that they shall suffer almost instant +death."(683) Again, the Aurohuaca Indians, who, under the tropical sun of +South America, inhabit a chilly region bordering on the perpetual snows of +the Sierra Nevada in Colombia, believe that all sickness is a punishment +for sin. So when one of their medicine-men is summoned to a sick bed, he +does not enquire after the patient's symptoms but makes strange passes +over him and asks in a sepulchral voice whether he will confess his sins. +If the sick man persists in drawing a veil of silence over his frailties, +the doctor will not attempt to treat him, but will turn on his heel and +leave the house. On the other hand if a satisfactory confession has been +made, the leech directs the patient's friends to procure certain +odd-looking bits of stone or shell to which the sins of the sufferer may +be transferred, for when that is done he will be made whole. For this +purpose the sin-laden stones or shells are carried high up into the +mountains and laid in some spot where the first beams of the sun, rising +in clear or clouded majesty above the long white slopes or the towering +crags of the Sierra Nevada, will strike down on them, driving sin and +sickness far away by their radiant influence.(684) Here, again, we see +that sin is regarded as something almost material which by confession can +be removed from the body of the patient and laid on stones or shells. +Further, the confession of sins has been resorted to by some people as a +means of accelerating the birth of a child when the mother was in hard +labour. Thus, "among the Indians of Guatemala, in the time of their +idolatry when a woman was in labour, the midwife ordered her to confess +her sins; and if she was not delivered, the husband was to confess his; +and if that did not do they took off his clouts and put them about his +wife's loins; if still she could not be delivered, the midwife drew blood +from herself and sprinkled it towards the four quarters of heaven with +some invocations and ceremonies."(685) In these attempts of the Indians to +accelerate the birth of the child it seems clear that the confession of +sins on the part first of the wife and afterwards of the husband is +nothing but a magical ceremony like the putting of the husband's clothes +on the suffering woman(686) or the sprinkling of the midwife's blood +towards the four quarters of the heaven. Amongst the Antambahoaka, a +savage tribe of Madagascar, when a woman is in hard labour, a sorcerer is +called in to her aid. After making some magical signs and uttering some +incantations, he generally declares that the patient cannot be delivered +until she has publicly confessed a secret fault which she has committed. +In such a case a woman has been known to confess to incest with her +brother; and immediately after her confession the child was born.(687) In +these cases the confession of sins is clearly not a mode of warning people +to keep clear of the sinner; it is a magical ceremony primarily intended +to benefit the sinner himself or herself and no other. The same thing may +perhaps be said of a confession which was prescribed in a certain case by +ancient Hindoo ritual. At a great festival of Varuna, which fell at the +beginning of the rainy season, the priest asked the wife of the sacrificer +to name her paramour or paramours, and she had to mention their names or +at least to take up as many grass-stalks as she had lovers.(688) "Now when +a woman who belongs to one man carries on intercourse with another, she +undoubtedly commits a sin against Varuna. He therefore thus asks her, lest +she should sacrifice with a secret pang in her mind; for when confessed +the sin becomes less, since it becomes truth; this is why he thus asks +her. And whatever connection she confesses not, that indeed will turn out +injurious to her relatives."(689) In this passage of the _Satapatha +Brahmana_ confession of sin is said to diminish the sin, just as if the +mere utterance of the words ejected or expelled some morbid matter from +the person of the sinner, thereby relieving her of its burden and +benefiting also her relatives, who would suffer through any sin which she +might not have confessed. + +(M139) Thus at an early stage of culture the confession of sins wears the +aspect of a bodily rather than of a moral and spiritual purgation; it is a +magical rather than a religious rite, and as such it resembles the +ceremonies of washing, scouring, fumigation, and so forth, which in like +manner are applied by many primitive peoples to the purification of what +we should regard as moral guilt, but what they consider rather as a +corporeal pollution or infection, which can be removed by the physical +agencies of fire, water, fasts, purgatives, abrasion, scarification, and +so forth. But when the guilt of sin ceases to be regarded as something +material, a sort of clinging vapour of death, and is conceived as the +transgression of the will of a wise and good God, it is obvious that the +observance of these outward rites of purification becomes superfluous and +absurd, a vain show which cannot appease the anger of the offended deity. +The only means of turning away his wrath and averting the fatal +consequences of sin is now believed to be the humble confession and true +repentance of the sinner. At this stage of ethical evolution the practice +of confession loses its old magical character as a bodily purge and +assumes the new aspect of a purely religious rite, the propitiation of a +great supernatural and moral being, who by a simple fiat can cancel the +transgression and restore the transgressor to a state of pristine +innocence. This comfortable doctrine teaches us that in order to blot out +the effects of our misdeeds we have only to acknowledge and confess them +with a lowly and penitent heart, whereupon a merciful God will graciously +pardon our sin and absolve us and ours from its consequences. It might +indeed be well for the world if we could thus easily undo the past, if we +could recall the words that have been spoken amiss, if we could arrest the +long train that follows, like a flight of avenging Furies, on every evil +action. But this we cannot do. Our words and acts, good and bad, have +their natural, their inevitable consequences. God may pardon sin, but +Nature cannot. + +(M140) It seems not improbable that in our own rules of conduct, in what +we call the common decencies of life as well as in the weightier matters +of morality, there may survive not a few old savage taboos which, +masquerading as an expression of the divine will or draped in the flowing +robes of a false philosophy, have maintained their credit long after the +crude ideas out of which they sprang have been discarded by the progress +of thought and knowledge; while on the other hand many ethical precepts +and social laws, which now rest firmly on a solid basis of utility, may at +first have drawn some portion of their sanctity from the same ancient +system of superstition. For example, we can hardly doubt that in primitive +society the crime of murder derived much of its horror from a fear of the +angry ghost of the murdered man. Thus superstition may serve as a +convenient crutch to morality till she is strong enough to throw away the +crutch and walk alone. To judge by the legislation of the Pentateuch the +ancient Semites appear to have passed through a course of moral evolution +not unlike that which we can still detect in process among the Esquimaux +of Baffin Land. Some of the old laws of Israel are clearly savage taboos +of a familiar type thinly disguised as commands of the deity. This +disguise is indeed a good deal more perfect in Palestine than in Baffin +Land, but in substance it is the same. Among the Esquimaux it is the will +of Sedna; among the Israelites it is the will of Jehovah.(690) + +But it is time to return to our immediate subject, to wit, the rules of +conduct observed by hunters after the slaughter of the game. + +(M141) When the Kayans or Bahaus of central Borneo have shot one of the +dreaded Bornean panthers, they are very anxious about the safety of their +souls, for they think that the soul of a panther is almost more powerful +than their own. Hence they step eight times over the carcase of the dead +beast reciting the spell, "Panther, thy soul under my soul." On returning +home they smear themselves, their dogs, and their weapons with the blood +of fowls in order to calm their souls and hinder them from fleeing away; +for being themselves fond of the flesh of fowls they ascribe the same +taste to their souls. For eight days afterwards they must bathe by day and +by night before going out again to the chase.(691) After killing an animal +some Indian hunters used to purify themselves in water as a religious +rite.(692) When a Damara hunter returns from a successful chase he takes +water in his mouth and ejects it three times over his feet, and also into +the fire on his own hearth.(693) Amongst the Caffres of South Africa "the +slaughter of a lion, however honourable it is esteemed, is nevertheless +associated with an idea of moral uncleanness, and is followed by a very +strange ceremony. When the hunters approach the village on their return, +the man who gave the lion the first wound is hidden from every eye by the +shields which his comrades hold up before him. One of the hunters steps +forward and, leaping and bounding in a strange manner, praises the courage +of the lion-killer. Then he rejoins the band, and the same performance is +repeated by another. All the rest meanwhile keep up a ceaseless shouting, +rattling with their clubs on their shields. This goes on till they have +reached the village. Then a mean hut is run up not far from the village; +and in this hut the lion-killer, because he is unclean, must remain four +days, cut off from all association with the tribe. There he dyes his body +all over with white paint; and lads who have not yet been circumcised, and +are therefore, in respect to uncleanness, in the same state as himself, +bring him a calf to eat, and wait upon him. When the four days are over, +the unclean man washes himself, paints himself with red paint in the usual +manner, and is escorted back to the village by the head chief, attended +with a guard of honour. Lastly, a second calf is killed; and, the +uncleanness being now at an end, every one is free to eat of the calf with +him."(694) Among the Hottentots, when a man has killed a lion, leopard, +elephant, or rhinoceros he is esteemed a great hero, but he is deluged +with urine by the medicine-man and has to remain at home quite idle for +three days, during which his wife may not come near him; she is also +enjoined to restrict herself to a poor diet and to eat no more than is +barely necessary to keep her in health.(695) Similarly the Lapps deem it +the height of glory to kill a bear, which they consider the king of +beasts. Nevertheless, all the men who take part in the slaughter are +regarded as unclean, and must live by themselves for three days in a hut +or tent made specially for them, where they cut up and cook the bear's +carcase. The reindeer which brought in the carcase on a sledge may not be +driven by a woman for a whole year; indeed, according to one account, it +may not be used by anybody for that period. Before the men go into the +tent where they are to be secluded, they strip themselves of the garments +they had worn in killing the bear, and their wives spit the red juice of +alder bark in their faces. They enter the tent not by the ordinary door +but by an opening at the back. When the bear's flesh has been cooked, a +portion of it is sent by the hands of two men to the women, who may not +approach the men's tent while the cooking is going on. The men who convey +the flesh to the women pretend to be strangers bringing presents from a +foreign land; the women keep up the pretence and promise to tie red +threads round the legs of the strangers. The bear's flesh may not be +passed in to the women through the door of their tent, but must be thrust +in at a special opening made by lifting up the hem of the tent-cover. When +the three days' seclusion is over and the men are at liberty to return to +their wives, they run, one after the other, round the fire, holding the +chain by which pots are suspended over it. This is regarded as a form of +purification; they may now leave the tent by the ordinary door and rejoin +the women. But the leader of the party must still abstain from +cohabitation with his wife for two days more.(696) + +(M142) Again, the Caffres are said to dread greatly the boa-constrictor or +an enormous serpent resembling it; "and being influenced by certain +superstitious notions they even fear to kill it. The man who happened to +put it to death, whether in self-defence or otherwise, was formerly +required to lie in a running stream of water during the day for several +weeks together; and no beast whatever was allowed to be slaughtered at the +hamlet to which he belonged, until this duty had been fully performed. The +body of the snake was then taken and carefully buried in a trench, dug +close to the cattle-fold, where its remains, like those of a chief, were +henceforward kept perfectly undisturbed. The period of penance, as in the +case of mourning for the dead, is now happily reduced to a few days."(697) +Amongst the Ewe-speaking peoples of the Slave Coast, who worship the +python, a native who killed one of these serpents used to be burned alive. +But for some time past, though a semblance of carrying out the old penalty +is preserved, the culprit is allowed to escape with his life, but he has +to pay a heavy fine. A small hut of dry faggots and grass is set up, +generally near the lagoon at Whydah, if the crime has been perpetrated +there; the guilty man is thrust inside, the door of plaited grass is shut +on him, and the hut is set on fire. Sometimes a dog, a kid, and two fowls +are enclosed along with him, and he is drenched with palm-oil and yeast, +probably to render him the more combustible. As he is unbound, he easily +breaks out of the frail hut before the flames consume him; but he has to +run the gauntlet of the angry serpent-worshippers, who belabour the +murderer of their god with sticks and pelt him with clods until he reaches +water and plunges into it, which is supposed to wash away his sin. +Thirteen days later a commemoration service is held in honour of the +deceased python.(698) In Madras it is considered a great sin to kill a +cobra. When this has happened, the people generally burn the body of the +serpent just as they burn the bodies of human beings. The murderer deems +himself polluted for three days. On the second day milk is poured on the +remains of the cobra. On the third day the guilty wretch is free from +pollution.(699) Under native rule, we may suspect, he would not get off so +lightly. + +(M143) In these last cases the animal whose slaughter has to be atoned for +is sacred, that is, it is one whose life is commonly spared from motives +of superstition. Yet the treatment of the sacrilegious slayer seems to +resemble so closely the treatment of hunters and fishermen who have killed +animals for food in the ordinary course of business, that the ideas on +which both sets of customs are based may be assumed to be substantially +the same. Those ideas, if I am right, are the respect which the savage +feels for the souls of beasts, especially valuable or formidable beasts, +and the dread which he entertains of their vengeful ghosts. Some +confirmation of this view may be drawn from the ceremonies observed by +fishermen of Annam when the carcase of a whale is washed ashore. These +fisherfolk, we are told, worship the whale on account of the benefits they +derive from it. There is hardly a village on the sea-shore which has not +its small pagoda, containing the bones, more or less authentic, of a +whale. When a dead whale is washed ashore, the people accord it a solemn +burial. The man who first caught sight of it acts as chief mourner, +performing the rites which as chief mourner and heir he would perform for +a human kinsman. He puts on all the garb of woe, the straw hat, the white +robe with long sleeves turned inside out, and the other paraphernalia of +full mourning. As next of kin to the deceased he presides over the funeral +rites. Perfumes are burned, sticks of incense kindled, leaves of gold and +silver scattered, crackers let off. When the flesh has been cut off and +the oil extracted, the remains of the carcase are buried in the sand. +Afterwards a shed is set up and offerings are made in it. Usually some +time after the burial the spirit of the dead whale takes possession of +some person in the village and declares by his mouth whether he is a male +or a female.(700) + + + + + +CHAPTER V. TABOOED THINGS. + + + + +§ 1. The Meaning of Taboo. + + +(M144) Thus in primitive society the rules of ceremonial purity observed +by divine kings, chiefs, and priests agree in many respects with the rules +observed by homicides, mourners, women in childbed, girls at puberty, +hunters and fishermen, and so on. To us these various classes of persons +appear to differ totally in character and condition; some of them we +should call holy, others we might pronounce unclean and polluted. But the +savage makes no such moral distinction between them; the conceptions of +holiness and pollution are not yet differentiated in his mind. To him the +common feature of all these persons is that they are dangerous and in +danger, and the danger in which they stand and to which they expose others +is what we should call spiritual or ghostly, and therefore imaginary. The +danger, however, is not less real because it is imaginary; imagination +acts upon man as really as does gravitation, and may kill him as certainly +as a dose of prussic acid. To seclude these persons from the rest of the +world so that the dreaded spiritual danger shall neither reach them, nor +spread from them, is the object of the taboos which they have to observe. +These taboos act, so to say, as electrical insulators to preserve the +spiritual force with which these persons are charged from suffering or +inflicting harm by contact with the outer world.(701) + +To the illustrations of these general principles which have been already +given I shall now add some more, drawing my examples, first, from the +class of tabooed things, and, second, from the class of tabooed words; for +in the opinion of the savage both things and words may, like persons, be +charged or electrified, either temporarily or permanently, with the +mysterious virtue of taboo, and may therefore require to be banished for a +longer or shorter time from the familiar usage of common life. And the +examples will be chosen with special reference to those sacred chiefs, +kings and priests, who, more than anybody else, live fenced about by taboo +as by a wall. Tabooed things will be illustrated in the present chapter, +and tabooed words in the next. + + + + +§ 2. Iron tabooed. + + +(M145) In the first place we may observe that the awful sanctity of kings +naturally leads to a prohibition to touch their sacred persons. Thus it +was unlawful to lay hands on the person of a Spartan king;(702) no one +might touch the body of the king or queen of Tahiti;(703) it is forbidden +to touch the person of the king of Siam under pain of death;(704) and no +one may touch the king of Cambodia, for any purpose whatever, without his +express command. In July 1874 the king was thrown from his carriage and +lay insensible on the ground, but not one of his suite dared to touch him; +a European coming to the spot carried the injured monarch to his +palace.(705) Formerly no one might touch the king of Corea; and if he +deigned to touch a subject, the spot touched became sacred, and the person +thus honoured had to wear a visible mark (generally a cord of red silk) +for the rest of his life. Above all, no iron might touch the king's body. +In 1800 King Tieng-tsong-tai-oang died of a tumour in the back, no one +dreaming of employing the lancet, which would probably have saved his +life. It is said that one king suffered terribly from an abscess in the +lip, till his physician called in a jester, whose pranks made the king +laugh heartily, and so the abscess burst.(706) Roman and Sabine priests +might not be shaved with iron but only with bronze razors or shears;(707) +and whenever an iron graving-tool was brought into the sacred grove of the +Arval Brothers at Rome for the purpose of cutting an inscription in stone, +an expiatory sacrifice of a lamb and a pig must be offered, which was +repeated when the graving-tool was removed from the grove.(708) As a +general rule iron might not be brought into Greek sanctuaries.(709) In +Crete sacrifices were offered to Menedemus without the use of iron, +because the legend ran that Menedemus had been killed by an iron weapon in +the Trojan war.(710) The Archon of Plataea might not touch iron; but once +a year, at the annual commemoration of the men who fell at the battle of +Plataea, he was allowed to carry a sword wherewith to sacrifice a +bull.(711) To this day a Hottentot priest never uses an iron knife, but +always a sharp splint of quartz, in sacrificing an animal or circumcising +a lad.(712) Among the Ovambo of south-west Africa custom requires that +lads should be circumcised with a sharp flint; if none is to hand, the +operation may be performed with iron, but the iron must afterwards be +buried.(713) The Antandroy and Tanala of Madagascar cut the navel-strings +of their children with sharp wood or with a thread, but never with an iron +knife.(714) In Uap, one of the Caroline Islands, wood of the hibiscus +tree, which was used to make the fire-drill, must be cut with shell knives +or shell axes, never with iron or steel.(715) Amongst the Moquis of +Arizona stone knives, hatchets, and so on have passed out of common use, +but are retained in religious ceremonies.(716) After the Pawnees had +ceased to use stone arrow-heads for ordinary purposes, they still employed +them to slay the sacrifices, whether human captives or buffalo and +deer.(717) We have seen that among the Esquimaux of Bering Strait the use +of iron implements is forbidden for four days after the slaughter of a +white whale, and that the use of an iron axe at a place where salmon are +being dressed is believed by these people to be a fatal imprudence.(718) +They hold a festival in the assembly-house of the village, while the +bladders of the slain beasts are hanging there, and during its celebration +no wood may be cut with an iron axe. If it is necessary to split firewood, +this may be done with wedges of bone.(719) At Kushunuk, near Cape +Vancouver, it happened that Mr. Nelson and his party entered an +assembly-house of these Esquimaux while the festival of the bladders was +in progress. "When our camping outfit was brought in from the sledges, two +men took drums, and as the clothing and goods of the traders who were with +me were brought in, the drums were beaten softly and a song was sung in a +low, humming tone, but when our guns and some steel traps were brought in, +with other articles of iron, the drums were beaten loudly and the songs +raised in proportion. This was done that the shades of the animals present +in the bladders might not be frightened."(720) The Esquimaux on the +western coast of Hudson Bay may not work on iron during the season for +hunting musk-oxen, which falls in March. And no such work may be done by +them until the seals have their pups.(721) Negroes of the Gold Coast +remove all iron or steel from their person when they consult their +fetish.(722) The men who made the need-fire in Scotland had to divest +themselves of all metal.(723) There was hardly any belief, we are told, +that had a stronger hold on the mind of a Scottish Highlander than that on +no account whatever should iron be put in the ground on Good Friday. Hence +no grave was dug and no field ploughed on that day. It has been suggested +that the belief was based on that rooted aversion to iron which fairies +are known to feel. These touchy beings live underground, and might resent +having the roof pulled from over their heads on the hallowed day.(724) +Again, in the Highlands of Scotland the shoulder-blades of sheep are +employed in divination, being consulted as to future marriages, births, +deaths, and funerals; but the forecasts thus made will not be accurate +unless the flesh has been removed from the bones without the use of any +iron.(725) In making the _clavie_ (a kind of Yule-tide fire-wheel) at +Burghead, no hammer may be used; the hammering must be done with a +stone.(726) Amongst the Jews no iron tool was used in building the Temple +at Jerusalem or in making an altar.(727) The old wooden bridge (_Pons +Sublicius_) at Rome, which was considered sacred, was made and had to be +kept in repair without the use of iron or bronze.(728) It was expressly +provided by law that the temple of Jupiter Liber at Furfo might be +repaired with iron tools.(729) The council chamber at Cyzicus was +constructed of wood without any iron nails, the beams being so arranged +that they could be taken out and replaced.(730) The late Rajah +Vijyanagram, a member of the Viceroy's Council, and described as one of +the most enlightened and estimable of Hindoo princes, would not allow iron +to be used in the construction of buildings within his territory, +believing that its use would inevitably be followed by small-pox and other +epidemics.(731) + +(M146) This superstitious objection to iron perhaps dates from that early +time in the history of society when iron was still a novelty, and as such +was viewed by many with suspicion and dislike.(732) For everything new is +apt to excite the awe and dread of the savage. "It is a curious +superstition," says a pioneer in Borneo, "this of the Dusuns, to attribute +anything--whether good or bad, lucky or unlucky--that happens to them to +something novel which has arrived in their country. For instance, my +living in Kindram has caused the intensely hot weather we have experienced +of late."(733) Some years ago a harmless naturalist was collecting plants +among the high forest-clad mountains on the borders of China and Tibet. +From the summit of a pass he gazed with delight down a long valley which, +stretching away as far as eye could reach to the south, resembled a sea of +bloom, for everywhere the forest was ablaze with the gorgeous hues of the +rhododendron and azalea in flower. In this earthly paradise the votary of +science hastened to install himself beside a lake. But hardly had he done +so when, alas! the weather changed. Though the season was early June, the +cold became intense, snow fell heavily, and the bloom of the rhododendrons +was cut off. The inhabitants of a neighbouring village at once set down +the unusual severity of the weather to the presence of a stranger in the +forest; and a round-robin, signed by them unanimously, was forwarded to +the nearest mandarin, setting forth that the snow which had blocked the +road, and the hail which was blasting their crops, were alike caused by +the intruder, and that all sorts of disturbances would follow if he were +allowed to remain. In these circumstances the naturalist, who had intended +to spend most of the summer among the mountains, was forced to decamp. +"Collecting in this country," he adds pathetically, "is not an easy +matter."(734) The unusually heavy rains which happened to follow the +English survey of the Nicobar Islands in the winter of 1886-1887 were +imputed by the alarmed natives to the wrath of the spirits at the +theodolites, dumpy-levellers, and other strange instruments which had been +set up in so many of their favourite haunts; and some of them proposed to +soothe the anger of the spirits by sacrificing a pig.(735) When the German +Hans Stade was a captive in a cannibal tribe of Brazilian Indians, it +happened that, shortly before a prisoner was to be eaten, a great wind +arose and blew away part of the roofs of the huts. The savages were angry +with Stade, and said he had made the wind to come by looking into his +thunder-skins, by which they meant a book he had been reading, in order to +save the prisoner, who was a friend of his, from their stomachs. So the +pious German prayed to God, and God mercifully heard his prayer; for next +morning the weather was beautifully fine, and his friend was butchered, +carved, and eaten in the most perfect comfort.(736) According to the +Orotchis of eastern Siberia, misfortunes have multiplied on them with the +coming of Europeans; "they even go so far as to lay the appearance of +_new_ phenomena like thunder at the door of the Russians."(737) In the +seventeenth century a succession of bad seasons excited a revolt among the +Esthonian peasantry, who traced the origin of the evil to a water-mill, +which put a stream to some inconvenience by checking its flow.(738) The +first introduction of iron ploughshares into Poland having been followed +by a succession of bad harvests, the farmers attributed the badness of the +crops to the iron ploughshares, and discarded them for the old wooden +ones.(739) To this day the primitive Baduwis of Java, who live chiefly by +husbandry, will use no iron tools in tilling their fields.(740) + +(M147) The general dislike of innovation, which always makes itself +strongly felt in the sphere of religion, is sufficient by itself to +account for the superstitious aversion to iron entertained by kings and +priests and attributed by them to the gods; possibly this aversion may +have been intensified in places by some such accidental cause as the +series of bad seasons which cast discredit on iron ploughshares in Poland. +But the disfavour in which iron is held by the gods and their ministers +has another side. Their antipathy to the metal furnishes men with a weapon +which may be turned against the spirits when occasion serves. As their +dislike of iron is supposed to be so great that they will not approach +persons and things protected by the obnoxious metal, iron may obviously be +employed as a charm for banning ghosts and other dangerous spirits. And +often it is so used. Thus in the Highlands of Scotland the great safeguard +against the elfin race is iron, or, better yet, steel. The metal in any +form, whether as a sword, a knife, a gun-barrel, or what not, is +all-powerful for this purpose. Whenever you enter a fairy dwelling you +should always remember to stick a piece of steel, such as a knife, a +needle, or a fish-hook, in the door; for then the elves will not be able +to shut the door till you come out again. So too when you have shot a deer +and are bringing it home at night, be sure to thrust a knife into the +carcase, for that keeps the fairies from laying their weight on it. A +knife or a nail in your pocket is quite enough to prevent the fairies from +lifting you up at night. Nails in the front of a bed ward off elves from +women "in the straw" and from their babes; but to make quite sure it is +better to put the smoothing-iron under the bed, and the reaping-hook in +the window. If a bull has fallen over a rock and been killed, a nail stuck +into it will preserve the flesh from the fairies. Music discoursed on that +melodious instrument, a Jew's harp, keeps the elfin women away from the +hunter, because the tongue of the instrument is of steel.(741) Again, when +Scotch fishermen were at sea, and one of them happened to take the name of +God in vain, the first man who heard him called out "Cauld airn," at which +every man of the crew grasped the nearest bit of iron and held it between +his hands for a while.(742) So too when he hears the unlucky word "pig" +mentioned, a Scotch fisherman will feel for the nails in his boots and +mutter "Cauld airn."(743) The same magic words are even whispered in the +churches of Scotch fishing-villages when the clergyman reads the passage +about the Gadarene swine.(744) In Morocco iron is considered a great +protection against demons; hence it is usual to place a knife or dagger +under a sick man's pillow.(745) The Singhalese believe that they are +constantly surrounded by evil spirits, who lie in wait to do them harm. A +peasant would not dare to carry good food, such as cakes or roast meat, +from one place to another without putting an iron nail on it to prevent a +demon from taking possession of the viands and so making the eater ill. No +sick person, whether man or woman, would venture out of the house without +a bunch of keys or a knife in his hand, for without such a talisman he +would fear that some devil might take advantage of his weak state to slip +into his body. And if a man has a large sore on his body he tries to keep +a morsel of iron on it as a protection against demons.(746) The +inhabitants of Salsette, an island near Bombay, dread a spirit called +_gira_, which plays many pranks with a solitary traveller, leading him +astray, lowering him into an empty well, and so on. But a _gira_ dare not +touch a person who has on him anything made of iron or steel, particularly +a knife or a nail, of which the spirit stands in great fear. Nor will he +meddle with a woman, especially a married woman, because he is afraid of +her bangles.(747) Among the Majhwar, an aboriginal tribe in the hill +country of South Mirzapur, an iron implement such as a sickle or a +betel-cutter is constantly kept near an infant's head during its first +year for the purpose of warding off the attacks of ghosts.(748) Among the +Maravars, an aboriginal race of southern India, a knife or other iron +object lies beside a woman after childbirth to keep off the devil.(749) +When a Mala woman is in labour, a sickle and some _nim_ leaves are always +kept on the cot. In Malabar people who have to pass by burning-grounds or +other haunted places commonly carry with them iron in some form, such as a +knife or an iron rod used as a walking-stick. When pregnant women go on a +journey, they carry with them a few twigs or leaves of the _nim_ tree, or +iron in some shape, to scare evil spirits lurking in groves or +burial-grounds which they may pass.(750) In Bilaspore people attribute +cholera to a goddess who visits the afflicted family. But they think that +she may be kept off by iron; hence during an epidemic of cholera people go +about with axes or sickles in their hands. "Their horses are not shod, +otherwise they might possibly nail horse-shoes to the door, but their +belief is more primitive; for with them iron does not _bring_ good luck, +but it _scares away_ the evil spirits, so when a man has had an epileptic +fit he will wear an iron bracelet to keep away the evil spirit which was +supposed to have possessed him."(751) The Annamites imagine that a +new-born child is exposed to the attacks of evil spirits. To protect the +infant from these malignant beings the parents sometimes sell the child to +the village smith, who makes a small ring or circlet of iron and puts it +on the child's foot, commonly adding a little chain of iron. When the +infant has been sold to the smith and firmly attached to him by the chain, +the demons no longer have any power over him. After the child has grown +big and the danger is over, the parents ask the smith to break the iron +ring and thank him for his services. No metal but iron will serve the +purpose.(752) On the Slave Coast of Africa when a mother sees her child +gradually wasting away, she concludes that a demon has entered into the +child and takes her measures accordingly. To lure the demon out of the +body of her offspring, she offers a sacrifice of food; and while the devil +is bolting it, she attaches iron rings and small bells to her child's +ankles and hangs iron chains round his neck. The jingling of the iron and +the tinkling of the bells are supposed to prevent the demon, when he has +concluded his repast, from entering again into the body of the little +sufferer. Hence many children may be seen in this part of Africa weighed +down with iron ornaments.(753) The use of iron as a means to exorcise +demons was forbidden by the Coptic church.(754) In India "the mourner who +performs the ceremony of putting fire into the dead person's mouth carries +with him a piece of iron: it may be a key or a knife, or a simple piece of +iron, and during the whole time of his separation (for he is unclean for a +certain time, and no one will either touch him or eat or drink with him, +neither can he change his clothes(755)) he carries the piece of iron about +with him to keep off the evil spirit. In Calcutta the Bengali clerks in +the Government Offices used to wear a small key on one of their fingers +when they had been chief mourners."(756) When a woman dies in childbed in +the island of Salsette, they put a nail or other piece of iron in the +folds of her dress; this is done especially if the child survives her. The +intention plainly is to prevent her spirit from coming back; for they +believe that a dead mother haunts the house and seeks to carry away her +child.(757) In the north-east of Scotland immediately after a death had +taken place, a piece of iron, such as a nail or a knitting-wire, used to +be stuck into all the meal, butter, cheese, flesh, and whisky in the +house, "to prevent death from entering them." The neglect of this salutary +precaution is said to have been closely followed by the corruption of the +food and drink; the whisky has been known to become as white as milk.(758) +When iron is used as a protective charm after a death, as in these Hindoo +and Scotch customs, the spirit against which it is directed is the ghost +of the deceased.(759) + + + + +§ 3. Sharp Weapons tabooed. + + +(M148) There is a priestly king to the north of Zengwih in Burma, revered +by the Sotih as the highest spiritual and temporal authority, into whose +house no weapon or cutting instrument may be brought.(760) This rule may +perhaps be explained by a custom observed by various peoples after a +death; they refrain from the use of sharp instruments so long as the ghost +of the deceased is supposed to be near, lest they should wound it. Thus +among the Esquimaux of Bering Strait "during the day on which a person +dies in the village no one is permitted to work, and the relatives must +perform no labour during the three following days. It is especially +forbidden during this period to cut with any edged instrument, such as a +knife or an axe; and the use of pointed instruments, like needles or +bodkins, is also forbidden. This is said to be done to avoid cutting or +injuring the shade, which may be present at any time during this period, +and, if accidentally injured by any of these things, it would become very +angry and bring sickness or death to the people. The relatives must also +be very careful at this time not to make any loud or harsh noises that may +startle or anger the shade."(761) We have seen that in like manner after +killing a white whale these Esquimaux abstain from the use of cutting or +pointed instruments for four days, lest they should unwittingly cut or +stab the whale's ghost.(762) The same taboo is sometimes observed by them +when there is a sick person in the village, probably from a fear of +injuring his shade which may be hovering outside of his body.(763) After a +death the Roumanians of Transylvania are careful not to leave a knife +lying with the sharp edge uppermost as long as the corpse remains in the +house, "or else the soul will be forced to ride on the blade."(764) For +seven days after a death, the corpse being still in the house, the Chinese +abstain from the use of knives and needles, and even of chopsticks, eating +their food with their fingers.(765) On the third, sixth, ninth, and +fortieth days after the funeral the old Prussians and Lithuanians used to +prepare a meal, to which, standing at the door, they invited the soul of +the deceased. At these meals they sat silent round the table and used no +knives, and the women who served up the food were also without knives. If +any morsels fell from the table they were left lying there for the lonely +souls that had no living relations or friends to feed them. When the meal +was over the priest took a broom and swept the souls out of the house, +saying, "Dear souls, ye have eaten and drunk. Go forth, go forth."(766) In +cutting the nails and combing the hair of a dead prince in South Celebes +only the back of the knife and of the comb may be used.(767) The Germans +say that a knife should not be left edge upwards, because God and the +spirits dwell there, or because it will cut the face of God and the +angels.(768) Among the Monumbos of New Guinea a pregnant woman may not use +sharp instruments; for example, she may not sew. If she used such +instruments, they think that she would thereby stab the child in her +womb.(769) Among the Kayans of Borneo, when the birth-pangs begin, all men +leave the room, and all cutting weapons and iron are also removed, +"perhaps in order not to frighten the child," says the writer who reports +the custom.(770) The reason may rather be a fear of injuring the flitting +soul of mother or babe. In Uganda, when the hour of a woman's delivery is +at hand, her husband carries all spears and weapons out of the house,(771) +doubtless in order that they may not hurt the tender soul of the new-born +child. Early in the period of the Ming dynasty a professor of geomancy +made the alarming discovery that the spiritual atmosphere of Kue-yung, a +city near Nanking, was in a truly deplorable condition through the +intrusion of an evil spirit. The Chinese emperor, with paternal +solicitude, directed that the north gate, by which the devil had effected +his entrance, should be built up solid, and that for the future the +population of the city should devote their energies to the pursuits of +hair-dressing, corn-cutting, and the shaving of bamboo-roots, because, as +he sagaciously perceived, all these professions call for the use of +sharp-edged instruments, which could not fail to keep the demon at +bay.(772) We can now understand why no cutting instrument may be taken +into the house of the Burmese pontiff. Like so many priestly kings, he is +probably regarded as divine, and it is therefore right that his sacred +spirit should not be exposed to the risk of being cut or wounded whenever +it quits his body to hover invisible in the air or to fly on some distant +mission. + + + + +§ 4. Blood tabooed. + + +(M149) We have seen that the Flamen Dialis was forbidden to touch or even +name raw flesh.(773) At certain times a Brahman teacher is enjoined not to +look on raw flesh, blood, or persons whose hands have been cut off.(774) +In Uganda the father of twins is in a state of taboo for some time after +the birth; among other rules he is forbidden to kill anything or to see +blood.(775) In the Pelew Islands when a raid has been made on a village +and a head carried off, the relations of the slain man are tabooed and +have to submit to certain observances in order to escape the wrath of his +ghost. They are shut up in the house, touch no raw flesh, and chew betel +over which an incantation has been uttered by the exorcist. After this the +ghost of the slaughtered man goes away to the enemy's country in pursuit +of his murderer.(776) The taboo is probably based on the common belief +that the soul or spirit of the animal is in the blood. As tabooed persons +are believed to be in a perilous state--for example, the relations of the +slain man are liable to the attacks of his indignant ghost--it is +especially necessary to isolate them from contact with spirits; hence the +prohibition to touch raw meat. But as usual the taboo is only the special +enforcement of a general precept; in other words, its observance is +particularly enjoined in circumstances which seem urgently to call for its +application, but apart from such circumstances the prohibition is also +observed, though less strictly, as a common rule of life. Thus some of the +Esthonians will not taste blood because they believe that it contains the +animal's soul, which would enter the body of the person who tasted the +blood.(777) Some Indian tribes of North America, "through a strong +principle of religion, abstain in the strictest manner from eating the +blood of any animal, as it contains the life and spirit of the beast." +These Indians "commonly pull their new-killed venison (before they dress +it) several times through the smoke and flame of the fire, both by the way +of a sacrifice and to consume the blood, life, or animal spirits of the +beast, which with them would be a most horrid abomination to eat."(778) +Among the western Denes or Tinneh Indians of British Columbia until lately +no woman would partake of blood, "and both men and women abhorred the +flesh of a beaver which had been caught and died in a trap, and of a bear +strangled to death in a snare, because the blood remained in the +carcase."(779) Many of the Slave, Hare, and Dogrib Indians scruple to +taste the blood of game; hunters of the former tribes collect the blood in +the animal's paunch and bury it in the snow.(780) The Malepa, a Bantu +tribe in the north of the Transvaal, will taste no blood. Hence they cut +the throats of the cattle they slaughter and let the blood drain out of +the carcase before they will eat it. And they do the same with game.(781) +Jewish hunters poured out the blood of the game they had killed and +covered it up with dust. They would not taste the blood, believing that +the soul or life of the animal was in the blood, or actually was the +blood.(782) The same belief was held by the Romans,(783) and is shared by +the Arabs,(784) by Chinese medical writers,(785) and by some of the Papuan +tribes of New Guinea.(786) + +(M150) It is a common rule that royal blood may not be shed upon the +ground. Hence when a king or one of his family is to be put to death a +mode of execution is devised by which the royal blood shall not be spilt +upon the earth. About the year 1688 the generalissimo of the army rebelled +against the king of Siam and put him to death "after the manner of royal +criminals, or as princes of the blood are treated when convicted of +capital crimes, which is by putting them into a large iron caldron, and +pounding them to pieces with wooden pestles, because none of their royal +blood must be spilt on the ground, it being, by their religion, thought +great impiety to contaminate the divine blood by mixing it with +earth."(787) Other Siamese modes of executing a royal person are +starvation, suffocation, stretching him on a scarlet cloth and thrusting a +billet of fragrant sandal-wood into his stomach,(788) or lastly, sewing +him up in a leather sack with a large stone and throwing him into the +river; sometimes the sufferer's neck is broken with sandal-wood clubs +before he is thrown into the water.(789) When Kublai Khan defeated and +took his uncle Nayan, who had rebelled against him, he caused Nayan to be +put to death by being wrapt in a carpet and tossed to and fro till he +died, "because he would not have the blood of his Line Imperial spilt upon +the ground or exposed in the eye of Heaven and before the Sun."(790) +"Friar Ricold mentions the Tartar maxim: 'One Khan will put another to +death to get possession of the throne, but he takes great care that the +blood be not spilt. For they say that it is highly improper that the blood +of the Great Khan should be spilt upon the ground; so they cause the +victim to be smothered somehow or other.' The like feeling prevails at the +court of Burma, where a peculiar mode of execution without bloodshed is +reserved for princes of the blood."(791) Another writer on Burma observes +that "according to Mongolian tradition, it is considered improper to spill +the blood of any member of the royal race. Princes of the Blood are +executed by a blow, or blows, of a bludgeon, inflicted on the back of the +neck. The corpse is placed in a red velvet sack, which is fixed between +two large perforated jars, and then sunk in the river Irawadi. Princesses +are executed in a similar manner, with the exception that they are put to +death by a blow in front, instead of the back of the neck."(792) In 1878 +the relations of Theebaw, king of Burma, were despatched by being beaten +across the throat with a bamboo.(793) In Tonquin the ordinary mode of +execution is beheading, but persons of the blood royal are strangled.(794) +In Ashantee the blood of none of the royal family may be shed; if one of +them is guilty of a great crime he is drowned in the river Dah.(795) As +the blood royal of Dahomey may not be spilled, offenders of the royal +family are drowned or strangled. Commonly they are bound hand and foot, +carried out to sea in a canoe, and thrown overboard.(796) When a king of +Benin came to the throne he used to put his brothers to death; but as no +one might lay hands on a prince of the blood, the king commanded his +brothers to hang themselves, after which he buried their bodies with great +pomp.(797) In Madagascar the blood of nobles might not be shed; hence when +four Christians of that class were to be executed they were burned +alive.(798) In Uganda "no one may shed royal blood on any account, not +even when ordered by the king to slay one of the royal house; royalty may +only be starved or burned to death."(799) Formerly when a young king of +Uganda came of age all his brothers were burnt except two or three, who +were preserved to keep up the succession.(800) Or a space of ground having +been fenced in with a high paling and a deep ditch, the doomed men were +led into the enclosure and left there till they died, while guards kept +watch outside to prevent their escape.(801) Among the Bawenda of southern +Africa dangerous princes are strangled, for their blood may not be +shed.(802) + +(M151) The reluctance to spill royal blood seems to be only a particular +case of a general unwillingness to shed blood or at least to allow it to +fall on the ground. Marco Polo tells us that in his day persons caught in +the streets of Cambaluc (Peking) at unseasonable hours were arrested, and +if found guilty of a misdemeanour were beaten with a stick. "Under this +punishment people sometimes die, but they adopt it in order to eschew +bloodshed, for their _Bacsis_ say that it is an evil thing to shed man's +blood."(803) When Captain Christian was shot by the Manx Government at the +Restoration in 1660, the spot on which he stood was covered with white +blankets, that his blood might not fall on the ground.(804) In West Sussex +people believe that the ground on which human blood has been shed is +accursed and will remain barren for ever.(805) Among some primitive +peoples, when the blood of a tribesman has to be spilt it is not suffered +to fall upon the ground, but is received upon the bodies of his +fellow-tribesmen. Thus in some Australian tribes boys who are being +circumcised are laid on a platform, formed by the living bodies of the +tribesmen;(806) and when a boy's tooth is knocked out as an initiatory +ceremony, he is seated on the shoulders of a man, on whose breast the +blood flows and may not be wiped away.(807) When Australian blacks bleed +each other as a cure for headache and other ailments, they are very +careful not to spill any of the blood on the ground, but sprinkle it on +each other.(808) We have already seen that in the Australian ceremony for +making rain the blood which is supposed to imitate the rain is received +upon the bodies of the tribesmen.(809) "Also the Gauls used to drink their +enemies' blood and paint themselves therewith. So also they write that the +old Irish were wont; and so have I seen some of the Irish do, but not +their enemies' but friends' blood, as, namely, at the execution of a +notable traitor at Limerick, called Murrogh O'Brien, I saw an old woman, +which was his foster-mother, take up his head whilst he was quartered and +suck up all the blood that ran thereout, saying that the earth was not +worthy to drink it, and therewith also steeped her face and breast and +tore her hair, crying out and shrieking most terribly."(810) After a +battle in Horne Island, South Pacific, it was found that the brother of +the vanquished king was among the wounded. "It was sad to see his wife +collect in her hands the blood which had flowed from his wounds, and throw +it on to her head, while she uttered piercing cries. All the relatives of +the wounded collected in the same manner the blood which had flowed from +them, down even to the last drop, and they even applied their lips to the +leaves of the shrubs and licked it all up to the last drop."(811) In the +Marquesas Islands the persons who helped a woman at childbirth received on +their heads the blood which flowed at the cutting of the navel-string; for +the blood might not touch anything but a sacred object, and in Polynesia +the head is sacred in a high degree.(812) In South Celebes at childbirth a +female slave stands under the house (the houses being raised on posts +above the ground) and receives in a basin on her head the blood which +trickles through the bamboo floor.(813) Among the Latuka of central Africa +the earth on which a drop of blood has fallen at childbirth is carefully +scraped up with an iron shovel, put into a pot along with the water used +in washing the mother, and buried tolerably deep outside the house on the +left-hand side.(814) In West Africa, if a drop of your blood has fallen on +the ground, you must carefully cover it up, rub and stamp it into the +soil; if it has fallen on the side of a canoe or a tree, the place is cut +out and the chip destroyed.(815) The Caffres, we are told, have a great +horror of blood, and must purify themselves from the pollution if they +have shed it and been bespattered by it. Hence warriors on the return from +battle purge themselves with emetics, and that so violently that some of +them give up the ghost. A Caffre would never allow even a drop of blood +from his nose or a wound to lie uncovered, but huddles it over with earth, +that his feet may not be defiled by it.(816) One motive of these African +customs may be a wish to prevent the blood from falling into the hands of +magicians, who might make an evil use of it. That is admittedly the reason +why people in West Africa stamp out any blood of theirs which has fallen +on the ground or cut out any wood that has been soaked with it.(817) From +a like dread of sorcery natives of New Guinea are careful to burn any +sticks, leaves, or rags which are stained with their blood; and if the +blood has dripped on the ground they turn up the soil and if possible +light a fire on the spot.(818) The same fear explains the curious duties +discharged by a class of men called _ramanga_ or "blue blood" among the +Betsileo of Madagascar. It is their business to eat all the nail-parings +and to lick up all the spilt blood of the nobles. When the nobles pare +their nails, the parings are collected to the last scrap and swallowed by +these _ramanga_. If the parings are too large, they are minced small and +so gulped down. Again, should a nobleman wound himself, say in cutting his +nails or treading on something, the _ramanga_ lick it up as fast as +possible. Nobles of high rank hardly go anywhere without these humble +attendants; but if it should happen that there are none of them present, +the cut nails and the spilt blood are carefully collected to be afterwards +swallowed by the _ramanga_. There is scarcely a nobleman of any +pretensions who does not strictly observe this custom,(819) the intention +of which probably is to prevent these parts of his person from falling +into the hands of sorcerers, who on the principles of contagious magic +could work him harm thereby. The tribes of the White Nile are said never +to shed human blood in their villages because they think the sight of it +would render women barren or bring misfortune on their children. Hence +executions and murders commonly take place on the roads or in the +forest.(820) + +(M152) The unwillingness to shed blood is extended by some peoples to the +blood of animals. Thus, when the Caffres offer an ox to the spirits, the +blood of the beast must be carefully caught in a calabash, and none of it +may fall on the ground.(821) When the Wanika in eastern Africa kill their +cattle for food, "they either stone or beat the animal to death, so as not +to shed the blood."(822) Amongst the Damaras cattle killed for food are +suffocated, but when sacrificed they are speared to death.(823) But like +most pastoral tribes in Africa, both the Wanika and Damaras very seldom +kill their cattle, which are indeed commonly invested with a kind of +sanctity.(824) Some of the Ewe-speaking negroes of Togoland, in West +Africa, celebrate a festival in honour of the Earth at which it is +unlawful to shed blood on the ground. Hence the fowls which are sacrificed +on these occasions have their necks wrung, not their throats cut.(825) In +killing an animal for food the Easter Islanders do not shed its blood, but +stun it or suffocate it in smoke.(826) When the natives of San Cristoval, +one of the Solomon Islands, sacrifice a pig to a ghost in a sacred place, +they take great care that the blood shall not fall on the ground; so they +place the animal in a large bowl and cut it up there.(827) It is said that +in ancient India the sacrificial victims were not slaughtered but +strangled.(828) + +(M153) The general explanation of the reluctance to shed blood on the +ground is probably to be found in the belief that the soul is in the +blood, and that therefore any ground on which it may fall necessarily +becomes taboo or sacred. In New Zealand anything upon which even a drop of +a high chief's blood chances to fall becomes taboo or sacred to him. For +instance, a party of natives having come to visit a chief in a fine new +canoe, the chief got into it, but in doing so a splinter entered his foot, +and the blood trickled on the canoe, which at once became sacred to him. +The owner jumped out, dragged the canoe ashore opposite the chief's house, +and left it there. Again, a chief in entering a missionary's house knocked +his head against a beam, and the blood flowed. The natives said that in +former times the house would have belonged to the chief.(829) As usually +happens with taboos of universal application, the prohibition to spill the +blood of a tribesman on the ground applies with peculiar stringency to +chiefs and kings, and is observed in their case long after it has ceased +to be observed in the case of others. + +(M154) We have seen that the Flamen Dialis was not allowed to walk under a +trellised vine.(830) The reason for this prohibition was perhaps as +follows. It has been shewn that plants are considered as animate beings +which bleed when cut, the red juice which exudes from some of them being +regarded as the blood of the plant.(831) The juice of the grape is +therefore naturally conceived as the blood of the vine.(832) And since, as +we have just seen, the soul is often believed to be in the blood, the +juice of the grape is regarded as the soul, or as containing the soul, of +the vine. This belief is strengthened by the intoxicating effects of wine. +For, according to primitive notions, all abnormal mental states, such as +intoxication or madness, are caused by the entrance of a spirit into the +person; such mental states, in other words, are accounted forms of +possession or inspiration. Wine, therefore, is considered on two distinct +grounds as a spirit, or containing a spirit; first because, as a red +juice, it is identified with the blood of the plant, and second because it +intoxicates or inspires. Therefore if the Flamen Dialis had walked under a +trellised vine, the spirit of the vine, embodied in the clusters of +grapes, would have been immediately over his head and might have touched +it, which for a person like him in a state of permanent taboo(833) would +have been highly dangerous. This interpretation of the prohibition will be +made probable if we can shew, first, that wine has been actually viewed by +some peoples as blood, and intoxication as inspiration produced by +drinking the blood; and, second, that it is often considered dangerous, +especially for tabooed persons, to have either blood or a living person +over their heads. + +(M155) With regard to the first point, we are informed by Plutarch that of +old the Egyptian kings neither drank wine nor offered it in libations to +the gods, because they held it to be the blood of beings who had once +fought against the gods, the vine having sprung from their rotting bodies; +and the frenzy of intoxication was explained by the supposition that the +drunken man was filled with the blood of the enemies of the gods.(834) The +Aztecs regarded _pulque_ or the wine of the country as bad, on account of +the wild deeds which men did under its influence. But these wild deeds +were believed to be the acts, not of the drunken man, but of the wine-god +by whom he was possessed and inspired; and so seriously was this theory of +inspiration held that if any one spoke ill of or insulted a tipsy man, he +was liable to be punished for disrespect to the wine-god incarnate in his +votary. Hence, says Sahagun, it was believed, not without ground, that the +Indians intoxicated themselves on purpose to commit with impunity crimes +for which they would certainly have been punished if they had committed +them sober.(835) Thus it appears that on the primitive view intoxication +or the inspiration produced by wine is exactly parallel to the inspiration +produced by drinking the blood of animals.(836) The soul or life is in the +blood, and wine is the blood of the vine. Hence whoever drinks the blood +of an animal is inspired with the soul of the animal or of the god, who, +as we have seen,(837) is often supposed to enter into the animal before it +is slain; and whoever drinks wine drinks the blood, and so receives into +himself the soul or spirit, of the god of the vine. + +(M156) With regard to the second point, the fear of passing under blood or +under a living person, we are told that some of the Australian blacks have +a dread of passing under a leaning tree or even under the rails of a +fence. The reason they give is that a woman may have been upon the tree or +fence, and some blood from her may have fallen on it and might fall from +it on them.(838) In Ugi, one of the Solomon Islands, a man will never, if +he can help it, pass under a tree which has fallen across the path, for +the reason that a woman may have stepped over it before him.(839) Amongst +the Karens of Burma "going under a house, especially if there are females +within, is avoided; as is also the passing under trees of which the +branches extend downwards in a particular direction, and the butt-end of +fallen trees, etc."(840) The Siamese think it unlucky to pass under a rope +on which women's clothes are hung, and to avert evil consequences the +person who has done so must build a chapel to the earth-spirit.(841) + +(M157) Probably in all such cases the rule is based on a fear of being +brought into contact with blood, especially the blood of women. From a +like fear a Maori will never lean his back against the wall of a native +house.(842) For the blood of women is supposed to have disastrous effects +upon males. The Arunta of central Australia believe that a draught of +woman's blood would kill the strongest man.(843) In the Encounter Bay +tribe of South Australia boys are warned that if they see the blood of +women they will early become grey-headed and their strength will fail +prematurely.(844) Men of the Booandik tribe in South Australia think that +if they see the blood of their women they will not be able to fight +against their enemies and will be killed; if the sun dazzles their eyes at +a fight, the first woman they afterwards meet is sure to get a blow from +their club.(845) In the island of Wetar it is thought that if a man or a +lad comes upon a woman's blood he will be unfortunate in war and other +undertakings, and that any precautions he may take to avoid the misfortune +will be vain.(846) The people of Ceram also believe that men who see +women's blood will be wounded in battle.(847) It is an Esthonian belief +that men who see women's blood will suffer from an eruption on the +skin.(848) A Fan negro told Miss Kingsley that a young man in his village, +who was so weak that he could hardly crawl about, had fallen into this +state through seeing the blood of a woman who had been killed by a falling +tree. "The underlying idea regarding blood is of course the old one that +the blood is the life. The life in Africa means a spirit, hence the +liberated blood is the liberated spirit, and liberated spirits are always +whipping into people who do not want them. In the case of the young Fan, +the opinion held was that the weak spirit of the woman had got into +him."(849) + + + + +§ 5. The Head tabooed. + + +(M158) Again, the reason for not passing under dangerous objects, like a +vine or women's blood, is a fear that they may come in contact with the +head; for among many peoples the head is peculiarly sacred. The special +sanctity attributed to it is sometimes explained by a belief that it is +the seat of a spirit which is very sensitive to injury or disrespect. Thus +the Yorubas of the Slave Coast hold that every man has three spiritual +inmates, of whom the first, called Olori, dwells in the head and is the +man's protector, guardian, and guide. Offerings are made to this spirit, +chiefly of fowls, and some of the blood mixed with palm-oil is rubbed on +the forehead.(850) The Karens of Burma suppose that a being called the +_tso_ resides in the upper part of the head, and while it retains its seat +no harm can befall the person from the efforts of the seven _Kelahs_, or +personified passions. "But if the _tso_ becomes heedless or weak certain +evil to the person is the result. Hence the head is carefully attended to, +and all possible pains are taken to provide such dress and attire as will +be pleasing to the _tso_."(851) The Siamese think that a spirit called +_khuan_ or _kwun_ dwells in the human head, of which it is the guardian +spirit. The spirit must be carefully protected from injury of every kind; +hence the act of shaving or cutting the hair is accompanied with many +ceremonies. The _kwun_ is very sensitive on points of honour, and would +feel mortally insulted if the head in which he resides were touched by the +hand of a stranger. When Dr. Bastian, in conversation with a brother of +the king of Siam, raised his hand to touch the prince's skull in order to +illustrate some medical remarks he was making, a sullen and threatening +murmur bursting from the lips of the crouching courtiers warned him of the +breach of etiquette he had committed, for in Siam there is no greater +insult to a man of rank than to touch his head. If a Siamese touch the +head of another with his foot, both of them must build chapels to the +earth-spirit to avert the omen. Nor does the guardian spirit of the head +like to have the hair washed too often; it might injure or incommode him. +It was a grand solemnity when the king of Burma's head was washed with +water drawn from the middle of the river. Whenever the native professor, +from whom Dr. Bastian took lessons in Burmese at Mandalay, had his head +washed, which took place as a rule once a month, he was generally absent +for three days together, that time being consumed in preparing for, and +recovering from, the operation of head-washing. Dr. Bastian's custom of +washing his head daily gave rise to much remark.(852) The head of the king +of Persia was cleaned only once a year, on his birthday.(853) Roman women +washed their heads annually on the thirteenth of August, Diana's day.(854) +The Indians of Peru fancied they could rid themselves of their sins by +scrubbing their heads with a small stone and then washing them in a +stream.(855) + +(M159) Again, the Burmese think it an indignity to have any one, +especially a woman, over their heads, and for this reason Burmese houses +have never more than one story. The houses are raised on posts above the +ground, and whenever anything fell through the floor Dr. Bastian had +always difficulty in persuading a servant to fetch it from under the +house. In Rangoon a priest, summoned to the bedside of a sick man, climbed +up a ladder and got in at the window rather than ascend the staircase, to +reach which he must have passed under a gallery. A pious Burman of +Rangoon, finding some images of Buddha in a ship's cabin, offered a high +price for them, that they might not be degraded by sailors walking over +them on the deck.(856) Formerly in Siam no person might cross a bridge +while his superior in rank was passing underneath, nor might he walk in a +room above one in which his superior was sitting or lying.(857) The +Cambodians esteem it a grave offence to touch a man's head; some of them +will not enter a place where anything whatever is suspended over their +heads; and the meanest Cambodian would never consent to live under an +inhabited room. Hence the houses are built of one story only; and even the +Government respects the prejudice by never placing a prisoner in the +stocks under the floor of a house, though the houses are raised high above +the ground.(858) The same superstition exists amongst the Malays; for an +early traveller reports that in Java people "wear nothing on their heads, +and say that nothing must be on their heads ... and if any person were to +put his hand upon their head they would kill him; and they do not build +houses with storeys, in order that they may not walk over each other's +heads."(859) In Uganda no person belonging to the king's totem clan was +allowed to get on the top of the palace to roof it, for that would have +been regarded as equivalent to getting on the top of the king. Hence the +palace had to be roofed by men of a different clan from the king.(860) + +(M160) The same superstition as to the head is found in full force +throughout Polynesia. Thus of Gattanewa, a Marquesan chief, it is said +that "to touch the top of his head, or anything which had been on his +head, was sacrilege. To pass over his head was an indignity never to be +forgotten. Gattanewa, nay, all his family, scorned to pass a gateway which +is ever closed, or a house with a door; all must be as open and free as +their unrestrained manners. He would pass under nothing that had been +raised by the hand of man, if there was a possibility of getting round or +over it. Often have I seen him walk the whole length of our barrier, in +preference to passing between our water-casks; and at the risk of his life +scramble over the loose stones of a wall, rather than go through the +gateway."(861) Marquesan women have been known to refuse to go on the +decks of ships for fear of passing over the heads of chiefs who might be +below.(862) The son of a Marquesan high priest has been seen to roll on +the ground in an agony of rage and despair, begging for death, because +some one had desecrated his head and deprived him of his divinity by +sprinkling a few drops of water on his hair.(863) But it was not the +Marquesan chiefs only whose heads were sacred. The head of every Marquesan +was taboo, and might neither be touched nor stepped over by another; even +a father might not step over the head of his sleeping child;(864) women +were forbidden to carry or touch anything that had been in contact with, +or had merely hung over, the head of their husband or father.(865) No one +was allowed to be over the head of the king of Tonga.(866) In Hawaii (the +Sandwich Islands) if a man climbed upon a chiefs house or upon the wall of +his yard, he was put to death; if his shadow fell on a chief, he was put +to death; if he walked in the shadow of a chiefs house with his head +painted white or decked with a garland or wetted with water, he was put to +death.(867) In Tahiti any one who stood over the king or queen, or passed +his hand over their heads, might be put to death.(868) Until certain rites +were performed over it, a Tahitian infant was especially taboo; whatever +touched the child's head, while it was in this state, became sacred and +was deposited in a consecrated place railed in for the purpose at the +child's house. If a branch of a tree touched the child's head, the tree +was cut down; and if in its fall it injured another tree so as to +penetrate the bark, that tree also was cut down as unclean and unfit for +use. After the rites were performed these special taboos ceased; but the +head of a Tahitian was always sacred, he never carried anything on it, and +to touch it was an offence.(869) In New Zealand "the heads of the chiefs +were always tabooed (_tapu_), hence they could not pass, or sit, under +food hung up; or carry food, as others, on their backs; neither would they +eat a meal in a house, nor touch a calabash of water in drinking. No one +could touch their head, nor, indeed, commonly speak of it, or allude to +it; to do so offensively was one of their heaviest curses, and grossest +insults, only to be wiped out with blood."(870) So sacred was the head of +a Maori chief that "if he only touched it with his fingers, he was obliged +immediately to apply them to his nose, and snuff up the sanctity which +they had acquired by the touch, and thus restore it to the part from +whence it was taken."(871) On account of the sacredness of his head a +Maori chief "could not blow the fire with his mouth, for the breath being +sacred, communicated his sanctity to it, and a brand might be taken by a +slave, or a man of another tribe, or the fire might be used for other +purposes, such as cooking, and so cause his death."(872) It is a crime for +a sacred person in New Zealand to leave his comb, or anything else which +has touched his head, in a place where food has been cooked, or to suffer +another person to drink out of any vessel which has touched his lips. +Hence when a chief wishes to drink he never puts his lips to the vessel, +but holds his hands close to his mouth so as to form a hollow, into which +water is poured by another person, and thence is allowed to flow into his +mouth. If a light is needed for his pipe, the burning ember taken from the +fire must be thrown away as soon as it is used; for the pipe becomes +sacred because it has touched his mouth; the coal becomes sacred because +it has touched the pipe; and if a particle of the sacred cinder were +replaced on the common fire, the fire would also become sacred and could +no longer be used for cooking.(873) Some Maori chiefs, like other +Polynesians, object to go down into a ship's cabin from fear of people +passing over their heads.(874) Dire misfortune was thought by the Maoris +to await those who entered a house where any article of animal food was +suspended over their heads. "A dead pigeon, or a piece of pork hung from +the roof, was a better protection from molestation than a sentinel."(875) +If I am right, the reason for the special objection to having animal food +over the head is the fear of bringing the sacred head into contact with +the spirit of the animal; just as the reason why the Flamen Dialis might +not walk under a vine was the fear of bringing his sacred head into +contact with the spirit of the vine. Similarly King Darius would not pass +through a gate over which there was a tomb, because in doing so he would +have had a corpse above his head.(876) Among the Awuna tribes of the Gold +Coast, West Africa, the worshippers of Hebesio, the god of thunder, +believe that their heads are sacred, being associated in some mysterious +way with the presence of the protective spirit of their god, which has +passed into them through this channel at baptism. Hence they carefully +guard their heads against injury, especially against any wound that might +draw blood, for they think that such a wound would entail the loss of +reason on the sufferer, and that it would bring down the wrath of the +thundering god and of his mouth-piece the fetish priest on the impious +smiter.(877) + + + + +§ 6. Hair tabooed. + + +(M161) When the head was considered so sacred that it might not even be +touched without grave offence, it is obvious that the cutting of the hair +must have been a delicate and difficult operation. The difficulties and +dangers which, on the primitive view, beset the operation are of two +kinds. There is first the danger of disturbing the spirit of the head, +which may be injured in the process and may revenge itself upon the person +who molests him. Secondly, there is the difficulty of disposing of the +shorn locks. For the savage believes that the sympathetic connexion which +exists between himself and every part of his body continues to exist even +after the physical connexion has been broken, and that therefore he will +suffer from any harm that may befall the severed parts of his body, such +as the clippings of his hair or the parings of his nails. Accordingly he +takes care that these severed portions of himself shall not be left in +places where they might either be exposed to accidental injury or fall +into the hands of malicious persons who might work magic on them to his +detriment or death. Such dangers are common to all, but sacred persons +have more to fear from them than ordinary people, so the precautions taken +by them are proportionately stringent. The simplest way of evading the +peril is not to cut the hair at all; and this is the expedient adopted +where the risk is thought to be more than usually great. The Frankish +kings were never allowed to crop their hair; from their childhood upwards +they had to keep it unshorn.(878) To poll the long locks that floated on +their shoulders would have been to renounce their right to the throne. +When the wicked brothers Clotaire and Childebert coveted the kingdom of +their dead brother Clodomir, they inveigled into their power their little +nephews, the two sons of Clodomir; and having done so, they sent a +messenger bearing scissors and a naked sword to the children's +grandmother, Queen Clotilde, at Paris. The envoy shewed the scissors and +the sword to Clotilde, and bade her choose whether the children should be +shorn and live or remain unshorn and die. The proud queen replied that if +her grandchildren were not to come to the throne she would rather see them +dead than shorn. And murdered they were by their ruthless uncle Clotaire +with his own hand.(879) The king of Ponape, one of the Caroline Islands, +must wear his hair long, and so must his grandees.(880) The hair of the +Aztec priests hung down to their hams, so that the weight of it became +very troublesome; for they might never poll it so long as they lived, or +at least until they had been relieved of their office on the score of old +age. They wore it braided in great tresses, six fingers broad, and tied +with cotton.(881) A Haida medicine-man may neither clip nor comb his +tresses, so they are always long and tangled.(882) Among the Hos, a negro +tribe of Togoland in West Africa, "there are priests on whose head no +razor may come during the whole of their lives. The god who dwells in the +man forbids the cutting of his hair on pain of death. If the hair is at +last too long, the owner must pray to his god to allow him at least to +clip the tips of it. The hair is in fact conceived as the seat and +lodging-place of his god, so that were it shorn the god would lose his +abode in the priest."(883) A rain-maker at Boroma, on the lower Zambesi, +used to give out that he was possessed by two spirits, one of a lion, the +other of a leopard, and in the assemblies of the people he mimicked the +roaring of these beasts. In order that their spirits might not leave him, +he never cut his hair nor drank alcohol.(884) The Masai clan of the El +Kiboron, who are believed to possess the art of making rain, may not pluck +out their beards, because the loss of their beards would, it is supposed, +entail the loss of their rain-making powers. The head chief and the +sorcerers of the Masai observe the same rule for a like reason: they think +that were they to pull out their beards, their supernatural gifts would +desert them.(885) In central Borneo the chiefs of a particular Kayan +family never allow their hair to be shorn.(886) Ancient Indian law +required that when a new king had performed the ceremony of consecration +he might not shave his hair for a year, though he was allowed to crop it. +According to one account none of his subjects, except a Brahman, might +have his hair cut during this period, and even horses were left +unclipped.(887) Amongst the Alfoors of Celebes the _Leleen_ or priest who +looks after the rice-fields may not shear his hair during the time that he +exercises his special functions, that is from a month before the rice is +sown until it is housed.(888) In Usukuma, a district to the south of Lake +Victoria Nyanza, the people are forbidden to shave their heads till the +corn has been sown.(889) Men of the Tsetsaut tribe in British Columbia do +not cut their hair, believing that if they cut it they would quickly grow +old.(890) In Ceram men do not crop their hair: if married men did so, they +would lose their wives; if young men did so, they would grow weak and +enervated.(891) In Timorlaut married men may not poll their hair for the +same reason as in Ceram, but widowers and men on a journey may do so after +offering a fowl or a pig in sacrifice.(892) Malays of the Peninsula are +forbidden to clip their hair during their wife's pregnancy and for forty +days after the child has been born; and a similar abstention is said to +have been formerly incumbent on all persons prosecuting a journey or +engaged in war.(893) Elsewhere men travelling abroad have been in the +habit of leaving their hair unshorn until their return. The reason for +this custom is probably the danger to which, as we have seen, a traveller +is believed to be exposed from the magic arts of the strangers amongst +whom he sojourns; if they got possession of his shorn hair, they might +work his destruction through it. The Egyptians on a journey kept their +hair uncut till they returned home.(894) "At Taif when a man returned from +a journey his first duty was to visit the Rabba and poll his hair."(895) +Achilles kept unshorn his yellow hair, because his father had vowed to +offer it to the River Sperchius if ever his son came home from the wars +beyond the sea.(896) Formerly when Dyak warriors returned with the heads +of their enemies, each man cut off a lock from the front of his head and +threw it into the river as a mode of ending the taboo to which they had +been subjected during the expedition.(897) Bechuanas after a battle had +their hair shorn by their mothers "in order that new hair might grow, and +that all which was old and polluted might disappear and be no more."(898) + +(M162) Again, men who have taken a vow of vengeance sometimes keep their +hair unshorn till they have fulfilled their vow. Thus of the Marquesans we +are told that "occasionally they have their head entirely shaved, except +one lock on the crown, which is worn loose or put up in a knot. But the +latter mode of wearing the hair is only adopted by them when they have a +solemn vow, as to revenge the death of some near relation, etc. In such +case the lock is never cut off until they have fulfilled their +promise."(899) A similar custom was sometimes observed by the ancient +Germans; among the Chatti the young warriors never clipped their hair or +their beard till they had slain an enemy.(900) Six thousand Saxons once +swore that they would not poll their hair nor shave their beards until +they had taken vengeance on their foes.(901) On one occasion a Hawaiian +taboo is said to have lasted thirty years, "during which the men were not +allowed to trim their beards, etc."(902) While his vow lasted, a Nazarite +might not have his hair cut: "All the days of the vow of his separation +there shall no razor come upon his head."(903) Possibly in this case there +was a special objection to touching the tabooed man's head with iron. The +Roman priests, as we have seen, were shorn with bronze knives. The same +feeling perhaps gave rise to the European rule that a child's nails should +not be pared during the first year, but that if it is absolutely necessary +to shorten them they should be bitten off by the mother or nurse.(904) For +in all parts of the world a young child is believed to be especially +exposed to supernatural dangers, and particular precautions are taken to +guard it against them; in other words, the child is under a number of +taboos, of which the rule just mentioned is one. "Among Hindus the usual +custom seems to be that the nails of a first-born child are cut at the age +of six months. With other children a year or two is allowed to +elapse."(905) The Slave, Hare, and Dogrib Indians of North-West America do +not pare the nails of female children till they are four years of +age.(906) In Uganda a child's hair may not be cut until the child has +received a name. Should any of it be rubbed or plucked off accidentally, +it is refastened to the child's head with string or by being knotted to +the other hair.(907) Amongst the Ewe negroes of the Slave Coast, a mother +sometimes vows a sacrifice to the fetish if her infant should live. She +then leaves the child unshorn till its fourth or sixth year, when she +fulfils her vow and has the child's hair cut by a priest.(908) To this day +a Syrian mother will sometimes, like Hannah, devote her little one to God. +When the child reaches a certain age, its hair is cut and weighed, and +money is paid in proportion to the weight. If the boy thus dedicated is a +Moslem, he becomes in time a dervish; if he is a Christian, he becomes a +monk.(909) Among the Toradjas of central Celebes, when a child's hair is +cut to rid it of vermin, some locks are allowed to remain on the crown of +the head as a refuge for one of the child's souls. Otherwise the soul +would have no place in which to settle, and the child would sicken.(910) +The Karo-Bataks of Sumatra are much afraid of frightening away the soul +(_tendi_) of a child; hence when they cut its hair, they always leave a +patch unshorn, to which the soul can retreat before the shears. Usually +this lock remains unshorn all through life, or at least up till +manhood.(911) In some parts of Germany it is thought that if a child's +hair is combed in its first year the child will be unlucky;(912) or that +if a boy's hair is cut before his seventh year he will have no +courage.(913) + + + + +§ 7. Ceremonies at Hair-cutting. + + +(M163) But when it becomes necessary to crop the hair, measures are taken +to lessen the dangers which are supposed to attend the operation. The +chief of Namosi in Fiji always ate a man by way of precaution when he had +had his hair cut. "There was a certain clan that had to provide the +victim, and they used to sit in solemn council among themselves to choose +him. It was a sacrificial feast to avert evil from the chief."(914) This +remarkable custom has been described more fully by another observer. The +old heathen temple at Namosi is called Rukunitambua, "and round about it +are hundreds of stones, each of which tells a fearful tale. A subject +tribe, whose town was some little distance from Namosi, had committed an +unpardonable offence, and were condemned to a frightful doom. The +earth-mound on which their temple had stood was planted with the mountain +_ndalo_ (arum), and when the crop was ripe, the poor wretches had to carry +it down to Namosi, and give at least one of their number to be killed and +eaten by the chief. He used to take advantage of these occasions to have +his hair cut, for the human sacrifice was supposed to avert all danger of +witchcraft if any ill-wisher got hold of the cuttings of his hair, human +hair being the most dangerous channel for the deadliest spells of the +sorcerers. The stones round Rukunitambua represented these and other +victims who had been killed and eaten at Namosi. Each stone was the record +of a murder succeeded by a cannibal feast."(915) Amongst the Maoris many +spells were uttered at hair-cutting; one, for example, was spoken to +consecrate the obsidian knife with which the hair was cut; another was +pronounced to avert the thunder and lightning which hair-cutting was +believed to cause.(916) "He who has had his hair cut is in immediate +charge of the Atua (spirit); he is removed from the contact and society of +his family and his tribe; he dare not touch his food himself; it is put +into his mouth by another person; nor can he for some days resume his +accustomed occupations or associate with his fellow-men."(917) The person +who cuts the hair is also tabooed; his hands having been in contact with a +sacred head, he may not touch food with them or engage in any other +employment; he is fed by another person with food cooked over a sacred +fire. He cannot be released from the taboo before the following day, when +he rubs his hands with potato or fern root which has been cooked on a +sacred fire; and this food having been taken to the head of the family in +the female line and eaten by her, his hands are freed from the taboo. In +some parts of New Zealand the most sacred day of the year was that +appointed for hair-cutting; the people assembled in large numbers on that +day from all the neighbourhood.(918) Sometimes a Maori chief's hair was +shorn by his wife, who was then tabooed for a week as a consequence of +having touched his sacred locks.(919) It is an affair of state when the +king of Cambodia's hair is cropped. The priests place on the barber's +fingers certain old rings set with large stones, which are supposed to +contain spirits favourable to the kings, and during the operation the +Brahmans keep up a noisy music to drive away the evil spirits.(920) The +hair and nails of the Mikado could only be cut while he was asleep,(921) +perhaps because his soul being then absent from his body, there was less +chance of injuring it with the shears. + +(M164) From their earliest days little Siamese children have the crown of +the head clean shorn with the exception of a single small tuft of hair, +which is daily combed, twisted, oiled, and tied in a little knot until the +day when it is finally removed with great pomp and ceremony. The ceremony +of shaving the top-knot takes place before the child has reached puberty, +and great anxiety is felt at this time lest the _kwun_, or guardian-spirit +who commonly resides in the body and especially the head of every +Siamese,(922) should be so disturbed by the tonsure as to depart and leave +the child a hopeless wreck for life. Great pains are therefore taken to +recall this mysterious being in case he should have fled, and to fix him +securely in the child. This is the object of an elaborate ceremony +performed on the afternoon of the day when the top-knot has been cut. A +miniature pagoda is erected, and on it are placed several kinds of food +known to be favourites of the spirit. When the _kwun_ has arrived and is +feasting on these dainties, he is caught and held fast under a cloth +thrown over the food. The child is now placed near the pagoda, and all the +family and friends form a circle, with the child, the captured spirit, and +the Brahman priests in the middle. Hereupon the priests address the +spirit, earnestly entreating him to enter into the child. They amuse him +with tales, and coax and wheedle him with flattery, jest, and song; the +gongs ring out their loudest; the people cheer and only a _kwun_ of the +sourest and most obdurate disposition could resist the combined appeal. +The last sentences of the formal invocation run as follows: "Benignant +_kwun_! Thou fickle being who art wont to wander and dally about! From the +moment that the child was conceived in the womb, thou hast enjoyed every +pleasure, until ten (lunar) months having elapsed and the time of delivery +arrived, thou hast suffered and run the risk of perishing by being born +alive into the world. Gracious _kwun_! thou wast at that time so tender, +delicate, and wavering as to cause great anxiety concerning thy fate; thou +was exactly like a child, youthful, innocent, and inexperienced. The least +trifle frightened thee and made thee shudder. In thy infantile playfulness +thou wast wont to frolic and wander to no purpose. As thou didst commence +to learn to sit, and, unassisted, to crawl totteringly on all fours, thou +wast ever falling flat on thy face or on thy back. As thou didst grow up +in years and couldst move thy steps firmly, thou didst begin to run and +sport thoughtlessly and rashly all round the rooms, the terrace, and +bridging planks of travelling boat or floating house, and at times thou +didst fall into the stream, creek, or pond, among the floating +water-weeds, to the utter dismay of those to whom thy existence was most +dear. O gentle _kwun_, come into thy corporeal abode; do not delay this +auspicious rite. Thou art now full-grown and dost form everybody's delight +and admiration. Let all the tiny particles of _kwun_ that have fallen on +land or water assemble and take permanent abode in this darling little +child. Let them all hurry to the site of this auspicious ceremony and +admire the magnificent preparations made for them in this hall." The +brocaded cloth from the pagoda, under which lurks the captive spirit, is +now rolled up tightly and handed to the child, who is told to clasp it +firmly to his breast and not let the _kwun_ escape. Further, the child +drinks the milk of the coco-nuts which had been offered to the spirit, and +by thus absorbing the food of the _kwun_ ensures the presence of that +precious spirit in his body. A magic cord is tied round his wrist to keep +off the wicked spirits who would lure the _kwun_ away from home; and for +three nights he sleeps with the embroidered cloth from the pagoda fast +clasped in his arms.(923) + + + + +§ 8. Disposal of Cut Hair and Nails. + + +(M165) But even when the hair and nails have been safely cut, there +remains the difficulty of disposing of them, for their owner believes +himself liable to suffer from any harm that may befall them. The notion +that a man may be bewitched by means of the clippings of his hair, the +parings of his nails, or any other severed portion of his person is almost +world-wide,(924) and attested by evidence too ample, too familiar, and too +tedious in its uniformity to be here analysed at length. The general idea +on which the superstition rests is that of the sympathetic connexion +supposed to persist between a person and everything that has once been +part of his body or in any way closely related to him. A very few examples +must suffice. They belong to that branch of sympathetic magic which may be +called contagious.(925) Thus, when the Chilote Indians, inhabiting the +wild, deeply indented coasts and dark rain-beaten forests of southern +Chili, get possession of the hair of an enemy, they drop it from a high +tree or tie it to a piece of seaweed and fling it into the surf; for they +think that the shock of the fall, or the blows of the waves as the tress +is tossed to and fro on the heaving billows, will be transmitted through +the hair to the person from whose head it was cut.(926) Dread of sorcery, +we are told, formed one of the most salient characteristics of the +Marquesan islanders in the old days. The sorcerer took some of the hair, +spittle, or other bodily refuse of the man he wished to injure, wrapped it +up in a leaf, and placed the packet in a bag woven of threads or fibres, +which were knotted in an intricate way. The whole was then buried with +certain rites, and thereupon the victim wasted away of a languishing +sickness which lasted twenty days. His life, however, might be saved by +discovering and digging up the buried hair, spittle, or what not; for as +soon as this was done the power of the charm ceased.(927) A Marquesan +chief told Lieutenant Gamble that he was extremely ill, the Happah tribe +having stolen a lock of his hair and buried it in a plantain leaf for the +purpose of taking his life. Lieutenant Gamble argued with him, but in +vain; die he must unless the hair and the plantain leaf were brought back +to him; and to obtain them he had offered the Happahs the greater part of +his property. He complained of excessive pain in the head, breast, and +sides.(928) A Maori sorcerer intent on bewitching somebody sought to get a +tress of his victim's hair, the parings of his nails, some of his spittle, +or a shred of his garment. Having obtained the object, whatever it was, he +chanted certain spells and curses over it in a falsetto voice and buried +it in the ground. As the thing decayed, the person to whom it had belonged +was supposed to waste away.(929) Again, an Australian girl, sick of a +fever, laid the blame of her illness on a young man who had come behind +her and cut off a lock of her hair; she was sure he had buried it and that +it was rotting. "Her hair," she said, "was rotting somewhere, and her +_Marm-bu-la_ (kidney fat) was wasting away, and when her hair had +completely rotted, she would die."(930) When an Australian blackfellow +wishes to get rid of his wife, he cuts off a lock of her hair in her +sleep, ties it to his spear-thrower, and goes with it to a neighbouring +tribe, where he gives it to a friend. His friend sticks the spear-thrower +up every night before the camp fire, and when it falls down it is a sign +that the wife is dead.(931) The way in which the charm operates was +explained to Dr. Howitt by a Wirajuri man. "You see," he said, "when a +blackfellow doctor gets hold of something belonging to a man and roasts it +with things, and sings over it, the fire catches hold of the smell of the +man, and that settles the poor fellow."(932) A slightly different form of +the charm as practised in Australia is to fasten the enemy's hair with wax +to the pinion bone of a hawk, and set the bone in a small circle of fire. +According as the sorcerer desires the death or only the sickness of his +victim he leaves the bone in the midst of the fire or removes it and lays +it in the sun. When he thinks he has done his enemy enough harm, he places +the bone in water, which ends the enchantment.(933) Lucian describes how a +Syrian witch professed to bring back a faithless lover to his forsaken +fair one by means of a lock of his hair, his shoes, his garments, or +something of that sort. She hung the hair, or whatever it was, on a peg +and fumigated it with brimstone, sprinkling salt on the fire and +mentioning the names of the lover and his lass. Then she drew a magic +wheel from her bosom and set it spinning, while she gabbled a spell full +of barbarous and fearsome words. This soon brought the false lover back to +the feet of his charmer.(934) Apuleius tells how an amorous Thessalian +witch essayed to win the affections of a handsome Boeotian youth by +similar means. As darkness fell she mounted the roof, and there, +surrounded by a hellish array of dead men's bones, she knotted the severed +tresses of auburn hair and threw them on the glowing embers of a perfumed +fire. But her cunning handmaid had outwitted her; the hair was only goat's +hair; and all her enchantments ended in dismal and ludicrous failure.(935) + +(M166) The Huzuls of the Carpathians imagine that if mice get a person's +shorn hair and make a nest of it, the person will suffer from headache or +even become idiotic.(936) Similarly in Germany it is a common notion that +if birds find a person's cut hair, and build their nests with it, the +person will suffer from headache;(937) sometimes it is thought that he +will have an eruption on the head.(938) The same superstition prevails, or +used to prevail, in West Sussex. "I knew how it would be," exclaimed a +maidservant one day, "when I saw that bird fly off with a bit of my hair +in its beak that blew out of the window this morning when I was dressing; +I knew I should have a clapping headache, and so I have."(939) In like +manner the Scottish Highlanders believe that if cut or loose hair is +allowed to blow away with the wind and it passes over an empty nest, or a +bird takes it to its nest, the head from which it came will ache.(940) The +Todas of southern India hide their clipped hair in bushes or hollows in +the rocks, in order that it may not be found by crows, and they bury the +parings of their nails lest they should be eaten by buffaloes, with whom, +it is believed, they would disagree.(941) + +(M167) Again it is thought that cut or combed-out hair may disturb the +weather by producing rain and hail, thunder and lightning. We have seen +that in New Zealand a spell was uttered at hair-cutting to avert thunder +and lightning. In the Tyrol, witches are supposed to use cut or combed-out +hair to make hailstones or thunderstorms with.(942) Thlinkeet Indians have +been known to attribute stormy weather to the rash act of a girl who had +combed her hair outside of the house.(943) The Romans seem to have held +similar views, for it was a maxim with them that no one on shipboard +should cut his hair or nails except in a storm,(944) that is, when the +mischief was already done. In the Highlands of Scotland it is said that no +sister should comb her hair at night if she have a brother at sea.(945) In +West Africa, when the Mani of Chitombe or Jumba died, the people used to +run in crowds to the corpse and tear out his hair, teeth, and nails, which +they kept as a rain-charm, believing that otherwise no rain would fall. +The Makoko of the Anzikos begged the missionaries to give him half their +beards as a rain-charm.(946) When Du Chaillu had his hair cut among the +Ashira of West Africa, the people scuffled and fought for the clippings of +his hair, even the aged king himself taking part in the scrimmage. Every +one who succeeded in getting some of the hairs wrapped them up carefully +and went off in triumph. When the traveller, who was regarded as a spirit +by these simple-minded folk, asked the king what use the clippings could +be to him, his sable majesty replied, "Oh, spirit! these hairs are very +precious; we shall make _mondas_ (fetiches) of them, and they will bring +other white men to us, and bring us great good luck and riches. Since you +have come to us, oh spirit! we have wished to have some of your hair, but +did not dare to ask for it, not knowing that it could be cut."(947) The +Wabondei of eastern Africa preserve the hair and nails of their dead +chiefs and use them both for the making of rain and the healing of the +sick.(948) The hair, beard, and nails of their deceased chiefs are the +most sacred possession, the most precious treasure of the Baronga of +south-eastern Africa. Preserved in pellets of cow-dung wrapt round with +leathern thongs, they are kept in a special hut under the charge of a high +priest, who offers sacrifices and prayers at certain seasons, and has to +observe strict continence for a month before he handles these holy relics +in the offices of religion. A terrible drought was once the result of this +palladium falling into the hands of the enemy.(949) In some Victorian +tribes the sorcerer used to burn human hair in time of drought; it was +never burned at other times for fear of causing a deluge of rain. Also +when the river was low, the sorcerer would place human hair in the stream +to increase the supply of water.(950) + +(M168) If cut hair and nails remain in sympathetic connexion with the +person from whose body they have been severed, it is clear that they can +be used as hostages for his good behaviour by any one who may chance to +possess them; for on the principles of contagious magic he has only to +injure the hair or nails in order to hurt simultaneously their original +owner. Hence when the Nandi have taken a prisoner they shave his head and +keep the shorn hair as a surety that he will not attempt to escape; but +when the captive is ransomed, they return his shorn hair with him to his +own people.(951) For a similar reason, perhaps, when the Tiaha, an Arab +tribe of Moab, have taken a prisoner whom they do not wish to put to +death, they shave one corner of his head above his temples and let him go. +So, too, an Arab of Moab who pardons a murderer will sometimes cut off the +man's hair and shave his chin before releasing him. Again, when two +Moabite Arabs had got hold of a traitor who had revealed their plan of +campaign to the enemy, they contented themselves with shaving completely +one side of his head and his moustache on the other, after which they set +him at liberty.(952) We can now, perhaps, understand why Hanun King of +Ammon shaved off one-half of the beards of King David's messengers and cut +off half their garments before he sent them back to their master.(953) His +intention, we may conjecture, was not simply to put a gross affront on the +envoys. He distrusted the ambitious designs of King David and wished to +have some guarantee of the maintenance of peace and friendly relations +between the two countries. That guarantee he may have imagined that he +possessed in half of the beards and garments of the ambassadors; and if +that was so, we may suppose that when the indignant David set the army of +Israel in motion against Ammon, and the fords of Jordan were alive with +the passage of his troops, the wizards of Ammon were busy in the strong +keep of Rabbah muttering their weird spells and performing their quaint +enchantments over the shorn hair and severed skirts in order to dispel the +thundercloud of war that was gathering black about their country. Vain +hopes! The city fell, and from the gates the sad inhabitants trooped forth +in thousands to be laid in long lines on the ground and sawed asunder or +ripped up with harrows or to walk into the red glow of the burning brick +kilns.(954) Again, the parings of nails may serve the same purpose as the +clippings of hair; they too may be treated as bail for the good behaviour +of the persons from whose fingers they have been cut. It is apparently on +this principle that when the Ba-yaka of the Congo valley cement a peace, +the chiefs of the two tribes meet and eat a cake which contains some of +their nail-parings as a pledge of the maintenance of the treaty. They +believe that he who breaks an engagement contracted in this solemn manner +will die.(955) Each of the high contracting parties has in fact given +hostages to fortune in the shape of the nail-parings which are lodged in +the other man's stomach. + +(M169) To preserve the cut hair and nails from injury and from the +dangerous uses to which they may be put by sorcerers, it is necessary to +deposit them in some safe place. Hence the natives of the Maldives +carefully keep the cuttings of their hair and nails and bury them, with a +little water, in the cemeteries; "for they would not for the world tread +upon them nor cast them in the fire, for they say that they are part of +their body, and demand burial as it does; and, indeed, they fold them +neatly in cotton; and most of them like to be shaved at the gates of +temples and mosques."(956) In New Zealand the severed hair was deposited +on some sacred spot of ground "to protect it from being touched +accidentally or designedly by any one."(957) The shorn locks of a chief +were gathered with much care and placed in an adjoining cemetery.(958) The +Tahitians buried the cuttings of their hair at the temples.(959) In the +streets of Soku, West Africa, a modern traveller observed cairns of large +stones piled against walls with tufts of human hair inserted in the +crevices. On asking the meaning of this, he was told that when any native +of the place polled his hair he carefully gathered up the clippings and +deposited them in one of these cairns, all of which were sacred to the +fetish and therefore inviolable. These cairns of sacred stones, he further +learned, were simply a precaution against witchcraft, for if a man were +not thus careful in disposing of his hair, some of it might fall into the +hands of his enemies, who would, by means of it, be able to cast spells +over him and so compass his destruction.(960) When the top-knot of a +Siamese child has been cut with great ceremony, the short hairs are put +into a little vessel made of plantain leaves and set adrift on the nearest +river or canal. As they float away, all that was wrong or harmful in the +child's disposition is believed to depart with them. The long hairs are +kept till the child makes a pilgrimage to the holy Footprint of Buddha on +the sacred hill at Prabat. They are then presented to the priests, who are +supposed to make them into brushes with which they sweep the Footprint; +but in fact so much hair is thus offered every year that the priests +cannot use it all, so they quietly burn the superfluity as soon as the +pilgrims' backs are turned.(961) The cut hair and nails of the Flamen +Dialis were buried under a lucky tree.(962) The shorn tresses of the +Vestal virgins were hung on an ancient lotus-tree.(963) In Morocco women +often hang their cut hair on a tree that grows on or near the grave of a +wonder-working saint; for they think thus to rid themselves of headache or +to guard against it.(964) In Germany the clippings of hair used often to +be buried under an elder-bush.(965) In Oldenburg cut hair and nails are +wrapt in a cloth which is deposited in a hole in an elder-tree three days +before the new moon; the hole is then plugged up.(966) In the West of +Northumberland it is thought that if the first parings of a child's nails +are buried under an ash-tree, the child will turn out a fine singer.(967) +In Amboyna, before a child may taste sago-pap for the first time, the +father cuts off a lock of the infant's hair, which he buries under a +sago-palm.(968) In the Aru Islands, when a child is able to run alone, a +female relation shears a lock of its hair and deposits it on a +banana-tree.(969) In the island of Rotti it is thought that the first hair +which a child gets is not his own, and that, if it is not cut off, it will +make him weak and ill. Hence, when the child is about a month old, his +hair is polled with much ceremony. As each of the friends who are invited +to the ceremony enters the house he goes up to the child, snips off a +little of its hair and drops it into a coco-nut shell full of water. +Afterwards the father or another relation takes the hair and packs it into +a little bag made of leaves, which he fastens to the top of a palm-tree. +Then he gives the leaves of the palm a good shaking, climbs down, and goes +home without speaking to any one.(970) Indians of the Yukon territory, +Alaska, do not throw away their cut hair and nails, but tie them up in +little bundles and place them in the crotches of trees or wherever they +are not likely to be disturbed by beasts. For "they have a superstition +that disease will follow the disturbance of such remains by animals."(971) + +(M170) Often the clipped hair and nails are stowed away in any secret +place, not necessarily in a temple or cemetery or at a tree, as in the +cases already mentioned. Thus in Swabia you are recommended to deposit +your clipped hair in some spot where neither sun nor moon can shine on it, +for example in the earth or under a stone.(972) In Danzig it is buried in +a bag under the threshold.(973) In Ugi, one of the Solomon Islands, men +bury their hair lest it should fall into the hands of an enemy who would +make magic with it and so bring sickness or calamity on them.(974) The +same fear seems to be general in Melanesia, and has led to a regular +practice of hiding cut hair and nails.(975) In Fiji, the shorn hair is +concealed in the thatch of the house.(976) Most Burmese and Shans tie the +combings of their hair and the parings of their nails to a stone and sink +them in deep water or bury them in the ground.(977) The Zend-Avesta +directs that the clippings of hair and the parings of nails shall be +placed in separate holes, and that three, six, or nine furrows shall be +drawn round each hole with a metal knife.(978) In the _Grihya-Sutras_ it +is provided that the hair cut from a child's head at the end of the first, +third, fifth, or seventh year shall be buried in the earth at a place +covered with grass or in the neighbourhood of water.(979) At the end of +the period of his studentship a Brahman has his hair shaved and his nails +cut; and a person who is kindly disposed to him gathers the shorn hair and +the clipped nails, puts them in a lump of bull's dung, and buries them in +a cow-stable or near an _adumbara_ tree or in a clump of _darbha_ grass, +with the words, "Thus I hide the sins of So-and-so."(980) The Madi or Moru +tribe of central Africa bury the parings of their nails in the +ground.(981) In Uganda grown people throw away the clippings of their +hair, but carefully bury the parings of their nails.(982) The A-lur are +careful to collect and bury both their hair and nails in safe places.(983) +The same practice prevails among many tribes of South Africa, from a fear +lest wizards should get hold of the severed particles and work evil with +them.(984) The Caffres carry still further this dread of allowing any +portion of themselves to fall into the hands of an enemy; for not only do +they bury their cut hair and nails in a secret spot, but when one of them +cleans the head of another he preserves the vermin which he catches, +"carefully delivering them to the person to whom they originally +appertained, supposing, according to their theory, that as they derived +their support from the blood of the man from whom they were taken, should +they be killed by another, the blood of his neighbour would be in his +possession, thus placing in his hands the power of some superhuman +influence."(985) Amongst the Wanyoro of central Africa all cuttings of the +hair and nails are carefully stored under the bed and afterwards strewed +about among the tall grass.(986) Similarly the Wahoko of central Africa +take pains to collect their cut hair and nails and scatter them in the +forest.(987) The Asa, a branch of the Masai, hide the clippings of their +hair and the parings of their nails or throw them away far from the kraal, +lest a sorcerer should get hold of them and make their original owners ill +by his magic.(988) In North Guinea the parings of the finger-nails and the +shorn locks of the head are scrupulously concealed, lest they be converted +into a charm for the destruction of the person to whom they belong.(989) +For the same reason the clipped hair and nail-parings of chiefs in +Southern Nigeria are secretly buried.(990) Among the Thompson Indians of +British Columbia loose hair was buried, hidden, or thrown into the water, +because, if an enemy got hold of it, he might bewitch the owner.(991) In +Bolang Mongondo, a district of western Celebes, the first hair cut from a +child's head is kept in a young coco-nut, which is commonly hung on the +front of the house, under the roof.(992) To spit upon the hair before +throwing it away is thought in some parts of Europe to be a sufficient +safeguard against its use by witches.(993) Spitting as a protective charm +is well known.(994) + +(M171) Sometimes the severed hair and nails are preserved, not to prevent +them from falling into the hands of a magician, but that the owner may +have them at the resurrection of the body, to which some races look +forward. Thus the Incas of Peru "took extreme care to preserve the +nail-parings and the hairs that were shorn off or torn out with a comb; +placing them in holes or niches in the walls; and if they fell out, any +other Indian that saw them picked them up and put them in their places +again. I very often asked different Indians, at various times, why they +did this, in order to see what they would say, and they all replied in the +same words saying, 'Know that all persons who are born must return to +life' (they have no word to express resuscitation), 'and the souls must +rise out of their tombs with all that belonged to their bodies. We, +therefore, in order that we may not have to search for our hair and nails +at a time when there will be much hurry and confusion, place them in one +place, that they may be brought together more conveniently, and, whenever +it is possible, we are also careful to spit in one place.' "(995) In Chili +this custom of stuffing the shorn hair into holes in the wall is still +observed, it being thought the height of imprudence to throw the hair +away.(996) Similarly the Turks never throw away the parings of their +nails, but carefully stow them in cracks of the walls or of the boards, in +the belief that they will be needed at the resurrection.(997) The +Armenians do not throw away their cut hair and nails and extracted teeth, +but hide them in places that are esteemed holy, such as a crack in the +church wall, a pillar of the house, or a hollow tree. They think that all +these severed portions of themselves will be wanted at the resurrection, +and that he who has not stowed them away in a safe place will have to hunt +about for them on the great day.(998) With the same intention the +Macedonians bury the parings of their nails in a hole,(999) and devout +Moslems in Morocco hide them in a secret place.(1000) Similarly the Arabs +of Moab bestow the parings of their nails in the crannies of walls, where +they are sanguine enough to expect to find them when they appear before +their Maker.(1001) Some of the Esthonians keep the parings of their finger +and toe nails in their bosom, in order to have them at hand when they are +asked for them at the day of judgment.(1002) In a like spirit peasants of +the Vosges will sometimes bury their extracted teeth secretly, marking the +spot well so that they may be able to walk straight to it on the +resurrection day.(1003) In the village of Drumconrath, near Abbeyleix, in +Ireland, there used to be some old women who, having ascertained from +Scripture that the hairs of their heads were all numbered by the Almighty, +expected to have to account for them at the day of judgment. In order to +be able to do so they stuffed the severed hair away in the thatch of their +cottages.(1004) In Abyssinia men who have had their hands or feet cut off +are careful to dry the severed limbs over a fire and preserve them in +butter for the purpose of being buried with them in the grave. Thus they +expect to get up with all their limbs complete at the general +rising.(1005) The pains taken by the Chinese to preserve corpses entire +and free from decay seems to rest on a firm belief in the resurrection of +the dead; hence it is natural to find their ancient books laying down a +rule that the hair, nails, and teeth which have fallen out during life +should be buried with the dead in the coffin, or at least in the +grave.(1006) The Fors of central Africa object to cut any one else's +nails, for should the part cut off be lost and not delivered into its +owner's hands, it will have to be made up to him somehow or other after +death. The parings are buried in the ground.(1007) + +(M172) Some people burn their loose hair to save it from falling into the +hands of sorcerers. This is done by the Patagonians and some of the +Victorian tribes.(1008) In the Upper Vosges they say that you should never +leave the clippings of your hair and nails lying about, but burn them to +hinder the sorcerers from using them against you.(1009) For the same +reason Italian women either burn their loose hairs or throw them into a +place where no one is likely to look for them.(1010) The almost universal +dread of witchcraft induces the West African negroes, the Makololo of +South Africa, and the Tahitians to burn or bury their shorn hair.(1011) +For the same reason the natives of Uap, one of the Caroline Islands, +either burn or throw into the sea the clippings of their hair and the +parings of their nails.(1012) One of the pygmies who roam through the +gloomy depths of the vast central African forests has been seen to collect +carefully the clippings of his hair in a packet of banana leaves and keep +them till next morning, when, the camp breaking up for the day's march, he +threw them into the hot ashes of the abandoned fire.(1013) Australian +aborigines of the Proserpine River, in Queensland, burn a woman's cut hair +to prevent it from getting into a man's bag; for if it did, the woman +would fall ill.(1014) When an English officer had cut off a lock of hair +of a Fuegian woman, the men of her party were angry, and one of them, +taking the lock away, threw half of it into the fire and swallowed the +rest. "Immediately afterwards, placing his hands to the fire, as if to +warm them, and looking upwards, he uttered a few words, apparently of +invocation: then, looking at us, pointed upwards, and exclaimed, with a +tone and gesture of explanation, '_Pecheray, Pecheray_.' After which they +cut off some hair from several of the officers who were present, and +repeated a similar ceremony."(1015) The Thompson Indians used to burn the +parings of their nails, because if an enemy got possession of the parings +he might bewitch the person to whom they belonged.(1016) In the Tyrol many +people burn their hair lest the witches should use it to raise +thunderstorms; others burn or bury it to prevent the birds from lining +their nests with it, which would cause the heads from which the hair came +to ache.(1017) Cut and combed-out hair is burned in Pomerania and +sometimes in Belgium.(1018) In Norway the parings of nails are either +burned or buried, lest the elves or the Finns should find them and make +them into bullets wherewith to shoot the cattle.(1019) In Corea all the +clippings and combings of the hair of a whole family are carefully +preserved throughout the year and then burned in potsherds outside the +house on the evening of New Year's Day. At such seasons the streets of +Seoul, the capital, present a weird spectacle. They are for the most part +silent and deserted, sometimes muffled deep in snow; but through the dusk +of twilight red lights glimmer at every door, where little groups are busy +tending tiny fires whose flickering flames cast a ruddy fitful glow on the +moving figures. The burning of the hair in these fires is thought to +exclude demons from the house for a year; but coupled with this belief may +well be, or once have been, a wish to put these relics out of the reach of +witches and wizards.(1020) + +(M173) This destruction of the hair and nails plainly involves an +inconsistency of thought. The object of the destruction is avowedly to +prevent these severed portions of the body from being used by sorcerers. +But the possibility of their being so used depends upon the supposed +sympathetic connexion between them and the man from whom they were +severed. And if this sympathetic connexion still exists, clearly these +severed portions cannot be destroyed without injury to the man. + +(M174) Before leaving this subject, on which I have perhaps dwelt too +long, it may be well to call attention to the motive assigned for cutting +a young child's hair in Rotti.(1021) In that island the first hair is +regarded as a danger to the child, and its removal is intended to avert +the danger. The reason of this may be that as a young child is almost +universally supposed to be in a tabooed or dangerous state, it is +necessary, in removing the taboo, to remove also the separable parts of +the child's body because they are infected, so to say, by the virus of +taboo and as such are dangerous. The cutting of the child's hair would +thus be exactly parallel to the destruction of the vessels which have been +used by a tabooed person.(1022) This view is borne out by a practice, +observed by some Australians, of burning off part of a woman's hair after +childbirth as well as burning every vessel which has been used by her +during her seclusion.(1023) Here the burning of the woman's hair seems +plainly intended to serve the same purpose as the burning of the vessels +used by her; and as the vessels are burned because they are believed to be +tainted with a dangerous infection, so, we must suppose, is also the hair. +Similarly among the Latuka of central Africa, a woman is secluded for +fourteen days after the birth of her child, and at the end of her +seclusion her hair is shaved off and burnt.(1024) Again, we have seen that +girls at puberty are strongly infected with taboo; hence it is not +surprising to find that the Ticunas of Brazil tear out all the hair of +girls at that period.(1025) Once more, the father of twins in Uganda is +tabooed for some time after the birth of the children, and during that +time he may not dress his hair nor cut his finger nails. This state of +taboo lasts until the next war breaks out. When the army is under orders +to march, the father of twins has the whole of his body shaved and his +nails cut. The shorn hair and the cut nails are then tied up in a ball, +which the man takes with him to the war, together with the bark cloth he +wore at the ceremonial dances after the birth of the twins. When he has +killed a foe, he crams the ball into the dead man's mouth, ties the bark +cloth round the neck of the corpse, and leaves them there on the +battlefield.(1026) The ceremony appears to be intended to rid the man of +the taint of taboo which may be supposed to adhere to his hair, nails, and +the garment he wore. Hence we can understand the importance attached by +many peoples to the first cutting of a child's hair and the elaborate +ceremonies by which the operation is accompanied.(1027) Again, we can +understand why a man should poll his head after a journey.(1028) For we +have seen that a traveller is often believed to contract a dangerous +infection from strangers, and that, therefore, on his return home he is +obliged to submit to various purificatory ceremonies before he is allowed +to mingle freely with his own people.(1029) On my hypothesis the polling +of the hair is simply one of these purificatory or disinfectant +ceremonies. Certainly this explanation applies to the custom as practised +by the Bechuanas, for we are expressly told that "they cleanse or purify +themselves after journeys by shaving their heads, etc., lest they should +have contracted from strangers some evil by witchcraft or sorcery."(1030) +The cutting of the hair after a vow may have the same meaning. It is a way +of ridding the man of what has been infected by the dangerous state, +whether we call it taboo, sanctity, or uncleanness (for all these are only +different expressions for the same primitive conception), under which he +laboured during the continuance of the vow. Still more clearly does the +meaning of the practice come out in the case of mourners, who cut their +hair and nails and use new vessels when the period of their mourning is at +an end. This was done in ancient India, obviously for the purpose of +purifying such persons from the dangerous influence of death and the ghost +to which for a time they had been exposed.(1031) Among the Bodos and +Dhimals of Assam, when a death has occurred, the family of the deceased is +reckoned unclean for three days. At the end of that time they bathe, +shave, and are sprinkled with holy water, after which they hold the +funeral feast.(1032) Here the act of shaving must clearly be regarded as a +purificatory rite, like the bathing and sprinkling with holy water. At +Hierapolis no man might enter the great temple of Astarte on the same day +on which he had seen a corpse; next day he might enter, provided he had +first purified himself. But the kinsmen of the deceased were not allowed +to set foot in the sanctuary for thirty days after the death, and before +doing so they had to shave their heads.(1033) At Agweh, on the Slave Coast +of West Africa, widows and widowers at the end of their period of mourning +wash themselves, shave their heads, pare their nails, and put on new +cloths; and the old cloths, the shorn hair, and the nail-parings are all +burnt.(1034) The Kayans of Borneo are not allowed to cut their hair or +shave their temples during the period of mourning; but as soon as the +mourning is ended by the ceremony of bringing home a newly severed human +head, the barber's knife is kept busy enough. As each man leaves the +barber's hands, he gathers up the shorn locks and spitting on them murmurs +a prayer to the evil spirits not to harm him. He then blows the hair out +of the verandah of the house.(1035) Among the Wajagga of East Africa +mourners shear their hair under a fruit-bearing banana-tree and lay their +shorn locks at the foot of the tree. When the fruit of the tree is ripe, +they brew beer with it and invite all the mourners to partake of it, +saying, "Come and drink the beer of those hair-bananas."(1036) The tribes +of British Central Africa destroy the house in which a man has died, and +on the day when this is done the mourners have their heads shaved and bury +the shorn hair on the site of the house; the Atonga burn it in a new fire +made by the rubbing of two sticks.(1037) When an Akikuyu woman has, in +accordance with custom, exposed her misshapen or prematurely born infant +in the wood for the hyaenas to devour, she is shaved on her return by an +old woman and given a magic potion to drink; after which she is regarded +as clean.(1038) Similarly at some Hindoo places of pilgrimage on the banks +of rivers men who have committed great crimes or are troubled by uneasy +consciences have every hair shaved off by professional barbers before they +plunge into the sacred stream, from which "they emerge new creatures, with +all the accumulated guilt of a long life effaced."(1039) The matricide +Orestes is said to have polled his hair after appeasing the angry Furies +of his murdered mother.(1040) + + + + +§ 9. Spittle tabooed. + + +(M175) The same fear of witchcraft which has led so many people to hide or +destroy their loose hair and nails has induced other or the same people to +treat their spittle in a like fashion. For on the principles of +sympathetic magic the spittle is part of the man, and whatever is done to +it will have a corresponding effect on him. A Chilote Indian, who has +gathered up the spittle of an enemy, will put it in a potato, and hang the +potato in the smoke, uttering certain spells as he does so in the belief +that his foe will waste away as the potato dries in the smoke. Or he will +put the spittle in a frog and throw the animal into an inaccessible, +unnavigable river, which will make the victim quake and shake with +ague.(1041) When a Cherokee sorcerer desires to destroy a man, he gathers +up his victim's spittle on a stick and puts it in a joint of wild parsnip, +together with seven earthworms beaten to a paste and several splinters +from a tree which has been struck by lightning. He then goes into the +forest, digs a hole at the foot of a tree which has been struck by +lightning, and deposits in the hole the joint of wild parsnip with its +contents. Further, he lays seven yellow stones in the hole, then fills in +the earth, and makes a fire over the spot to destroy all traces of his +work. If the ceremony has been properly carried out, the man whose spittle +has thus been treated begins to feel ill at once; his soul shrivels up and +dwindles; and within seven days he is a dead man.(1042) In the East Indian +island of Siaoo or Siauw, one of the Sangi group, there are witches who by +means of hellish charms compounded from the roots of plants can change +their shape and bring sickness and misfortune on other folk. These hags +also crawl under the houses, which are raised above the ground on posts, +and there gathering up the spittle of the inmates cause them to fall +ill.(1043) If a Wotjobaluk sorcerer cannot get the hair of his foe, a +shred of his rug, or something else that belongs to the man, he will watch +till he sees him spit, when he will carefully pick up the spittle with a +stick and use it for the destruction of the careless spitter.(1044) The +natives of Urewera, a district in the north island of New Zealand, enjoyed +a high reputation for their skill in magic. It was said that they made use +of people's spittle to bewitch them. Hence visitors were careful to +conceal their spittle, lest they should furnish these wizards with a +handle for working them harm.(1045) Similarly among some tribes of South +Africa no man will spit when an enemy is near, lest his foe should find +the spittle and give it to a wizard, who would then mix it with magical +ingredients so as to injure the person from whom it fell. Even in a man's +own house his saliva is carefully swept away and obliterated for a similar +reason.(1046) For a like reason, no doubt, the natives of the Marianne +Islands use great precautions in spitting and take care never to +expectorate near somebody else's house.(1047) Negroes of Senegal, the +Bissagos Archipelago, and some of the West Indian Islands, such as +Guadeloupe and Martinique, are also careful to efface their spittle by +pressing it into the ground with their feet, lest a sorcerer should use it +to their hurt.(1048) Natives of Astrolabe Bay, in German New Guinea, wipe +out their spittle for the same reason;(1049) and a like dread of sorcery +prevents some natives of German New Guinea from spitting on the ground in +presence of others.(1050) The Telugus say that if a man, rinsing his teeth +with charcoal in the mornings, spits on the road and somebody else treads +on his spittle, the spitter will be laid up with a sharp attack of fever +for two or three days. Hence all who wish to avoid the ailment should at +once efface their spittle by sprinkling water on it.(1051) + +(M176) If common folk are thus cautious, it is natural that kings and +chiefs should be doubly so. In the Sandwich Islands chiefs were attended +by a confidential servant bearing a portable spittoon, and the deposit was +carefully buried every morning to put it out of the reach of +sorcerers.(1052) On the Slave Coast of Africa, for the same reason, +whenever a king or chief expectorates, the saliva is scrupulously gathered +up and hidden or buried.(1053) The same precautions are taken for the same +reason with the spittle of the chief of Tabali in Southern Nigeria.(1054) +At Bulebane, in Senegambia, a French traveller observed a captive engaged, +with an air of great importance, in covering over with sand all the +spittle that fell from the lips of a native dignitary; the man used a +small stick for the purpose.(1055) Page-boys, who carry tails of +elephants, hasten to sweep up or cover with sand the spittle of the king +of Ashantee;(1056) an attendant used to perform a similar service for the +king of Congo;(1057) and a custom of the same sort prevails or used to +prevail at the court of the Muata Jamwo in the interior of Angola.(1058) +In Yap, one of the Caroline Islands, there are two great wizards, the head +of all the magicians, whose exalted dignity compels them to lead a very +strict life. They may eat fruit only from plants or trees which are grown +specially for them. When one of them goes abroad the other must stay at +home, for if they were to meet each other on the road, some direful +calamity would surely follow. Though they may not smoke tobacco, they are +allowed to chew a quid of betel; but that which they expectorate is +carefully gathered up, carried away, and burned in a special manner, lest +any evil-disposed person should get possession of the spittle and do their +reverences a mischief by uttering a curse over it.(1059) Among the +Guaycurus and Payaguas of Brazil, when a chief spat, the persons about him +received his saliva on their hands,(1060) probably in order to prevent it +from being misused by magicians. + +(M177) The magical use to which spittle may be put marks it out, like +blood or nail-parings, as a suitable material basis for a covenant, since +by exchanging their saliva the covenanting parties give each other a +guarantee of good faith. If either of them afterwards forswears himself, +the other can punish his perfidy by a magical treatment of the perjurer's +spittle which he has in his custody. Thus when the Wajagga of East Africa +desire to make a covenant, the two parties will sometimes sit down with a +bowl of milk or beer between them, and after uttering an incantation over +the beverage they each take a mouthful of the milk or beer and spit it +into the other's mouth. In urgent cases, when there is no time to stand on +ceremony, the two will simply spit into each other's mouth, which seals +the covenant just as well.(1061) + + + + +§ 10. Foods tabooed. + + +(M178) As might have been expected, the superstitions of the savage +cluster thick about the subject of food; and he abstains from eating many +animals and plants, wholesome enough in themselves, which for one reason +or another he fancies would prove dangerous or fatal to the eater. +Examples of such abstinence are too familiar and far too numerous to +quote. But if the ordinary man is thus deterred by superstitious fear from +partaking of various foods, the restraints of this kind which are laid +upon sacred or tabooed persons, such as kings and priests, are still more +numerous and stringent. We have already seen that the Flamen Dialis was +forbidden to eat or even name several plants and animals, and that the +flesh diet of Egyptian kings was restricted to veal and goose.(1062) In +antiquity many priests and many kings of barbarous peoples abstained +wholly from a flesh diet.(1063) The _Gangas_ or fetish priests of the +Loango Coast are forbidden to eat or even see a variety of animals and +fish, in consequence of which their flesh diet is extremely limited; often +they live only on herbs and roots, though they may drink fresh +blood.(1064) The heir to the throne of Loango is forbidden from infancy to +eat pork; from early childhood he is interdicted the use of the _cola_ +fruit in company; at puberty he is taught by a priest not to partake of +fowls except such as he has himself killed and cooked; and so the number +of taboos goes on increasing with his years.(1065) In Fernando Po the king +after installation is forbidden to eat _cocco_ (_arum acaule_), deer, and +porcupine, which are the ordinary foods of the people.(1066) The head +chief of the Masai may eat nothing but milk, honey, and the roasted livers +of goats; for if he partook of any other food he would lose his power of +soothsaying and of compounding charms.(1067) The diet of the king of +Unyoro in Central Africa was strictly regulated by immemorial custom. He +might never eat vegetables, but must live on milk and beef. Mutton he +might not touch. The beef he ate must be that of young animals not more +than one year old, and it must be spitted and roasted before a wood fire. +But he might not drink milk and eat beef at the same meal. He drank milk +thrice a day in the dairy, and the milk was always drawn from a sacred +herd which was kept for his exclusive use. Nine cows, neither more nor +less, were daily brought from pasture to the royal enclosure to be milked +for the king. The herding and the milking of the sacred animals were +performed according to certain rules prescribed by ancient custom.(1068) +Amongst the Murrams of Manipur (a district of eastern India, on the border +of Burma) "there are many prohibitions in regard to the food, both animal +and vegetable, which the chief should eat, and the Murrams say the chief's +post must be a very uncomfortable one."(1069) Among the hill tribes of +Manipur the scale of diet allowed by custom to the _ghennabura_ or +religious head of a village is always extremely limited. The savoury dog, +the tomato, the _murghi_, are forbidden to him. If a man in one of these +tribes is wealthy enough to feast his whole village and to erect a +memorial stone, he is entitled to become subject to the same self-denying +ordinances as the _ghennabura_. He wears the same special clothes, and for +the space of a year at least he may not use a drinking horn, but must +drink from a bamboo cup.(1070) Among the Karennis or Red Karens of Burma a +chief attains his position not by hereditary right but in virtue of the +observance of taboo. He must abstain from rice and liquor. His mother too +must have eschewed these things and lived only on yams and potatoes while +she was with child. During that time she might neither eat meat nor drink +water from a common well; and in order to be duly qualified for a +chiefship her son must continue these habits.(1071) Among the Pshaws and +Chewsurs of the Caucasus, whose nominal Christianity has degenerated into +superstition and polytheism, there is an annual office which entails a +number of taboos on the holder or _dasturi_, as he is called. He must live +the whole year in the temple, without going to his house or visiting his +wife; indeed he may not speak to any one, except the priests, for fear of +defiling himself. Once a week he must bathe in the river, whatever the +weather may be, using for the purpose a ladder on which no one else may +set foot. His only nourishment is bread and water. In the temple he +superintends the brewing of the beer for the festivals.(1072) In the +village of Tomil, in Yap, one of the Caroline Islands, the year consists +of twenty-four months, and there are five men who for a hundred days of +the year may eat only fish and taro, may not chew betel, and must observe +strict continence. The reason assigned by them for submitting to these +restraints is that if they did not act thus the immature girls would +attain to puberty too soon.(1073) + +To explain the ultimate reason why any particular food is prohibited to a +whole tribe or to certain of its members would commonly require a far more +intimate knowledge of the history and beliefs of the tribe than we +possess. The general motive of such prohibitions is doubtless the same +which underlies the whole taboo system, namely, the conservation of the +tribe and the individual. + + + + +§ 11. Knots and Rings tabooed. + + +(M179) We have seen that among the many taboos which the Flamen Dialis at +Rome had to observe, there was one that forbade him to have a knot on any +part of his garments, and another that obliged him to wear no ring unless +it were broken.(1074) In like manner Moslem pilgrims to Mecca are in a +state of sanctity or taboo and may wear on their persons neither knots nor +rings.(1075) These rules are probably of kindred significance, and may +conveniently be considered together. To begin with knots, many people in +different parts of the world entertain a strong objection to having any +knot about their person at certain critical seasons, particularly +childbirth, marriage, and death. Thus among the Saxons of Transylvania, +when a woman is in travail all knots on her garments are untied, because +it is believed that this will facilitate her delivery, and with the same +intention all the locks in the house, whether on doors or boxes, are +unlocked.(1076) The Lapps think that a lying-in woman should have no knot +on her garments, because a knot would have the effect of making the +delivery difficult and painful.(1077) In ancient India it was a rule to +untie all knots in a house at the moment of childbirth.(1078) Roman +religion required that women who took part in the rites of Juno Lucina, +the goddess of childbirth, should have no knot tied on their +persons.(1079) In the East Indies this superstition is extended to the +whole time of pregnancy; the people believe that if a pregnant woman were +to tie knots, or braid, or make anything fast, the child would thereby be +constricted or the woman would herself be "tied up" when her time +came.(1080) Nay, some of them enforce the observance of the rule on the +father as well as the mother of the unborn child. Among the Sea Dyaks +neither of the parents may bind up anything with string or make anything +fast during the wife's pregnancy.(1081) Among the Land Dyaks the husband +of the expectant mother is bound to refrain from tying things together +with rattans until after her delivery.(1082) In the Toumbuluh tribe of +North Celebes a ceremony is performed in the fourth or fifth month of a +woman's pregnancy, and after it her husband is forbidden, among many other +things, to tie any fast knots and to sit with his legs crossed over each +other.(1083) In the Kaitish tribe of central Australia the father of a +newborn child goes out into the scrub for three days, away from his camp, +leaving his girdle and arm-bands behind him, so that he has nothing tied +tightly round any part of his body. This freedom from constriction is +supposed to benefit his wife.(1084) + +(M180) In all these cases the idea seems to be that the tying of a knot +would, as they say in the East Indies, "tie up" the woman, in other words, +impede and perhaps prevent her delivery, or delay her convalescence after +the birth. On the principles of homoeopathic or imitative magic the +physical obstacle or impediment of a knot on a cord would create a +corresponding obstacle or impediment in the body of the woman. That this +is really the explanation of the rule appears from a custom observed by +the Hos of Togoland in West Africa at a difficult birth. When a woman is +in hard labour and cannot bring forth, they call in a magician to her aid. +He looks at her and says, "The child is bound in the womb, that is why she +cannot be delivered." On the entreaties of her female relations he then +promises to loose the bond so that she may bring forth. For that purpose +he orders them to fetch a tough creeper from the forest, and with it he +binds the hands and feet of the sufferer on her back. Then he takes a +knife and calls out the woman's name, and when she answers he cuts through +the creeper with a knife, saying, "I cut through to-day thy bonds and thy +child's bonds." After that he chops up the creeper small, puts the bits in +a vessel of water, and bathes the woman with the water.(1085) Here the +cutting of the creeper with which the woman's hands and feet are bound is +a simple piece of homoeopathic or imitative magic: by releasing her limbs +from their bonds the magician imagines that he simultaneously releases the +child in her womb from the trammels which impede its birth. For a similar +reason, no doubt, among the same people a priest ties up the limbs of a +pregnant woman with grass and then unties the knots, saying, "I will now +open you." After that the woman has to partake of some maize-porridge in +which a ring made of a magic cord had been previously placed by the +priest.(1086) The intention of this ceremony is probably, on the +principles of homoeopathic magic, to ensure for the woman an easy delivery +by releasing her from the bonds of grass. The same train of thought +underlies a practice observed by some peoples of opening all locks, doors, +and so on, while a birth is taking place in the house. We have seen that +at such a time the Germans of Transylvania open all the locks, and the +same thing is done also in Voigtland and Mecklenburg.(1087) In +north-western Argyllshire superstitious people used to open every lock in +the house at childbirth.(1088) The old Roman custom of presenting women +with a key as a symbol of an easy delivery(1089) perhaps points to the +observance of a similar custom. In the island of Salsette near Bombay, +when a woman is in hard labour, all locks of doors or drawers are opened +with a key to facilitate her delivery.(1090) Among the Mandelings of +Sumatra the lids of all chests, boxes, pans and so forth are opened; and +if this does not produce the desired effect, the anxious husband has to +strike the projecting ends of some of the house-beams in order to loosen +them; for they think that "everything must be open and loose to facilitate +the delivery."(1091) At a difficult birth the Battas of Sumatra make a +search through the possessions of husband and wife and untie everything +that is tied up in a bundle.(1092) In some parts of Java, when a woman is +in travail, everything in the house that was shut is opened, in order that +the birth may not be impeded; not only are doors opened and the lids of +chests, boxes, rice-pots, and water-buts lifted up, but even swords are +unsheathed and spears drawn out of their cases.(1093) Customs of the same +sort are practised with the same intention in other parts of the East +Indies.(1094) In Chittagong, when a woman cannot bring her child to the +birth, the midwife gives orders to throw all doors and windows wide open, +to uncork all bottles, to remove the bungs from all casks, to unloose the +cows in the stall, the horses in the stable, the watchdog in his kennel, +to set free sheep, fowls, ducks, and so forth. This universal liberty +accorded to the animals and even to inanimate things is, according to the +people, an infallible means of ensuring the woman's delivery and allowing +the babe to be born.(1095) At the moment of childbirth the Chams of +Cochin-China hasten to open the stall of the buffaloes and to unyoke the +plough, doubtless with the intention of aiding the woman in travail, +though the writer who reports the custom is unable to explain it.(1096) +Among the Singhalese, a few hours before a birth is expected to take +place, all the cupboards in the house are unlocked with the express +purpose of facilitating the delivery.(1097) In the island of Saghalien, +when a woman is in labour, her husband undoes everything that can be +undone. He loosens the plaits of his hair and the laces of his shoes. Then +he unties whatever is tied in the house or its vicinity. In the courtyard +he takes the axe out of the log in which it is stuck; he unfastens the +boat, if it is moored to a tree, he withdraws the cartridges from his gun, +and the arrows from his crossbow.(1098) In Bilaspore a woman's hair is +never allowed to remain knotted while she is in the act of giving birth to +a child.(1099) Among some modern Jews of Roumania it is customary for the +unmarried girls of a household to unbraid their hair and let it hang loose +on their shoulders while a woman is in hard labour in the house.(1100) + +(M181) Again, we have seen that a Toumbuluh man abstains not only from +tying knots, but also from sitting with crossed legs during his wife's +pregnancy. The train of thought is the same in both cases. Whether you +cross threads in tying a knot, or only cross your legs in sitting at your +ease, you are equally, on the principles of homoeopathic magic, crossing +or thwarting the free course of things, and your action cannot but check +and impede whatever may be going forward in your neighbourhood. Of this +important truth the Romans were fully aware. To sit beside a pregnant +woman or a patient under medical treatment with clasped hands, says the +grave Pliny, is to cast a malignant spell over the person, and it is worse +still if you nurse your leg or legs with your clasped hands, or lay one +leg over the other. Such postures were regarded by the old Romans as a let +and hindrance to business of every sort, and at a council of war or a +meeting of magistrates, at prayers and sacrifices, no man was suffered to +cross his legs or clasp his hands.(1101) The stock instance of the +dreadful consequences that might flow from doing one or the other was that +of Alcmena, who travailed with Hercules for seven days and seven nights, +because the goddess Lucina sat in front of the house with clasped hands +and crossed legs, and the child could not be born until the goddess had +been beguiled into changing her attitude.(1102) It is a Bulgarian +superstition that if a pregnant woman is in the habit of sitting with +crossed legs, she will suffer much in childbed.(1103) In some parts of +Bavaria, when conversation comes to a standstill and silence ensues, they +say, "Surely somebody has crossed his legs."(1104) + +(M182) The magical effect of knots in trammelling and obstructing human +activity was believed to be manifested at marriage not less than at birth. +During the Middle Ages, and down to the eighteenth century, it seems to +have been commonly held in Europe that the consummation of marriage could +be prevented by any one who, while the wedding ceremony was taking place, +either locked a lock or tied a knot in a cord, and then threw the lock or +the cord away. The lock or the knotted cord had to be flung into water; +and until it had been found and unlocked, or untied, no real union of the +married pair was possible.(1105) Hence it was a grave offence, not only to +cast such a spell, but also to steal or make away with the material +instrument of it, whether lock or knotted cord. In the year 1718 the +parliament of Bordeaux sentenced some one to be burned alive for having +spread desolation through a whole family by means of knotted cords; and in +1705 two persons were condemned to death in Scotland for stealing certain +charmed knots which a woman had made, in order thereby to mar the wedded +happiness of Spalding of Ashintilly.(1106) The belief in the efficacy of +these charms appears to have lingered in the Highlands of Perthshire down +to the end of the eighteenth century, for at that time it was still +customary in the beautiful parish of Logierait, between the river Tummel +and the river Tay, to unloose carefully every knot in the clothes of the +bride and bridegroom before the celebration of the marriage ceremony. When +the ceremony was over, and the bridal party had left the church, the +bridegroom immediately retired one way with some young men to tie the +knots that had been loosed a little before; and the bride in like manner +withdrew somewhere else to adjust the disorder of her dress.(1107) In some +parts of the Highlands it was deemed enough that the bridegroom's left +shoe should be without buckle or latchet, "to prevent witches from +depriving him, on the nuptial night, of the power of loosening the virgin +zone."(1108) We meet with the same superstition and the same custom at the +present day in Syria. The persons who help a Syrian bridegroom to don his +wedding garments take care that no knot is tied on them and no button +buttoned, for they believe that a button buttoned or a knot tied would put +it within the power of his enemies to deprive him of his nuptial rights by +magical means.(1109) In Lesbos the malignant person who would thus injure +a bridegroom on his wedding day ties a thread to a bush, while he utters +imprecations; but the bridegroom can defeat the spell by wearing at his +girdle a piece of an old net or of an old mantilla belonging to the bride +in which knots have been tied.(1110) The fear of such charms is diffused +all over North Africa at the present day. To render a bridegroom impotent +the enchanter has only to tie a knot in a handkerchief which he had +previously placed quietly on some part of the bridegroom's body when he +was mounted on horseback ready to fetch his bride: so long as the knot in +the handkerchief remains tied, so long will the bridegroom remain +powerless to consummate the marriage. Another way of effecting the same +object is to stand behind the bridegroom when he is on horseback, with an +open clasp-knife or pair of scissors in your hand and to call out his +name; if he imprudently answers, you at once shut the clasp-knife or the +pair of scissors with a snap, and that makes him impotent. To guard +against this malignant spell the bridegroom's mother will sometimes buy a +penknife on the eve of the marriage, shut it up, and then open it just at +the moment when her son is about to enter the bridal chamber.(1111) + +(M183) A curious use is made of knots at marriage in the little East +Indian island of Rotti. When a man has paid the price of his bride, a cord +is fastened round her waist, if she is a maid, but not otherwise. Nine +knots are tied in the cord, and in order to make them harder to unloose, +they are smeared with wax. Bride and bridegroom are then secluded in a +chamber, where he has to untie the knots with the thumb and forefinger of +his left hand only. It may be from one to twelve months before he succeeds +in undoing them all. Until he has done so he may not look on the woman as +his wife. In no case may the cord be broken, or the bridegroom would +render himself liable to any fine that the bride's father might choose to +impose. When all the knots are loosed, the woman is his wife, and he shews +the cord to her father, and generally presents his wife with a golden or +silver necklace instead of the cord.(1112) The meaning of this custom is +not clear, but we may conjecture that the nine knots refer to the nine +months of pregnancy, and that miscarriage would be the supposed result of +leaving a single knot untied. + +(M184) The maleficent power of knots may also be manifested in the +infliction of sickness, disease, and all kinds of misfortune. Thus among +the Hos of Togoland a sorcerer will sometimes curse his enemy and tie a +knot in a stalk of grass, saying, "I have tied up So-and-So in this knot. +May all evil light upon him! When he goes into the field, may a snake +sting him! When he goes to the chase, may a ravening beast attack him! And +when he steps into a river, may the water sweep him away! When it rains, +may the lightning strike him! May evil nights be his!" It is believed that +in the knot the sorcerer has bound up the life of his enemy.(1113) +Babylonian witches and wizards of old used to strangle their victim, seal +his mouth, wrack his limbs, and tear his entrails by merely tying knots in +a cord, while at each knot they muttered a spell. But happily the evil +could be undone by simply undoing the knots.(1114) We hear of a man in one +of the Orkney Islands who was utterly ruined by nine knots cast on a blue +thread; and it would seem that sick people in Scotland sometimes prayed to +the devil to restore them to health by loosing the secret knot that was +doing all the mischief.(1115) In the Koran there is an allusion to the +mischief of "those who puff into the knots," and an Arab commentator on +the passage explains that the words refer to women who practise magic by +tying knots in cords, and then blowing and spitting upon them. He goes on +to relate how, once upon a time, a wicked Jew bewitched the prophet +Mohammed himself by tying nine knots on a string, which he then hid in a +well. So the prophet fell ill, and nobody knows what might have happened +if the archangel Gabriel had not opportunely revealed to the holy man the +place where the knotted cord was concealed. The trusty Ali soon fetched +the baleful thing from the well; and the prophet recited over it certain +charms, which were specially revealed to him for the purpose. At every +verse of the charms a knot untied itself, and the prophet experienced a +certain relief.(1116) It will hardly be disputed that by tying knots on +the string the pestilent Hebrew contrived, if I may say so, to constrict +or astringe or, in short, to tie up some vital organ or organs in the +prophet's stomach. At least we are informed that something of this sort is +done by Australian blackfellows at the present day, and if so, why should +it not have been done by Arabs in the time of Mohammed? The Australian +mode of operation is as follows. When a blackfellow wishes to settle old +scores with another blackfellow, he ties a rope of fibre or bark so +tightly round the neck of his slumbering friend as partially to choke him. +Having done this he takes out the man's caul-fat from under his short rib, +ties up his inside carefully with string, replaces the skin, and having +effaced all external marks of the wound, makes off with the stolen fat. +The victim on awakening feels no inconvenience, but sooner or later, +sometimes months afterwards, while he is hunting or exerting himself +violently in some other way, he will feel the string snap in his inside. +"Hallo," says he, "somebody has tied me up inside with string!" and he +goes home to the camp and dies on the spot.(1117) Who can doubt but that +in this lucid diagnosis we have the true key to the prophet's malady, and +that he too might have succumbed to the wiles of his insidious foe if it +had not been for the timely intervention of the archangel Gabriel? + +(M185) If knots are supposed to kill, they are also supposed to cure. This +follows from the belief that to undo the knots which are causing sickness +will bring the sufferer relief. But apart from this negative virtue of +maleficent knots, there are certain beneficent knots to which a positive +power of healing is ascribed. Pliny tells us that some folk cured diseases +of the groin by taking a thread from a web, tying seven or nine knots on +it, and then fastening it to the patient's groin; but to make the cure +effectual it was necessary to name some widow as each knot was tied.(1118) +The ancient Assyrians seem to have made much use of knotted cords as a +remedy for ailments and disease. The cord with its knots, which were +sometimes twice seven in number, was tied round the head, neck, or limbs +of the patient, and then after a time cut off and thrown away, carrying +with it, as was apparently supposed, the aches and pains of the sufferer. +Sometimes the magic cord which was used for this beneficent purpose +consisted of a double strand of black and white wool; sometimes it was +woven of the hair of a virgin kid.(1119) A modern Arab cure for fever +reported from the ruins of Nineveh is to tie a cotton thread with seven +knots on it round the wrist of the patient, who must wear it for seven or +eight days or till such time as the fever passes, after which he may throw +it away.(1120) O'Donovan describes a similar remedy for fever employed +among the Turcomans. The enchanter takes some camel hair and spins it into +a stout thread, droning a spell the while. Next he ties seven knots on the +thread, blowing on each knot before he pulls it tight. This knotted thread +is then worn as a bracelet on his wrist by the patient. Every day one of +the knots is untied and blown upon, and when the seventh knot is undone +the whole thread is rolled up into a ball and thrown into a river, bearing +away (as they imagine) the fever with it.(1121) The Hos of Togoland in +like manner tie strings round a sick man's neck, arms, or legs, according +to the nature of the malady; some of the strings are intended to guard him +against the influence of "the evil mouth"; others are a protection against +the ghosts of the dead.(1122) In Argyleshire, threads with three knots on +them are still used to cure the internal ailments of man and beast. The +witch rubs the sick person or cow with the knotted thread, burns two of +the knots in the fire, saying, "I put the disease and the sickness on the +top of the fire," and ties the rest of the thread with the single knot +round the neck of the person or the tail of the cow, but always so that it +may not be seen.(1123) A Scotch cure for a sprained leg or arm is to cast +nine knots in a black thread and then tie the thread round the suffering +limb, while you say: + + + "_The Lord rade,_ + _And the foal slade;_ + _He lighted_ + _And he righted,_ + _Set joint to joint,_ + _Bone to bone,_ + _And sinew to sinew._ + _Heal, in the Holy Ghost's name!_"(1124) + + +In Gujarat, if a man takes seven cotton threads, goes to a place where an +owl is hooting, strips naked, ties a knot at each hoot, and fastens the +knotted thread round the right arm of a man sick of the fever, the malady +will leave him.(1125) + +(M186) Again, knots may be used by an enchantress to win a lover and +attach him firmly to herself. Thus the love-sick maid in Virgil seeks to +draw Daphnis to her from the city by spells and by tying three knots on +each of three strings of different colours.(1126) So an Arab maiden, who +had lost her heart to a certain man, tried to gain his love and bind him +to herself by tying knots in his whip; but her jealous rival undid the +knots.(1127) On the same principle magic knots may be employed to stop a +runaway. In Swazieland you may often see grass tied in knots at the side +of the footpaths. Every one of these knots tells of a domestic tragedy. A +wife has run away from her husband, and he and his friends have gone in +pursuit, binding up the paths, as they call it, in this fashion to prevent +the fugitive from doubling back over them.(1128) When a Swaheli wishes to +capture a runaway slave he will sometimes take a string of coco-nut fibre +to a wise man and get him to recite a passage of the Koran seven times +over it, while at each reading the wizard ties a knot in the string. Then +the slave-owner, armed with the knotted string, takes his stand in the +door of the house and calls on his slave seven times by name, after which +he hangs the string over the door.(1129) + +(M187) The obstructive power of knots and locks as means of barring out +evil manifests itself in many ways. Thus on the principle that prevention +is better than cure, Zulu hunters immediately tie a knot in the tail of +any animal they have killed, because they believe that this will hinder +the meat from giving them pains in their stomachs.(1130) An ancient Hindoo +book recommends that travellers on a dangerous road should tie knots in +the skirts of their garments, for this will cause their journey to +prosper.(1131) Similarly among some Caffre tribes, when a man is going on +a doubtful journey, he knots a few blades of grass together that the +journey may turn out well.(1132) In Laos hunters fancy that they can throw +a spell over a forest so as to prevent any one else from hunting there +successfully. Having killed game of any kind, they utter certain magical +words, while they knot together some stalks of grass, adding, "As I knot +this grass, so let no hunter be lucky here." The virtue of this spell will +last, as usually happens in such cases, so long as the stalks remain +knotted together.(1133) The Yabims of German New Guinea lay a knot in a +fishing-boat that is not ready for sea, in order that a certain being +called Balum may not embark in it; for he has the power of taking away the +fish and weighing down the boat.(1134) + +(M188) In Russia amulets often derive their protective virtue in great +measure from knots. Here, for example, is a spell which will warrant its +employer against all risk of being shot: "I attach five knots to each +hostile, infidel shooter, over arquebuses, bows, and all manner of warlike +weapons. Do ye, O knots, bar the shooter from every road and way, lock +fast every arquebuse, entangle every bow, involve all warlike weapons, so +that the shooters may not reach me with their arquebuses, nor may their +arrows attain to me, nor their warlike weapons do me hurt. In my knots +lies hid the mighty strength of snakes--from the twelve-headed snake." A +net, from its affluence of knots, has always been considered in Russia +very efficacious against sorcerers; hence in some places, when a bride is +being dressed in her wedding attire, a fishing-net is flung over her to +keep her out of harm's way. For a similar purpose the bridegroom and his +companions are often girt with pieces of net, or at least with tight-drawn +girdles, for before a wizard can begin to injure them he must undo all the +knots in the net, or take off the girdles. But often a Russian amulet is +merely a knotted thread. A skein of red wool wound about the arms and legs +is thought to ward off agues and fevers; and nine skeins, fastened round a +child's neck, are deemed a preservative against scarlatina. In the Tver +Government a bag of a special kind is tied to the neck of the cow which +walks before the rest of a herd, in order to keep off wolves; its force +binds the maw of the ravening beast. On the same principle, a padlock is +carried thrice round a herd of horses before they go afield in the spring, +and the bearer locks and unlocks it as he goes, saying, "I lock from my +herd the mouths of the grey wolves with this steel lock." After the third +round the padlock is finally locked, and then, when the horses have gone +off, it is hidden away somewhere till late in the autumn, when the time +comes for the drove to return to winter quarters. In this case the "firm +word" of the spell is supposed to lock up the mouths of the wolves. The +Bulgarians have a similar mode of guarding their cattle against wild +beasts. A woman takes a needle and thread after dark, and sews together +the skirt of her dress. A child asks her what she is doing, and she tells +him that she is sewing up the ears, eyes, and jaws of the wolves so that +they may not hear, see, or bite the sheep, goats, calves, and pigs.(1135) +Similarly in antiquity a witch fancied that she could shut the mouths of +her enemies by sewing up the mouth of a fish with a bronze needle,(1136) +and farmers attempted to ward off hail from their crops by tying keys to +ropes all round the fields.(1137) The Armenians essay to lock the jaws of +wolves by uttering a spell, tying seven knots in a shoe-lace, and placing +the string between the teeth of a wool-comber, which are probably taken to +represent the fangs of a wolf.(1138) And an Armenian bride and bridegroom +will carry a locked lock on their persons at and after marriage to guard +them against those evil influences to which at this crisis of life they +are especially exposed.(1139) The following mode of keeping an epidemic +from a village is known to have been practised among the Balkan Slavs. Two +old women proceed to a spot outside the village, the one with a copper +kettle full of water, the other with a house-lock and key. The old dame +with the kettle asks the other, "Whither away?" The one with the lock +answers, "I came to lock the village against mishap," and suiting the +action to the words she locks the lock and throws it, together with the +key, into the kettle of water. Then she strides thrice round the village, +each time repeating the performance with the lock and kettle.(1140) To +this day a Transylvanian sower thinks he can keep birds from the corn by +carrying a lock in the seed-bag.(1141) Such magical uses of locks and keys +are clearly parallel to the magical use of knots, with which we are here +concerned. In Ceylon the Singhalese observe "a curious custom of the +threshing-floor called 'Goigote'--the tying of the cultivator's knot. When +a sheaf of corn has been threshed out, before it is removed the grain is +heaped up and the threshers, generally six in number, sit round it, and +taking a few stalks, with the ears of corn attached, jointly tie a knot +and bury it in the heap. It is left there until all the sheaves have been +threshed, and the corn winnowed and measured. The object of this ceremony +is to prevent the devils from diminishing the quantity of corn in the +heap."(1142) Knots and locks may serve to avert not only devils but death +itself. When they brought a woman to the stake at St. Andrews in 1572 to +burn her alive for a witch, they found on her a white cloth like a collar, +with strings and many knots on the strings. They took it from her, sorely +against her will, for she seemed to think that she could not die in the +fire, if only the cloth with the knotted strings was on her. When it was +taken away, she said, "Now I have no hope of myself."(1143) In many parts +of England it is thought that a person cannot die so long as any locks are +locked or bolts shot in the house. It is therefore a very common practice +to undo all locks and bolts when the sufferer is plainly near his end, in +order that his agony may not be unduly prolonged.(1144) For example, in +the year 1863, at Taunton, a child lay sick of scarlatina and death seemed +inevitable. "A jury of matrons was, as it were, empanelled, and to prevent +the child 'dying hard' all the doors in the house, all the drawers, all +the boxes, all the cupboards were thrown wide open, the keys taken out, +and the body of the child placed under a beam, whereby a sure, certain, +and easy passage into eternity could be secured." Strange to say, the +child declined to avail itself of the facilities for dying so obligingly +placed at its disposal by the sagacity and experience of the British +matrons of Taunton; it preferred to live rather than give up the ghost +just then.(1145) A Masai man whose sons have gone out to war will take a +hair and tie a knot in it for each of his absent sons, praying God to keep +their bodies and souls as firmly fastened together as these knots.(1146) + +(M189) The precise mode in which the virtue of the knot is supposed to +take effect in some of these instances does not clearly appear. But in +general we may say that in all the cases we have been considering the +leading characteristic of the magic knot or lock is that, in strict +accordance with its physical nature, it always acts as an impediment, +hindrance, or obstacle, and that its influence is maleficent or beneficent +according as the thing which it impedes or hinders is good or evil. The +obstructive tendency attributed to the knot in spiritual matters appears +in a Swiss superstition that if, in sewing a corpse into its shroud, you +make a knot on the thread, it will hinder the soul of the deceased on its +passage to eternity.(1147) In coffining a corpse the Highlanders of +Scotland used to untie or cut every string in the shroud; else the spirit +could not rest.(1148) The Germans of Transylvania place a little pillow +with the dead in the coffin; but in sewing it they take great care not to +make any knot on the thread, for they say that to do so would hinder the +dead man from resting in the grave and his widow from marrying +again.(1149) Among the Pidhireanes, a Ruthenian people on the hem of the +Carpathians, when a widow wishes to marry again soon, she unties the knots +on her dead husband's grave-clothes before the coffin is shut down on him. +This removes all impediments to her future marriage.(1150) A Nandi who is +starting on a journey will tie a knot in grass by the wayside, as he +believes that by so doing he will prevent the people whom he is going to +visit from taking their meal till he arrives, or at all events he will +ensure that they leave enough food over for him.(1151) + +(M190) The rule which prescribes that at certain magical and religious +ceremonies the hair should hang loose and the feet should be bare(1152) is +probably based on the same fear of trammelling and impeding the action in +hand, whatever it may be, by the presence of any knot or constriction, +whether on the head or on the feet of the performer. This connexion of +ideas comes out clearly in a passage of Ovid, who bids a pregnant woman +loosen her hair before she prays to the goddess of childbirth, in order +that the goddess may gently loose her teeming womb.(1153) It is less easy +to say why on certain solemn occasions it appears to have been customary +with some people to go with one shoe off and one shoe on. The forlorn hope +of two hundred men who, on a dark and stormy night, stole out of Plataea, +broke through the lines of the besieging Spartans, and escaped from the +doomed city, were shod on the left foot only. The historian who records +the fact assumes that the intention was to prevent their feet from +slipping in the mud.(1154) But if so, why were not both feet unshod or +shod? What is good for the one foot is surely good for the other. The +peculiar attire of the Plataeans on this occasion had probably nothing to +do with the particular state of the ground and the weather at the time +when they made their desperate sally, but was an old custom, a form of +consecration or devotion, observed by men in any great hazard or grave +emergency. Certainly the costume appears to have been regularly worn by +some fighting races in antiquity, at least when they went forth to battle. +Thus we are told that all the Aetolians were shod only on one foot, +"because they were so warlike,"(1155) and Virgil represents some of the +rustic militia of ancient Latium as marching to war, their right feet shod +in boots of raw hide, while their left feet were bare.(1156) An oracle +warned Pelias, king of Iolcus, to beware of the man with one sandal, and +when Jason arrived with a sandal on his right foot but with his left foot +bare, the king recognised the hand of fate. The common story that Jason +had lost one of his sandals in fording a river was probably invented when +the real motive of the costume was forgotten.(1157) Again, according to +one legend Perseus seems to have worn only one shoe when he went on his +perilous enterprise to cut off the Gorgon's head.(1158) In certain forms +of purification Greek ritual appears to have required that the person to +be cleansed should wear a rough shoe on one foot, while the other was +unshod. The rule is not mentioned by ancient writers, but may be inferred +from a scene painted on a Greek vase, where a man, naked except for a +fillet round his head, is seen crouching on the skin of a sacrificial +victim, his bare right foot resting on the skin, while his left foot, shod +in a rough boot, is planted on the ground in front of him. Round about +women with torches and vessels are engaged in performing ceremonies of +purification over him.(1159) When Dido in Virgil, deserted by Aeneas, has +resolved to die, she feigns to perform certain magical rites which will +either win back her false lover or bring relief to her wounded heart. In +appealing to the gods and the stars, she stands by the altar with her +dress loosened and with one foot bare.(1160) Among the heathen Arabs the +cursing of an enemy was a public act. The maledictions were often couched +in the form of a satirical poem, which the poet himself recited with +certain solemn formalities. Thus when the young Lebid appeared at the +Court of Norman to denounce the Absites, he anointed the hair of his head +on one side only, let his garment hang down loosely, and wore but one +shoe. This, we are told, was the costume regularly adopted by certain +poets on such occasions.(1161) + +(M191) Thus various peoples seem to be of opinion that it stands a man in +good stead to go with one foot shod and one foot bare on certain momentous +occasions. But why? The explanation must apparently be sought in the +magical virtue attributed to knots; for down to recent times, we may take +it, shoes have been universally tied to the feet by latchets. Now the +magical action of a knot, as we have seen, is supposed to be to bind and +restrain not merely the body but the soul,(1162) and this action is +beneficial or harmful according as the thing which is bound and restrained +is evil or good. It is a necessary corollary of this doctrine that to be +without knots is to be free and untrammelled, which, by the way, may be +the reason why the augur's staff at Rome had to be made from a piece of +wood in which there was no knot;(1163) it would never do for a divining +rod to be spell-bound. Hence we may suppose that the intention of going +with one shoe on and one shoe off is both to restrain and to set at +liberty, to bind and to unbind. But to bind or unbind whom or what? +Perhaps the notion is to rid the man himself of magical restraint, but to +lay it on his foe, or at all events on his foe's magic; in short, to bind +his enemy by a spell while he himself goes free. This is substantially the +explanation which the acute and learned Servius gives of Dido's costume. +He says that she went with one shoe on and one shoe off in order that +Aeneas might be entangled and herself released.(1164) An analogous +explanation would obviously apply to all the other cases we have +considered, for in all of them the man who wears this peculiar costume is +confronted with hostile powers, whether human or supernatural, which it +must be his object to lay under a ban. + +(M192) A similar power to bind and hamper spiritual as well as bodily +activities is ascribed by some people to rings. Thus in the Greek island +of Carpathus, people never button the clothes they put upon a dead body +and they are careful to remove all rings from it; "for the spirit, they +say, can even be detained in the little finger, and cannot rest."(1165) +Here it is plain that even if the soul is not definitely supposed to issue +at death from the finger-tips, yet the ring is conceived to exercise a +certain constrictive influence which detains and imprisons the immortal +spirit in spite of its efforts to escape from the tabernacle of clay; in +short the ring, like the knot, acts as a spiritual fetter. This may have +been the reason of an ancient Greek maxim, attributed to Pythagoras, which +forbade people to wear rings.(1166) Nobody might enter the ancient +Arcadian sanctuary of the Mistress at Lycosura with a ring on his or her +finger.(1167) Persons who consulted the oracle of Faunus had to be chaste, +to eat no flesh, and to wear no rings.(1168) + +(M193) On the other hand, the same constriction which hinders the egress +of the soul may prevent the entrance of evil spirits; hence we find rings +used as amulets against demons, witches, and ghosts. In the Tyrol it is +said that a woman in childbed should never take off her wedding-ring, or +spirits and witches will have power over her.(1169) Among the Lapps, the +person who is about to place a corpse in the coffin receives from the +husband, wife, or children of the deceased a brass ring, which he must +wear fastened to his right arm until the corpse is safely deposited in the +grave. The ring is believed to serve the person as an amulet against any +harm which the ghost might do to him.(1170) The Huzuls of the Carpathians +sometimes milk a cow through a wedding-ring to prevent witches from +stealing its milk.(1171) In India iron rings are often worn as an amulet +against disease or to counteract the malignant influence of the planet +Saturn. A coral ring is used in Gujarat to ward off the baleful influence +of the sun, and in Bengal mourners touch it as a form of +purification.(1172) A Masai mother who has lost one or more children at an +early age will put a copper ring on the second toe of her next infant's +right foot to guard it against sickness.(1173) Masai men also wear on the +middle finger of the right hand a ring made out of the hide of a +sacrificial victim; it is supposed to protect the wearer from witchcraft +and disease of every kind.(1174) We have seen that magic cords are +fastened round the wrists of Siamese children to keep off evil +spirits;(1175) that some people tie strings round the wrists of women in +childbed, of convalescents after sickness, and of mourners after a funeral +in order to prevent the escape of their souls at these critical +seasons;(1176) and that with the same intention the Bagobos put brass +rings on the wrists or ankles of the sick.(1177) This use of wrist-bands, +bracelets, and anklets as amulets to keep the soul in the body is exactly +parallel to the use of finger-rings which we are here considering. The +placing of these spiritual fetters on the wrists is especially +appropriate, because some people fancy that a soul resides wherever a +pulse is felt beating.(1178) How far the custom of wearing finger-rings, +bracelets, and anklets may have been influenced by, or even have sprung +from, a belief in their efficacy as amulets to keep the soul in the body, +or demons out of it, is a question which seems worth considering.(1179) +Here we are only concerned with the belief in so far as it seems to throw +light on the rule that the Flamen Dialis might not wear a ring unless it +were broken. Taken in conjunction with the rule which forbade him to have +a knot on his garments, it points to a fear that the powerful spirit +embodied in him might be trammelled and hampered in its goings-out and +comings-in by such corporeal and spiritual fetters as rings and knots. The +same fear probably dictated the rule that if a man in bonds were taken +into the house of the Flamen Dialis, the captive was to be unbound and the +cords to be drawn up through a hole in the roof and so let down into the +street.(1180) Further, we may conjecture that the custom of releasing +prisoners at a festival may have originated in the same train of thought; +it might be imagined that their fetters would impede the flow of the +divine grace. The custom was observed at the Greek festival of the +Thesmophoria,(1181) and at the Athenian festival of Dionysus in the +city.(1182) At the great festival of the Dassera, celebrated in October by +the Goorkhas of Nepaul, all the law courts are closed, and all prisoners +in gaol are removed from the precincts of the city; but those who are +imprisoned outside the city do not have to change their place of +confinement at the time of the Dassera.(1183) This Nepaulese custom +appears strongly to support the explanation here suggested of such +gaol-deliveries. For observe that the prisoners are not released, but +merely removed from the city. The intention is therefore not to allow them +to share the general happiness, but merely to rid the city of their +inopportune presence at the festival. + +(M194) Before quitting the subject of knots I may be allowed to hazard a +conjecture as to the meaning of the famous Gordian knot, which Alexander +the Great, failing in his efforts to untie it, cut through with his sword. +In Gordium, the ancient capital of the kings of Phrygia, there was +preserved a waggon of which the yoke was fastened to the pole by a strip +of cornel-bark or a vine-shoot twisted and tied in an intricate knot. +Tradition ran that the waggon had been dedicated by Midas, the first king +of the dynasty, and that whoever untied the knot would be ruler of +Asia.(1184) Perhaps the knot was a talisman with which the fate of the +dynasty was believed to be bound up in such a way that whenever the knot +was loosed the reign of the dynasty would come to an end. We have seen +that the magic virtue ascribed to knots is naturally enough supposed to +last only so long as they remain untied. If the Gordian knot was the +talisman of the Phrygian kings, the local fame it enjoyed, as guaranteeing +to them the rule of Phrygia, might easily be exaggerated by distant rumour +into a report that the sceptre of Asia itself would fall to him who should +undo the wondrous knot.(1185) + + + + + +CHAPTER VI. TABOOED WORDS. + + + + +§ 1. Personal Names tabooed. + + +(M195) Unable to discriminate clearly between words and things, the savage +commonly fancies that the link between a name and the person or thing +denominated by it is not a mere arbitrary and ideal association, but a +real and substantial bond which unites the two in such a way that magic +may be wrought on a man just as easily through his name as through his +hair, his nails, or any other material part of his person.(1186) In fact, +primitive man regards his name as a vital portion of himself and takes +care of it accordingly. Thus, for example, the North American Indian +"regards his name, not as a mere label, but as a distinct part of his +personality, just as much as are his eyes or his teeth, and believes that +injury will result as surely from the malicious handling of his name as +from a wound inflicted on any part of his physical organism. This belief +was found among the various tribes from the Atlantic to the Pacific, and +has occasioned a number of curious regulations in regard to the +concealment and change of names. It may be on this account that both +Powhatan and Pocahontas are known in history under assumed appellations, +their true names having been concealed from the whites until the +pseudonyms were too firmly established to be supplanted. Should his +prayers have no apparent effect when treating a patient for some serious +illness, the shaman sometimes concludes that the name is affected, and +accordingly goes to water, with appropriate ceremonies, and christens the +patient with a new name, by which he is henceforth to be known. He then +begins afresh, repeating the formulas with the new name selected for the +patient, in the confident hope that his efforts will be crowned with +success."(1187) Some Esquimaux take new names when they are old, hoping +thereby to get a new lease of life.(1188) The Tolampoos of central Celebes +believe that if you write a man's name down you can carry off his soul +along with it. On that account the headman of a village appeared uneasy +when Mr. A. C. Kruijt wrote down his name. He entreated the missionary to +erase it, and was only reassured on being told that it was not his real +name but merely his second name that had been put on paper. Again, when +the same missionary took down the names of villages from the lips of a +woman, she asked him anxiously if he would not thereby take away the soul +of the villages and so cause the inhabitants to fall sick.(1189) If we may +judge from the evidence of language, this crude conception of the relation +of names to persons was widely prevalent, if not universal, among the +forefathers of the Aryan race. For an analysis of the words for "name" in +the various languages of that great family of speech points to the +conclusion that "the Celts, and certain other widely separated Aryans, +unless we should rather say the whole Aryan family, believed at one time +not only that the name was a part of the man, but that it was that part of +him which is termed the soul, the breath of life, or whatever you may +choose to define it as being."(1190) However this may have been among the +primitive Aryans, it is quite certain that many savages at the present day +regard their names as vital parts of themselves, and therefore take great +pains to conceal their real names, lest these should give to evil-disposed +persons a handle by which to injure their owners. + +(M196) Thus, to begin with the savages who rank at the bottom of the +social scale, we are told that the secrecy with which among the Australian +aborigines personal names are often kept from general knowledge "arises in +great measure from the belief that an enemy, who knows your name, has in +it something which he can use magically to your detriment."(1191) "An +Australian black," says another writer, "is always very unwilling to tell +his real name, and there is no doubt that this reluctance is due to the +fear that through his name he may be injured by sorcerers."(1192) On +Herbert River in Queensland the wizards, in order to practise their arts +against some one, "need only to know the name of the person in question, +and for this reason they rarely use their proper names in addressing or +speaking of each other, but simply their class names."(1193) In the tribes +of south-eastern Australia "when the new name is given at initiation, the +child's name becomes secret, not to be revealed to strangers, or to be +mentioned by friends. The reason appears to be that a name is part of a +person, and therefore can be made use of to that person's detriment by any +who wish to 'catch' him by evil magic."(1194) Thus among the Yuin of New +South Wales the totem name is said to have been something magical rather +than a mere name in our sense, and it was kept secret lest an enemy should +injure its bearer by sorcery. The name was revealed to a youth by his +father at initiation, but very few other people knew it.(1195) Another +writer, who knew the Australians well, observes that in many tribes the +belief prevails "that the life of an enemy may be taken by the use of his +name in incantations. The consequence of this idea is, that in the tribes +in which it obtains, the name of the male is given up for ever at the time +when he undergoes the first of a series of ceremonies which end in +conferring the rights of manhood. In such tribes a man has no name, and +when a man desires to attract the attention of any male of his tribe who +is out of his boyhood, instead of calling him by name, he addresses him as +brother, nephew, or cousin, as the case may be, or by the name of the +class to which he belongs. I used to notice, when I lived amongst the +Bangerang, that the names which the males bore in infancy were soon almost +forgotten by the tribe."(1196) It may be questioned, however, whether the +writer whom I have just quoted was not deceived in thinking that among +these tribes men gave up their individual names on passing through the +ceremony of initiation into manhood. It is more in harmony with savage +beliefs and practices to suppose either that the old names were retained +but dropped out of use in daily life, or that new names were given at +initiation and sedulously concealed from fear of sorcery. A missionary who +resided among the aborigines at Lake Tyers, in Victoria, informs us that +"the blacks have great objections to speak of a person by name. In +speaking to each other they address the person spoken to as brother, +cousin, friend, or whatever relation the person spoken to bears. Sometimes +a black bears a name which we would term merely a nickname, as the +left-handed, or the bad-handed, or the little man. They would speak of a +person by this name while living, but they would never mention the proper +name. I found great difficulty in collecting the native names of the +blacks here. I found afterwards that they had given me wrong names; and, +on asking the reason why, was informed they had two or three names, but +they never mentioned their right name for fear any one got it, then they +would die."(1197) Amongst the tribes of central Australia every man, +woman, and child has, besides a personal name which is in common use, a +secret or sacred name which is bestowed by the older men upon him or her +soon after birth, and which is known to none but the fully initiated +members of the group. This secret name is never mentioned except upon the +most solemn occasions; to utter it in the hearing of women or of men of +another group would be a most serious breach of tribal custom, as serious +as the most flagrant case of sacrilege among ourselves. When mentioned at +all, the name is spoken only in a whisper, and not until the most +elaborate precautions have been taken that it shall be heard by no one but +members of the group. "The native thinks that a stranger knowing his +secret name would have special power to work him ill by means of +magic."(1198) + +(M197) The same fear seems to have led to a custom of the same sort +amongst the ancient Egyptians, whose comparatively high civilisation was +strangely dashed and chequered with relics of the lowest savagery. Every +Egyptian received two names, which were known respectively as the true +name and the good name, or the great name and the little name; and while +the good or little name was made public, the true or great name appears to +have been carefully concealed.(1199) Similarly in Abyssinia at the present +day it is customary to conceal the real name which a person receives at +baptism and to call him only by a sort of nickname which his mother gives +him on leaving the church. The reason for this concealment is that a +sorcerer cannot act upon a person whose real name he does not know. But if +he has ascertained his victim's real name, the magician takes a particular +kind of straw, and muttering something over it bends it into a circle and +places it under a stone. The person aimed at is taken ill at the very +moment of the bending of the straw; and if the straw snaps, he dies.(1200) +A Brahman child receives two names, one for common use, the other a secret +name which none but his father and mother should know. The latter is only +used at ceremonies such as marriage. The custom is intended to protect the +person against magic, since a charm only becomes effectual in combination +with the real name.(1201) Amongst the Kru negroes of West Africa a man's +real name is always concealed from all but his nearest relations; to other +people he is known only under an assumed name.(1202) The Ewe-speaking +people of the Slave Coast "believe that there is a real and material +connexion between a man and his name, and that by means of the name injury +may be done to the man. An illustration of this has been given in the case +of the tree-stump that is beaten with a stone to compass the death of an +enemy; for the name of that enemy is not pronounced solely with the object +of informing the animating principle of the stump who it is whose death is +desired, but through a belief that, by pronouncing the name, the +personality of the man who bears it is in some way brought to the +stump."(1203) The Wolofs of Senegambia are very much annoyed if any one +calls them in a loud voice, even by day; for they say that their name will +be remembered by an evil spirit and made use of by him to do them a +mischief at night.(1204) Similarly, the natives of Nias believe that harm +may be done to a person by the demons who hear his name pronounced. Hence +the names of infants, who are especially exposed to the assaults of evil +spirits, are never spoken; and often in haunted spots, such as the gloomy +depths of the forest, the banks of a river, or beside a bubbling spring, +men will abstain from calling each other by their names for a like +reason.(1205) Among the hill tribes of Assam each individual has a private +name which may not be revealed. Should any one imprudently allow his +private name to be known, the whole village is tabooed for two days and a +feast is provided at the expense of the culprit.(1206) A Manegre, of the +upper valley of the Amoor, will never mention his own name nor that of one +of his fellows. Only the names of children are an exception to this +rule.(1207) A Bagobo man of Mindanao, one of the Philippine Islands, never +utters his own name from fear of being turned into a raven, because the +raven croaks out its own name.(1208) The natives of the East Indian island +of Buru, and the Manggarais of West Flores are forbidden by custom to +mention their own names.(1209) When Fafnir had received his death-wound +from Sigurd, he asked his slayer what his name was; but the cunning Sigurd +concealed his real name and mentioned a false one, because he well knew +how potent are the words of a dying man when he curses his enemy by +name.(1210) + +(M198) The Indians of Chiloe, a large island off the southern coast of +Chili, keep their names secret and do not like to have them uttered aloud; +for they say that there are fairies or imps on the mainland or +neighbouring islands who, if they knew folk's names, would do them an +injury; but so long as they do not know the names, these mischievous +sprites are powerless.(1211) The Araucanians, who inhabit the mainland of +Chili to the north of Chiloe, will hardly ever tell a stranger their names +because they fear that he would thereby acquire some supernatural power +over themselves. Asked his name by a stranger, who is ignorant of their +superstitions, an Araucanian will answer, "I have none."(1212) Names taken +from plants, birds, or other natural objects are bestowed on the Indians +of Guiana at their birth by their parents or the medicine-man, "but these +names seem of little use, in that owners have a very strong objection to +telling or using them, apparently on the ground that the name is part of +the man, and that he who knows the name has part of the owner of that name +in his power. To avoid any danger of spreading knowledge of their names, +one Indian, therefore, generally addresses another only according to the +relationship of the caller and the called, as brother, sister, father, +mother, and so on; or, when there is no relationship, as boy, girl, +companion, and so on. These terms, therefore, practically form the names +actually used by Indians amongst themselves."(1213) Amongst the Indians of +the Goajira peninsula in Colombia it is a punishable offence to mention a +man's name; in aggravated cases heavy compensation is demanded.(1214) The +Indians of Darien never tell their names, and when one of them is asked, +"What is your name?" he answers, "I have none."(1215) For example, the +Guami of Panama, "like the greater part of the American Indians, has +several names, but that under which he is known to his relations and +friends is never mentioned to a stranger; according to their ideas a +stranger who should learn a man's name would obtain a secret power over +him. As to the girls, they generally have no name of their own up to the +age of puberty."(1216) Among the Tepehuanes of Mexico a name is a sacred +thing, and they never tell their real native names.(1217) + +(M199) In North America superstitions of the same sort are current. "Names +bestowed with ceremony in childhood," says Schoolcraft, "are deemed +sacred, and are seldom pronounced, out of respect, it would seem, to the +spirits under whose favour they are supposed to have been selected. +Children are usually called in the family by some name which can be +familiarly used."(1218) The Navajoes of New Mexico are most unwilling to +reveal their own Indian names or those of their friends; they generally go +by some Mexican names which they have received from the whites.(1219) "No +Apache will give his name to a stranger, fearing some hidden power may +thus be placed in the stranger's hand to his detriment."(1220) The Tonkawe +Indians of Texas will give their children Comanche and English names in +addition to their native names, which they are unwilling to communicate to +others; for they believe that when somebody calls a person by his or her +native name after death the spirit of the deceased may hear it, and may be +prompted to take revenge on such as disturbed his rest; whereas if the +spirit be called by a name drawn from another language, it will pay no +heed.(1221) Speaking of the Californian Indians, and especially of the +Nishinam tribe, a well-informed writer observes: "One can very seldom +learn an Indian's and never a squaw's Indian name, though they will tell +their American titles readily enough.... No squaw will reveal her own +name, but she will tell all her neighbors' that she can think of. For the +reason above given many people believe that half the squaws have no names +at all. So far is this from the truth that every one possesses at least +one and sometimes two or three."(1222) Blackfoot Indians believe that they +would be unfortunate in all their undertakings if they were to speak their +names.(1223) When the Canadian Indians were asked their names, they used +to hang their heads in silence or answer that they did not know.(1224) +When an Ojebway is asked his name, he will look at some bystander and ask +him to answer. "This reluctance arises from an impression they receive +when young, that if they repeat their own names it will prevent their +growth, and they will be small in stature. On account of this +unwillingness to tell their names, many strangers have fancied that they +either have no names or have forgotten them."(1225) + +(M200) In this last case no scruple seems to be felt about communicating a +man's name to strangers, and no ill effects appear to be dreaded as a +consequence of divulging it; harm is only done when a name is spoken by +its owner. Why is this? and why in particular should a man be thought to +stunt his growth by uttering his own name? We may conjecture that to +savages who act and think thus a person's name only seems to be a part of +himself when it is uttered with his own breath; uttered by the breath of +others it has no vital connexion with him, and no harm can come to him +through it. Whereas, so these primitive philosophers may have argued, when +a man lets his own name pass his lips, he is parting with a living piece +of himself, and if he persists in so reckless a course he must certainly +end by dissipating his energy and shattering his constitution. Many a +broken-down debauchee, many a feeble frame wasted with disease, may have +been pointed out by these simple moralists to their awe-struck disciples +as a fearful example of the fate that must sooner or later overtake the +profligate who indulges immoderately in the seductive habit of mentioning +his own name. + +(M201) However we may explain it, the fact is certain that many a savage +evinces the strongest reluctance to pronounce his own name, while at the +same time he makes no objection at all to other people pronouncing it, and +will even invite them to do so for him in order to satisfy the curiosity +of an inquisitive stranger. Thus in some parts of Madagascar it is _fady_ +or taboo for a person to tell his own name, but a slave or attendant will +answer for him.(1226) "Chatting with an old Sakalava while the men were +packing up, we happened to ask him his name; whereupon he politely +requested us to ask one of his servants standing by. On expressing our +astonishment that he should have forgotten this, he told us that it was +_fady_ (tabooed) for one of his tribe to pronounce his own name. We found +this was perfectly true in that district, but it is not the case with the +Sakalava a few days farther down the river."(1227) The same curious +inconsistency, as it may seem to us, is recorded of some tribes of +American Indians. Thus we are told that "the name of an American Indian is +a sacred thing, not to be divulged by the owner himself without due +consideration. One may ask a warrior of any tribe to give his name, and +the question will be met with either a point-blank refusal or the more +diplomatic evasion that he cannot understand what is wanted of him. The +moment a friend approaches, the warrior first interrogated will whisper +what is wanted, and the friend can tell the name, receiving a +reciprocation of the courtesy from the other."(1228) This general +statement applies, for example, to the Indian tribes of British Columbia, +as to whom it is said that "one of their strangest prejudices, which +appears to pervade all tribes alike, is a dislike to telling their +names--thus you never get a man's right name from himself; but they will +tell each other's names without hesitation."(1229) Though it is considered +very rude for a stranger to ask an Apache his name, and the Apache will +never mention it himself, he will allow his friend at his side to mention +it for him.(1230) The Abipones of South America thought it a sin in a man +to utter his own name, but they would tell each other's names freely; when +Father Dobrizhoffer asked a stranger Indian his name, the man would nudge +his neighbour with his elbow as a sign that his companion should answer +the question.(1231) Some of the Malemut Esquimaux of Bering Strait dislike +very much to pronounce their own names; if a man be asked his name he will +appear confused and will generally turn to a bystander, and request him to +mention it for him.(1232) In the whole of the East Indian Archipelago the +etiquette is the same. As a general rule no one will utter his own name. +To enquire, "What is your name?" is a very indelicate question in native +society. When in the course of administrative or judicial business a +native is asked his name, instead of replying he will look at his comrade +to indicate that he is to answer for him, or he will say straight out, +"Ask him." The superstition is current all over the East Indies without +exception,(1233) and it is found also among the Motu and Motumotu tribes +of British New Guinea,(1234) the Papuans of Finsch Haven in German New +Guinea,(1235) the Nufoors of Dutch New Guinea,(1236) and the Melanesians +of the Bismarck Archipelago.(1237) Among many tribes of South Africa men +and women never mention their names if they can get any one else to do it +for them, but they do not absolutely refuse when it cannot be +avoided.(1238) No Warua will tell his name, but he does not object to +being addressed by it.(1239) Among the Masai, "when a man is called or +spoken to, he is addressed by his father's name, and his own name is only +used when speaking to his mother. It is considered unlucky for a man to be +addressed by name. The methods employed in finding out what an individual +is called seem apt to lead to confusion. If a man is asked his name, he +replies by giving that of his father, and to arrive at his own name it is +necessary to ask a third person, or to ask him what is the name of his +mother. There is no objection to another person mentioning his name even +in his presence."(1240) We are told that the Wanyamwesi almost always +address each other as "Mate" or "Friend," and a man sometimes quite +forgets his own name and has to be reminded of it by another.(1241) The +writer who makes this statement was probably unaware of the reluctance of +many savages to utter their own names, and hence he mistook that +reluctance for forgetfulness. In Uganda no one will mention his totem. If +it is necessary that it should be known, he will ask a bystander to +mention it for him.(1242) The Ba-Lua in the Congo region are unwilling to +pronounce the name of their tribe; if they are pressed on the subject, +they will call on some foreigner to give the required information.(1243) + +(M202) Sometimes the embargo laid on personal names is not permanent; it +is conditional on circumstances, and when these change it ceases to +operate. Thus when the Nandi men are away on a foray, nobody at home may +pronounce the names of the absent warriors; they must be referred to as +birds. Should a child so far forget itself as to mention one of the +distant ones by name, the mother would rebuke it, saying, "Don't talk of +the birds who are in the heavens."(1244) Among the Bangala of the Upper +Congo, while a man is fishing and when he returns with his catch, his +proper name is in abeyance and nobody may mention it. Whatever the +fisherman's real name may be, he is called _mwele_ without distinction. +The reason is that the river is full of spirits, who, if they heard the +fisherman's real name, might so work against him that he would catch +little or nothing. Even when he has caught his fish and landed with them, +the buyer must still not address him by his proper name, but must only +call him _mwele_; for even then, if the spirits were to hear his proper +name, they would either bear it in mind and serve him out another day, or +they might so mar the fish he had caught that he would get very little for +them. Hence the fisherman can extract heavy damages from anybody who +mentions his name, or can compel the thoughtless speaker to relieve him of +the fish at a good price so as to restore his luck.(1245) When the Sulka +of New Britain are near the territory of their enemies the Gaktei, they +take care not to mention them by their proper name, believing that were +they to do so, their foes would attack and slay them. Hence in these +circumstances they speak of the Gaktei as _o lapsiek_, that is, "the +rotten tree-trunks," and they imagine that by calling them that they make +the limbs of their dreaded enemies ponderous and clumsy like logs.(1246) +This example illustrates the extremely materialistic view which these +savages take of the nature of words; they suppose that the mere utterance +of an expression signifying clumsiness will homoeopathically affect with +clumsiness the limbs of their distant foemen. Another illustration of this +curious misconception is furnished by a Caffre superstition that the +character of a young thief can be reformed by shouting his name over a +boiling kettle of medicated water, then clapping a lid on the kettle and +leaving the name to steep in the water for several days. It is not in the +least necessary that the thief should be aware of the use that is being +made of his name behind his back; the moral reformation will be effected +without his knowledge.(1247) + +(M203) When it is deemed necessary that a man's real name should be kept +secret, it is often customary, as we have seen, to call him by a surname +or nickname. As distinguished from the real or primary names, these +secondary names are apparently held to be no part of the man himself, so +that they may be freely used and divulged to everybody without endangering +his safety thereby. Sometimes in order to avoid the use of his own name a +man will be called after his child. Thus we are informed that "the +Gippsland blacks objected strongly to let any one outside the tribe know +their names, lest their enemies, learning them, should make them vehicles +of incantation, and so charm their lives away. As children were not +thought to have enemies, they used to speak of a man as 'the father, +uncle, or cousin of So-and-so,' naming a child; but on all occasions +abstained from mentioning the name of a grown-up person."(1248) Similarly +among the Nufoors of Dutch New Guinea, grown-up persons who are related by +marriage may not mention each other's names, but it is lawful to mention +the names of children; hence in order to designate a person whose name +they may not pronounce they will speak of him or her as the father or +mother of So-and-so.(1249) The Alfoors of Poso, in Celebes, will not +pronounce their own names. Among them, accordingly, if you wish to +ascertain a person's name, you ought not to ask the man himself, but +should enquire of others. But if this is impossible, for example, when +there is no one else near, you should ask him his child's name, and then +address him as the "Father of So-and-so." Nay, these Alfoors are shy of +uttering the names even of children; so when a boy or girl has a nephew or +niece, he or she is addressed as "Uncle of So-and-so," or "Aunt of +So-and-so."(1250) In pure Malay society, we are told, a man is never asked +his name, and the custom of naming parents after their children is adopted +only as a means of avoiding the use of the parents' own names. The writer +who makes this statement adds in confirmation of it that childless persons +are named after their younger brothers.(1251) Among the land Dyaks of +northern Borneo children as they grow up are called, according to their +sex, the father or mother of a child of their father's or mother's younger +brother, or sister,(1252) that is, they are called the father or mother of +what we should call their first cousin. The Caffres used to think it +discourteous to call a bride by her own name, so they would call her "the +Mother of So-and-so," even when she was only betrothed, far less a wife +and a mother.(1253) Among the Kukis and Zemis or Kacha Nagas of Assam +parents drop their own names after the birth of a child and are named +Father and Mother of So-and-so. Childless couples go by the names of "the +childless father," "the childless mother," "the father of no child," "the +mother of no child."(1254) A Zulu woman may not utter her husband's name; +if she speaks to or of him she says, "Father of So-and-so," mentioning the +name of one of his children.(1255) A Hindoo woman will not name her +husband. If she has to refer to him she will designate him as the father +of her child or by some other periphrasis.(1256) The widespread custom of +naming a father after his child has sometimes been supposed to spring from +a desire on the father's part to assert his paternity, apparently as a +means of obtaining those rights over his children which had previously, +under a system of mother-kin, been possessed by the mother.(1257) But this +explanation does not account for the parallel custom of naming the mother +after her child, which seems commonly to co-exist with the practice of +naming the father after the child. Still less, if possible, does it apply +to the customs of calling childless couples the father and mother of +children which do not exist, of naming people after their younger +brothers, and of designating children as the uncles and aunts of +So-and-so, or as the fathers and mothers of their first cousins. But all +these practices are explained in a simple and natural way if we suppose +that they originate in a reluctance to utter the real names of persons +addressed or directly referred to. That reluctance is probably based +partly on a fear of attracting the notice of evil spirits, partly on a +dread of revealing the name to sorcerers, who would thereby obtain a +handle for injuring the owner of the name.(1258) + + + + +§ 2. Names of Relations tabooed. + + +(M204) It might naturally be expected that the reserve so commonly +maintained with regard to personal names would be dropped or at least +relaxed among relations and friends. But the reverse of this is often the +case. It is precisely the persons most intimately connected by blood and +especially by marriage to whom the rule applies with the greatest +stringency. Such people are often forbidden, not only to pronounce each +other's names, but even to utter ordinary words which resemble or have a +single syllable in common with these names. The persons who are thus +mutually debarred from mentioning each other's names are especially +husbands and wives, a man and his wife's parents, and a woman and her +husband's father. For example, among the Caffres of South Africa a woman +may not publicly pronounce the birth-name of her husband or of any of his +brothers, nor may she use the interdicted word in its ordinary sense. If +her husband, for instance, be called u-Mpaka, from _impaka_, a small +feline animal, she must speak of that beast by some other name.(1259) +Further, a Caffre wife is forbidden to pronounce even mentally the names +of her father-in-law and of all her husband's male relations in the +ascending line; and whenever the emphatic syllable of any of their names +occurs in another word, she must avoid it by substituting either an +entirely new word, or, at least, another syllable in its place. Hence this +custom has given rise to an almost distinct language among the women, +which the Caffres call _Ukuteta Kwabafazi_ or "women's speech."(1260) The +interpretation of this "women's speech" is naturally very difficult, "for +no definite rules can be given for the formation of these substituted +words, nor is it possible to form a dictionary of them, their number being +so great--since there may be many women, even in the same tribe, who would +be no more at liberty to use the substitutes employed by some others, than +they are to use the original words themselves."(1261) A Caffre man, on his +side, may not mention the name of his mother-in-law, nor may she pronounce +his; but he is free to utter words in which the emphatic syllable of her +name occurs.(1262) In Northern Nyassaland no woman will speak the name of +her husband or even use a word that may be synonymous with it. If she were +to call him by his proper name, she believes it would be unlucky and would +affect her powers of conception. In like manner women abstain, for +superstitious reasons, from using the common names of articles of food, +which they designate by terms peculiar to themselves.(1263) Among the +Kondes, at the north-western end of Lake Nyassa, a woman may not mention +the name of her father-in-law; indeed she may not even speak to him nor +see him.(1264) Among the Barea and Bogos of Eastern Africa a woman never +mentions her husband's name; a Bogo wife would rather be unfaithful to him +than commit the monstrous sin of allowing his name to pass her lips.(1265) +Among the Haussas "the first-born son is never called by his parents by +his name; indeed they will not even speak with him if other people are +present. The same rule holds good of the first husband and the first +wife."(1266) In antiquity Ionian women would not call their husbands by +their names.(1267) While the rites of Ceres were being performed in Rome, +no one might name a father or a daughter.(1268) Among the South Slavs at +the present day husbands and wives will not mention each other's names, +and a young wife may not call any of her housemates by their true names; +she must invent or at least adopt other names for them.(1269) A Kirghiz +woman dares not pronounce the names of the older relations of her husband, +nor even use words which resemble them in sound. For example, if one of +these relations is called Shepherd, she may not speak of sheep, but must +call them "the bleating ones"; if his name is Lamb, she must refer to +lambs as "the young of the bleating ones."(1270) After marriage an Aino +wife may not mention her husband's name; to do so would be deemed +equivalent to killing him.(1271) Among the Sgaus, a Karen tribe of Burma, +children never mention their parents' names.(1272) A Toda man may not +utter the names of his mother's brother, his grandfather and grandmother, +his wife's mother, and of the man from whom he has received his wife, who +is usually the wife's father. All these names are tabooed to him in the +lifetime of the persons who bear them, and after death the prohibitions +are not only maintained but extended.(1273) In southern India wives +believe that to tell their husband's name or to pronounce it even in a +dream would bring him to an untimely end. Further, they may not mention +the names of their parents, their parents-in-law, and their +brothers-in-law and sisters-in-law.(1274) Among the Ojebways husbands and +wives never mention each other's names;(1275) among the Omahas a man and +his father-in-law and mother-in-law will on no account utter each other's +names in company.(1276) A Dacota "is not allowed to address or to look +towards his wife's mother, especially, and the woman is shut off from +familiar intercourse with her husband's father and others, and etiquette +prohibits them from speaking the names of their relatives by marriage." +"None of their customs," adds the same writer, "is more tenacious of life +than this; and no family law is more binding."(1277) In the Nishinam tribe +of California "a husband never calls his wife by name on any account, and +it is said that divorces have been produced by no other provocation than +that."(1278) + +(M205) The Battas or Bataks of Sumatra display a great aversion to +mentioning their own names and a still greater aversion to mentioning the +names of their parents, grandparents, or elder blood-relations. Politeness +forbids the putting of direct questions on this subject, so that the +investigation of personal identity becomes difficult and laborious. When a +Batta expects to be questioned as to his relations, he will usually +provide himself with a friend to answer for him.(1279) A Batak man may +never mention the names of his wife, his daughter-in-law and of his +son-in-law; a woman is most particularly forbidden to mention the name of +the man who has married her daughter.(1280) Among the Karo-Bataks the +forbidden names are those of parents, uncles, aunts, parents-in-law, +brothers and sisters, and especially grandparents.(1281) Among the Dyaks a +child never pronounces the names of his parents, and is angry if any one +else does so in his presence. A husband never calls his wife by her name, +and she never calls him by his. If they have children, they name each +other after them, "Father of So-and-so" and "Mother of So-and-so"; if they +have no children they use the pronouns "he" and "she," or an expression +such as "he or she whom I love"; and in general, members of a Dyak family +do not mention each other's names.(1282) Moreover, when the personal names +happen also, as they often do, to be names of common objects, the Dyak is +debarred from designating these objects by their ordinary names. For +instance, if a man or one of his family is called Bintang, which means +"star," he must not call a star a star (_bintang_); he must call it a +_pariama_. If he or a member of his domestic circle bears the name of +Bulan, which means "moon," he may not speak of the moon as the moon +(_bulan_); he must call it _penala_. Hence it comes about that in the Dyak +language there are two sets of distinct names for many objects.(1283) +Among the sea Dyaks of Sarawak a man may not pronounce the name of his +father-in-law or mother-in-law without incurring the wrath of the spirits. +And since he reckons as his father-in-law and mother-in-law not only the +father and mother of his own wife, but also the fathers and mothers of his +brothers' wives and sisters' husbands, and likewise the fathers and +mothers of all his cousins, the number of tabooed names may be very +considerable and the opportunities of error correspondingly numerous. To +make confusion worse confounded, the names of persons are often the names +of common things, such as moon, bridge, barley, cobra, leopard; so that +when any of a man's many fathers-in-law and mothers-in-law are called by +such names, these common words may not pass his lips.(1284) Among the +Dyaks of Landak and Tajan it is forbidden to mention the names of parents +and grandparents, sometimes also of great-grandparents, whether they are +alive or dead.(1285) Among the Alfoors or Toradjas of Poso, in central +Celebes, you may not pronounce the names of your father, mother, +grandparents, and other near relations. But the strictest taboo is on the +names of parents-in-law. A son-in-law and a daughter-in-law may not only +never mention the names of their parents-in-law, but if the names happen +to be ordinary words of the language, they may never allow the words in +their common significance to pass their lips. For example, if my father is +called Njara ("horse"), I may not speak of him by that name; but in +speaking of the animal I am free to use the word horse (_njara_). But if +my father-in-law is called Njara, the case is different, for then not only +may I not refer to him by his name, but I may not even call a horse a +horse; in speaking of the animal I must use some other word. The +missionary who reports the custom is acquainted with a man whose +mother-in-law rejoices in the name of Ringgi ("rixdollar"). When this man +has occasion to refer to real rixdollars, he alludes to them delicately as +"large guilders" (_roepia bose_). Another man may not use the ordinary +word for water (_oewe_); in speaking of water he employs a word (_owai_) +taken from a different dialect. Indeed, among these Alfoors it is the +common practice in such cases to replace the forbidden word by a kindred +word of the same significance borrowed from another dialect. In this way +many fresh terms or new forms of an old word pass into general +circulation.(1286) Among the Alfoors of Minahassa, in northern Celebes, +the custom is carried still further so as to forbid the use even of words +which merely resemble the personal names in sound. It is especially the +name of a father-in-law which is thus laid under an interdict. If he, for +example, is called Kalala, his son-in-law may not speak of a horse by its +common name _kawalo_; he must call it a "riding-beast" +(_sasakajan_).(1287) So among the Alfoors of the island of Buru it is +taboo to mention the names of parents and parents-in-law, or even to speak +of common objects by words which resemble these names in sound. Thus, if +your mother-in-law is called Dalu, which means "betel," you may not ask +for betel by its ordinary name, you must ask for "red mouth" (_mue miha_); +if you want betel-leaf, you may not say betel-leaf (_dalu 'mun_), you must +say _karon fenna_. In the same island it is also taboo to mention the name +of an elder brother in his presence.(1288) Transgressions of these rules +are punished with fines.(1289) In Bolang Mongondo, a district in the west +of Celebes, the unmentionable names are those of parents, parents-in-law, +uncles and aunts.(1290) Among the Alfoors of Halmahera a son-in-law may +never use his father-in-law's name in speaking to him; he must simply +address him as "Father-in-law."(1291) In Sunda it is thought that a +particular crop would be spoilt if a man were to mention the names of his +father and mother.(1292) + +(M206) Among the Nufoors, as we have seen,(1293) persons who are related +to each other by marriage are forbidden to mention each other's names. +Among the connexions whose names are thus tabooed are wife, mother-in-law, +father-in-law, your wife's uncles and aunts and also her grand-uncles and +grand-aunts, and the whole of your wife's or your husband's family in the +same generation as yourself, except that men may mention the names of +their brothers-in-law, though women may not. The taboo comes into +operation as soon as the betrothal has taken place and before the marriage +has been celebrated. Families thus connected by the betrothal of two of +their members are not only forbidden to pronounce each other's names; they +may not even look at each other, and the rule gives rise to the most +comical scenes when they happen to meet unexpectedly. And not merely the +names themselves, but any words that sound like them are scrupulously +avoided and other words used in their place. If it should chance that a +person has inadvertently uttered a forbidden name, he must at once throw +himself on the floor and say, "I have mentioned a wrong name. I throw it +through the chinks of the floor in order that I may eat well."(1294) In +German New Guinea near relations by marriage, particularly father-in-law +and daughter-in-law, mother-in-law and son-in-law, as well as +brothers-in-law and sisters-in-law, must see as little of each other as +possible; they may not converse together and they may not mention each +other's names, not even when these names have passed to younger members of +the family. Thus if a child is called after its deceased paternal +grandfather, the mother may not call her child by its name but must employ +another name for the purpose.(1295) Among the Yabim, for example, on the +south-east coast of German New Guinea, parents-in-law may neither be +touched nor named. Even when their names are borne by other people or are +the ordinary names of common objects, they may not pass the lips of their +sons-in-law and daughters-in-law.(1296) Among the western tribes of +British New Guinea the principal taboo or _sabi_, as it is there called, +concerns the names of relatives by marriage. A man may not mention the +name of his wife's father, mother, elder sister, or elder brother, nor the +name of any male or female relative of her father or mother, so long as +the relative in question is a member of the same tribe as the speaker. The +names of his wife's younger brothers and sisters are not tabooed to him. +The same law applies to a woman with reference to the names of her +husband's relatives. As a general rule, this taboo does not extend outside +the tribal boundaries. Hence when a man or woman marries out of his or her +tribe, the taboo is usually not applied. And when members of one tribe, +who may not pronounce each other's names at home, are away from their own +territory, they are no longer strictly bound to observe the prohibition. A +breach of the taboo has to be atoned for by the offender paying a fine to +the person whose name he has taken in vain. Until that has been done, +neither of the parties concerned, if they are males, may enter the men's +club-house. In the old times the offended party might recover his social +standing by cutting off somebody else's head.(1297) + +(M207) In the western islands of Torres Straits a man never mentioned the +personal names of his father-in-law, mother-in-law, brother-in-law, and +sister-in-law; and a woman was subject to the same restrictions. A +brother-in-law might be spoken of as the husband or brother of some one +whose name it was lawful to mention; and similarly a sister-in-law might +be called the wife of So-and-so. If a man by chance used the personal name +of his brother-in-law, he was ashamed and hung his head. His shame was +only relieved when he had made a present as compensation to the man whose +name he had taken in vain. The same compensation was made to a +sister-in-law, a father-in-law, and a mother-in-law for the accidental +mention of their names. This disability to use the personal names of +relatives by marriage was associated with the custom, so common throughout +the world, that a man or woman is not allowed to speak to these relatives. +If a man wished to communicate with his father-in-law or mother-in-law, he +spoke to his wife and she spoke to her parent. When direct communication +became absolutely necessary, it was said that a man might talk to his +father-in-law or mother-in-law a very little in a low voice. The behaviour +towards a brother-in-law was the same.(1298) Similar taboos on the names +of persons connected by marriage are in force in New Britain and New +Ireland.(1299) Among the natives who inhabit the coast of the Gazelle +Peninsula in New Britain to mention the name of a brother-in-law is the +grossest possible affront you can offer to him; it is a crime punishable +with death.(1300) In the Santa Cruz and Reef Islands a man is forbidden to +pronounce the name of his mother-in-law, and he may never see her face so +long as he lives. She on her side lies under similar restrictions in +regard to him. Further, a man is prohibited from mentioning the name of +his son-in-law, though he is allowed to look at him. And if a husband has +paid money for his wife to several men, none of these men may ever utter +his name or look him in the face. If one of them did by chance look at +him, the offended husband would destroy some of the offender's +property.(1301) In New Caledonia a brother may not mention his sister's +name, and she may not mention his. The same rule is observed by male and +female cousins in regard to each other's names.(1302) In the Banks' +Islands, Melanesia, the taboos laid on the names of persons connected by +marriage are very strict. A man will not mention the name of his +father-in-law, much less the name of his mother-in-law, nor may he name +his wife's brother; but he may name his wife's sister--she is nothing to +him. A woman may not name her father-in-law, nor on any account her +son-in-law. Two people whose children have intermarried are also debarred +from mentioning each other's names. And not only are all these persons +forbidden to utter each other's names; they may not even pronounce +ordinary words which chance to be either identical with these names or to +have any syllables in common with them. "A man on one occasion spoke to me +of his house as a shed, and when that was not understood, went and touched +it with his hand to shew what he meant; a difficulty being still made, he +looked round to be sure that no one was near and whispered, not the name +of his son's wife, but the respectful substitute for her name, _amen +Mulegona_, she who was with his son, and whose name was Tuwarina, +Hind-house." Again, we hear of a native of these islands who might not use +the common words for "pig" and "to die," because these words occurred in +the polysyllabic name of his son-in-law; and we are told of another +unfortunate who might not pronounce the everyday words for "hand" and +"hot" on account of his wife's brother's name, and who was even debarred +from mentioning the number "one," because the word for "one" formed part +of the name of his wife's cousin.(1303) + +(M208) It might be expected that similar taboos on the names of relations +and on words resembling them would commonly occur among the aborigines of +Australia, and that some light might be thrown on their origin and meaning +by the primitive modes of thought and forms of society prevalent among +these savages. Yet this expectation can scarcely be said to be fulfilled; +for the evidence of the observance of such customs in Australia is scanty +and hardly of a nature to explain their origin. We are told that there are +instances "in which the names of natives are never allowed to be spoken, +as those of a father or mother-in-law, of a son-in-law, and some cases +arising from a connection with each other's wives."(1304) Among some +Victorian tribes, a man never at any time mentioned the name of his +mother-in-law, and from the time of his betrothal to his death neither she +nor her sisters might ever look at or speak to him. He might not go within +fifty yards of their habitation, and when he met them on a path they +immediately left it, clapped their hands, and covering up their heads with +their rugs, walked in a stooping posture and spoke in whispers until he +had gone by. They might not talk with him, and when he and they spoke to +other people in each other's presence, they used a special form of speech +which went by the name of "turn tongue." This was not done with any +intention of concealing their meaning, for "turn tongue" was understood by +everybody.(1305) A writer, who enjoyed unusually favourable opportunities +of learning the language and customs of the Victorian aborigines, informs +us that "A stupid custom existed among them, which they called +_knal-oyne_. Whenever a female child was promised in marriage to any man, +from that very hour neither he nor the child's mother were permitted to +look upon or hear each other speak nor hear their names mentioned by +others; for, if they did, they would immediately grow prematurely old and +die."(1306) Among the Gudangs of Cape York, in Queensland, and the +Kowraregas of the Prince of Wales Islands, a man carefully avoids speaking +to or even mentioning the name of his mother-in-law, and his wife acts +similarly with regard to her father-in-law. "Thus the mother of a person +called Nuki--which means water--is obliged to call water by another +name."(1307) In the Booandik tribe of South Australia persons connected by +marriage, except husbands and wives, spoke to each other in a low whining +voice, and employed words different from those in common use.(1308) +Another writer, speaking of the same tribe, says: "Mothers-in-law and +sons-in-law studiously avoid each other. A father-in-law converses with +his son-in-law in a low tone of voice, and in a phraseology differing +somewhat from the ordinary one."(1309) + +(M209) It will perhaps occur to the reader that customs of this latter +sort may possibly have originated in the intermarriage of tribes speaking +different languages; and there are some Australian facts which seem at +first sight to favour this supposition. Thus with regard to the natives of +South Australia we are told that "the principal mark of distinction +between the tribes is difference of language or dialect; where the tribes +intermix greatly no inconvenience is experienced on this account, as every +person understands, in addition to his own dialect, that of the +neighbouring tribe; the consequence is that two persons commonly converse +in two languages, just as an Englishman and German would hold a +conversation, each person speaking his own language, but understanding +that of the other as well as his own. This peculiarity will often occur in +one family through intermarriages, neither party ever thinking of changing +his or her dialect for that of the other. Children do not always adopt the +language of the mother, but that of the tribe among whom they live."(1310) +Among some tribes of western Victoria a man was actually forbidden to +marry a wife who spoke the same dialect as himself; and during the +preliminary visit, which each paid to the tribe of the other, neither was +permitted to speak the language of the tribe which he or she was visiting. +The children spoke the language of their father and might never mix it +with any other. To her children the mother spoke in their father's +language, but to her husband she spoke in her own, and he answered her in +his; "so that all conversation is carried on between husband and wife in +the same way as between an Englishman and a Frenchwoman, each speaking his +or her own language. This very remarkable law explains the preservation of +so many distinct dialects within so limited a space, even where there are +no physical obstacles to ready and frequent communication between the +tribes."(1311) So amongst the Sakais, an aboriginal race of the Malay +Peninsula, a man goes to a considerable distance for a wife, generally to +a tribe who speak quite a different dialect.(1312) The Indian tribes of +French Guiana have each their own dialect and would hardly be able to +understand each other, were it not that almost every person marries a wife +or a husband of a different tribe, and thus the newcomers serve as +interpreters between the tribe in which they live and that in which they +were born and brought up.(1313) It is well known that the Carib women +spoke a language which differed in some respects from that of the men, and +the explanation generally given of the difference is that the women +preserved the language of a race of whom the men had been exterminated and +the women married by the Caribs. This explanation is not, as some seem to +suppose, a mere hypothesis of the learned, devised to clear up a curious +discrepancy; it was a tradition current among the Caribs themselves in the +seventeenth century,(1314) and as such it deserves serious attention. But +there are other facts which seem to point to a different +explanation.(1315) Among the Carayahis, a tribe of Brazilian Indians on +the Rio Grande or Araguaya River, the dialect of the women differs from +that of the men. For the most part the differences are limited to the form +and sound of the words; only a few words seem to be quite distinct in the +two dialects. The speech of the women appears to preserve older and fuller +forms than that of the men: for instance, "girl" is _yadokoma_ in the +female speech but _yadoma_ in the male; "nail" is _desika_ in the mouth of +a woman but _desia_ in the mouth of a man.(1316) However such remarkable +differences are to be explained, a little reflection will probably +convince us that a mere intermixture of races speaking different tongues +could scarcely account for the phenomena of language under consideration. +For the reluctance to mention the names or even syllables of the names of +persons connected with the speaker by marriage can hardly be separated +from the reluctance evinced by so many people to utter their own names or +the names of the dead or of chiefs and kings; and if the reticence as to +these latter names springs mainly from superstition, we may infer that the +reticence as to the former has no better foundation. That the savage's +unwillingness to mention his own name is based, at least in part, on a +superstitious fear of the ill use that might be made of it by his foes, +whether human or spiritual, has already been shewn. It remains to examine +the similar usage in regard to the names of the dead and of royal +personages. + + + + +§ 3. Names of the Dead tabooed. + + +(M210) The custom of abstaining from all mention of the names of the dead +was observed in antiquity by the Albanians of the Caucasus,(1317) and at +the present day it is in full force among many savage tribes. Thus we are +told that one of the customs most rigidly observed and enforced amongst +the Australian aborigines is never to mention the name of a deceased +person, whether male or female; to name aloud one who has departed this +life would be a gross violation of their most sacred prejudices, and they +carefully abstain from it.(1318) The chief motive for this abstinence +appears to be a fear of evoking the ghost, although the natural +unwillingness to revive past sorrows undoubtedly operates also to draw the +veil of oblivion over the names of the dead.(1319) Once Mr. Oldfield so +terrified a native by shouting out the name of a deceased person, that the +man fairly took to his heels and did not venture to shew himself again for +several days. At their next meeting he bitterly reproached the rash white +man for his indiscretion; "nor could I," adds Mr. Oldfield, "induce him by +any means to utter the awful sound of a dead man's name, for by so doing +he would have placed himself in the power of the malign spirits."(1320) On +another occasion, a Watchandie woman having mentioned the name of a +certain man, was informed that he had long been dead. At that she became +greatly excited and spat thrice to counteract the evil effect of having +taken a dead man's name into her lips. This custom of spitting thrice, as +Mr. Oldfield afterwards learned, was the regular charm whereby the natives +freed themselves from the power of the dangerous spirits whom they had +provoked by such a rash act.(1321) Among the aborigines of Victoria the +dead were very rarely spoken of, and then never by their names; they were +referred to in a subdued voice as "the lost one" or "the poor fellow that +is no more." To speak of them by name would, it was supposed, excite the +malignity of Couit-gil, the spirit of the departed, which hovers on earth +for a time before it departs for ever towards the setting sun.(1322) Once +when a Kurnai man was spoken to about a dead friend, soon after the +decease, he looked round uneasily and said, "Do not do that, he might hear +you and kill me!"(1323) If a Kaiabara black dies, his tribes-people never +mention his name, but call him _Wurponum_, "the dead," and in order to +explain who it is that has died, they speak of his father, mother, +brothers, and so forth.(1324) Of the tribes on the Lower Murray River we +are told that when a person dies "they carefully avoid mentioning his +name; but if compelled to do so, they pronounce it in a very low whisper, +so faint that they imagine the spirit cannot hear their voice."(1325) +Amongst the tribes of Central Australia no one may utter the name of the +deceased during the period of mourning, unless it is absolutely necessary +to do so, and then it is only done in a whisper for fear of disturbing and +annoying the man's spirit which is walking about in ghostly form. If the +ghost hears his name mentioned he concludes that his kinsfolk are not +mourning for him properly; if their grief were genuine they could not bear +to bandy his name about. Touched to the quick by their hard-hearted +indifference, the indignant ghost will come and trouble them in +dreams.(1326) In these tribes no woman may ever again mention the name of +a dead person, but the restriction on the male sex is not so absolute, for +the name may be mentioned by men of the two subclasses to which the wife's +father and wife's brother of the deceased belong.(1327) Among some tribes +of north-western Australia a dead man's name is never mentioned after his +burial and he is only spoken of as "that one"; otherwise they think that +he would return and frighten them at night in camp.(1328) + +(M211) The same reluctance to utter the names of the dead appears to +prevail among all the Indian tribes of America from Hudson's Bay Territory +to Patagonia. Among the Iroquois, for example, the name of the deceased +was never mentioned after the period of mourning had expired.(1329) The +same rule was rigidly observed by the Indians of California and Oregon; +its transgression might be punished with a heavy fine or even with +death.(1330) Thus among the Karok of California we are told that "the +highest crime one can commit is the _pet-chi-e-ri_, the mere mention of +the dead relative's name. It is a deadly insult to the survivors, and can +be atoned for only by the same amount of blood-money paid for wilful +murder. In default of that they will have the villain's blood."(1331) +Amongst the Wintun, also of California, if some one in a group of merry +talkers inadvertently mentions the name of a deceased person, "straightway +there falls upon all an awful silence. No words can describe the +shuddering and heart-sickening terror which seizes upon them at the +utterance of that fearful word."(1332) Among the Goajiros of Colombia to +mention the dead before his kinsmen is a dreadful offence, which is often +punished with death; for if it happen on the _rancho_ of the deceased, in +presence of his nephew or uncle, they will assuredly kill the offender on +the spot if they can. But if he escapes, the penalty resolves itself into +a heavy fine, usually of two or more oxen.(1333) So among the Abipones of +Paraguay to mention the departed by name was a serious crime, which often +led to blows and bloodshed. When it was needful to refer to such an one, +it was done by means of a general phrase such as "he who is no more," eked +out with particulars which served to identify the person meant.(1334) + +(M212) A similar reluctance to mention the names of the dead is reported +of peoples so widely separated from each other as the Samoyeds of Siberia +and the Todas of southern India; the Mongols of Tartary and the Tuaregs of +the Sahara; the Ainos of Japan and the Akamba and Nandi of central Africa; +the Tinguianes of the Philippines and the inhabitants of the Nicobar +Islands, of Borneo, of Madagascar, and of Tasmania.(1335) In all cases, +even where it is not expressly stated, the fundamental reason for this +avoidance is probably the fear of the ghost. That this is the real motive +with the Tuaregs of the Sahara we are positively informed. They dread the +return of the dead man's spirit, and do all they can to avoid it by +shifting their camp after a death, ceasing for ever to pronounce the name +of the departed, and eschewing everything that might be regarded as an +evocation or recall of his soul. Hence they do not, like the Arabs, +designate individuals by adding to their personal names the names of their +fathers; they never speak of So-and-so, son of So-and-so; they give to +every man a name which will live and die with him.(1336) So among some of +the Victorian tribes in Australia personal names were rarely perpetuated, +because the natives believed that any one who adopted the name of a +deceased person would not live long;(1337) probably his ghostly namesake +was supposed to come and fetch him away to the spirit-land. The Yabims of +German New Guinea, who believe that the spirits of the dead pass their +time in the forest eating unpalatable fruits, are unwilling to mention the +names of the deceased lest their ghosts should suspend their habitual +occupation to come and trouble the living.(1338) In Logea, one of the +Samarai Archipelago, off the south-eastern end of New Guinea, no custom is +observed so strictly as the one which forbids the naming of the dead in +presence of their relations. To say to a person "Your fathers are dead," +is considered a direct challenge to fight; it is an insult which must be +avenged either by the death of the man who pronounced these awful words, +or by the death of one of his relatives or friends. The uttering of the +names of the dead is, along with homicide, one of the chief causes of war +in the island. When it is necessary to refer to a dead man they designate +him by such a phrase as "the father of So-and-so," or "the brother of +So-and-so."(1339) Thus the fear of mentioning the names of the dead gives +rise to circumlocutions of precisely the same sort as those which +originate in a reluctance to name living people. Among the Klallam Indians +of Washington State no person may bear the name of his deceased father, +grandfather, or any other direct ancestor in the paternal line.(1340) The +Masai of eastern Africa are said to resort to a simple device which +enables them to speak of the dead freely without risk of the inopportune +appearance of the ghost. As soon as a man or woman dies, they change his +or her name, and henceforth always speak of him or her by the new name, +while the old name falls into oblivion, and to utter it in the presence of +a kinsman of the deceased is an insult which calls for vengeance. They +assume that the dead man will not know his new name, and so will not +answer to it when he hears it pronounced.(1341) Ghosts are notoriously +dull-witted; nothing is easier than to dupe them. However, according to +another and more probable account, the name of a Masai is not changed +after his death; it is merely suppressed, and he or she is referred to by +a descriptive phrase, such as "my brother," "my uncle," "my sister." To +call a dead man by his name is deemed most unlucky, and is never done +except with the intention of doing harm to his surviving family, who make +great lamentations on such an occasion.(1342) + +(M213) The same fear of the ghost, which moves people to suppress his old +name, naturally leads all persons who bear a similar name to exchange it +for another, lest its utterance should attract the attention of the ghost, +who cannot reasonably be expected to discriminate between all the +different applications of the same name. Thus we are told that in the +Adelaide and Encounter Bay tribes of South Australia the repugnance to +mentioning the names of those who have died lately is carried so far, that +persons who bear the same name as the deceased abandon it, and either +adopt temporary names or are known by any others that happen to belong to +them.(1343) The same practice was observed by the aborigines of New South +Wales,(1344) and is said to be observed by the tribes of the Lower Murray +River,(1345) and of King George's Sound in western Australia.(1346) A +similar custom prevails among some of the Queensland tribes; but the +prohibition to use the names of the dead is not permanent, though it may +last for many years. On the Bloomfield River, when a namesake dies, the +survivor is called Tanyu, a word whose meaning is unknown; or else he or +she receives a name which refers to the corpse, with the syllable Wau +prefixed to it. For example, he may be called Wau-batcha, with reference +to the place where the man was buried; or Wau-wotchinyu ("burnt"), with +reference to the cremation of the body. And if there should be several +people in camp all bearing one of these allusive designations, they are +distinguished from each other by the mention of the names of their mothers +or other relatives, even though these last have long been dead and gone. +Whenever Mr. W. E. Roth, to whom we owe this information, could obtain an +explanation of the custom, the reason invariably assigned was a fear that +the ghost, hearing himself called by name, might return and cause +mischief.(1347) In some Australian tribes the change of name thus brought +about is permanent; the old name is laid aside for ever, and the man is +known by his new name for the rest of his life, or at least until he is +obliged to change it again for a like reason.(1348) Among the North +American Indians all persons, whether men or women, who bore the name of +one who had just died were obliged to abandon it and to adopt other names, +which was formally done at the first ceremony of mourning for the +dead.(1349) In some tribes to the east of the Rocky Mountains this change +of name lasted only during the season of mourning,(1350) but in other +tribes on the Pacific Coast of North America it seems to have been +permanent.(1351) Amongst the Masai also, when two men of the same tribe +bear the same name, and one of them dies, the survivor changes his +name.(1352) + +(M214) Sometimes by an extension of the same reasoning all the near +relations of the deceased change their names, whatever they may happen to +be, doubtless from a fear that the sound of the familiar names might lure +back the vagrant spirit to its old home. Thus in some Victorian tribes the +ordinary names of all the next of kin were disused during the period of +mourning, and certain general terms, prescribed by custom, were +substituted for them. To call a mourner by his own name was considered an +insult to the departed, and often led to fighting and bloodshed.(1353) +Among Indian tribes of north-western America near relations of the +deceased often change their names "under an impression that spirits will +be attracted back to earth if they hear familiar names often +repeated."(1354) Among the Kiowa Indians the name of the dead is never +spoken in the presence of the relatives, and on the death of any member of +a family all the others take new names. This custom was noted by Raleigh's +colonists on Roanoke Island more than three centuries ago.(1355) Among the +Lengua Indians of the Gran Chaco in South America not only is a dead man's +name never mentioned, but all the survivors change their names also. They +say that Death has been among them and has carried off a list of the +living, and that he will soon come back for more victims; hence in order +to defeat his fell purpose they change their names, believing that on his +return Death, though he has got them all on his list, will not be able to +identify them under their new names, and will depart to pursue the search +elsewhere.(1356) So among the Guaycurus of the Gran Chaco, when a death +had taken place, the chief used to change the names of every person in the +tribe, man and woman, young and old, and it is said to have been wonderful +to observe how from that moment everybody remembered his new name just as +if he had borne it all his life.(1357) Nicobarese mourners take new names +in order to escape the unwelcome attentions of the ghost; and for the same +purpose they disguise themselves by shaving their heads so that the ghost +is unable to recognise them.(1358) The Chukchees of Bering Strait believe +that the souls of the dead turn into malignant spirits who seek to harm +the living. Hence when a mother dies the name of her youngest and dearest +child is changed, in order that her ghost may not know the child.(1359) + +(M215) Further, when the name of the deceased happens to be that of some +common object, such as an animal, or plant, or fire, or water, it is +sometimes considered necessary to drop that word in ordinary speech and +replace it by another. A custom of this sort, it is plain, may easily be a +potent agent of change in language; for where it prevails to any +considerable extent many words must constantly become obsolete and new +ones spring up. And this tendency has been remarked by observers who have +recorded the custom in Australia, America, and elsewhere. For example, +with regard to the Australian aborigines it has been noted that "the +dialects change with almost every tribe. Some tribes name their children +after natural objects; and when the person so named dies, the word is +never again mentioned; another word has therefore to be invented for the +object after which the child was called." The writer gives as an instance +the case of a man whose name Karla signified "fire"; when Karla died, a +new word for fire had to be introduced. "Hence," adds the writer, "the +language is always changing."(1360) In the Moorunde tribe the name for +"teal" used to be _torpool_; but when a boy called Torpool died, a new +name (_tilquaitch_) was given to the bird, and the old name dropped out +altogether from the language of the tribe.(1361) Sometimes, however, such +substitutes for common words were only in vogue for a limited time after +the death, and were then discarded in favour of the old words. Thus among +the Kowraregas of the Prince of Wales' Islands and the Gudangs of Cape +York in Queensland, the names of the dead are never mentioned without +great reluctance, so that, for example, when a man named Us, or quartz, +died, the name of the stone was changed to _nattam ure_, "the thing which +is a namesake," but the original word would gradually return to common +use.(1362) Again, a missionary, who lived among the Victorian aborigines, +remarks that "it is customary among these blacks to disuse a word when a +person has died whose name was the same, or even of the same sound. I find +great difficulty in getting blacks to repeat such words. I believe this +custom is common to all the Victorian tribes, though in course of time the +word is resumed again. I have seen among the Murray blacks the dead freely +spoken of when they have been dead some time."(1363) Again, in the +Encounter Bay tribe of South Australia, if a man of the name of Ngnke, +which means "water," were to die, the whole tribe would be obliged to use +some other word to express water for a considerable time after his +decease. The writer who records this custom surmises that it may explain +the presence of a number of synonyms in the language of the tribe.(1364) +This conjecture is confirmed by what we know of some Victorian tribes +whose speech comprised a regular set of synonyms to be used instead of the +common terms by all members of a tribe in times of mourning. For instance, +if a man called Waa ("crow") departed this life, during the period of +mourning for him nobody might call a crow a _waa_; everybody had to speak +of the bird as a _narrapart_. When a person who rejoiced in the title of +Ringtail Opossum (_weearn_) had gone the way of all flesh, his sorrowing +relations and the tribe at large were bound for a time to refer to +ringtail opossums by the more sonorous name of _manuungkuurt_. If the +community were plunged in grief for the loss of a respected female who +bore the honourable name of Turkey Bustard, the proper name for turkey +bustards, which was _barrim barrim_, went out, and _tillit tilliitsh_ came +in. And so _mutatis mutandis_ with the names of Black Cockatoo, Grey Duck, +Gigantic Crane, Kangaroo, Eagle, Dingo, and the rest.(1365) + +(M216) A similar custom used to be constantly transforming the language of +the Abipones of Paraguay, amongst whom, however, a word once abolished +seems never to have been revived. New words, says the missionary +Dobrizhoffer, sprang up every year like mushrooms in a night, because all +words that resembled the names of the dead were abolished by proclamation +and others coined in their place. The mint of words was in the hands of +the old women of the tribe, and whatever term they stamped with their +approval and put in circulation was immediately accepted without a murmur +by high and low alike, and spread like wildfire through every camp and +settlement of the tribe. You would be astonished, says the same +missionary, to see how meekly the whole nation acquiesces in the decision +of a withered old hag, and how completely the old familiar words fall +instantly out of use and are never repeated either through force of habit +or forgetfulness. In the seven years that Dobrizhoffer spent among these +Indians the native word for jaguar was changed thrice, and the words for +crocodile, thorn, and the slaughter of cattle underwent similar though +less varied vicissitudes. As a result of this habit, the vocabularies of +the missionaries teemed with erasures, old words having constantly to be +struck out as obsolete and new ones inserted in their place.(1366) +Similarly, a peculiar feature of the Comanche language is that a portion +of the vocabulary is continually changing. If, for example, a person +called Eagle or Bison dies, a new name is invented for the bird or beast, +because it is forbidden to mention the name of any one who is dead.(1367) +So amongst the Kiowa Indians all words that suggest the name of a deceased +person are dropped for a term of years and other words are substituted for +them. The old word may after the lapse of years be restored, but it often +happens that the new one keeps its place and the original word is entirely +forgotten. Old men sometimes remember as many as three different names +which have been successively used for the same thing. The new word is +commonly a novel combination of existing roots, or a novel use of a +current word, rather than a deliberately invented term.(1368) + +(M217) The Basagala, a cattle-breeding people to the west of Uganda, cease +to use a word if it was the name of an influential person who has died. +For example, after the death of a chief named Mwenda, which means "nine," +the name for the numeral was changed.(1369) "On the death of a child, or a +warrior, or a woman amongst the Masai, the body is thrown away, and the +person's name is buried, _i.e._ it is never again mentioned by the family. +Should there be anything which is called by that name, it is given another +name which is not like that of the deceased, For instance, if an +unimportant person called Ol-onana (he who is soft, or weak, or gentle) +were to die, gentleness would not be called _enanai_ in that kraal, but it +would be called by another name, such as _epolpol_ (it is smooth).... If +an elder dies leaving children, his name is not buried for his descendants +are named after him."(1370) From this statement, which is translated from +a native account in the Masai language, we may perhaps infer that among +the Masai it is as a rule only the childless dead whose names are avoided. +In the island of Buru it is unlawful to mention the names of the dead or +any words that resemble them in sound.(1371) In many tribes of British New +Guinea the names of persons are also the names of common things. The +people believe that if the name of a deceased person is pronounced, his +spirit will return, and as they have no wish to see it back among them the +mention of his name is tabooed and a new word is created to take its +place, whenever the name happens to be a common term of the +language.(1372) Thus at Waga-waga, near the south-eastern extremity of New +Guinea, the names of the dead become taboo immediately after death, and if +they are, as generally happens, the names of common objects, new words +must be adopted for these things and the old words are dropped from the +language, so long at least as the memory of the dead survives. For +example, when a man died whose name Binama meant "hornbill," a new name +_ambadina_, literally "the plasterer," was adopted for the bird. +Consequently many words are permanently lost or revived with modified or +new meanings. The frequent changes of vocabulary caused by this custom are +very inconvenient, and nowadays the practice of using foreign words as +substitutes is coming more and more into vogue. English profanity now +contributes its share to the language of these savages.(1373) In the +Caroline Islands the ordinary name for pig is _puik_, but in the Paliker +district of Ponape the pig is called not _puik_ but _man-teitei_, or "the +animal that grubs in the soil," for the word _puik_ was there tabooed +after the death of a man named Puik. "This is a living instance showing +how under our very eyes old words are dropping out of use in these +isolated dialects and new ones are taking their place."(1374) In the +Nicobar Islands a similar practice has similarly affected the speech of +the natives. "A most singular custom," says Mr. de Roepstorff, "prevails +among them which one would suppose must most effectually hinder the +'making of history,' or, at any rate, the transmission of historical +narrative. By a strict rule, which has all the sanction of Nicobar +superstition, no man's name may be mentioned after his death! To such a +length is this carried that when, as very frequently happens, the man +rejoiced in the name of 'Fowl,' 'Hat,' 'Fire,' 'Road,' etc., in its +Nicobarese equivalent, the use of these words is carefully eschewed for +the future, not only as being the personal designation of the deceased, +but even as the names of the common things they represent; the words die +out of the language, and either new vocables are coined to express the +thing intended, or a substitute for the disused word is found in other +Nicobarese dialects or in some foreign tongue. This extraordinary custom +not only adds an element of instability to the language, but destroys the +continuity of political life, and renders the record of past events +precarious and vague, if not impossible."(1375) + +(M218) That a superstition which suppresses the names of the dead must cut +at the very root of historical tradition has been remarked by other +workers in this field. "The Klamath people," observes Mr. A. S. Gatschet, +"possess no historic traditions going further back in time than a century, +for the simple reason that there was a strict law prohibiting the mention +of the person or acts of a deceased individual by _using his name_. This +law was rigidly observed among the Californians no less than among the +Oregonians, and on its transgression the death penalty could be inflicted. +This is certainly enough to suppress all historical knowledge within a +people. How can history be written without names?"(1376) Among some of the +tribes of New South Wales the simple ditties, never more than two lines +long, to which the natives dance, are never transmitted from one +generation to another, because, when the rude poet dies, "all the songs of +which he was author are, as it were, buried with him, inasmuch as they, in +common with his very name, are studiously ignored from thenceforward, +consequently they are quite forgotten in a very short space of time +indeed. This custom of endeavouring persistently to forget everything +which had been in any way connected with the dead entirely precludes the +possibility of anything of an historical nature having existence amongst +them; in fact the most vital occurrence, if only dating a single +generation back, is quite forgotten, that is to say, if the recounting +thereof should necessitate the mention of a defunct aboriginal's +name."(1377) Thus among these simple savages even a sacred bard could not +avail to rescue an Australian Agamemnon from the long night of oblivion. + +(M219) In many tribes, however, the power of this superstition to blot out +the memory of the past is to some extent weakened and impaired by a +natural tendency of the human mind. Time, which wears out the deepest +impressions, inevitably dulls, if it does not wholly efface, the print +left on the savage mind by the mystery and horror of death. Sooner or +later, as the memory of his loved ones fades slowly away, he becomes more +willing to speak of them, and thus their rude names may sometimes be +rescued by the philosophic enquirer before they have vanished, like autumn +leaves or winter snows, into the vast undistinguished limbo of the past. +This was Sir George Grey's experience when he attempted to trace the +intricate system of kinship prevalent among the natives of western +Australia. He says: "It is impossible for any person, not well acquainted +with the language of the natives, and who does not possess great personal +influence over them, to pursue an inquiry of this nature; for one of the +customs most rigidly observed and enforced amongst them is, never to +mention the name of a deceased person, male or female. In an inquiry, +therefore, which principally turns upon the names of their ancestors, this +prejudice must be every moment violated, and a very great difficulty +encountered in the outset. The only circumstance which at all enabled me +to overcome this was, that the longer a person has been dead the less +repugnance do they evince in uttering his name. I, therefore, in the first +instance, endeavoured to ascertain only the oldest names on record; and on +subsequent occasions, when I found a native alone, and in a loquacious +humour, I succeeded in filling up some of the blanks. Occasionally, round +their fires at night, I managed to involve them in disputes regarding +their ancestors, and, on these occasions, gleaned much of the information +of which I was in want."(1378) In some of the Victorian tribes the +prohibition to mention the names of the dead remained in force only during +the period of mourning;(1379) in the Port Lincoln tribe of South Australia +it lasted many years.(1380) Among the Chinook Indians of North America +"custom forbids the mention of a dead man's name, at least till many years +have elapsed after the bereavement."(1381) In the Twana, Chemakum, and +Klallam tribes of Washington State the names of deceased members may be +mentioned two or three years after their death.(1382) Among the Puyallup +Indians the observance of the taboo is relaxed after several years, when +the mourners have forgotten their grief; and if the deceased was a famous +warrior, one of his descendants, for instance a great-grandson, may be +named after him. In this tribe the taboo is not much observed at any time +except by the relations of the dead.(1383) Similarly the Jesuit missionary +Lafitau tells us that the name of the departed and the similar names of +the survivors were, so to say, buried with the corpse until, the poignancy +of their grief being abated, it pleased the relations to "lift up the tree +and raise the dead." By raising the dead they meant bestowing the name of +the departed upon some one else, who thus became to all intents and +purposes a reincarnation of the deceased, since on the principles of +savage philosophy the name is a vital part, if not the soul, of the man. +When Father Lafitau arrived at St. Louis to begin work among the Iroquois, +his colleagues decided that in order to make a favourable impression on +his flock the new shepherd should assume the native name of his deceased +predecessor, Father Brueyas, "the celebrated missionary," who had lived +many years among the Indians and enjoyed their high esteem. But Father +Brueyas had been called from his earthly labours to his heavenly rest only +four short months before, and it was too soon, in the phraseology of the +Iroquois, to "raise up the tree." However, raised up it was in spite of +them; and though some bolder spirits protested that their new pastor had +wronged them by taking the name of his predecessor, "nevertheless," says +Father Lafitau, "they did not fail to regard me as himself in another form +(_un autre lui-meme_), since I had entered into all his rights." (1384) + +(M220) The same mode of bringing a dead man to life again by bestowing his +name upon a living person was practised by the Hurons and other Indian +tribes of Canada. An early French traveller in Canada has described the +ceremony of resurrection as it was observed by a tribe whom he calls the +Attiuoindarons. He says: "The Attiuoindarons practise resurrections of the +dead, principally of persons who have deserved well of their country by +their remarkable services, so that the memory of illustrious and valiant +men revives in a certain way in others. Accordingly they call assemblies +for this purpose and hold councils, at which they choose one of them who +has the same virtues and qualities, if possible, as he had whom they wish +to resuscitate; or at least he must be of irreproachable life, judged by +the standard of a savage people. Wishing, then, to proceed to the +resurrection they all stand up, except him who is to be resuscitated, to +whom they give the name of the deceased, and all letting their hands down +very low they pretend to lift him up from the earth, intending by that to +signify that they draw the great personage deceased from the grave and +restore him to life in the person of this other, who stands up and, after +great acclamations of the people, receives the presents which the +bystanders offer him. They further hold several feasts in his honour and +regard him thenceforth as the deceased whom he represents; and by this +means the memory of virtuous men and of good and valiant captains never +dies among them."(1385) Among the Hurons the ceremony took place between +the death and the great Festival of the Dead, which was usually celebrated +at intervals of twelve years. When it was resolved to resuscitate a +departed warrior, the members of his family met and decided which of them +was to be regarded as an incarnation of the deceased. If the dead man had +been a famous chief and leader in war, his living representative and +namesake succeeded to his functions. Presents were made to him, and he +entertained the whole tribe at a magnificent banquet. His old robes were +taken from him, and he was clad in richer raiment. Thereupon a herald +proclaimed aloud the mystery of the incarnation. "Let all the people," he +said, "remain silent. Open your ears and shut your mouths. That which I am +about to say is of importance. Our business is to resuscitate a dead man +and to bring a great captain to life again." With that he named the dead +man and all his posterity, and reminded his hearers of the place and +manner of his death. Then turning to him who was to succeed the departed, +he lifted up his voice: "Behold him," he cried, "clad in this beautiful +robe. It is not he whom you saw these past days, who was called Nehap. He +has given his name to another, and he himself is now called Etouait" (the +name of the defunct). "Look on him as the true captain of this nation. It +is he whom you are bound to obey; it is he whom you are bound to listen +to; it is he whom you are bound to honour." The new incarnation meanwhile +maintained a dignified silence, and afterwards led the young braves out to +war in order to prove that he had inherited the courage and virtues as +well as the name of the dead chief.(1386) The Carrier Indians of British +Columbia firmly believe "that a departed soul can, if it pleases, come +back to the earth, in a human shape or body, in order to see his friends, +who are still alive. Therefore, as they are about to set fire to the pile +of wood on which a corpse is laid, a relation of the deceased person +stands at his feet, and asks him if he will ever come back among them. +Then the priest or magician, with a grave countenance, stands at the head +of the corpse, and looks through both his hands on its naked breast, and +then raises them toward heaven, and blows through them, as they say, the +soul of the deceased, that it may go and find, and enter into a relative. +Or, if any relative is present, the priest will hold both his hands on the +head of this person, and blow through them, that the spirit of the +deceased may enter into him or her; and then, as they affirm, the first +child which this person has will possess the soul of the deceased +person."(1387) The writer does not say that the infant took the name of +the deceased who was born again in it; but probably it did. For sometimes +the priest would transfer the soul from a dead to a living person, who in +that case took the name of the departed in addition to his own.(1388) + +(M221) Among the Lapps, when a woman was with child and near the time of +her delivery, a deceased ancestor or relation (known as a _Jabmek_) used +to appear to her in a dream and inform her what dead person was to be born +again in her infant, and whose name the child was therefore to bear. If +the woman had no such dream, it fell to the father or the relatives to +determine the name by divination or by consulting a wizard.(1389) Among +the Khonds a birth is celebrated on the seventh day after the event by a +feast given to the priest and to the whole village. To determine the +child's name the priest drops grains of rice into a cup of water, naming +with each grain a deceased ancestor. From the movements of the seed in the +water, and from observations made on the person of the infant, he +pronounces which of his progenitors has reappeared in him, and the child +generally, at least among the northern tribes, receives the name of that +ancestor.(1390) Among the Ewe-speaking peoples of Togo, in West Africa, +when a woman is in hard labour, a fetish priest or priestess is called in +to disclose the name of the deceased relative who has just been born again +into the world in the person of the infant. The name of that relative is +bestowed on the child.(1391) Among the Yorubas, soon after a child has +been born, a priest of Ifa, the god of divination, appears on the scene to +ascertain what ancestral soul has been reborn in the infant. As soon as +this has been decided, the parents are told that the child must conform in +all respects to the manner of life of the ancestor who now animates him or +her, and if, as often happens, they profess ignorance, the priest supplies +the necessary information. The child usually receives the name of the +ancestor who has been born again in him.(1392) In Uganda a child is named +with much ceremony by its grandfather, who bestows on it the name of one +of its ancestors, but never the name of its father. The spirit of the +deceased namesake then enters the child and assists him through +life.(1393) Here the reincarnation of the ancestor appears to be effected +by giving his name, and with it his soul, to his descendant. The same idea +seems to explain a curious ceremony observed by the Makalaka of South +Africa at the naming of a child. The spirit of the ancestor (_motsimo_), +whose name the child is to bear, is represented by an elderly kinsman or +kinswoman, according as the little one is a boy or a girl. A pretence is +made of catching the representative of the spirit, and dragging him or her +to the hut of the child's parents. Outside the hut the pretended spirit +takes his seat and the skin of an animal is thrown over him. He then +washes his hands in a vessel of water, eats some millet-porridge, and +washes it down with beer. Meantime the women and girls dance gleefully +round him, screaming or singing, and throw copper rings, beads, and so +forth as presents into the vessel of water. The men do the same, but +without dancing; after that they enter the hut to partake of a feast. The +representative of the ancestral spirit now vanishes, and the child +thenceforth bears his or her name.(1394) This ceremony may be intended to +represent the reincarnation of the ancestral spirit in the child. + +(M222) In the Nicobar Islands the names of dead relatives are tabooed for +a generation; but when both their parents are dead, men and women are +bound to assume the names of their deceased grandfathers or grandmothers +respectively.(1395) Perhaps with the names they may be thought to inherit +the spirits of their ancestors. Among the Tartars in the Middle Ages the +names of the dead might not be uttered till the third generation.(1396) +Among the Gilyaks of Saghalien no two persons in the same tribe may bear +the same name at the same time; for they think that if a child were to +receive the name of a living man, either the child or the man would die +within the year. When a man dies, his name may not be uttered until after +the celebration of the festival at which they sacrifice a bear for the +purpose of procuring plenty of game and fish. At that festival they call +out the name of the deceased while they beat the skin of the bear. +Thenceforth the name may be pronounced by every one, and it will be +bestowed on a child who shall afterwards be born.(1397) These customs +suggest that the Gilyaks, like other peoples, suppose the namesake of a +deceased person to be his or her reincarnation; for their objection to let +two living persons bear the same name seems to imply a belief that the +soul goes with the name, and therefore cannot be shared by two people at +the same time. + +(M223) Among the Esquimaux of Bering Strait the first child born in a +village after some one has died receives the dead person's name, and must +represent him in subsequent festivals which are given in his honour. The +day before the great feast of the dead the nearest male relative of the +deceased goes to the grave and plants before it a stake bearing the crest +or badge of the departed. This is the notice served to the ghost to attend +the festival. Accordingly he returns from the spirit-land to the grave. +Afterwards a song is sung at the grave inviting the ghost to repair to the +assembly-house, where the people are gathered to celebrate the festival. +The shade accepts the invitation and takes his place, with the other +ghosts, in the fire-pit under the floor of the assembly-house. All the +time of the festival, which lasts for several days, lamps filled with +seal-oil are kept burning day and night in the assembly-house in order to +light up the path to the spirit-land and enable the ghosts to find their +way back to their old haunts on earth. When the spirits of the dead are +gathered in the pit, and the proper moment has come, they all rise up +through the floor and enter the bodies of their living namesakes. +Offerings of food, drink, and clothes are now made to these namesakes, who +eat and drink and wear the clothes on behalf of the ghosts. Finally, the +shades, refreshed and strengthened by the banquet, are sent away back to +their graves thinly clad in the spiritual essence of the clothes, while +the gross material substance of the garments is retained by their +namesakes.(1398) Here the reincarnation of the dead in the living is not +permanent, but merely occasional and temporary. Still a special connexion +may well be thought to subsist at all times between the deceased and the +living person who bears his or her name. + +(M224) The foregoing facts seem to render it probable that even where a +belief in the reincarnation of ancestors either is not expressly attested +or has long ceased to form part of the popular creed, many of the +solemnities which attend the naming of children may have sprung originally +from the widespread notion that the souls of the dead come to life again +in their namesakes.(1399) + +(M225) In some cases the period during which the name of the deceased may +not be pronounced seems to bear a close relation to the time during which +his mortal remains may be supposed still to hold together. Thus, of some +Indian tribes on the north-west coast of America it is said that they may +not speak the name of a dead person "until the bones are finally disposed +of."(1400) Among the Narrinyeri of South Australia the name might not be +uttered until the corpse had decayed.(1401) In the Encounter Bay tribe of +the same country the dead body is dried over a fire, packed up in mats, +and carried about for several months among the scenes which had been +familiar to the deceased in his life. Next it is placed on a platform of +sticks and left there till it has completely decayed, whereupon the next +of kin takes the skull and uses it as a drinking-cup. After that the name +of the departed may be uttered without offence. Were it pronounced sooner +his kinsmen would be deeply offended, and a war might be the result.(1402) +The rule that the name of the dead may not be spoken until his body has +mouldered away seems to point to a belief that the spirit continues to +exist only so long as the body does so, and that, when the material frame +is dissolved, the spiritual part of the man perishes with it, or goes +away, or at least becomes so feeble and incapable of mischief that his +name may be bandied about with impunity.(1403) This view is to some extent +confirmed by the practice of the Arunta tribe in central Australia. We +have seen that among them no one may mention the name of the deceased +during the period of mourning for fear of disturbing and annoying the +ghost, who is believed to be walking about at large. Some of the relations +of the dead man, it is true, such as his parents, elder brothers and +sisters, paternal aunts, mother-in-law, and all his sons-in-law, whether +actual or possible, are debarred all their lives from taking his name into +their lips; but other people, including his wife, children, grandchildren, +grandparents, younger brothers and sisters, and father-in-law, are free to +name him so soon as he has ceased to walk the earth and hence to be +dangerous. Some twelve or eighteen months after his death the people seem +to think that the dead man has enjoyed his liberty long enough, and that +it is time to confine his restless spirit within narrower bounds. +Accordingly a grand battue or ghost-hunt brings the days of mourning to an +end. The favourite haunt of the deceased is believed to be the burnt and +deserted camp where he died. Here therefore on a certain day a band of men +and women, the men armed with shields and spear-throwers, assemble and +begin dancing round the charred and blackened remains of the camp, +shouting and beating the air with their weapons and hands in order to +drive away the lingering spirit from the spot he loves too well. When the +dancing is over, the whole party proceed to the grave at a run, chasing +the ghost before them. It is in vain that the unhappy ghost makes a last +bid for freedom, and, breaking away from the beaters, doubles back towards +the camp; the leader of the party is prepared for this manoeuvre, and by +making a long circuit adroitly cuts off the retreat of the fugitive. +Finally, having run him to earth, they trample him down into the grave, +dancing and stamping on the heaped-up soil, while with downward thrusts +through the air they beat and force him under ground. There, lying in his +narrow house, flattened and prostrate under a load of earth, the poor +ghost sees his widow wearing the gay feathers of the ring-neck parrot in +her hair, and he knows that the time of her mourning for him is over. The +loud shouts of the men and women shew him that they are not to be +frightened and bullied by him any more, and that he had better lie quiet. +But he may still watch over his friends, and guard them from harm, and +visit them in dreams.(1404) + + + + +§ 4. Names of Kings and other Sacred Persons tabooed. + + +(M226) When we see that in primitive society the names of mere commoners, +whether alive or dead, are matters of such anxious care, we need not be +surprised that great precautions should be taken to guard from harm the +names of sacred kings and priests. Thus the name of the king of Dahomey is +always kept secret, lest the knowledge of it should enable some +evil-minded person to do him a mischief. The appellations by which the +different kings of Dahomey have been known to Europeans are not their true +names, but mere titles, or what the natives call "strong names" +(_nyi-sese_). As a rule, these "strong names" are the first words of +sentences descriptive of certain qualities. Thus Agaja, the name by which +the fourth king of the dynasty was known, was part of a sentence meaning, +"A spreading tree must be lopped before it can be cast into the fire"; and +Tegbwesun, the name of the fifth king, formed the first word of a sentence +which signified, "No one can take the cloth off the neck of a wild bull." +The natives seem to think that no harm comes of such titles being known, +since they are not, like the birth-names, vitally connected with their +owners.(1405) In the Galla kingdom of Ghera the birth-name of the +sovereign may not be pronounced by a subject under pain of death, and +common words which resemble it in sound are changed for others. Thus when +a queen named Carre reigned over the kingdom, the word _hara_, which means +smoke, was exchanged for _unno_; further, _arre_, "ass," was replaced by +_culula_; and _gudare_, "potato," was dropped and _loccio_ substituted for +it.(1406) Among the Bahima of central Africa, when the king dies, his name +is abolished from the language, and if his name was that of an animal, a +new appellation must be found for the creature at once. For example, the +king is often called a lion; hence at the death of a king named Lion a new +name for lions in general has to be coined.(1407) Thus in the language of +the Bahima the word for "lion" some years ago was _mpologoma_. But when a +prominent chief of that name died, the word for lion was changed to +_kichunchu_. Again, in the Bahima language the word for "nine" used to be +_mwenda_, a word which occurs with the same meaning but dialectical +variations in the languages of other tribes of central and eastern Africa. +But when a chief who bore the name Mwenda died, the old name for "nine" +had to be changed, and accordingly the word _isaga_ has been substituted +for it.(1408) In Siam it used to be difficult to ascertain the king's real +name, since it was carefully kept secret from fear of sorcery; any one who +mentioned it was clapped into gaol. The king might only be referred to +under certain high-sounding titles, such as "the august," "the perfect," +"the supreme," "the great emperor," "descendant of the angels," and so +on.(1409) In Burma it was accounted an impiety of the deepest dye to +mention the name of the reigning sovereign; Burmese subjects, even when +they were far from their country, could not be prevailed upon to do +so;(1410) after his accession to the throne the king was known by his +royal titles only.(1411) The proper name of the Emperor of China may +neither be pronounced nor written by any of his subjects.(1412) Coreans +were formerly forbidden, under severe penalties, to utter the king's name, +which, indeed, was seldom known.(1413) When a prince ascends the throne of +Cambodia he ceases to be designated by his real name; and if that name +happens to be a common word in the language, the word is often changed. +Thus, for example, since the reign of King Ang Duong the word _duong_, +which meant a small coin, has been replaced by _dom_.(1414) In the island +of Sunda it is taboo to utter any word which coincides with the name of a +prince or chief.(1415) The name of the rajah of Bolang Mongondo, a +district in the west of Celebes, is never mentioned except in case of +urgent necessity, and even then his pardon must be asked repeatedly before +the liberty is taken.(1416) In the island of Sumba people do not mention +the real name of a prince, but refer to him by the name of the first slave +whom in his youth he became master of. This slave is regarded by the chief +as his second self, and he enjoys practical impunity for any misdeeds he +may commit.(1417) + +(M227) Among the Zulus no man will mention the name of the chief of his +tribe or the names of the progenitors of the chief, so far as he can +remember them; nor will he utter common words which coincide with or +merely resemble in sound tabooed names. "As, for instance, the Zungu tribe +say _mata_ for _manzi_ (water), and _inkosta_ for _tshanti_ (grass), and +_embigatdu_ for _umkondo_ (assegai), and _inyatugo_ for _enhlela_ (path), +because their present chief is Umfan-o inhlela, his father was Manzini, +his grandfather Imkondo, and one before him Tshani." In the tribe of the +Dwandwes there was a chief called Langa, which means the sun; hence the +name of the sun was changed from _langa_ to _gala_, and so remains to this +day, though Langa died more than a hundred years ago. Once more, in the +Xnumayo tribe the word meaning "to herd cattle" was changed from _alusa_ +or _ayusa_ to _kagesa_, because u-Mayusi was the name of the chief. +Besides these taboos, which were observed by each tribe separately, all +the Zulu tribes united in tabooing the name of the king who reigned over +the whole nation. Hence, for example, when Panda was king of Zululand, the +word for "a root of a tree," which is _impando_, was changed to _nxabo_. +Again, the word for "lies" or "slander" was altered from _amacebo_ to +_amakwata_, because _amacebo_ contains a syllable of the name of the +famous King Cetchwayo. These substitutions are not, however, carried so +far by the men as by the women, who omit every sound even remotely +resembling one that occurs in a tabooed name. At the king's kraal, indeed, +it is sometimes difficult to understand the speech of the royal wives, as +they treat in this fashion the names not only of the king and his +forefathers, but even of his and their brothers back for generations. When +to these tribal and national taboos we add those family taboos on the +names of connexions by marriage which have been already described,(1418) +we can easily understand how it comes about that in Zululand every tribe +has words peculiar to itself, and that the women have a considerable +vocabulary of their own. Members, too, of one family may be debarred from +using words employed by those of another. The women of one kraal, for +instance, may call a hyaena by its ordinary name; those of the next may +use the common substitute; while in a third the substitute may also be +unlawful and another term may have to be invented to supply its place. +Hence the Zulu language at the present day almost presents the appearance +of being a double one; indeed, for multitudes of things it possesses three +or four synonyms, which through the blending of tribes are known all over +Zululand.(1419) + +(M228) In Madagascar a similar custom everywhere prevails and has +resulted, as among the Zulus, in producing certain dialectic differences +in the speech of the various tribes. There are no family names in +Madagascar, and almost every personal name is drawn from the language of +daily life and signifies some common object or action or quality, such as +a bird, a beast, a tree, a plant, a colour, and so on. Now, whenever one +of these common words forms the name or part of the name of the chief of +the tribe, it becomes sacred and may no longer be used in its ordinary +signification as the name of a tree, an insect, or what not. Hence a new +name for the object must be invented to replace the one which has been +discarded. Often the new name consists of a descriptive epithet or a +periphrasis. Thus when the princess Rabodo became queen in 1863 she took +the name of Rasoherina. Now _soherina_ was the word for the silkworm moth, +but having been assumed as the name of the sovereign it could no longer be +applied to the insect, which ever since has been called _zany-dandy_, +"offspring of silk." So, again, if a chief had or took the name of an +animal, say of the dog (_amboa_), and was known as Ramboa, the animal +would henceforth be called by another name, probably a descriptive one, +such as "the barker" (_famovo_) or "the driver away" (_fandroaka_), etc. +In the western part of Imerina there was a chief called Andria-mamba; but +_mamba_ was one of the names of the crocodile, so the chiefs subjects +might not call the reptile by that name and were always scrupulous to use +another. It is easy to conceive what confusion and uncertainty may thus be +introduced into a language when it is spoken by many little local tribes +each ruled by a petty chief with his own sacred name. Yet there are tribes +and people who submit to this tyranny of words as their fathers did before +them from time immemorial. The inconvenient results of the custom are +especially marked on the western coast of the island, where, on account of +the large number of independent chieftains, the names of things, places, +and rivers have suffered so many changes that confusion often arises, for +when once common words have been banned by the chiefs the natives will not +acknowledge to have ever known them in their old sense.(1420) + +(M229) But it is not merely the names of living kings and chiefs which are +tabooed in Madagascar; the names of dead sovereigns are equally under a +ban, at least in some parts of the island. Thus among the Sakalavas, when +a king has died, the nobles and people meet in council round the dead body +and solemnly choose a new name by which the deceased monarch shall be +henceforth known. The new name always begins with _andrian_, "lord," and +ends with _arrivou_, "thousand," to signify that the late king ruled over +a numerous nation. The body of the name is composed of an epithet or +phrase descriptive of the deceased or of his reign. After the new name has +been adopted, the old name by which the king was known during his life +becomes sacred and may not be pronounced under pain of death. Further, +words in the common language which bear any resemblance to the forbidden +name also become sacred and have to be replaced by others. For example, +after the death of King Makka the word _laka_, which meant a canoe, was +abandoned and the word _fiounrama_ substituted for it. When Taoussi died, +the word _taoussi_, signifying "beautiful," was replaced by _senga_. For +similar reasons the word _antetsi_, "old," was changed for _matoue_, which +properly means "ripe"; the word _voussi_, "castrated," was dropped and +_manapaka_, "cut," adopted in its place; and the word for island (_nossi_) +was changed into _variou_, which signifies strictly "a place where there +is rice." Again, when a Sakalava king named Marentoetsa died, two words +fell into disuse, namely, the word _mary_ or _mare_ meaning "true," and +the word _toetsa_ meaning "condition." Persons who uttered these forbidden +words were looked on not only as grossly rude, but even as felons; they +had committed a capital crime. However, these changes of vocabulary are +confined to the district over which the deceased king reigned; in the +neighbouring districts the old words continue to be employed in the old +sense.(1421) Again, among the Bara, another tribe of Madagascar, "the +memory of their deceased kings is held in the very highest respect; the +name of such kings is considered sacred--too sacred indeed for utterance, +and no one is allowed to pronounce it. To such a length is this absurdity +carried that the name of any person or thing whatsoever, if it bear a +resemblance to the name of the deceased king, is no longer used, but some +other designation is given. For instance, there was a king named +Andriamasoandro. After his decease the word _masoandro_ was no longer +employed as the name of the sun, but _mahenika_ was substituted for +it."(1422) An eminent authority on Madagascar has observed: "A curious +fact, which has had a very marked influence on the Malagasy language, is +the custom of no longer pronouncing the name of a dead person nor even the +words which resemble it in their conclusions. The name is replaced by +another. King Ramitra, since his decease, has been called +Mahatenatenarivou, 'the prince who has conquered a thousand foes,' and a +Malagasy who should utter his old name would be regarded as the murderer +of the prince, and would therefore be liable to the confiscation of his +property, or even to the penalty of death. It is easy accordingly to +understand how the Malagasy language, one in its origin, has been +corrupted, and how it comes about that at the present day there are +discrepancies between the various dialects. In Menabe, since the death of +King Vinany, the word _vilany_, meaning a pot, has been replaced by +_fiketrehane_, 'cooking vessel,' whereas the old word continues in use in +the rest of Madagascar. These changes, it is true, hardly take place +except for kings and great chiefs."(1423) + +(M230) The sanctity attributed to the persons of chiefs in Polynesia +naturally extended also to their names, which on the primitive view are +hardly separable from the personality of their owners. Hence in Polynesia +we find the same systematic prohibition to utter the names of chiefs or of +common words resembling them which we have already met with in Zululand +and Madagascar. Thus in New Zealand the name of a chief is held so sacred +that, when it happens to be a common word, it may not be used in the +language, and another has to be found to replace it. For example, a chief +to the southward of East Cape bore the name of Maripi, which signified a +knife, hence a new word (_nekra_) for knife was introduced, and the old +one became obsolete. Elsewhere the word for water (_wai_) had to be +changed, because it chanced to be the name of the chief, and would have +been desecrated by being applied to the vulgar fluid as well as to his +sacred person. This taboo naturally produced a plentiful crop of synonyms +in the Maori language, and travellers newly arrived in the country were +sometimes puzzled at finding the same things called by quite different +names in neighbouring tribes.(1424) When a king comes to the throne in +Tahiti, any words in the language that resemble his name in sound must be +changed for others. In former times, if any man were so rash as to +disregard this custom and to use the forbidden words, not only he but all +his relations were immediately put to death.(1425) On the accession of +King Otoo, which happened before Vancouver's visit to Tahiti, the proper +names of all the chiefs were changed, as well as forty or fifty of the +commonest words in the language, and every native was obliged to adopt the +new terms, for any neglect to do so was punished with the greatest +severity.(1426) When a certain king named Tu came to the throne of Tahiti +the word _tu_, which means "to stand," was changed to _tia_; _fetu_, "a +star," became _fetia_; _tui_, "to strike," was turned into _tiai_, and so +on. Sometimes, as in these instances, the new names were formed by merely +changing or dropping some letter or letters of the original words; in +other cases the substituted terms were entirely different words, whether +chosen for their similarity of meaning though not of sound, or adopted +from another dialect, or arbitrarily invented. But the changes thus +introduced were only temporary; on the death of the king the new words +fell into disuse, and the original ones were revived.(1427) Similarly in +Samoa, when the name of a sacred chief was that of an animal or bird, the +name of the animal or bird was at once changed for another, and the old +one might never again be uttered in that chief's district. For example, a +sacred Samoan chief was named Pe'a, which means "flying-fox." Hence in his +district a flying-fox was no longer called a flying-fox but a "bird of +heaven" (_manu langi_).(1428) + +(M231) In ancient Greece the names of the priests and other high officials +who had to do with the performances of the Eleusinian mysteries might not +be uttered in their lifetime. To pronounce them was a legal offence. The +pedant in Lucian tells how he fell in with these august personages hailing +along to the police court a ribald fellow who had dared to name them, +though well he knew that ever since their consecration it was unlawful to +do so, because they had become anonymous, having lost their old names and +acquired new and sacred titles.(1429) From two inscriptions found at +Eleusis it appears that the names of the priests were committed to the +depths of the sea;(1430) probably they were engraved on tablets of bronze +or lead, which were then thrown into deep water in the Gulf of Salamis. +The intention doubtless was to keep the names a profound secret; and how +could that be done more surely than by sinking them in the sea? what human +vision could spy them glimmering far down in the dim depths of the green +water? A clearer illustration of the confusion between the incorporeal and +the corporeal, between the name and its material embodiment, could hardly +be found than in this practice of civilised Greece. + +(M232) In Togo, a district of West Africa, a secret religious society +flourishes under the name of the Yewe order. Both men and women are +admitted to it. The teaching and practice of the order are lewd and +licentious. Murderers and debtors join it for the sake of escaping from +justice, for the members are not amenable to the laws. On being initiated +every one receives a new name, and thenceforth his or her old name may +never be mentioned by anybody under penalty of a heavy fine. Should the +old name be uttered in a quarrel by an uninitiated person, the aggrieved +party, who seems to be oftener a woman than a man, pretends to fall into a +frenzy, and in this state rushes into the house of the offender, smashes +his pots, destroys the grass roof, and tears down the fence. Then she runs +away into the forest, where the simple people believe that she is changed +into a leopard. In truth she slinks by night into the conventual buildings +of the order, and is there secretly kept in comfort till the business is +settled. At last she is publicly brought back by the society with great +pomp, her body smeared with red earth and adorned with an artificial tail +in order to make the ignorant think that she has really been turned into a +leopard.(1431) + +(M233) When the name is held to be a vital part of the person, it is +natural to suppose that the mightier the person the more potent must be +his name. Hence the names of supernatural beings, such as gods and +spirits, are commonly believed to be endowed with marvellous virtues, and +the mere utterance of them may work wonders and disturb the course of +nature. The Warramunga of central Australia believe in a formidable but +mythical snake called the Wollunqua, which lives in a pool. When they +speak of it amongst themselves they designate it by another name, because +they say that, were they to call the snake too often by its real name, +they would lose control over the creature, and it would come out of the +water and eat them all up.(1432) For this reason, too, the sacred books of +the Mongols, which narrate the miraculous deeds of the divinities, are +allowed to be read only in spring or summer; because at other seasons the +reading of them would bring on tempests or snow.(1433) When Mr. Campbell +was travelling with some Bechuanas, he asked them one morning after +breakfast to tell him some of their stories, but they informed him that +were they to do so before sunset, the clouds would fall from the heavens +upon their heads.(1434) The Sulka of New Britain believe in a certain +hostile spirit named Kot, to whose wrath they attribute earthquakes, +thunder, and lightning. Among the things which provoke his vengeance is +the telling of tales and legends by day; stories should be told only at +evening or night.(1435) Most of the rites of the Navajo Indians may be +celebrated only in winter, when the thunder is silent and the rattlesnakes +are hibernating. Were they to tell of their chief gods or narrate the +myths of the days of old at any other time, the Indians believe that they +would soon be killed by lightning or snake-bites. When Dr. Washington +Matthews was in New Mexico, he often employed as his guide and informant a +liberal-minded member of the tribe who had lived with Americans and +Mexicans and seemed to be free from the superstitions of his fellows. "On +one occasion," says Dr. Matthews, "during the month of August, in the +height of the rainy season, I had him in my study conversing with him. In +an unguarded moment, on his part, I led him into a discussion about the +gods of his people, and neither of us had noticed a heavy storm coming +over the crest of the Zuni mountains, close by. We were just talking of +Estsanatlehi, the goddess of the west, when the house was shaken by a +terrific peal of thunder. He rose at once, pale and evidently agitated, +and, whispering hoarsely, 'Wait till Christmas; they are angry,' he +hurried away. I have seen many such evidences of the deep influence of +this superstition on them."(1436) Among the Iroquois the rehearsal of +tales of wonder formed the chief entertainment at the fireside in winter. +But all the summer long, from the time when the trees began to bud in +spring till the red leaves of autumn began to fall, these marvellous +stories were hushed and historical traditions took their place.(1437) +Other Indian tribes also will only tell their mythic tales in winter, when +the snow lies like a pall on the ground, and lakes and rivers are covered +with sheets of ice; for then the spirits underground cannot hear the +stories in which their names are made free with by merry groups gathered +round the fire.(1438) The Yabims of German New Guinea tell their magical +tales especially at the time when the yams have been gathered and are +stored in the houses. Such tales are told at evening by the light of the +fire to a circle of eager listeners, the narrative being broken from time +to time with a song in which the hearers join. The telling of these +stories is believed to promote the growth of the crops. Hence each tale +ends with a wish that there may be many yams, that the taro may be big, +the sugar-cane thick, and the bananas long.(1439) + +(M234) Among the Kwakiutl Indians of British Columbia the superstition +about names has affected in a very curious way the social structure of the +tribe. The nobles have two different sets of names, one for use in winter +and the other in summer. Their winter names are those which were given +them at initiation by their guardian spirits, and as these spirits appear +to their devotees only in winter, the names which they bestowed on the +Indians may not be pronounced in summer. Conversely the summer names may +not be used in winter. The change from summer to winter names takes place +from the moment when the spirits are supposed to be present, and it +involves a complete transformation of the social system; for whereas +during summer the people are grouped in clans, in winter they are grouped +in societies, each society consisting of all persons who have been +initiated by the same spirit and have received from him the same magical +powers. Thus among these Indians the fundamental constitution of society +changes with the seasons: in summer it is organised on a basis of kin, in +winter on a basis of spiritual affinity: for one half the year it is +civil, for the other half religious.(1440) + + + + +§ 5. Names of Gods tabooed. + + +(M235) Primitive man creates his gods in his own image. Xenophanes +remarked long ago that the complexion of negro gods was black and their +noses flat; that Thracian gods were ruddy and blue-eyed; and that if +horses, oxen, and lions only believed in gods and had hands wherewith to +portray them, they would doubtless fashion their deities in the form of +horses, and oxen, and lions.(1441) Hence just as the furtive savage +conceals his real name because he fears that sorcerers might make an evil +use of it, so he fancies that his gods must likewise keep their true names +secret, lest other gods or even men should learn the mystic sounds and +thus be able to conjure with them. Nowhere was this crude conception of +the secrecy and magical virtue of the divine name more firmly held or more +fully developed than in ancient Egypt, where the superstitions of a +dateless past were embalmed in the hearts of the people hardly less +effectually than the bodies of cats and crocodiles and the rest of the +divine menagerie in their rock-cut tombs. The conception is well +illustrated by a story which tells how the subtle Isis wormed his secret +name from Ra, the great Egyptian god of the sun. Isis, so runs the tale, +was a woman mighty in words, and she was weary of the world of men, and +yearned after the world of the gods. And she meditated in her heart, +saying, "Cannot I by virtue of the great name of Ra make myself a goddess +and reign like him in heaven and earth?" For Ra had many names, but the +great name which gave him all power over gods and men was known to none +but himself. Now the god was by this time grown old; he slobbered at the +mouth and his spittle fell upon the ground. So Isis gathered up the +spittle and the earth with it, and kneaded thereof a serpent and laid it +in the path where the great god passed every day to his double kingdom +after his heart's desire. And when he came forth according to his wont, +attended by all his company of gods, the sacred serpent stung him, and the +god opened his mouth and cried, and his cry went up to heaven. And the +company of gods cried, "What aileth thee?" and the gods shouted, "Lo and +behold!" But he could not answer; his jaws rattled, his limbs shook, the +poison ran through his flesh as the Nile floweth over the land. When the +great god had stilled his heart, he cried to his followers, "Come to me, O +my children, offspring of my body. I am a prince, the son of a prince, the +divine seed of a god. My father devised my name; my father and my mother +gave me my name, and it remained hidden in my body since my birth, that no +magician might have magic power over me. I went out to behold that which I +have made, I walked in the two lands which I have created, and lo! +something stung me. What it was, I know not. Was it fire? was it water? My +heart is on fire, my flesh trembleth, all my limbs do quake. Bring me the +children of the gods with healing words and understanding lips, whose +power reacheth to heaven." Then came to him the children of the gods, and +they were very sorrowful. And Isis came with her craft, whose mouth is +full of the breath of life, whose spells chase pain away, whose word +maketh the dead to live. She said, "What is it, divine Father? what is +it?" The holy god opened his mouth, he spake and said, "I went upon my +way, I walked after my heart's desire in the two regions which I have made +to behold that which I have created, and lo! a serpent that I saw not +stung me. Is it fire? is it water? I am colder than water, I am hotter +than fire, all my limbs sweat, I tremble, mine eye is not steadfast, I +behold not the sky, the moisture bedeweth my face as in summer-time." Then +spake Isis, "Tell me thy name, divine Father, for the man shall live who +is called by his name." Then answered Ra, "I created the heavens and the +earth, I ordered the mountains, I made the great and wide sea, I stretched +out the two horizons like a curtain. I am he who openeth his eyes and it +is light, and who shutteth them and it is dark. At his command the Nile +riseth, but the gods know not his name. I am Khepera in the morning, I am +Ra at noon, I am Tum at eve." But the poison was not taken away from him; +it pierced deeper, and the great god could no longer walk. Then said Isis +to him, "That was not thy name that thou spakest unto me. Oh tell it me, +that the poison may depart; for he shall live whose name is named." Now +the poison burned like fire, it was hotter than the flame of fire. The god +said, "I consent that Isis shall search into me, and that my name shall +pass from my breast into hers." Then the god hid himself from the gods, +and his place in the ship of eternity was empty. Thus was the name of the +great god taken from him, and Isis, the witch, spake, "Flow away poison, +depart from Ra. It is I, even I, who overcome the poison and cast it to +the earth; for the name of the great god hath been taken away from him. +Let Ra live and let the poison die." Thus spake great Isis, the queen of +the gods, she who knows Ra and his true name.(1442) + +(M236) Thus we see that the real name of the god, with which his power was +inextricably bound up, was supposed to be lodged, in an almost physical +sense, somewhere in his breast, from which it could be extracted by a sort +of surgical operation and transferred with all its supernatural powers to +the breast of another. In Egypt attempts like that of Isis to appropriate +the power of a high god by possessing herself of his name were not mere +legends told of the mythical beings of a remote past; every Egyptian +magician aspired to wield like powers by similar means. For it was +believed that he who possessed the true name possessed the very being of +god or man, and could force even a deity to obey him as a slave obeys his +master. Thus the art of the magician consisted in obtaining from the gods +a revelation of their sacred names, and he left no stone unturned to +accomplish his end. When once a god in a moment of weakness or +forgetfulness had imparted to the wizard the wondrous lore, the deity had +no choice but to submit humbly to the man or pay the penalty of his +contumacy.(1443) In one papyrus we find the god Typhon thus adjured: "I +invoke thee by thy true names, in virtue of which thou canst not refuse to +hear me"; and in another the magician threatens Osiris that if the god +does not do his bidding he will name him aloud in the port of +Busiris.(1444) So in the Lucan the Thessalian witch whom Sextus Pompeius +consulted before the battle of Pharsalia threatens to call up the Furies +by their real names if they will not do her bidding.(1445) In modern Egypt +the magician still works his old enchantments by the same ancient means; +only the name of the god by which he conjures is different. The man who +knows "the most great name" of God can, we are told, by the mere utterance +of it kill the living, raise the dead, transport himself instantly +wherever he pleases, and perform any other miracle.(1446) Similarly among +the Arabs of North Africa at the present day "the power of the name is +such that when one knows the proper names the jinn can scarcely help +answering the call and obeying; they are the servants of the magical +names; in this case the incantation has a constraining quality which is +for the most part very strongly marked. When Ibn el Hadjdj et-Tlemsani +relates how the jinn yielded up their secrets to him, he says, 'I once met +the seven kings of the jinn in a cave and I asked them to teach me the way +in which they attack men and women, causing them to fall sick, smiting +them, paralysing them, and the like. They all answered me: "If it were +anybody but you we would teach that to nobody, but you have discovered the +bonds, the spells, and the names which compel us; were it not for the +names by which you have constrained us, we would not have answered to your +call." ' "(1447) So, too, "the Chinese of ancient times were dominated by +the notion that beings are intimately associated with their names, so that +a man's knowledge of the name of a spectre might enable him to exert power +over the latter and to bend it to his will."(1448) + +(M237) The belief in the magic virtue of divine names was shared by the +Romans. When they sat down before a city, the priests addressed the +guardian deity of the place in a set form of prayer or incantation, +inviting him to abandon the beleaguered city and come over to the Romans, +who would treat him as well as or better than he had ever been treated in +his old home. Hence the name of the guardian deity of Rome was kept a +profound secret, lest the enemies of the republic might lure him away, +even as the Romans themselves had induced many gods to desert, like rats, +the falling fortunes of cities that had sheltered them in happier +days.(1449) Nay, the real name, not merely of its guardian deity, but of +the city itself, was wrapt in mystery and might never be uttered, not even +in the sacred rites. A certain Valerius Soranus, who dared to divulge the +priceless secret, was put to death or came to a bad end.(1450) In like +manner, it seems, the ancient Assyrians were forbidden to mention the +mystic names of their cities;(1451) and down to modern times the Cheremiss +of the Caucasus keep the names of their communal villages secret from +motives of superstition.(1452) + +(M238) If the reader has had the patience to follow this long and perhaps +tedious examination of the superstitions attaching to personal names, he +will probably agree that the mystery in which the names of royal +personages are so often shrouded is no isolated phenomenon, no arbitrary +expression of courtly servility and adulation, but merely the particular +application of a general law of primitive thought, which includes within +its scope common folk and gods as well as kings and priests. + + + + +§ 6. Common Words tabooed. + + +(M239) But personal names are not the only words which superstitious fears +have banished from everyday use. In many cases similar motives forbid +certain persons at certain times to call common things by common names, +thus obliging them either to refrain from mentioning these things +altogether or to designate them by special terms or phrases reserved for +such occasions. A consideration of these cases follows naturally on an +examination of the taboos imposed upon personal names; for personal names +are themselves very often ordinary terms of the language, so that an +embargo laid on them necessarily extends to many expressions current in +the commerce of daily life. And though a survey of some of the interdicts +on common words is not strictly necessary for our immediate purpose, it +may serve usefully to complete our view of the transforming influence +which superstition has exercised on language. I shall make no attempt to +subject the examples to a searching analysis or a rigid classification, +but will set them down as they come in a rough geographical order. And +since my native land furnishes as apt instances of the superstition as any +other, we may start on our round from Scotland. + +(M240) In the Atlantic Ocean, about six leagues to the west of Gallon Head +in the Lewis, lies a small group of rocky islets known as the Flannan +Islands. Sheep and wild fowl are now their only inhabitants, but remains +of what are described as Druidical temples and the title of the Sacred +Isles given them by Buchanan suggest that in days gone by piety or +superstition may have found a safe retreat from the turmoil of the world +in these remote solitudes, where the dashing of the waves and the strident +scream of the sea-birds are almost the only sounds that break the silence. +Once a year, in summer-time, the inhabitants of the adjacent lands of the +Lewis, who have a right to these islands, cross over to them to fleece +their sheep and kill the wild fowl for the sake both of their flesh and +their feathers. They regard the islands as invested with a certain +sanctity, and have been heard to say that none ever yet landed in them but +found himself more disposed to devotion there than anywhere else. +Accordingly the fowlers who go thither are bound, during the whole of the +time that they ply their business, to observe very punctiliously certain +quaint customs, the transgression of which would be sure, in their +opinion, to entail some serious inconvenience. When they have landed and +fastened their boat to the side of a rock, they clamber up into the island +by a wooden ladder, and no sooner are they got to the top, than they all +uncover their heads and make a turn sun-ways round about, thanking God for +their safety. On the biggest of the islands are the ruins of a chapel +dedicated to St. Flannan. When the men come within about twenty paces of +the altar, they all strip themselves of their upper garments at once and +betake themselves to their devotions, praying thrice before they begin +fowling. On the first day the first prayer is offered as they advance +towards the chapel on their knees; the second is said as they go round the +chapel; and the third is said in or hard by the ruins. They also pray +thrice every evening, and account it unlawful to kill a fowl after evening +prayers, as also to kill a fowl at any time with a stone. Another ancient +custom forbids the crew to carry home in the boat any suet of the sheep +they slaughter in the islands, however many they may kill. But what here +chiefly concerns us is that so long as they stay on the islands they are +strictly forbidden to use certain common words, and are obliged to +substitute others for them. Thus it is absolutely unlawful to call the +island of St. Kilda, which lies thirty leagues to the southward, by its +proper Gaelic name of Hirt; they must call it only "the high country." +They may not so much as once name the islands in which they are fowling by +the ordinary name of Flannan; they must speak only of "the country." +"There are several other things that must not be called by their common +names: _e.g._ _visk_, which in the language of the natives signifies +water, they call burn; a rock, which in their language is _creg_, must +here be called _cruey_, _i.e._ hard; shore in their language expressed by +_claddach_, must here be called _vah_, _i.e._ a cave; sour in their +language is expressed _gort_, but must here be called _gaire_, _i.e._ +sharp; slippery, which is expressed _bog_, must be called soft; and +several other things to this purpose."(1453) When Highlanders were in a +boat at sea, whether sailing or fishing, they were forbidden to call +things by the names by which they were known on land. Thus the boat-hook +should not be called a _croman_, but a _chliob_; a knife not _sgian_, but +"the sharp one" (_a ghiar_); a seal not _ron_, but "the bald beast" +(_beisd mhaol_); a fox not _sionnach_, but "the red dog" (_madadh ruadh_); +the stone for anchoring the boat not _clach_, but "hardness" (_cruaidh_). +This practice now prevails much more on the east coast than on the west, +where it may be said to be generally extinct. It is reported to be +carefully observed by the fishermen about the Cromarty Firth.(1454) Among +the words tabooed by fishermen in the north of Scotland when they are at +sea are minister, salmon, hare, rabbit, rat, pig, and porpoise. At the +present day if some of the boats that come to the herring-fishing at Wick +should meet a salmon-boat from Reay in Caithness, the herring-men will not +speak to, nor even look at, the salmon-fishers.(1455) + +(M241) When Shetland fishermen are at sea, they employ a nomenclature +peculiar to the occasion, and hardly anything may be mentioned by its +usual name. The substituted terms are mostly of Norwegian origin, for the +Norway men were reported to be good fishers.(1456) In setting their lines +the Shetland fishermen are bound to refer to certain objects only by some +special words or phrases. Thus a knife is then called a _skunie_ or +_tullie_; a church becomes _buanhoos_ or _banehoos_; a minister is +_upstanda_ or _haydeen_ or _prestingolva_; the devil is _da auld chield_, +_da sorrow_, _da ill-healt_ (health), or _da black tief_; a cat is +_kirser_, _fitting_, _vengla_, or _foodin_.(1457) On the north-east coast +of Scotland there are some villages, of which the inhabitants never +pronounce certain words and family names when they are at sea; each +village has its peculiar aversion to one or more of these words, among +which are "minister," "kirk," "swine," "salmon," "trout," and "dog." When +a church has to be referred to, as often happens, since some of the +churches serve as land-marks to the fishermen at sea, it is spoken of as +the "bell-hoose" instead of the "kirk." A minister is called "the man wi' +the black quyte." It is particularly unlucky to utter the word "sow" or +"swine" or "pig" while the line is being baited; if any one is foolish +enough to do so, the line is sure to be lost. In some villages on the +coast of Fife a fisherman who hears the ill-omened word spoken will cry +out "Cold iron." In the village of Buckie there are some family names, +especially Ross, and in a less degree Coull, which no fisherman will +pronounce. If one of these names be mentioned in the hearing of a +fisherman, he spits or, as he calls it, "chiffs." Any one who bears the +dreaded name is called a "chiffer-oot," and is referred to only by a +circumlocution such as "The man it diz so in so," or "the laad it lives at +such and such a place." During the herring-season men who are unlucky +enough to inherit the tabooed names have little chance of being hired in +the fishing-boats; and sometimes, if they have been hired before their +names were known, they have been refused their wages at the end of the +season, because the boat in which they sailed had not been successful, and +the bad luck was set down to their presence in it.(1458) Although in +Scotland superstitions of this kind appear to be specially incident to the +callings of fishermen and fowlers, other occupations are not exempt from +them. Thus in the Outer Hebrides the fire of a kiln is not called fire +(_teine_) but _aingeal_. Such a fire, it is said, is a dangerous thing, +and ought not to be referred to except by a euphemism. "Evil be to him who +called it fire or who named fire in the kiln. It was considered the next +thing to setting it on fire."(1459) Again, in some districts of Scotland a +brewer would have resented the use of the word "water" in reference to the +work in which he was engaged. "Water be your part of it," was the common +retort. It was supposed that the use of the word would spoil the +brewing.(1460) The Highlanders say that when you meet a hobgoblin, and the +fiend asks what is the name of your dirk, you should not call it a dirk +(_biodag_), but "my father's sister" (_piuthar m'athar_) or "my +grandmother's sister" (_piuthar mo sheanamhair_) or by some similar title. +If you do not observe this precaution, the goblin will lay such an +enchantment on the blade that you will be unable to stab him with it; the +dirk will merely make a tinkling noise against the soft impalpable body of +the fiend.(1461) + +(M242) Manx fishermen think it unlucky to mention a horse or a mouse on +board a fishing-boat.(1462) The fishermen of Dieppe on board their boats +will not speak of several things, for instance priests and cats.(1463) +German huntsmen, from motives of superstition, call everything by names +different from those in common use.(1464) In some parts of Bavaria the +farmer will not mention a fox by its proper name, lest his poultry-yard +should suffer from the ravages of the animal. So instead of _Fuchs_ he +calls the beast _Loinl_, _Henoloinl_, _Henading_, or _Henabou_.(1465) In +Prussia and Lithuania they say that in the month of December you should +not call a wolf a wolf but "the vermin" (_das Gewuerm_), otherwise you will +be torn in pieces by the werewolves.(1466) In various parts of Germany it +is a rule that certain animals may not be mentioned by their proper names +in the mystic season between Christmas and Twelfth Night. Thus in +Thueringen they say that if you would be spared by the wolves you must not +mention their name at this time.(1467) In Mecklenburg people think that +were they to name a wolf on one of these days the animal would appear. A +shepherd would rather mention the devil than the wolf at this season; and +we read of a farmer who had a bailiff named Wolf, but did not dare to call +the man by his name between Christmas and Twelfth Night, referring to him +instead as Herr Undeert (Mr. Monster). In Quatzow, a village of +Mecklenburg, there are many animals whose common names are disused at this +season and replaced by others: thus a fox is called "long-tail," and a +mouse "leg-runner" (_Boenloeper_). Any person who disregards the custom has +to pay a fine.(1468) In the Mark of Brandenburg they say that between +Christmas and Twelfth Night you should not speak of mice as mice but as +_dinger_; otherwise the field-mice would multiply excessively.(1469) +According to the Swedish popular belief, there are certain animals which +should never be spoken of by their proper names, but must always be +signified by euphemisms and kind allusions to their character. Thus, if +you speak slightingly of the cat or beat her, you must be sure not to +mention her name; for she belongs to the hellish crew, and is a friend of +the mountain troll, whom she often visits. Great caution is also needed in +talking of the cuckoo, the owl, and the magpie, for they are birds of +witchery. The fox must be called "blue-foot," or "he that goes in the +forest"; and rats are "the long-bodied," mice "the small grey," and the +seal "brother Lars." Swedish herd-girls, again, believe that if the wolf +and the bear be called by other than their proper and legitimate names, +they will not attack the herd. Hence they give these brutes names which +they fancy will not hurt their feelings. The number of endearing +appellations lavished by them on the wolf is legion; they call him "golden +tooth," "the silent one," "grey legs," and so on; while the bear is +referred to by the respectful titles of "the old man," "grandfather," +"twelve men's strength," "golden feet," and more of the same sort. Even +inanimate things are not always to be called by their usual names. For +instance, fire is sometimes to be called "heat" (_hetta_) not _eld_ or +_ell_; water for brewing must be called _lag_ or _loeu_, not _vatn_, else +the beer would not turn out so well.(1470) The Huzuls of the Carpathians, +a pastoral people, who dread the ravages of wild beasts on their flocks +and herds, are unwilling to mention the bear by his proper name, so they +call him respectfully "the little uncle" or "the big one." In like manner +and for similar reasons they name the wolf "the little one" and the +serpent "the long one."(1471) They may not say that wool is scalded, or in +the heat of summer the sheep would rub themselves till their sides were +raw; so they merely say that the wool is warmed.(1472) The Lapps fear to +call the bear by his true name, lest he should ravage their herds; so they +speak of him as "the old man with the coat of skin," and in cooking his +flesh to furnish a meal they may not refer to the work they are engaged in +as "cooking," but must designate it by a special term.(1473) The Finns +speak of the bear as "the apple of the wood," "beautiful honey-paw," "the +pride of the thicket," "the old man," and so on.(1474) And in general a +Finnish hunter thinks that he will have poor sport if he calls animals by +their real names; the beasts resent it. The fox and the hare are only +spoken of as "game," and the lynx is termed "the forest cat," lest it +should devour the sheep.(1475) Esthonian peasants are very loth to mention +wild beasts by their proper names, for they believe that the creatures +will not do so much harm if only they are called by other names than their +own. Hence they speak of the bear as "broad foot" and the wolf as "grey +coat."(1476) + +(M243) The natives of Siberia are unwilling to call a bear a bear; they +speak of him as "the little old man," "the master of the forest," "the +sage," "the respected one." Some who are more familiar style him "my +cousin."(1477) The Kamtchatkans reverence the whale, the bear, and the +wolf from fear, and never mention their names when they meet them, +believing that they understand human speech.(1478) Further, they think +that mice also understand the Kamtchatkan language; so in autumn, when +they rob the field-mice of the bulbs which these little creatures have +laid up in their burrows as a store against winter, they call everything +by names different from the ordinary ones, lest the mice should know what +they were saying. Moreover, they leave odds and ends, such as old rags, +broken needles, cedar-nuts, and so forth, in the burrows, to make the mice +think that the transaction has been not a robbery but a fair exchange. If +they did not do that, they fancy that the mice would go and drown or hang +themselves out of pure vexation; and then what would the Kamtchatkans do +without the mice to gather the bulbs for them? They also speak kindly to +the animals, and beg them not to take it ill, explaining that what they do +is done out of pure friendship.(1479) The Cherokee Indians regard the +rattlesnake as a superior being and take great pains not to offend him. +They never say that a man has been bitten by a snake but that he has been +"scratched by a briar." In like manner, when an eagle has been shot for a +ceremonial dance, it is announced that "a snowbird has been killed." The +purpose is to deceive the spirits of rattlesnakes or eagles which might be +listening.(1480) The Esquimaux of Bering Strait think that some animals +can hear and understand what is said of them at a distance. Hence, when a +hunter is going out to kill bears he will speak of them with the greatest +respect and give out that he is going to hunt some other beast. Thus the +bears will be deceived and taken unawares.(1481) Among the Esquimaux of +Baffin Land, women in mourning may not mention the names of any +animals.(1482) Among the Thompson Indians of British Columbia, children +may not name the coyote or prairie wolf in winter, lest he should turn on +his back and so bring cold weather.(1483) + +(M244) The Arabs call a man who has been bitten by a snake "the sound +one"; leprosy or the scab they designate "the blessed disease"; the left +side they name "the lucky side"; they will not speak of a lion by his +right name, but refer to him as for example "the fox."(1484) In Africa the +lion is alluded to with the same ceremonious respect as the wolf and the +bear in northern Europe and Asia. The Arabs of Algeria, who hunt the lion, +speak of him as Mr. John Johnson (Johan-ben-el-Johan), because he has the +noblest qualities of man and understands all languages. Hence, too, the +first huntsman to catch sight of the beast points at him with his finger +and says, "He is not there"; for if he were to say "He is there," the lion +would eat him up.(1485) Except under dire necessity the Waziguas of +eastern Africa never mention the name of the lion from fear of attracting +him. They call him "the owner of the land" or "the great beast."(1486) The +negroes of Angola always use the word _ngana_ ("sir") in speaking of the +same noble animal, because they think that he is "fetish" and would not +fail to punish them for disrespect if they omitted to do so.(1487) Bushmen +and Bechuanas both deem it unlucky to speak of the lion by his proper +name; the Bechuanas call him "the boy with the beard."(1488) During an +epidemic of smallpox in Mombasa, British East Africa, it was noticed that +the people were unwilling to mention the native name (_ndui_) of the +disease. They referred to it either as "grains of corn" (_tete_) or simply +as "the bad disease."(1489) So the Chinese of Amoy are averse to speak of +fever by its proper name; they prefer to call it "beggar's disease," +hoping thereby to make the demons of fever imagine that they despise it +and that therefore it would be useless to attack them.(1490) Some of the +natives of Nigeria dread the owl as a bird of ill omen and are loth to +mention its name, preferring to speak of it by means of a circumlocution +such as "the bird that makes one afraid."(1491) The Herero think that if +they see a snake and call it by its name, the reptile will sting them, but +that if they call it a strap (_omuvia_) it will lie still.(1492) When +Nandi warriors are out on an expedition, they may not call a knife a knife +(_chepkeswet_); they must call it "an arrow for bleeding cattle" +(_longet_); and none of the party may utter the usual word employed in +greeting males.(1493) In Madagascar there seems to be an aversion to +pronouncing the word for lightning (_varatra_); the word for mud +(_fotaka_) is sometimes substituted for it.(1494) Again, it is strictly +forbidden to mention the word for crocodile (_mamba_) near some rivers of +Madagascar; and if clothes should be wetted in certain other rivers of the +island, you may not say that they are wet (_lena_); you must say that they +are on fire (_may_) or that they are drinking water (_misotro +rano_).(1495) A certain spirit, who used to inhabit a lake in Madagascar, +entertained a rooted aversion to salt, so that whenever the thing was +carried past the lake in which he resided it had to be called by another +name, or it would all have been dissolved and lost. The persons whom he +inspired had to veil their references to the obnoxious article under the +disguise of "sweet peppers."(1496) In a West African story we read of a +man who was told that he would die if ever the word for salt was +pronounced in his hearing. The fatal word was pronounced, and die he did +sure enough, but he soon came to life again with the help of a magical +wooden pestle of which he was the lucky possessor.(1497) + +(M245) In India the animals whose names are most commonly tabooed are the +snake and the tiger, but the same tribute of respect is paid to other +beasts also. Sayids and Mussulmans of high rank in northern India say that +you should never call a snake by its proper name, but always describe it +either as a tiger (_sher_) or a string (_rassi_).(1498) In Telingana the +euphemistic name for a snake, which should always be employed, is worm or +insect (_purugu_); if you call a cobra by its proper name, the creature +will haunt you for seven years and bite you at the first +opportunity.(1499) Ignorant Bengalee women will not mention a snake or a +thief by their proper names at night, for fear that one or other might +appear. When they have to allude to a serpent, they call it "the creeping +thing"; when they speak of a thief, they say "the unwelcome +visitor."(1500) Other euphemisms for the snake in northern India are +"maternal uncle" and "rope." They say that if a snake bites you, you +should not mention its name, but merely observe "A rope has touched +me."(1501) Natives of Travancore are careful not to speak disrespectfully +of serpents. A cobra is called "the good lord" (_nalla tambiran_) or "the +good snake" (_nalla pambu_). While the Malayalies of the Shervaray Hills +are hunting the tiger, they speak of the beast only as "the dog."(1502) +The Canarese of southern India call the tiger either "the dog" or "the +jackal"; they think that if they called him by his proper name, he would +be sure to carry off one of them.(1503) The jungle people of northern +India, who meet the tiger in his native haunts, will not pronounce his +name, but speak of him as "the jackal" (_gidar_), or "the beast" +(_janwar_), or use some other euphemistic term. In some places they treat +the wolf and the bear in the same fashion.(1504) The Pankas of South +Mirzapur will not name the tiger, bear, camel, or donkey by their proper +names; the camel they call "long neck." Other tribes of the same district +only scruple to mention certain animals in the morning. Thus, the +Kharwars, a Dravidian tribe, will not name a pig, squirrel, hare, jackal, +bear, monkey, or donkey in the morning hours; if they have to allude to +these animals at that time, they call them by special names. For instance, +they call the hare "the four-footed one" or "he that hides in the rocks"; +while they speak of the bear as _jigariya_, which being interpreted means +"he with the liver of compassion." If the Bhuiyars are absolutely obliged +to refer to a monkey or a bear in the morning, they speak of the monkey as +"the tree-climber" and the bear as "the eater of white ants." They would +not mention a crocodile. Among the Pataris the matutinal title of the bear +is "the hairy creature."(1505) The Kols, a Dravidian race of northern +India, will not speak of death or beasts of prey by their proper names in +the morning. Their name for the tiger at that time of day is "he with the +claws," and for the elephant "he with the teeth."(1506) The forests of the +Sundarbans, the district at the mouth of the Ganges, are full of +man-eating tigers and the annual loss of life among the woodcutters is +heavy. Here accordingly the ferocious animal is not called a tiger but a +jackal (_cial_).(1507) + +(M246) In Annam the fear inspired by tigers, elephants, and other wild +animals induces the people to address these creatures with the greatest +respect as "lord" or "grandfather," lest the beasts should take umbrage +and attack them.(1508) The tiger reigns supreme in the forests of Tonquin +and Cochin-China, and the peasants honour him as a maleficent deity. In +talking of him they always call him _ong_, which means monsieur or +grandfather. They are convinced that if they dared to speak of him +disrespectfully, he would avenge the insult.(1509) In Siam there are many +people who would never venture to utter the words tiger or crocodile in a +spot where these terrible creatures might be in hiding, lest the sound of +their names should attract the attention of the beasts towards the +speakers.(1510) When the Malays of Patani Bay in Siam are in the jungle +and think there is a tiger near, they will either speak of him in +complimentary terms as the "grandfather of the woods" or only mention him +in a whisper.(1511) In Laos, while a man is out hunting elephants he is +obliged to give conventional names to all common objects, which creates a +sort of special language for elephant-hunters.(1512) So when the Chams and +Orang-Glai of Indo-China are searching for the precious eagle-wood in the +forest, they must employ an artificial jargon to designate most objects of +everyday life; thus, for example, fire is called "the red," a she-goat +becomes "a spider," and so on. Some of the terms which compose the jargon +are borrowed from the dialects of neighbouring tribes.(1513) When the +Mentras or aborigines of Malacca are searching for what they call _gaharu_ +(_lignum aloes_) they are obliged to use a special language, avoiding the +words in ordinary use. At such times they call _gaharu_ by the name of +_tabak_, and they speak of a snake as "the long animal" and of the +elephant as "the great animal." They have also to observe a number of +other taboos, particularly in the matter of diet. If a man has found a +promising _gaharu_ tree, and on going home dreams that the guardian spirit +of the tree (_hantu gaharu_) demands a human victim as the price of his +property, the dreamer will try next day to catch somebody asleep and to +smear his forehead with lime. This is a sign to the guardian spirit of the +tree, who accordingly carries away the soul of the sleeper to the land of +the dead by means of a fever or other ailment, whereas the original +dreamer gets a good supply of aloes wood.(1514) + +(M247) At certain seasons of the year parties of Jakuns and Binuas go out +to seek for camphor in the luxuriant forests of their native country, +which is the narrow southern extremity of the Malay Peninsula, the Land's +End of Asia. They are absent for three or four months together, and during +the whole of this time the use of the ordinary Malay language is forbidden +to them, and they have to speak a special language called by them the +_bassa kapor_ (camphor language) or _pantang_(_1515_)_ kapur_. Indeed not +only have the searchers to employ this peculiar language, but even the men +and women who stay at home in the villages are obliged to speak it while +the others are away looking for the camphor. They believe that a spirit +presides over the camphor trees, and that without propitiating him they +could not obtain the precious gum; the shrill cry of a species of cicada, +heard at night, is supposed to be the voice of the spirit. If they failed +to employ the camphor language, they think that they would have great +difficulty in finding the camphor trees, and that even when they did find +them the camphor would not yield itself up to the collector. The camphor +language consists in great part of words which are either Malayan or of +Malay origin; but it also contains many words which are not Malayan but +are presumed to be remains of the original Jakun dialects now almost +extinct in these districts. The words derived from Malayan are formed in +many cases by merely substituting a descriptive phrase for the common +term. Thus instead of rice they say "grass fruit"; instead of gun they say +"far sounding"; the epithet "short-legged" is substituted for hog; hair is +referred to as "leaves," and so on.(1516) So when the Battas or Bataks of +Sumatra have gone out to search for camphor, they must abandon the speech +of daily life as soon as they reach the camphor forest. For example, if +they wish to speak of the forest they may not use the ordinary word for it +(_hoetan_), but must call it _kerrengettetdoeng_. When they have fixed on +a spot in which to try their luck, they set up a booth and clear a space +in front of it to serve as a place of sacrifice. Here, after summoning the +camphor spirit (_berroe ni kapoer_) by playing on a flute, they offer +sacrifice to him repeatedly. Then they lie down to dream of the place +where camphor is to be found. If this succeeds, the leader goes and +chooses the tree. When it has been cut down to the accompaniment of +certain spells or incantations, one of the men runs and wraps the top of +the fallen tree in a garment to prevent the camphor from escaping from the +trunk before they have secured it. Then the tree is cleft and split up in +the search for the camphor crystals, which are to be found in the fibres +of the wood.(1517) Similarly, when the Kayans of Borneo are searching for +camphor, they talk a language invented solely for their use at this time. +The camphor itself is never mentioned by its proper name, but is always +referred to as "the thing that smells"; and all the tools employed in +collecting the drug receive fanciful names. Unless they conform to this +rule they suppose that the camphor crystals, which are found only in the +crevices of the wood, will elude them.(1518) The Malanau tribes of Borneo +observe the same custom very strictly, believing that the crystals would +immediately dissolve if they spoke anything but the camphor language. For +example, the common Malanau word for "return" is _muli_, but in presence +of a camphor tree they say _beteku_. Again, "to hide" is _palim_ in the +Malanau language, but when they are looking for camphor they say _krian_. +In like manner, all common names for implements and food are exchanged for +others. In some tribes the camphor-seekers may never mention the names of +chiefs and influential men; if they broke this rule, they would find no +camphor in the trees.(1519) + +(M248) In the western states of the Malay Peninsula the chief industry is +tin-mining, and odd ideas prevail among the natives as to the nature and +properties of the ore. They regard it as alive and growing, sometimes in +the shape of a buffalo, which makes its way from place to place +underground. Ore of inferior quality is excused on the score of its tender +years; it will no doubt improve as it grows older. Not only is the tin +believed to be under the protection and command of certain spirits who +must be propitiated, but it is even supposed to have its own special likes +and dislikes for certain persons and things. Hence the Malays deem it +advisable to treat tin ore with respect, to consult its convenience, nay, +to conduct the business of mining in such a way that the ore may, as it +were, be extracted without its own knowledge. When such are their ideas +about the mineral it is no wonder that the miners scruple to employ +certain words in the mines, and replace them by others which are less +likely to give offence to the ore or its guardian spirits. Thus, for +example, the elephant must not be called an elephant but "the tall one who +turns himself about"; and in like manner special words, different from +those in common use, are employed by the miners to designate the cat, the +buffalo, the snake, the centipede, tin sand, metallic tin, and lemons. +Lemons are particularly distasteful to the spirits; they may not be +brought into the mines.(1520) Again, the Malay wizard, who is engaged in +snaring pigeons with the help of a decoy-bird and a calling-tube, must on +no account call things by their common names. The tiny conical hut, in +which he sits waiting for the wild pigeons to come fluttering about him, +goes by the high-sounding name of the Magic Prince, perhaps with a +delicate allusion to its noble inmate. The calling-tube is known as Prince +Distraction, doubtless on account of the extraordinary fascination it +exercises on the birds. The decoy-pigeon receives the name of the +Squatting Princess, and the rod with a noose at the end of it, which +serves to catch the unwary birds, is disguised under the title of Prince +Invitation. Everything, in fact, is on a princely scale, so far at least +as words can make it so. The very nooses destined to be slipped over the +necks or legs of the little struggling prisoners are dignified by the +title of King Solomon's necklaces and armlets; and the trap into which the +birds are invited to walk is variously described as King Solomon's +Audience Chamber, or a Palace Tower, or an Ivory Hall carpeted with silver +and railed with amalgam. What pigeon could resist these manifold +attractions, especially when it is addressed by the respectful title of +Princess Kapor or Princess Sarap or Princess Puding?(1521) Again, the +fisher-folk on the east coast of the Malay Peninsula, like their brethren +in Scotland, are reluctant to mention the names of birds or beasts while +they are at sea. All animals then go by the name of _cheweh_, a +meaningless word which is believed not to be understood by the creatures +to whom it refers. Particular kinds of animals are distinguished by +appropriate epithets; the pig is "the grunting _cheweh_," the buffalo is +"the _cheweh_ that says _uak_," the snipe is "the _cheweh_ that cries +_kek-kek_," and so on.(1522) In this respect the fishermen of Patani Bay +class together sea spirits, Buddhist monks, beasts, and reptiles; these +are all _cheweh_ and their common names may not be mentioned at sea. But, +curiously enough, they lay no such embargo on the names of fish and birds, +except the vulture and domestic fowls and ducks. At sea the vulture is +named "bald head," the tiger "striped," the snake "weaver's sword," the +horse "fast," and a species of monkey "long tail." The human foot is +called "tortoise," and a Buddhist monk "yellow" on account of the colour +of his robe. These Malay fishermen are at least as unwilling to speak of a +Buddhist monk at sea as Scotch fishermen are to mention a minister in +similar circumstances. If one of them mentions a monk, his mates will fall +on him and beat him; whereas for other slips of the tongue they think it +enough to throw a little bilge-water over the back of the transgressor and +to say, "May the ill-luck be dismissed!" The use of this special language +is even more obligatory by night than by day. On shore the fishermen make +very merry over those lubberly landsmen who cannot talk correctly at +sea.(1523) In like manner Achinese fishermen, in northern Sumatra, employ +a special vocabulary when they are at sea. Thus they may not call a +mountain a mountain, or mountain-high billows would swamp the boat; they +refer to it as "high ground." They may not speak of an elephant by its +proper name of _gadjah_, but must call it _po meurah_. If a man wishes to +say that something is clear, he must not use the ordinary word for clear +(_lheueh_) because it bears the meaning also of "free," "loose"; and the +utterance of such a word might enable the fish to get free from the net +and escape. Instead of _lheueh_ he must therefore employ the less +dangerous synonym _leungka_. In like manner, we are told, among the +fishermen of the north coast of Java whole lists of words might be +compiled which are tabooed at sea and must be replaced by others.(1524) + +(M249) In Sumatra the spirits of the gold mines are treated with as much +deference as the spirits of the tin-mines in the Malay Peninsula. Tin, +ivory, and the like may not be brought by the miners to the scene of their +operations, for at the scent of such things the spirits of the mine would +cause the gold to vanish. For the same reason it is forbidden to refer to +certain things by their proper names, and in speaking of them the miners +must use other words. In some cases, for example in removing the grains of +the gold, a deep silence must be observed; no commands may be given or +questions asked,(1525) probably because the removal of the precious metal +is regarded as a theft which the spirits would punish if they caught the +thieves in the act. Certainly the Dyaks believe that gold has a soul which +seeks to avenge itself on men who dig the precious metal. But the angry +spirit is powerless to harm miners who observe certain precautions, such +as never to bathe in a river with their faces turned up stream, never to +sit with their legs dangling, and never to tie up their hair.(1526) Again, +a Sumatran who fancies that there is a tiger or a crocodile in his +neighbourhood, will speak of the animal by the honourable title of +"grandfather" for the purpose of propitiating the creature.(1527) In the +forest a Karo-Batak refers to a tiger as "Grandfather to whom the wood +belongs," "he with the striped coat," or "the roving trap."(1528) Among +the Gayos of Sumatra it is forbidden to mention the name of small-pox in +the house of a man who is suffering from the disease; and the words for +ugly, red, stinking, unlucky, and so forth are forbidden under the same +circumstances. The disease is referred to under the title of "prince of +the averters of misfortune."(1529) So long as the hunting season lasts, +the natives of Nias may not name the eye, the hammer, stones, and in some +places the sun by their true names; no smith may ply his trade in the +village, and no person may go from one village to another to have smith's +work done for him. All this, with the exception of the rule about not +naming the eye and the sun, is done to prevent the dogs from growing +stiff, and so losing the power of running down the game.(1530) During the +rice-harvest in Nias the reapers seldom speak to each other, and when they +do so, it is only in whispers. Outside the field they must speak of +everything by names different from those in common use, which gives rise +to a special dialect or jargon known as "field speech." It has been +observed that some of the words in this jargon resemble words in the +language of the Battas of Sumatra.(1531) While these rice-reapers of Nias +are at work they may not address each other by their names; they must use +only such general terms as "man," "woman," "girl," "old man," and "old +woman." The word for "fire" may not pass their lips; instead of it they +must use the word for "cold." Other words tabooed to them during the +harvest are the words for "smoke" and "stone." If a reaper wishes to ask +another for his whetstone to sharpen his knife, he must speak of it as a +"fowl's egg."(1532) In Java when people suspect that a tiger or crocodile +is near, they avoid the use of the proper name of the beast and refer to +him as "the old lord" or "grandfather." Similarly, men who are watching a +plantation to protect it from wild boars speak of these animals as +"handsome men" (_wong bagus_). When after harvest the unhusked rice is to +be brought into the barn, the barn is not called a barn but "the dark +store-house." Serious epidemics may not be mentioned by their true names; +thus smallpox is called the "pretty girl" (_lara bagus_). The Javanese are +particularly careful to eschew certain common words at evening or night. +Thus the snake is then called a "tree-root"; the venomous centipede is +referred to as the "red ant"; oil is spoken of as "water"; and so forth. +And when leaves and herbs are being gathered for use in medicine they are +regularly designated by other than their ordinary names.(1533) + +(M250) The Alfoors or Toradjas of Poso, in Celebes, are forbidden by +custom to speak the ordinary language when they are at work in the +harvest-field. At such times they employ a secret language which is said +to agree with the ordinary one only in this, that in it some things are +designated by words usually applied in a different sense, or by +descriptive phrases or circumlocutions. Thus instead of "run" they say +"limp"; instead of "hand" they say "that with which one reaches"; instead +of "foot" they say "that with which one limps"; and instead of "ear" they +say "that with which one hears." Again, in the field-speech "to drink" +becomes "to thrust forward the mouth"; "to pass by" is expressed by "to +nod with the head"; a gun is "a fire-producer"; and wood is "that which is +carried on the shoulder." The writer who reports the custom was formerly +of opinion that this secret language was designed to avoid attracting the +attention of evil spirits to the ripe rice; but further enquiry has +satisfied him that the real reason for adopting it is a wish not to +frighten the soul of the rice by revealing to it the alarming truth that +it is about to be cut, carried home, boiled, and eaten. It is just the +words referring to these actions, he tells us, which are especially +tabooed and replaced by others. Beginning with a rule of avoiding a +certain number of common words, the custom has grown among people of the +Malay stock till it has produced a complete language for use in the +fields. In Minahassa also this secret field-speech consists in part of +phrases or circumlocutions, of which many are said to be very +poetical.(1534) But it is not only on the harvest field that the Toradja +resorts to the use of a secret language from superstitious motives. In the +great primaeval forest he feels ill at ease, for well he knows the +choleric temper of the spirits who inhabit the giant trees of the wood, +and that were he to excite their wrath they would assuredly pay him out in +one way or other, it might be by carrying off his soul and so making him +ill, it might be by crushing him flat under a falling tree. These touchy +beings particularly dislike to hear certain words pronounced, and +accordingly on his way through the forest the Toradja takes care to avoid +the offensive terms and to substitute others for them. Thus he will not +call a dog a dog, but refers to it as "the hairy one"; a buffalo is spoken +of as "thick hide"; a cooking pot becomes "that which is set down"; the +hair of the head is alluded to as "betel"; goats and pigs are "the folk +under the house"; a horse is "long nose"; and deer are "denizens of the +fell." If he is rash or careless enough to utter a forbidden word in the +forest, a short-tempered tree-spirit will fetch him such a bang on the +head that the blood will spout from his nose and mouth.(1535) Again, when +the weather is fine and the Toradja wishes it to continue so, he is +careful not to utter the word "rain," for if he did so the rain would +fancy he was called for and would obligingly present himself. Indeed, in +the district of Pakambia, which is frequently visited by heavy storms, the +word "rain" may not be mentioned throughout the year lest it should +provoke a tempest; the unmentionable thing is there delicately alluded to +as "tree-blossoms."(1536) + +(M251) When a Bugineese or Macassar man is at sea and sailing past a place +which he believes to be haunted by evil spirits, he keeps as quiet as he +can; but if he is obliged to speak he designates common things and +actions, such as water, wind, fire, cooking, eating, the rice-pot, and so +forth, by peculiar terms which are neither Bugineese nor Macassar, and +therefore cannot be understood by the evil spirits, whose knowledge of +languages is limited to these two tongues. However, according to another +and later account given by the same authority, it appears that many of the +substituted terms are merely figurative expressions or descriptive phrases +borrowed from the ordinary language. Thus the word for water is replaced +by a rare word meaning "rain"; a rice-pot is called a "black man"; boiled +rice is "one who is eaten"; a fish is a "tree-leaf"; a fowl is "one who +lives in a poultry hatch"; and an ape is a "tree-dweller."(1537) Natives +of the island of Saleyer, which lies off the south coast of Celebes, will +not mention the name of their island when they are making a certain +sea-passage; and in sailing they will never speak of a fair wind by its +proper name. The reason in both cases is a fear of disturbing the evil +spirits.(1538) When natives of the Sapoodi Archipelago, to the north-east +of Java, are at sea they will never say that they are near the island of +Sapoodi, for if they did so they would be carried away from it by a head +wind or by some other mishap.(1539) When Galelareese sailors are crossing +over to a land that is some way off, say one or two days' sail, they do +not remark on any vessels that may heave in sight or any birds that may +fly past; for they believe that were they to do so they would be driven +out of their course and not reach the land they are making for. Moreover, +they may not mention their own ship, or any part of it. If they have to +speak of the bow, for example, they say "the beak of the bird"; starboard +is named "sword," and larboard "shield."(1540) The inhabitants of Ternate +and of the Sangi Islands deem it very dangerous to point at distant +objects or to name them while they are at sea. Once while sailing with a +crew of Ternate men a European asked one of them the name of certain small +islands which they had passed. The man had been talkative before, but the +question reduced him to silence. "Sir," he said, "that is a great taboo; +if I told you we should at once have wind and tide against us, and perhaps +suffer a great calamity. As soon as we come to anchor I will tell you the +name of the islands." The Sangi Islanders have, besides the ordinary +language, an ancient one which is only partly understood by some of the +people. This old language is often used by them at sea, as well as in +popular songs and certain heathen rites.(1541) The reason for resorting to +it on shipboard is to hinder the evil spirits from overhearing and so +frustrating the plans of the voyagers.(1542) The Nufoors of Dutch New +Guinea believe that if they were to mention the name of an island to which +the bow of their vessel was pointing, they would be met by storm, rain, or +mist which would drive them from their course.(1543) + +(M252) In some parts of Sunda it is taboo or forbidden to call a goat a +goat; it must be called a "deer under the house." A tiger may not be +spoken of as a tiger; he must be referred to as "the supple one," "the one +there," "the honourable," "the whiskered one," and so on. Neither a wild +boar nor a mouse may be mentioned by its proper name; a boar must be +called "the beautiful one" (masculine) and the mouse "the beautiful one" +(feminine). When the people are asked what would be the consequence of +breaking a taboo, they generally say that the person or thing would suffer +for it, either by meeting with a mishap or by falling ill. But some say +they do not so much fear a misfortune as experience an indefinite feeling, +half fear, half reverence, towards an institution of their forefathers. +Others can assign no reason for observing the taboos, and cut enquiry +short by saying that "It is so because it is so."(1544) When the Kenyahs +of Borneo are about to poison the fish of a section of the river with the +_tuba_ root, they always speak of the matter as little as possible and use +the most indirect and fanciful modes of expression. Thus they will say, +"There are many leaves fallen here," meaning that there are many fish in +the river. And they will not breathe the name of the _tuba_ root; if they +must refer to it, they call it _pakat abong_, where _abong_ is the name of +a strong-smelling root something like _tuba_, and _pakat_ means "to agree +upon"; so that _pakat abong_ signifies "what we have agreed to call +_abong_." This concealment of the truth deceives all the bats, birds, and +insects, which might otherwise overhear the talk of the men and inform the +fish of the deep-laid plot against them.(1545) These Kenyahs also fear the +crocodile and do not like to mention it by name, especially if one be in +sight; they refer to the beast as "the old grandfather."(1546) When +small-pox invades a village of the Sakarang Dyaks in Borneo, the people +desert the place and take refuge in the jungle. In the daytime they do not +dare to stir or to speak above a whisper, lest the spirits should see or +hear them. They do not call the small-pox by its proper name, but speak of +it as "jungle leaves" or "fruit" or "the chief," and ask the sufferer, +"Has he left you?" and the question is put in a whisper lest the spirit +should hear.(1547) Natives of the Philippines were formerly prohibited +from speaking of the chase in the house of a fisherman and from speaking +of fishing in the house of a hunter; journeying by land they might not +talk of marine matters, and sailing on the sea they might not talk of +terrestrial matters.(1548) + +(M253) When we survey the instances of this superstition which have now +been enumerated, we can hardly fail to be struck by the number of cases in +which a fear of spirits, or of other beings regarded as spiritual and +intelligent, is assigned as the reason for abstaining in certain +circumstances from the use of certain words.(1549) The speaker imagines +himself to be overheard and understood by spirits, or animals, or other +beings whom his fancy endows with human intelligence; and hence he avoids +certain words and substitutes others in their stead, either from a desire +to soothe and propitiate these beings by speaking well of them, or from a +dread that they may understand his speech and know what he is about, when +he happens to be engaged in that which, if they knew of it, would excite +their anger or their fear. Hence the substituted terms fall into two +classes according as they are complimentary or enigmatic; and these +expressions are employed, according to circumstances, for different and +even opposite reasons, the complimentary because they will be understood +and appreciated, and the enigmatic because they will not. We can now see +why persons engaged in occupations like fishing, fowling, hunting, mining, +reaping, and sailing the sea, should abstain from the use of the common +language and veil their meaning in strange words and dark phrases. For +they have this in common that all of them are encroaching on the domain of +the elemental beings, the creatures who, whether visible or invisible, +whether clothed in fur or scales or feathers, whether manifesting +themselves in tree or stone or running stream or breaking wave, or +hovering unseen in the air, may be thought to have the first right to +those regions of earth and sea and sky into which man intrudes only to +plunder and destroy. Thus deeply imbued with a sense of the all-pervading +life and intelligence of nature, man at a certain stage of his +intellectual development cannot but be visited with fear or compunction, +whether he is killing wild fowl among the stormy Hebrides, or snaring +doves in the sultry thickets of the Malay Peninsula; whether he is hunting +the bear in Lapland snows, or the tiger in Indian jungles, or hauling in +the dripping net, laden with silvery herring, on the coast of Scotland; +whether he is searching for the camphor crystals in the shade of the +tropical forest, or extracting the red gold from the darksome mine, or +laying low with a sweep of his sickle the yellow ears on the harvest +field. In all these his depredations on nature, man's first endeavour +apparently is by quietness and silence to escape the notice of the beings +whom he dreads; but if that cannot be, he puts the best face he can on the +matter by dissembling his foul designs under a fair exterior, by +flattering the creatures whom he proposes to betray, and by so guarding +his lips, that, though his dark ambiguous words are understood well enough +by his fellows, they are wholly unintelligible to his victims. He pretends +to be what he is not, and to be doing something quite different from the +real business in hand. He is not, for example, a fowler catching pigeons +in the forest; he is a Magic Prince or King Solomon himself(1550) inviting +fair princesses into his palace tower or ivory hall. Such childish +pretences suffice to cheat the guileless creatures whom the savage intends +to rob or kill, perhaps they even impose to some extent upon himself; for +we can hardly dissever them wholly from those forms of sympathetic magic +in which primitive man seeks to effect his purpose by imitating the thing +he desires to produce, or even by assimilating himself to it. It is hard +indeed for us to realise the mental state of a Malay wizard masquerading +before wild pigeons in the character of King Solomon; yet perhaps the +make-believe of children and of the stage, where we see the players daily +forgetting their real selves in their passionate impersonation of the +shadowy realm of fancy, may afford us some glimpse into the workings of +that instinct of imitation or mimicry which is deeply implanted in the +constitution of the human mind. + + + + + +CHAPTER VII. OUR DEBT TO THE SAVAGE. + + +(M254) It would be easy to extend the list of royal and priestly taboos, +but the instances collected in the preceding pages may suffice as +specimens. To conclude this part of our subject it only remains to state +summarily the general conclusions to which our enquiries have thus far +conducted us. We have seen that in savage or barbarous society there are +often found men to whom the superstition of their fellows ascribes a +controlling influence over the general course of nature. Such men are +accordingly adored and treated as gods. Whether these human divinities +also hold temporal sway over the lives and fortunes of their adorers, or +whether their functions are purely spiritual and supernatural, in other +words, whether they are kings as well as gods or only the latter, is a +distinction which hardly concerns us here. Their supposed divinity is the +essential fact with which we have to deal. In virtue of it they are a +pledge and guarantee to their worshippers of the continuance and orderly +succession of those physical phenomena upon which mankind depends for +subsistence. Naturally, therefore, the life and health of such a god-man +are matters of anxious concern to the people whose welfare and even +existence are bound up with his; naturally he is constrained by them to +conform to such rules as the wit of early man has devised for averting the +ills to which flesh is heir, including the last ill, death. These rules, +as an examination of them has shewn, are nothing but the maxims with +which, on the primitive view, every man of common prudence must comply if +he would live long in the land. But while in the case of ordinary men the +observance of the rules is left to the choice of the individual, in the +case of the god-man it is enforced under penalty of dismissal from his +high station, or even of death. For his worshippers have far too great a +stake in his life to allow him to play fast and loose with it. Therefore +all the quaint superstitions, the old-world maxims, the venerable saws +which the ingenuity of savage philosophers elaborated long ago, and which +old women at chimney corners still impart as treasures of great price to +their descendants gathered round the cottage fire on winter evenings--all +these antique fancies clustered, all these cobwebs of the brain were spun +about the path of the old king, the human god, who, immeshed in them like +a fly in the toils of a spider, could hardly stir a limb for the threads +of custom, "light as air but strong as links of iron," that crossing and +recrossing each other in an endless maze bound him fast within a network +of observances from which death or deposition alone could release him. + +(M255) Thus to students of the past the life of the old kings and priests +teems with instruction. In it was summed up all that passed for wisdom +when the world was young. It was the perfect pattern after which every man +strove to shape his life; a faultless model constructed with rigorous +accuracy upon the lines laid down by a barbarous philosophy. Crude and +false as that philosophy may seem to us, it would be unjust to deny it the +merit of logical consistency. Starting from a conception of the vital +principle as a tiny being or soul existing in, but distinct and separable +from, the living being, it deduces for the practical guidance of life a +system of rules which in general hangs well together and forms a fairly +complete and harmonious whole.(1551) The flaw--and it is a fatal one--of the +system lies not in its reasoning, but in its premises; in its conception +of the nature of life, not in any irrelevancy of the conclusions which it +draws from that conception. But to stigmatise these premises as ridiculous +because we can easily detect their falseness, would be ungrateful as well +as unphilosophical. We stand upon the foundation reared by the generations +that have gone before, and we can but dimly realise the painful and +prolonged efforts which it has cost humanity to struggle up to the point, +no very exalted one after all, which we have reached. Our gratitude is due +to the nameless and forgotten toilers, whose patient thought and active +exertions have largely made us what we are. The amount of new knowledge +which one age, certainly which one man, can add to the common store is +small, and it argues stupidity or dishonesty, besides ingratitude, to +ignore the heap while vaunting the few grains which it may have been our +privilege to add to it. There is indeed little danger at present of +undervaluing the contributions which modern times and even classical +antiquity have made to the general advancement of our race. But when we +pass these limits, the case is different. Contempt and ridicule or +abhorrence and denunciation are too often the only recognition vouchsafed +to the savage and his ways. Yet of the benefactors whom we are bound +thankfully to commemorate, many, perhaps most, were savages. For when all +is said and done our resemblances to the savage are still far more +numerous than our differences from him; and what we have in common with +him, and deliberately retain as true and useful, we owe to our savage +forefathers who slowly acquired by experience and transmitted to us by +inheritance those seemingly fundamental ideas which we are apt to regard +as original and intuitive. We are like heirs to a fortune which has been +handed down for so many ages that the memory of those who built it up is +lost, and its possessors for the time being regard it as having been an +original and unalterable possession of their race since the beginning of +the world. But reflection and enquiry should satisfy us that to our +predecessors we are indebted for much of what we thought most our own, and +that their errors were not wilful extravagances or the ravings of +insanity, but simply hypotheses, justifiable as such at the time when they +were propounded, but which a fuller experience has proved to be +inadequate. It is only by the successive testing of hypotheses and +rejection of the false that truth is at last elicited. After all, what we +call truth is only the hypothesis which is found to work best. Therefore +in reviewing the opinions and practices of ruder ages and races we shall +do well to look with leniency upon their errors as inevitable slips made +in the search for truth, and to give them the benefit of that indulgence +which we ourselves may one day stand in need of; _cum excusatione itaque +veteres audiendi sunt_. + + + + +Note. Not To Step Over Persons And Things.(1552) + + +The superstition that harm is done to a person or thing by stepping over +him or it is very widely spread. Thus the Galelareese think that if a man +steps over your fishing-rod or your arrow, the fish will not bite when you +fish with that rod, and the game will not be hit by that arrow when you +shoot it. They say it is as if the implements merely skimmed past the fish +or the game.(1553) Similarly, if a Highland sportsman saw a person +stepping over his gun or fishing-rod, he presumed but little on that day's +diversion.(1554) When a Dacota had bad luck in hunting, he would say that +a woman had been stepping over some part of the animal which he +revered.(1555) Amongst many South African tribes it is considered highly +improper to step over a sleeper; if a wife steps over her husband he +cannot hit his enemy in war; if she steps over his assegais, they are from +that time useless, and are given to boys to play with.(1556) The Baganda +think that if a woman steps over a man's weapons, they will not aim +straight and will not kill, unless they have been first purified.(1557) +The Nandi of British East Africa hold that to step over a snare or trap is +to court death and must be avoided at all risks; further, they are of +opinion that if a man were to step over a pot, he would fall to pieces +whenever the pot were broken.(1558) The people of the Lower Congo deem +that to step over a person's body or legs will cause ill-luck to that +person and they are careful not to do so, especially in passing men who +are holding a palaver. At such times a passer-by will shuffle his feet +along the ground without lifting them in order that he may not be charged +with bringing bad luck on any one.(1559) On the other hand among the +Wajagga of East Africa grandchildren leap over the corpse of their +grandfather, when it is laid out, expressing a wish that they may live to +be as old as he.(1560) In Laos hunters are careful never to step over +their weapons.(1561) The Tepehuanes of Mexico believe that if anybody +steps over them, they will not be able to kill another deer in their +lives.(1562) Some of the Australian aborigines are seriously alarmed if a +woman steps over them as they lie asleep on the ground.(1563) In the +tribes about Maryborough in Queensland, if a woman steps over anything +that belongs to a man he will throw it away.(1564) In New Caledonia it is +thought to endanger a canoe if a woman steps over the cable.(1565) +Everything that a Samoyed woman steps over becomes unclean and must be +fumigated.(1566) Malagasy porters believe that if a woman strides over +their poles, the skin will certainly peel off the shoulders of the bearers +when next they take up the burden.(1567) The Cherokees fancy that to step +over a vine causes it to wither and bear no fruit.(1568) The Ba-Pendi and +Ba-thonga of South Africa think that if a woman steps over a man's legs, +they will swell and he will not be able to run.(1569) According to the +South Slavonians, the most serious maladies may be communicated to a +person by stepping over him, but they can afterwards be cured by stepping +over him in the reverse direction.(1570) The belief that to step over a +child hinders it from growing is found in France, Belgium, Germany, +Austria, and Syria; in Syria, Germany, and Bohemia the mischief can be +remedied by stepping over the child in the opposite direction.(1571) + + + + + +INDEX. + + +Abdication of kings in favour of their infant children, 19, 20 + +Abduction of souls by demons, 58 _sqq._ + +Abipones, the, 328, 350; + changes in their language, 360 + +Abnormal mental states accounted inspiration, 248 + +Abortion, superstition as to woman who has procured, 153 + +Absence and recall of the soul, 30 _sqq._ + +Achilles, 261 + +Acts, tabooed, 101 _sqq._ + +Adivi or forest Gollas, the, 149 + +Aetolians, the, 311 + +Africa, fetish kings in West, 22 _sqq._; + names of animals and things tabooed in, 400 _sq._ + +Agutainos, the, 144 + +Air, prohibition to be uncovered in the open, 3, 14 + +Akamba, the, 204 + +Akikuyu, the, 175, 204, 286; + auricular confession among the, 214 + +Albanians of the Caucasus, 349 + +Alberti, L., 220 + +Alcmena and Hercules, 298 _sq._ + +Alfoors of Celebes, 33; + of Minahassa, 63 _sq._ + +Amboyna, 87, 105 + +Amenophis III., his birth represented on the monuments, 28 + +American Indians, their fear of naming the dead, 351 _sqq._ + +Ammon, Hanun, King of, 273 + +Amoy, 59 + +Amulets, knots used as, 306 _sqq._; + rings as, 314 _sqq._ + +Ancestors, names of, bestowed on their reincarnations, 368 _sq._; + reborn in their descendants, 368 _sq._ + +Ancestral spirits, cause sickness, 53; + sacrifices to, 104 + +Andaman Islanders, 183 _n._ + +Andania, mysteries of, 227 _n._ + +_Angakok_, Esquimaux wizard or sorcerer, 211, 212 + +Angoni, the, 174 + +Animals injured through their shadows, 81 _sq._; + propitiation of spirits of slain, 190, 204 _sq._; + atonement for slain, 207; + dangerous, not called by their proper names, 396 _sqq._; + thought to understand human speech, 398 _sq._, 400 + +Animism passing into religion, 213 + +Anklets as amulets, 315 + +Annamites, the, 235 + +Anointment of priests at installation, 14 + +Antambahoaka, the, 216 + +Ants, bites of, used in purificatory ceremony, 105 + +Apaches, the, 182, 184, 325, 328 + +Apollo, purification of, 223 _n._1 + +Apuleius, 270 + +Arab mode of cursing an enemy, 312 + +Arabs of Moab, 273, 280 + +Araucanians, the, 97, 324 + +Ares, men sacred to, 111 + +Arikaras, the, 161 + +Aristeas of Proconnesus, 34 + +Army under arms, prohibition to see, 13 + +Arrows to keep off death, 31 + +Aru Islands, 37, 276 + +Arunta, their belief as to the ghosts of the slain, 177 _sq._; + ceremonies at the end of mourning among the, 373 _sq._ + +Arval Brothers, 226 + +Aryans, the primitive, their theory of personal names, 319 + +Ashes strewn on the head, 112 + +Ash-tree, parings of nails buried under an, 276 + +Assam, taboos observed by headmen in, 11; + hill tribes of, 323 + +Astarte at Hierapolis, 286 + +Aston, W. G., 2 _n._2 + +Astrolabe Bay, 289 + +Athens, kings at, 21 _sq._; + ritual of cursing at, 75 + +Atonement for slain animals, 207 + +Attiuoindarons, the, 366 + +_Atua_, ancestral spirit, 134, 265 + +Augur's staff at Rome, 313 + +Auricular confession, 214 + +Aurohuaca Indians, 215 + +Australian aborigines; + their conception of the soul, 27; + personal names kept secret among the, 320 _sqq._; + their fear of naming the dead, 349 _sqq._ + +Aversion of spirits and fairies to iron, 229, 232 _sq._ + +Avoidance of common words to deceive spirits or other beings, 416 _sqq._ + +Aymara Indians, the, 97 + +Aztecs, the, 249; + their priests, 259 + +Babylonian witches and wizards, 302 + +Bad Country, the, 109 + +Badham, Dr., 156 _n._ + +Baduwis, the, of Java, 115 _sq._, 232 + +Bag, souls collected in a, 63 _sq._ + +Baganda, the, 78, 87 + +---- fishermen, taboos observed by, 194 _sq._ _See also_ Uganda + +Bagba, a fetish, 5 + +Bageshu, the, 174 + +Bagobos, the, 31, 315, 323 + +Bahima, the, 183 _n._; + names of their dead kings not mentioned, 375 + +Bahnars of Cochin-China, 52, 58 + +Baking, continence observed at, 201 + +Balder, Norse god, 305 _n._1 + +Ba-Lua, the, 330 + +Banana-trees, fruit-bearing, hair deposited under, 286 + +Bandages to prevent the escape of the soul, 32, 71 + +Bangala, the, 195 _sq._, 330 + +Bangkok, 90 + +Baoules, the, 70 + +Ba-Pedi, the, 141, 153, 163, 202 + +Baron, R., 380 + +Baronga, the, 272 + +Basagala, the, 361 + +Basket, souls gathered into a, 72 + +Bastian, A., 252, 253 + +Basutos, burial custom of the, 107; + purification of warriors among the, 172 + +Bathing (washing) as a ceremonial purification, 141, 142, 150, 153, 168, + 169, 172, 173, 175, 179, 183, 192, 198, 219, 220, 222, 285, + 286 + +Ba-Thonga, the, 141, 154, 163, 202 + +Battas or Bataks of Sumatra, 34, 45, 46, 65, 116, 296 + +Bavili, the, 78 + +Bawenda, the, 243 + +Bayazid, the Sultan, and his soul, 50 + +Beans, prohibition to touch or name, 13 _sq._ + +Bear, the polar, taboos concerning, 209; + customs observed by Lapps after killing a, 221 + +Bears not to be called by their proper names, 397 _sq._, 399, 402 + +Bechuanas, purification of manslayers among the, 172 _sq._, 174 + +Bed, feet of, smeared with mud, 14; + prohibition to sleep in a, 194 + +Beef and milk not to be eaten at the same meal, 292 + +Beer, continence observed at brewing, 200 + +Bells as talismans, 235 + +Benin, kings of, 123, 243 + +Bentley, R., 33 _n._3 + +Besisis, the, 87 + +Beveridge, P., 363 _sq._ + +Bird, soul conceived as a, 33 _sqq._ + +Birds, ghosts of slain as, 177 _sq._; + cause headache through clipped hair, 270 _sq._, 282 + +Birth from a golden image, pretence of, 113; + premature, 213. _See_ Miscarriage + +Bismarck Archipelago, 128 + +Bites of ants used as purificatory ceremony, 105 + +Blackening faces of warriors, 163; + of manslayers, 169, 178, 181 + +Blackfoot Indians, 159 _n._ + +Black Mountain of southern France, 42 + +---- ox or black ram in magic, 154 + +Bladders, annual festival of, among the Esquimaux, 206 _sq._, 228 + +"Blessers" or sacred kings, 125 _n._ + +Blood put on doorposts, 15; + of slain, supposed effect of it on the slayer, 169; + smeared on person as a purification, 104, 115, 219; + drawn from bodies of manslayers, 176, 180; + tabooed, 239 _sqq._; + not eaten, 240 _sq._; + soul in the, 240, 241, 247, 250; + of game poured out, 241; + royal, not to be shed on the ground, 241 _sqq._; + unwillingness to shed, 243, 246 _sq._; + received on bodies of kinsfolk, 244 _sq._; + drops of, effaced, 245 _sq._; + horror of, 245; + of chief sacred, 248; + of women, dread of, 250 _sq._ + +---- of childbirth, supposed dangerous infection of, 152 _sqq._; + received on heads of friends or slaves, 245 + +---- -lickers, 246 + +Blowing upon knots, as a charm, 302, 304 + +Boa-constrictor, purification of man who has killed a, 221 _sq._ + +Boars, wild, not to be called by their proper names, 411, 415 + +Boas, Dr. Franz, 210 _sqq._, 214 + +Bodia or Bodio, a West African pontiff or fetish king, 14 _sq._, 23 + +Bodies, souls transferred to other, 49 + +Bodos, the, of Assam, 285 + +Boiled flesh tabooed, 185 + +Bolang Mongondo, a district in Celebes, 53, 279, 341 + +Bonds, no man in bonds allowed in priest's house, 14 + +Bones of human bodies which have been eaten, special treatment of, 189 + _sq._; + of the dead, their treatment after the decay of the flesh, 372 _n._5; + of dead disinterred and scraped, 373 _n._ + +Boobies, the, 8 _sq._ + +Born again, pretence of being, 113 + +Bornu, Sultan of, 120 + +Bororos, the, 34, 36 + +Bourke, Captain J. G., 184 + +Box, strayed soul caught in, 45, 70, 76 + +Bracelets as amulets, 315 + +Brahman student, his cut hair and nails, 277 + +Brahmans, their common and secret names, 322 + +Branches used in exorcism, 109 + +Breath of chief sacred, 136, 256 + +Breathing on a person as a mode of purification, 149 + +Brewing, continence observed at, 200, 201 _sq._ + +Bribri Indians, their ideas as to the uncleanness of women, 147, 149 + +Bride and bridegrooms, all knots on their garments unloosed, 299 _sq._ + +Bronze employed in expiatory rites, 226 _n._6; + priests to be shaved with, 226 + +---- knife to cut priest's hair, 14 + +Brother and sister not allowed to mention each other's names, 344 + +Brothers-in-law, their names not to be pronounced, 338, 342, 343, 344, 345 + +Buddha, Footprint of, 275 + +Building shadows into foundations, 89 _sq._ + +_Bukuru_, unclean, 147 + +Bulgarian building custom, 89 + +Burghead, 230 + +Burial under a running stream, 15 + +---- customs to prevent the escape of the soul, 51, 52 + +Burials, customs as to shadows at, 80 _sq._ + +Burma, kings of, 375 + +Burmese conception of the soul as a butterfly, 51 _sq._ + +Burning cut hair and nails to prevent them being used in sorcery, 281 + _sqq._ + +Buryat shaman, his mode of recovering lost souls, 56 _sq._ + +Butterfly, the soul as a, 29 _n._1, 51 _sq._ + +Cacongo, King of, 115, 118 + +Caffre customs at circumcision, 156 _sq._ + +Caffres, "women's speech" among the, 335 _sq._ + +Calabar, fetish king at, 22 _sq._ + +Calabashes, souls shut up in, 72 + +Calchaquis Indians, 31 + +Californian Indians, 352 + +Cambodia, kings of, 376 + +Camden, W., 68 + +Campbell, J., 384 + +Camphor, special language employed by searchers for, 405 _sqq._ + +Canelos Indians, 97 + +Cannibalism at hair-cutting, 264 + +Cannibals, taboos imposed on, among the Kwakiutl, 188 _sqq._ + +Canoe, fish offered to, 195 + +Canoes, continence observed at building, 202 + +Captives killed and eaten, 179 _sq._ + +Carayahis, the, 348 + +Caribou, taboos concerning, 208 + +Caribs, difference of language between men and women among the, 348 + +Caroline Islands, 25, 193, 290, 293 + +Caron's _Account of Japan_, 4 _n._2 + +Carrier Indians, 215, 367 + +Catat, Dr., 98 + +Catlin, G., 182 + +Cats with stumpy tails, reason of, 128 _sq._ + +Cattle, continence observed for sake of, 204; + protected against wolves by charms, 307 + +Caul-fat extracted by Australian enemies, 303 + +"Cauld airn," 233 + +Cazembes, the, 132 + +Celebes, 32, 33, 35; + hooking souls in, 30 + +Celibacy of holy milkmen, 15, 16 + +Ceremonial purity observed in war, 157 + +Ceremonies at the reception of strangers, 102 _sqq._; + at entering a strange land, 109 _sqq._; + purificatory, on return from a journey, 111 _sqq._; + observed after slaughter of panthers, lions, bears, serpents, etc., 219 + _sqq._; + at hair-cutting, 264 _sqq._ + +Cetchwayo, King, 377 + +Chams, the, 202, 297 + +Change of language caused by taboo on the names of the dead, 358 _sqq._, + 375; + caused by taboo on names of chiefs and kings, 375, 376 _sqq._ + +---- of names to deceive ghosts, 354 _sqq._ + +Charms to facilitate childbirth, 295 _sq._ + +Chastity. _See_ Continence + +_Chegilla_, taboo, 137 + +Cheremiss, the, 391 + +Cherokee sorcery with spittle, 287 _sq._ + +Chiefs, foods tabooed to, 291, 292; + names of, tabooed, 376 _sq._, 378 _sq._, 381, 382 + +---- and kings tabooed, 131 _sqq._ + +---- sacred, not allowed to leave their enclosures, 124; + regarded as dangerous, 138 + +Child and father, supposed danger of resemblance between, 88 _sq._ + +Child's nails bitten off, 262 + +Childbed, taboos imposed on women in, 147 _sqq._ + +Childbirth, precautions taken with mother at, 32, 33; + women tabooed at, 147 _sqq._; + confession of sins as a means of expediting, 216 _sq._; + women after, their hair shaved and burnt, 284; + homoeopathic magic to facilitate, 295 _sqq._; + knots untied at, 294, 296 _sq._, 297 _sq._ + +Children, young, tabooed, 262, 283; + parents named after their, 331 _sqq._ + +Chiloe, Indians of, 287, 324 + +China, custom at funerals in, 80; + Emperor of, 125, 375 _sq._ + +Chitome or Chitombe, a pontiff of Congo, 5 _sq._, 7 + +Chittagong, 297 + +Choctaws, the, 181 + +Chuckchees, the, 358 + +Circumcision customs among the Caffres, 156 _sq._; + performed with flints, not iron, 227; + in Australia, 244 + +Circumlocutions adopted to avoid naming the dead, 350, 351, 354, 355; + employed by reapers, 412 + +Cities, guardian deities of, evoked by enemies, 391 + +Clasping of hands forbidden, 298 + +_Clavie_, the, at Burghead, 229 _sq._ + +Cleanliness fostered by superstition, 130; + personal, observed in war, 157, 158 _n._1 + +Clippings of hair, magic wrought through, 268 _sqq._, 275, 277, 278 _sq._ + +Clotaire, 259 + +Clothes of sacred persons tabooed, 131 + +Cloths used to catch souls, 46, 47, 48, 52, 53, 64, 67, 75 _sq._ + +Clotilde, Queen, 259 + +Cobra, ceremonies after killing a, 222 _sq._ + +Coco-nut oil made by chaste women, 201 + +_Codjour_, a priestly king, 132 _n._1 + +Coins, portraits of kings not stamped on, 98 _sq._ + +Comanches, the, 360 + +Combing the hair forbidden, 187, 203, 208, 264; + thought to cause storms, 271 + +Combs of sacred persons, 256 + +Common objects, names of, changed when they are the names of the dead, 358 + _sqq._, 375, or the names of chiefs and kings, 375, 376 _sqq._ + +---- words tabooed, 392 _sqq._ + +Concealment of miscarriage in childbed, supposed effects of, 152 _sqq._ + +Concealment of personal names from fear of magic, 320 _sqq._ + +Conciliating the spirits of the land, 110 _sq._ + +Conduct, standard of, shifted from natural to supernatural basis, 213 + _sq._ + +Confession of sins, 114, 191, 195, 211 _sq._, 214 _sqq._; + originally a magical ceremony, 217 + +Connaught, kings of, 11 _sq._ + +Consummation of marriage prevented by knots and locks, 299 _sqq._ + +Contagious magic, 246, 268, 272 + +Continence enjoined on people during the rounds of sacred pontiff, 5; + of Zapotec priests, 6; + of priests, 159 _n._ + +---- observed on eve of period of taboo, 11; + by those who have handled the dead, 142; + during war, 157, 158 _n._1, 161, 163, 164, 165; + after victory, 166 _sqq._, 175, 178, 179, 181; + by cannibals, 188; + by fishers and hunters, 191, 192, 193, 194, 195, 196, 197, 198, 207; + by workers in salt-pans, 200; + at brewing beer, wine, and poison, 200 _sq._, 201 _sq._; + at baking, 201; + at making coco-nut oil, 201; + at building canoes, 202; + at house-building, 202; + at making or repairing dams, 202; + on trading voyages, 203; + after festivals, 204; + on journeys, 204; + while cattle are at pasture, 204; + by lion-killers and bear-killers, 220, 221; + before handling holy relics, 272; + by tabooed men, 293 + +Cooking, taboos as to, 147 _sq._, 156, 165, 169, 178, 185, 193, 194, 198, + 209, 221, 256 + +Coptic church, 235, 310 _n._5 + +Cords, knotted, in magic, 302, 303 _sq._ + +Corea, clipped hair burned in, 283 + +---- kings of, 125; + not to be touched with iron, 226 + +Corpses, knots not allowed about, 310 + +Cousins, male and female, not allowed to mention each other's names, 344 + +Covenant, spittle used in making a, 290 + +Covering up mirrors at a death, 94 _sq._ + +Cow bewitched, 93 + +Cowboy of the king of Unyoro, 159 _n._ + +Creek Indians, the, 156; + their war customs, 161 + +Crevaux, J., 105 + +Criminals shaved as a mode of purification, 287 + +Crocodiles not called by their proper names, 403, 410, 411, 415 _sq._ + +Crossing of legs forbidden, 295, 298 _sq._ + +Crown, imperial, as palladium, 4 + +Crystals used in divination, 56 + +Curr, E. M., 320 _sq._ + +Cursing at Athens, ritual of, 75 + +---- an enemy, Arab mode of, 312 + +Curtains to conceal kings, 120 _sq._ + +Cut hair and nails, disposal of, 267 _sqq._ + +Cuts made in the body as a mode of expelling demons or ghosts, 106 _sq._; + in bodies of manslayers, 174, 176, 180; + in bodies of slain, 176. _See also_ Incisions + +Cutting the hair a purificatory ceremony, 283 _sqq._ + +Cynaetha, people of, 188 + +Cyzicus, council chamber at, 230 + +Dacotas, the, 181 + +Dahomey, the King of, 9; + royal family of, 243; + kings of, their "strong names," 374 + +Dairi, the, or Mikado of Japan, 2, 4 + +Dairies, sacred, of the Todas, 15 _sqq._ + +Dairymen, sacred, of the Todas, 15 _sqq._ + +Damaras, the, 247 + +Dams, continence at making or repairing, 202 + +Dance of king, 123; + of successful head-hunters, 166 + +Dances of victory, 169, 170, 178, 182 + +Danger of being overshadowed by certain birds or people, 82 _sq._; + supposed, of portraits and photographs, 96 _sqq._; + supposed to attend contact with divine or sacred persons, such as chiefs + and kings, 132, 138 + +Darfur, 81; + Sultan of, 120 + +Dassera, festival of the, 316 + +Daughter-in-law, her name not to be pronounced, 338 + +David and the King of Moab, 273 + +Dawson, J., 347 _sq._ + +Dead, sacrifices to the, 15, 88; + taboos on persons who have handled the, 138 _sqq._; + souls of the dead all malignant, 145; + names of the dead tabooed, 349 _sqq._; + to name the dead a serious crime, 352; + names of the dead not borne by the living, 354; + reincarnation or resurrection of the dead in their namesakes, 365 + _sqq._; + festivals of the, 367, 371 + +---- body, prohibition to touch, 14 + +Death, natural, of sacred king or priest, supposed fatal consequences of, + 6, 7; + kept off by arrows, 31; + mourners forbidden to sleep in house after a death, 37; + custom of covering up mirrors at a, 94 _sq._; + from imagination, 135 _sqq._ + +Debt of civilisation to savagery, 421 _sq._ + +Defiled hands, 174. _See_ Hands + +De Groot, J. J. M., 390 + +Demons, abduction of souls by, 58 _sqq._; + of disease expelled by pungent spices, pricks, and cuts, 105 _sq._; + and ghosts averse to iron, 232 _sqq._ + +Devils, abduction of souls by, 58 _sqq._ + +Dido, her magical rites, 312 + +Diet of kings and priests regulated, 291 _sqq._ + +Dieterich, A., 369 _n._3 + +Difference of language between husbands and wives, 347 _sq._; + between men and women, 348 _sq._ + +Diminution of shadow regarded with apprehension, 86 _sq._ + +Dio Chrysostom, on fame as a shadow, 86 _sq._ + +Diodorus Siculus, 12 _sq._ + +Dionysus in the city, festival of, 316 + +Disease, demons of, expelled by pungent spices, pricks, and cuts, 105 + _sq._ + +Disenchanting strangers, various modes of, 102 _sqq._ + +Dishes, effect of eating out of sacred, 4; + of sacred persons tabooed, 131. _See_ Vessels + +Disposal of cut hair and nails, 267 _sqq._ + +Divination by shoulder-blades of sheep, 229 + +Divinities, human, bound by many rules, 419 _sq._ + +Divorce of spiritual from temporal power, 17 _sqq._ + +Dobrizhoffer, Father M., 328, 360 + +Dog, prohibition to touch or name, 13 + +Dogs, bones of game kept from, 206; + unclean, 206; + tigers called, 402 + +Dolls or puppets employed for the restoration of souls to their bodies, 53 + _sqq._, 62 _sq._ + +Doorposts, blood put on, 15 + +Doors opened to facilitate childbirth, 296, 297; + to facilitate death, 309 + +Doubles, spiritual, of men and animals, 28 _sq._ + +Doutte, E., 390 + +Dreams, absence of soul in, 36 _sqq._; + belief of savages in the reality of, 36 _sq._; + omens drawn from, 161 + +Drinking and eating, taboos on, 116 _sqq._; + modes of drinking for tabooed persons, 117 _sqq._, 120, 143, 146, 147, + 148, 160, 182, 183, 185, 189, 197, 198, 256 + +Drought supposed to be caused by a concealed miscarriage, 153 _sq._ + +Dugong fishing, taboos in connexion with, 192 + +Dyaks, the Sea, 30; + their modes of recalling the soul, 47 _sq._, 52 _sq._, 55 _sq._, 60, 67; + taboos observed by head-hunters among the, 166 _sq._ + +Eagle, soul in form of, 34 + +---- -hunters, taboos observed by, 198 _sq._ + +Eagle-wood, special language employed by searchers for, 404 + +Eating out of sacred vessels, supposed effect of, 4 + +---- and drinking, taboos on, 116 _sqq._; + fear of being seen in the act of, 117 _sqq._ + +Eggs offered to demons, 110; + reason for breaking shells of, 129 _sq._ + +Egypt, rules of life observed by ancient kings of, 12 _sq._ + +Egyptian magicians, their power of compelling the deities, 389 _sq._ + +Egyptians, the ancient, their conception of the soul, 28; + their practice as to souls of the dead, 68 _sq._; + personal names among, 322 + +Elder brother, his name not to be pronounced, 341 + +Elder-tree, cut hair and nails inserted in an, 275 _sq._ + +Elephant-hunters, special language employed by, 404 + +Eleusinian priests, their names sacred, 382 _sq._ + +Elfin race averse to iron, 232 _sq._ + +Emetic as mode of purification, 175, 245; + pretended, in auricular confession, 214 + +Emin Pasha, 108 + +Epidemics attributed to evil spirits, 30 + +Epimenides, the Cretan seer, 50 _n._2 + +Esquimaux, their conception of the soul, 27; + their dread of being photographed, 96; + or Inuit, taboos observed by hunters among the, 205 _sq._; + namesakes of the dead among the, 371 + +Esthonians, the, 41 _sq._, 240 + +Ethical evolution, 218 _sq._ + +---- precepts developed out of savage taboos, 214 + +Ethiopia, kings of, 124 + +Euphemisms employed for certain animals, 397 _sqq._; + for smallpox, 400, 410, 411, 416 + +Europe, south-eastern, superstitions as to shadows in, 89 _sq._ + +Evil eye, the, 116 _sq._ + +Ewe-speaking peoples of the Slave Coast, 9; + rebirth of ancestors among the, 369 + +Execution, peculiar modes of, for members of royal families, 241 _sqq._ + +Executioners, customs observed by, 171 _sq._, 180 _sq._ + +Exorcising harmful influence of strangers, 102 _sqq._ + +Eye, the evil, 116 _sq._ + +Eyeos, the, 9 + +Faces veiled to avert evil influences, 120 _sqq._; + of warriors blackened, 163; + of manslayers blackened, 169 + +_Fady_, taboo, 327 + +Fafnir and Sigurd, 324 + +Fairies averse to iron, 229, 232 _sq._ + +Fasting, custom of, 157 _n._2, 159 _n._, 161, 162, 163, 182, 183, 189, + 198, 199 + +Father and child, supposed danger of resemblance between, 88 _sq._ + +---- and mother, their names not to be mentioned, 337, 341 + +---- in-law, his name not to be pronounced by his daughter-in-law, 335 + _sqq._, 343, 345, 346; + by his son-in-law, 338, 339, 340, 341, 342, 343, 344 + +Fathers named after their children, 331 _sqq._ + +Faunus, consultation of, 314 + +Feast of Yams, 123 + +Feathers worn by manslayers, 180, 186 _n._1 + +Feet, not to wet the, 159. _See also_ Foot + +Fernando Po, taboos observed by the kings of, 8 _sq._, 115, 123, 291 + +Festival of the Dead among the Hurons, 367 + +Fetish or taboo rajah, 24 + +---- kings in West Africa, 22 _sqq._ + +Fever, euphemism for, 400 + +"Field speech," a special jargon employed by reapers, 410 _sq._, 411 _sq._ + +Fiji, catching away souls in, 69; + War King and Sacred King in, 21; + custom as to remains of food in, 117 + +Fijian chief, supposed effect of using his dishes or clothes, 131 + +---- conception of the soul, 29 _sq._, 92 + +---- custom of frightening away ghosts, 170 + +---- notion of absence of the soul in dreams, 39 _sq._ + +Fingers cut off as a sacrifice, 161 + +Finnish hunters, 398 + +Fire, rule as to removing fire from priest's house, 13; + prohibition to blow the fire with the breath, 136, 256; + in purificatory rites, 108, 109, 111, 114, 197; + tabooed, 178, 182, 256 _sq._; + new, made by friction, 286 + +---- and Water, kingships of, 17 + +Firefly, soul in form of, 67 + +First-fruits, offering of, 5 + +Fish-traps, continence observed at making, 202 + +Fishermen, words tabooed by, 394 _sq._, 396, 408 _sq._, 415 + +Fishers and hunters tabooed, 190 _sqq._ + +Fison, Rev. Lorimer, 30 _n._1, 40 _n._1, 92 _n._3, 131 _n._2 + +Fits and convulsions set down to demons, 59 + +Flamen Dialis, taboos observed by the, 13 _sq._, 239, 248, 257, 275, 291, + 293, 315 _sq._ + +Flaminica, rules observed by the, 14 + +Flannan Islands, 392 + +Flesh, boiled, not to be eaten by tabooed persons, 185; + diet restricted or forbidden, 291 _sqq._ + +Flints, not iron, cuts to be made with, 176; + use of, prescribed in ritual, 176; + sharp, circumcision performed with, 227 + +Fly, soul in form of, 39 + +Food, remnants of, buried as a precaution against sorcery, 118, 119, 127 + _sq._, 129; + magic wrought by means of refuse of, 126 _sqq._; + taboos on leaving food over, 127 _sqq._; + not to be touched with hands, 138 _sqq._, 146 _sqq._, 166, 167, 168, + 169, 174, 203, 265; + objection to have food over head, 256, 257 + +Foods tabooed, 291 _sqq._ + +Foot, custom of going with only one foot shod, 311 _sqq._ _See also_ Feet + +Footprint in magic, 74; + of Buddha, 275 + +Forgetfulness, pretence of, 189 + +Forks used in eating by tabooed persons, 148, 168, 169, 203 + +Fors, the, of Central Africa, 281 + +Foundation sacrifices, 89 _sqq._ + +Fowl used in exorcism, 106 + +Fowlers, words tabooed by, 393, 407 _sq._ + +Foxes not to be mentioned by their proper names, 396, 397 + +Frankish kings, their unshorn hair, 258 _sq._ + +Fresh meat tabooed, 143 + +Fumigation as a mode of ceremonial purification, 155, 177 + +Funerals in China, custom as to shadows at, 80. _See also_ Burial, Burials + +Furfo, 230 + +Gabriel, the archangel, 302, 303 + +_Gangas_, fetish priests, 291 + +Garments, effect of wearing sacred, 4 + +Gates, sacrifice of human beings at foundations of, 90 _sq._ + +Gatschet, A. S., 363 + +Gauntlet, running the, 222 + +Genitals of murdered people eaten, 190 _n._2 + +Getae, priestly kings of the, 21 + +Ghost of husband kept from his widow, 143; + fear of evoking the ghost by mentioning his name, 349 _sqq._; + chased into the grave at the end of mourning, 373 _sq._ + +Ghosts, sacrifices to, 56, 247; + draw away the souls of their kinsfolk, 51 _sqq._; + draw out men's shadows, 80; + as guardians of gates, 90 _sq._; + kept off by thorns, 142; + and demons averse to iron, 232 _sqq._; + fear of wounding, 237 _sq._; + swept out of house, 238; + names changed in order to deceive ghosts or to avoid attracting their + attention, 354 _sqq._ + +Ghosts of animals, dread of, 223 + +---- of the slain haunt their slayers, 165 _sqq._; + fear of the, 165 _sqq._; + sacrifices to, 166; + scaring away the, 168, 170, 171, 172, 174 _sq._; + as birds, 177 _sq._ + +Gilyaks, the, 370 + +Ginger in purificatory rites, 105, 151 + +Gingiro, kingdom of, 18 + +Girls at puberty obliged to touch everything in house, 225 _n._; + their hair torn out, 284 + +Goajiro Indians, 30, 350 + +Goat, prohibition to touch or name, 13; + transference of guilt to, 214 _sq._ + +---- -sucker, shadow of the, 82 + +God, "the most great name" of, 390 + +---- -man a source of danger, 132; + bound by many rules, 419 _sq._ + +Gods, their names tabooed, 387 _sqq._; + Xenophanes on the, 387; + human, bound by many rules, 419 _sq._ _See also_ Myths + +Gold excluded from some temples, 226 _n._8 + +---- and silver as totems, 227 _n._ + +---- mines, spirits of the, treated with deference, 409 _sq._ + +Goldie, H., 22 + +Gollas, the, 149 + +Good Friday, 229 + +Goorkhas, the, 316 + +Gordian knot, 316 _sq._ + +Gran Chaco, Indians of the, 37, 38, 357 + +Grandfathers, grandsons named after their deceased, 370 + +Grandidier, A., 380 _sq._ + +Grandmothers, granddaughters named after their deceased, 370 + +Grass knotted as a charm, 305, 310 + +Grave, soul fetched from, 54 + +---- -clothes, no knots in, 310 + +---- -diggers, taboos observed by, 141, 142 + +Graves, food offered on, 53; + water poured on, as a rain-charm, 154 _sq._ + +Great Spirit, sacrifice of fingers to the, 161 + +Grebo people of Sierra Leone, 14 + +Greek conception of the soul, 29 _n._1 + +---- customs as to manslayers, 188 + +Grey, Sir George, 364 _sq._ + +_Grihya-Sutras_, 277 + +Grimm, J., 305 _n._1 + +Ground, prohibition to touch the, 3, 4, 6; + not to sit on the, 159, 162, 163; + not to set foot on, 180; + royal blood not to be shed on the, 241 _sqq._ + +Guardian deities of cities, 391 + +Guaycurus, the, 357 + +Guiana, Indians of, 324 + +Gypsy superstition about portraits, 100 + +Haida medicine-men, 31 + +Hair, mode of cutting the Mikado's, 3; + cut with bronze knife, 14; + of manslayers shaved, 175, 176; + of slain enemy, fetish made from, 183; + not to be combed, 187, 203, 208, 264; + tabooed, 258 _sqq._; + of kings, priests, and wizards unshorn, 258 _sqq._; + regarded as the seat of a god or spirit, 258, 259, 263; + kept unshorn at certain times, 260 _sqq._; + offered to rivers, 261; + of children unshorn, 263; + magic wrought through clippings of, 268 _sqq._, 275, 277, 278 _sq._; + cut or combed out may cause rain and thunderstorms, 271, 272, 282; + clippings of, used as hostages, 272 _sq._; + infected by virus of taboo, 283 _sq._; + cut as a purificatory ceremony, 283 _sqq._; + of women after childbirth shaved and burnt, 284; + loosened at childbirth, 297 _sq._; + loosened in magical and religious ceremonies, 310 _sq._ + +---- and nails of sacred persons not cut, 3, 4, 16 + +---- and nails, cut, disposal of, 267 _sqq._; + deposited on or under trees, 14, 275 _sq._, 286; + deposited in sacred places, 274 _sqq._; + stowed away in any secret place, 276 _sqq._; + kept for use at the resurrection, 279 _sqq._; + burnt to prevent them from falling into the hands of sorcerers, 281 + _sqq._ + +---- -cutting, ceremonies at, 264 _sqq._ + +Hands tabooed, 138, 140 _sqq._, 146 _sqq._, 158, 159 _n._, 265; + food not to be touched with, 138 _sqq._, 146 _sqq._, 166, 167, 168, 169, + 174, 265; + defiled, 174; + not to be clasped, 298 + +Hanun, King of Moab, 273 + +Hawaii, 72, 106; + customs as to chiefs and shadows in, 255 + +Head, stray souls restored to, 47, 48, 52, 53 _sq._, 64, 67; + prohibition to touch the, 142, 183, 189, 252 _sq._, 254, 255 _sq._; + plastered with mud, 182; + the human, regarded as sacred, 252 _sqq._; + tabooed, 252 _sqq._; + supposed to be the residence of spirits, 252; + objection to have any one overhead, 253 _sqq._; + washing the, 253 + +---- -hunters, customs of, 30, 36, 71 _sq._, 111, 166 _sq._, 169 _sq._ + +Headache caused by clipped hair, 270 _sq._, 282 + +Heads of manslayers shaved, 177 + +Hearne, S., quoted, 184 _sqq._ + +Hebesio, god of thunder, 257 + +Hercules and Alcmena, 298 _sq._ + +Herero, the, 151, 177, 225 _n._ + +Hermotimus of Clazomenae, 50 + +Hidatsa Indians, taboos observed by eagle-hunters among the, 198 _sq._ + +Hierapolis, temple of Astarte at, 286 + +Hiro, thief-god, 69 + +Historical tradition hampered by the taboo on the names of the dead, 363 + _sqq._ + +Holiness and pollution not differentiated by savages, 224 + +Hollis, A. C., 200 _n._3 + +Holy water, sprinkling with, 285 _sq._ + +Homicides. See Manslayers + +Homoeopathic magic, 151, 152, 207, 295, 298 + +Honey-wine, continence observed at brewing, 200 + +Hooks to catch souls, 30 _sq._, 51 + +Horse, prohibition to see a, 9; + prohibition to ride, 13 + +Hos of Togoland, the, 295, 301 + +Hostages, clipped hair used as, 272 _sq._ + +Hottentots, the, 220 + +House, ceremony at entering a new, 63 _sq._; + taboos on quitting the, 122 _sqq._ + +---- building, custom as to shadows at, 81, 89 _sq._; + continence observed at, 202 + +Howitt, A. W., 269 + +Huichol Indians, 197 + +Human gods bound by many rules, 419 _sq._ + +---- sacrifices at foundation of buildings, 90 _sq._ + +Humbe, a kingdom of Angola, 6 + +Hunters use knots as charms, 306; + words tabooed by, 396, 398, 399, 400, 402, 404, 410 + +---- and fishers tabooed, 190 _sqq._ + +Hurons, the, 366; + their conception of the soul, 27; + their Festival of the Dead, 367 + +Husband's ghost kept from his widow, 143 + +---- name not to be pronounced by his wife, 335, 336, 337, 338, 339 + +Husbands and wives, difference of language between, 347 _sq._ + +Huzuls, the, 270, 314 + +Ilocanes of Luzon, 44 + +Imagination, death from, 135 _sqq._ + +Imitative or homoeopathic magic, 295 + +Impurity of manslayers, 167 + +Incas of Peru, 279 + +Incisions made in bodies of warriors as a preparation for war, 161; + in bodies of slain, 176; + in bodies of manslayers, 174, 176, 180. + _See also_ Cuts + +Incontinence of young people supposed to be fatal to the king, 6 + +India, names of animals tabooed in, 401 _sqq._ + +Indians of North America, their customs on the war-path, 158 _sqq._; + their fear of naming the dead, 351 _sqq._ + +Infants tabooed, 255 + +Infection, supposed, of lying-in women, 150 _sqq._ + +Infidelity of wife supposed to be fatal to hunter, 197 + +Initiation, custom of covering the mouth after, 122; + taboos observed by novices at, 141 _sq._, 156 _sq._; + new names given at, 320 + +Injury to a man's shadow conceived as an injury to the man, 78 _sqq._ + +Inspiration, primitive theory of, 248 + +Intercourse with wives enjoined before war, 164 _n._1; + enjoined on manslayers, 176. _See also_ Continence + +Intoxication accounted inspiration, 248, 249, 250 + +Inuit. _See_ Esquimaux + +Ireland, taboos observed by the ancient kings of, 11 _sq._ + +Irish custom as to a fall, 68; + as to friends' blood, 244 _sq._ + +Iron not to be touched, 167; + tabooed, 176, 225 _sqq._; + used as a charm against spirits, 232 _sqq._ + +---- instruments, use of, tabooed, 205, 206 + +---- rings as talismans, 235 + +Iroquois, the, 352, 385 + +Isis and Ra, 387 _sqq._ + +Israelites, rules of ceremonial purity observed by the Israelites in war, + 157 _sq._, 177 + +Issini, the, 171 + +Itonamas, the, 31 + +Ivy, prohibition to touch or name, 13 _sq._ + +Ja-Luo, the, 79 + +Jackals, tigers called, 402, 403 + +Jackson, Professor Henry, 21 _n._3 + +Japan, the Mikado of, 2 _sqq._; + Kaempfer's history of, 3 _n._2; + Caron's account of, 4 _n._2 + +Jars, souls conjured into, 70 + +Jason and Pelias, 311 _sq._ + +Java, 34, 35 + +Jebu, the king of, 121 + +Jewish hunters, their customs as to blood of game, 241 + +Jinn, the servants of their magical names, 390 + +Journey, purificatory ceremonies on return from a, 111 _sqq._; + continence observed on a, 204; + hair kept unshorn on a, 261 + +Jumping over wife or children as a ceremony, 112, 164 _n._1 + +Juno Lucina, 294 + +Junod, H. A., 152 _sqq._, 420 _n._1 + +Jupiter Liber, temple of, at Furfo, 230 + +_Ka_, the ancient Egyptian, 28 + +Kachins of Burma, 200 + +Kaempfer's _History of Japan_, 3 _sq._ + +Kafirs of the Hindoo Koosh, 13 _n._6, 14 _n._2 + +Kaitish, the, 82, 295 + +Kalamba, the, a chief in the Congo region, 114 + +_Kami_, the Japanese word for god, 2 _n._2 + +Kamtchatkans, their attempts to deceive mice, 399 + +Karaits, the, 95 + +Karen-nis of Burma, the, 13 + +Karens, the Red, of Burma, 292; + their recall of the soul, 43; + their customs at funerals, 51 + +Karo-Bataks, 52. _See also_ Battas + +_Katikiro_, the, of Uganda, 145 _n._4 + +Kavirondo, 176 + +Kayans of Borneo, 32, 47, 110, 164, 239 + +Kei Islanders, 53 + +Kenyahs of Borneo, 43, 415 + +Key as symbol of delivery in childbed, 296 + +Keys as charms against devils and ghosts, 234, 235, 236; + as amulets, 308. _See also_ Locks + +Khonds, rebirth of ancestors among the, 368 _sq._ + +Kickapoos, the, 171 + +Kidd, Dudley, 88 _n._ + +King not to be overshadowed, 83 + +---- of the Night, 23 + +King's Evil, the, 134 + +Kings, supernatural powers attributed to, 1; + beaten before their coronation, 18; + forbidden to see their mothers, 86; + portraits of, not stamped on coins, 98 _sq._; + guarded against the magic of strangers, 114 _sq._; + forbidden to use foreign goods, 115; + not to be seen eating and drinking, 117 _sqq._; + concealed by curtains, 120 _sq._; + forbidden to leave their palaces, 122 _sqq._; + compelled to dance, 123; + punished or put to death, 124; + not to be touched, 132, 225 _sq._; + their hair unshorn, 258 _sq._; + foods tabooed to, 291 _sq._; + names of, tabooed, 374 _sqq._; + taboos observed by, identical with those observed by commoners, 419 + _sq._ + +Kings and chiefs tabooed, 131 _sqq._; + their spittle guarded against sorcerers, 289 _sq._ + +---- fetish or religious, in West Africa, 22 _sqq._ + +Kingsley, Miss Mary H., 22 _n._3, 71, 123 _n._2, 251 + +Kiowa Indians, 357, 360 + +Klallam Indians, the, 354 + +Knife as charm against spirits, 232, 233, 234, 235 + +Knives not to be left edge upwards, 238; + not used at funeral banquets, 238 + +Knot, the Gordian, 316 _sq._ + +Knots, prohibition to wear, 13; + untied at childbirth, 294, 296 _sq._, 297 _sq._; + thought to prevent the consummation of marriage, 299 _sqq._; + thought to cause sickness, disease, and all kinds of misfortune, 301 + _sqq._; + used to cure disease, 303 _sqq._; + used to win a lover or capture a runaway slave, 305 _sq_.; + used as protective amulets, 306 _sqq._; + used as charms by hunters and travellers, 306; + as a charm to protect corn from devils, 308 _sq._; + on corpses untied, 310 + +---- and locks, magical virtue of, 310, 313 + +---- and rings tabooed, 293 _sqq._ + +Koita, the, 168 + +Koryak, the, 32 + +Kruijt, A. C., 319 + +Kublai Khan, 242 + +Kukulu, a priestly king, 5 + +Kwakiutl, the, 53; + customs observed by cannibals among the, 188 _sqq._; + change of names in summer and winter among the, 386 + +_Kwun_, the spirit of the head, 252; + supposed to reside in the hair, 266 _sq._ + +Lafitau, J. F., 365 _sq._ + +Lampong in Sumatra, 10 + +Lamps to light the ghosts to their old homes, 371 + +Language of husbands and wives, difference between, 347 sq.; + of men and women, difference between, 348 _sq._ + +---- change of, caused by taboo on the names of the dead, 358 _sqq._, 375; + caused by taboo on the names of chiefs and kings, 375, 376 _sqq._ + +---- special, employed by hunters, 396, 398, 399, 400, 402, 404, 410; + employed by searchers for eagle-wood and _lignum aloes_, 404; + employed by searchers for camphor, 405 _sqq._; + employed by miners, 407, 409; + employed by reapers at harvest, 410 _sq._, 411 _sq._; + employed by sailors at sea, 413 _sqq._ + +Laos, 306 + +Lapps, the, 294; + their customs after killing a bear, 221; + rebirth of ancestors among the, 368 + +Latuka, the, 245 + +Leaning against a tree prohibited to warriors, 162, 163 + +Leavened bread, prohibition to touch, 13 + +Leaving food over, taboos on, 126 _sqq._ + +Leavings of food, magic wrought by means of, 118, 119, 126 _sqq._ + +Legs not to be crossed, 295, 298 _sq._ + +Leinster, kings of, 11 + +_Leleen_, the, 129 + +Lengua Indians of the Gran Chaco, 38, 357 + +Leonard, A. G., Major, 136 _sq._ + +Lesbos, building custom in, 89 + +Lewis, Rev. Thomas, 420 _n._1 + +Life in the blood, 241, 250 + +Limbs, amputated, kept by the owners against the resurrection, 281 + +Lion-killer, purification of, 176, 220 + +Lions not called by their proper names, 400 + +Lithuanians, the old, their funeral banquets, 238 + +Liver, induration of the, attributed to touching sacred chief, 133 + +Lizard, soul in form of, 38 + +Loango, taboos observed by kings of, 8, 9; + taboos observed by heir to throne of, 291 + +---- king of, forbidden to see a white man's house, 115; + not to be seen eating or drinking, 117 _sq._; + confined to his palace, 123; + refuse of his food buried, 129 + +Locks unlocked at childbirth, 294, 296; + thought to prevent the consummation of marriage, 299; + as amulets, 308, 309; + unlocked to facilitate death, 309 + +---- and knots, magical virtue of, 309 _sq._ _See also_ Keys + +Lolos, the, 43 + +Look back, not to, 157 + +Loom, men not allowed to touch a, 164 + +Loss of the shadow regarded as ominous, 88 + +Lovers won by knots, 305 + +Lucan, 390 + +Lucian, 270, 382 + +Lucina, 294, 398 _sq._ + +Lucky names, 391 _n._1 + +Lycaeus, sanctuary of Zeus on Mount, 88 + +Lycosura, sanctuary of the Mistress at, 227 _n._, 314 + +Lying-in women, dread of, 150 _sqq._; + sacred, 151 + +Mack, an adventurer, 19 + +Macusi Indians, 36, 159 _n._ + +Madagascar, names of chiefs and kings tabooed in, 378 _sqq._ + +Magic wrought by means of refuse of food, 126 _sqq._; + sympathetic, 126, 130, 164, 201, 204, 258, 268, 287; + homoeopathic, 151, 152, 207, 295, 298; + contagious, 246, 268, 272; + wrought through clippings of hair, 268 _sqq._, 275, 277, 278 _sq._; + wrought on a man through his name, 318, 320 _sqq._ + +Magicians, Egyptian, their power of compelling the deities, 389 _sq._ + +Mahafalys of Madagascar, the, 10 + +Makalaka, the, 369 + +Makololo, the, 281 + +Malagasy language, dialectical variations of, 378 _sq._, 380 + +Malanau tribes of Borneo, 406 + +Malay conception of the soul as a bird, 34 _sqq._ + ---- miners, fowlers, and fishermen, special forms of speech employed by, + 407 _sqq._ + ---- Peninsula, art of abducting human souls in the, 73 _sqq._ + +Maldives, the, 274 + +Mandalay, 90, 125 + +Mandan Indians, 97 + +Mandelings of Sumatra, 296 + +Mangaia, separation of religious and civil authority in, 20 + +Mangaians, the, 87 + +Manipur, hill tribes of, 292 + +Mannikin, the soul conceived as a, 26 _sqq._ + +Manslayers, purification of, 165 _sqq._; + secluded, 165 _sqq._; + tabooed, 165 _sqq._; + haunted by ghosts of slain, 165 _sqq._; + their faces blackened, 169; + their bodies painted, 175, 178, 179, 180, 186 _n._1; + their hair shaved, 175, 177 + +Maori chiefs, their sanctity or taboo, 134 _sqq._; + their heads sacred, 256 + ---- language, synonyms in the, 381 + +Maoris, persons who have handled the dead tabooed among the, 138 _sq._; + tabooed on the war-path, 157 + +Marco Polo, 242, 243 + +Marianne Islands, 288 + +Mariner, W., quoted, 140 + +Mariners at sea, special language employed by, 413 _sqq._ + +Marquesans, the, 31; + their regard for the sanctity of the head, 254 _sq._; + their customs as to the hair, 261 _sq._; + their dread of sorcery, 268 + +Marquesas Islands, 178 + +Marriage, the consummation of, prevented by knots and locks, 299 _sqq._ + +Masai, the, 200, 309, 329, 354 _sq._, 356, 361 + +Matthews, Dr. Washington, 385 + +Meal sprinkled to keep off evil spirits, 112 + +Measuring shadows, 89 _sq._ + ---- -tape deified, 91 _sq._ + +Mecca, pilgrims to, not allowed to wear knots and rings, 293 _sq._ + +Medes, law of the, 121 + +Mekeo district of New Guinea, 24 + +Men injured through their shadows, 78 _sqq._ + ---- and women, difference of language between, 348 _sq._ + +Menedemus, 227 + +Menstruation, women tabooed at, 145 _sqq._ + +Menstruous women, dread of, 145 _sqq._, 206; + avoidance of, by hunters, 211 + +Mentras, the, 404 + +Merolla da Sorrento, 137 + +Mice thought to understand human speech, 399; + not to be called by their proper names, 399, 415 + +Midas and his ass's ears, 258 _n._1; + king of Gordium, 316 + +Mikado, rules of life of the, 2 _sqq._; + supposed effect of using his dishes or clothes, 131; + the cutting of his hair and nails, 265 + +Mikados, their relations to the Tycoons, 19 + +Miklucho-Maclay, Baron N. von, 109 + +Milk, custom as to drinking, 119; + prohibition to drink, 141; + not to be drunk by wounded men, 174 _sq._; + wine called, 249 _n._2; + and beef not to be eaten at the same meal, 292 + +Milkmen of the Todas, taboos observed by the holy, 15 _sqq._ + +Miller, Hugh, 40 + +Minahassa, a district of Celebes, 99; + the Alfoors of, 63 + +Minangkabauers of Sumatra, 32, 36, 41 + +Miners, special language employed by, 407, 409 + +Mirrors, superstitions as to, 93; + covered after a death, 94 _sq._ + +Miscarriage in childbed, dread of, 149, 152 _sqq._; + supposed danger of concealing a, 211, 213 + +Moab, Arabs of, 280; + their custom of shaving prisoners, 273 + +Moabites, King David's treatment of the, 273 _sq._ + +Mohammed bewitched by a Jew, 302 _sq._ + +Mongols, their recall of the soul, 44; + sacred books of the, 384 + +Montezuma, 121 + +Monumbos, the, 169, 238 + +Mooney, J., 318 _sqq._ + +Moquis, the, 228 + +Moral guilt regarded as a corporeal pollution, 217 _sq._ + +Morality developed out of taboo, 213 _sq._; + shifted from a natural to a supernatural basis, 213; + survival of savage taboos in civilised, 218 _sq._ + +Morice, A. G., 146 _sq._ + +Mosyni or Mosynoeci, the, 124 + +Mother-in-law, the savage's dread of his, 83 _sqq._; + her name not to be mentioned by her son-in-law, 338, 339, 340, 341, 342, + 343, 344, 345, 346 + +Mothers, African kings forbidden to see their, 86; + named after their children, 332, 333 + +Mourners, customs observed by, 31 _sq._, 159 n.; + tabooed, 138 _sqq._; + bodies of, smeared with mud or clay, 182 _n._2; + hair and nails of, cut at end of mourning, 285 _sq._ + +Mourning of slayers for the slain, 181 + +Mouse, soul in form of, 37, 39 _n._2 + +Mouth closed to prevent escape of soul, 31, 33; + soul in the, 33; + covered to prevent entrance of demons, etc., 122 + +Muata Jamwo, the, 118, 290 + +Mud smeared on feet of bed, 14; + plastered on head, 182 + +Munster, kings of, 11 + +Murderers, taboos imposed on, 187 _sq._ + +Murrams, the, of Manipur, 292 + +Muysca Indians, 121 + +Myths of gods and spirits to be told only in spring and summer, 384; + to be told only in winter, 385 _sq._; + not to be told by day, 384 _sq._ + +Nails, prohibition to cut finger-nails, 194; + of children not pared, 262 _sq._ + +---- and hair, cut, disposal of, 267 _sqq._; + deposited in sacred places, 274 _sqq._; + stowed away in any secret place, 276 _sqq._; + kept for use at the resurrection, 279 _sqq._; + burnt to prevent them from falling into the hands of sorcerers, 281 + _sqq._ + +Nails, iron, used as charms against fairies, demons, and ghosts, 233, 234, + 236 + +---- parings of, used in rain-charms, 271, 272; + swallowed by treaty-makers, 246, 274 + +Name, the personal, regarded as a vital part of the man, 318 _sqq._; + identified with the soul, 319; + the same, not to be borne by two living persons, 370 + +Names of relations tabooed, 335 _sqq._; + changed to deceive ghosts, 354 _sqq._; + of common objects changed when they are the names of the dead, 358 + _sqq._, 375, or the names of chiefs and kings, 375, 376 + _sqq._; + of ancestors bestowed on their reincarnations, 368 _sq._; + of kings and chiefs tabooed, 374 _sqq._; + of supernatural beings tabooed, 384 _sqq._; + of gods tabooed, 387 _sqq._; + of spirits and gods, magical virtue of, 389 _sqq._; + of Roman gods not to be mentioned, 391 _n._1; + lucky, 391 _n._1; + of dangerous animals not to be mentioned, 396 _sqq._ + +Names, new, given to the sick and old, 319; + new, at initiation, 320 + +---- of the dead tabooed, 349 _sqq._; + not borne by the living, 354; + revived after a time, 365 _sqq._ + +---- personal, tabooed, 318 sqq.; + kept secret from fear of magic, 320 _sqq._; + different in summer and winter, 386 + +Namesakes of the dead change their names to avoid attracting the attention + of the ghost, 355 _sqq._; + of deceased persons regarded as their reincarnations, 365 _sqq._ + +Naming the dead a serious crime, 352, 354; + of children, solemnities at the, connected with belief in the + reincarnation of ancestors in their namesakes, 372 + +Namosi, in Fiji, 264 + +Nandi, the, 175, 273, 310, 330 + +Nanumea, island of, 102 + +Narbrooi, a spirit or god, 60 + +Narcissus and his reflection, 94 + +Narrinyeri, the, 126 _sq._ + +Natchez, customs of manslayers among the, 181 + +_Nats_, demons, 90 + +Natural death of sacred king or priest, supposed fatal consequences of, 6, + 7 + +Navajo Indians, 112 _sq._, 325, 385 + +Navel-string used to recall the soul, 48 + +Nazarite, vow of the, 262 + +Nelson, E. W., 228, 237 + +Nets to catch souls, 69 _sq._; + as amulets, 300, 307 + +New Britain, 85 + +---- Caledonia, 92, 141 + +---- everything, excites awe of savages, 230 _sqq._ + +---- fire made by friction, 286 + +---- Hebrides, the, 56, 127 + +---- names given to the sick and old, 319; + at initiation, 320 + +---- Zealand, sanctity of chiefs in, 134 _sqq._ + +Nias, island of, conception of the soul in, 29; + custom of the people of, 107; + special language of hunters in, 410; + special language employed by reapers in, 410 _sq._ + +Nicknames used in order to avoid the use of the real names, 321, 331 + +Nicobar Islands, customs as to shadows at burials in the, 80 _sq._ + +Nicobarese, the, 357; + changes in their language, 362 _sq._ + +Nieuwenhuis, Dr. A. W., 99 + +Night, King of the, 23 + +Nine knots in magic, 302, 303, 304 + +Noon, sacrifices to the dead at, 88; + superstitious dread of, 88 + +Nootka Indians, their idea of the soul, 27; + customs of girls at puberty among the, 146 _n._1; + their preparation for war, 160 _sq._ + +North American Indians, their dread of menstruous women, 145; + their theory of names, 318 _sq._ + +Norway, superstition as to parings of nails in, 283 + +Nose stopped to prevent the escape of the soul, 31, 71 + +Nostrils, soul supposed to escape by the, 30, 32, 33, 122 + +Novelties excite the awe of savages, 230 _sqq._ + +Novices at initiation, taboos observed by, 141 _sq._, 156 _sq._ + +Nubas, the, 132 + +Nufoors of New Guinea, 332, 341, 415 + +Obscene language in ritual, 154, 155 + +O'Donovan, E., 304 + +Oesel, island of, 42 + +Ojebways, the, 160 + +Oldfield, A., 350 + +Omahas, customs as to murderers among the, 187 + +Omens, reliance on, 110 + +One shoe on and one shoe off, 311 _sqq._ + +Ongtong Java Islands, 107 + +Onitsha, the king of, 123 + +Opening everything in house to facilitate childbirth, 296 _sq._ + +Orestes, the matricide, 188, 287 + +Oro, war god, 69 + +Orotchis, the, 232 + +Ot Danoms, the, 103 + +Ottawa Indians, the, 78 + +Ovambo, the, 227 + +Overshadowed, danger of being, 82 _sq._ + +Ovid, on loosening the hair, 311 + +Ox, purification by passing through the body of an, 173 + +Padlocks as amulets, 307 + +Painting bodies of manslayers, 175, 178, 179, 180, 186 _n._1 + +Palaces, kings not allowed to leave their, 122 _sqq._ + +_Pantang_, taboo, 405 + +Panther, ceremonies at the slaughter of a, 219 + +Parents named after their children, 331 _sqq._ + +---- -in-law, their names not to be pronounced, 338, 339, 340, 341, 342 + +Partition of spiritual and temporal power between religious and civil + kings, 17 _sqq._ + +Patagonians, the, 281 + +Paton, W. R., 382 _n._4, 383 _n._1 + +Pawnees, the, 228 + +Peace, ceremony at making, 274 + +Pelias and Jason, 311 + +Pentateuch, the, 219 + +Pepper in purificatory rites, 106, 114 + +Perils of the soul, 26 _sqq._ + +Perseus and the Gorgon, 312 + +Persian kings, their custom at meals, 119 + +Persons, tabooed, 131 _sqq._ + +Philosophy, primitive, 420 _sq._ + +_Phong long_, ill luck caused by women in childbed, 155 + +Photographed or painted, supposed danger of being, 96 _sqq._ + +Pictures, supposed danger of, 96 _sq._ + +Pig, the word unlucky, 233 + +Pigeons, special language employed by Malays in snaring, 407 _sq._ + +Pilgrims to Mecca not allowed to wear knots and rings, 293 _sq._ + +Pimas, the purification of manslayers among the, 182 _sqq._ + +Plataea, Archon of, forbidden to touch iron, 227; + escape of besieged from, 311 + +Pliny on crossed legs and clasped hands, 298; + on knotted threads, 303 + +Plutarch, 249 + +Poison, continence observed at brewing, 200 + +---- ordeal, 15 + +Polar bear, taboos concerning the, 209 + +Polemarch, the, at Athens, 22 + +Pollution or sanctity, their equivalence in primitive religion, 145, 158, + 224 + +---- and holiness not differentiated by savages, 224 + +Polynesia, names of chiefs tabooed in, 381 + +Polynesian chiefs sacred, 136 + +_Pons Sublicius_, 230 + +Port Moresby, 203 + +Porto Novo, 23 + +Portraits, souls in, 96 _sqq._; + supposed dangers of, 96 _sqq._ + +Powers, S., 326 + +Pregnancy, husband's hair kept unshorn during wife's, 261; + conduct of husband during wife's, 294, 295; + superstitions as to knots during wife's, 294 _sq._ + +Pregnant women, their superstitions about shadows, 82 _sq._ + +Premature birth, 213. _See_ Miscarriage + +Pricking patient with needles to expel demons of disease, 106 + +Priests to be shaved with bronze, 226; + their hair unshorn, 259, 260; + foods tabooed to, 291 + +Prisoners shaved, 273; + released at festivals, 316 + +Propitiation of the souls of the slain, 166; + of spirits of slain animals, 190, 204 _sq._; + of ancestors, 197 + +Prussians, the old, their funeral feasts, 238 + +_Pulque_, 201, 249 + +Puppets or dolls employed for the restoration of souls to their bodies, 53 + _sqq._ + +Purge as mode of ceremonial purification, 175 + +Purification of city, 188; + of Pimas after slaying Apaches, 182 _sqq._; + of hunters and fishers, 190 _sq._; + of moral guilt by physical agencies, 217 _sq._; + by cutting the hair, 283 _sqq._ + +---- of manslayers, 165 _sqq._; + intended to rid them of the ghosts of the slain, 186 _sq._ + +Purificatory ceremonies at reception of strangers, 102 _sqq._; + on return from a journey, 111 _sqq._ + +Purity, ceremonial, observed in war, 157 + +Pygmies, the African, 282 + +Pythagoras, maxims of, 314 _n._2 + +Python, punishment for killing a, 222 + +Quartz used at circumcision instead of iron, 227 + +Queensland, aborigines of, 159 _n._ + +Ra and Isis, 387 _sqq._ + +Rabbah, siege of, 273 + +Rain caused by cut or combed out hair, 271, 272; + word for, not to be mentioned, 413 + +---- -charm by pouring water, 154 _sq._ + +---- -makers, their hair unshorn, 259 _sq._ + +Rainbow, the, a net for souls, 79 + +_Ramanga_, 246 + +Raven, soul as a, 34 + +Raw flesh not to be looked on, 239 + +---- meat, prohibition to touch or name, 13 + +Reapers, special language employed by, 410 _sq._, 411 _sq._ + +Reasoning, definite, at the base of savage custom, 420 _n._1 + +Rebirth of ancestors in their descendants, 368 _sq._ + +Recall of the soul, 30 _sqq._ + +Red, bodies of manslayers painted, 175, 179; + faces of manslayers painted, 185, 186 _n._1 + +Reflection, the soul identified with the, 92 _sqq._ + +Reflections in water or mirrors, supposed dangers of, 93 _sq._ + +Refuse of food, magic wrought by means of, 126 _sqq._ + +Regeneration, pretence of, 113 + +Reincarnation of the dead in their namesakes, 365 _sqq._; + of ancestors in their descendants, 368 _sqq._ + +Reindeer, taboos concerning, 208 + +Relations, names of, tabooed, 335 _sqq._ + +Relationship, terms of, used as terms of address, 324 _sq._ + +Release of prisoners at festivals, 316 + +Religion, passage of animism into, 213 + +Reluctance to accept sovereignty on account of taboos attached to it, 17 + _sqq._ + +Remnants of food buried as a precaution against sorcery, 118, 119, 127 + _sq._, 129 + +Resemblance of child to father, supposed danger of, 88 _sq._ + +Resurrection, cut hair and nails kept for use at the, 279 _sq._ + +---- of the dead effected by giving their names to living persons, 365 + _sqq._ + +Rhys, Professor Sir John, 12 _n._2; + on personal names, 319 + +Rice used to attract the soul conceived as a bird, 34 _sqq._, 45 _sqq._; + soul of, not to be frightened, 412 + +---- -harvest, special language employed by reapers at, 410 _sq._, 411 _sq._ + +Ring, broken, 13; + on ankle as badge of office, 15 + +Rings used to prevent the escape of the soul, 31; + as spiritual fetters, 313 _sqq._; + as amulets, 314 _sqq._; + not to be worn, 314 + +---- and knots tabooed, 293 _sqq._ + +Rivers, Dr. W. H. R., 17 + +Rivers, prohibition to cross, 9 _sq._ + +Robertson, Sir George Scott, 14 _notes_ + +Roepstorff, F. A. de, 362 _sq._ + +Roman gods, their names not to be mentioned, 391 _n._1 + +---- superstition about crossed legs, 298 + +Romans, their evocation of gods of besieged cities, 391 + +Rome, name of guardian deity of Rome kept secret, 391 + +Roscoe, Rev. J., 85 _n._1, 145 _n._4, 195 _n._1, 254 _n._5, 277 _n._10 + +Roth, W. E., 356 + +Rotti, custom as to cutting child's hair in the island of, 276, 283; + custom as to knots at marriage in the island of, 301 + +Roumanian building superstition, 89 + +Royal blood not to be shed on the ground, 241 _sqq._ + +Royalty, the burden of, 1 _sqq._ + +Rules of life observed by sacred kings and priests, 1 _sqq._ + +Runaways, knots as charm to stop, 305 _sq._ + +Russell, F., 183 _sq._ + +Sabaea or Sheba, kings of, 124 + +Sacred chiefs and kings regarded as dangerous, 131 _sqq._, 138; + their analogy to mourners, homicides, and women at menstruation and + childbirth, 138 + +Sacred and unclean, correspondence of rules regarding the, 145 + +Sacrifices to ghosts, 56, 166; + to the dead, 88; + at foundation of buildings, 89 _sqq._; + to ancestral spirits, 104 + +Sagard, Gabriel, 366 _sq._ + +Sahagun, B. de, 249 + +Sailors at sea, special language employed by, 413 _sqq._ + +Sakais, the, 348 + +Sakalavas of Madagascar, the, 10, 327; + customs as to names of dead kings among the, 379 _sq._ + +Salish Indians, 66 + +Salmon, taboos concerning, 209 + +Salt not to be eaten, 167, 182, 184, 194, 195, 196; + name of, tabooed, 401 + +---- -pans, continence observed by workers in, 200 + +Samoyeds, 353 + +Sanctity of the head, 252 _sqq._ + +---- or pollution, their equivalence in primitive religion, 145, 158, 224 + +Sankara and the Grand Lama, 78 + +Saragacos Indians, 152 + +_Satapatha Brahmana_, 217 + +Saturday, persons born on a, 89 + +Saturn, the planet, 315 + +Savage, our debt to the, 419 _sqq._ + +---- custom the product of definite reasoning, 420 _n._1 + +---- philosophy, 420 _sq._ + +Saxons of Transylvania, 294 + +Scapegoat, 214 _sq._ + +Scarification of warriors, 160 _sq._; + of bodies of whalers, 191 + +Scaring away the ghosts of the slain, 168, 170, 171, 172, 174 _sq._ + +Schoolcraft, H. R., 325 + +Scotch fowlers and fishermen, words tabooed by, 393 _sqq._ + +Scotland, common words tabooed in, 392 _sqq._ + +Scratching the person or head, rules as to, 146, 156, 158, 159 _n._, 160, + 181, 183, 189, 196 + +Scrofula thought to be caused and cured by touching a sacred chief or + king, 133 _sq._ + +Sea, horror of the, 10; + offerings made to the, 10; + prohibition to look on the, 10; + special language employed by sailors at, 413 _sqq._ + +---- -mammals, atonement for killing, 207; + myth of their origin, 207 + +Seals, supposed influence of lying-in women on, 152; + taboos observed after the killing of, 207 _sq._, 209, 213 + +Seclusion of those who have handled the dead, 138 _sqq._; + of women at menstruation and childbirth, 145 _sqq._, 147 _sqq._; + of tabooed persons, 165; + of manslayers, 166 _sqq._; + of cannibals, 188 _sqq._; + of men who have killed large game, 220 _sq._ + +Secret names among the Central Australian aborigines, 321 _sq._ + +Sedna, an Esquimau goddess, 152, 207, 208, 209, 210, 211, 213 + +Semangat, Malay word for the soul, 28, 35 + +Semites, moral evolution of the, 219 + +Seoul, capital of Corea, 283 + +Serpents, purificatory ceremonies observed after killing, 221 _sqq._ + +Servius, on Dido's costume, 313 + +Seven knots in magic, 303, 304, 308 + +Sewing as a charm, 307 + +Shades of dead animals, fear of offending, 205, 206, 207 + +Shadow, the soul identified with the, 77 _sqq._; + injury done to a man through his, 78 _sqq._; + diminution of shadow regarded with apprehension, 86 _sq._; + loss of the, regarded as ominous, 88; + not to fall on a chief, 255 + +Shadows drawn out by ghosts, 80; + animals injured through their, 81 _sq._; + of trees sensitive, 82; + of certain birds and people viewed as dangerous, 82 _sq._; + built into the foundations of edifices, 89 _sq._; + of mourners dangerous, 142; + of certain persons dangerous, 173 + +Shamans among the Thompson Indians, 57 _sq._ + +---- Buryat, their mode of recovering lost souls, 56 _sq._ + +---- Yakut, 63 + +Shark Point, priestly king at, 5 + +Sharp instruments, use of, tabooed, 205 + +---- weapons tabooed, 237 _sqq._ + +Shaving prisoners, reason of, 273 + +Sheep used in purificatory ceremony, 174, 175; + shoulder-blades of, used in divination, 229 + +Shetland fishermen, their tabooed words, 394 + +Shoe untied at marriage, 300; + custom of going with one shoe on and one shoe off, 311 _sqq._ + +Shoulder-blades, divination by, 229 + +Shuswap Indians, the, 83, 142 + +Siam, kings of, 226, 241; + names of kings of, concealed from fear of sorcery, 375 + +Siamese children, ceremony at cutting their hair, 265 _sqq._ + +---- view of the sanctity of the head, 252 _sq._ + +Sick man, attempts to prevent the escape of the soul of, 30 _sqq._ + +Sick people not allowed to sleep, 95; + sprinkled with pungent spices, 105 _sq._ + +---- -room, mirrors covered up in, 95 + +Sickness explained by the absence of the soul, 42 _sqq._; + caused by ancestral spirits, 53 + +Sierra Leone, priests and kings of, 14 _sq._, 18 + +---- Nevada of Colombia, 215, 216 + +Sigurd and Fafnir, 324 + +Sikhim, kings of, 20 + +Silkworms, taboos observed by breeders of, 194 + +Simpson, W., 125 _n._3 + +Sin regarded as something material, 214, 216, 217 _sq._ + +Singhalese, 297; their fear of demons, 233 _sq._ + +Sins, confession of, 114, 191, 195, 211 _sq._, 214 _sqq._; + originally a magical ceremony, 217 + +Sisters-in-law, their names not to be pronounced, 338, 342, 343 + +Sit, Egyptian god, 68 + +Sitting on the ground prohibited to warriors, 159, 162, 163 + +Skull-cap worn by girls at their first menstruation, 146; + worn by Australian widows, 182 _n._2 + +Skulls of ancestors rubbed as a propitiation, 197; + of dead used as drinking-cups, 372 + +Slain, ghosts of the, fear of the, 165 _sqq._ + +Slave Coast, the, 9 + +Slaves, runaway, charm for recovering, 305 _sq._ + +Sleep, absence of soul in, 36 _sqq._; + sick people not allowed to, 95; + forbidden in house after a death, 37 _sq._; + forbidden to unsuccessful eagle-hunter, 199 + +Sleeper not to be wakened suddenly, 39 _sqq._; + not to be moved nor his appearance altered, 41 _sq._ + +Smallpox not mentioned by its proper name, 400, 410, 411, 416 + +Smearing blood on the person as a purification, 104, 115; + on persons, dogs, and weapons as a mode of pacifying their souls, 219 + +---- bodies of manslayers with porridge, 176 + +---- porridge or fat on the person as a purification, 112 + +---- sheep's entrails on body as mode of purification, 174 + +Smith, W, Robertson, 77 _n._1, 96 _n._1, 243 _n._7, 247 _n._5 + +Smith's craft regarded us uncanny, 236 _n._5 + +Snakes not called by their proper names, 399, 400, 401 _sq._, 411 + +Snapping the thumbs to prevent the departure of the soul, 31 + +Snares set for souls, 69 + +Son-in-law, his name not to be pronounced, 338 _sq._, 344, 345 + +Sorcerers, souls extracted or detained by, 69 _sqq._; + make use of cut hair and other bodily refuse, 268 _sq._, 274 _sq._; + 278, 281 sq. _See also_ Magic + +Soul conceived as a mannikin, 26 _sqq._; + the perils of the, 26 _sqq._; + ancient Egyptian conception of the, 28 _sq._; + representations of the soul in Greek art, 29 _n._1; + as a butterfly, 29 _n._1, 41, 51 _sq._; + absence and recall of the, 30 _sqq._; + attempts to prevent the soul from escaping from the body, 30 _sqq._; + sickness attributed to the absence of the, 32, 42 _sqq._; + tied by thread or string to the body, 32 _sq._, 43, 51; + conceived as a bird, 33 _sqq._; + absent in sleep, 36 _sqq._; + in form of mouse, 37, 39 _n._2; + in form of lizard, 38; + in form of fly, 39; + caught in a cloth, 46, 47, 48, 52, 53, 64, 67, 75 _sq._; + identified with the shadow, 77 _sqq._; + identified with the reflection in water or a mirror, 92 _sqq._; + supposed to escape at eating and drinking, 116; + in the blood, 240, 241, 247, 250; + identified with the personal name, 319; + of rice not to be frightened, 412 + +Souls, every man thought to have four, 27, 80; + light and heavy, thin and fat, 29; + transferred to other bodies, 49; + impounded in magic fence, 56; + abducted by demons, 58 _sqq_.; + transmigrate into animals, 65; + brought back in a visible form, 65 _sqq._; + caught in snares or nets, 69 _sqq._; + extracted or detained by sorcerers, 69 _sqq._; + in tusks of ivory, 70; + conjured into jars, 70; + in boxes, 70, 76; + shut up in calabashes, 72; + transferred from the living to the dead, 73; + gathered into a basket, 72; + wounded and bleeding, 73; + supposed to be in portraits, 96 _sqq._ + +---- of beasts respected, 223 + +---- of the dead all malignant, 145; + cannot go to the spirit-land till the flesh has decayed from their + bones, 372 _n._5 + +---- of the slain, propitiation of, 166 + +Sovereignty, reluctance to accept the, on account of its burdens, 17 + _sqq._ + +Spells cast by strangers, 112; + at hair-cutting, 264 _sq._ + +Spenser, Edmund, 244 _sq._ + +Spices used in exorcism of demons, 105 _sq._ + +Spirit of dead apparently supposed to decay with the body, 372 + +Spirits averse to iron, 232 _sqq._ + +---- of land, conciliation of the, 110 _sq._ + +Spiritual power, its divorce from temporal power, 17 _sqq._ + +Spitting forbidden, 196; + as a protective charm, 279, 286; + upon knots as a charm, 302 + +Spittle effaced or concealed, 288 _sqq._; + tabooed, 287 _sqq._; + used in magic, 268, 269, 287 _sqq._; + used in making a covenant, 290 + +Spoil taken from enemy purified, 177 + +Spoons used in eating by tabooed persons, 141, 148, 189 + +Sprained leg, cure for, 304 _sq._ + +Spring and summer, myths of divinities and spirits to be told only in, 384 + +Sprinkling with holy water, 285 _sq._ + +St. Sylvester's Day, 88 + +Stabbing reflections in water to injure the persons reflected, 93 + +Stade, Hans, captive among Brazilian Indians, 231 + +Standard of conduct shifted from natural to supernatural basis, 213 + +Stepping over persons or things forbidden, 159 _sq._, 194, 423 _sqq._; + over dead panther, 219. + _See also_ Jumping + +Stone knives and arrow-heads used in religious ritual, 228 + +Stones on which a man's shadow should not fall, 80 + +Storms caused by cutting or combing the hair, 271, 282 + +Strange land, ceremonies at entering a, 109 _sqq._ + +Strangers, taboos on intercourse with, 101 _sqq._; + suspected of practising magical arts, 102; + ceremonies at the reception of, 102 _sqq._; + dread of, 102 _sqq._; + spells cast by, 112; + killed, 113 + +String or thread used to tie soul to body, 32 _sq._, 43, 51 + +Strings, knotted, as amulets, 309. + _See also_ Cords, Threads + +"Strong names" of kings of Dahomey, 374 + +Sulka, the, 151, 331 + +Sultan Bayazid and his soul, 50 + +Sultans veiled, 120 + +Sumba, custom as to the names of princes in the island of, 376 + +Summer, myths of gods and spirits not to be told in, 385 _sq._ + +---- and winter, personal names different in, 386 + +Sun not allowed to shine on sacred persons, 3, 4, 6 + +---- -god draws away souls, 64 _sq._ + +Sunda, tabooed words in, 341, 415 + +Supernatural basis of morality, 213 _sq._ + +Supernatural beings, their names tabooed, 384 _sqq._ + +Superstition a crutch to morality, 219 + +Swaheli charm, 305 _sq._ + +Sweating as a purification, 142, 184 + +Swelling and inflammation thought to be caused by eating out of sacred + vessels or by wearing sacred garments, 4 + +Sympathetic connexion between a person and the severed parts of his body, + 267 _sq._, 283 + +---- magic, 164, 201, 204, 258, 268, 287 + +Synonyms adopted in order to avoid naming the dead, 359 _sqq._; + in the Zulu language, 377; + in the Maori language, 381 + +Taboo of chiefs and kings in Tonga, 133 _sq._; + of chiefs in New Zealand, 134 _sqq._; + Esquimaux theory of, 210 _sqq._; + the meaning of, 224 + +---- rajah and chief, 24 _sq._ + +Tabooed acts, 101 _sqq._ + +---- hands, 138, 140 _sqq._, 146 _sqq._, 158, 159 _n._ + +---- persons, 131 _sqq._; + secluded, 165 + +---- things, 224 _sqq._ + +---- words, 318 _sqq._ + +Taboos, royal and priestly, 1 _sqq._; + on intercourse with strangers, 101 _sqq._; + on eating and drinking, 116 _sqq._; + on shewing the face, 120 _sqq._; + on quitting the house, 122 _sqq._; + on leaving food over, 126 _sqq._; + on persons who have handled the dead, 138 _sqq._; + on warriors, 157 _sqq._; + on manslayers, 165 _sqq._; + imposed on murderers, 187 _sq._; + imposed on hunters and fishers, 190 _sqq._; + transformed into ethical precepts, 214; + survivals of, in morality, 218 _sq._; + as spiritual insulators, 224; + on sharp weapons, 237 _sqq._; + on blood, 239 _sqq._; + relating to the head, 252 _sqq._; + on hair, 258 _sqq._; + on spittle, 287 _sqq._; + on foods, 291 _sqq._; + on knots and rings, 293 _sqq._; + on words, 318 _sqq._, 392 _sqq._; + on personal names, 318 _sqq._; + on names of relations, 335 _sqq._; + on the names of the dead, 349 _sqq._; + on names of kings and chiefs, 374 _sqq._; + on names of supernatural beings, 384 _sqq._; + on names of gods, 387 _sqq._ + +---- observed by the Mikado, 3 _sq._; + by headmen in Assam, 11; + by ancient kings of Ireland, 11 _sq._; + by the Flamen Dialis, 13 _sq._; + by the Bodia or Bodio, 15; + by sacred milkmen among the Todas, 16 _sqq._ + +Tahiti, 255 + +Tahiti, kings of, 226; + abdicate on birth of a son, 20; + their names not to be pronounced, 381 _sq._ + +Tails of cats docked as a magical precaution, 128 _sq._ + +Tales, wandering souls in popular, 49 _sq._ + +Tara, the old capital of Ireland, 11 + +Tartar Khan, ceremony at visiting a, 114 + +Teeth, loss of, supposed effect of breaking a taboo, 140; + loosened by angry ghosts, 186 _n._1; + as a rain-charm, 271; + extracted, kept against the resurrection, 280. + _See also_ Tooth + +Temple at Jerusalem, the, 230 + +Temporary reincarnation of the dead in their living namesakes, 371 + +_Tendi_, Batta word for soul, 45. + _See also_ Tondi + +Tepehuanes, the, 97 + +Terms of relationship used as terms of address, 324 _sq._ + +Thakambau, 131 + +Thebes in Egypt, priestly kings of, 13 + +Theocracies in America, 6 + +Thesmophoria, release of prisoners at, 316 + +Thessalian witch, 390 + +Things tabooed, 224 _sqq._ + +Thompson Indians of British Columbia, 37 _sq._; + customs of mourners among the, 142 _sq._ + +Thomson, Joseph, 98 + +Thorn bushes to keep off ghosts, 142 + +Thread or string used to tie soul to body, 32 _sq._, 43, 51 + +Threads, knotted, in magic, 303, 304 _sq._, 307 + +Three knots in magic, 304, 305 + +Thumbs snapped to prevent the departure of the soul, 31 + +Thunderstorms caused by cut hair, 271, 282 + +Thurn, E. F. im, 324 _sq._ + +Tigers not called by their proper names, 401, 402, 403 _sq._, 410, 415; + called dogs, 402; + called jackals, 402, 403 + +Timines of Sierra Leone, 18 + +Timor, fetish or taboo rajah in, 24; + customs as to war in, 165 _sq._ + +Tin ore, Malay superstitions as to, 407 + +Tinneh or Dene Indians, 145 _sq._ + +Toboongkoos of Celebes, 48, 78 + +Todas, holy milkmen of the, 15 _sqq._ + +Togoland, 247 + +Tolampoos, the, 319 + +Tolindoos, the, 78 + +_Tondi_, Batta word for soul, 35. + _See also_ Tendi + +Tonga, divine chiefs in, 21; + the taboo of chiefs and kings in, 133 _sq._; + taboos connected with the dead in, 140 + +Tonquin, division of monarchy in, 19 _sq._; + kings of, 125 + +_Tooitonga_, divine chief of Tonga, 21 + +Tooth knocked out as initiatory rite, 244. + _See also_ Teeth + +Toradjas, tabooed names among the, 340; + their field-speech, 411 _sqq._ + +Touching sacred king or chief, supposed effects of, 132 _sqq._ + +Trading voyages, continence observed on, 203 + +Tradition, historical, hampered by the taboo on the names of the dead, 363 + _sqq._ + +Transference of souls from the living to the dead, 73; + of souls to other bodies, 49; + of sins, 214 _sqq._ + +Transgressions, need of confessing, 211 _sq._ + _See also_ Sins + +Transmigration of souls into animals, 65 + +Transylvania, the Germans of, 296, 310 + +Traps set for souls, 70 _sq._ + +Travail, women in, knots on their garments untied, 294. + _See also_ Childbirth + +Travellers, knots used as charms by, 306 + +Tree-spirits, fear of, 412 _sq._ + +Trees, the shadows of trees sensitive, 82; + cut hair deposited on or under, 14, 275 _sq._, 286 + +Tuaregs, the, 117, 122; their fear of ghosts, 353 + +Tumleo, island of, 150 + +Tupi Indians, their customs as to eating captives, 179 _sq._ + +Turtle catching, taboos in connexion with, 192 + +Tusks of ivory, souls in, 70 + +Twelfth Night, 396 + +Twins, water poured on graves of, 154 _sq._ + +---- father of, taboos observed by the, 239 _sq._; + his hair shaved and nails cut, 284 + +Tycoons, the, 19 + +Tying the soul to the body, 32 _sq._, 43 + +Tylor, E. B., on reincarnation of ancestors, 372 _n._1 + +Uganda, 84, 86, 112, 145, 164 _n._1, 239, 243, 254, 263, 277, 330, 369. + _See also_ Baganda + +Ulster, kings of, 12 + +Unclean and sacred, correspondence of the rules regarding the, 145 + +Uncleanness regarded as a vapour, 152, 206; + of manslayers, of menstruous and lying-in women, and of persons who have + handled the dead, 169; + of whalers, 191, 207; + of lion-killer, 220; + of bear-killers, 221 + +Uncovered in the open air, prohibition to be, 3, 14 + +Unyoro, king of, his custom of drinking milk, 119; + cowboy of the king of, 159 _n._; + diet of the king of, 291 _sq._ + +Vapour thought to be exhaled by lying-in women and hunters, 152, 206; + supposed, of blood and corpses, 210 _sq._; + supposed to be produced by the violation of a taboo, 212 + +Varuna, festival of, 217 + +Veiling faces to avert evil influences, 120 _sqq._ + +Venison, taboos concerning, 208 _sq._ + +Vermin from hair returned to their owner, 278 + +Vessels used by tabooed persons destroyed, 4, 131, 139, 145, 156, 284 + +---- special, employed by tabooed persons, 138, 139, 142, 143, 144, 145, + 146, 147, 148, 160, 167, 185, 189, 197, 198 + +Victims, sacrificial, carried round city, 188 + +Vine, prohibition to walk under a, 14, 248 + +Virgil, the enchantress in, 305; + on rustic militia of Latium, 311 + +Vow, hair kept unshorn during a, 261 _sq._, 285 + +Wabondei, the, 272 + +Wadai, Sultan of, 120 + +_Wakan_, mysterious, sacred, taboo, 225 _n._ + +Wakelbura, the, 31 + +Wallis Island, 140 + +Walrus, taboos concerning, 208 _sq._ + +Wanigela River, 192 + +Wanika, the, 247 + +Wanyamwesi, the, 112, 330 + +Wanyoro (Banyoro), the, 278 + +War, continence in, 157, 158 _n._1, 161, 163, 164, 165; + rules of ceremonial purity observed in, 157 _sqq._; + hair kept unshorn in, 261 + +---- chief, or war king, 20, 21, 24 + +---- -dances, 169, 170, 178, 182 + +Warm food tabooed, 189 + +Warramunga, the, 384 + +Warriors tabooed, 157 _sqq._ + +Washing the head, 253. _See_ Bathing + +Water poured as a rain-charm, 154 _sq._; + holy, sprinkling with, 285 _sq._ + +---- -spirits, danger of, 94 + +Wax figure in magic, 74 + +Weapons of manslayers, purification of, 172, 182, 219 + +Wedding ring, an amulet against witchcraft, 314 + +Were-wolf, 42 + +Whale, solemn burial of dead, 223 + +Whalers, taboos observed by, 191 _sq._, 205 _sqq._ + +Wheaten flour, prohibition to touch, 13 + +White, faces and bodies of manslayers painted, 175, 186 _n._1; + lion-killer painted, 220 + +---- clay, Caffre boys at circumcision smeared with, 156 + +Whydah, king of, 129 + +Widows and widowers, customs observed by, 142 _sq._, 144 _sq._, 182 _n._2 + +Wied, Prince of, 96 + +Wife's mother, the savage's dread of his, 83 _sqq._; + her name not to be pronounced by her son-in-law, 337, 338, 343 + +---- name not to be pronounced by her husband, 337, 338, 339 + +Wild beasts not called by their proper names, 396 _sqq._ + +Wilkinson, R. J., 416 _n._4 + +Willow wands as disinfectants, 143 + +Windessi, in New Guinea, 169 + +Winds kept in jars, 5 + +Wine, the blood of the vine, 248; + called milk, 249 _n._2 + +Wing-bone of eagle used to drink through, 189 + +Winter, myths of gods and spirits to be told only in, 385 _sq._ + +Wirajuri, the, 269 + +Witch's soul departs from her in sleep, 39, 41, 42 + +Witches make use of cut hair, 270, 271, 279, 282 + +Wollunqua, a mythical serpent, 384 + +Wolofs of Senegambia, 323 + +Wolves, charms to protect cattle from, 307; + not to be called by their proper names, 396, 397, 398, 402 + +Women tabooed at menstruation and childbirth, 145 _sqq._; + abstinence from, during war, 157, 158 _n._1, 161, 163, 164; + in childbed holy, 225 _n._; + blood of, dreaded, 250 _sq._ + +Women's clothes, supposed effects of touching, 164 _sq._ + +"Women's speech" among the Caffres, 335 _sq._ + +Words tabooed, 318 _sqq._; + savages take a materialistic view of words, 331 + +---- common, changed because they are the names of the dead, 358 _sqq._, + 375, + or the names of chiefs and kings, 375, 376 _sqq._; + tabooed, 392 _sqq._ + +Wounded men not allowed to drink milk, 174 _sq._ + +Wrist tied to prevent escape of soul, 32, 43, 51 + ---- bands as amulets, 315 + +Wurunjeri tribe, 42 + +Xenophanes, on the gods, 387 + +Yabim, the, 151, 306, 354, 386 + +Yakut shaman, 63 + +Yams, Feast of, 123 + +Yaos, the, 97 _sq._ + +Yawning, soul supposed to depart in, 31 + +Yewe order, secret society in Togo, 383 + +Yorubas, rebirth of ancestors among the, 369 + +Zapotecs of Mexico, the pontiff of the, 6 _sq._ + +Zend-Avesta, the, on cut hair and nails, 277 + +Zeus on Mount Lycaeus, sanctuary of, 88 + +Zulu language, its diversity, 377 + +Zulus, names of chiefs and kings tabooed among the, 376 _sq._; + their superstition as to reflections in water, 91 + + + + + + +FOOTNOTES + + + M1 Life of divine kings and priests regulated by minute rules. The + Mikado or Dairi of Japan. + + 1 See _The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, vol. i. pp. 332 + _sqq._, 373 _sqq._ + +_ 2 The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, vol. i. pp. 352 _sqq._ + +_ 3 Manners and Customs of the Japanese in the Nineteenth Century: from + recent Dutch Visitors to Japan, and the German of Dr. Ph. Fr. von + Siebold_ (London, 1841), pp. 141 _sqq._ + + 4 W. G. Aston, _Shinto_ (_the Way of the Gods_) (London, 1905), p. 41; + Michel Revon, _Le Shintoisme_, i. (Paris, 1907), pp. 189 _sqq._ The + Japanese word for god or deity is _kami_. It is thus explained by + the native scholar Motooeri, one of the chief authorities on Japanese + religion: "The term _Kami_ is applied in the first place to the + various deities of Heaven and Earth who are mentioned in the ancient + records as well as their spirits (_mi-tama_) which reside in the + shrines where they are worshipped. Moreover, not only human beings, + but birds, beasts, plants and trees, seas and mountains, and all + other things whatsoever which deserve to be dreaded and revered for + the extraordinary and pre-eminent powers which they possess, are + called _Kami_. They need not be eminent for surpassing nobleness, + goodness, or serviceableness alone. Malignant and uncanny beings are + also called _Kami_ if only they are the objects of general dread. + Among _Kami_ who are human beings I need hardly mention first of all + the successive Mikados--with reverence be it spoken.... Then there + have been numerous examples of divine human beings both in ancient + and modern times, who, although not accepted by the nation + generally, are treated as gods, each of his several dignity, in a + single province, village, or family." Hirata, another native + authority on Japanese religion, defines _kami_ as a term which + comprises all things strange, wondrous, and possessing _isao_ or + virtue. And a recent dictionary gives the following definitions: + "_Kami_. 1. Something which has no form but is only spirit, has + unlimited supernatural power, dispenses calamity and good fortune, + punishes crime and rewards virtue. 2. Sovereigns of all times, wise + and virtuous men, valorous and heroic persons whose spirits are + prayed to after their death. 3. Divine things which transcend human + intellect. 4. The Christian God, Creator, Supreme Lord." See W. G. + Aston, _Shinto_ (_the Way of the Gods_), pp. 8-10, from which the + foregoing quotations are made. Mr. Aston himself considers that "the + deification of living Mikados was titular rather than real," and he + adds: "I am not aware that any specific so-called miraculous powers + were authoritatively claimed for them" (_op. cit._ p. 41). No doubt + it is very difficult for the Western mind to put itself at the point + of view of the Oriental and to seize the precise point (if it can be + said to exist) where the divine fades into the human or the human + brightens into the divine. In translating, as we must do, the vague + thought of a crude theology into the comparatively exact language of + civilised Europe we must allow for a considerable want of + correspondence between the two: we must leave between them, as it + were, a margin of cloudland to which in the last resort the deity + may retreat from the too searching light of philosophy and science. + + 5 M. Revon, _op. cit._ i. 190 n.2 + + M2 Rules of life formerly observed by the Mikado. + + 6 Kaempfer, "History of Japan," in Pinkerton's _Voyages and Travels_, + vii. 716 _sq._ However, Mr. W. G. Aston tells us that Kaempfer's + statements regarding the sacred character of the Mikado's person + cannot be depended on (_Shinto, the Way of the Gods_, p. 41, note + {~DAGGER~}). M. Revon quotes Kaempfer's account with the observation that, + "_les naivetes recelent plus d'une idee juste_" (_Le Shintoisme_, + vol. i. p. 191, note 2). To me it seems that Kaempfer's description + is very strongly confirmed by its close correspondence in detail + with the similar customs and superstitions which have prevailed in + regard to sacred personages in many other parts of the world and + with which it is most unlikely that Kaempfer was acquainted. This + correspondence will be brought out in the following pages. + + 7 In Pinkerton's reprint this word appears as "mobility." I have made + the correction from a comparison with the original (Kaempfer, + _History of Japan_, translated from the original Dutch manuscript by + J. G. Scheuchzer, London, 1728, vol. i. p. 150). + + 8 Caron, "Account of Japan," in Pinkerton's _Voyages and Travels_, + vii. 613. Compare B. Varenius, _Descriptio regni Japoniae et Siam_ + (Cambridge, 1673), p. 11: "_Nunquam attingebant (quemadmodum et + hodie id observat) pedes ipsius terram: radiis Solis caput nunquam + illustrabatur: in apertum aerem non procedebat_," etc. The first + edition of this book was published by Elzevir at Amsterdam in 1649. + The _Geographia Generalis_ of the same writer had the honour of + appearing in an edition revised and corrected by Isaac Newton + (Cambridge, at the University Press, 1672). + + M3 Rules of life observed by kings and priests in Africa and America. + + 9 A. Bastian, _Die deutsche Expedition an der Loango-Kueste_ (Jena, + 1874-75), i. 287 _sq._, compare pp. 353 _sq._ + + 10 H. Klose, _Togo unter deutscher Flagge_ (Berlin, 1899), pp. 189, + 268. + + 11 J. B. Labat, _Relation historique de l'Ethiopie occidentale_ (Paris, + 1732), i. 254 _sqq._ + + 12 Ch. Wunenberger, "La Mission et le royaume de Humbe, sur les bords + du Cunene," _Missions Catholiques_, xx. (1888) p. 262. + + 13 See _The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, vol. i. pp. 415 + _sq._ + + 14 Brasseur de Bourbourg, _Histoire des nations civilisees du Mexique + et de l'Amerique-centrale_, iii. 29 _sq._; H. H. Bancroft, _Native + Races of the Pacific States_, ii. 142 _sq._ + + M4 The rules of life imposed on kings in early society are intended to + preserve their lives for the good of their people. + M5 Taboos observed by African kings. + + 15 A. Bastian, _Die deutsche Expedition an der Loango-Kueste_, i. 355. + + 16 O. Dapper, _Description de l'Afrique_ (Amsterdam, 1686), p. 336. + + 17 O. Baumann, _Eine afrikanische Tropen-Insel, Fernando Poo und die + Bube_ (Wien und Olmuetz, 1888), pp. 103 _sq._ + + M6 Taboos observed by African kings. Prohibition to see the sea. + + 18 G. Zuendel, "Land und Volk der Eweer auf der Sclavenkueste in + Westafrika," _Zeitschrift der Gesellschaft fuer Erdkunde zu Berlin_, + xii. (1877) p. 402. + + 19 Beraud, "Note sur le Dahome," _Bulletin de la Societe de Geographie_ + (Paris), Vme Serie, xii. (1866) p. 377. + + 20 A. Bastian, _Die deutsche Expedition an der Loango-Kueste_, i. 263. + + 21 Bosman's "Guinea," in Pinkerton's _Voyages and Travels_, xvi. 500. + + 22 A. Dalzell, _History of Dahomey_ (London, 1793), p. 15; Th. + Winterbottom, _An Account of the Native Africans in the + Neighbourhood of Sierra Leone_ (London, 1803), pp. 229 _sq._ + + 23 J. B. L. Durand, _Voyage au Senegal_ (Paris, 1802), p. 55. + + 24 W. S. Taberer (Chief Native Commissioner for Mashonaland), + "Mashonaland Natives," _Journal of the African Society_, No. 15 + (April 1905). p. 320. + + 25 A. van Gennep, _Tabou et totemisme a Madagascar_ (Paris, 1904), p. + 113. + + 26 Father Porte, "Les Reminiscences d'un missionnaire du Basutoland," + _Missions Catholiques_, xxviii. (1896) p. 235. + + 27 Plutarch, _Isis et Osiris_, 32. + + 28 P. J. de Arriaga, _Extirpacion de la idolatria del Piru_ (Lima, + 1621), pp. 11, 132. + + 29 W. Marsden, _History of Sumatra_ (London, 1811), p. 301. + + M7 Taboos observed by chiefs among the Sakalavas and the hill tribes of + Assam. + + 30 A. van Gennep, _Tabou et totemisme a Madagascar_, p. 113, quoting De + Thuy, _Etude historique, geographique et ethnographique sur la + province de Tulear_, Notes, Rec., Expl., 1899, p. 104. + + 31 T. C. Hodson, "The _genna_ amongst the Tribes of Assam," _Journal of + the Anthropological Institute_, xxxvi. (1906) p. 98. The word for + taboo among these tribes is _genna_. + + M8 Taboos observed by Irish kings. + + 32 The Duibhlinn is the part of the Liffey on which Dublin now stands. + + 33 The site, marked by the remains of some earthen forts, is now known + as Rathcroghan, near Belanagare in the county of Roscommon. + +_ 34 The Book of Rights_, edited with translation and notes by John + O'Donovan (Dublin, 1847), pp. 3-8. This work, comprising a list both + of the prohibitions (_urgharta_ or _geasa_) and the prerogatives + (_buadha_) of the Irish kings, is preserved in a number of + manuscripts, of which the two oldest date from 1390 and about 1418 + respectively. The list is repeated twice, first in prose and then in + verse. I have to thank my friend Professor Sir J. Rhys for kindly + calling my attention to this interesting record of a long-vanished + past in Ireland. As to these taboos, see P. W. Joyce, _Social + History of Ancient Ireland_, i. 310 _sqq._ + + M9 Taboos observed by Egyptian kings. + + 35 See _The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, vol. i. pp. 418 + _sqq._ + + 36 Diodorus Siculus, i. 70. + + 37 G. Maspero, _Histoire ancienne des peuples de l'Orient classique_, + ii. 759, note 3; A. Moret, _Du caractere religieux de la royaute + Pharaonique_ (Paris, 1902), pp. 314-318. + + 38 (Sir) J. G. Scott, _Gazetteer of Upper Burma and the Shan States_, + part ii. vol. i. (Rangoon, 1901) p. 308. + + M10 Taboos observed by the Flamen Dialis at Rome. + + 39 See _The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, vol. ii. pp. 191 sq. + + 40 Among the Gallas the king, who also acts as priest by performing + sacrifices, is the only man who is not allowed to fight with + weapons; he may not even ward off a blow. See Ph. Paulitschke, + _Ethnographie Nordost-Afrikas: die geistige Cultur der Danakil, + Galla und Somal_, p. 136. + + 41 Among the Kafirs of the Hindoo Koosh men who are preparing to be + headmen are considered ceremonially pure, and wear a semi-sacred + uniform which must not be defiled by coming into contact with dogs. + "The Kaneash [persons in this state of ceremonial purity] were + nervously afraid of my dogs, which had to be fastened up whenever + one of these august personages was seen to approach. The dressing + has to be performed with the greatest care, in a place which cannot + be defiled with dogs. Utah and another had convenient dressing-rooms + on the top of their houses which happened to be high and isolated, + but another of the four Kaneash had been compelled to erect a + curious-looking square pen made of poles in front of his house, his + own roof being a common thoroughfare" (Sir George Scott Robertson, + _The Kafirs of the Hindu Kush_ (London, 1898), p. 466). + + 42 Similarly the Egyptian priests abstained from beans and would not + even look at them. See Herodotus, ii. 37, with A. Wiedemann's note; + Plutarch, _Isis et Osiris_, 5. + + 43 Similarly among the Kafirs of the Hindoo Koosh the high priest "may + not traverse certain paths which go near the receptacles for the + dead, nor may he visit the cemeteries. He may not go into the actual + room where a death has occurred until after an effigy has been + erected for the deceased. Slaves may cross his threshold, but must + not approach the hearth" (Sir George Scott Robertson, _op. cit._ p. + 416). + + 44 Aulus Gellius, x. 15; Plutarch, _Quaest, Rom._ 109-112; Pliny, _Nat. + Hist._ xxviii. 146; Servius on Virgil, _Aen._ i. 179, 448, iv. 518; + Macrobius, _Saturn._ i. 16. 8 _sq._; Festus, p. 161 A, ed. C. O. + Mueller. For more details see J. Marquardt, _Roemische + Staatsverwaltung_, iii.2 326 _sqq._ + + M11 Taboos observed by the Bodia of Sierra Leone. + + 45 Sir Harry Johnston, _Liberia_ (London, 1906), ii. 1076 _sq._, + quoting from Bishop Payne, who wrote "some fifty years ago." The + Bodia described by Bishop Payne is clearly identical with the Bodio + of the Grain Coast who is described by the Rev. J. L. Wilson + (_Western Africa_, pp. 129 _sqq._). See below, p. 23; and _The Magic + Art and the Evolution of Kings_, vol. i. p. 353. As to the iron ring + which the pontiff wears on his ankle as the badge of his office we + are told that it "is regarded with as much veneration as the most + ancient crown in Europe, and the incumbent suffers as deep disgrace + by its removal as any monarch in Europe would by being deprived of + his crown" (J. L. Wilson, _op. cit._ pp. 129 _sq._). + + M12 Taboos observed by sacred milkmen among the Todas of South India. + + 46 W. H. R. Rivers, _The Todas_ (London, 1906), pp. 98-103. + + 47 For restrictions imposed on these lesser milkmen see W. H. R. + Rivers, _op. cit._ pp. 62, 66, 67 _sq._, 72, 73, 79-81. + + 48 W. H. R. Rivers, _The Todas_, pp. 79-81. + + M13 The effect of these burdensome rules was to divorce the temporal + from the spiritual authority. + M14 Reluctance to accept sovereignty with its vexatious restrictions. + +_ 49 The Magic Art_, vol. ii. p. 4. + +_ 50 Id._ vol. i. pp. 354 _sq._ + + 51 A. Bastian, _Die deutsche Expedition an der Loango-Kueste_, i. 354 + _sq._, ii. 9, 11. + + 52 Zweifel et Moustier, "Voyage aux sources du Niger," _Bulletin de la + Societe de Geographie_ (Paris), VIme Serie, xx. (1880) p. 111. + + 53 O. Dapper, _Description de l'Afrique_ (Amsterdam, 1686), p. 250. + + 54 J. Matthews, _Voyage to Sierra-Leone_ (London, 1791), p. 75. + + 55 T. Winterbottom, _Account of the Native Africans in the + Neighbourhood of Sierra Leone_ (London, 1803), p. 124. + +_ 56 The Travels of the Jesuits in Ethiopia_, collected and historically + digested by F. Balthazar Tellez (London, 1710), pp. 197 _sq._ + + M15 Sovereign powers divided between a temporal and a spiritual head. + +_ 57 Manners and Customs of the Japanese_, pp. 199 _sqq._, 355 _sqq._ + + 58 Richard, "History of Tonquin," in Pinkerton's _Voyages and Travels_, + ix. 744 _sqq._ + + 59 L. A. Waddell, _Among the Himalayas_ (Westminster, 1899), pp. 146 + _sq._ + + 60 W. Ellis, _Polynesian Researches_, Second Edition (London, + 1832-1836), iii. 99 _sqq._ + + 61 W. W. Gill, _Myths and Songs of the South Pacific_, pp. 293 _sqq._ + + 62 The late Rev. Lorimer Fison, in a letter to the author, dated August + 26, 1898. + + 63 W. Mariner, _An Account of the Natives of the Tonga Islands_, Second + Edition (London, 1818), ii. 75-79, 132-136. + + 64 Strabo, vii. 3. 5, pp. 297 _sq._ Compare _id._ vii. 3. 11, p. 304. + + 65 Aristotle, _Constitution of Athens_, iii. 2. My friend Professor + Henry Jackson kindly called my attention to this passage. + + 66 See _The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, vol. i. p. 416, and + above, p. 6. + + M16 Fetish kings and civil kings in West Africa. + + 67 Miss Mary H. Kingsley in _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, + xxix. (1899) pp. 61 _sqq._ I had some conversation on this subject + with Miss Kingsley (1st June 1897) and have embodied the results in + the text. Miss Kingsley did not know the rule of succession among + the fetish kings. + + 68 T. J. Hutchinson, _Impressions of Western Africa_ (London, 1858), + pp. 101 _sq._; Le Comte C. N. de Cardi, "Ju-ju Laws and Customs in + the Niger Delta," _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxix. + (1899) p. 51. + + 69 H. Goldie, _Calabar and its Mission_, New Edition (London, 1901), P. + 43. + + 70 J. L. Wilson, _Western Africa_ (London, 1856), p. 129. As to the + taboos observed by the Bodio or Bodia see above, p. 15. + + 71 Miss Mary H. Kingsley, in _Journal of the Anthropological + Institute_, xxix. (1899) p. 62. + + M17 The King of the Night. + + 72 Marchoux, "Ethnographie, Porto-Novo," _Revue Scientifique_, + Quatrieme Serie, iii. (1895) pp. 595 _sq._ This passage was pointed + out to me by Mr. N. W. Thomas. + + 73 O. von Kotzebue, _Entdeckungs-Reise in die Sued-See und nach der + Berings-Strasse_ (Weimar, 1821), iii. 149. + + M18 Civil rajahs and taboo rajahs in the East Indies. + + 74 J. J. de Hollander, _Handleiding bij de Beofening der Land- en + Volkenkunde van Nederlandsch Oost-Indie_, ii. 606 _sq._ In other + parts of Timor the spiritual ruler is called _Anaha paha_ or + "conjuror of the land." Compare H. Zondervan, "Timor en de + Timoreezen," _Tijdschrift van het Nederlandsch Aardrijkskundig + Genootschap_, Tweede Serie, v. (1888) Afdeeling, mehr uitgebreide + artikelen, pp. 400-402. + + 75 A. C. Haddon, _Head-hunters, Black, White, and Brown_ (London, + 1901), pp. 270-272. + + 76 Dr. Hahl, "Mittheilungen ueber Sitten und rechtliche Verhaeltnisse auf + Ponape," _Ethnologisches Notizblatt_, ii. Heft 2 (Berlin, 1901), pp. + 5 _sq._, 7. The title of the prime-minister is _Nanekin_. + + M19 What is the primitive conception of death? + M20 Savages conceive the human soul as a mannikin, the prolonged absence + of which from the body causes death. + M21 The soul as a mannikin in Australia, America, and among the Malays. + + 77 R. Salvado, _Memoires historiques sur l'Australie_ (Paris, 1854), p. + 162; _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, vii. (1878) p. 282. + In this edifying catechism there is little to choose between the + savagery of the white man and the savagery of the black. + +_ 78 Relations des Jesuites_, 1634, p. 17; _id._, 1636, p. 104; _id._, + 1639, p. 43 (Canadian reprint, Quebec, 1858). + + 79 H. Rink, _Tales and Traditions of the Eskimo_, p. 36. The Esquimaux + of Bering Strait believe that every man has several souls, and that + two of these souls are shaped exactly like the body. See E. W. + Nelson, "The Eskimo about Bering Strait," _Eighteenth Annual Report + of the Bureau of American Ethnology_, part i. (Washington, 1899) p. + 422. + + 80 Fr. Boas, in _Sixth Report on the North-Western Tribes of Canada_, + p. 44 (separate reprint from the _Report of the British Association + for 1890_). + + 81 Fr. Boas, in _Ninth Report on the North-Western Tribes of Canada_, + p. 461 (_Report of the British Association for 1894_). + + 82 W. W. Skeat, _Malay Magic_ (London, 1900), p. 47. + + M22 The soul as a mannikin in ancient Egypt. + + 83 G. Maspero, _Etudes de mythologie et d'archeologie egyptiennes_ + (Paris, 1893), i. 388 _sq._; A. Wiedemann, _The ancient Egyptian + Doctrine of the Immortality of the Soul_ (London, 1895), pp. 10 + _sqq._ In Greek works of art, especially vase-paintings, the human + soul is sometimes represented as a tiny being in human form, + generally winged, sometimes clothed and armed, sometimes naked. See + O. Jahn, _Archaeologische Beitraege_ (Berlin, 1847), pp. 128 _sqq._; + E. Pottier, _Etude sur les lecythes blancs attiques_ (Paris, 1883), + pp. 75-79; _American Journal of Archaeology_, ii. (1886) pll. xii., + xiii.; O. Kern, in _Aus der Anomia, Archaeologische Beitraege Carl + Robert zur Erinnerung an Berlin dargebracht_ (Berlin, 1890), pp. + 89-95. Greek artists of a later period sometimes portrayed the human + soul in the form of a butterfly (O. Jahn, _op. cit._ pp. 138 + _sqq._). There was a particular sort of butterfly to which the + Greeks gave the name of soul ({~GREEK SMALL LETTER PSI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH OXIA~}). See Aristotle, _Hist. anim._ v. + 19, p. 550 b 26, p. 551 b 13 _sq._; Plutarch, _Quaest. conviv._ ii. + 3. 2. + + M23 The soul as a mannikin in Nias, Fiji, and India. + + 84 W. W. Gill, _Myths and Songs of the South Pacific_ (London, 1876), + p. 171. + + 85 H. Sundermann, "Die Insel Nias und die Mission daselbst," + _Allgemeine Missions-Zeitschrift_, Bd. xi. October 1884, p. 453. + + 86 The late Rev. Lorimer Fison, in a letter to the author, dated + November 3, 1898. + + 87 H. A. Rose, "Note on Female Tattooing in the Panjab," _Indian + Antiquary_, xxxi. (1902) p. 298. + + M24 Attempts to prevent the soul from escaping from the body. + + 88 B. F. Matthes, _Over de Bissoes of heidensche priesters en + priesteressen der Boeginezen_ (Amsterdam, 1872), p. 24 (reprinted + from the _Verhandelingen der Koninklijke Akademie van + Wetenschappen_, Afdeeling Letterkunde, Deel vii.). + + 89 A. C. Haddon, _Head-hunters_, p. 439. + + 90 H. Ling Roth, "Low's Natives of Borneo," _Journal of the + Anthropological Institute_, xxi. (1892) p. 115. + + 91 A. C. Haddon, _Head hunters_, pp. 371, 396. + + 92 H. Candelier, _Rio-Hacha et les Indiens Goajires_ (Paris, 1893), pp. + 258 _sq._ + + 93 R. Southey, _History of Brazil_, iii. 396. + + 94 G. M. Dawson, "On the Haida Indians of the Queen Charlotte Islands," + _Geological Survey of Canada, Report of Progress for 1878-1879_ + (Montreal, 1880), pp. 123 B, 139 B. + +_ 95 Panjab Notes and Queries_, ii. p. 114, § 665. + + 96 M. Radiguet, _Les Derniers Sauvages_ (Paris, 1882), p. 245; Matthias + G----, _Lettres sur Iles les Marquises_ (Paris, 1843), p. 115; Clavel, + _Les Marquisiens_, p. 42 note. + + 97 Gagniere, in _Annales de la Propagation de la Foi_, xxxii. (1860) p. + 439. + + 98 F. Blumentritt, "Das Stromgebiet des Rio Grande de Mindano," + _Petermanns Mitteilungen_, xxxvii. (1891) p. 111. + + 99 A. d'Orbigny, _L'Homme americain_, ii. 241; T. J. Hutchinson, "The + Chaco Indians," _Transactions of the Ethnological Society of + London_, N.S., iii. (1865) pp. 322 _sq._; A. Bastian, _Culturlaender + des alten Amerika_, i. 476. A similar custom is observed by the + Cayuvava Indians (A. d'Orbigny, _op. cit._ ii. 257). + + 100 E. Modigliani, _Un Viaggio a Nias_ (Milan, 1890), p. 283. + + 101 A. W. Howitt, _Native Tribes of South-East Australia_ (London, + 1904), p. 473. + + 102 Fr. Boas, "The Central Eskimo," _Sixth Annual Report of the Bureau + of Ethnology_ (Washington, 1888), pp. 613 _sq._ Among the Esquimaux + of Smith Sound male mourners plug up the right nostril and female + mourners the left (E. Bessels in _American Naturalist_, xviii. + (1884) p. 877; cp. J. Murdoch, "Ethnological Results of the Point + Barrow Expedition," _Ninth Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology_ + (Washington, 1892), p. 425). This seems to point to a belief that + the soul enters by one nostril and goes out by the other, and that + the functions assigned to the right and left nostrils in this + respect are reversed in men and women. Among the Esquimaux of Baffin + land "the person who prepares a body for burial puts rabbit's fur + into his nostrils to prevent the exhalations from entering his own + lungs" (Fr. Boas, "The Eskimo of Baffin Land and Hudson Bay," + _Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History_, xv. part i. + (1901) p. 144). But this would hardly explain the custom of stopping + one nostril only. + + 103 G. F. Lyon, _Private Journal_ (London, 1824), p. 370. + + 104 B. F. Matthes, _Bijdragen tot de Ethnologie van Zuid-Celebes_ (The + Hague, 1875), p. 54. + + 105 J. L. van der Toorn, "Het animisme bij den Minangkabauer der + Padangsche Bovenlanden," _Bijdragen tot de Taal- Land- en + Volkenkunde van Nederlandsch-Indie_, xxxix. (1890) p. 56. + + 106 C. Hose and R. Shelford, "Materials for a Study of Tatu in Borneo," + _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxxvi. (1906) p. 65. + + 107 W. Jochelson, "The Koryak, Religion and Myths" (Leyden and New York, + 1905), p. 103 (_Memoir of the American Museum of Natural History, + The Jesup North Pacific Expedition_, vol. vi. part i.). + + 108 W. F. A. Zimmermann, _Die Inseln des Indischen und Stillen Meeres_ + (Berlin, 1864-65), ii. 386 _sq._ + + 109 Compare {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK KORONIS~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH DASIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PSI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~} | {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH DASIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI AND YPOGEGRAMMENI~}, Herodas, _Mimiambi_, iii. 3 _sq._; {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PSI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}, Dio Chrysostom, _Orat._ xxxii. + vol. i. p. 417, ed. Dindorf; modern Greek {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PSI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK KORONIS~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}, + G. F. Abbott, _Macedonian Folklore_, p. 193 note; "_mihi anima in + naso esse, stabam tanquam mortuus_," Petronius, _Sat._ 62; "_in + primis labris animam habere_," Seneca, _Natur. quaest._ iii. praef. + 16; "_Voila un pauvre malade qui a le feu dans le corps, et l'ame + sur le bout des levres_," J. de Brebeuf, in _Relations des + Jesuites_, 1636, p. 113 (Canadian reprint); "This posture keeps the + weary soul hanging upon the lip; ready to leave the carcass, and yet + not suffered to take its wing," R. Bentley, "Sermon on Popery," + quoted in Monk's _Life of Bentley_,2 i. 382. In Czech they say of a + dying person that his soul is on his tongue (Br. Jelinek, in + _Mittheilungen der anthropolog. Gesellschaft in Wien_, xxi. (1891) + p. 22). + + M25 The soul conceived as a bird ready to fly away. + + 110 Compare the Greek {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}, etc. + + 111 K. von den Steinen, _Unter den Naturvoelkern Zentral-Brasiliens_ + (Berlin, 1894), pp. 511, 512. + + 112 Fr. Boas, in _Seventh Report on the North-Western Tribes of Canada_, + pp. 14 _sq._ (separate reprint of the _Report of the British + Association for 1891_). + + 113 R. H. Codrington, _The Melanesians_, pp. 207 _sq._ + + 114 Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ vii. 174. Compare Herodotus, iv. 14 _sq._; + Maximus Tyrius, _Dissert._ xvi. 2. + + 115 Br. Jelinek, "Materialien zur Vorgeschichte und Volkskunde Boehmens," + _Mittheilungen der anthropologischen Gesellschaft in Wien_, xxi. + (1891) p. 22. + + 116 G. A. Wilken, "Het animisme bij de volken van den Indischen + Archipel," _De Indische Gids_, June 1884, p. 944. + + 117 G. A. Wilken, _l.c._ + + 118 E. L. M. Kuehr, "Schetsen uit Borneo's Westerafdeeling," _Bijdragen + tot de Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde van Nederlandsch-Indie_, xlvii. + (1897) p. 57. + + 119 B. F. Matthes, _Bijdragen tot de Ethnologie van Zuid-Celebes_, p. + 33; _id._, _Over de Bissoes of heidensche priesters en priesteressen + der Boeginezen_, pp. 9 _sq._; _id._, _Makassaarsch-Hollandsch + Woordenboek_, _s.vv._ _Koerroe_ and _soemanga_, pp. 41, 569. Of + these two words, the former means the sound made in calling fowls, + and the latter means the soul. The expression for the ceremonies + described in the text is _apakoerroe soemanga_. So common is the + recall of the bird-soul among the Malays that the words _koer (kur) + semangat_ ("cluck! cluck! soul!") often amount to little more than + an expression of astonishment, like our "Good gracious me!" See W. + W. Skeat, _Malay Magic_, p. 47, note 2. + + 120 B. F. Matthes, "Over de _ada's_ of gewoonten der Makassaren en + Boegineezen," _Verslagen en Mededeelingen der koninklijke Akademie + van Wetenschappen_ (Amsterdam), Afdeeling Letterkunde, Reeks iii. + Deel ii. (1885) pp. 174 _sq._; J. K. Niemann, "De Boegineezen en + Makassaren," _Bijdragen tot de Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde van + Nederlandsch-Indie_, xxxviii.(1889) p. 281. + + 121 A. C. Kruyt, "Het koppensnellen der Toradja's," _Verslagen en + Mededeelingen der koninklijke Akademie van Wetenschappen_ + (Amsterdam), Afdeeling Letterkunde, Reeks iv. Deel iii. (1899) p. + 162. + + 122 J. L. van der Toorn, "Het animisme bij den Minangkabauer der + Padangsche Bovenlanden," _Bijdragen tot de Taal- Land- en + Volkenkunde van Nederlandsch-Indie_, xxxix. (1890) pp. 56-58. On + traces of the bird-soul in Mohammedan popular belief, see I. + Goldziher, "Der Seelenvogel im islamischen Volksglauben," _Globus_, + lxxxiii. (1903) pp. 301-304; and on the soul in bird-form generally, + see J. von Negelein, "Seele als Vogel," _Globus_, lxxix. (1901) pp. + 357-361, 381-384. + + M26 The soul is supposed to be absent in sleep. + + 123 K. von den Steinen, _Unter den Naturvoelkern Zentral-Brasiliens_, p. + 340; E. F. im Thurn, _Among the Indians of Guiana_, pp. 344 _sqq._ + + 124 V. Fric, "Eine Pilcomayo-Reise in den Chaco Central," _Globus_, + lxxxix. (1906) p. 233. + + M27 The soul absent in sleep may be prevented from returning to the + body. + + 125 Shway Yoe, _The Burman, his Life and Notions_ (London, 1882), ii. + 100. + + 126 R. Andree, _Braunschweiger Volkskunde_ (Brunswick, 1896), p. 266. + + 127 H. von Wlislocki, _Volksglaube und Volksbrauch der Siebenbuerger + Sachsen_ (Berlin, 1893), p. 167. + + 128 J. L. Wilson, _Western Africa_ (London, 1856), p. 220; A. B. Ellis, + _The Ewe-speaking Peoples of the Slave Coast_, p. 20. + + 129 J. G. F. Riedel, _De sluik- en kroesharige rassen tusschen Selebes + en Papua_, p. 267. For detention of a sleeper's soul by spirits and + consequent illness, see also Mason, quoted in A. Bastian's _Die + Voelker des oestlichen Asien_, ii. 387 note. + + 130 J. Teit, "The Thompson Indians of British Columbia," _Memoir of the + American Museum of Natural History, The Jesup North Pacific + Expedition_, vol. i. part iv. (April 1900) p. 327. The Koryak of + North-Eastern Asia also keep awake so long as there is a corpse in + the house. See W. Jochelson, "The Koryak, Religion and Myths," + _Memoir of the American Museum for Natural History, The Jesup North + Pacific Expedition_, vol. vi. part i. (Leyden and New York, 1905) p. + 110. + + 131 G. Kurze, "Sitten und Gebraeuche der Lengua-Indianer," _Mitteilungen + der Geographischen Gesellschaft zu Jena_, xxiii. (1905) p. 18. + + 132 H. Ling Roth, "Low's Natives of Borneo," _Journal of the + Anthropological Institute_, xxi. (1892) p. 112. + +_ 133 Indian Antiquary_, vii. (1878) p. 273; A. Bastian, _Voelkerstaemme am + Brahmaputra_, p. 127. A similar story is told by the Hindoos and + Malays, though the lizard form of the soul is not mentioned. See + _Panjab Notes and Queries_, iii. p. 166, § 679; N. Annandale, + "Primitive Beliefs and Customs of the Patani Fishermen," _Fasciculi + Malayenses, Anthropology_, part i. (April 1903) pp. 94 _sq._ + + 134 E. Gerard, _The Land beyond the Forest_, ii. 27 _sq._ A similar + story is told in Holland (J. W. Wolf, _Nederlandsche Sagen_, No. + 250, pp. 343 _sq._). The story of King Gunthram belongs to the same + class; the king's soul comes out of his mouth as a small reptile + (Paulus Diaconus, _Hist. Langobardorum_, iii. 34). In an East Indian + story of the same type the sleeper's soul issues from his nose in + the form of a cricket (G. A. Wilken, in _De Indische Gids_, June + 1884, p. 940). In a Swabian story a girl's soul creeps out of her + mouth in the form of a white mouse (A. Birlinger, _Volksthuemliches + aus Schwaben_, i. 303). In a Saxon story the soul comes out of the + sleeper's mouth in the shape of a red mouse. See E. Mogk, in R. + Wuttke's _Saechsische Volkskunde_2 (Dresden, 1901), p. 318. + + M28 Danger of awaking a sleeper suddenly before his soul has time to + return. + + 135 Shway Yoe, _The Burman_, ii. 103; M. and B. Ferrars, _Burma_ + (London, 1900), p. 77; R. G. Woodthorpe, in _Journal of the + Anthropological Institute_, xxvi. (1897) p. 23; A. Bastian, _Die + Voelker des oestlichen Asien_, ii. 389; F. Blumentritt, "Der + Ahnencultus und die religioesen Anschauungen der Malaien des + Philippinen-Archipels," _Mittheilungen der Wiener Geogr. + Gesellschaft_, 1882, p. 209; J. G. F. Riedel, _De sluik-en + kroesharige rassen tusschen Selebes en Papua_, p. 440; _id._, "Die + Landschaft Dawan oder West-Timor," _Deutsche geographische Blaetter_, + x. 280; A. C. Kruijt, "Een en ander aangaande het geestelijk en + maatschapelijk leven van den Poso-Alfoer," _Mededeelingen van wege + het Nederlandsche Zendelinggenootschap_, xxxix. (1895) p. 4; K. von + den Steinen, _Unter den Naturvoelkern Zentral-Brasiliens_, pp. 340, + 510; L. F. Gowing, _Five Thousand Miles in a Sledge_ (London, 1889), + p. 226; A. C. Hollis, _The Masai_ (Oxford, 1905), p. 308. The rule + is mentioned and a mystic reason assigned for it in the _Satapatha + Brahmana_ (part v. p. 371, J. Eggeling's translation). + + 136 Rev. Lorimer Fison, in a letter to the author dated August 26, 1898. + + 137 K. von den Steinen, _Unter den Naturvoelkern Zentral-Brasiliens_, p. + 340. + + 138 Hugh Miller, _My Schools and Schoolmasters_ (Edinburgh, 1854), ch. + vi. pp. 106 _sq._ + + M29 Danger of moving a sleeper or altering his appearance. + + 139 J. L. van der Toorn, "Het animisme bij den Minangkabauer der + Padangsche Bovenlanden," _Bijdragen tot de Taal- Land- en + Volkenkunde van Nederlandsch-Indie_, xxxix. (1890) p. 50. + + 140 N. Annandale, in _Fasciculi Malayenses, Anthropology_, part i. + (April 1903) p. 94. + +_ 141 Panjab Notes and Queries_, iii. p. 116, § 530. + + 142 W. W. Rockhill, "Notes on some of the Laws, Customs, and + Superstitions of Korea," _American Anthropologist_, iv. (1891) p. + 183. + + 143 W. R. S. Ralston, _Songs of the Russian People_, pp. 117 _sq._; F. + S. Krauss, _Volksglaube und religioeser Brauch der Suedslaven_ + (Muenster i. W., 1890), p. 112. The latter writer tells us that the + witch's spirit is also supposed to assume the form of a fly, a hen, + a turkey, a crow, and especially a toad. + + 144 Holzmayer, "Osiliana," _Verhandlungen der gelehrten Estnischen + Gesellschaft zu Dorpat_, vii. (1872) No. 2, p. 53. + + 145 P. Einhorn, "Wiederlegunge der Abgoetterey," etc., reprinted in + _Scriptores rerum Livonicarun_, ii. 645 (Riga and Leipsic, 1848). + + 146 A. de Nore, _Coutumes, mythes et traditions des provinces de France_ + (Paris and Lyons, 1846), p. 88. + + M30 The soul may quit the body in waking hours, thereby causing + sickness, insanity or death. Recalling truant souls in Australia, + Burma, China, Sarawak, Luzon and Mongolia. + + 147 A. W. Howitt, _Native Tribes of South-East Australia_, p. 387. + + 148 Bringaud, "Les Karens de la Birmanie," _Missions Catholiques_, xx. + (1888) pp. 297 _sq._ + + 149 A. Henry, "The Lolos and other tribes of Western China," _Journal of + the Anthropological Institute_, xxxiii. (1903) p. 102. + + 150 C. Hose and W. M'Dougall, "The Relations between Men and Animals in + Sarawak," _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxxi. (1901) + pp. 183 _sq._ + + 151 De los Reyes y Florentino, "Die religioese Anschauungen der Ilocanen + (Luzon)," _Mittheilungen der k. k. Geograph. Gesellschaft in Wien_, + xxxi (1888) pp. 569 _sq._ + + 152 A. Bastian, _Die Seele und ihre Erscheinungswesen in der + Ethnographie_, p. 36. + + M31 Recalling truant souls in Africa and America. + + 153 H. Ward, _Five Years with the Congo Cannibals_ (London, 1890), pp. + 53 _sq._ + + 154 A. G. Morice, "The Western Denes, their Manners and Customs," + _Proceedings of the Canadian Institute, Toronto_, Third Series, vii. + (1888-1889) pp. 158 _sq._; _id._, _Au pays de l'ours noir, chez les + sauvages de la Colombie Britannique_ (Paris and Lyons, 1897), p. 75. + + 155 Clicteur, in _Annales de l'Association de la Propagation de la Foi_, + iv (1830) p. 479. + + M32 Recalling truant souls in Sumatra, Borneo, Celebes. + + 156 M. Joustra, "Het leven, de zeden en gewoonten der Bataks," + _Mededeelingen van wege het Nederlandsche Zendelinggenootschap_, + xlvi. (1902) p. 408. + + 157 J. H. Meerwaldt, "Gebruiken der Bataks in het maatschappelijk + leven," _Mededeelingen van wege het Nederlandsche + Zendelinggenootschap_, li. (1907) pp. 98 _sq._ The writer gives + _tondi_ as the form of the Batak word for "soul." + + 158 Dr. R. Roemer, "Bijdrage tot de Geneeskunst der Karo-Batak's," + _Tijdschrift voor Indische Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde_, i. (1908) + pp. 212 _sq._ + + 159 A. W. Nieuwenhuis, _In Centraal Borneo_ (Leyden, 1900), i. 148, 152 + _sq._, 164 _sq._; _id._, _Quer durch Borneo_ (Leyden, 1904-1907), i. + 112 _sq._, 125. + + 160 A. W. Nieuwenhuis, _Quer durch Borneo_, ii. 481. + + 161 J. Perham, "Manangism in Borneo," _Journal of the Straits Branch of + the Royal Asiatic Society_, No. 19 (Singapore, 1887), p. 91, compare + pp. 89, 90; H. Ling Roth, _The Natives of Sarawak and British North + Borneo_, i. 274, compare pp. 272 _sq._ + + 162 E. L. M. Kuehr, "Schetsen uit Borneo's Westerafdeeling," _Bijdragen + tot de Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde van Nederlandsch-Indie_, xlvii. + (1897) pp. 60 _sq._ + + 163 A. C. Kruijt, "Eenige ethnografische aanteekeningen omtrent de + Toboengkoe en de Tomori," _Mededeelingen van wege het Nederlandsche + Zendelinggenootschap_, xliv. (1900) p. 225. + + M33 Wandering souls in popular tales. + +_ 164 Pantschatantra_, uebersetzt von Th. Benfey (Leipsic, 1859), ii. 124 + _sqq._ + + 165 J. Brandes, "Iets over het Pape-gaai-boek, zooals het bij de + Maleiers voorkomt," _Tijdschrift voor Indische Taal- Land- en + Volkenkunde_, xli. (1899) pp. 480-483. A story of this sort is + quoted from the _Persian Tales_ in the _Spectator_ (No. 578, Aug. 9, + 1714). + +_ 166 Katha Sarit Sagara_, translated by C. H. Tawney (Calcutta, 1880), + i. 21 _sq._ For other Indian tales of the same general type, with + variations in detail, see _Lettres edifiantes et curieuses_, + Nouvelle Edition, xii. 183 _sq._; _North Indian Notes and Queries_, + iv. p. 28, § 54. + + 167 J. J. M. de Groot, _The Religious System of China_, iv. 104. + + 168 Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ vii. 174; Plutarch, _De genio Socratis_, 22; + Lucian, _Muscae encomium_, 7. Plutarch calls the man Hermodorus. + Epimenides, the Cretan seer, had also the power of sending his soul + out of his body and keeping it out as long as he pleased. See + Hesychius Milesius, in _Fragmenta historicorum Graecorum_, ed. C. + Mueller, v. 162; Suidas, _s.v._ {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}. On such reported cases in + antiquity see further E. Rohde, _Psyche_,3 ii. 91 _sqq._ + +_ 169 Narrative of Travels in Europe, Asia, and Africa in the Seventeenth + Century by Evliya Efendi_, translated from the Turkish by the Ritter + Joseph von Hammer (Oriental Translation Fund), vol. i. pt. ii. p. 3. + I have not seen this work. An extract from it, containing the above + narrative, was kindly sent me by Colonel F. Tyrrel, and the exact + title and reference were supplied to me by Mr. R. A. Nicholson, who + was so good as to consult the book for me in the British Museum. + + M34 The wandering soul may be detained by ghosts. + + 170 E. B. Cross, "On the Karens," _Journal of the American Oriental + Society_, iv. (1854) p. 311. + + 171 A. R. McMahon, _The Karens of the Golden Chersonese_ (London, 1876), + p. 318. + + 172 F. Mason, "Physical Character of the Karens," _Journal of the + Asiatic Society of Bengal_, 1866, pt. ii. pp. 28 _sq._ + + 173 R. G. Woodthorpe, in _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, + xxvi. (1897) p. 23. + + 174 C. J. S. F. Forbes, _British Burma_ (London, 1878), pp. 99 _sq._; + Shway Yoe, _The Burman_ (London, 1882), ii. 102; A. Bastian, _Die + Voelker des oestlichen Asien_, ii. 389. + + 175 Guerlach, "Moeurs et superstitions des sauvages Ba-hnars," _Missions + Catholiques_, xix. (1887) pp. 525 _sq._ + + 176 J. H. Neumann, "De _begoe_ in de godsdienstige begrippen der + Karo-Bataks in de Doesoen," _Mededeelingen van wege het + Nederlandsche Zendelinggenootschap_, xlvi. (1902) p. 27. + + 177 F. Grabowsky, in _Internationales Archiv fuer Ethnographie_, ii. + (1889) p. 182. + + 178 Fr. Boas, in _Eleventh Report on the North-Western Tribes of + Canada_, p. 6 (separate reprint from the _Report of the British + Association for 1896_). + + 179 J. G. F. Riedel, _De sluik- en kroesharige rassen tusschen Selebes + en Papua_, p. 414. + + 180 J. G. F. Riedel, _op. cit._ pp. 221 _sq._ + + M35 Attempts to rescue the lost soul from the spirits of the dead who + are detaining it. + + 181 N. Ph. Wilken en J. A. Schwarz, "Het heidendom en de Islam in + Bolaang Mongondou," _Mededeelingen van wege het Nederlandsche + Zendelinggenootschap_, xi. (1867) pp. 263 _sq._ + + 182 James Dawson, _Australian Aborigines_ (Melbourne, Sydney, and + Adelaide, 1881), pp. 57 _sq._ + + 183 W. W. Gill, _Myths and Songs of the South Pacific_ (London, 1876), + pp. 171 _sq._ + + 184 De Flacourt, _Histoire de la grande Isle Madagascar_ (Paris, 1658), + pp. 101 _sq._ + + M36 Rescuing the soul from the dead in Borneo and Melanesia. + + 185 E. L. M. Kuehr, "Schetsen uit Borneo's Westerafdeeling," _Bijdragen + tot de Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde van Nederlandsch-Indie_, xlvii. + (1897) pp. 61 _sq._ + + 186 R. H. Codrington, _The Melanesians_, pp. 138 _sq._ + + 187 Bishop Hose, "The Contents of a Dyak Medicine Chest," _Journal of + the Straits Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society_, No. 39, June 1903, + p. 69. + + 188 R. H. Codrington, _op. cit._ p. 208. + + 189 R. H. Codrington, _op. cit._ pp. 146 _sq._ + + M37 Buryat mode of recovering a lost soul from the nether world. + + 190 V. M. Mikhailovskii, "Shamanism in Siberia and European Russia," + _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxiv. (1895) pp. 69 + _sq._ + + M38 American Indian modes of recovering a lost soul from the land of the + dead. + + 191 J. Teit, "The Thompson Indians of British Columbia," _Memoir of the + American Museum of Natural History, The Jesup North Pacific + Expedition_, vol. i. part iv. (April 1900) pp. 363 _sq._ + + 192 Rev. Myron Eels, "The Twana, Chemakum, and Klallam Indians of + Washington Territory," _Annual Report of the Smithsonian Institution + for 1887_, pt. i. pp. 677 _sq._ + + M39 Abduction of souls by demons in Annam, Cochin-China, and China. + + 193 A. Landes, "Contes et legendes annamites," No. 76 in _Cochinchine + Francaise: excursions et reconnaissances_, No. 23 (Saigon, 1885), p. + 80. + + 194 Guerlach, "Chez les sauvages Ba-hnars," _Missions Catholiques_, xvi. + (1884) p. 436, xix. (1887) p. 453, xxvi. (1894) pp. 142 _sq._ + + 195 J. J. M. de Groot, _The Religious System of China_, i. 243 _sq._ + + 196 See above, p. 45. + + M40 Abduction of souls by demons in the East Indies. + + 197 M. J. van Baarda, "Fabelen, Verhalen en Overleveringen der + Galelareezen," _Bijdragen tot de Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde van + Nederlandsch-Indie_, xlv. (1895) p. 509. + + 198 M. T. H. Perelaer, _Ethnographische Beschrijving der Dajaks_ + (Zalt-Bommel, 1870), pp. 26 _sq._ + + 199 "Eenige bijzonderheden betreffende de Papoeas van de Geelvinksbaai + van Nieuw-Guinea," _Bijdragen tot de Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde van + Neerlandsch-Indie_, ii. (1854) pp. 375 _sq._ It is especially the + souls of children that the spirit loves to take to himself. See J. + L. van Hasselt, "Die Papuastaemme an der Geelvinkbai," _Mitteilungen + der Geographischen Gesellschaft zu Jena_, ix. (1891) p. 103; compare + _ib._ iv. (1886) pp. 118 _sq._ The mists seen to hang about + tree-tops are due to the power of trees to condense vapour, as to + which see Gilbert White, _Natural History of Selborne_, part ii. + letter 29. + + M41 Abduction of souls by demons in the Moluccas. + + 200 Fr. Valentyn, _Oud- en nieuw Oost-Indien_, iii. 13 _sq._ + + 201 Van Schmidt, "Aanteekeningen nopens de zeden, gewoonten en + gebruiken, benevens de vooroordeelen en bijgelovigheden der + bevolking van de eilanden Saparoea, Haroekoe, Noessa Laut, en van + een gedeelte van de zuidkust van Ceram," in _Tijdschrift voor + Neerlands Indie_, 1843, dl. ii. 511 _sqq._ + + M42 Abduction of souls by demons in Celebes and Siberia. + + 202 A. C. Kruijt, "Een en ander aangaande het geestelijk en + maatschappelijk leven van den Poso-Alfoer," _Mededeelingen van wege + het Nederlandsche Zendelinggenootschap_, xxxix. (1895) pp. 5-8. + + 203 A. Bastian, _Die Seele und ihre Erscheinungswesen in der + Ethnographie_ (Berlin, 1868), pp. 36 _sq._; J. G. Gmelin, _Reise + durch Sibirien_, ii. 359 _sq._ This mode of curing sickness, by + inducing the demon to swap the soul of the patient for an effigy, is + practised also by the Dyaks and by some tribes on the northern coast + of New Guinea. See H. Ling Roth, "Low's Natives of Borneo," _Journal + of the Anthropological Institute_, xxi. (1892) p. 117; E. L. M. + Kuehr, "Schetsen uit Borneo's Westerafdeeling," _Bijdragen tot de + Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde van Nederlandsch-Indie_, xlvii. (1897) + pp. 62 _sq._; F. S. A. de Clercq, "De West- en Noordkust van + Nederlandsch Nieuw-Guinea," _Tijdschrift van het kon. Nederlandsch + Aardrijkskundig Genootschap_, Tweede Serie, x. (1893) pp. 633 _sq._ + + 204 V. Priklonski, "Todtengebraeuche der Jakuten," _Globus_, lix. (1891) + pp. 81 _sq._ Compare _id._, "Ueber das Schamenthum bei den Jakuten," + in A. Bastian's _Allerlei aus Volks- und Menschenkunde_, i. 218 + _sq._ + + M43 Souls rescued from demons at a house-warming in Minahassa. + + 205 P. N. Wilken, "Bijdragen tot de kennis van de zeden en gewoonten der + Alfoeren in de Minahassa," _Mededeelingen van wege het Nederlandsche + Zendelinggenootschap_, vii. (1863) pp. 146 _sq._ Why the priest, + after restoring the soul, tells it to go away again, is not clear. + + 206 J. G. F. Riedel "De Minahasa in 1825," _Tijdschrift voor Indische + Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde_, xviii. 523. + + 207 N. Graafland, _De Minahassa_ (Rotterdam, 1869), i. 327 _sq._ + + M44 Souls carried off by the sun and other gods. + + 208 Fr. Kramer, "Der Goetzendienst der Niasser," _Tijdschrift voor + Indische Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde_, xxxiii. (1890) pp. 490 _sq._ + + 209 J. Teit, "The Thompson Indians of British Columbia," _Memoir of the + American Museum of Natural History, The Jesup North Pacific + Expedition_, vol. i. part iv. (April 1900) p. 357. + + 210 G. Turner, _Samoa_, pp. 142 _sq._ + + M45 Lost souls extracted from a fowl. + + 211 J. B. Neumann, "Het Pane- en Bila-stroomgebied op het eiland + Sumatra," _Tijdschrift van het Nederlandsch Aardrijkskundig + Genootschap_, Tweede Serie, dl. iii., Afdeeling, meer uitgebreide + artikelen, No. 2 (1886), p. 302. + + M46 Lost souls brought back in a visible form. Soul lost by a fall and + recovered from the earth. + + 212 R. H. Codrington, "Religious Beliefs and Practices in Melanesia," + _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, x. (1881) p. 281; _id._, + _The Melanesians_, p. 267. + + 213 R. H. Codrington, _The Melanesians_, p. 229 + + 214 Horatio Hale, _United States Exploring Expedition, Ethnography and + Philology_ (Philadelphia, 1846), pp. 208 _sq._ Compare Ch. Wilkes, + _Narrative of the United States Exploring Expedition_ (London, + 1845), iv. 448 _sq._ Similar methods of recovering lost souls are + practised by the Haidas, Nootkas, Shuswap, and other Indian tribes + of British Columbia. See Fr. Boas, in _Fifth Report on the + North-Western Tribes of Canada_, pp. 58 _sq._ (separate reprint from + the _Report of the British Association for 1889_); _id._ in _Sixth + Report_, etc., pp. 30, 44, 59 _sq._, 94 (separate reprint of the + _Report of the Brit. Assoc. for 1890_); _id._ in _Ninth Report_, + etc., p. 462 (in _Report of the Brit. Assoc. for 1894_). Kwakiutl + medicine-men exhibit captured souls in the shape of little balls of + eagle down. See Fr. Boas, in _Report of the U.S. National Museum for + 1895_, pp. 561, 575. + + 215 J. G. F. Riedel, _De sluik- en kroesharige rassen tusschen Selebes + en Papua_, pp. 77 _sq._ + + 216 J. G. F. Riedel, _op. cit._ pp. 356 _sq._ + + 217 J. G. F. Riedel, _op. cit._ p. 376. + + 218 Spenser St. John, _Life in the Forests of the Far East_,2 i. 189; H. + Ling Roth, _The Natives of Sarawak and British North Borneo_, i. + 261. Sometimes the souls resemble cotton seeds (Spenser St. John, + _l.c._). Compare _id._ i. 183. + + 219 Nieuwenhuisen en Rosenberg, "Verslag omtrent het Eiland Nias," + _Verhandel. van het Batav. Genootsch. van Kunsten en Wetenschappen_, + xxx. (Batavia, 1863) p. 116; H. von Rosenberg, _Der Malayische + Archipel_, p. 174; E. Modigliani, _Viaggio a Nias_ (Milan, 1890), p. + 192. + + 220 "Lettre du cure de Santiago Tepehuacan a son eveque sur les moeurs et + coutumes des Indiens soumis a ses soins," _Bulletin de la Societe de + Geographie_ (Paris), IIme Serie, ii. (1834) p. 178. + + 221 W. Camden, _Britannia_ (London, 1607), p. 792. The passage has not + always been understood by Camden's translators. + + M47 Recovery of the soul in ancient Egypt. + + 222 A. Moret, _Le Rituel du culte divin journalier en Egypte_ (Paris, + 1902), pp. 32-35, 83 _sq._ + + M48 Souls stolen or detained by sorcerers in Fiji and Polynesia. + + 223 Th. Williams, _Fiji and the Fijians_2 (London, 1860), i. 250. + + 224 W. W. Gill, _Myths and Songs of the South Pacific_, p. 171; _id._, + _Life in the Southern Isles_, pp. 181 _sqq._ Cinet, sinnet, or + sennit is cordage made from the dried fibre of the coco-nut husk. + Large quantities of it are used in Fiji. See Th. Williams, _Fiji and + the Fijians_,2 i. 69. + + 225 J. Williams, _Narrative of Missionary Enterprises in the South Sea + Islands_ (London, 1838), pp. 93, 466 _sq._ A traveller in Zombo-land + found traps commonly set at the entrances of villages and huts for + the purpose of catching the devil. See Rev. Th. Lewis, "The Ancient + Kingdom of Kongo," _The Geographical Journal_, xix. (1902) p. 554. + +_ 226 Relations des Jesuites_, 1639, p. 44 (Canadian reprint, Quebec, + 1858). + + M49 Detention of souls by sorcerers in Africa. + + 227 L. J. B. Berenger-Feraud, _Les Peuplades de la Senegambie_ (Paris, + 1879), p. 277. + + 228 Delafosse, in _L'Anthropologie_, xi. (1895) p. 558. + + 229 W. H. Bentley, _Life on the Congo_ (London, 1887), p. 71. + + 230 Mary H. Kingsley, _Travels in West Africa_ (London, 1897), pp. 461 + _sq._ + + M50 Taking the souls of enemies first and their heads afterwards. + + 231 E. L. M. Kuehr, in _Internationales Archiv fuer Ethnographie_, ii. + (1889) p. 163; _id._, "Schetsen uit Borneo's Westerafdeeling," + _Bijdragen tot de Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde van + Nederlandsch-Indie_, xlvii. (1897) pp. 59 _sq._ Among the Haida + Indians of Queen Charlotte Islands "every war-party must be + accompanied by a shaman, whose duty it was to find a propitious time + for making an attack, etc., but especially to war with and kill the + souls of the enemy. Then the death of their natural bodies was + certain." See J. R. Swanton, "Contributions to the Ethnology of the + Haida" (Leyden and New York, 1905), p. 40 (_Memoir of the American + Museum of Natural History, The Jesup North Pacific Expedition_, vol. + v. part i.). Some of the Dyaks of south-eastern Borneo perform a + ceremony for the purpose of extracting the souls from the bodies of + prisoners whom they are about to torture to death. See F. Grabowsky, + "Der Tod, das Begraebnis, etc., bei den Dajaken," _Internationales + Archiv fuer Ethnographie_, ii. (1889) p. 199. + + M51 Injuries of various sorts done to captured souls by wizards. + + 232 A. Bastian, _Allerlei aus Volks- und Menschenkunde_ (Berlin, 1888), + i. 119. + +_ 233 Relations des Jesuites_, 1637, p. 50 (Canadian reprint, Quebec, + 1858). + + 234 J. G. F. Riedel, _De sluik- en kroesharige rassen tusschen Selebes + en Papua_ (the Hague, 1886), pp. 78 _sq._ + + 235 E. B. Cross, "On the Karens," _Journal of the American Oriental + Society_, iv. (1854) p. 307. + + M52 Abduction of human souls by Malay wizards. + + 236 W. W. Skeat, _Malay Magic_ (London, 1900), pp. 568 _sq._ + + 237 W. W. Skeat, _op. cit._ pp. 569 _sq._ + + 238 W. W. Skeat, _op. cit._ pp. 574 _sq._ + + 239 W. W. Skeat, _op. cit._ pp. 576 _sq._ + + M53 Athenian curse accompanied by the shaking of red cloths. + + 240 Lysias, _Or._ vi. 51, p. 51 ed. C. Scheibe. The passage was pointed + out to me by my friend Mr. W. Wyse. As to the mutilation of the + Hermae, see Thucydides, vi. 27-29, 60 _sq._; Andocides, _Or._ i. 37 + _sqq._; Plutarch, _Alcibiades_, 18. + + 241 Above, p. 69. + + M54 Extracting a patient's soul from the stomach of his doctor. + + 242 J. B. McCullagh, in _The Church Missionary Gleaner_, xiv. No. 164 + (August 1887), p. 91. The same account is copied from the "North + Star" (Sitka, Alaska, December 1888) in _Journal of American + Folk-lore_, ii. (1889) pp. 74 _sq._ Mr. McCullagh's account (which + is closely followed in the text) of the latter part of the custom is + not quite clear. It would seem that failing to find the soul in the + head-doctor's box it occurs to them that he may have swallowed it, + as the other doctors were at first supposed to have done. With a + view of testing this hypothesis they hold him up by the heels to + empty out the soul; and as the water with which his head is washed + may possibly contain the missing soul, it is poured on the patient's + head to restore the soul to him. We have already seen that the + recovered soul is often conveyed into the sick person's head. + + 243 Fr. Boas in _Eleventh Report on the North-Western Tribes of Canada_, + p. 571 (_Report of the British Association for 1896_). For other + examples of the recapture or recovery of lost, stolen, and strayed + souls, in addition to those which have been cited in the preceding + pages, see J. N. Vosmaer, _Korte Beschrijving van het Zuid-oostelijk + Schiereiland van Celebes_, pp. 119-123 (this work, of which I + possess a copy, forms part of a Dutch journal which I have not + identified; it is dated Batavia, 1835); J. G. F. Riedel, "De + Topantunuasu of oorspronkelijke volksstammen van Central Selebes," + _Bijdragen tot de Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde van + Nederlandsch-Indie_, xxxv. (1886) p. 93; J. B. Neumann, "Het Pane- + en Bilastroom-gebeid," _Tijdschrift van het Nederlandsch + Aardrijkskundig Genootschap_, Tweede Serie, dl. iii., Afdeeling, + meer uitgebreide artikelen, No. 2 (1886), pp. 300 _sq._; J. L. van + der Toorn, "Het animisme bei den Minangkabauer," _Bijdragen tot de + Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde van Nederlandsch-Indie_, xxxix. (1890) + pp. 51 _sq._; H. Ris, "De onderafdeeling Klein Mandailing Oeloe en + Pahantan," _Bijdragen tot de Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde van + Nederlandsch-Indie_, xlvi. (1896) p. 529; C. Snouck Hurgronje, _De + Atjehers_ (Batavia and Leyden, 1893-4), i. 426 _sq._; W. W. Skeat, + _Malay Magic_, pp. 49-51, 452-455, 570 _sqq._; _Journal of the + Anthropological Institute_, xxiv. (1895) pp. 128, 287; Chimkievitch, + "Chez les Bouriates de l'Amoor," _Tour du monde_, N.S. iii. (1897) + pp. 622 _sq._; Father Ambrosoli, "Notice sur l'ile de Rook," + _Annales de la Propagation de la Foi_, xxvii. (1855) p. 364; A. + Bastian, _Die Voelker des oestlichen Asien_, ii. 388, iii. 236; _id._, + _Voelkerstaemme am Brahmaputra_, p. 23; _id._, "Huegelstaemme Assam's," + _Verhandlungen der Berlin. Gesell. fuer Anthropol., Ethnol. und + Urgeschichte_, 1881, p. 156; Shway Yoe, _The Burman_, i. 283 _sq._, + ii. 101 _sq._; G. M. Sproat, _Scenes and Studies of Savage Life_, p. + 214; J. Doolittle, _Social Life of the Chinese_, pp. 110 _sq._ (ed. + Paxton Hood); T. Williams, _Fiji and the Fijians_,2 i. 242; E. B. + Cross, "On the Karens," _Journal of the American Oriental Society_, + iv. (1854) pp. 309 sq.; A. W. Howitt, "On some Australian Beliefs," + _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xiii. (1884) pp. 187 + _sq._; _id._, "On Australian Medicine Men," _Journ. Anthrop. Inst._ + xvi. (1887) p. 41; E. P. Houghton, "On the Land Dayaks of Upper + Sarawak," _Memoirs of the Anthropological Society of London_, iii. + (1870) pp. 196 _sq._; L. Dahle, "Sikidy and Vintana," _Antananarivo + Annual and Madagascar Annual_, xi. (1887) pp. 320 _sq._; C. Leemius, + _De Lapponibus Finmarchiae eorumque lingua, vita et religione + pristina commentatio_ (Copenhagen, 1767), pp. 416 _sq._; A. E. + Jenks, _The Bontoc Igorot_ (Manilla, 1905), pp. 199 _sq._; C. G. + Seligmann, _The Melanesians of British New Guinea_ (Cambridge, + 1910), pp. 185 _sq._ My friend W. Robertson Smith suggested to me + that the practice of hunting souls, which is denounced in Ezekiel + xiii. 17 _sqq._, may have been akin to those described in the text. + + M55 A man's soul conceived as his shadow, so that to injure the shadow + is to injure the man. + + 244 J. G. F. Riedel, _De sluik- en kroesharige rassen tusschen Selebes + en Papua_, p. 440. + + 245 A. Bastian, _Die Voelker des oestlichen Asien_, v. 455. + + 246 J. G. F. Riedel, _op. cit._ p. 340. + + 247 N. Adriani en A. C. Kruijt, "Van Posso naar Parigi, Sigi en Lindoe," + _Mededeelingen van wege het Nederlandsche Zendelinggenootschap_, + xlii. (1898) p. 511; compare A. C. Kruijt, _ib._ xliv. (1900) p. + 247. + + 248 A. C. Kruijt, "Eenige ethnografische aanteekeningen omtrent de + Toboengkoe en de Tomori," _op. cit._ xliv. (1900) p. 226. + +_ 249 Annales de l'Association de la Propagation de la Foi_, iv. (1830) + p. 481. + + 250 Rev. J. Roscoe, in a letter to me dated Mengo, Uganda, May 26, 1904. + + 251 R. E. Dennett, "Bavili Notes," _Folk-lore_, xvi. (1905) p. 372; + _id._, _At the Back of the Black Man's Mind_ (London, 1906), p. 79. + + 252 Dudley Kidd, _The Essential Kafir_, p. 84. + + 253 Dudley Kidd, _Savage Childhood_, p. 68. + + 254 C. W. Hobley, "British East Africa," _Journal of the Anthropological + Institute_, xxxiii. (1903) pp. 327 _sq._ + + 255 J. J. M. de Groot, _The Religious System of China_, iv. 84 _sq._ + + 256 E. Modigliani, _Viaggio a Nias_, p. 620, compare p. 624. + + M56 Danger to a person of letting his shadow fall on certain things. + Animals and trees also may be injured through their shadows. + + 257 R. H. Codrington, _The Melanesians_, p. 184. + + 258 R. H. Codrington, _op. cit._ p. 176. + + 259 Fr. Boas, in _Ninth Report on the North-Western Tribes of Canada_, + pp. 461 _sq._ (_Report of the British Association for 1894_). + + 260 J. J. M. de Groot, _The Religious System of China_, i. 94, 210 _sq._ + + 261 E. H. Man, "Notes on the Nicobarese," _Indian Antiquary_, xxviii. + (1899) pp. 257-259. Compare Sir R. C. Temple, in _Census of India, + 1901_, iii. 209. + + 262 W. W. Skeat, _Malay Magic_, p. 143. + + 263 J. Dawson, _Australian Aborigines_, p. 54. + + 264 Mohammed Ebn-Omar El-Tounsy, _Voyage au Darfour_, traduit de l'Arabe + par le Dr. Perron (Paris, 1845), p. 347. + + 265 W. W. Skeat, _Malay Magic_, p. 306. + + 266 [Aristotle] _Mirab. Auscult._ 145 (157); _Geoponica_, xv. 1. In the + latter passage, for {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} we must read {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}, an + emendation necessitated by the context, and confirmed by the passage + of Damiri quoted and translated by Bochart, _Hierozoicon_, i. col. + 833, "_cum ad lunam calcat umbram canis, qui supra tectum est, canis + ad eam_ [scil. hyaenam] _decidit, et ea illum devorat_." Compare W. + Robertson Smith, _The Religion of the Semites_,2 p. 129. + + 267 Dudley Kidd, _Savage Childhood_, p. 71. + + M57 Danger of being overshadowed by certain birds or people. + + 268 W. Crooke, in _Indian Antiquary_, xix. (1890) p. 254. + + 269 Spencer and Gillen, _Northern Tribes of Central Australia_, p. 612. + + 270 M. R. Pedlow, in _Indian Antiquary_, xxix. (1900) p. 60. + + 271 W. Cornwallis Harris, _The Highlands of Aethiopia_ (London, 1844), + i. 158. + + 272 Dudley Kidd, _The Essential Kafir_, p. 313. + + 273 D. Kidd, _op. cit._ p. 356. + + 274 Dudley Kidd, _Savage Childhood_, p. 70. + +_ 275 Panjab Notes and Queries_, i. p. 15, § 122. + + M58 The shadows of certain persons are regarded as peculiarly dangerous. + The savage's dread of his mother in-law. + + 276 Fr. Boas, in _Sixth Report on the North-Western Tribes of Canada_, + pp. 92, 94 (separate reprint from the _Report of the British + Association for 1890_); compare _id._ in _Seventh Report_, etc., p. + 13 (separate reprint from the _Rep. Brit. Assoc. for 1891_). + + 277 A. W. Howitt, "The Jeraeil, or Initiation Ceremonies of the Kurnai + Tribe," _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xiv. (1885) p. + 316. + + 278 Miss Mary E. B. Howitt, _Folk-lore and Legends of some Victorian + Tribes_ (in manuscript). + + 279 A. W. Howitt, _Native Tribes of South-East Australia_, p. 266. + + 280 A. W. Howitt, _op. cit._ p. 267. + + 281 A. W. Howitt, _op. cit._ pp. 256 _sq._ + + 282 A. W. Howitt, _op. cit._ pp. 280 _sq._ Compare J. Dawson, + _Australian Aborigines_, pp. 32 _sq._ + + 283 Partly from notes sent me by my friend the Rev. J. Roscoe, partly + from Sir H. Johnston's account (_The Uganda Protectorate_, ii. 688). + In his printed notes (_Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, + xxxii. (1902) p. 39) Mr. Roscoe says that the mother-in-law "may be + in another room out of sight and speak to him through the wall or + open door." + + 284 Father Picarda, "Autour du Mandera, Notes sur l'Ouzigoua, l'Oukwere + et l'Oudoe (Zanguebar)," _Missions Catholiques_, xviii. (1886) p. + 286. + + 285 Father Porte, "Les Reminiscences d'un missionnaire du Basutoland," + _Missions Catholiques_, xxviii. (1896) p. 318. + + 286 H. H. Romily and Rev. George Brown, in _Proceedings of the Royal + Geographical Society_, N.S. ix. (1887) pp. 9, 17. + + 287 R. H. Codrington, _The Melanesians_, p. 43. + + 288 J. G. Bourke, _On the Border with Crook_, p. 132. More evidence of + the mutual avoidance of mother-in-law and son-in-law among savages + is collected in my _Totemism and Exogamy_; see the Index, _s.v._ + "Mother-in-law." The custom is probably based on a fear of incest + between them. To the almost universal rule of savage life that a man + must avoid his mother-in-law there is a most remarkable exception + among the Wahehe of German East Africa. In that tribe a bridegroom + must sleep with his mother-in-law before he may cohabit with her + daughter. See Rev. H. Cole, "Notes on the Wagogo of German East + Africa," _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxxii. (1902) + p. 312. + + 289 O. Dapper, _Description de l'Afrique_, p. 312; H. Ling Roth, _Great + Benin_, p. 119; _Missions Catholiques_, xv. (1883) p. 110; J. + Roscoe, "Further Notes on the Manners and Customs of the Baganda," + _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxxii. (1902) p. 67. + + M59 A man's health and strength supposed to vary with the length of his + shadow. Fear of the loss of the shadow. Fear of the resemblance of a + child to its parents. + + 290 Dio Chrysostom, _Or._ lxvii. vol. ii. p. 230, ed. L. Dindorf. + + 291 J. G. F. Riedel, _De sluik- en kroesharige rassen tusschen Selebes + en Papua_, p. 61. + + 292 W. W. Gill, _Myths and Songs of the South Pacific_, pp. 284 _sqq._ + + 293 W. W. Skeat and C. O. Blagden. _Pagan Races of the Malay Peninsula_ + (London, 1906), ii. 110. + + 294 The Rev. J. Roscoe, in a letter to me dated Mengo, Uganda, May 26, + 1904. + + 295 T. Arbousset et F. Daumas, _Voyage d'exploration_ (Paris, 1842), p. + 291; Dudley Kidd, _The Essential Kafir_, pp. 83, 303; _id._, _Savage + Childhood_, p. 69. In the last passage Mr. Kidd tells us that "the + mat was _not_ held up in the sun, but was placed in the hut at the + marked-off portion where the _itongo_ or ancestral spirit was + supposed to live; and the fate of the man was divined, not by the + _length_ of the shadow, but by its _strength_." + + 296 Theocritus, i. 15 _sqq._; Philostratus, _Heroic._ i. 3; Porphyry, + _De antro nympharum_, 26; Lucan, iii. 423 _sqq._; Drexler, _s.v._ + "Meridianus daemon," in Roscher's _Lexikon der griech. und roem. + Mythologie_, ii. 2832 _sqq._; Bernard Schmidt, _Das Volksleben der + Neugriechen_, pp. 94 _sqq._, 119 _sq._; Georgeakis et Pineau, + _Folk-lore de Lesbos_, p. 342; A. de Nore, _Coutumes, mythes, et + traditions des provinces de France_, pp. 214 _sq._; J. Grimm, + _Deutsche Mythologie_,4 ii. 972; C. L. Rochholz, _Deutscher Glaube + und Brauch_, i. 62 _sqq._; E. Gerard, _The Land beyond the Forest_, + i. 331; "Lettre du cure de Santiago Tepehuacan," _Bulletin de la + Societe de Geographie_ (Paris), IIme Serie, ii. (1834) p. 180; N. + von Stenin, "Die Permier," _Globus_, lxxi. (1897) p. 374; D. + Louwerier, "Bijgeloovige gebruiken, die door die Javanen worden in + acht genomen," _Mededeelingen van wege het Nederlandsche + Zendelinggenootschap_, xlix. (1905) p. 257. + + 297 Schol. on Aristophanes, _Frogs_, 293. + + 298 Pausanias, viii. 38. 6; Polybius, xvi. 12. 7; Plutarch, _Quaestiones + Graecae_, 39. + + 299 Th. Vernaleken, _Mythen und Braeuche des Volkes in Oesterreich_, p. + 341; Reinsberg-Dueringsfeld, _Das festliche Jahr_, p. 401; A. Wuttke, + _Der deutsche Volksaberglaube_,2 p. 207, § 314. + + 300 M. J. van Baarda, "Fabelen, Verhalen en Overleveringen der + Galelareezen," _Bijdragen tot de Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde van + Nederlandsch-Indie_, xlv. (1895) p. 459. + + 301 J. H. Weeks, "Notes on some Customs of the Lower Congo People," + _Folk-lore_, xix. (1908) p. 422. + + M60 The shadows of people built into foundations to strengthen the + edifices. + + 302 B. Schmidt, _Das Volksleben der Neugriechen_ (Leipsic, 1871), pp. + 196 _sq._ + + 303 Georgeakis et Pineau, _Folk-lore de Lesbos_, pp. 346 _sq._ + + 304 A. Strausz, _Die Bulgaren_ (Leipsic, 1898), p. 199; W. R. S. + Ralston, _Songs of the Russian People_, p. 127. + + 305 W. Schmidt, _Das Jahr und seine Tage in Meinung und Brauch der + Romaenen Siebenbuergens_ (Hermannstadt, 1866), p. 27; E. Gerard, _The + Land beyond the Forest_, ii. 17 _sq._ Compare F. S. Krauss, + _Volksglaube und religioeser Brauch der Suedslaven_, p. 161. + + 306 Mgr. Bruguiere, in _Annales de l'Association de la Propagation de la + Foi_, v. (1831) pp. 164 _sq._; Pallegoix, _Description du royaume + Thai ou Siam_, ii. 50-52. + + 307 A. Fytche, _Burma, Past and Present_ (London, 1878), i. 251 note. + + 308 On such practices in general, see E. B. Tylor, _Primitive Culture_,2 + i. 104 _sqq._; F. Liebrecht, _Zur Volkskunde_, pp. 284-296; F. S. + Krauss, "Der Bauopfer bei den Suedslaven," _Mittheilungen der + Anthropologischen Gesellschaft in Wien_, xvii. (1887) pp. 16-24; P. + Sartori, "Ueber das Bauopfer," _Zeitschrift fuer Ethnologie_, xxx. + (1898) pp. 1-54; E. Westermarck, _Origin and Development of the + Moral Ideas_ (London, 1906-1908), i. 461 _sqq._ For some special + evidence, see H. Oldenberg, _Die Religion des Veda_, pp. 363 _sqq._ + (as to ancient India); Sonnerat, _Voyage aux Indes Orientales et a + la Chine_, ii. 47 (as to Pegu); Guerlach, "Chez les sauvages + Bahnars," _Missions Catholiques_, xvi. (1884) p. 82 (as to the + Sedans of Cochin-China); W. H. Furness, _Home-life of Borneo + Head-hunters_, p. 3 (as to the Kayans and Kenyahs of Burma); A. C. + Kruijt, "Van Paloppo naar Posso," _Mededeelingen van wege het + Nederlandsche Zendelinggenootschap_, xlii. (1898) p. 56 note (as to + central Celebes); L. Hearn, _Glimpses of Unfamiliar Japan_ (London, + 1894), i. 148 _sq._; H. Ternaux-Compans, _Essai sur l'ancien + Cundinamarca_, p. 70 (as to the Indians of Colombia). These customs + are commonly called foundation-sacrifices. But the name is + inappropriate, as Prof. H. Oldenberg has rightly observed, since + they are not sacrifices but charms. + + 309 D. F. van Braam Morris, in _Tijdschrift voor Indische Taal- Land- en + Volkenkunde_, xxxiv. (1891) p. 224. + + M61 Deification of a measuring tape. + + 310 J. H. de Vries, "Reis door eenige eilandgroepen der Residentie + Amboina," _Tijdschrift van het koninklijk Nederlandsch + Aardrijkskundig Genootschap_, Tweedie Serie, xvii. (1900) pp. 612 + _sq._ + + M62 The soul sometimes supposed to be in the reflection. Dangers to + which the reflection-soul is exposed. + + 311 E. H. Mann, _Aboriginal Inhabitants of the Andaman Islands_, p. 94. + + 312 T. Williams, _Fiji and the Fijians_,2 i. 241. However, the late Mr. + Lorimer Fison wrote to me that this reported belief in a bright soul + and a dark soul "is one of Williams' absurdities. I inquired into it + on the island where he was, and found that there was no such belief. + He took the word for 'shadow,' which is a reduplication of _yalo_, + the word for soul, as meaning the dark soul. But _yaloyalo_ does not + mean the soul at all. It is not part of a man as his soul is. This + is made certain by the fact that it does not take the possessive + suffix _yalo-na_ = his soul; but _nona yaloyalo_ = his shadow. This + settles the question beyond dispute. If _yaloyalo_ were any kind of + soul, the possessive form would be _yaloyalona_" (letter dated + August 26, 1898). + + 313 James Chalmers, _Pioneering in New Guinea_ (London, 1887), p. 170. + + 314 Father Lambert, _Moeurs et superstitions des Neo-Caledoniens_ + (Noumea, 1900), pp. 45 _sq._ + + 315 M. J. van Baarda, "Fabelen, Verhalen en Overleveringen der + Galelareezen," _Bijdragen tot de Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde van + Nederlandsch-Indie_, xlv. (1895) p. 462. + + 316 B. de Sahagun, _Histoire generale des choses de la Nouvelle-Espagne_ + (Paris, 1880), p. 314. The Chinese hang brass mirrors over the idols + in their houses, because it is thought that evil spirits entering + the house and seeing themselves in the mirrors will be scared away + (_China Review_, ii. 164). + + 317 G. Vuillier, "Chez les magiciens et les sorciers de la Correze," + _Tour du monde_, N.S. v. (1899) pp. 522, 524. + + 318 H. Callaway, _Nursery Tales, Traditions, and Histories of the Zulus_ + (Natal and London, 1868), p. 342. + + 319 T. Arbousset et F. Daumas, _Voyage d'exploration au nord-est de la + colonie du Cap de Bonne-Esperance_, p. 12; T. Lindsay Fairclough, + "Notes on the Basuto," _Journal of the African Society_, No. 14 + (January 1905), p. 201. + + 320 R. H. Codrington, "Religious Beliefs and Practices in Melanesia," + _Journ. Anthrop. Inst._ x. (1881) p. 313; _id._, _The Melanesians_, + p. 186. + + M63 Dread of looking at one's reflection in water. + +_ 321 Fragmenta philosophorum Graecorum_, ed. F. G. A. Mullach, i. 510; + Artemidorus, _Onirocr._ ii. 7; _Laws of Manu_, iv. 38 (p. 135, G. + Buehler's translation, _Sacred Books of the East_, vol. xxv.). + + M64 Reason for covering up mirrors or turning them to the wall after a + death. + + 322 See above, p. 37. + + 323 A. Wuttke, _Der deutsche Volksaberglaube_,2 pp. 429 _sq._, § 726. + + 324 A. Wuttke, _l.c._; E. Monseur, _Le Folklore Wallon_, p. 40. + +_ 325 Folk-lore Journal_, iii. (1885) p. 281; T. F. Thiselton Dyer, + _English Folk-lore_, p. 109; J. Napier, _Folk-lore, or Superstitious + Beliefs in the West of Scotland_, p. 60; W. Ellis, _History of + Madagascar_, i. 238. Compare A. Grandidier, "Des rites funeraires + chez les Malgaches," _Revue d'Ethnographie_, v. (1886) p. 215. + + 326 S. Weissenberg, "Die Karaeer der Krim," _Globus_, lxxxiv. (1903) p. + 143; _id._ "Krankheit und Tod bei den suedrussischen Juden," + _Globus_, xci. (1907) p. 360. + +_ 327 Panjab Notes and Queries_, ii. p. 169, § 906. + + 328 J. V. Grohmann, _Aberglauben und Gebraeuche aus Boehmen und Maehren_, + p. 151, § 1097; _Folk-lore Journal_, vi. (1888) pp. 145 _sq._: + _Panjab Notes and Queries_, ii. p. 61, § 378. + + 329 J. G. Frazer, "On certain Burial Customs as illustrative of the + Primitive Theory of the Soul," _Journal of the Anthropological + Institute_, xv. (1886) pp. 82 _sqq._ Among the heathen Arabs, when a + man had been stung by a scorpion, he was kept from sleeping for + seven days, during which he had to wear a woman's bracelets and + earrings (Rasmussen, _Additamenta ad historiam Arabum ante + Islamismum_, p. 65, compare p. 69). The old Mexican custom of + masking and the images of the gods so long as the king was sick + (Brasseur de Bourbourg, _Histoire des nations civilisees du Mexique + et de l'Amerique-Centrale_, iii. 571 _sq._) may perhaps have been + intended to prevent the images from drawing away the king's soul. + + 330 W. R. S. Ralston, _Songs of the Russian People_, p. 117. The + objection, however, may be merely Puritanical. W. Robertson Smith + informed me that the peculiarities of the Raskolniks are largely due + to exaggerated Puritanism. + + M65 The soul sometimes supposed to be in the portrait. This belief among + the Esquimaux and American Indians. + + 331 E. W. Nelson, "The Eskimo about Bering Strait," _Eighteenth Annual + Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology_, Part I. (Washington, + 1899) p. 422. + + 332 J. Owen Dorsey, "A Study of Siouan Cults," _Eleventh Annual Report + of the Bureau of Ethnology_ (Washington, 1894), p. 484; _id._ "Teton + Folk-lore," _American Anthropologist_, ii. (1889) p. 143. + + 333 Maximilian Prinz zu Wied, _Reise in das innere Nord-America_, i. + 417. + +_ 334 Ibid._ ii. 166. + + 335 C. Lumholtz, _Unknown Mexico_ (London, 1903), i. 459 _sq._ + + 336 A. Simson, "Notes on the Jivaros and Canelos Indians," _Journal of + the Anthropological Institute_, ix. (1880) p. 392. + + 337 D. Forbes, in _Journal of the Ethnological Society of London_, ii. + (1870) p. 236. + + 338 E. R. Smith, _The Araucanians_ (London, 1855), p. 222. + + M66 The same belief in Africa. + + 339 Rev. A. Hetherwick, "Some Animistic Beliefs among the Yaos of + British Central Africa," _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, + xxxii. (1902) pp. 89 _sq._ + + 340 W. A. Elmslie, _Among the Wild Ngoni_ (Edinburgh and London, 1899), + pp. 70 _sq._ + + 341 J. Thomson, _Through Masai Land_ (London, 1885), p. 86. + + 342 E. Clodd, in _Folk-lore_, vi. (1895) pp. 73 _sq._, referring to _The + Times_ of March 24, 1891. + + M67 The same belief in Asia and the East Indies. + + 343 L. A. Waddell, _Among the Himalayas_ (Westminster, 1899), pp. 85 + _sq._ + + 344 E. Young, _The Kingdom of the Yellow Robe_ (Westminster, 1898), p. + 140. + + 345 Ch. Dallet, _Histoire de l'Eglise de Coree_ (Paris, 1874), i. p. + xxv. This account of Corea was written at a time when the country + was still almost secluded from European influence. The events of + recent years have naturally wrought great changes in the habits and + ideas of the people. + + 346 "Iets over het bijgeloof in de Minahasa," _Tijdschrift voor + Nederlandsch Indie_, III. Serie, iv. (1870) pp. 8 _sq._ + + 347 J. Freiherr von Brenner, _Besuch bei den Kannibalen Sumatras_ + (Wuerzburg, 1894), p. 195. + + 348 A. W. Nieuwenhuis, _Quer durch Borneo_, i. 314. + + M68 The same belief in Europe. + + 349 "A Far-off Greek Island," _Blackwood's Magazine_, February 1886, p. + 235. + + 350 J. A. E. Koehler, _Volksbrauch, Aberglauben, Sagen und andre alte + Ueberlieferungen im Voigtlande_ (Leipsic, 1867), p. 423. + + 351 W. R. S. Ralston, _Songs of the Russian People_, p. 117. + + 352 Miss M. E. Durham, _High Albania_ (London, 1909), p. 107. + + 353 F. H. Groome, _In Gipsy Tents_ (Edinburgh, 1880), pp. 337 _sq._ + + 354 James Napier, _Folk-lore, or Superstitious Beliefs in the West of + Scotland_, p. 142. For more examples of the same sort, see R. + Andree, _Ethnographische Parallelen und Vergleiche_, Neue Folge + (Leipsic, 1889), pp. 18 _sqq._ + + M69 Primitive conceptions of the soul helped to mould early kingships by + dictating rules to be observed by the king for his soul's salvation. + M70 The general effect of these rules is to isolate the king, especially + from strangers. The savage fears the magic arts of strangers and + hence guards himself against them. Various modes of disenchanting + strangers. + + 355 Menander Protector, in _Fragmenta historicorum Graecorum_, ed. C. + Mueller, iv. 227. Compare Gibbon, _Decline and Fall of the Roman + Empire_, ch. xlii. vol. vii. pp. 294 _sq._ (Edinburgh, 1811). + + 356 G. Turner, _Samoa_, pp. 291 _sq._ + + 357 Charles New, _Life, Wanderings, and Labours in Eastern Africa_ + (London, 1873), p. 432. Compare _ibid._ pp. 400, 402. For the demons + on Mt. Kilimanjaro, see also J. L. Krapf, _Travels, Researches, and + Missionary Labours in Eastern Africa_ (London, 1860), p. 192. + + 358 Pierre Bouche, _La Cote des Esclaves et le Dahomey_ (Paris, 1885), + p. 133. + + 359 A. van Gennep, _Tabou et totemisme a Madagascar_ (Paris, 1904), p. + 42. + + 360 C. A. L. M. Schwaner, _Borneo_ (Amsterdam, 1853-54), ii. 77. + +_ 361 Ibid._ ii. 167. + + 362 A. W. Nieuwenhuis, _Quer durch Borneo_, ii. 102. + + 363 E. Aymonier, _Notes sur le Laos_ (Saigon, 1885), p. 196. + +_ 364 Bulletin de la Societe de Geographie_ (Paris), IVme Serie, vi. + (1853) pp. 134 _sq._ + + 365 H. von Rosenberg, _Der malayische Archipel_ (Leipsic, 1878), p. 198. + + 366 D. W. Horst, "Rapport van eene reis naar de Noordkust van Nieuw + Guinea," _Tijdschrift voor Indische Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde_, + xxxii. (1889) p. 229. + + 367 Capt. John Moresby, _Discoveries and Surveys in New Guinea_ (London, + 1876), pp. 102 _sq._ + + 368 R. I. Dodge, _Our Wild Indians_ (Hartford, Conn., 1886), p. 119. + + M71 Disenchantment effected by means of stinging ants and pungent + spices. Disenchantment effected by cuts with knives. + + 369 J. Crevaux, _Voyages dans l'Amerique du Sud_ (Paris, 1883), p. 300. + + 370 J. G. F. Riedel, _De sluik- en kroesharige rassen tusschen Selebes + en Papua_, p. 78. + + 371 J. Kreemer, "Hoe de Javaan zijne zieken verzorgt," _Mededeelingen + van wege het Nederlandsche Zendelinggenootschap_, xxxvi. (1892) p. + 13. Mr. E. W. Lewis, of Woodthorpe, Atkins Rood, Clapham Park, + London, S.W., writes to me (July 2, 1902) that his grandmother, a + native of Cheshire, used to make bees sting her as a cure for local + rheumatism; she said the remedy was infallible and had been handed + down to her from her mother. + + 372 Father Baudin, "Le Fetichisme," _Missions Catholiques_, xvi. (1884) + p. 249; A. B. Ellis, _The Yoruba-speaking Peoples of the Slave + Coast_ (London, 1894), pp. 113 _sq._ + + 373 A. Bastian, _Allerlei aus Volks- und Menschenkunde_ (Berlin, 1888), + i. 116. + + 374 J. B. de Callone, "Iets over de geneeswijze en ziekten der Daijakers + ter Zuid Oostkust van Borneo," _Tijdschrift voor Neerlands Indie_, + 1840, dl. i. p. 418. + + 375 M. T. H. Perelaer, _Ethnographische Beschrijving der Dajaks_, pp. + 44, 54, 252; B. F. Matthes, _Bijdragen tot de Ethnologie van + Zuid-Celebes_ (The Hague, 1875), p. 49. + + 376 H. Gruetzner, "Ueber die Gebraeuche der Basutho," in _Verhandlungen der + Berliner Gesellschaft fuer Anthropologie, Ethnologie, und + Urgeschichte_, 1877, pp. 84 _sq._ + + 377 L. Decle, _Three Years in Savage Africa_ (London, 1898), p. 81. + + 378 P. Reichard, _Deutsch-Ostafrika_ (Leipsic, 1892), p. 431. + + 379 Nieuwenhuisen en Rosenberg, "Verslag omtrent het eiland Nias," in + _Verhandelingen van het Bataviaasch Genootschap van Kunsten en + Wetenschappen_, xxx. (Batavia, 1863) p. 26. + + M72 Ceremonies observed at the reception of strangers may sometimes be + intended to counteract their enchantments. + + 380 R. Parkinson, "Zur Ethnographie der Ontong Java- und Tasman-Inseln," + _Internationales Archiv fuer Ethnographie_, x. (1897) p. 112. + + 381 T. S. Weir, "Note on Sacrifices in India as a Means of averting + Epidemics," _Journal of the Anthropological Society of Bombay_, i. + 35. + + 382 E. O'Donovan, _The Merv Oasis_ (London, 1882), ii. 58. + +_ 383 Emin Pasha in Central Africa, being a Collection of his Letters and + Journals_ (London, 1888), p. 107. + + 384 H. Ling Roth, _Great Benin_ (Halifax, England, 1903), p. 123. + +_ 385 Narrative of the Second Arctic Expedition made by Charles F. Hall_, + edited by Prof. J. G. Nourse, U.S.N. (Washington, 1879), p. 269, + note. Compare Fr. Boas, "The Central Eskimo," _Sixth Annual Report + of the Bureau of Ethnology_ (Washington, 1888), p. 609. + + 386 J. A. Grant, _A Walk across Africa_, pp. 104 _sq._ + + M73 Ceremonies observed at entering a strange land to disenchant it. + Ceremonies at entering a strange land to disenchant it or to + propitiate the local spirits. + + 387 E. Shortland, _Traditions and Superstitions of the New Zealanders_2 + (London, 1856), p. 103. + + 388 N. von Miklucho-Maclay, "Ethnologische Bemerkungen ueber die Papuas + der Maclay-Kuste in Neu-Guinea," _Natuurkundig Tijdschrift voor + Nederlandsch Indie_, xxxvi. 317 _sq._ + + 389 Fr. Stuhlmann, _Mit Emin Pascha ins Herz von Afrika_ (Berlin, 1894), + p. 94. + + 390 R. Brough Smyth, _Aborigines of Victoria_, i. 134. + + 391 A. W. Howitt, _Native Tribes of South-East Australia_, p. 403. + + 392 Ch. Hose, _Notes on the Natives of British Borneo_ (in manuscript). + + 393 A. C. Kruijt, "Het koppensnellen der Toradja's van Midden-Celebes, + en zijne beteekenis," _Verslagen en Mededeelingen der Konikl. + Akademie van Wetenschappen_, Afdeeling Letterkunde, iv. Reeks, iii. + (1899) p. 204. + + 394 Scholiast on Euripides, _Phoenissae_, 1377, ed. E. Schwartz. + + 395 Conon, _Narrationes_, 18; Pausanias, iii. 19. 12; Francis Fleming, + _Southern Africa_ (London, 1856), p. 259; Dudley Kidd, _The + Essential Kafir_, p. 307. + + 396 See _The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, vol. ii. pp. 263 + _sq._ + + M74 Purificatory ceremonies observed on the return from a journey. + + 397 John Campbell, _Travels in South Africa, being a Narrative of a + Second Journey in the Interior of that Country_ (London, 1822), ii. + 205. + + 398 Ladislaus Magyar, _Reisen in Sued-Afrika_ (Buda-Pesth and Leipsic, + 1859), p. 203. + + 399 Fr. Stuhlmann, _Mit Emin Pascha ins Herz von Afrika_ (Berlin, 1894), + p. 89. + + 400 J. Roscoe, "Further Notes on the Manners and Customs of the + Baganda," _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxxii. (1902) + p. 62. + + 401 C. J. Andersson, _Lake Ngami_2 (London, 1856), p. 223. + + 402 Washington Matthews, "The Mountain Chant: a Navajo Ceremony," _Fifth + Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology_ (Washington, 1887), p. + 410. + +_ 403 Asiatick Researches_, vi. 535 _sq._ ed. 4to (p. 537 _sq._ ed. 8vo). + + 404 Francois Valentyn, _Oud en nieuw Oost-Indien_, iii. 16. + + 405 A. W. Nieuwenhuis, _In Centraal Borneo_, i. 165. + + 406 G. Turner, _Samoa_, pp. 305 _sq._ + + M75 Special precautions taken to guard the king against the magic of + strangers. + + 407 De Plano Carpini, _Historia Mongolorum quos nos Tartaros + appellamus_, ed. D'Avezac (Paris, 1838), cap. iii. § iii. p. 627, + cap. ult. § i. x. p. 744, and Appendix, p. 775; "Travels of William + de Rubriquis into Tartary and China," in Pinkerton's _Voyages and + Travels_, vii. 82 _sq._ + + 408 Paul Pogge, "Bericht ueber die Station Mukenge," _Mittheilungen der + Afrikanischen Gesellschaft in Deutschland_, iv. (1883-1885) pp. 182 + _sq._ + + 409 Coillard, "Voyage au pays des Banyais et au Zambese," _Bulletin de + la Societe de Geographie_ (Paris), VIme Serie, xx. (1880) p. 393. + + 410 J. L. Krapf, _Travels, Researches, and Missionary Labours during an + Eighteen Years' Residence in Eastern Africa_ (London, 1860), pp. 252 + _sq._ + + 411 O. Dapper, _Description de l'Afrique_ (Amsterdam, 1686), p. 391. + + 412 Proyart, "History of Loango, Kakongo," etc., in Pinkerton's _Voyages + and Travels_, xvi. 583; Dapper, _op. cit._ p. 340; J. Ogilby, + _Africa_ (London, 1670), p. 521. Compare A. Bastian, _Die deutsche + Expedition an der Loango-Kueste_, i. 288. + + 413 A. Bastian, _op. cit._ i. 268 _sq._ + + 414 See above, pp. 8 _sq._ + + 415 L. von Ende, "Die Baduwis auf Java," _Mittheilungen der + anthropologischen Gesellschaft in Wien_, xix. (1889) pp. 7-10. As to + the Baduwis (Badoejs) see also G. A. Wilken, _Handleiding voor de + vergelijkende Volkenkunde van Nederlandsch-Indie_ (Leyden, 1893), + pp. 640-643. + + M76 Spiritual dangers of eating and drinking and precautions taken + against them. + + 416 A. B. Ellis, _The Ewe-speaking Peoples of the Slave Coast_, p. 107. + + 417 J. B. Neumann, "Het Pane- en Bila- Stroomgebied op het eiland + Sumatra," _Tijdschrift van het Nederlandsch Aardrijkskundig + Genootschap_, Tweede Serie, dl. iii. (1886) Afdeeling, meer + uitgebreide artikelen, No. 2, p. 300. + + 418 J. Richardson, "Tanala Customs, Superstitions and Beliefs," _The + Antananarivo Annual and Madagascar Magazine, Reprint of the First + Four Numbers_ (Antananarivo, 1885), p. 219. + + 419 W. Cornwallis Harris, _The Highlands of Aethiopia_, iii. 171 _sq._ + + 420 Th. Lefebvre, _Voyage en Abyssinie_, i. p. lxxii. + + 421 Lieut. V. L. Cameron, _Across Africa_ (London, 1877), ii. 71; _id._, + in _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, vi. (1877) p. 173. + + 422 Ebn-el-Dyn el-Eghouathy, "Relation d'un voyage dans l'interieur de + l'Afrique septentrionale," _Bulletin de la Societe de Geographie_ + (Paris), IIme Serie, i. (1834) p. 290. + + 423 J. Teit, "The Thompson Indians of British Columbia," _Memoir of the + American Museum of Natural History, The Jesup North Pacific + Expedition_, vol. i. part iv. (April 1900) p. 360. + + 424 Th. Williams, _Fiji and the Fijians_.2 i. 249. + + M77 Seclusion of kings at their meals. + + 425 "Adventures of Andrew Battel," in Pinkerton's _Voyages and Travels_, + xvi. 330; O. Dapper, _Description de l'Afrique_, p. 330; A. Bastian, + _Die deutsche Expedition an der Loango-Kueste_, i. 262 _sq._; R. F. + Burton, _Abeokuta and the Cameroons Mountains_, i. 147. + + 426 Proyart's "History of Loango, Kakongo," etc., in Pinkerton's + _Voyages and Travels_, xvi. 584. + + 427 J. L. Wilson, _Western Africa_, p. 202; John Duncan, _Travels in + Western Africa_, i. 222. Compare W. W. Reade, _Savage Africa_, p. + 543. + + 428 Paul Pogge, _Im Reiche des Muata Jamwo_ (Berlin, 1880), p. 231. + + 429 F. T. Valdez, _Six Years of a Traveller's Life in Western Africa_ + (London, 1861), ii. 256. + + 430 A. F. Mockler-Ferryman, _Up the Niger_ (London, 1892), p. 38. + + 431 Baron Roger, "Notice sur le gouvernement, les moeurs et les + superstitions des Negres du pays de Walo," _Bulletin de la Societe + de Geographie_ (Paris), viii. (1827) p. 351. + + 432 G. Schweinfurth, _The Heart of Africa_, ii. 45 (third edition, + London, 1878); G. Casati, _Ten Years in Equatoria_ (London and New + York, 1891), i. 177. As to the various customs observed by Monbutto + chiefs in drinking see G. Burrows, _The Land of the Pigmies_ + (London, 1898), pp. 88, 91. + + 433 J. G. Frazer, _Totemism and Exogamy_, ii. 526, from information + furnished by the Rev. John Roscoe. + + 434 W. Cornwallis Harris, _The Highlands of Aethiopia_, iii. 78. + + 435 A. B. Ellis, _The Ewe-speaking Peoples of the Slave Coast_, pp. 162 + _sq._ + + 436 Capt. James Cook, _Voyages_, v. 374 (ed. 1809). + + 437 Heraclides Cumanus, in Athenaeus, iv. 26, p. 145 B-D. On the other + hand, in Kafa no one, not even the king, may eat except in the + presence of a legal witness. A slave is appointed to witness the + king's meals, and his office is esteemed honourable. See F. G. + Massaja, in _Bulletin de la Societe de Geographie_ (Paris), Vme + Serie, i. (1861) pp. 330 _sq._; Ph. Paulitschke, _Ethnographie + Nordost-Afrikas: die geistige Cultur der Danakil, Galla und Somal_ + (Berlin, 1896), pp. 248 _sq._ + + M78 Faces veiled to avert evil influences. Kings not to be seen by their + subjects. + +_ 438 Notes analytiques sur les collections ethnographiques du Musee du + Congo_, I. _Les Arts, Religion_ (Brussels, 1902-1906), p. 164. + + 439 Mohammed Ibn-Omar el Tounsy, _Voyage au Darfour_ (Paris, 1845), p. + 203; _Travels of an Arab Merchant_ [Mohammed Ibn-Omar el Tounsy] _in + Soudan_, abridged from the French (of Perron) by Bayle St. John + (London, 1854), pp. 91 _sq._ + + 440 Mohammed Ibn-Omar el Tounsy, _Voyage au Ouaday_ (Paris, 1851), p. + 375. + + 441 Ibn Batoutah, _Voyages_, ed. C. Defremery et B. R. Sanguinetti + (Paris, 1853-1858), iv. 441. + + 442 Le Commandant Mattei, _Bas-Niger, Benoue, Dahomey_ (Paris, 1895), + pp. 90 _sq._ + + 443 H. Ternaux-Compans, _Essai sur l'ancien Cundinamarca_, p. 60. + +_ 444 Manuscrit Ramirez, histoire de l'origine des Indiens qui habitent + la Nouvelle Espagne selon leurs traditions_, publie par D. Charnay + (Paris, 1903), pp. 107 _sq._ + + 445 Herodotus, i. 99. + + 446 A. B. Ellis, _The Yoruba-speaking Peoples of the Slave Coast_, p. + 170. + + 447 Ebn-el-Dyn el-Eghouathy, "Relation d'un voyage," _Bulletin de la + Societe de Geographie_ (Paris), IIme Serie, i. (1834) p. 290; H. + Duveyrier, _Exploration du Sahara: les Touareg du Nord_, pp. 391 + _sq._; Reclus, _Nouvelle Geographie Universelle_, xi. 838 _sq._; + James Richardson, _Travels in the Great Desert of Sahara_, ii. 208. + + 448 J. Wellhausen, _Reste arabischen Heidentums_2 (Berlin, 1897), p. + 196. + + 449 Tertullian, _De virginibus velandis_, 17 (Migne's _Patrologia + Latina_, ii. col. 912). + + 450 Pseudo-Dicaearchus, _Descriptio Graeciae_, 18, in _Geographi Graeci + Minores_, ed. C. Mueller, i. 103; _id._, in _Fragmenta Historicorum + Graecorum_, ed. C. Mueller, ii. 259. + + 451 G. Turner, _Samoa_, pp. 67 _sq._ + + 452 J. G. F. Riedel, "Die Landschaft Dawan oder West-Timor," _Deutsche + geographische Blaetter_, x. 230. + + 453 A. W. Howitt, "On some Australian Ceremonies of Initiation," + _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xiii. (1884) p. 456. + + 454 Above, pp. 30 _sqq._ + + M79 Kings forbidden to leave their palaces or to be seen abroad by their + subjects. + + 455 See above, pp. 5, 8 _sq._ + + 456 This rule was mentioned to me in conversation by Miss Mary H. + Kingsley. However, he is said to have shewn himself outside his + palace on solemn occasions once or twice a year. See O. Dapper, + _Description de l'Afrique_, pp. 311 _sq._; H. Ling Roth, _Great + Benin_, p. 74. As to the worship of the king of Benin, see _The + Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, vol. i. p. 396. + + 457 A. Bastian, _Die deutsche Expedition an der Loango-Kueste_, i. 263. + However, a case is recorded in which he marched out to war (_ibid._ + i. 268 _sq._). + + 458 S. Crowther and J. C. Taylor, _The Gospel on the Banks of the Niger_ + (London, 1859), p. 433. + + 459 Le Commandant Mattei, _Bas-Niger, Benoue, Dahomey_ (Paris, 1895), + pp. 67-72. The annual dance of the king of Onitsha outside of his + palace is mentioned also by S. Crowther and J. C. Taylor (_op. cit._ + p. 379), and A. F. Mockler-Ferryman (_Up the Niger_, p. 22). + + 460 "Mission Voulet-Chanoine," _Bulletin de la Societe de Geographie_ + (Paris), VIIIme Serie, xx. (1899) p. 223. + + 461 C. Partridge, _Cross River Natives_ (London, 1905), p. 7; compare + _id._ pp. 8, 200, 202, 203 _sq._ See also Major A. G. Leonard, _The + Lower Niger and its Tribes_ (London, 1906), pp. 371 _sq._ + + 462 Strabo, xvii. 2. 2 {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK KORONIS~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}. + + 463 Xenophon, _Anabasis_, v. 4. 26; Scymnus Chius, _Orbis descriptio_, + 900 _sqq._ (_Geographi Graeci Minores_, ed. C. Mueller, i. 234); + Diodorus Siculus, xiv. 30. 6 _sq._; Nicolaus Damascenus, quoted by + Stobeaus, _Florilegium_, xliv. 41 (vol. ii. p. 185, ed. Meineke); + Apollonius Rhodius, _Argon._ ii. 1026, _sqq._, with the note of the + scholiast; Pomponius Mela, i. 106, p. 29, ed. Parthey. Die + Chrysostom refers to the custom without mentioning the name of the + people (_Or._ xiv. vol. i. p. 257, ed. L. Dindorf). + + 464 Strabo, xvi. 4. 19, p. 778; Diodorus Siculus, iii. 47. Inscriptions + found in Sheba (the country about two hundred miles north of Aden) + seem to shew that the land was at first ruled by a succession of + priestly kings, who were afterwards followed by kings in the + ordinary sense. The names of many of these priestly kings + (_makarribs_, literally "blessers") are preserved in inscriptions. + See Prof. S. R. Driver, in _Authority and Archaeology Sacred and + Profane_, edited by D. G. Hogarth (London, 1899), p. 82. Probably + these "blessers" are the kings referred to by the Greek writers. We + may suppose that the blessings they dispensed consisted in a proper + regulation of the weather, abundance of the fruits of the earth, and + so on. + + 465 Heraclides Cumanus, in Athenaeus, xii. 13, p. 517 B.C. + + 466 Ch. Dallet, _Histoire de l'Eglise de Coree_ (Paris, 1874), i. pp. + xxiv-xxvi. The king sometimes, though rarely, left his palace. When + he did so, notice was given beforehand to his people. All doors must + be shut and each householder must kneel before his threshold with a + broom and a dust-pan in his hand. All windows, especially the upper + ones, must be sealed with slips of paper, lest some one should look + down upon the king. See W. E. Griffis, _Corea, the Hermit Nation_, + p. 222. These customs are now obsolete (G. N. Curzon, _Problems of + the Far East_, Westminster, 1896, pp. 154 _sq._ note). + + 467 This I learned from the late Mr. W. Simpson, formerly artist of the + _Illustrated London News_. + + 468 Richard, "History of Tonquin," in Pinkerton's _Voyages and Travels_, + ix. 746. + + 469 Shway Yoe, _The Burman_ (London, 1882), i. 30 _sq._; compare _Indian + Antiquary_, xx. (1891) p. 49. + + M80 Magical harm done a man through the remains of his food or the + dishes he has eaten out of. Ideas and customs of the Narrinyeri of + South Australia. + + 470 G. Taplin, "The Narrinyeri," in _Native Tribes of South Australia_ + (Adelaide, 1879), pp. 24-26; _id._, in E. M. Curr, _The Australian + Race_, ii. p. 247. + + 471 G. Taplin, "The Narrinyeri," in _Native Tribes of South Australia_, + p. 63; _id._, "Notes on the Mixed Races of Australia," _Journal of + the Anthropological Institute_, iv. (1875) p. 53; _id._, in E. M. + Curr, _The Australian Race_, ii. 245. + + 472 H. E. A. Meyer, "Manners and Customs of the Aborigines of the + Encounter Bay Tribe," in _Native Tribes of South Australia_, p. 196. + + M81 Ideas and customs as to the leavings of food in Melanesia and New + Guinea. + + 473 R. H. Codrington, _The Melanesians_, pp. 203 _sq._, compare pp. 178, + 188, 214. + + 474 G. Turner, _Samoa_, pp. 302 _sq._ See _The Magic Art and the + Evolution of Kings_, i. 341 _sq._ + + 475 K. Vetter, _Komm herueber und hilf uns!_ iii. (Barmen, 1898) p. 9; M. + Krieger, _Neu-Guinea_, pp. 185 _sq._; R. Parkinson, "Die Berlinhafen + Section, ein Beitrag zur Ethnographie der Neu-Guinea Kueste," + _Internationales Archiv fuer Ethnographie_, xiii. (1900) p. 44; M. J. + Erdweg, "Die Bewohner der Insel Tumleo, Berlinhafen, + Deutsch-Neu-Guinea," _Mittheilungen der Anthropologischen + Gesellschaft in Wien_, xxxii. (1902) p. 287. + + 476 Mgr. Couppe, "En Nouvelle-Pomeranie," _Missions Catholiques_, xxiii. + (1891) p. 364; J. Graf Pfeil, _Studien und Beobachtungen aus der + Suedsee_ (Brunswick, 1899), pp. 141 _sq._; P. A. Kleintitschen, _Die + Kuestenbewohner der Gazellehalbinsel_ (Hiltrup bei Muenster, N.D.), + pp. 343 _sq._ + + M82 Ideas and customs as to the leavings of food in Africa, Celebes, + India, and ancient Rome. + + 477 O. Dapper, _Description de l'Afrique_, p. 330. We have seen that the + food left by the king of the Monbutto, is carefully buried (above, + p. 119). + + 478 Bosman's "Guinea," in Pinkerton's _Voyages and Travels_, xvi. 487. + + 479 P. N. Wilken, "Bijdragen tot de kennis van de zeden en gewoonten der + Alfoeren in de Minahassa," _Mededeelingen van wege het Nederlandsche + Zendelinggenootschap_, vii. (1863) p. 126. + + 480 W. Caland, _Altindisches Zauberritual_, pp. 163 _sq._ + + 481 Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ xxviii. 19. For other examples of witchcraft + wrought by means of the refuse of food, see E. S. Hartland, _The + Legend of Perseus_, ii. 83 _sqq._ + + M83 The fear of the magical evil which may be done a man through his + food has had beneficial effects in fostering habits of cleanliness + and in strengthening the ties of hospitality. + + 482 On the covenant entered into by eating together see the classical + exposition of W. Robertson Smith, _The Religion of the Semites_2 + (London, 1894), pp. 269 _sqq._ For examples of the blood-covenant, + see H. C. Trumbull, _The Blood Covenant_ (London, 1887). The + examples might easily be multiplied. + + M84 Disastrous results supposed to follow from using the dishes of the + Mikado or of a Fijian chief. Sacred persons are a source of danger + to others: their divinity burns like a fire what it touches. African + examples. + + 483 Kaempfer's "History of Japan," in Pinkerton's _Voyages and Travels_, + vii. 717. + + 484 Rev. Lorimer Fison, in a letter to me dated August 26, 1898. In + Fijian, _kana_ is to eat; the meaning of _lama_ is unknown. + + M85 The taboo of chiefs and kings in Tonga. The King's Evil cured by the + king's touch. + + 485 "Coutumes etranges des indigenes du Djebel-Nouba," _Missions + Catholiques_, xiv. (1882) p. 460; Father S. Carceri, "Djebel-Nouba," + _ibid._ xv. (1883) p. 450. The title of the priestly king is + _cogiour_ or _codjour_. "The _codjour_ is the pontifical king of + each group of villages; it is he who regulates and administers the + affairs of the Nubas. He is an absolute monarch, on whom all depend. + But he has no princely privileges or immunities; no royal insignia, + no badge mark him off from his subjects. He lives like them by the + produce of his fields and his industry; he works like them, earns + his daily bread, and has no guard of honour, no tribunal, no code of + laws, no civil list" (Father S. Carceri, _loc. cit._). + + 486 "Der Muata Cazembe und die Voelkerstaemme der Maravis, Chevas, + Muembas, Lundas und andere von Sued-Afrika," _Zeitschrift fuer + allgemeine Erdkunde_ (Berlin), vi. (1856) pp. 398 _sq._; F. T. + Valdez, _Six Years of a Traveller's Life in Western Africa_ (London, + 1861), ii. 251 _sq._ + + 487 W. Mariner, _The Natives of the Tonga Islands_,2 i. 141 _sq._ note, + 434 note, ii. 82 _sq._, 221-224; Captain J. Cook, _Voyages_ (London, + 1809), v. 427 _sq._ Similarly in Fiji any person who had touched the + head of a living chief or the body of a dead one was forbidden to + handle his food, and must be fed by another (J. E. Erskine, _The + Western Pacific_, p. 254). + + 488 On the custom of touching for the King's Evil, see _The Magic Art + and the Evolution of Kings_, vol. i. pp. 368 _sqq._ + + M86 Fatal effects of contact with sacred chiefs in New Zealand. + + 489 "The idea in which this law [the law of taboo or _tapu_, as it was + called in New Zealand] originated appears to have been, that a + portion of the spiritual essence of an _atua_ or of a sacred person + was communicated directly to objects which they touched, and also + that the spiritual essence so communicated to any object was + afterwards more or less retransmitted to anything else brought into + contact with it" (E. Shortland, _Traditions and Superstitions of the + New Zealanders_, Second Edition, London, 1856, p. 102). Compare + _id._, _Maori Religion and Mythology_, p. 25. + +_ 490 Old New Zealand_, by a Pakeha Maori (London, 1884), pp. 96 _sq._ + + 491 W. Brown, _New Zealand and its Aborigines_ (London, 1845), p. 76. + For more examples of the same kind see _ibid._ pp. 177 _sq._ + + 492 E. Tregear, "The Maoris of New Zealand," _Journal of the + Anthropological Institute_, xix. (1890) p. 100. + + 493 R. Taylor, _Te Ika a Maui, or, New Zealand and its Inhabitants_,2 p. + 164. + + 494 R. Taylor, _op. cit._ p. 165. + + M87 Examples of the fatal effects of imagination in other parts of the + world. + + 495 Spencer and Gillen, _Native Tribes of Central Australia_, pp. 537 + _sq._ + + 496 R. Southey, _History of Brazil_, i.2 (London, 1822), p. 238. + + 497 Major A. G. Leonard, _The Lower Niger and its Tribes_ (London, + 1906), pp. 257 _sq._ + + 498 Merolla's "Voyage to Congo," in Pinkerton's _Voyages and Travels_, + xvi. 237 _sq._ As to these _chegilla_ or taboos on food, which are + commonly observed by the natives of this part of Africa, see further + my _Totemism and Exogamy_, ii. 614 _sqq._ + + M88 The taboos observed by sacred kings resemble those imposed on + persons who are commonly regarded as unclean, such as menstruous + women, homicides, and so forth. Taboos laid on persons who have been + in contact with the dead in New Zealand. + + 499 W. Ellis, _Polynesian Researches_ (Second Edition, London, + 1832-1836), iv. 388. Ellis appears to imply that the rule was + universal in Polynesia, but perhaps he refers only to Hawaii, of + which in this part of his work he is specially treating. We are told + that in Hawaii the priest who carried the principal idol about the + country was tabooed during the performance of this sacred office; he + might not touch anything with his hands, and the morsels of food + which he ate had to be put into his mouth by the chiefs of the + villages through which he passed or even by the king himself, who + accompanied the priest on his rounds (L. de Freycinet, _Voyage + autour du monde_, Historique, ii. Premiere Partie, Paris, 1829, p. + 596). In Tonga the rule applied to chiefs only when their hands had + become tabooed by touching a superior chief (W. Mariner, _Tonga + Islands_, i. 82 _sq._). In New Zealand chiefs were fed by slaves (A. + S. Thomson, _The Story of New Zealand_, i. 102); or they may, like + tabooed people in general, have taken up their food from little + stages with their mouths or by means of fern-stalks (R. Taylor, _Te + Ika a Maui, or New Zealand and its Inhabitants_,2 p. 162). + +_ 500 Old New Zealand_, by a Pakeha Maori (London, 1884), pp. 104-114. + For more evidence see W. Yate, _New Zealand_, p. 85; G. F. Angas, + _Savage Life and Scenes in Australia and New Zealand_, ii. 90; E. + Dieffenbach, _Travels in New Zealand_, ii. 104 _sq._; J. Dumont + D'Urville, _Voyage autour du monde et a la recherche de La Perouse_, + ii. 530; Father Servant, "Notice sur la Nouvelle Zelande," _Annales + de la Propagation de la Foi_, xv. (1843) p. 22. + + M89 The rule which forbids persons who have been in contact with a + corpse to touch food with their hands seems to have been universal + in Polynesia. A rule of the same sort is observed in Melanesia and + Africa. + + 501 G. Turner, _Samoa_, p. 145. Compare G. Brown, D.D., _Melanesians and + Polynesians_ (London, 1910), p. 402: "The men who took hold of the + body were _paia_ (sacred) for the time, were forbidden to touch + their own food, and were fed by others. No food wad eaten in the + same house with the dead body." + + 502 W. Mariner, _The Natives of the Tonga Islands_2 (London, 1818), i. + 141 _sq._, note. + + 503 Father Bataillon, in _Annales de la Propagation de la Foi_, xiii. + (1841) p. 19. For more evidence of the practice of this custom in + Polynesia, see Captain J. Cook, _Voyages_ (London, 1809), vii. 147; + James Wilson, _Missionary Voyage to the Southern Pacific Ocean_ + (London, 1799), p. 363. + + 504 Ch. Wilkes, _Narrative of the United States Exploring Expedition_, + New Edition (New York, 1851), iii. 99 _sq._ + + 505 W. G. Lawes, "Ethnological Notes on the Motu, Koitapu, and Koiari + Tribes of New Guinea," _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, + viii. (1879) p. 370. + + 506 Father Lambert, in _Missions Catholiques_, xii. (1880) p. 365; + _id._, _Moeurs et superstitions des Neo-Caledoniens_ (Noumea, 1900), + pp. 238 _sq._ + + 507 A. C. Hollis, _The Nandi_ (Oxford, 1909), p. 70. + + 508 H. A. Junod, "Les Conceptions physiologiques des Bantou + sud-africains et leurs tabous," _Revue d'Ethnographie et de + Sociologie_, i. (1910) p. 153. + + 509 A. W. Howitt, _Native Tribes of South-East Australia_, p. 563. + + M90 Taboos laid on mourners among the Indian tribes of North America. + + 510 Fr. Boas, in _Sixth Report on the North-Western Tribes of Canada_, + pp. 91 _sq._ (separate Reprint from the _Report of the British + Association for 1890_). + + 511 J. Teit, "The Thompson Indians of British Columbia," _Memoir of the + American Museum of Natural History, The Jesup North Pacific + Expedition_, vol. i. part iv. (April 1900) pp. 331, 332 _sq._ + + 512 C. Hill-Tout, _The Far West, the Home of the Salish and Dene_ + (London, 1907), pp. 193 _sq._ + + 513 G. M. Dawson, "Notes and Observations on the Kwakiool People of the + Northern part of Vancouver Island and adjacent Coasts," _Proceedings + and Transactions of the Royal Society of Canada for the Year 1887_, + vol. v. (Montreal, 1888) Trans. Section ii. pp. 78 _sq._ + + M91 Seclusion of widows and widowers in the Philippines and New Guinea. + + 514 F. Blumentritt, "Ueber die Eingeborenen der Insel Palawan und der + Inselgruppe der Talamlanen," _Globus_, lix. (1891) p. 182. + + 515 Father Guis, "Les Canaques, Mort-Deuil," _Missions Catholiques_, + xxxiv. (1902) pp. 208 _sq._ + + M92 Taboos imposed on women at menstruation. + + 516 Capt. W. E. Armit, "Customs of the Australian Aborigines," _Journal + of the Anthropological Institute_, ix. (1880) p. 459. + + 517 W. Ridley, "Report on Australian Languages and Traditions," _Journal + of the Anthropological Institute_, ii. (1873) p. 268. + + 518 From information given me by Messrs. Roscoe and Miller, missionaries + to Uganda (June 24, 1897), and afterwards corrected by the + _Katikiro_ (Prime Minister) of Uganda in conversation with Mr. + Roscoe (June 20, 1902). + +_ 519 Report of the International Polar Expedition to Point Barrow, + Alaska_ (Washington, 1885), p. 46. + + 520 Alexander Mackenzie, _Voyages from Montreal through the Continent of + North America_ (London, 1801), p. cxxiii. + + 521 Gavin Hamilton, "Customs of the New Caledonian Women," _Journal of + the Anthropological Institute_, vii. (1878) p. 206. Among the + Nootkas of British Columbia a girl at puberty is hidden from the + sight of men for several days behind a partition of mats; during her + seclusion she may not scratch her head or her body with her hands, + but she may do so with a comb or a piece of bone, which is provided + for the purpose. See Fr. Boas, in _Sixth Report on the North-Western + Tribes of Canada_, p. 41 (separate reprint from the _Report of the + British Association for 1890_). Again, among the Shuswap of British + Columbia a girl at puberty lives alone in a little hut on the + mountains and is forbidden to touch her head or scratch her body; + but she may scratch her head with a three-toothed comb and her body + with the painted bone of a deer. See Fr. Boas, _op. cit._ pp. 89 + _sq._ In the East Indian island of Ceram a girl may not scratch + herself with her fingers the night before her teeth are filed, but + she may do it with a piece of bamboo. See J. G. F. Riedel, _De + sluik- en kroesharige rassen tusschen Selebes en Papua_, p. 137. + + 522 A. G. Morice, "The Canadian Denes," _Annual Archaeological Report + (Toronto), 1905_, p. 218. + + 523 H. Pittier de Fabrega, "Die Sprache der Bribri-Indianer in Costa + Rica," _Sitzungsberichte der philosophischen-historischen Classe der + Kaiserlichen Akademie der Wissenschaften_ (Vienna), cxxxviii. (1898) + p. 20. + + 524 C. G. Seligmann, in _Reports of the Cambridge Anthropological + Expedition to Torres Straits_, v. (Cambridge, 1904) pp. 201, 203. + + M93 Taboos imposed on women in childbed. + + 525 James Wilson, _Missionary Voyage to the Southern Pacific Ocean_, p. + 354. + + 526 G. Turner, _Samoa_, p. 276. + + 527 C. G. Seligmann, "The Medicine, Surgery, and Midwifery of the + Sinaugolo," _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxxii. + (1902) p. 302. In Uganda a bride is secluded for a month, during + which she only receives near relatives; she wears her veil all this + time. She may not handle food, but is fed by one of her attendants. + A peasant's wife is secluded for two or three days only. See J. + Roscoe, "Further Notes on the Manners and Customs of the Baganda," + _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxxii. (1902) p. 37. + + 528 Father Guis, "Les Canaques, ce qu'ils font, ce qu'ils disent," + _Missions Catholiques_, xxx. (1898) p. 119. + + 529 V. Lisiansky, _A Voyage Round the World_ (London, 1814), p. 201. + + 530 H. A. Junod, "Les Conceptions physiologiques des Bantou + sud-africains et leurs tabous," _Revue d' Ethnographie et de + Sociologie_, i. (1910) p. 153. + + 531 H. Pittier de Fabrega, _op. cit._ pp. 20 _sq._ + + 532 F. Fawcett, "Note on a Custom of the Mysore 'Gollavalu' or Shepherd + Caste People," _Journal of the Anthropological Society of Bombay_, + i. 536 _sq._; E. Thurston, _Castes and Tribes of Southern India_ + (Madras, 1909), ii. 287 _sq._ + + M94 Dangers apprehended from women in childbed. + + 533 M. J. Erdweg, "Die Bewohner der Insel Tumleo, Berlinhafen, Deutsch + Neu-Guinea," _Mittheilungen der Anthropologischen Gesellschaft in + Wien_, xxxii. (1902) p. 280. + + 534 P. Rascher, "Die Sulka," _Archiv fuer Anthropologie_, xxix. (1904) p. + 212; R. Parkinson, _Dreissig Jahre in der Suedsee_ (Stuttgart, 1907), + p. 180. + + 535 K. Vetter, in _Nachrichten ueber Kaiser Wilhelms-Land und den + Bismarck-Archipel_, 1897, p. 87. + + 536 Rev. E. Dannert, "Customs of the Ovaherero at the Birth of a Child," + (_South African_) _Folk-lore Journal_, ii. (1880) p. 63. + + M95 Dangers apprehended from women in childbed by Indians and Esquimaux. + + 537 Levrault, "Rapport sur les provinces de Canelos et du Napo," + _Bulletin de la Societe de Geographie_ (Paris), Deuxieme Serie, xi. + (1839) p. 74. + + 538 Franz Boas, "The Eskimo of Baffin Land and Hudson Bay," _Bulletin of + the American Museum of Natural History_, xv. part i. (New York, + 1901) pp. 125 _sq._ As to Sedna, see _id._ pp. 119 _sqq._ + + M96 Dangers apprehended from women in childbed by Bantu tribes of South + Africa. Dangers apprehended from a concealed miscarriage. + + 539 H. A. Junod, "Les Conceptions physiologiques des Bantou + sud-africains et leurs tabous," _Revue d'Ethnographie et de + Sociologie_, i. (1910) p. 139. + + 540 H. A. Junod, _op. cit._ pp. 139 _sq._ + + M97 Belief of the Ba-Thonga that severe droughts result from the + concealment of miscarriages by women. + + 541 H. A. Junod, _op. cit._ pp. 140 _sq._ + + 542 See _The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, vol. i. pp. 262 + _sqq._, 278. + + M98 Dangers apprehended from women in childbed by some tribes of Annam. + + 543 Le R. P. Cadiere, "Coutumes populaires de la vallee du Nguon-So'n," + _Bulletin de l'Ecole Francaise d'Extreme-Orient_, ii. (Hanoi, 1902) + pp. 353 _sq._ + + 544 Dittenberger, _Sylloge inscriptionum Graecarum_,2 No. 566; Ch. + Michel, _Recueil d'inscriptions grecques_, No. 730 {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}[{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}] ... {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}: Euripides, _Iphigenia in Tauris_, + 380 _sqq._: + + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}. {~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PSI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH DASIA AND OXIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PSILI AND VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI AND YPOGEGRAMMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}. + + Compare also a mutilated Greek inscription found in Egypt (_Revue + archeologique_, IIIme Serie, ii. 182 _sqq._). In the passage of + Euripides which I have just quoted an acute verbal scholar, the late + Dr. Badham, proposed to omit the line {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PSILI AND VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PSILI AND VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI AND YPOGEGRAMMENI~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} with the comment: "_Nihil facit ad argumentum puerperae + mentio; patet versum a sciolo additum_." To do Dr. Badham justice, + the inscription which furnishes so close a parallel to the line of + Euripides had not yet been discovered among the ruins of Pergamum, + when he proposed to mutilate the text of the poet. + + M99 Taboos imposed on lads at initiation. + + 545 B. Hawkins, "The Creek Confederacy," _Collections of the Georgia + Historical Society_, iii. pt. i. (Savannah, 1848) pp. 78 _sq._ + Hawkins's account is reproduced by A. S. Gatschett, in his + _Migration Legend of the Creek Indians_, i. 185 _sq._ (Philadelphia, + 1884). In the Turrbal tribe of southern Queensland boys at + initiation were not allowed to scratch themselves with their + fingers, but they might do it with a stick. See A. W. Howitt, + _Native Tribes of South-East Australia_, p. 596. + + 546 L. Alberti, _De Kaffers_ (Amsterdam, 1810), pp. 76 _sq._; H. + Lichtenstein, _Reisen im suedlichen Afrika_ (Berlin, 1811-12), i. + 427; S. Kay, _Travels and Researches in Caffraria_ (London, 1833), + pp. 273 _sq._; Dudley Kidd, _The Essential Kafir_, p. 208; J. + Stewart, D.D., _Lovedale, South Africa_ (Edinburgh, 1894), pp. 105 + _sq._, with illustrations. + + M100 Taboos laid on warriors when they go forth to fight. + +_ 547 Old New Zealand_, by a Pakeha Maori (London, 1884), pp. 96, 114 + _sq._ One of the customs mentioned by the writer was that all the + people left in the camp had to fast strictly while the warriors were + out in the field. This rule is obviously based on the sympathetic + connexion supposed to exist between friends at a distance, + especially at critical times. See _The Magic Art and the Evolution + of Kings_, vol. i. pp. 126 _sqq._ + + 548 Deuteronomy xxiii. 9-14; 1 Samuel xxi. 5. The rule laid down in + Deuteronomy xxiii. 10, 11, suffices to prove that the custom of + continence observed in time of war by the Israelites, as by a + multitude of savage and barbarous peoples, was based on a + superstitious, not a rational motive. To convince us of this it is + enough to remark that the rule is often observed by warriors for + some time after their victorious return, and also by the persons + left at home during the absence of the fighting men. In these cases + the observance of the rule evidently does not admit of a rational + explanation, which could hardly, indeed, be entertained by any one + conversant with savage modes of thought. For examples, see _The + Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, vol. i. pp. 125, 128, 131, + 133, and below, pp. 161, 163, 165, 166, 167, 168, 169, 175 _sq._, + 178, 179, 181. + + The other rule of personal cleanliness referred to in the text is + exactly observed, for the reason I have indicated, by the aborigines + in various parts of Australia. See (Sir) George Grey, _Journals_, + ii. 344; R. Brough Smyth, _Aborigines of Victoria_, i. 165; J. + Dawson, _Australian Aborigines_, p. 12; P. Beveridge, in _Journal + and Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales_, xvii. + (1883) pp. 69 _sq._ Compare W. Stanbridge, "On the Aborigines of + Victoria," _Transactions of the Ethnological Society of London_, + N.S. i. (1861) p. 299; Fison and Howitt, _Kamilaroi and Kurnai_, p. + 251; E. M. Curr, _The Australian Race_, iii. 178 _sq._, 547; W. E. + Roth, _North Queensland Ethnography, Bulletin No. 5_ (Brisbane, + 1903), p. 22, § 80. The same dread has resulted in a similar custom + of cleanliness in Melanesia and Africa. See R. Parkinson, _Im + Bismarck-Archipel_, pp. 143 _sq._; R. H. Codrington, _The + Melanesians_, p. 203 note; F. von Luschan, "Einiges ueber Sitten und + Gebraeuche der Eingeborenen Neu-Guineas," _Verhandlungen der Berliner + Gesellschaft fuer Anthropologie, Ethnologie, und Urgeschichte_ + (1900), p. 416; J. Macdonald, "Manners, Customs, Superstitions, and + Religions of South African Tribes," _Journal of the Anthropological + Institute_, xx. (1891) p. 131. Mr. Lorimer Fison sent me some notes + on the Fijian practice, which agrees with the one described by Dr. + Codrington. The same rule is observed, probably from the same + motives, by the Miranha Indians of Brazil. See Spix und Martius, + _Reise in Brasilien_, iii. 1251 note. On this subject compare F. + Schwally, _Semitische Kriegsaltertuemer_, i. (Leipsic, 1901) pp. 67 + _sq._ + +_ 549 Narrative of the Captivity and Adventures of John Tanner_ (London, + 1830), p. 122. + + 550 We have seen (pp. 146, 156) that the same rule is observed by girls + at puberty among some Indian tribes of British Columbia and by Creek + lads at initiation. It is also observed by Kwakiutl Indians who have + eaten human flesh (see below, p. 189). Among the Blackfoot Indians + the man who was appointed every four years to take charge of the + sacred pipe and other emblems of their religion might not scratch + his body with his finger-nails, but carried a sharp stick in his + hair which he used for this purpose. During the term of his + priesthood he had to fast and practise strict continence. None but + he dare handle the sacred pipe and emblems (W. W. Warren, "History + of the Ojibways," _Collections of the Minnesota Historical Society_, + v. (1885) pp. 68 _sq._). In Vedic India the man who was about to + offer the solemn sacrifice of soma prepared himself for his duties + by a ceremony of consecration, during which he carried the horn of a + black deer or antelope wherewith to scratch himself if necessary + (_Satapatha-Brahmana_, bk. iii. 31, vol. ii. pp. 33 _sq._ trans. by + J. Eggeling; H. Oldenberg, _Die Religion des Veda_, p. 399). Some of + the Peruvian Indians used to prepare themselves for an important + office by fasting, continence, and refusing to wash themselves, to + comb their hair, and to put their hands to their heads; if they + wished to scratch themselves, they must do it with a stick. See P. + J. de Arriaga, _Extirpacion de la idolatria del Piru_ (Lima, 1621), + p. 20. Among the Isistines Indians of Paraguay mourners refrained + from scratching their heads with their fingers, believing that to + break the rule would make them bald, no hair growing on the part of + the head which their fingers had touched. See Guevara, "Historia del + Paraguay," in P. de Angelis's _Coleccion de obras y documentos + relativos a la historia antigua y moderna de las provincias del Rio + de la Plata_, ii. (Buenos-Aires, 1836) p. 30. Amongst the Macusis of + British Guiana, when a woman has given birth to a child, the father + hangs up his hammock beside that of his wife and stays there till + the navel-string drops off the child. During this time the parents + have to observe certain rules, of which one is that they may not + scratch their heads or bodies with their nails, but must use for + this purpose a piece of palm-leaf. If they broke this rule, they + think the child would die or be an invalid all its life. See R. + Schomburgk, _Reisen in Britisch-Guiana_, ii. 314. Some aborigines of + Queensland believe that if they scratched themselves with their + fingers during a rain-making ceremony, no rain would fall. See _The + Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, vol. i. p. 254. In all these + cases, plainly, the hands are conceived to be so strongly infected + with the venom of taboo that it is dangerous even for the owner of + the hands to touch himself with them. The cowboy who herded the cows + of the king of Unyoro had to live strictly chaste, no one might + touch him, and he might not scratch or wound himself so as to draw + blood. But it is not said that he was forbidden to touch himself + with his own hands. See my _Totemism and Exogamy_, ii. 527. + +_ 551 Narrative of the Captivity and Adventures of John Tanner_ (London, + 1830), p. 123. As to the custom of not stepping over a person or his + weapons, see the note at the end of the volume. + + 552 J. G. Bourke, _On the Border with Crook_ (New York, 1891), p. 133; + _id._, in _Folk-lore_, ii. (1891) p. 453; _id._, in _Ninth Annual + Report of the Bureau of Ethnology_ (Washington, 1892), p. 490. + + 553 J. G. Kohl, _Kitschi-Gami_, ii. 168. + + M101 Ceremonies observed by American Indians before they went out on the + war-path. Rules observed by Indians on a war-expedition. + +_ 554 Narrative of the Adventures and Sufferings of John R. Jewitt_ + (Middletown, 1820), pp. 148 _sq._ + + 555 J. de Smet, in _Annales de la Propagation de la Foi_, xiv. (1842) + pp. 67 _sq._ These customs have doubtless long passed away, and the + Indians who practised them may well have suffered the extinction + which they did their best to incur. + + 556 J. Adair, _History of the American Indians_ (London, 1775), p. 163. + + 557 J. Adair, _History of the American Indians_, pp. 380-382. + + 558 Maj. M. Marston, in Rev. Jedidiah Morse's _Report to the Secretary + of War of the United States on Indian Affairs_ (New-haven, 1822), + Appendix, p. 130. The account in the text refers especially to the + Sauk, Fox, and Kickapoo Indians, at the junction of the Rock and + Mississippi rivers. + + 559 H. A. Junod, "Les Conceptions physiologiques des Bantou + sud-africains et leurs tabous," _Revue d'Ethnographie et de + Sociologie_, i. (1910) p. 149. + + M102 The rule of continence observed by savage warriors is perhaps based + on a fear of infecting themselves sympathetically with feminine + weakness and cowardice. + + 560 For more evidence of the practice of continence by warriors, see R. + Taylor, _Te Ika A Maui, or New Zealand and its Inhabitants_,2 p. + 189; E. Dieffenbach, _Travels in New Zealand_, ii. 85 _sq._; Ch. + Wilkes, _Narrative of the United States Exploring Expedition_, iii. + 78; J. Chalmers, "Toaripi," _Journal of the Anthropological + Institute_, xxvii. (1898) p. 332; _id._, _Pioneering in New Guinea_, + p. 65; Van Schmidt, "Aanteekeningen nopens de zeden, etc., der + bevolking van de eilanden Saparoea, Haroekoe, Noessa Laut, etc.," + _Tijdschrift voor Neerlands Indie_, 1843, deel ii. p. 507; J. G. F. + Riedel, _De sluikharige en kroesharige rassen tusschen Selebes en + Papua_, p. 223; _id._, "Galela und Tobeloresen," _Zeitschrift fuer + Ethnologie_, xvii. (1885) p. 68; W. W. Skeat, _Malay Magic_, p. 524; + E. Reclus, _Nouvelle Geographie universelle_, viii. 126 (compare J. + Biddulph, _Tribes of the Hindoo Koosh_, p. 18); N. Isaacs, _Travels + and Adventures in Eastern Africa_, i. 120; H. Callaway, _Religious + System of the Amazulu_, iv. 437 _sq._; Dudley Kidd, _The Essential + Kafir_, p. 306; A. Bastian, _Die deutsche Expedition an der + Loango-Kueste_, i. 203; H. Cole, "Notes on the Wagogo of German East + Africa," _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxxii. (1902) + p. 317; R. H. Nassau, _Fetichism in West Africa_, p. 177; H. R. + Schoolcraft, _Indian Tribes_, iv. 63; J. Morse, _Report to the + Secretary of War of the U.S. on Indian Affairs_ (New-haven, 1822), + pp. 130, 131; H. H. Bancroft, _Native Races of the Pacific States_, + i. 189. On the other hand in Uganda, before an army set out, the + general and all the chiefs had either to lie with their wives or to + jump over them. This was supposed to ensure victory and plenty of + booty. See J. Roscoe, in _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, + xxxii. (1902) p. 59. And in Kiwai Island, off British New Guinea, + men had intercourse with their wives before they went to war, and + they drew omens from it. See J. Chalmers, "Notes on the Natives of + Kiwai," _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxxiii. (1903) + p. 123. + + 561 See above, pp. 151 _sq._ + + 562 A. W. Nieuwenhuis, _Quer durch Borneo_, i. 350. + + 563 T. C. Hodson, "The _genna_ amongst the Tribes of Assam," _Journal of + the Anthropological Institute_, xxxvi. (1906) p. 100. + + M103 Taboos laid on warriors after slaying their foes. The effect of the + taboos is to seclude the tabooed person from ordinary society. + Seclusion of manslayers in the East Indies. + + 564 S. Mueller, _Reizen en Onderzoekingen in den Indischen Archipel_ + (Amsterdam, 1857), ii. 252. + + 565 J. S. G. Gramberg, "Eene maand in de binnenlanden van Timor," + _Verhandelingen van het Bataviaasch Genootschap van Kunsten en + Wetenschappen_, xxxvi. (1872) pp. 208, 216 _sq._ Compare H. + Zondervan, "Timor en de Timoreezen," _Tijdschrift van het + Nederlandsch Aardrijkskundig Genootschap_, Tweede Serie, v. (1888) + Afdeeling, meer uitgebreide artikelen, pp. 399, 413. Similarly + Gallas returning from war sacrifice to the jinn or guardian spirits + of their slain foes before they will re-enter their own houses (Ph. + Paulitschke, _Ethnographie Nordost-Afrikas, die geistige Cultur der + Danakil, Galla und Somal_, pp. 50, 136). Sometimes perhaps the + sacrifice consists of the slayers' own blood. See below, pp. 174, + 176, 180. Orestes is said to have appeased the Furies of his + murdered mother by biting off one of his fingers (Pausanias, viii. + 34. 3). + + 566 N. Adriani en A. C. Kruijt, "Van Posso naar Parigi, Sigi en Lindoe," + _Mededeelingen van wege het Nederlandsche Zendelinggenootschap_, + xlii. (1898) p. 451. + + 567 S. W. Tromp, "Uit de Salasila van Koetei," _Bijdragen tot de Taal- + Land- en Volkenkunde van Nederlandsch-Indie_, xxxvii. (1888) p. 74. + + M104 Seclusion of manslayers in New Guinea. + + 568 Dr. L. Loria, "Notes on the Ancient War Customs of the Natives of + Logea and Neighbourhood," _British New Guinea, Annual Report for + 1894-1895_ (London, 1896), p. 52. + + 569 Rev. J. Chalmers, "Toaripi," _Journal of the Anthropological + Institute_, xxvii. (1898) p. 333. + + 570 R. E. Guise, "On the Tribes inhabiting the Mouth of the Wanigela + River, New Guinea," _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, + xxviii. (1899) pp. 213 _sq._ + + 571 C. G. Seligmann, _The Melanesians of British New Guinea_ (Cambridge, + 1910), p. 298. + + 572 C. G. Seligmann, _op. cit._ pp. 129 _sq._ + + 573 C. G. Seligmann, _op. cit._ pp. 563 _sq._ + + M105 The manslayer unclean. Driving away the ghosts of the slain. + + 574 P. Franz Vormann, "Zur Psychologie, Religion, Soziologie und + Geschichte der Monumbo-Papua, Deutsch-Neuguinea," _Anthropos_, v. + (1910) pp. 410 _sq._ + + 575 J. L. D. van der Roest, "Uit het leven der Bevolking van Windessi," + _Tijdschrift voor Indische Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde_, xl. (1898) + pp. 157 _sq._ + + 576 H. von Rosenberg, _Der malayische Archipel_, p. 461. + + 577 K. Vetter, in _Nachrichten ueber Kaiser Wilhelms-Land und den + Bismarck-Archipel_, 1897, p. 94. + + 578 J. E. Erskine, _The Western Pacific_ (London, 1853), p. 477. + + 579 Charlevoix, _Histoire de la Nouvelle France_, vi. pp. 77, 122 _sq._; + J. F. Lafitau, _Moe urs des sauvages ameriquains_, ii. 279. In many + places it is customary to drive away the ghosts even of persons who + have died a natural death. An account of these customs is reserved + for another work. + + 580 W. H. Keating, _Narrative of an Expedition to the Source of St. + Peter's River_ (London, 1825), i. 109. + + M106 Precautions taken by executioners against the ghosts of their + victims. + + 581 Father Baudin, "Feticheurs, ou ministres religieux des Negres de la + Guinee," _Missions Catholiques_, xvi. (1884) p. 332. + + 582 Juan de la Concepcion, _Historia general de Philipinas_, xi. + (Manilla, 1791) p. 387. + + 583 G. Loyer, "Voyage to Issini on the Gold Coast," in T. Astley's _New + General Collection of Voyages and Travels_, ii. (London, 1745) p. + 444. Among the tribes of the Lower Niger it is customary for the + executioner to remain in the house for three days after the + execution; during this time he sleeps on the bare floor, eats off + broken platters, and drinks out of calabashes or mugs, which are + also damaged. See Major A. G. Leonard, _The Lower Niger and its + Tribes_ (London, 1906), p. 180. + + M107 Purification of manslayers among the Basutos, Bechuanas, and + Bageshu. Expulsion of the ghosts of the slain by the Angoni. + + 584 E. Casalis, _The Basutos_, p. 258. So Caffres returning from battle + are unclean and must wash before they enter their houses (L. + Alberti, _De Kaffers_, p. 104). It would seem that after the + slaughter of a foe the Greeks or Romans had also to bathe in running + water before they might touch holy things (Virgil, _Aen._ ii. 719 + _sqq._). + + 585 Father Porte, "Les Reminiscences d'un missionnaire du Basutoland," + _Missions Catholiques_, xxviii. (1896) p. 371. For a fuller + description of a ceremony of this sort see T. Arbousset et F. + Daumas, _Voyage d'exploration au nord-est de la colonie du Cap de + Bonne-Esperance_ (Paris, 1842), pp. 561-563. + + 586 "Extrait du journal des missions evangeliques," _Bulletin de la + Societe de Geographie_ (Paris), IIme Serie, ii. (1834) pp. 199 _sq._ + + 587 Rev. W. C. Willoughby, "Notes on the Totemism of the Becwana," + _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxxv. (1905) pp. 305 + _sq._ + + 588 Rev. J. Roscoe, "Notes on the Bageshu," _Journal of the Royal + Anthropological Institute_, xxxix. (1909) p. 190. + + 589 Dudley Kidd, _The Essential Kafir_, p. 310. + + 590 C. Wiese, "Beitraege zur Geschichte der Zulu im Norden des Zambesi," + _Zeitschrift fuer Ethnologie_, xxxii. (1900) pp. 197 _sq._ + + 591 Dudley Kidd, _The Essential Kafir_, pp. 309 _sq._ + + M108 Seclusion and purification of manslayers in Africa. + + 592 Rev. J. Macdonald, "Manners, Customs, Superstitions, and Religions + of South African Tribes," _Journal of the Anthropological + Institute_, xx. (1891) p. 138; _id._, _Light in Africa_, p. 220. + + 593 A. C. Hollis, _The Nandi_ (Oxford, 1909), p. 74. As to the painting + of the body red on one side and white on the other see also C. W. + Hobley, _Eastern Uganda_, pp. 38, 42; Sir H. Johnston, _The Uganda + Protectorate_, ii. 868. As to the custom of painting the bodies of + homicides, see below, p. 178 note 1 and p. 186 note 1. + + 594 H. R. Tate, "Further Notes on the Kikuyu Tribe of British East + Africa," _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxxiv. (1904) + p. 264. + + 595 C. W. Hobley, "British East Africa," _Journal of the Anthropological + Institute_, xxxiii. (1903) p. 353. + + 596 Miss Alice Werner, _Natives of British Central Africa_ (London, + 1906), pp. 67 _sq._ + + 597 H. Schinz, _Deutsch-Suedwest-Afrika_, p. 321. + + 598 P. H. Brincker, "Heidnisch-religioese Sitten der Bantu, speciell der + Ovaherero und Ovambo," _Globus_, lxvii. (1895) p. 289; id., + "Charakter, Sitten und Gebraeuche speciell der Bantu + Deutsch-Suedwestafrikas," _Mittheilungen des Seminars fuer + orientalische Sprachen zu Berlin_, iii. (1900) Dritte Abtheilung, p. + 76. + +_ 599 Id._, "Beobachtungen ueber die Deisidaemonie der Eingeborenen + Deutsch-Suedwest-Afrikas," _Globus_, lviii. (1890) p. 324; id., in + _Globus_, lxvii. (1895) p. 289; id., in _Mittheilungen des Seminars + fuer orientalische Sprachen zu Berlin_, iii. (1900) Dritte + Abtheilung, p. 83. + + 600 Sir H. Johnston, _The Uganda Protectorate_ (London, 1902), ii. 743 + _sq._; C. W. Hobley, _Eastern Uganda_ (London, 1902), p. 20. + + 601 M. Weiss, _Die Voelkerstaemme im Norden Deutsch-Ostafrikas_ (Berlin, + 1910), p. 198. + + 602 Sir H. Johnston, _op. cit._ ii. 794; C. W. Hobley, _op. cit._ p. 31. + + 603 Numbers xxxi. 19-24. + + 604 E. Casalis, _The Basutos_, pp. 258 _sq._ + + M109 Manslayers in Australia guard themselves against the ghosts of the + slain. + + 605 Spencer and Gillen, _Native Tribes of Central Australia_, pp. + 493-495; _id._, _Northern Tribes of Central Australia_, pp. 563-568. + The writers suggest that the practice of painting the slayers black + is meant to render them invisible to the ghost. A widow, on the + contrary, must paint her body white, in order that her husband's + spirit may see that she is mourning for him. + + M110 Seclusion of manslayers in Polynesia. + + 606 G. H. von Langsdorff, _Reise um die Welt_ (Frankfort, 1812), i. 114 + _sq._ + + 607 T. Williams, _Fiji and the Fijians_,2 i. 55 _sq._ + + 608 J. Kubary, _Die socialen Einrichtungen der Pelauer_ (Berlin, 1885), + pp. 126 _sq._, 130. + + M111 Seclusion and purification of manslayers among the Tupi Indians of + Brazil. + + 609 F. A. Thevet, _Les Singularites de la France Antarctique, autrement + nommee Amerique_ (Antwerp, 1558), pp. 74-76; _id._, _Cosmographie + universelle_ (Paris, 1575), pp. 944 [978] _sq._; Pero de Magalhanes + de Gandavo, _Histoire de la province de Sancta-Cruz_ (Paris, 1837), + pp. 134-141 (H. Ternaux-Compans, _Voyages, relations, et memoires + originaux pour servir a l'histoire de la decouverte de l'Amerique_; + the original of Gandavo's work was published in Portuguese at Lisbon + in 1576); J. Lery, _Historia navigationis in Brasiliam, quae et + America dicitur_ (1586), pp. 183-194; _The Captivity of Hans Stade + of Hesse, in __A.D.__ 1547-1555, among the Wild Tribes of Eastern + Brazil_, translated by A. Tootal (London, 1874), pp. 155-159; J. F. + Lafitau, _Moeurs des sauvages ameriquains_, ii. 292 _sqq._; R. + Southey, _History of Brazil_, i.2 227-232. + + M112 Seclusion and purification of manslayers among the North American + Indians. + + 610 "Relation des Natchez," _Voyages au nord_, ix. 24 (Amsterdam, 1737); + _Lettres edifiantes et curieuses_, vii. 26; Charlevoix, _Histoire de + la Nouvelle France_, vi. 186 _sq._ + + 611 Bossu, _Nouveaux Voyages aux Indes occidentales_ (Paris, 1768), ii. + 94. + + 612 H. R. Schoolcraft, _Indian Tribes_, iv. 63. + + 613 J. Teit, "The Thompson Indians of British Columbia," _Memoir of the + American Museum of Natural History, The Jesup North Pacific + Expedition_, vol. i. part iv. (April 1900) p. 357. + + 614 J. O. Dorsey, "An Account of the War Customs of the Osages," + _American Naturalist_, xviii. (1884) p. 126. + + 615 G. Catlin, _North American Indians_, i. 246. + + 616 H. H. Bancroft, _Native Races of the Pacific States_, i. 553; Capt. + Grossman, cited in _Ninth Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology_ + (Washington, 1892), pp. 475 _sq._ The custom of plastering the head + with mud was observed by Egyptian women in mourning (Herodotus, ii. + 85; Diodorus Siculus, i. 91). Among some of the aboriginal tribes of + Victoria and New South Wales widows wore a thick skullcap of clay or + burned gypsum, forming a cast of the head, for some months after the + death; when the period of mourning was over, the cap was removed, + baked in the fire, and laid on the husband's grave. One of these + widows' caps is exhibited in the British Museum. See T. L. Mitchell, + _Three Expeditions into the Interior of Eastern Australia_ (London, + 1838), i. 251 _sq._; E. J. Eyre, _Journals of Expeditions of + Discovery into Central Australia_, ii. 354; G. F. Angas, _Savage + Life and Scenes in Australia and New Zealand_ (London, 1847), i. 86; + G. Krefft, "On the Manners and Customs of the Aborigines of the + Lower Murray and Darling," _Transactions of the Philosophical + Society of New South Wales_, 1862-1865 (Sydney, 1866), pp. 373 + _sq._; J. Dawson, _Australian Aborigines_, p. 66; R. Brough Smyth, + _The Aborigines of Victoria_, i. p. xxx.; W. Stanbridge, "On the + Aborigines of Victoria," _Transactions of the Ethnological Society + of London_, N.S., i. (1861) p. 298; A. Oldfield, "The Aborigines of + Australia," _ibid._ iii. (1865) p. 248; F. Bonney, "On some Customs + of the Aborigines of the River Darling, New South Wales," _Journal + of the Anthropological Institute_, xiii. (1884) p. 135; E. M. Curr, + _The Australian Race_, i. 88, ii. 238 _sq._, iii. 21; A. W. Howitt, + _Native Tribes of South-East Australia_, pp. 248, 452; R. Etheridge, + jun., "The 'Widow's Cap' of the Australian Aborigines," _Proceedings + of the Linnaean Society of New South Wales for the Year 1899_, xxiv. + (Sydney, 1900) pp. 333-345 (with illustrations). In the Andaman + Islands mourners coat their heads with a thick mass of white clay + (Jagor, in _Verhandlungen der Berliner Gesellschaft fuer + Anthropologie_, 1876, p. (57); M. V. Portman, "Disposal of the Dead + among the Andamanese," _Indian Antiquary_, xxv. (1896) p. 57; + compare E. H. Man, _Aboriginal Inhabitants of the Andaman Islands_, + pp. 73, 75). Among the Bahima of the Uganda Protectorate, when + herdsmen water their cattle in the evening, they plaster their faces + and bodies with white clay, at the same time stiffening their hair + with mud into separate lumps. This mud is left on the head for days + till it crumbles into dust (Sir H. Johnston, _The Uganda + Protectorate_, ii. 626, compare 620). + + 617 F. Russell, "The Pima Indians," _Twenty-Sixth Annual Report of the + Bureau of American Ethnology_ (Washington, 1908), pp. 204 _sq._ + + 618 J. G. Bourke, _On the Border with Crook_, p. 203. + + 619 F. Russell, "The Pima Indians," _Twenty-Sixth Annual Report of the + Bureau of American Ethnology_ (Washington, 1908), p. 204. + + M113 Taboos observed by Indians who had slain Esquimaux. + + 620 S. Hearne, _Journey from Prince of Wales's Fort in Hudson's Bay to + the Northern Ocean_ (London, 1795), pp. 204-206. The custom of + painting the face or the body of the manslayer, which may perhaps be + intended to disguise him from the vengeful spirit of the slain, is + practised by other peoples, as by the Nandi (see above, p. 175). + Among the Ba-Yaka of the Congo Free State a man who has been slain + in battle is supposed to send his soul to avenge his death on his + slayer; but the slayer can protect himself against the ghost by + wearing the red tail-feathers of a parrot in his hair and painting + his forehead red (E. Torday and T. A. Joyce, "Notes on the + Ethnography of the Ba-Yaka," _Journal of the Anthropological + Institute_, xxxvi. (1906) pp. 50 _sq._). Among the Borana Gallas, + when a war-party has returned to the village, the victors who have + slain a foe are washed by the women with a mixture of fat and + butter, and their faces are painted with red and white (Ph. + Paulitschke, _Ethnographie Nord-ost-Afrikas: die materielle Cultur + der Danakil, Galla und Somal_ (Berlin, 1893), p. 258). When Masai + warriors kill enemies in fight they paint the right half of their + own bodies red and the left half white (A. C. Hollis, _The Masai_, + p. 353). Among the Wagogo of German East Africa, a man who has + killed an enemy in battle paints a red circle round his right eye + and a black circle round his left eye (Rev. H. Cole, "Notes on the + Wagogo of German East Africa," _Journal of the Anthropological + Institute_, xxxii. (1902) p. 314). Among the Angoni of central + Africa, after a successful raid, the leader calls together all who + have killed an enemy and paints their faces and heads white; also he + paints a white band round the body under the arms and across the + chest (_British Central Africa Gazette_, No. 86, vol. v. No. 6 + (April 30, 1898), p. 2). A Koossa Caffre who has slain a man is + accounted unclean. He must roast some flesh on a fire kindled with + wood of a special sort which imparts a bitter flavour to the meat. + This flesh he eats, and afterwards blackens his face with the ashes + of the fire. After a time he may wash himself, rinse his mouth with + fresh milk, and paint himself brown again. From that moment he is + clean (H. Lichtenstein, _Reisen im suedlichen Africa_, i. 418). Among + the Yabim of German New Guinea, when the relations of a murdered man + have accepted a bloodwit instead of avenging his death, they must + allow the family of the murderer to mark them with chalk on the + brow. If this is not done, the ghost of their murdered kinsman may + come and trouble them for not doing their duty by him; for example, + he may drive away their swine or loosen their teeth (K. Vetter, in + _Nachrichten ueber Kaiser Wilhelms-Land und den Bismarck-Archipel_, + 1897, p. 99). In this last case the marking the face with chalk + seems to be clearly a disguise to outwit the ghost. + + M114 The purification of murderers, like that of warriors who have slain + enemies, was probably intended to avert or appease the ghosts of the + slain. Ancient Greek dread of the ghosts of the slain. + + 621 J. Owen Dorsey, "Omaha Sociology," _Third Annual Report of the + Bureau of Ethnology_ (Washington, 1884), p. 369. + + 622 Plato, Laws, ix. pp. 865 D-866 A; Demosthenes, _Contra Aristocr._ + pp. 643 _sq._; Hesychius, _s.v._ {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}. + + 623 Euripides, _Iphig. in Taur._ 940 _sqq._; Pausanias, ii. 31. 8. We + may compare the wanderings of the other matricide Alcmaeon, who + could find no rest till he came to a new land on which the sun had + not yet shone when he murdered his mother (Thucydides, ii. 102; + Apollodorus, iii. 7. 5; Pausanias, viii. 24. 8). + + 624 Polybius, iv. 21. + + M115 Taboos imposed on men who have partaken of human flesh. + + 625 Fr. Boas, "The Social Organization and the Secret Societies of the + Kwakiutl Indians," _Report of the U.S. National Museum for 1895_, + pp. 440, 537 _sq._ + + 626 Th. H. Ruys, "Bezoek an den Kannibalenstam van Noord Nieuw-Guinea," + _Tijdschrift van het koninklijk Nederlandsch Aardrijkskundig + Genootschap_, Tweede Serie, xxiii. (1906) p. 328. Among these + savages the genitals of a murdered man are eaten by an old woman, + and the genitals of a murdered woman are eaten by an old man. What + the object of this curious practice may be is not apparent. Perhaps + the intention is to unsex and disarm the dangerous ghost. On the + dread of ghosts, especially the ghosts of those who have died a + violent death, see further _Psyche's Task_, pp. 52 sqq. + + M116 Hunters and fishers have to observe taboos and undergo rites of + purification, which are probably dictated by a fear of the spirits + of the animals or fish which they have killed or intended to kill. + + 627 Meantime I may refer the reader to _The Golden Bough_, Second + Edition, vol. ii. pp. 389 _sqq._ + + M117 Taboos and ceremonies observed before catching whales. Taboos + observed as a preparation for catching dugong and turtle. Taboos + observed as a preparation for hunting and fishing. Taboos and + ceremonies observed at the hatching and pairing of silkworms. + +_ 628 Narrative of the Adventures and Sufferings of John R. Jewitt_ + (Middletown, 1820), pp. 133, 136. + + 629 See above, pp. 160 _sq._ + + 630 Baron d'Unienville, _Statistique de l'Ile Maurice_ (Paris, 1838), + iii. 271. Compare A. van Gennep, _Tabou et Totemisme a Madagascar_ + (Paris, 1904), p. 253, who refers to Le Gentil, _Voyage dans les + Mers de l'Inde_ (Paris, 1781), ii. 562. + + 631 U. Lisiansky, _Voyage Round the World_ (London, 1814), pp. 174, 209. + + 632 A. C. Haddon, "The Ethnography of the Western Tribe of Torres + Straits," _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xix. (1890) p. + 397; _Reports of the Cambridge Anthropological Expedition to Torres + Straits_, v. 271. + + 633 A. C. Haddon, in _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xix. + (1890) p. 467. + +_ 634 Reports of the Cambridge Anthropological Expedition to Torres + Straits_, v. 271 note. + + 635 R. E. Guise, "On the Tribes inhabiting the Mouth of the Wanigela + River," _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxviii. (1899) + p. 218. The account refers specially to Bulaa, which the author + describes (pp. 205, 217) as "a marine village" and "the greatest + fishing village in New Guinea." Probably it is built out over the + water. This would explain the allusion to the sanctified headman + going ashore daily at sundown. + + 636 Captain F. R. Barton and Dr. Strong, in C. G. Seligmann's _The + Melanesians of British New Guinea_ (Cambridge, 1910), pp. 292, 293 + _sq._ + + 637 W. H. Furness, _The Island of Stone Money, Uap of the Carolines_ + (Philadelphia and London, 1910), pp. 38 _sq._, 44 _sq._ Though the + fisherman may have nothing to do with his wife and family, he is not + wholly debarred from female society; for each of the men's + clubhouses has one young woman, or sometimes two young women, who + have been captured from another district, and who cohabit + promiscuously with all the men of the clubhouse. The name for one of + these concubines is _mispil_. See W. H. Furness, _op. cit._ pp. 46 + _sqq._ There is a similar practice of polyandry in the men's + clubhouses of the Pelew Islands. See J. Kubary, _Die socialen + Einrichtungen der Pelauer_ (Berlin, 1885), pp. 50 _sqq._ Compare + _Adonis, Attis, Osiris_, Second Edition, pp. 435 _sq._ + + 638 J. S. Kubary, _Ethnographische Beitraege zur Kenntnis des Karolinen + Archipels_ (Leyden, 1895), p. 127. + + 639 W. Crooke, _Popular Religion and Folk-lore of Northern India_ + (Westminster, 1896), ii. 257. In Chota Nagpur and the Central + Provinces of India the rearers of silk-worms "carefully watch over + and protect the worms, and while the rearing is going on, live with + great cleanliness and self-denial, abstaining from alcohol and all + intercourse with women, and adhering very strictly to certain + ceremonial observances. The business is a very precarious one, much + depending on favourable weather" (_Indian Museum Notes, issued by + the Trustees_, vol. i. No. 3 (Calcutta, 1890), p. 160). + + M118 Taboos observed by fishermen in Uganda. Continence observed by + Bangala fishermen and hunters. + + 640 The Rev. J. Roscoe in letters to me dated Mengo, Uganda, April 23 + and June 6, 1903. + + 641 Rev. J. Roscoe, "Further Notes on the Manners and Customs of the + Baganda," _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxxii. (1902) + p. 56. + + 642 Rev. J. H. Weeks, "Anthropological Notes on the Bangala of the Upper + Congo," _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxxix. (1909) + pp. 458, 459. + + M119 Taboos observed by hunters in Nias. + + 643 J. W. Thomas, "De jacht op het eiland Nias," _Tijdschrift voor + Indische Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde_, xxvi. (1880) pp. 276 _sq._ + + M120 The practice of continence by fishers and hunters seems to be based + on a notion that incontinence offends the fish and the animals. + + 644 J. Chalmers, _Pioneering in New Guinea_ (London, 1887), p. 186. + + 645 P. Reichard, _Deutsch-Ostafrika_ (Leipsic, 1892), p. 427. + + 646 See _The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, vol. i. p. 123. + + 647 Mgr. Le Roy, "Les Pygmees," _Missions Catholiques_, xxix. (1897) p. + 269. + + M121 Chastity observed by American Indians before hunting. + + 648 C. Lumholtz, _Unknown Mexico_, ii. 40 sq. + + 649 Father A. G. Morice, "Notes, Archaeological, Industrial, and + Sociological on the Western Denes," _Transactions of the Canadian + Institute_, iv. (1892-93) pp. 107, 108. + + 650 M. C. Stevenson, "The Sia," _Eleventh Annual Report of the Bureau of + Ethnology_ (Washington, 1894), p. 118. + + 651 Fr. Boas, in _Tenth Report on the North-Western Tribes of Canada_, + p. 47 (separate reprint from the _Report of the British Association + for 1895_). + +_ 652 Id._, in _Sixth Report on the North-Western Tribes of Canada_, p. + 90 (separate reprint from the _Report of the British Association for + 1890_). + + 653 J. Teit, "The Thompson Indians of British Columbia," _Memoir of the + American Museum of Natural History, The Jesup North Pacific + Expedition_, vol. i. part iv. (April 1900) p. 347. + + 654 J. Teit, _op. cit._ p. 348. + + M122 Taboos observed by Hidatsa Indians at catching eagles. + + 655 Washington Matthews, _Ethnography and Philology of the Hidatsa + Indians_ (Washington, 1877), pp. 58-60. Other Indian tribes also + observe elaborate superstitious ceremonies in hunting eagles. See + _Totemism and Exogamy_, iii. 182, 187 _sq._ + + M123 Miscellaneous examples of chastity practised from superstitious + motives. + + 656 E. Aymonier, _Notes sur le Laos_ (Saigon, 1885), p. 141. + + 657 P. Ch. Gilhodes, "La Culture materielle des Katchins (Birmanie)," + _Anthropos_, v. (1910) p. 622. Compare J. Anderson, _From Mandalay + to Momien_ (London, 1876), p. 198, who observes that among the + Kakhyens (Kachins) the brewing of beer "is regarded as a serious, + almost sacred, task, the women, while engaged in it, having to live + in almost vestal seclusion." + + 658 J. G. Frazer, _Totemism and Exogamy_, ii. 410 _sq._, on Mr. A. C. + Hollis's authority. + + 659 M. Weiss, _Die Voelker-Staemme im Norden Deutsch-Ostafrikas_ (Berlin, + 1910), p. 396. + + 660 G. A. Wilken, "Bijdrage tot de Kennis der Alfoeren van het eiland + Boeroe," p. 30 (_Verhandelingen van het Bataviaasch Genootschap van + Kunsten en Wetenschappen_, xxxvi.). + + 661 J. G. F. Riedel, _De sluik- en kroesharige rassen tusschen Selebes + en Papua_, p. 179. + + 662 G. H. von Langsdorff, _Reise um die Welt_ (Frankfort, 1812), i. 118 + _sq._ + + 663 G. H. von Langsdorff, _op. cit._ i. 117. + + 664 B. de Sahagun, _Histoire generale des choses de la Nouvelle + Espagne_, traduite par D. Jourdanet et R. Simeon, p. 45. + + M124 Miscellaneous examples of continence observed from superstitious + motives. Continence observed by the Motu of New Guinea before and + during a trading voyage. Continence observed by the Akamba and + Akikuyu on a journey and other occasions. + + 665 H. A. Junod, "Les Conceptions physiologiques des Bantou + sud-africains et leurs tabous," _Revue d'Ethnographie et de + Sociologie_, i. (1910) p. 148. + + 666 Dameon Grangeon, "Les Chams et leurs superstitions," _Missions + Catholiques_, xxviii. (1896) p. 70. + + 667 Father Lambert, "Moeurs et superstitions de la tribu Belep," + _Missions Catholiques_, xii. (1880) p. 215; _id._, _Moeurs et + superstitions des Neo-Caledoniens_ (Noumea, 1900), pp. 191 _sq._ + + 668 R. Parkinson, _Dreissig Jahre in der Suedsee_ (Stuttgart, 1907), p. + 99. + + 669 Captain F. R. Barton, in C. G. Seligmann's _The Melanesians of + British New Guinea_ (Cambridge, 1910), pp. 100-102. The native words + which I have translated respectively "skipper" and "mate" are + _baditauna_ and _doritauna_. The exact meaning of the words is + doubtful. + + 670 Quoted by Dr. George Turner, _Samoa_ (London, 1884), pp. 349 _sq._ + + 671 J. M. Hildebrandt, "Ethnographische Notizen ueber Wakamba und ihre + Nachbarn," _Zeitschrift fuer Ethnologie_, x. (1878) p. 401. + + 672 H. R. Tate, "Further Notes on the Kikuyu Tribe of British East + Africa," _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxxiv. (1904) + pp. 260 _sq._ At the festivals sheep and goats are sacrificed to God + (_Ngai_), and the people feast on the roast flesh. + + M125 The taboos observed by hunters and fishers are often continued and + even increased in stringency after the game has been killed and the + fish caught. The motive for this conduct can only be superstitious. + M126 Taboos observed by the Bering Strait Esquimaux after catching whales + or salmon. + + 673 E. W. Nelson, "The Eskimo about Bering Strait," _Eighteenth Annual + Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology_, part i. (Washington, + 1899) pp. 438, 440. + + M127 Taboos observed by the Bering Strait Esquimaux and the Aleuts of + Alaska out of regard for the animals they have killed. + + 674 E. W. Nelson, _op. cit._ p. 440, compare pp. 380 _sq._ The bladder + festival of these Esquimaux will be described in a later part of + this work. + + 675 I. Petroff, _Report on the Population, Industries, and Resources of + Alaska_ (preface dated August 7, 1882), pp. 154 _sq._ + + 676 W. H. Dall, _Alaska and its Resources_ (London, 1870), p. 404. + + M128 Taboos observed by the central Esquimaux after killing sea-beasts. + The sea-mammals may not be brought into contact with reindeer. + M129 Even among the sea-beasts themselves there are rules of mutual + avoidance which the central Esquimaux must observe. + + 677 Fr. Boas, "The Central Eskimo," _Sixth Annual Report of the Bureau + of Ethnology_ (Washington, 1888), pp. 584 _sq._, 595; _id._ "The + Eskimo of Baffin Land and Hudson Bay," _Bulletin of the American + Museum of Natural History_, xv. part i. (1901) pp. 121-124. See also + _id._ "Die Sagen der Baffin-land Eskimo," _Verhandlungen der + Berliner Gesellschaft fuer Anthropologie, Ethnologie, und + Urgeschichte_ (1885), pp. 162 _sq._; _id._, in _Proceedings and + Transactions of the Royal Society of Canada_, v. (Montreal, 1888) + section ii. pp. 35 _sq._; C. F. Hall, _Life with the Esquimaux_ + (London, 1864), ii. 321 _sq._; _id._, _Narrative of the Second + Arctic Expedition made by Charles F. Hall_, edited by Professor J. + E. Nourse (Washington, 1879), pp. 191 _sq._ + + M130 Native explanation of these Esquimau taboos. + M131 The object of the taboos observed after killing sea-beasts is to + prevent the souls of the slain animals from contracting certain + attachments, which would hurt not only them, but also the great + goddess Sedna, in whose house the disembodied souls of the + sea-beasts reside. + M132 The souls of the sea-beasts have a great aversion to the dark colour + of death and to the vapour that arises from flowing blood, and they + avoid persons who are affected by these things. + M133 The transgresser of a taboo must announce his transgression, in + order that other people may shun him. + M134 Hence the central Esquimaux have come to think that sin can be + atoned for by confession. + + 678 That is, the wizard or sorcerer. + + M135 The transgression of taboos affects the soul of the transgressor, + becoming attached to it and making him sick. If the attachment is + not removed by the wizard, the man will die. + + 679 That is, the wizard or sorcerer. + + M136 The Esquimaux try to keep the sea-beasts free from contaminating + influences, especially from contact with corpses and with women who + have recently been brought to bed. + + 680 Fr. Boas, "The Eskimo of Baffin Land and Hudson Bay," _Bulletin of + the American Museum of Natural History_, xv. pt. i. (1901) pp. + 119-121, 124-126. In quoting these passages I have changed the + spelling of a few words in accordance with English orthography. + + M137 In the system of taboos of the central Esquimaux we see animism + passing into religion; morality is coming to rest on a supernatural + basis, namely the will of the goddess Sedna. In this evolution of + religion the practice of confession has played a part. It seems to + have been regarded as a spiritual purge or emetic, by which sin, + conceived as a sort of morbid substance, was expelled from the body + of the sinner. + + 681 Le P. P. Cayzac, "La Religion des Kikuyu," _Anthropos_, v. (1905) p. + 311. + + 682 Le P. P. Cayzac, _loc. cit._ The nature of the "ignoble ceremony" of + transferring sin to a he-goat is not mentioned by the missionary. It + can hardly have been the simple Jewish one of laying hands on the + animal's head. + + M138 Hence the confession of sins is employed as a sort of medicine for + the recovery of the sick. Similarly the confession of sins is + sometimes resorted to by women in hard labour as a means of + accelerating their delivery. In these cases confession is a magical + ceremony designed to relieve the sinner. + + 683 D. W. Harmon, in Rev. Jedidiah Morse's _Report to the Secretary of + War of the United States on Indian Affairs_ (New-haven, 1822), p. + 345. The Carriers are an Indian tribe of North-West America who call + themselves _Ta-cul-lies_, "a people who go upon water" (_ibid._ p. + 343). + + 684 Francis C. Nicholas, "The Aborigines of Santa Maria, Colombia," + _American Anthropologist_, N.S. iii. (1901) pp. 639-641. + + 685 A. de Herrera, _The General History of the Vast Continent and + Islands of America_, translated by Capt. J. Stevens (London, + 1725-26), iv. 148. The confession of sins appears to have held an + important place in the native religion of the American Indians, + particularly the Mexicans and Peruvians. There is no sufficient + reason to suppose that they learned the practice from Catholic + priests. For more evidence of the custom among the aborigines of + America see L. H. Morgan, _League of the Iroquois_ (Rochester, U.S. + America, 1851), pp. 170 _sq._, 187 _sq._; B. de Sahagun, _Histoire + generale des choses de la Nouvelle Espagne_, bk. i. ch. 12, bk. vi. + ch. 7, pp. 22-27, 339-344 (Jourdanet and Simeon's French + translation); A. de Herrera, _op. cit._ iv. 173, 190; Diego de + Landa, _Relation des choses de Yucatan_ (Paris, 1864), pp. 154 + _sqq._; Brasseur de Bourbourg, _Histoire des nations civilisees du + Mexique et de l'Amerique Centrale_, ii. 114 _sq._, 567, iii. + 567-569; P. J. de Arriaga, _Extirpacion de la idolatria del Piru_ + (Lima, 1621), pp. 18, 28 _sq._ + + 686 As to this means of hastening the delivery see _Totemism and + Exogamy_, iv. 248 _sqq._ The intention of the exchange of clothes at + childbirth between husband and wife seems to be to relieve the woman + by transferring the travail pangs to the man. + + 687 G. Ferrand, _Les Musulmans a Madagascar_, Deuxieme Partie (Paris, + 1893), pp. 20 _sq._ + + 688 H. Oldenberg, _Die Religion des Veda_ (Berlin, 1894), pp. 319 _sq._ + +_ 689 Satapatha Brahmana_, translated by J. Eggeling, pt. i. p. 397 + (_Sacred Books of the East_, vol. xii.). + + M139 Thus the confession of sins is at first rather a bodily than a moral + purgation, resembling the ceremonies of washing, fumigation, and so + on, which are observed by many primitive peoples for the removal of + sin. + M140 It is possible that some savage taboos may still lurk, under various + disguises, in the morality of civilised peoples. + + 690 The similarity of some of the Mosaic laws to savage customs has + struck most Europeans who have acquired an intimate knowledge of the + savage and his ways. They have often explained the coincidences as + due to a primitive revelation or to the dispersion of the Jews into + all parts of the earth. Some examples of these coincidences were + cited in my article "Taboo," _Encyclopaedia Britannica_,9 xxiii. 17. + The subject has since been handled, with consummate ability and + learning, by my lamented friend W. Robertson Smith in his _Religion + of the Semites_ (New Edition, London, 1894). In _Psyche's Task_ I + have illustrated by examples the influence of superstition on the + growth of morality. + + M141 Ceremonies observed by the Kayans after killing a panther. + Ceremonies of purification observed by African hunters after killing + dangerous beasts. Ceremonies observed by Lapp hunters after killing + a bear. + + 691 A. W. Nieuwenhuis, _Quer durch Borneo_, i. 106 _sq._ + + 692 J. Adair, _History of the American Indians_, p. 118. + + 693 C. J. Andersson, _Lake Ngami_, p. 224. + + 694 L. Alberti, _De Kaffers aan de Zuidkust van Afrika_ (Amsterdam, + 1810), pp. 158 _sq._ Compare H. Lichtenstein, _Reisen im suedlichen + Africa_ (Berlin, 1811-12), i. 419. These accounts were written about + a century ago. The custom may since have become obsolete. A similar + remark applies to other customs described in this and the following + paragraph. + + 695 P. Kolbe, _Present State of the Cape of Good Hope_, I.2 (London, + 1738) pp. 251-255. The reason alleged for the custom is to allow the + slayer to recruit his strength. But the reason is clearly inadequate + as an explanation of this and similar practices. + + 696 J. Scheffer, _Lapponia_ (Frankfort, 1673), pp. 234-243; C. Leemius, + _De Lapponibus Finmarchiae eorumque lingua, vita et religione + pristina commentatio_ (Copenhagen, 1767), pp. 502 _sq._; E. J. + Jessen, _De Finnorum Lapponumque Nouvegicorum religione pagana + tractatus singularis_, pp. 64 _sq._ (bound up with Leemius's work). + + M142 Expiatory ceremonies performed for the slaughter of serpents. + + 697 S. Kay, _Travels and Researches in Caffraria_ (London, 1833), pp. + 341 _sq._ + + 698 J. Duncan, _Travels in Western Africa_ (London, 1847), i. 195 _sq._; + F. E. Forbes, _Dahomey and the Dahomans_ (London, 1851), i. 107; P. + Bouche, _La Cote des Esclaves_ (Paris, 1885), p. 397; A. B. Ellis, + _The Ewe-speaking Peoples of the Slave Coast_, pp. 58 _sq._ + +_ 699 Indian Antiquary_, xxi. (1892) p. 224. Many of the above examples + of expiation exacted for the slaughter of animals have already been + cited by me in a note on Pausanias, ii. 7. 7, where I suggested that + the legendary purification of Apollo for the slaughter of the python + at Delphi (Plutarch, _Quaest. Graec._, 12; _id._, _De defectu + oraculorum_, 15; Aelian, _Var. Hist._ iii. 1) may be a reminiscence + of a custom of this sort. + + M143 All such expiatory rites are based on the respect which the savage + feels for the souls of animals. + + 700 Le R. P. Cadiere, "Croyances et dictons populaires de la Vallee du + Nguon-son, Province de Quang-binh (Annam)," _Bulletin de l'Ecole + Francaise d'Extreme Orient_, i. (1901) pp. 183 _sq._ + + M144 Taboos of holiness agree with taboos of pollution, because in the + savage mind the ideas of holiness and pollution are not yet + differentiated. + + 701 On the nature of taboo see my article "Taboo" in the _Encyclopaedia + Britannica_, 9th edition, vol. xxiii. (1888) pp. 15 _sqq._; W. + Robertson Smith, _Religion of the Semites_2 (London, 1894), pp. 148 + _sqq._, 446 _sqq._ Some languages have retained a word for that + general idea which includes under it the notions which we now + distinguish as sanctity and pollution. The word in Latin is _sacer_, + in Greek, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}. In Polynesian it is _tabu_ (Tongan), _tapu_ + (Samoan, Tahitian, Marquesan, Maori, etc.), or _kapu_ (Hawaiian). + See E. Tregear, _Maori-Polynesian Comparative Dictionary_ + (Wellington, N.Z., 1891), _s.v._ _tapu_. In Dacotan the word is + _wakan_, which in Riggs's _Dakota-English Dictionary_ + (_Contributions to North American Ethnology_, vol. vii., Washington, + 1890, pp. 507 _sq._) is defined as "_spiritual_, _sacred_, + _consecrated_; _wonderful_, _incomprehensible_; said also of women + at the menstrual period." Another writer in the same dictionary + defines _wakan_ more fully as follows: "_Mysterious_; + _incomprehensible_; _in a peculiar state, which, from not being + understood, it is dangerous to meddle with_; hence the application + of this word to women at the _menstrual period_, and from hence, + too, arises the feeling among the wilder Indians, that if the Bible, + the church, the missionary, etc., are 'wakan,' they are to be + _avoided_, or _shunned_, not as being _bad_ or _dangerous_, but as + wakan. The word seems to be the only one suitable for _holy_, + _sacred_, etc., but the common acceptation of it, given above, makes + it quite misleading to the _heathen_." On the notion designated by + _wakan_, see also G. H. Pond, "Dakota Superstitions," _Collections + of the Minnesota Historical Society for the year 1867_ (Saint Paul, + 1867), p. 33; J. Owen Dorsey, in _Eleventh Annual Report of the + Bureau of Ethnology_ (Washington, 1894), pp. 366 _sq._ It is + characteristic of the equivocal notion denoted by these terms that, + whereas the condition of women in childbed is commonly regarded by + the savage as what we should call unclean, among the Herero the same + condition is described as holy; for some time after the birth of her + child, the woman is secluded in a hut made specially for her, and + every morning the milk of all the cows is brought to her that she + may consecrate it by touching it with her mouth. See H. Schinz, + _Deutsch-Suedwest-Afrika_, p. 167. Again, whereas a girl at puberty + is commonly secluded as dangerous, among the Warundi of eastern + Africa she is led by her grandmother all over the house and obliged + to touch everything (O. Baumann, _Durch Massailand sur Nilquelle_ + (Berlin, 1894), p. 221), as if her touch imparted a blessing instead + of a curse. + + M145 Kings may not be touched. The use of iron forbidden to kings and + priests. Use of iron forbidden at circumcision, childbirth, and so + forth. Use of iron forbidden at certain times and places among the + Esquimaux. Use of iron forbidden on certain occasions among the + Highlanders of Scotland. Iron not used in building sacred edifices. + + 702 Plutarch, _Agis_, 19. + + 703 W. Ellis, _Polynesian Researches_,2 iii. 102. + + 704 E. Aymonier, _Le Cambodge_, ii. (Paris, 1901) p. 25. + + 705 J. Moura, _Le Royaume du Cambodge_ (Paris, 1883), i. 226. + + 706 Ch. Dallet, _Histoire de l'Eglise de Coree_ (Paris, 1874), i. pp. + xxiv. _sq._; W. E. Griffis, _Corea, the Hermit Nation_ (London, + 1882), p. 219. These customs are now obsolete (G. N. Curzon, + _Problems of the Far East_ (Westminster, 1896), pp. 154 _sq._ note). + + 707 Macrobius, _Sat._ v. 19. 13; Servius on Virgil, _Aen._ i. 448; + Joannes Lydus, _De mensibus_, i. 31. We have already seen (p. 16) + that the hair of the Flamen Dialis might only be cut with a bronze + knife. The Greeks attributed a certain cleansing virtue to bronze; + hence they employed it in expiatory rites, at eclipses, etc. See the + Scholiast on Theocritus, ii. 36. + +_ 708 Acta Fratrum Arvalium_, ed. G. Henzen (Berlin, 1874), pp. 128-135; + J. Marquardt, _Roemische Staatsverwaltung_, iii.2 (_Das Sacralwesen_) + pp. 459 _sq._ + + 709 Plutarch, _Praecepta gerendae reipublicae_, xxvi. 7. Plutarch here + mentions that gold was also excluded from some temples. At first + sight this is surprising, for in general neither the gods nor their + ministers have displayed any marked aversion to gold. But a little + enquiry suffices to clear up the mystery and set the scruple in its + proper light. From a Greek inscription discovered some years ago we + learn that no person might enter the sanctuary of the Mistress at + Lycosura wearing golden trinkets, unless for the purpose of + dedicating them to the goddess; and if any one did enter the holy + place with such ornaments on his body but no such pious intention in + his mind, the trinkets were forfeited to the use of religion. See + {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH OXIA~} (Athens, 1898), col. 249; Dittenberger, + _Sylloge inscriptionum Graecarum_,2 No. 939. The similar rule, that + in the procession at the mysteries of Andania no woman might wear + golden ornaments (Dittenberger, _op. cit._ No. 653), was probably + subject to a similar exception and enforced by a similar penalty. + Once more, if the maidens who served Athena on the Acropolis at + Athens put on gold ornaments, the ornaments became sacred, in other + words, the property of the goddess (Harpocration, _s.v._ {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}, + vol. i. p. 59, ed. Dindorf). Thus it appears that the pious scruple + about gold was concerned rather with its exit from, than with its + entrance into, the sacred edifice. At the sacrifice to the Sun in + ancient Egypt worshippers were forbidden to wear golden trinkets and + to give hay to an ass (Plutarch, _Isis et Osiris_, 30)--a singular + combination of religious precepts. In India gold and silver are + common totems, and members of such clans are forbidden to wear gold + and silver trinkets respectively. See _Totemism and Exogamy_, iv. + 24. + + 710 Callimachus, referred to by the Old Scholiast on Ovid, _Ibis_. See + _Callimachea_, ed. O. Schneider, ii. p. 282, Frag. 100a E.; Chr. A. + Lobeck, _Aglaophamus_, p. 686. + + 711 Plutarch, _Aristides_, 21. This passage was pointed out to me by my + friend Mr. W. Wyse. + + 712 Theophilus Hahn, _Tsuni-Goam, the Supreme Being of the Khoi-Khoi_ + (London, 1881), p. 22. + + 713 Dr. P. H. Brincker, "Charakter, Sitten und Gebraeuche speciell der + Bantu Deutsch-Suedwestafrikas," _Mittheilungen des Seminars fuer + orientalische Sprachen zu Berlin_, iii. (1900) Dritte Abtheilung, p. + 80. + + 714 A. van Gennep, _Tabou et totemisme a Madagascar_ (Paris, 1904), p. + 38. + + 715 W. H. Furness, _The Island of Stone Money, Uap of the Carolines_ + (Philadelphia and London, 1910), p. 151. + + 716 J. G. Bourke, _The Snake Dance of the Moquis of Arizona_ (New York, + 1891), pp. 178 _sq._ + + 717 G. B. Grinnell, _Pawnee Hero Stories and Folk-tales_ (New York, + 1889), p. 253. + + 718 See above, pp. 205 _sq._ + + 719 E. W. Nelson, "The Eskimo about Bering Strait," _Eighteenth Annual + Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology_, Part I. (Washington, + 1899) p. 392. + + 720 E. W. Nelson, _op. cit._ p. 383. + + 721 Fr. Boas, "The Eskimo of Baffin Land and Hudson Bay," _Bulletin of + the American Museum of Natural History_, xv. Part I. (1901) p. 149. + + 722 C. F. Gordon Cumming, _In the Hebrides_ (ed. 1883), p. 195. + + 723 James Logan, _The Scottish Gael_ (ed. Alex. Stewart), ii. 68 _sq._ + + 724 J. G. Campbell, _Witchcraft and Second Sight in the Highlands and + Islands of Scotland_ (Glasgow, 1902), pp. 262, 298, 299. + + 725 R. C. Maclagan, M.D., "Notes on Folklore Objects from Argyleshire," + _Folk-lore_, vi. (1895) p. 157; J. G. Campbell, _Superstitions of + the Highlands and Islands of Scotland_ (Glasgow, 1900), pp. 263-266. + The shoulder-blades of sheep have been used in divination by many + peoples, for example by the Corsicans, South Slavs, Tartars, + Kirghiz, Calmucks, Chukchees, and Lolos, as well as by the Scotch. + See J. Brand, _Popular Antiquities_, iii. 339 _sq._ (Bohn's ed.); + Sir John Lubbock (Lord Avebury), _Origin of Civilisation_,4 pp. 237 + _sq._; Ch. Rogers, _Social Life in Scotland_, iii. 224; Camden, + _Britannia_, translated by E. Gibson (London, 1695), col. 1046; M. + MacPhail, "Traditions, Customs, and Superstitions of the Lewis," + _Folk-lore_, vi. (1895) p. 167; J. G. Dalyell, _Darker Superstitions + of Scotland_, pp. 515 _sqq._; F. Gregorovius, _Corsica_, (London, + 1855), p. 187; F. S. Krauss, _Volksglaube und religioeser Brauch der + Suedslaven_, pp. 166-170; M. E. Durham, _High Albania_ (London, + 1909), pp. 104 _sqq._; E. Doutte, _Magie et religion dans l'Afrique + du Nord_ (Algiers, 1908), p. 371; W. Radloff, _Proben der + Volksliteratur der tuerkischen Staemme Sued-Sibiriens_, iii. 115, note + 1, compare p. 132; J. Grimm, _Deutsche Mythologie_,4 ii. 932; W. W. + Rockhill, _The Land of the Lamas_ (London, 1891), pp. 176, 341-344; + P. S. Pallas, _Reise durch verschiedene Provinzen des russischen + Reichs_, i. 393; J. G. Georgi, _Beschreibung aller Nationen des + russischen Reichs_, p. 223; T. de Pauly, _Description ethnographique + des peuples de la Russie, peuples de la Siberie orientale_ (St. + Petersburg, 1862), p. 7; Krahmer, "Der Anadyr-Bezirk nach A. W. + Olssufjew," _Petermann's Mittheilungen_, xlv. (1899) pp. 230 _sq._; + W. Bogoras, "The Chuckchee Religion," _Memoir of the American Museum + of Natural History, The Jesup North Pacific Expedition_, vol. vii. + part ii. (Leyden and New York) pp. 487 _sqq._; Crabouillet, "Les + Lolos," _Missions Catholiques_, v. (1873) p. 72; W. G. Aston, + _Shinto_, p. 339; R. Andree, "Scapulimantia," in _Boas Anniversary + Volume_ (New York, 1906), pp. 143-165. + + 726 C. F. Gordon Cumming, _In the Hebrides_, p. 226; E. J. Guthrie, _Old + Scottish Customs_ (London and Glasgow, 1885), p. 223. + + 727 1 Kings vi. 7; Exodus xx. 25. + + 728 Dionysius Halicarnasensis, _Antiquit. Roman._ iii. 45, v. 24; + Plutarch, _Numa_, 9; Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ xxxvi. 100. + +_ 729 Acta Fratrum Arvalium_, ed. G. Henzen, p. 132; _Corpus + Inscriptionum Latinarum_, i. No. 603. + + 730 Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ xxxvi. 100. + +_ 731 Indian Antiquary_, x. (1881) p. 364. + + M146 Everything new excites the awe and fear of the savage. + + 732 Prof. W. Ridgeway ingeniously suggests that the magical virtue of + iron may be based on an observation of its magnetic power, which + would lead savages to imagine that it was possessed of a spirit. See + _Report of the British Association for 1903_, p. 816. + + 733 Frank Hatton, _North Borneo_ (1886), p. 233. + + 734 A. E. Pratt, "Two Journeys to Ta-tsien-lu on the eastern Borders of + Tibet," _Proceedings of the R. Geographical Society_, xiii. (1891) + p. 341. + + 735 W. Svoboda, "Die Bewohner des Nikobaren-Archipels," _Internationales + Archiv fuer Ethnographie_, vi. (1893) p. 13. + +_ 736 The Captivity of Hans Stade of Hesse, in __A.D.__ 1547-1555_, + translated by A. Tootal (London, 1874), pp. 85 _sq._ + + 737 E. H. Fraser, "The Fish-skin Tartars," _Journal of the China Branch + of the R. Asiatic Society for the Year 1891-92_, N.S. xxvi. p. 15. + + 738 Fr. Kreutzwald und H. Neus, _Mythische und magische Lieder der + Ehsten_ (St. Petersburg, 1854), p. 113. + + 739 Alexand. Guagninus, "De ducatu Samogitiae," in _Respublica sive + status regni Poloniae, Lituaniae, Prussiae, Livoniae_, etc. + (Elzevir, 1627) p. 276; Johan. Lasicius, "De diis Samogitarum + caeterorumque Sarmatum," in _Respublica_, etc. (_ut supra_), p. 294 + (p. 84, ed. W. Mannhardt, in _Magazin herausgegeben von der + Lettisch--Literaerischen Gesellschaft_, vol. xiv.). + + 740 L. von Ende, "Die Baduwis von Java," _Mittheilungen der + anthropologischen Gesellschaft in Wien_, xix. (1889) p. 10. + + M147 The dislike of spirits to iron allows men to use the metal as a + weapon against them. Iron used as a charm against fairies in the + Highlands of Scotland. Iron used as a protective charm by Scotch + fishermen and others. Iron used as a protective charm against devils + and ghosts in India, Annam. Africa, and Scotland. + + 741 J. G. Campbell, _Superstitions of the Highlands and Islands of + Scotland_ (Glasgow, 1900), pp. 46 _sq._ + + 742 E. J. Guthrie, _Old Scottish Customs_, p. 149; Ch. Rogers, _Social + Life in Scotland_ (Edinburgh, 1884-1886), iii. 218. + + 743 J. Macdonald, _Religion and Myth_, p. 91. + + 744 W. Gregor, _Folk-lore of the North-East of Scotland_ (London, 1881), + p. 201. The fishermen think that if the word "pig," "sow," or + "swine" be uttered while the lines are being baited, the line will + certainly be lost. + + 745 A. Leared, _Morocco and the Moors_ (London, 1876), p. 273. + + 746 Wickremasinghe, in _Am Urquell_, v. (1894) p. 7. + + 747 G. F. D'Penha, "Superstitions and Customs in Salsette," _Indian + Antiquary_, xxviii. (1899) p. 114. + + 748 W. Crooke, _Tribes and Castes of the North-Western Provinces and + Oudh_, iii. 431. + + 749 F. Jagor, "Bericht ueber verschiedene Volksstaemme in Vorderindien," + _Zeitschrift fuer Ethnologie_, xxvi. (1894) p. 70. + + 750 E. Thurston, _Ethnographic Notes in Southern India_ (Madras, 1906), + p. 341. + + 751 E. M. Gordon, _Indian Folk Tales_ (London, 1908), p. 31. + + 752 L. R. P. Cadiere, "Coutumes populaires de la vallee du Nguon-So'n," + _Bulletin de l'Ecole Francaise d'Extreme-Orient_, ii. (1902) pp. 354 + _sq._ + + 753 Baudin, "Le Fetichisme," _Missions Catholiques_, xvi. (1884) p. 249; + A. B. Ellis, _The Yoruba-speaking Peoples of the Slave Coast_, p. + 113. + +_ 754 Il Fetha Nagast o legislazione dei re, codice ecclesiastico e + civile di Abissinia_, tradotto e annotato da Ignazio Guidi (Rome, + 1899), p. 140. + + 755 The reader may observe how closely the taboos laid upon mourners + resemble those laid upon kings. From what has gone before, the + reason of the resemblance is obvious. + +_ 756 Panjab Notes and Queries_, iii. p. 61, § 282. + + 757 G. F. D'Penha, "Superstitions and Customs in Salsette," _Indian + Antiquary_, xxviii. (1899) p. 115. + + 758 W. Gregor, _Folk-lore of the North-East of Scotland_, p. 206. + + 759 This is expressly said in _Panjab Notes and Queries_, iii. p. 202, § + 846. On iron as a protective charm see also F. Liebrecht, _Gervasius + von Tilbury_, pp. 99 _sqq._; _id._, _Zur Volkskunde_, p. 311; L. + Strackerjan, _Aberglaube und Sagen aus dem Herzogthum Oldenburg_, i. + pp. 354 _sq._ § 233; A. Wuttke, _Der deutsche Volksaberglaube_,2 § + 414 _sq._; E. B. Tylor, _Primitive Culture_,2 i. 140; W. Mannhardt, + _Baumkultus_, p. 132 note. Many peoples, especially in Africa, + regard the smith's craft with awe or fear as something uncanny and + savouring of magic. Hence smiths are sometimes held in high honour, + sometimes looked down upon with great contempt. These feelings + probably spring in large measure from the superstitions which + cluster round iron. See R. Andree, _Ethnographische Parallelen und + Vergleiche_, pp. 153-159; G. McCall Theal, _Records of South-Eastern + Africa_, vii. 447; O. Lenz, _Skizzen aus West-Afrika_ (Berlin, + 1878), p. 184; A. Bastian, _Die deutsche Expedition an der + Loango-Kueste_, ii. 217; M. Merkel, _Die Masai_ (Berlin, 1904), pp. + 110 _sq._; A. C. Hollis, _The Masai_ (Oxford, 1905), pp. 330 _sq._; + _id._, _The Nandi_ (Oxford, 1909), pp. 36 _sq._; J. Spieth, _Die + Ewe-Staemme_ (Berlin, 1906), p. 776; E. Doutte, _Magie et religion + dans l'Afrique du Nord_, pp. 40 _sqq._; Ph. Paulitschke, + _Ethnographie Nordost-Afrikas, die geistige Cultur der Danakil, + Galla und Somal_ (Berlin, 1896), p. 30; _id._, _Ethnographie + Nordost-Afrikas, die materielle Cultur der Danakil, Galla und Somal_ + (Berlin, 1893), p. 202; Th. Levebvre, _Voyage en Abyssinie_, i. p. + lxi.; A. Cecchi, _Da Zeila alle frontiere del Caffa_, i. (Rome, + 1886) p. 45; M. Parkyns, _Life in Abyssinia_2 (London, 1868), pp. + 300 _sq._; J. T. Bent, _Sacred City of the Ethiopians_ (London, + 1893), p. 212; G. Rohlf, "Reise durch Nord-Afrika," _Petermann's + Mittheilungen, Ergaenzungsheft_, No. 25 (Gotha, 1868), pp. 30, 54; G. + Nachtigal, "Die Tibbu," _Zeitschrift fuer Erdkunde zu Berlin_, v. + (1870) pp. 312 _sq._; _id._, _Sahara und Sudan_, i. 443 _sq._, ii. + 145, 178, 371, iii. 189, 234 _sq._ The Kayans of Borneo think that a + smith is inspired by a special spirit, the smith's spirit, and that + without this inspiration he could do no good work. See A. W. + Nieuwenhuis, _Quer durch Borneo_, ii. 198. + + M148 The use of sharp-edged weapons is sometimes forbidden lest they + should wound spirits. Sharp-edged weapons removed from a room where + there is a lying-in woman. + + 760 A. Bastian, _Die Voelker des oestlichen Asien_, i. (Leipsic, 1866) p. + 136. + + 761 E. W. Nelson, "The Eskimo about Bering Strait," _Eighteenth Annual + Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology_, part i. (Washington, + 1899) p. 312. Compare _ibid._ pp. 315, 364; W. H. Dall, _Alaska and + its Resources_, p. 146; _id._, in _American Naturalist_, xii. 7; + _id._, in _The Yukon Territory_ (London, 1898), p. 146. + + 762 See above, p. 205. + + 763 A. Woldt, _Captain Jacobsen's Reise an der Nordwestkueste Americas + 1881-1883_ (Leipsic, 1884), p. 243. + + 764 W. Schmidt, _Das Jahr und seine Tage in Meinung und Brauch der + Romaenen Siebenbuergens_ (Hermannstadt, 1866), p. 40; E. Gerard, _The + Land beyond the Forest_, i. 312. + + 765 J. H. Gray, _China_ (London, 1878), i. 288. + + 766 Jo. Meletius (Maeletius, Menecius), "De religione et sacrificiis + veterum Borussorum," in _De Russorum Muscovitarum et Tartarorum + religione, sacrificiis, nuptiarum, funerum ritu_ (Spires, 1582), p. + 263; _id._, reprinted in _Scriptores rerum Livonicarum_, vol. ii. + (Riga and Leipsic, 1848) pp. 391 _sq._, and in _Mitteilungen der + Litterarischen Gesellschaft Masovia_, viii. (Loetzen, 1902) pp. 194 + _sq._ Compare Chr. Hartknoch, _Alt und neues Preussen_ (Frankfort + and Leipsic, 1684), pp. 187 _sq._ + + 767 B. F. Matthes, _Bijdragen tot de Ethnologie van Zuid-Celebes_, p. + 136. + + 768 Tettau und Temme, _Die Volkssagen Ostpreussens, Litthauens und + Westpreussens_, p. 285; J. Grimm, _Deutsche Mythologie_,4 iii. 454, + compare pp. 441, 469; J. V. Grohmann, _Aberglauben und Gebraeuche aus + Boehmen und Maehren_, p. 198, § 1387. + + 769 Franz Vormann, "Zur Psychologie, Soziologie und Geschichte der + Monumbo-Papua, Deutsch-Neuginea," _Anthropos_, v. (1910) p. 410. + + 770 A. W. Nieuwenhuis, _In Centraal Borneo_ (Leyden, 1900), i. 61; + _id._, _Quer durch Borneo_, i. 69. + + 771 Fr. Stuhlmann, _Mit Emin Pascha ins Herz von Afrika_ (Berlin, 1894), + p. 184. + + 772 J. J. M. de Groot, _The Religious System of China_, iii. 1045 + (Leyden, 1897). + + M149 Raw meat tabooed because the life or spirit is in the blood. + + 773 Plutarch, _Quaest. Rom._ 110; Aulus Gellius, x. 15. 12. See above, + p. 13. + +_ 774 Grihya-Sutras_, translated by H. Oldenberg, part i. pp. 81, 141 + (_Sacred Books of the East_, vol. xxix.). + + 775 J. Roscoe, "Further Notes on the Manners and Customs of the + Baganda," _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxxii. (1902) + p. 53. + + 776 J. Kubary, _Die socialen Einrichtungen der Pelauer_ (Berlin, 1885), + pp. 126 _sq._ + + 777 F. J. Wiedemann, _Aus dem inneren und aeussern Leben der Ehsten_ (St. + Petersburg, 1876), pp. 448, 478. + + 778 James Adair, _History of the American Indians_ (London, 1775), pp. + 134, 117. The Indians described by Adair are the Creek, Cherokee, + and other tribes in the south-east of the United States. + + 779 A. G. Morice, "The Western Denes, their Manners and Customs," + _Proceedings of the Canadian Institute_, Third Series, vii. + (1888-89) p. 164. + + 780 E. Petitot, _Monographie des Dene-Dindjie_ (Paris, 1876), p. 76. + + 781 Schloemann, "Die Malepa in Transvaal," _Verhandlungen der Berliner + Gesellschaft fuer Anthropologie, Ethnologie und Urgeschichte_, 1894, + p. (67). + + 782 Leviticus xvii. 10-14. The Hebrew word ({~HEBREW LETTER NUN~}{~HEBREW LETTER PE~}{~HEBREW LETTER SHIN~}) translated "life" in + the English version of verse 11 means also "soul" (marginal note in + the Revised Version). Compare Deuteronomy xii. 23-25. + + 783 Servius on Virgil, _Aen._ v. 79; compare _id._ on _Aen._ iii. 67. + + 784 J. Wellhausen, _Reste arabischen Heidentumes_ (Berlin, 1887), p. + 217. + + 785 J. J. M. de Groot, _Religious System of China_, iv. 80-82. + + 786 A. Goudswaard, _De Papoewa's van de Geelvinksbaai_ (Schiedam, 1863), + p. 77. + + M150 Royal blood may not be spilt on the ground; hence kings and princes + are put to death by methods which do not involve bloodshed. + + 787 Hamilton's "Account of the East Indies," in Pinkerton's _Voyages and + Travels_, viii. 469. Compare W. Robertson Smith, _Religion of the + Semites_,2 i. 369, note 1. + + 788 De la Loubere, _Du royaume de Siam_ (Amsterdam, 1691), i. 317. + + 789 Pallegoix, _Description du royaume Thai ou Siam_, i. 271, 365 _sq._ + + 790 Marco Polo, translated by Col. H. Yule (Second Edition, 1875), i. + 335. + + 791 Col. H. Yule on Marco Polo, _l.c._ + + 792 A. Fytche, _Burma, Past and Present_ (London, 1878), i. 217 note. + Compare _Indian Antiquary_, xxix. (1900) p. 199. + +_ 793 Indian Antiquary_, xx. (1891) p. 49. + + 794 Baron's "Description of the Kingdom of Tonqueen," in Pinkerton's + _Voyages and Travels_, ix. 691. + + 795 T. E. Bowdich, _Mission from Cape Coast Castle to Ashantee_ (London, + 1873), p. 207. + + 796 A. B. Ellis, _Ewe-speaking Peoples of the Slave Coast_, p. 224, + compare p. 89. + + 797 O. Dapper, _Description de l'Afrique_ (Amsterdam, 1686), p. 313. + + 798 J. Sibree, _Madagascar and its People_, p. 430. + + 799 J. Roscoe, "Further Notes on the Manners and Customs of the + Baganda," _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxxii. (1902) + p. 50. + + 800 C. T. Wilson and R. W. Felkin, _Uganda and the Egyptian Soudan_ + (London, 1882), i. 200. + + 801 J. Roscoe, _op. cit._ p. 67. There is an Arab legend of a king who + was slain by opening the veins of his arms and letting the blood + drain into a bowl; not a drop might fall on the ground, otherwise + there would be blood revenge for it. Robertson Smith conjectured + that the legend was based on an old form of sacrifice regularly + applied to captive chiefs (_Religion of the Semites_,2 p. 369 note, + compare p. 418 note). + + 802 Rev. E. Gottschling, "The Bawenda," _Journal of the Anthropological + Institute_, xxxv. (1905) p. 366. + + M151 Reluctance to shed any human blood on the ground. Reluctance to + allow human blood to fall on the ground. + + 803 Marco Polo, i. 399, Yule's translation, Second Edition. + + 804 Sir Walter Scott, note 2 to _Peveril of the Peak_, ch. v. + + 805 Charlotte Latham, "Some West Sussex Superstitions," _Folk-lore + Record_, i. (1878) p. 17. + +_ 806 Native Tribes of South Australia_, p. 230; E. J. Eyre, _Journals of + Expeditions of Discovery into Central Australia_, ii. 335; R. Brough + Smyth, _Aborigines of Victoria_, i. 75 note. + + 807 D. Collins, _Account of the English Colony of New South Wales_ + (London, 1798), p. 580. + +_ 808 Native Tribes of South Australia_, pp. 224 _sq._; G. F. Angas, + _Savage Life and Scenes in Australia and New Zealand_ (London, + 1847), i. 110 _sq._ + +_ 809 The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, vol. i. p. 256. + + 810 Edmund Spenser, _View of the State of Ireland_, p. 101 (reprinted in + H. Morley's _Ireland under Elizabeth and James the First_, London, + 1890). + + 811 "Futuna, or Horne Island and its People," _Journal of the Polynesian + Society_, vol. i. No. 1 (April 1892), p. 43. + + 812 Max Radiguet, _Les Derniers Sauvages_ (Paris, 1882), p. 175. + + 813 B. F. Matthes, _Bijdragen tot de Ethnologie van Zuid-Celebes_, p. + 53. + + 814 Fr. Stuhlmann, _Mit Emin Pascha ins Herz von Afrika_, p. 795. + + 815 Miss Mary H. Kingsley, _Travels in West Africa_, pp. 440, 447. + + 816 A. Kropf, "Die religioesen Anschauungen der Kaffern," _Verhandlungen + der Berliner Gesellschaft fuer Anthropologie, Ethnologie und + Urgeschichte_, 1888, p. (46). + + 817 R. H. Nassau, _Fetichism in West Africa_ (London, 1904), p. 83. + + 818 Le R. P. Guis, "Les _Nepu_ ou Sorciers," _Missions Catholiques_, + xxxvi. (1904) p. 370. See also _The Magic Art and the Evolution of + Kings_, vol. i. p. 205. + + 819 A. van Gennep, _Tabou et totemisme a Madagascar_, p. 338, quoting J. + Sibree, "Remarkable Ceremonial at the Decease and Burial of a + Betsileo Prince," _Antananarivo Annual_, No. xxii. (1898) pp. 195 + _sq._ + + 820 Brun-Rollet, _Le Nil Blanc et le Soudan_ (Paris, 1855), pp. 239 + _sq._ + + M152 Unwillingness to shed the blood of animals. + + 821 Dudley Kidd, _The Essential Kafir_, p. 169. + + 822 Lieut. Emery, in _Journal of the R. Geographical Society_, iii. 282. + + 823 Ch. Andersson, _Lake Ngami_ (London, 1856), p. 224. + + 824 Ch. New, _Life, Wanderings, and Labours in Eastern Africa_, p. 124; + Francis Galton, "Domestication of Animals," _Transactions of the + Ethnological Society of London_, N.S., iii. (1865) p. 135. On the + original sanctity of domestic animals see, above all, W. Robertson + Smith, _The Religion of the Semites_,2 pp. 280 _sqq._, 295 _sqq._ + + 825 J. Spieth, _Die Ewe-Staemme_, p. 796. + + 826 L. Linton Palmer, "A Visit to Easter Island," _Journal of the R. + Geographical Society_, xl. (1870) p. 171. + + 827 R. H. Codrington, _The Melanesians_, p. 129. + + 828 Strabo, xv. 1. 54, p. 710. + + M153 Anything on which a Maori chief's blood falls becomes sacred to him. + + 829 R. Taylor, _Te Ika a Maui, or New Zealand and its Inhabitants_,2 pp. + 194 _sq._ + + M154 The prohibition to pass under a trellised vine is probably based on + the idea that the juice of the grape is the blood or spirit of the + vine. This notion is confirmed by the intoxicating or inspiring + effect of wine. + + 830 Plutarch, _Quaest. Rom._ 112; Aulus Gellius, x. 15. 13. See above, + p. 14. + +_ 831 The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, vol. ii. pp. 18, 20. + + 832 Compare W. Robertson Smith, _Religion of the Semites_,2 p. 230. + + 833 "_Dialis cotidie feriatus est_," Aulus Gellius, x. 15. 16. + + M155 Wine treated as blood, and intoxication as inspiration. + + 834 Plutarch, _Isis et Osiris_, 6. A myth apparently akin to this has + been preserved in some native Egyptian writings. See Ad. Erman, + _Aegypten und aegyptisches Leben im Altertum_, p. 364. Wine might not + be taken into the temple at Heliopolis (Plutarch, _Isis et Osiris_, + 6). It was apparently forbidden to enter the temple at Delos after + drinking wine (Dittenberger, _Sylloge Inscriptionum Graecarum_,2 No. + 564). When wine was offered to the Good Goddess at Rome it was not + called wine but milk (Macrobius, _Saturn_, i. 12. 5; Plutarch, + _Quaest. Rom._ 20). It was a rule of Roman religion that wine might + not be poured out in libations to the gods which had been made + either from grapes trodden with bleeding feet or from the clusters + of a vine beside which a human body had hung in a noose (Pliny, + _Nat. Hist._ xiv. 119). This rule shews that wine was supposed to be + defiled by blood or death. + + 835 Bernardino de Sahagun, _Histoire generale des choses de la + Nouvelle-Espagne_, traduite par Jourdanet et Simeon (Paris, 1880), + pp. 46 _sq._ The native Mexican wine (_pulque_) is made from the sap + of the great American aloe. See the note of the French translators + of Sahagun, _op. cit._ pp. 858 _sqq._; E. J. Payne, _History of the + New World called America_, i. 374 _sqq._ The Chiquites Indians of + Paraguay believed that the spirit of _chica_, or beer made from + maize, could punish with sickness the person who was so irreverent + or careless as to upset a vessel of the liquor. See Charlevoix, + _Histoire du Paraguay_ (Paris, 1756), ii. 234. + + 836 See _The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, vol. i. pp. 381 + _sqq._ + +_ 837 Op. cit._ vol. i. pp. 384 _sq._ + + M156 Fear of passing under women's blood. + + 838 E. M. Curr, _The Australian Race_ (Melbourne and London, 1887), iii. + 179. + + 839 H. B. Guppy, _The Solomon Islands and their Natives_ (London, 1887), + p. 41. + + 840 E. B. Cross, "On the Karens," _Journal of the American Oriental + Society_, iv. (1854) p. 312. + + 841 A. Bastian, _Die Voelker des oestlichen Asien_, iii. 230. + + M157 Disastrous effect of women's blood on men. + + 842 For the reason, see E. Shortland, _Traditions and Superstitions of + the New Zealanders_, pp. 112 _sq._, 292; E. Tregear, "The Maoris of + New Zealand," _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xix. + (1890) p. 118. + + 843 F. J. Gillen, in _Report of the Horn Scientific Expedition to + Central Australia_, pt. iv. p. 182. + +_ 844 Native Tribes of South Australia_, p. 186. + + 845 Mrs. James Smith, _The Booandik Tribe_, p. 5. + + 846 J. G. F. Riedel, _De sluik- en kroesharige rassen tusschen Selebes + en Papua_, p. 450. + + 847 J. G. F. Riedel, _op. cit._ p. 139, compare p. 209. + + 848 F. J. Wiedemann, _Aus dem innern und aeussern Leben der Ehsten_, p. + 475. + + 849 Miss Mary H. Kingsley, _Travels in West Africa_, p. 447. Conversely + among the central Australian tribes women are never allowed to + witness the drawing of blood from men, which is often done for + purposes of decoration; and when a quarrel has taken place and men's + blood has been spilt in the presence of women, it is usual for the + man whose blood has been shed to perform a ceremony connected with + his own or his father or mother's totem. See Spencer and Gillen, + _Native Tribes of Central Australia_, p. 463. + + M158 The head sacred because a spirit resides in it. + + 850 A. B. Ellis, _The Yoruba-speaking Peoples of the Slave Coast_, pp. + 125 _sq._ + + 851 E. B. Cross, "On the Karens," _Journal of the American Oriental + Society_, iv. (1854) pp. 311 _sq._ + + 852 A. Bastian, _Die Voelker des oestlichen Asien_, ii. 256, iii. 71, 230, + 235 _sq._ The spirit is called _kwun_ by E. Young (_The Kingdom of + the Yellow Robe_, pp. 75 _sqq._). See below, pp. 266 _sq._ + + 853 Herodotus, ix. 110. This passage was pointed out to me by the late + Mr. E. S. Shuckburgh of Emmanuel College, Cambridge. + + 854 Plutarch, _Quaestiones Romanae_, 100. Plutarch's words ({~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}) leave room to hope + that the ladies did not strictly confine their ablutions to one day + in the year. + + 855 P. J. de Arriaga, _Extirpacion de la Idolatria del Piru_ (Lima, + 1621), pp. 28, 29. + + M159 Objection to have any one overhead. + + 856 A. Bastian, _op. cit._ ii. 150; Sangermano, _Description of the + Burmese Empire_ (Rangoon, 1885), p. 131; C. F. S. Forbes, _British + Burma_, p. 334; Shway Yoe, _The Burman_ (London, 1882), i. 91. + + 857 E. Young, _The Kingdom of the Yellow Robe_ (Westminster, 1898), p. + 131. + + 858 J. Moura, _Le Royaume du Cambodge_, i. 178, 388. + + 859 Duarte Barbosa, _Description of the Coasts of East Africa and + Malabar in the beginning of the Sixteenth Century_ (Hakluyt Society, + 1866), p. 197. + + 860 This I learned in conversation with Messrs. Roscoe and Miller, + missionaries to Uganda. The system of totemism exists in full force + in Uganda. No man will eat his totem animal or marry a woman of his + own totem clan. Among the totems of the clans are the lion, leopard, + elephant, antelope, mushroom, buffalo, sheep, grasshopper, + crocodile, otter, beaver, and lizard. See _Totemism and Exogamy_, + ii. 472 _sqq._ + + M160 Sanctity of the head, especially of a chief's head, in Polynesia and + elsewhere. + + 861 David Porter, _Journal of a Cruise made to the Pacific Ocean in the + U.S. Frigate __"__Essex__"_ (New York, 1822), ii. 65. + + 862 Vincendon-Dumoulin et C. Desgraz _Iles Marquises_ (Paris, 1843), p. + 262. + + 863 Le P. Matthias G----, _Lettres sur les Iles Marquises_ (Paris, 1843), + p. 50. + + 864 G. H. von Langsdorff, _Reise um die Welt_ (London, 1812), i. 115 + _sq._ + + 865 Max Radiguet, _Les Derniers Sauvages_ (Paris, 1882), p. 156. + + 866 Capt. James Cook, _Voyages_, v. 427 (London, 1809). + + 867 Jules Remy, _Ka Mooolelo Hawaii, Histoire de l'Archipel Havaiien_ + (Paris and Leipsic, 1862), p. 159. + + 868 W. Ellis, _Polynesian Researches_2 (London, 1832-36), iii. 102. + + 869 James Wilson, _A Missionary Voyage to the Southern Pacific Ocean_ + (London, 1799), pp. 354 _sq._ + + 870 W. Colenso, "The Maori Races of New Zealand," p. 43, in + _Transactions and Proceedings of the New Zealand Institute_, 1868, + vol. i. (separately paged). + + 871 R. Taylor, _To Ika a Maui, or New Zealand and its Inhabitants_,2 p. + 165. We have seen that under certain special circumstances common + persons also are temporarily forbidden to touch their heads with + their hands. See above, pp. 146, 156, 158, 160, 183. + + 872 R. Taylor, _l.c._ + + 873 E. Shortland, _The Southern Districts of New Zealand_ (London, + 1851), p. 293; _id._, _Traditions and Superstitions of the New + Zealanders_, pp. 107 _sq._ + + 874 J. Dumont D'Urville, _Voyage autour du monde et a la recherche de La + Perouse, execute sous son commandement sur la corvette + __"__Austrolabe__"__: histoire du voyage_, ii. 534. + + 875 R. A. Cruise, _Journal of a Ten Months' Residence in New Zealand_ + (London, 1823), p. 187; J. Dumont D'Urville, _op. cit._ ii. 533; E. + Shortland, _The Southern Districts of New Zealand_, p. 30. + + 876 Herodotus, i. 187. + + 877 H. France, "Customs of the Awuna Tribes," _Journal of the African + Society_, No. 17 (October, 1905), p. 39. + + M161 When the head is sacred, the cutting of the hair becomes a difficult + and dangerous operation. The hair of kings, priests, chiefs, + sorcerers, and other tabooed persons is sometimes kept unshorn. Hair + kept unshorn on various occasions, such as a wife's pregnancy, a + journey, and war. + + 878 Agathias, _Hist._ i. 3; J. Grimm, _Deutsche Rechtsalterthuemer_,3 pp. + 239 _sqq._ Compare F. Kauffmann, _Balder_ (Strasburg, 1902), pp. 209 + _sq._ The story of the Phrygian king Midas, who concealed the ears + of an ass under his long hair (Aristophanes, _Plutus_, 287; Ovid, + _Metam._ xi. 146-193) may perhaps be a distorted reminiscence of a + similar custom in Phrygia. Parallels to the story are recorded in + modern Greece, Ireland, Brittany, Servia, India, and among the + Mongols. See B. Schmidt, _Griechische Maerchen, Sagen und + Volkslieder_, pp. 70 _sq._, 224 _sq._; Grimm's _Household Tales_, + ii. 498, trans. by M. Hunt; Patrick Kennedy, _Legendary Fictions of + the Irish Celts_, pp. 248 _sqq._ (ed. 1866); A. de Nore, _Coutumes, + mythes, et traditions des provinces de la France_, pp. 219 _sq._; W. + S. Karadschitsch, _Volksmaerchen der Serben_, No. 39, pp. 225 _sqq._; + _North Indian Notes and Queries_, iii. p. 104, § 218; B. Juelg, + _Mongolische Maerchen-Sammlung_, No. 22, pp. 182 _sqq._; _Sagas from + the Far East_, No. 21, pp. 206 _sqq._ + + 879 Gregory of Tours, _Histoire ecclesiastique des Francs_, iii. 18, + compare vi. 24 (Guizot's translation). + + 880 Dr. Hahl, "Mitteilungen ueber Sitten und rechtliche Verhaeltnisse auf + Ponape," _Ethnologisches Notizblatt_, ii. Heft 2 (Berlin, 1901), p. + 6. + +_ 881 Manuscrit Ramirez, Histoire de l'origine des Indiens qui habitent + la Nouvelle Espagne_ (Paris, 1903), p. 171; J. de Acosta, _Natural + and Moral History of the Indies_, ii. 365 (Hakluyt Society); A. de + Herrera, _General History of the vast Continent and Islands of + America_, iii. 216 (Stevens's translation). The author of the + _Manuscrit Ramirez_ speaks as if the rule applied only to the + priests of the god Tezcatlipoca. + + 882 G. M. Dawson, "On the Haida Indians of Queen Charlotte Islands," in + _Geological Survey of Canada, Report of Progress for 1878-79_, p. + 123 B. + + 883 J. Spieth, _Die Ewe-Staemme_, p. 229. + +_ 884 Missions Catholiques_, xxv. (1893) p. 266. + + 885 M. Merker, _Die Masai_ (Berlin, 1904), pp. 21, 22, 143. + + 886 A. W. Nieuwenhuis, _Quer durch Borneo_, i. 68. + +_ 887 Satapatha Brahmana_, translated by J. Eggeling, part iii. pp. 126, + 128, with the translator's note on p. 126 (_Sacred Books of the + East_, vol. xli.). + + 888 P. N. Wilken, "Bijdragen tot de kennis van de zeden en gewoonten der + Alfoeren in de Minahassa," _Mededeelingen van wege het Nederlandsche + Zendelinggenootschap_, vii. (1863) p. 126. + + 889 R. P. Ashe, _Two Kings of Uganda_ (London, 1889), p. 109. + + 890 Fr. Boas, in _Tenth Report on the North-Western Tribes of Canada_, + p. 45 (separate reprint from the _Report of the British Association + for 1895_). + + 891 J. G. F. Riedel, _De sluik- en kroesharige rassen tusschen Selebes + en Papua_, p. 137. + + 892 J. G. F. Riedel, _op. cit._ pp. 292 _sq._ + + 893 W. W. Skeat, _Malay Magic_, p. 44. + + 894 Diodorus Siculus, i. 18. + + 895 W. Robertson Smith, _Kinship and Marriage in Early Arabia_ + (Cambridge, 1885), pp. 152 _sq._ + + 896 Homer, _Iliad_, xxiii. 141 _sqq._ This Homeric passage has been + imitated by Valerius Flaccus (_Argonaut._ i. 378). The Greeks often + dedicated a lock of their hair to rivers. See Aeschylus, + _Choephori_, 5 _sq._; Philostratus, _Heroica_, xiii. 4; Pausanias, + i. 37. 3, viii. 20. 3, viii. 41. 3. The lock might be at the side or + the back of the head or over the brow; it received a special name + (Pollux, ii. 30). + + 897 S. W. Tromp, "Een Dajaksch Feest," _Bijdragen tot de Taal- Land- en + Volkenkunde van Nederlandsch-Indie_, xxxix. (1890) p. 38. + + 898 T. Arbousset et F. Daumas, _Relation d'un voyage d'exploration_, p. + 565. + + M162 Hair unshorn during a vow. The nails of infants should not be pared. + Child's hair left unshorn as a refuge for its soul. + + 899 D. Porter, _Journal of a Cruise made to the Pacific Ocean_, ii. 120. + + 900 Tacitus, _Germania_, 31. Vows of the same sort were occasionally + made by the Romans (Suetonius, _Julius_, 67; Tacitus, _Hist._ iv. + 61). + + 901 Paulus Diaconus, _Hist. Langobard._ iii. 7; Gregory of Tours, + _Histoire ecclesiastique des Francs_, v. 15, vol. i. p. 268 + (Guizot's translation, Nouvelle Edition, Paris, 1874). + + 902 W. Ellis, _Polynesian Researches_,2 iv. 387. + + 903 Numbers vi. 5. + + 904 J. A. E. Koehler, _Volksbrauch_, etc., _im Voigtlande_, p. 424; W. + Henderson, _Folk-lore of the Northern Counties_, pp. 16 _sq._; F. + Panzer, _Beitrag zur deutschen Mythologie_, i. p. 258, § 23; I. V. + Zingerle, _Sitten, Braeuche und Meinungen des Tiroler Volkes_,2 §§ + 46, 72; J. W. Wolf, _Beitraege zur deutschen Mythologie_, i. p. 208, + § 45, p. 209 § 53; O. Knoop, _Volkssagen, Erzaehlungen_, etc., _aus + dem oestlichen Hinterpommern_, p. 157, § 23; E. Veckenstedt, + _Wendische Sagen, Maerchen und aberglaeubische Gebraeuche_, p. 445; J. + Haltrich, _Zur Volkskunde der Siebenbuerger Sachsen_, p. 313; E. + Krause, "Aberglaeubische Kuren und sonstiger Aberglaube in Berlin," + _Zeitschrift fuer Ethnologie_, xv. (1883) p. 84. + +_ 905 Panjab Notes and Queries_, ii. p. 205, § 1092. + + 906 G. Gibbs, "Notes on the Tinneh or Chepewyan Indians of British and + Russian America," in _Annual Report of the Smithsonian Institution_, + 1866, p. 305; W. Dall, _Alaska and its Resources_, p. 202. The + reason alleged by the Indians is that if the girls' nails were cut + sooner the girls would be lazy and unable to embroider in porcupine + quill-work. But this is probably a late invention like the reasons + assigned in Europe for the similar custom, of which the commonest is + that the child would become a thief if its nails were cut. + + 907 J. Roscoe, "Further Notes on the Manners and Customs of the + Baganda," _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxxii. (1902) + p. 30. + + 908 Lieut. Herold, "Religioese Anschauungen und Gebraeuche der deutschen + Ewe-Neger," _Mittheilungen aus den Deutschen Schutzgebieten_, v. 148 + _sq._ + + 909 S. J. Curtiss, _Primitive Semitic Religion To-day_ (Chicago, etc., + 1902), p.153. + + 910 A. C. Kruyt, "Het koppensnellen der Toradja's," _Verslagen en + Mededeelingen der konink. Akademie van Wetenschapen_, Afdeeling + Letterkunde, iv. Reeks, iii. 198 n2 (Amsterdam, 1899). + + 911 R. Roemer, "Bijdrage tot de Geneeskunst der Karo-Batak's," + _Tijdschrift voor Indische Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde_, i. (1908) p. + 216. + + 912 O. Knoop, _Volkssagen, Erzaehlungen, etc., aus dem oestlichen + Hinterpommern_ (Posen, 1885), p. 157, § 23. + + 913 J. W. Wolf, _Beitraege zur deutschen Mythologie_, i. p. 209, § 57. + + M163 Solemn ceremonies observed at hair-cutting. + + 914 Rev. Lorimer Fison, in a letter to the author, dated August 26, + 1898. + + 915 From the report of a lecture delivered in Melbourne, December 9, + 1898, by the Rev. H. Worrall, of Fiji, missionary. The newspaper + cutting from which the above extract is quoted was sent to me by the + Rev. Lorimer Fison in a letter, dated Melbourne, January 9, 1899. + Mr. Fison omitted to give the name and date of the newspaper. + + 916 R. Taylor, _Te Ika a Maui, or New Zealand and its Inhabitants_2 + (London, 1870), pp. 206 _sqq._ + + 917 Richard A. Cruise, _Journal of a Ten Months' Residence in New + Zealand_ (London, 1823), pp. 283 _sq._ Compare J. Dumont D'Urville, + _Voyage autour du monde et a la recherche de La Perouse: histoire du + voyage_ (Paris, 1832), ii. 533. + + 918 E. Shortland, _Traditions and Superstitions of the New Zealanders_, + pp. 108 _sqq._; R. Taylor, _l.c._ + + 919 G. F. Angas, _Savage Life and Scenes in Australia and New Zealand_ + (London, 1847), ii. 90 _sq._ + + 920 J. Moura, _Le Royaume du Cambodge_, i. 226 _sq._ + + 921 See above, p. 3. + + M164 Ceremonies at cutting the hair of Siamese children. + + 922 See above, p. 252. + + 923 E. Young, _The Kingdom of the Yellow Robe_ (Westminster, 1898), pp. + 64 _sq._, 67-84. I have abridged the account of the ceremonies by + omitting some details. For an account of the ceremonies observed at + cutting the hair of a young Siamese prince, at the age of thirteen + or fourteen, see Mgr. Bruguiere, in _Annales de l'Association de la + Propagation de la Foi_, v. (1831) pp. 197 _sq._ + + M165 Belief that people may be bewitched through the clippings of their + hair, the parings of their nails, and other severed parts of their + persons. + + 924 The aboriginal tribes of Central Australia form an exception to this + rule; for among them no attempt is made to injure a person by + performing magical ceremonies over his shorn hair. See Spencer and + Gillen, _Northern Tribes of Central Australia_, p. 478. + + 925 See _The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, vol. i. pp. 52-54, + 174 _sqq._ + + 926 C. Martin, "Ueber die Eingeborenen von Chiloe," _Zeitschrift fuer + Ethnologie_, ix. (1877) p. 177. + + 927 Vincendon-Dumoulin et C. Desgraz, _Iles Marquises_ (Paris, 1843), + pp. 247 _sq._ + + 928 D. Porter, _Journal of a Cruise made to the Pacific Ocean_2 (New + York, 1882), ii. 188. + + 929 R. Taylor, _Te Ika a Maui, or New Zealand and its Inhabitants_,2 pp. + 203 _sq._; A. S. Thomson, _The Story of New Zealand_ (London, 1859), + i. 116 _sq._ + + 930 R. Brough Smyth, _Aborigines of Victoria_, i. 468 _sq._ + + 931 J. Dawson, _Australian Aborigines_, p. 36. + + 932 A. W. Howitt, "On Australian Medicine-men," _Journal of the + Anthropological Institute_, xvi. (1887) p. 27. Compare _id._, + _Native Tribes of South-East Australia_, pp. 360 _sq._ + + 933 E. Palmer, "Notes on some Australian Tribes," _Journal of the + Anthropological Institute_, xiii. (1884) p. 293. + + 934 Lucian, _Dial. meretr._ iv. 4 _sq._ + + 935 Apuleius, _Metamorph._ iii. 16 _sqq._ For more evidence of the same + sort, see Th. Williams, _Fiji and the Fijians_,2 i. 248; James + Bonwick, _Daily Life of the Tasmanians_, p. 178; James Chalmers, + _Pioneering in New Guinea_, p. 187; J. S. Polack, _Manners and + Customs of the New Zealanders_, i. 282; A. Bastian, _Die Voelker des + oestlichen Asien_, iii. 270; G. H. von Langsdorff, _Reise um die + Welt_, i. 134 _sq._; W. Ellis, _Polynesian Researches_,2 i. 364; A. + B. Ellis, _Ewe-speaking peoples of the Slave Coast_, p. 99; R. H. + Codrington, _The Melanesians_, p. 203; K. von den Steinen, _Unter + den Naturvoelkern Zentral-Brasiliens_, p. 343; Miss Mary H. Kingsley, + _Travels in West Africa_, p. 447; I. V. Zingerle, _Sitten, Braeuche + und Meinungen des Tiroler Volkes_,2 § 178; R. Andree, + _Ethnographische Parallelen und Vergleiche_, Neue Folge, pp. 12 + _sqq._; E. S. Hartland, _Legend of Perseus_, ii. 64-74, 132-139. + + M166 Clipped hair may cause headache. + + 936 R. F. Kaindl, "Neue Beitraege zur Ethnologie und Volkeskunde der + Huzulen," _Globus_, lxix. (1896) p. 94. + + 937 E. Meier, _Deutsche Sagen, Sitten und Gebraeuche aus Schwaben_, p. + 509; A. Birlinger, _Volksthuemliches aus Schwaben_, i. 493; F. + Panzer, _Beitrag zur deutschen Mythologie_, i. 258; J. A. E. Koehler, + _Volksbrauch_, etc., _im Voigtlande_, p. 425; A. Witzschel, _Sagen, + Sitten und Gebraeuche aus Thueringen_, p. 282; I. V. Zingerle, _op. + cit._ § 180; J. W. Wolf, _Beitraege zur deutschen Mythologie_, i. p. + 224, § 273. A similar belief prevails among the gypsies of Eastern + Europe (H. von Wlislocki, _Volksglaube und religioeser Brauch der + Zigeuner_, p. 81). + + 938 I. V. Zingerle, _op. cit._ § 181. + + 939 Charlotte Latham, "Some West Sussex Superstitions," _Folk-lore + Record_, i. (1878) p. 40. + + 940 J. G. Campbell, _Superstitions of the Highlands and Islands of + Scotland_ (Glasgow, 1900), p. 237. + + 941 W. H. R. Rivers, _The Todas_ (London, 1906), pp. 268 _sq._ + + M167 Cut hair may cause rain, hail, thunder and lightning. Magical uses + of cut hair. + + 942 I. V. Zingerle, _op. cit._ §§ 176, 179. + + 943 A. Krause, _Die Tlinkit-Indianer_ (Jena, 1885), p. 300. + + 944 Petronius, _Sat._ 104. + + 945 J. G. Campbell, _op. cit._ pp. 236 _sq._ + + 946 A. Bastian, _Die deutsche Expedition an der Loango-Kueste_, i. 231 + _sq._; _id._, _Ein Besuch in San Salvador_, pp. 117 _sq._ + + 947 P. B. du Chaillu, _Explorations and Adventures in Equatorial Africa_ + (London, 1861), pp. 426 _sq._ + + 948 O. Baumann, _Usambara und seine Nachbargebiete_ (Berlin, 1891), p. + 141. + + 949 A. Junod, _Les Ba-Ronga_ (Neuchatel, 1898), pp. 398-400. + + 950 W. Stanbridge, "On the Aborigines of Victoria," _Transactions of the + Ethnological Society of London_, N.S., i. (1861) p. 300. + + M168 Cut hair and nails may be used as hostages for good behaviour of the + persons from whose bodies they have been taken. + + 951 A. C. Hollis, _The Nandi_ (Oxford, 1909), pp. 30, 74 _sq._ + + 952 Le P. A. Jaussen, _Coutumes des Arabes au pays de Moab_ (Paris, + 1908), pp. 94 _sq._ + + 953 2 Samuel, x. 4. + + 954 2 Samuel, x., xii. 26-31. + + 955 R. Torday and T. A. Joyce, "Notes on the Ethnography of the + Ba-Yaka," _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxxvi. (1906) + p. 49. + + M169 Cut hair and nails are deposited in sacred places, such as temples + and cemeteries, to preserve them from injury. Cut hair and nails + buried under certain trees or deposited among the branches. + + 956 Francois Pyrard, _Voyages to the East Indies, the Maldives, the + Moluccas, and Brazil_, translated by Albert Gray (Hakluyt Society, + 1887), i. 110 _sq._ + + 957 E. Shortland, _Traditions and Superstitions of the New Zealanders_, + p. 110. + + 958 J. S. Polack, _Manners and Customs of the New Zealanders_, i. 38 + _sq._ Compare G. F. Angas, _Savage Life and Scenes in Australia and + New Zealand_ (London, 1847), ii. 108 _sq._ + + 959 James Wilson, _A Missionary Voyage to the Southern Pacific Ocean_ + (London, 1799), p. 355. + + 960 R. A. Freeman, _Travels and Life in Ashanti and Jaman_ (Westminster, + 1898), pp. 171 _sq._ + + 961 E. Young, _The Kingdom of the Yellow Robe_, p. 79. + + 962 Aulus Gellius, x. 15. 15. The ancients were not agreed as to the + distinction between lucky and unlucky trees. According to Cato and + Pliny, trees that bore fruit were lucky, and trees which did not + were unlucky (Festus, ed. C. O. Mueller, p. 29, _s.v._ _Felices_; + Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ xvi. 108); but according to Tarquitius Priscus + those trees were unlucky which were sacred to the infernal gods and + bore black berries or black fruit (Macrobius, _Saturn_, ii. 16, but + iii. 20 in L. Jan's edition, Quedlinburg and Leipsic, 1852). + + 963 Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ xvi. 235; Festu, p. 57 ed. C. O. Mueller, _s.v._ + _Capillatam vel capillarem arborem_. + + 964 M. Quedenfelt, "Aberglaube und halbreligioese Bruderschaft bei den + Marokkanern," _Verhandlungen der Berliner Gesellschaft fuer + Anthropologie, Ethnologie und Urgeschichte_, 1886, p. (680). + + 965 A. Wuttke, _Der deutsche Volksaberglaube_,2 pp. 294 _sq._, § 464. + + 966 W. Mannhardt, _Germanische Mythen_ (Berlin, 1858), p. 630. + + 967 W. Henderson, _Folk-lore of the Northern Counties_ (London, 1879), + p. 17. + + 968 J. G. F. Riedel, _De sluik- en kroesharige rassen tusschen Selebes + en Papua_, p. 74. + + 969 J. G. F. Riedel, _op. cit._ p. 265. + + 970 G. Heijmering, "Zeden en gewoonten op het eiland Rottie," + _Tijdschrift voor Neerlands Indie_, 1843, dl. ii. pp. 634-637. + + 971 W. Dall, _Alaska and its Resources_ (London, 1870), p. 54; F. + Whymper, "The Natives of the Youkon River," _Transactions of the + Ethnological Society of London_, N.S., vii. (1869) p. 174. + + M170 Cut hair and nails may be stowed away for safety in any secret + place. + + 972 E. Meier, _Deutsche Sagen, Sitten und Gebraeuche aus Schwaben_, p. + 509; A. Birlinger, _Volksthuemliches aus Schwaben_, i. 493. + + 973 W. Mannhardt, _Germanische Mythen_, p. 630. + + 974 H. B. Guppy, _The Solomon Islands and their Natives_ (London, 1887), + p. 54. + + 975 R. H. Codrington, _The Melanesians_, p. 203. + + 976 Th. Williams, _Fiji and the Fijians_,2 i. 249. + + 977 J. G. Scott and J. P. Hardiman, _Gazetteer of Upper Burma and the + Shan States_, part i. vol. ii. p. 37. + +_ 978 The Zend-Avesta, Vendidad_ Fargaard, xvii. (vol. i. pp. 186 _sqq._, + translated by J. Darmesteter, _Sacred Books of the East_, vol. iv.). + +_ 979 Grihya-Sutras_, translated by H. Oldenberg, part i. p. 57; compare + _id._, pp. 303, 399, part ii. p. 62 (_Sacred Books of the East_, + vols. xxix., xxx.). Compare H. Oldenberg, _Die Religion des Veda_, + p. 487. + +_ 980 Grihya-Sutras_, translated by H. Oldenberg, part ii. pp. 165 _sq._, + 218. + + 981 R. W. Felkin, "Notes on the Madi or Moru Tribe of Central Africa," + _Proceedings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh_, xii. (1882-84) p. + 332. + + 982 Fr. Stuhlmann, _Mit Emin Pascha ins Herz von Afrika_, p. 185 note. + The same thing was told me in conversation by the Rev. J. Roscoe, + missionary to Uganda; but I understood him to mean that the hair was + not carelessly disposed of, but thrown away in some place where it + would not easily be found. + + 983 Fr. Stuhlmann, _op. cit._ pp. 516 _sq._ + + 984 J. Macdonald, _Light in Africa_, p. 209; _id._, "Manners, Customs, + Superstitions and Religions of South African Tribes," _Journal of + the Anthropological Institute_, xx. (1891) p. 131. + + 985 A. Steedman, _Wanderings and Adventures in the Interior of Southern + Africa_ (London, 1835), i. 266. + +_ 986 Emin Pasha in Central Africa, being a Collection of his Letters and + Journals_ (London, 1888), p. 74. + + 987 Fr. Stuhlmann, _Mit Emin Pascha ins Herz von Afrika_, p. 625. + + 988 M. Merkel, _Die Masai_ (Berlin, 1904), p. 243. + + 989 J. L. Wilson, _Western Africa_, p. 215. + + 990 Ch. Partridge, _Cross River Natives_ (London, 1905), pp. 8, 203 + _sq._ + + 991 James Teit, "The Thompson River Indians of British Columbia," + _Memoir of the American Museum of Natural History, The Jesup North + Pacific Expedition_, vol. i. part iv. (April 1900) p. 360. + + 992 N. P. Wilken en J. A. Schwarz, "Allerlei over het land en volk van + Bolaang Mongondou," _Mededeelingen van wege het Nederlandsche + Zendelinggenootschap_, xi. (1867) p. 322. + + 993 I. V. Zingerle, _Sitten, Braeuche und Meinungen des Tiroler Volkes_2 + (Innsbruck, 1871), §§ 176, 580; _Melusine_, 1878, col. 79; E. + Monseur, _Le Folklore Wallon_, p. 91. + + 994 Pliny, _Nat. Hist._, xxviii. 35; Theophrastus, _Characters_, "The + Superstitious Man"; Theocritus, _id._ vi. 39, vii. 127; Persius, + _Sat._ ii. 31 _sqq._ At the siege of Danzig in 1734, when the old + wives saw a bomb coming, they used to spit thrice and cry, "Fi, ti, + fi, there comes the dragon!" in the persuasion that this secured + them against being hit (Tettau und Temme, _Die Volkssagen + Ostpreussens, Litthauens und Westpreussens_ (Berlin, 1837), p. 284). + For more examples, see J. E. B. Mayor on Juvenal, _Sat._ vii. 112; + J. E. Crombie, "The Saliva Superstition," _International Folk-lore + Congress_, 1891, _Papers and Transactions_, pp. 249 sq.; C. de + Mensignac, _Recherches ethnographiques sur la salive et le crachat_ + (Bordeaux, 1892), pp. 50 _sqq._; F. W. Nicolson, "The Saliva + Superstition in Classical Literature," _Harvard Studies in Classical + Philology_, viii. (1897) pp. 35 _sqq._ + + M171 Cut hair and nails kept against the resurrection. + + 995 Garcilasso de la Vega, _First Part of the Royal Commentaries of the + Yncas_, bk. ii. ch. 7 (vol. i. p. 127, Markham's translation). + +_ 996 Melusine_, 1878, coll. 583 _sq._ + +_ 997 The People of Turkey_, by a Consul's daughter and wife, ii. 250. + + 998 M. Abeghian, _Der armenische Volksglaube_, p. 68. + + 999 G. F. Abbott, _Macedonian Folklore_ (Cambridge, 1903), p. 214. + + 1000 M. Quedenfelt, "Aberglaube und halbreligioese Bruderschaft bei den + Marokkanern," _Verhandlungen der Berliner Gesellschaft fuer + Anthropologie, Ethnologie und Urgeschichte_, 1886, p. (680). + + 1001 Le P. A. Jaussen, _Coutumes des Arabes au pays de Moab_ (Paris, + 1908), p. 94 note 1. + + 1002 Boecler-Kreutzwald, _Der Ehsten aberglaeubische Gebraeuche, Weisen und + Gewohnheiten_, p. 139; F. J. Wiedemann, _Aus dem innern und aeussern + Leben der Ehsten_, p. 491. + + 1003 L. F. Sauve, _Le Folk-lore des Hautes-Vosges_ (Paris, 1889), p. 41. + + 1004 Miss A. H. Singleton, in a letter to me, dated Rathmoyle House, + Abbeyleix, Ireland, 24th February 1904. + + 1005 Dr. Antoine Petit, in Th. Lefebvre, _Voyage en Abyssinie_, i. 373. + + 1006 J. J. M. de Groot, _The Religious System of China_, i. 342 _sq._ + (Leyden, 1892). + + 1007 R. W. Felkin, "Notes on the For Tribe of Central Africa," + _Proceedings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh_, xiii. (1884-86) p. + 230. + + M172 Cut hair and nails burnt to prevent them from falling into the hands + of sorcerers. + + 1008 A. D'Orbigny, _Voyage dans l'Amerique meridionale_, ii. 93; Lieut. + Musters, "On the Races of Patagonia," _Journal of the + Anthropological Institute_, i. (1872) p. 197; J. Dawson, _Australian + Aborigines_, p. 36. The Patagonians sometimes throw their hair into + a river instead of burning it. + + 1009 L. F. Sauve, _Le Folk-lore des Hautes-Vosges_, p. 170. + + 1010 Z. Zanetti, _La Medicina delle nostre donne_ (Citta di Castello, + 1892), pp. 234 _sq._ + + 1011 A. B. Ellis, _The Ewe-speaking Peoples of the Slave Coast_, p. 99; + Miss Mary H. Kingsley, _Travels in West Africa_, p. 447; R. H. + Nassau, _Fetichism in West Africa_ (London, 1904), p. 83; A. F. + Mockler-Ferryman, _British Nigeria_ (London, 1902), p. 286; David + Livingstone, _Narrative of Expedition to the Zambesi_, pp. 46 _sq._; + W. Ellis, _Polynesian Researches_,2 i. 365. In some parts of New + Guinea cut hair is destroyed for the same reason (H. H. Romilly, + _From my Verandah in New Guinea_, London, 1889, p. 83). + + 1012 W. H. Furness, _The Island of Stone Money, Uap of the Carolines_ + (Philadelphia and London, 1910), P. 137. + + 1013 Fr. Stuhlmann, _Mit Emin Pascha ins Herz von Afrika_, p. 451. + + 1014 W. E. Roth, _North Queensland Ethnography, Bulletin No. 5_ + (Brisbane, 1903), p. 21. + + 1015 Captain R. Fitzroy, _Narrative of the Surveying Voyages of His + Majesty's Ships Adventure and Beagle_, i. (London, 1839). pp. 313 + _sq._ + + 1016 J. Teit, "The Thompson Indians of British Columbia," _Memoir of the + American Museum of Natural History, The Jesup North Pacific + Expedition_, vol. i. part iv. (April 1900) p. 360. + + 1017 I. V. Zingerle, _Sitten, Braeuche und Meinungen des Tiroler Volkes_2 + (Innsbruck, 1871), p. 28, §§ 177, 179, 180. + + 1018 U. Jahn, _Hexenwesen und Zauberei in Pommern_ (Breslau, 1886), p. + 15; _Melusine_, 1878, col. 79; E. Monseur, _Le Folklore Wallon_, p. + 91. + + 1019 E. H. Meyer, _Indogermanische Mythen_, ii. _Achilleis_ (Berlin, + 1877), p. 523. + + 1020 P. Lowell, _Chosoen, the Land of the Morning Calm, a Sketch of Korea_ + (London, Preface dated 1885), pp. 199-201; Mrs. Bishop, _Korea and + her Neighbours_ (London, 1898), ii. 55 _sq._ + + M173 Inconsistency in burning cut hair and nails. + M174 Hair is sometimes cut because it is infected with the virus of + taboo. In these cases hair-cutting is a form of purification. Hair + of mourners cut to rid them of the pollution of death. + + 1021 Above, p. 276. + + 1022 Above, pp. 4, 131, 139, 145, 156. + + 1023 W. Ridley, "Report on Australian Languages and Traditions," _Journal + of the Anthropological Institute_, ii. (1873) p. 268. + + 1024 Fr. Stuhlmann, _Mit Emin Pascha ins Herz von Afrika_, p. 795. + + 1025 F. de Castelnau, _Expedition dans les parties centrales de + l'Amerique du Sud_, v. (Paris, 1851) p. 46. + + 1026 J. Roscoe, "Further Notes on the Manners and Customs of the + Baganda," _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxxii. (1902) + p. 34. + + 1027 See G. A. Wilken, _Ueber das Haaropfer und einige andere + Trauergebraeuche bei den Voelkern Indonesiens_, pp. 94 _sqq._ + (reprinted from the _Revue Coloniale Internationale_, Amsterdam, + 1886-87); H. Ploss, _Das Kind in Brauch und Sitte der Voelker_,2 i. + 289 _sqq._; K. Potkanski, "Die Ceremonie der Haarschur bei den + Slaven und Germanen," _Anzeiger der Akademie der Wissenschaften in + Krakau_, May 1896, pp. 232-251. + + 1028 Above, p. 261. + + 1029 Above, pp. 111 _sqq._ + + 1030 J. Campbell, _Travels in South Africa, Second Journey_ (London, + 1822), ii. 205. + + 1031 H. Oldenberg, _Die Religion des Veda_, pp. 426 _sq._ + + 1032 L. F. Alfred Maury, "Les Populations primitives du nord de + l'Hindoustan," _Bulletin de la Societe de Geographie_ (Paris), IVme + Serie, vii. (1854) p. 197. + + 1033 Lucian, _De dea Syria_, 53. + + 1034 A. B. Ellis, _The Ewe-speaking Peoples of the Slave Coast_, p. 160. + + 1035 W. H. Furness, _Folk-lore in Borneo_ (Wallingford, Pennsylvania, + 1899; privately printed), p. 28. + + 1036 B. Gutmann, "Trauer und Begraebnissitten der Wadschagga," _Globus_, + lxxxix. (1906) p. 198. + + 1037 Miss A. Werner, _The Natives of British Central Africa_ (London, + 1906), pp. 165, 166, 167. + + 1038 J. M. Hildebrandt, "Ethnographische Notizen ueber Wakamba und ihre + Nachbarn," _Zeitschrift fuer Ethnologie_, x. (1878) p. 395. Children + who are born in an unusual position, the second born of twins, and + children whose upper teeth appear before the lower, are similarly + exposed by the Akikuyu. The mother is regarded as unclean, not so + much because she has exposed, as because she has given birth to such + a child. + + 1039 Monier Williams, _Religious Thought and Life in India_, p. 375. + + 1040 Strabo, xii. 2. 3, p. 535; Pausanias, viii. 34. 3. In two paintings + on Greek vases we see Apollo in his character of the purifier + preparing to cut off the hair of Orestes. See _Monumenti inediti_, + 1847, pl. 48; _Annali dell' Instituto di Corrispondenza + Archeologica_, 1847, pl. x.; _Archaeologische Zeitung_, 1860, pll. + cxxxvii. cxxxviii.; L. Stephani, in _Compte rendu de la Commission + archeologique_ (St. Petersburg), 1863, pp. 271 _sq._ + + M175 People may be bewitched by means of their spittle. Hence people take + care of their spittle to prevent it from falling into the hands of + sorcerers. + + 1041 C. Martin, "Ueber die Eingeborenen von Chiloe," _Zeitschrift fuer + Ethnologie_, ix. (1877) pp. 177 _sq._ + + 1042 J. Mooney, "Sacred Formulas of the Cherokees," _Seventh Annual + Report of the Bureau of Ethnology_ (Washington, 1891), pp. 392 _sq._ + + 1043 B. C. A. J. van Dinter, "Eenige geographische en ethnographische + aanteekeningen betreffende het eiland Siaoe," _Tijdschrift voor + Indische Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde_, xii. (1899) p. 381. + + 1044 A. W. Howitt, "On Australian Medicine-men," _Journal of the + Anthropological Institute_, xvi. (1887) p. 27; _id._, _Native Tribes + of South-east Australia_, p. 365. + + 1045 E. Dieffenbach, _Travels in New Zealand_ (London, 1843), ii. 59. + + 1046 Rev. J. Macdonald, _Light in Africa_, p. 209; _id._, in _Journal of + the Anthropological Institute_, xx. (1891) p. 131. + + 1047 C. le Gobin, _Histoire des Isles Marianes_ (Paris, 1700), p. 52. The + writer confesses his ignorance of the reason of the custom. + + 1048 C. de Mensignac, _Recherches ethnographiques sur la salive et le + crachat_ (Bordeaux, 1892), pp. 48 _sq._ + + 1049 Vahness, reported by F. von Luschan, in _Verhandlungen der Berliner + Gesellschaft fuer Anthropologie, Ethnologie und Urgeschichte_, 1900, + p. (416). + + 1050 K. Vetter, _Komm herueber und hilf uns!_ iii. (Barmen, 1898) pp. 9 + _sq._ + +_ 1051 Indian Antiquary_, xxviii. (1899) pp. 83 _sq._ + + M176 Precautions taken by chiefs, kings, and wizards to guard their + spittle from being put to evil uses by magicians. + + 1052 W. Ellis, _Polynesian Researches_,2 i. 365. + + 1053 A. B. Ellis, _The Ewe-speaking Peoples of the Slave Coast_, p. 99. + + 1054 C. Partridge, _Cross River Natives_ (London, 1905), p. 8. + + 1055 A. Raffenel, _Voyage dans l'Afrique occidentale_ (Paris, 1846), p. + 338. + + 1056 C. de Mensignac, _op. cit._ p. 48. + +_ 1057 Mission Evangelica al reyno de Congo por la serafica religion de + los Capuchinos_ (Madrid, 1649), p. 70 verso. + + 1058 R. Andree, _Ethnographische Parallelen und Vergleiche_, Neue Folge + (Leipsic, 1889), p. 13. + + 1059 F. W. Christian, _The Caroline Islands_ (London, 1899), pp. 289 + _sq._ + + 1060 R. Southey, _History of Brazil_, i.2 (London, 1822) pp. 127, 138. + + M177 Use of spittle in making a covenant. + + 1061 J. Raum, "Blut und Speichelbuende bei den Wadschagga," _Archiv fuer + Religionswissenschaft_, x. (1907) pp. 290 _sq._ + + M178 Certain foods are tabooed to sacred persons, such as kings, chiefs, + priests, and other sacred persons. + + 1062 Above, pp. 13 _sq._ + + 1063 Porphyry, _De abstinentia_, iii. 18. + + 1064 A. Bastian, _Die deutsche Expedition an der Loango-Kueste_, ii. 170. + The blood may perhaps be drunk by them as a medium of inspiration. + See _The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, vol. i. pp. 381 + _sqq._ + + 1065 O. Dapper, _Description de l'Afrique_, p. 336. + + 1066 T. J. Hutchinson, _Impressions of Western Africa_ (London, 1858), p. + 198. + + 1067 M. Merker, _Die Masai_ (Berlin, 1904), p. 21. + + 1068 J. G. Frazer, _Totemism and Exogamy_, ii. 526 _sqq._, from + information furnished by the Rev. J. Roscoe. + + 1069 G. Watt (quoting Col. W. J. M'Culloch), "The Aboriginal Tribes of + Manipur," in _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xvi. (1887) + p. 360. + + 1070 T. C. Hodson, "The Native Tribes of Manipur," _Journal of the + Anthropological Institute_, xxxi. (1901) p. 306. + +_ 1071 Indian Antiquary_, xxi. (1892) pp. 317 _sq._; (Sir) J. G. Scott and + J. P. Hardiman, _Gazetteer of Upper Burma and the Shan States_, part + ii. vol. i. p. 308. + + 1072 "Die Pschawen und Chewsuren im Kaukasus," _Zeitschrift fuer + allgemeine Erdkunde_, ii. (1857) p. 76. + + 1073 A. Senfft, "Ethnographische Beitraege ueber die Karolineninsel Yap," + _Petermanns Mitteilungen_, xlix. (1903) p. 54. In Gall, another + village of the same island, the people grow bananas for sale, but + will not eat them themselves, fearing that if they did so the women + of the village would be barren (_ibid._). + + M179 Knots and rings not worn by certain sacred persons. Knots loosed and + locks unlocked at childbirth to facilitate delivery. + + 1074 Aulus Gellius, x. 15. 6 and 9. See above, p. 13. + + 1075 E. Doutte, _Magie et religion dans l'Afrique du Nord_, pp. 87 _sq._ + + 1076 J. Hillner, _Volksthuemlicher Brauch und Glaube bei Geburt und Taufe + im Siebenbuerger Sachsenlande_, p. 15. This tractate (of which I + possess a copy) appears to be a programme of the High School + (_Gymnasium_) at Schaessburg in Transylvania for the school year + 1876-1877. + + 1077 C. Leemius, _De Lapponibus Finmarchiac eorumque lingua, vita, et + religione pristina commentatio_ (Copenhagen, 1767), p. 494. + + 1078 W. Caland, _Altindisches Zauberritual_ (Amsterdam, 1900), p. 108. + + 1079 Servius on Virgil, _Aen._ iii. 518. + + 1080 J. Kreemer, "Hoe de Javaan zijne zieken verzorgt," _Mededeelingen + van wege het Nederlandsche Zendelinggenootschap_, xxxvi. (1892) p. + 114; C. M. Pleyte, "Plechtigheden en gebruiken uit den cyclus van + het familienleven der volken van den Indischen Archipel," _Bijdragen + tot de Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde van Nederlandsch-Indie_, xli. + (1892) p. 586. + + 1081 H. Ling Roth, _The Natives of Sarawak and British North Borneo_, i. + 98. + + 1082 Spenser St. John, _Life in the Forests of the Far East_,2 i. 170. + + 1083 J. G. F. Riedel, "Alte Gebraeuche bei Heirathen, Geburt und + Sterbefaellen bei dem Toumbuluh-Stamm in der Minahasa (Nord + Selebes)," _Internationales Archiv fuer Ethnographie_, viii. (1895) + pp. 95 _sq._ + + 1084 Spencer and Gillen, _Northern Tribes of Central Australia_, pp. 606 + _sq._ + + M180 On the principles of homoeopathic magic knots are impediments which + tie up the mother and prevent her from bringing the child to the + birth. All locks, doors, drawers, windows, etc. opened in order to + facilitate childbirth. + + 1085 J. Spieth, _Die Ewe-Staemme_, p. 692. + + 1086 J. Spieth, _Die Ewe-Staemme_, pp. 433 _sq._ + + 1087 J. A. E. Koehler, _Volksbrauch, Aberglauben, Sagen und andre alte + Ueberlieferungen im Voigtlande_, pp. 435 _sq._; A. Wuttke, _Der + deutsche Volksaberglaube_,2 p. 355, § 574. + + 1088 J. G. Campbell, _Superstitions of the Highlands and Islands of + Scotland_, p. 37. note 1. + + 1089 Festus, p. 56, ed. C. O. Mueller. + + 1090 G. F. D'Penha, "Superstitions and Customs in Salsette," _Indian + Antiquary_, xxviii. (1899) p. 115. + + 1091 H. Ris, "De onderafdeeling Klein Mandailing Oeloe en Pahantan en + hare Bevolking," _Bijdragen tot de Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde van + Nederlandsch-Indie_, xlvi. (1896) p. 503. Compare A. L. van Hasselt, + _Volksbeschrijving van Midden Sumatra_, p. 266. + + 1092 J. H. Meerwaldt, "Gebruiken der Bataks in het maatschappelijk + leven," _Mededeelingen van wege het Nederlandsche + Zendelinggenootschap_, xlix. (1905) p. 117. + + 1093 H. K[ern], "Bijgeloof onder de inlanders in den Oosthoek van Java," + _Tijdschrift voor Indische Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde_, xxvi. (1880) + 310; J. Kreemer, "Hoe de Javaan zijne zieken verzorgt," + _Mededeelingen van wege het Nederlandsche Zendelinggenootschap_, + xxxvi. (1892) pp. 120, 124; D. Louwerier, "Bijgeloovige gebruiken, + die door de Javanen worden in acht genomen bij de verzorging en + opvoeding hunner kinderen," _Mededeelingen van wege het + Nederlandsche Zendelinggenootschap_, xlix. (1905) p. 253. + + 1094 A. W. P. V. Pistorius, _Studien over de inlandsche huishouding in de + Padangsche Bovenlanden_ (Zalt-Bommel, 1871), pp. 55 _sq._; A. L. van + Hasselt, _Volksbeschrijving van Midden-Sumatra_ (Leyden, 1882), p. + 266; J. G. F. Riedel, _De sluik- en kroesharige rassen tusschen + Selebes en Papua_ (the Hague, 1886), pp. 135, 207, 325. + + 1095 Th. Berengier, "Croyances superstitieuses dans le pays de + Chittagong," _Missions Catholiques_, xiii. (1881) p. 515. + + 1096 Damien Grangeon, "Les Chams et leurs superstitions," _Missions + Catholiques_, xxviii. (1896) p. 93. + + 1097 A. A. Perera, "Glimpses of Singhalese Social Life," _Indian + Antiquary_, xxxi. (1902) p. 378. + + 1098 B. Pilsudski, "Schwangerschaft, Entbindung und Fehlgeburt bei den + Bewohnern der Insel Sachalin," _Anthropos_, v. (1910) p. 759. + + 1099 E. M. Gordon, _Indian Folk Tales_ (London, 1908), p. 39. + + 1100 R. Campbell Thompson, _Semitic Magic_ (London, 1908), p. 169. + + M181 On the principles of homoeopathic magic the crossing of the legs is + also thought to impede childbirth and other things. + + 1101 Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ xxviii. 59. Compare Hippocrates, _De morbo + sacro_, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}; {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI AND PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} (vol. i. p. 589, ed. Kuehn, Leipsic, 1825, + quoted by E. Rohde, _Psyche_,3 ii. 76 note 1). + + 1102 Ovid, _Metam._ ix. 285 _sqq._ Antoninus Liberalis, quoting Nicander, + says it was the Fates and Ilithyia who impeded the birth of + Hercules, but though he says they clasped their hands, he does not + say that they crossed their legs (_Transform._ 29). Compare + Pausanias, ix. 11. 3. + + 1103 A. Strausz, _Die Bulgaren_ (Leipsic, 1898), p. 293. + + 1104 F. Panzer, _Beitrag zur deutschen Mythologie_, ii. 303. + + M182 Knots are supposed to prevent the consummation of marriage. Knots + loosed in the costume of bride and bridegroom in order to ensure the + consummation of the marriage. Knots tied by enchanters to render the + bridegroom impotent. + + 1105 J. Grimm, _Deutsche Mythologie_,4 ii. 897, 983; J. Brand, _Popular + Antiquities_, iii. 299; J. G. Dalyell, _Darker Superstitions of + Scotland_, pp. 302, 306 _sq._; B. Souche, _Croyances, presages et + traditions diverses_, p. 16; J. G. Bourke, in _Ninth Annual Report + of the Bureau of Ethnology_ (Washington, 1892), p. 567. + + 1106 J. G. Dalyell, _ll.cc._ + + 1107 Rev. Dr. Th. Bisset, in Sir John Sinclair's _Statistical Account of + Scotland_, v. (Edinburgh, 1793) p. 83. In his account of the second + tour which he made in Scotland in the summer of 1772, Pennant says + that "the precaution of loosening every knot about the new-joined + pair is strictly observed" (Pinkerton's _Voyages and Travels_, iii. + 382). He is here speaking particularly of the Perthshire Highlands. + + 1108 Pennant, "Tour in Scotland," Pinkerton's _Voyages and Travels_, iii. + 91. However, at a marriage in the island of Skye, the same traveller + observed that "the bridegroom put all the powers of magic to + defiance, for he was married with both shoes tied with their + latchet" (Pennant, "Second Tour in Scotland," Pinkerton's _Voyages + and Travels_, iii. 325). According to another writer the shoe-tie of + the bridegroom's _right_ foot was unloosed at the church-door (Ch. + Rogers, _Social Life in Scotland_, iii. 232). + + 1109 Eijueb Abela, "Beitraege zur Kenntniss aberglaeubischer Gebraeuche in + Syrien," _Zeitschrift des deutschen Palaestina-Vereins_, vii. (1884) + pp. 91 _sq._ + + 1110 Georgeakis et Pineau, _Folk-lore de Lesbos_, pp. 344 _sq._ + + 1111 E. Doutte, _Magie et religion dans l'Afrique du Nord_, pp. 288-292. + + M183 Use of knots at marriage in the island of Rotti. + + 1112 "Eenige mededeelingen betreffende Rote door een inlandischen + Schoolmeester," _Tijdschrift voor Indische Taal- Land- en + Volkenkunde_, xxvii. (1882) p. 554; N. Graafland, "Eenige + aanteekeningen op ethnographisch gebied ten aanzien van het eiland + Rote," _Mededeelingen van wege het Nederlandsche + Zendelinggenootschap_, xxxiii. (1889) pp. 373 _sq._ + + M184 Knots may be used to inflict disease. + + 1113 J. Spieth, _Die Ewe-Staemme_, p. 533. + + 1114 M. Jastrow, _The Religion of Babylonia and Assyria_, pp. 268, 270. + + 1115 J. G. Dalyell, _Darker Superstitions of Scotland_, p. 307. + +_ 1116 Al Baidawi's Commentary on the Koran_, chap. 113, verse 4. I have + to thank my friend Prof. A. A. Bevan for indicating this passage to + me, and furnishing me with a translation of it. + + 1117 E. Palmer, "Notes on some Australian Tribes," _Journal of the + Anthropological Institute_, xiii. (1884) p. 293. The Tahitians + ascribed certain painful illnesses to the twisting and knotting of + their insides by demons (W. Ellis, _Polynesian Researches_,2 i. + 363). + + M185 Knots may be used to cure disease. + + 1118 Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ xxviii. 48. + + 1119 C. Fossey, _La Magie assyrienne_ (Paris, 1902), pp. 83 sq.; R. + Campbell Thompson, _Semitic Magic_ (London, 1908), pp. 164 _sqq._ + + 1120 R. Campbell Thompson, _Semitic Magic_, pp. 168 _sq._ + + 1121 E. O'Donovan, _The Merv Oasis_ (London, 1882), ii. 319. + + 1122 J. Spieth, _Die Ewe-Staemme_, p. 531. + + 1123 R. C. Maclagan, M.D., "Notes on Folklore Objects collected in + Argyleshire," _Folk-lore_, vi. (1895) pp. 154-156. In the north-west + of Ireland divination by means of a knotted thread is practised in + order to discover whether a sick beast will recover or die. See E. + B. Tylor, in _International Folk-lore Congress_, 1891, _Papers and + Transactions_, pp. 391 _sq._ + + 1124 R. Chambers, _Popular Rhymes of Scotland_, New Edition, p. 349. + Grimm has shewn that the words of this charm are a very ancient + spell for curing a lame horse, a spell based on an incident in the + myth of the old Norse god Balder, whose foal put its foot out of + joint and was healed by the great master of spells, the god Woden. + See J. Grimm, _Deutsche Mythologie_,4 i. 185, ii. 1030 _sq._ Christ + has been substituted for Balder in the more modern forms of the + charm both in Scotland and Germany. + + 1125 W. Crooke, _Popular Religion and Folk-lore of Northern India_ + (Westminster, 1896), i. 279. + + M186 Knots may be used to win a lover or capture a runaway slave. + + 1126 Virgil, _Ecl._ viii. 78-80. Highland sorcerers also used three + threads of different colours with three knots tied on each thread. + See J. G. Dalyell, _Darker Superstitions of Scotland_, p. 306. + + 1127 J. Wellhausen, _Reste arabischen Heidentums_2 (Berlin, 1897), p. + 163. + + 1128 Dudley Kidd, _The Essential Kafir_, p. 263. + + 1129 C. Velten, _Sitten und Gebraeuche der Suaheli_ (Goettingen, 1903), p. + 317. + + M187 Knots tied by hunters and travellers. + + 1130 David Leslie, _Among the Zulus and Amatongas_ (Edinburgh, 1875), p. + 147. + +_ 1131 Grihya-Sutras_, translated by H. Oldenberg, part i. p. 432, part + ii. p. 127 (Sacred Books of the East, vols. xxix., xxx.). + + 1132 J. Shooter, _The Kafirs of Natal and the Zulu Country_ (London, + 1857), pp. 217 _sq._ + + 1133 E. Aymonier, _Notes sur le Laos_ (Saigon, 1885), pp. 23 _sq._ + + 1134 Vetter, in _Mitteilungen der geographischen Gesellschaft zu Jena_, + xii. (1893) p. 95. + + M188 Knots and locks used as protective amulets in Russia and elsewhere. + + 1135 W. R. S. Ralston, _Songs of the Russian People_, pp. 388-390. + + 1136 Ovid, _Fasti_, ii. 577 _sqq._; compare W. Warde Fowler, _Roman + Festivals of the Period of the Republic_, pp. 309 _sq._ + +_ 1137 Geoponica_, i. 14. + + 1138 M. Abeghian, _Der armenische Volksglaube_, p. 115. + + 1139 M. Abeghian, _op. cit._ p. 91. + + 1140 V. Titelbach, "Das heilige Feuer bei den Balkanslaven," + _Internationales Archiv fuer Ethnographie_, xiii. (1900) p. 3. + + 1141 A. Heinrich, _Agrarische Sitten und Gebraeuche unter den Sachsen + Siebenbuergens_ (Hermannstadt, 1880), p. 9. + + 1142 C. J. R. Le Mesurier, "Customs and Superstitions connected with the + Cultivation of Rice in the Southern Province of Ceylon," _Journal of + the Royal Asiatic Society_, N.S., xvii. (1885) p. 371. + + 1143 J. G. Dalyell, _Darker Superstitions of Scotland_, p. 307. + + 1144 J. Brand, _Popular Antiquities_, ii. 231 (Bohn's edition); R. Hunt, + _Popular Romances of the West of England_, p. 379; T. F. Thiselton + Dyer, _English Folk-lore_, pp. 229 _sq._ On the other hand the + Karaits, a Jewish sect in the Crimea, lock all cupboards when a + person is in the last agony, lest their contents should be polluted + by the contagion of death. See S. Weissenberg, "Die Karaeer der + Krim," _Globus_, lxxxiv. (1903) p. 143. + + 1145 Extract from _The Times_ of 4th September 1863, quoted in + _Folk-lore_, xix. (1908) p. 336. + + 1146 M. Merker, _Die Masai_ (Berlin, 1904), p. 98. + + M189 The magical virtue of a knot is always that of an impediment or + hindrance whether for good or evil. + + 1147 H. Runge, "Volksglaube in der Schweiz," _Zeitschrift fuer deutsche + Mythologie und Sittenkunde_, iv. (1859) p. 178, § 25. The belief is + reported from Zurich. + + 1148 J. G. Campbell, _Witchcraft and Second Sight in the Highlands and + Islands of Scotland_, p. 174; _id._, _Superstitions of the Highlands + and Islands of Scotland_, p. 241. + + 1149 E. Gerard, _The Land beyond the Forest_, i. 208. + + 1150 R. F. Kaindl, "Volksueberlieferungen der Pidhireane," _Globus_, + lxxiii. (1898) p. 251. + + 1151 A. C. Hollis, _The Nandi_ (Oxford, 1909), pp. 89 _sq._ The tying and + untying of magic knots was forbidden by the Coptic church, but we + are not told the purposes for which the knots were used. See _Il + Fetha Nagast o legislazione dei re, codice ecclesiastico e civile di + Abissinia_, tradotto e annotato da Ignazio Guidi (Rome, 1899), p. + 140. + + M190 The rule that at certain magical and religious rites the hair should + be loose and the feet bare is probably based on a fear of the + impediment which is thought to be caused by any knot or + constriction. Custom of going on certain solemn occasions with one + shoe on and one shoe off. + + 1152 For examples see Horace, _Sat._ i. 8, 23 _sq._; Virgil, _Aen._ iii. + 370, iv. 509; Ovid, _Metam._ vii. 182 _sq._; Tibullus, i. 3. 29-32; + Petronius, _Sat._ 44; Aulus Gellius, iv. 3. 3; Columella, _De re + rustica_, x. 357-362; Athenaeus, v. 28, p. 198 E; Dittenberger, + _Sylloge inscriptionum Graecarum_,2 Nos. 653 (lines 23 _sq._) and + 939; Ch. Michel, _Recueil d'inscriptions grecques_, No. 694. Compare + Servius on Virgil, _Aen._ iv. 518, "_In sacris nihil solet esse + religatum._" + + 1153 Ovid, _Fasti_, iii. 257 _sq._ + + 1154 Thucydides, iii. 22. + + 1155 Schol. on Pindar, _Pyth._ iv. 133. + + 1156 Virgil, _Aen._ vii. 689 _sq._ + + 1157 Pindar, _Pyth._ iv. 129 _sqq._: Apollonius Rhodius, _Argonaut._ i. 5 + _sqq._; Apollodorus, i. 9. 16. + + 1158 Artemidorus, _Onirocrit._ iv. 63. At Chemmis in Upper Egypt there + was a temple of Perseus, and the people said that from time to time + Perseus appeared to them and they found his great sandal, two cubits + long, which was a sign of prosperity for the whole land of Egypt. + See Herodotus, ii. 91. + +_ 1159 Gazette archeologique_, 1884, plates 44, 45, 46 with the remarks of + De Witte and F. Lenormant, pp. 352 _sq._ The skin on which the man + is crouching is probably the so-called "fleece of Zeus" ({~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}), as to which see Hesychius and Suidas, _s.v._; Polemo, ed. + Preller, pp. 140-142; C. A. Lobeck, _Aglaophamus_, pp. 183 _sqq._ + Compare my note on Pausanias, ii. 31. 8. + + 1160 Virgil, _Aen._ iv. 517 _sqq._ + + 1161 I. Goldziher, "Der Diwan des Garwal b. Aus Al-Hutej' a," + _Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenlaendischen Gesellschaft_, xlvi. + (1892) p. 5. + + M191 The intention of going with one shoe on and one shoe off on such + occasions seems to be to free the man so attired from magical + constraint and to lay it on his enemy. + + 1162 See Servius, on Virgil, _Aen._ iii. 370: "_In ratione sacrorum par + est et animae et corporis causa: nam plerumque quae non possunt + circa animam fieri fiunt circa corpus, ut solvere vel ligare, quo + possit anima, quod per se non potest, ex cognatione sentire._" + + 1163 Livy, i. 18. 7. + + 1164 "_UNUM EXUTA PEDEM quia id agitur, ut et ista solvatur et implicetur + Aeneas_," Servius, on Virgil, _Aen._ iv. 518. + + M192 Rings also are regarded as magical fetters which prevent the egress + or ingress of spirits. + + 1165 "On a Far-off Island," _Blackwood's Magazine_, February 1886, p. + 238. + + 1166 Clement of Alexandria, _Strom._ v. 5. 28, p. 662, ed. Potter; + Jamblichus, _Adhortatio ad philosophiam_, 23; Plutarch, _De + educatione puerorum_, 17. According to others, all that Pythagoras + forbade was the wearing of a ring on which the likeness of a god was + engraved (Diogenes Laertius, viii. 1. 17; Porphyry, _Vit. Pythag._ + 42; Suidas, _s.v._ {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}); according to Julian a ring was only + forbidden if it bore the names of the gods (Julian, _Or._ vii. p. + 236 D, p. 306 ed. Dindorf). I have shewn elsewhere that the maxims + or symbols of Pythagoras, as they were called, are in great measure + merely popular superstitions (_Folk-lore_, i. (1890) pp. 147 + _sqq._). + + 1167 This we learn from an inscription found on the site. See {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH OXIA~}, Athens, 1898, col. 249; Dittenberger, _Sylloge + inscriptionum Graecarum_,2 No. 939. + + 1168 Ovid, _Fasti_, iv. 657 _sq._ + + M193 Rings worn as amulets against demons, witches, and ghosts. Reason + why the Flamen Dialis might not wear knots and rings. + + 1169 I. V. Zingerle, _Sitten, Braeuche und Meinungen des Tiroler Volkes_,2 + p. 3. + + 1170 J. Scheffer, _Lapponia_ (Frankfort, 1673), p. 313. + + 1171 R. F. Kaindl, _Die Huzulen_ (Vienna, 1894), p. 89; _id._, "Viehzucht + und Viehzauber in den Ostkarpaten," _Globus_, lxix. (1896) p. 386. + + 1172 W. Crooke, _Popular Religion and Folk-lore of Northern India_ + (Westminster, 1896), ii. 13, 16. + + 1173 M. Merker, _Die Masai_ (Berlin, 1904), p. 143. + + 1174 M. Merker, _op. cit._ pp. 200 _sq._, 202; compare, _id._ p. 250. + + 1175 Above, p. 267. + + 1176 Above, pp. 32, 51. + + 1177 Above, p. 31. + + 1178 De la Borde, "Relation de l'origine, etc., des Caraibes sauvages," + p. 15, in _Recueil de divers voyages faits en Afrique et en + l'Amerique_ (Paris, 1684). + + 1179 A considerable body of evidence as to rings and the virtues + attributed to them has been collected by Mr. W. Jones in his work + _Finger-ring Lore_ (London, 1877). See also W. G. Black, + _Folk-medicine_, pp. 172-177. + + 1180 Aulus Gellius, x. 15. 8. See above, p. 14. + + 1181 Marcellinus on Hermogenes, in _Rhetores Graeci_, ed. Walz, iv. 462; + Sopater, _ibid._ viii. 67. + + 1182 Demosthenes, _Contra Androt._ 68, p. 614; P. Foucart, _Le Culte de + Dionysos en Attique_ (Paris, 1904), p. 168. + + 1183 H. A. Oldfield, _Sketches from Nipal_ (London, 1880), ii. 342 _sq._ + + M194 The Gordian knot was perhaps a royal talisman. + + 1184 Arrian, _Anabasis_, ii. 3; Quintus Curtius, iii. 1; Justin, xi. 7; + Schol. on Euripides, _Hippolytus_, 671. + + 1185 Public talismans, on which the safety of the state was supposed to + depend, were common in antiquity. See C. A. Lobeck, _Aglaophamus_, + pp. 278 _sqq._, and my note on Pausanias, viii. 47. 5. + + M195 The savage confuses words and things, and hence regards his name as + a vital part of himself, and fancies that he can be magically + injured through it. + + 1186 On the primitive conception of the relation of names to persons and + things, see E. B. Tylor, _Early History of Mankind_,3 pp. 123 + _sqq._; R. Andree, _Ethnographische Parallelen und Vergleiche_ + (Stuttgart, 1878), pp. 165 _sqq._; E. Clodd, _Tom-tit-tot_ (London, + 1898), pp. 53 _sqq._, 79 _sqq._ In what follows I have used with + advantage the works of all these writers. + + 1187 J. Mooney, "Sacred Formulas of the Cherokees," _Seventh Annual + Report of the Bureau of Ethnology_ (Washington, 1891), p. 343. + + 1188 E. W. Nelson, "The Eskimo about Bering Strait," _Eighteenth Annual + Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology_, part i. (Washington, + 1899) p. 289. + + 1189 A. C. Kruijt, "Van Paloppo naar Posso," _Mededeelingen van wege het + Nederlandsche Zendelinggenootschap_, xlii. (1898) pp. 61 _sq._ + + 1190 Professor (Sir) J. Rhys, "Welsh Fairies," _The Nineteenth Century_, + xxx. (July-December 1891) pp. 566 _sq._ + + M196 The Australian savages keep their names secret lest sorcerers should + injure them by means of their names. + + 1191 A. W. Howitt, _Native Tribes of South-East Australia_, p. 377; + compare _id._ p. 440. + + 1192 R. Brough Smyth, _Aborigines of Victoria_, i. 469, note. + + 1193 C. Lumholtz, _Among Cannibals_ (London, 1889), p. 280. + + 1194 A. W. Howitt, _op. cit._ p. 736. + + 1195 A. W. Howitt, _op. cit._ p. 133. + + 1196 E. M. Curr, _The Australian Race_, i. 46. + + 1197 J. Bulmer, in Brough Smyth's _Aborigines of Victoria_, ii. 94. The + writer appears to mean that the natives feared they would die if any + one, or at any rate, an enemy, learned their real names. + + 1198 Spencer and Gillen, _Native Tribes of Central Australia_, p. 139; + compare _ibid._ p. 637; _id._, _Northern Tribes of Central + Australia_, pp. 584 _sq._ + + M197 The same fear of sorcery has led people to conceal their names in + Egypt, Africa, Asia, and the East Indies. + + 1199 E. Lefebure, "La Vertu et la vie du nom en Egypte," _Melusine_, + viii. (1897) coll. 226 _sq._ + + 1200 Mansfield Parkyns, _Life in Abyssinia_ (London, 1868), pp. 301 _sq._ + +_ 1201 Grihya Sutras_, translated by H. Oldenberg, part i. pp. 50, 183, + 395, part ii. pp. 55, 215, 281; A. Hillebrandt, _Vedische Opfer und + Zauber_, pp. 46, 170 _sq._; W. Caland, _Altindisches Zauberritual_, + p. 162, note 20; D. C. J. Ibbetson, _Outlines of Punjab Ethnography_ + (Calcutta, 1883), p. 118; W. Crooke, _Popular Religion and Folklore + of Northern India_ (Westminster, 1896), i. 24, ii. 5; _id._, + _Natives of Northern India_ (London, 1907), p. 199. + + 1202 A. B. Ellis, _The Tshi-speaking Peoples of the Gold Coast_, p. 109. + + 1203 A. B. Ellis, _The Ewe-speaking Peoples of the Slave Coast_, p. 98. + + 1204 L. J. B. Berenger-Feraud, _Les Peuples de la Senegambie_ (Paris, + 1879), p. 28. + + 1205 E. Modigliani, _Un Viaggio a Nias_ (Milan, 1890), p. 465. + + 1206 T. C. Hodson, "The _genna_ amongst the Tribes of Assam," _Journal of + the Anthropological Institute_, xxxvi. (1906) p. 97. + + 1207 C. de Sabir, "Quelques notes sur les Manegres," _Bulletin de la + Societe de Geographie_ (Paris), Vme Serie, i. (1861) p. 51. + + 1208 A. Schadenburg, "Die Bewohner von Sued-Mindanao und der Insel Samal," + _Zeitschrift fuer Ethnologie_, xvii. (1885) p. 30. + + 1209 J. H. W. van der Miesen, "Een en ander over Boeroe," _Mededeelingen + van wege het Nederlandsche Zendelinggenootschap_, xlvi. (1902) p. + 455; J. W. Meerburg, "Proeve einer beschrijving van land en volk van + Midden-Manggarai (West-Flores), Afdeeling Bima," _Tijdschrift voor + Indische Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde_, xxxiv. (1891) p. 465. + + 1210 F. Kauffmann, _Balder_ (Strasburg, 1902), p. 198. + + M198 The South and Central American Indians also keep their names secret + from fear of sorcery. + + 1211 This I learned from my wife, who spent some years in Chili and + visited the island of Chiloe. + + 1212 E. R. Smith, _The Araucanians_ (London, 1855), p. 222. + + 1213 E. F. im Thurn, _Among the Indians of Guiana_ (London, 1883), p. + 220. + + 1214 F. A. Simons, "An Exploration of the Goajira Peninsula, U.S. of + Colombia," _Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society_, N.S., + vii. (1885) p. 790. + + 1215 Dr. Cullen, "The Darien Indians," _Transactions of the Ethnological + Society of London_, N.S., iv. (1866) p. 265. + + 1216 A. Pinart, "Les Indiens de l'Etat de Panama," _Revue + d'Ethnographie_, vi. (1887) p. 44. + + 1217 C. Lumholtz, _Unknown Mexico_, i. 462. + + M199 Similar superstition as to personal names among the Indians of North + America. + + 1218 H. R. Schoolcraft, _The American Indians, their History, Condition, + and Prospects_ (Buffalo, 1851), p. 213. Compare _id._, _Oneota, or + Characteristics of the Red Race of America_ (New York and London, + 1845), p. 456. + + 1219 H. R. Schoolcraft, _Indian Tribes_, iv. 217. + + 1220 J. G. Bourke, "Notes upon the Religion of the Apache Indians," + _Folk-lore_ ii. (1891) p. 423. + + 1221 A. S. Galschet, _The Karankawa Indians, the Coast People of Texas_ + (_Archaeological and Ethnological Papers of the Peabody Museum, + Harvard University_, vol. i. No. 2), p. 69. + + 1222 S. Powers, _Tribes of California_ (Washington, 1877), p. 315. + + 1223 G. B. Grinnell, _Blackfoot Lodge Tales_, p. 194. + +_ 1224 Relations des Jesuites_, 1633, p. 3 (Canadian reprint, Quebec, + 1858). + + 1225 Peter Jones, _History of the Ojebway Indians_, p. 162. Compare A. P. + Reid, "Religious Beliefs of the Ojibois or Sauteux Indians," + _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, iii. (1874) p. 107. + + M200 Sometimes savages, though they will not utter their own names, do + not object to other people's doing so. + M201 Men who will not mention their own names will yet invite other + people to do so for them. + + 1226 J. Sibree, _The Great African Island_ (London, 1880), p. 289. + + 1227 H. W. Grainge, "Journal of a Visit to Mojanga on the North-West + Coast," _Antananarivo Annual and Madagascar Magazine_, No. i. p. 25 + (reprint of the first four numbers, Antananarivo and London, 1885). + + 1228 J. G. Bourke, "Medicine-men of the Apaches," _Ninth Annual Report of + the Bureau of Ethnology_ (Washington, 1892), p. 461. + + 1229 R. C. Mayne, _Four Years in British Columbia and Vancouver Island_ + (London, 1862), pp. 278 _sq._ + + 1230 J. G. Bourke, _On the Border with Crook_, pp. 131 _sq._ + + 1231 M. Dobrizhoffer, _Historia de Abiponibus_ (Vienna, 1784), ii. 498. + + 1232 E. W. Nelson, "The Eskimo about Bering Strait," _Eighteenth Annual + Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology_, part i. (Washington, + 1899) p. 289. + + 1233 G. A. Wilken, _Handleiding voor de vergelijkende Volkenkunde van + Nederlandsch-Indie_, p. 221. Compare J. H. F. Kohlbrugge, + "Naamgeving in Insulinde," _Bijdragen tot de Taal- Land- en + Volkenkunde van Nederlandsch-Indie_, lii. (1901) pp. 172 _sq._ The + custom is reported for the British settlements in the Straits of + Malacca by T. J. Newbold (_Political and Statistical Account of the + British Settlements in the Straits of Malacca_, London, 1839, ii. + 176); for Sumatra in general by W. Marsden (_History of Sumatra_, + pp. 286 _sq._), and A. L. van Hasselt (_Volksbeschrijving van + Midden-Sumatra_, p. 271); for the Battas by Baron van Hoevell ("Iets + over 't oorlogvoeren der Batta's," _Tijdschrift voor Nederlandsch + Indie_, N.S., vii. (1878) p. 436, note); for the Dyaks by C. Hupe + ("Korte Verhandeling over de Godsdienst, Zeden, enz. der Dajakkers," + _Tijdschrift voor Neerlands Indie_, 1846, dl. iii. p. 250), and W. + H. Furness (_Home-life of Borneo Head-hunters_, Philadelphia, 1902, + p. 16); for the island of Sumba by S. Roos ("Bijdrage tot de Kennis + van Taal, Land en Volk op het Eiland Soemba," p. 70, _Verhandelingen + van het Bataviaasch Genootschap van Kunsten en Wetenschappen_, + xxxvi.); and for Bolang Mongondo, in the west of Celebes, by N. P. + Wilken and J. A. Schwarz ("Allerlei over het land en volk van + Bolaang Mongondou," _Mededeelingen van wege het Nederlandsche + Zendelinggenootschap_, xi. (1867) p. 356). + + 1234 J. Chalmers, _Pioneering in New Guinea_, p. 187. If a Motumotu man + is hard pressed for his name and there is nobody near to help him, + he will at last in a very stupid way mention it himself. + + 1235 O. Schellong, "Ueber Familienleben und Gebraeuche der Papuas der + Umgebung von Finschhafen," _Zeitschrift fuer Ethnologie_, xxi. (1889) + p. 12. Compare M. Krieger, _Neu Guinea_ (Berlin, 1899), p. 172. + + 1236 Th. J. F. van Hasselt, "Gebruik van vermomde Taal door de Nufooren," + _Tijdschrift voor Indische Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde_, xlv. (1902) + p. 279. The Nufoors are a Papuan tribe on Doreh Bay, in Dutch New + Guinea. See _id._, in _Tijdschrift voor Indische Taal- Land- en + Volkenkunde_, xlvi. (1903) p. 287. + + 1237 J. Graf Pfeil, _Studien und Beobachtungen aus der Suedsee_ + (Brunswick, 1899), p. 78; P. A. Kleintitschen, _Die Kuestenbewohner + der Gazellehalbinsel_ (Hiltrup bei Muenster, preface dated Christmas, + 1906), pp. 237 _sq._ + + 1238 J. Macdonald, "Manners, Customs, Superstitions, and Religions of + South African Tribes," _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, + xx. (1891) p. 131. + + 1239 V. L. Cameron, _Across Africa_ (London, 1877), ii. 61. + + 1240 S. L. Hinde and H. Hinde, _The Last of the Masai_ (London, 1901), + pp. 48 _sq._ Compare Sir H. Johnston, _The Uganda Protectorate_ + (London, 1902), ii. 826 _sq._; M. Merker, _Die Masai_ (Berlin, + 1904), p. 56. + + 1241 P. Reichard, "Die Wanjamuesi," _Zeitschrift der Gesellschaft fuer + Erdkunde zu Berlin_, xxiv. (1889) p. 258. + + 1242 J. Roscoe, "Further Notes on the Manners and Customs of the + Baganda," _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxxii. (1902) + p. 29. + + 1243 E. Torday and T. A. Joyce, "Note on the Southern Ba-Mbala," _Man_, + vii. (1907) p. 81. + + M202 Sometimes the prohibition to mention personal names is not permanent + but temporary and contingent. + + 1244 A. C. Hollis, _The Nandi_, p. 43. + + 1245 Rev. J. H. Weeks, "Anthropological Notes on the Bangala of the Upper + Congo River," _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxxix. + (1909) pp. 128, 459. + + 1246 R. Parkinson, _Dreissig Jahre in der Suedsee_, p. 198. + + 1247 Dudley Kidd, _Savage Childhood_, p. 73. + + M203 In order to avoid the use of people's own names, parents are + sometimes named after their children, uncles and aunts after their + nephews and nieces, and so forth. The common custom of naming + parents after their children seems to arise from a reluctance to + mention the real names of persons addressed or directly referred to. + + 1248 E. M. Curr, _The Australian Race_, iii. 545. Similarly among the + Dacotas "there is no secrecy in children's names, but when they grow + up there is a secrecy in men's names" (H. R. Schoolcraft, _Indian + Tribes_, iii. 240). + + 1249 Th. J. F. van Hasselt, "Gebruik van vermomde Taal door de Nufooren," + _Tijdschrift voor Indische Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde_, xlv. (1902) + p. 278. + + 1250 A. C. Kruijt, "Een en ander aangaande het geestelijk en + maatschappelijk leven van den Poso-Alfoer," _Mededeelingen van wege + het Nederlandsche Zendelinggenootschap_, xl. (1896) pp. 273 _sqq._ + + 1251 G. Mansveld (Kontroleur van Nias), "Iets over de namen en Galars + onder de Maleijers in de Padangsche Bovenlanden, bepaaldelijk in + noordelijk Agam," _Tijdschrift voor Indische Taal- Land- en + Volkenkunde_, xxiii. (1876) pp. 443, 449. + + 1252 Spenser St. John, _Life in the Forests of the Far East_,2 i. 208. + + 1253 Dudley Kidd, _The Essential Kafir_, p. 202. + + 1254 L. A. Waddell, "The Tribes of the Brahmapootra Valley," _Journal of + the Asiatic Society of Bengal_, lxix. part iii. (1901) pp. 52, 69, + compare 46. + + 1255 H. Callaway, _Religious System of the Amazulu_, part iii. p. 316, + note. + + 1256 W. Crooke, _Popular Religion and Folk-lore of Northern India_ + (Westminster, 1896), ii. 5 _sq._ Compare _id._, _Tribes and Castes + of the North-Western Provinces and Oudh_, ii. 251. + + 1257 G. A. Wilken, _Handleiding voor de vergelijkende Volkenkunde van + Nederlandsch-Indie_, pp. 216-219; E. B. Tylor, "On a Method of + Investigating the Developement of Institutions," _Journal of the + Anthropological Institute_, xviii. (1889) pp. 248-250 (who refers to + a series of papers by G. A. Wilken, "Over de primitieve vormen van + het huwelijk," published in _Indische Gids_, 1880, etc., which I + have not seen). Wilken's theory is rejected by Mr. A. C. Kruijt + (_l.c._), who explains the custom by the fear of attracting the + attention of evil spirits to the person named. Other explanations + are suggested by Mr. J. H. F. Kohlbrugge ("Naamgeving in Insulinde," + _Bijdragen tot de Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde van + Nederlandsch-Indie_, lii. (1901) pp. 160-170), and by Mr. E. Crawley + (_The Mystic Rose_, London, 1902, pp. 428-433). + + 1258 For evidence of the custom of naming parents after their children in + Australia, see E. J. Eyre, _Journals of Expeditions of Discovery + into Central Australia_ (London, 1845), ii. 325 _sq._: in Sumatra, + see W. Marsden, _History of Sumatra_, p. 286; Baron van Hoevell, + "Iets over 't oorlogvoeren der Batta's," _Tijdschrift voor + Nederlandsch-Indie_, N.S. vii. (1878) p. 436, note; A. L. van + Hasselt, _Volksbeschrijving van Midden-Sumatra_, p. 274: in Nias, + see J. T. Nieuwenhuisen en H. C. B. von Rosenberg, _Verslag omtrent + het eiland Nias_, p. 28 (_Verhandelingen van het Bataviaasch + Genootschap van Kunsten en Wetenschappen_, xxx. Batavia, 1863): in + Java, see P. J. Veth, _Java_, i. (Haarlem, 1875) p. 642; J. H. F. + Kohlbrugge, "Die Tenggeresen, ein alter Javanischen Volksstamm," + _Bijdragen tot de Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde van + Nederlandsch-Indie_, liii. (1901) p. 121; in Borneo, see C. Hupe, + "Korte Verhandeling over de Godsdienst, Zeden, enz. der Dajakkers," + _Tijdschrift voor Neerlands Indie_, 1846, dl. iii. p. 249; H. Low, + _Sarawak_, p. 249; Spenser St. John, _Life in the Forests of the Far + East_,2 i. 208; M. T. H. Perelaer, _Ethnographische Beschrijving der + Dajaks_, p. 42; C. Hose, "The Natives of Borneo," _Journal of the + Anthropological Institute_, xxiii. (1894) p. 170; W. H. Furness, + _Folk-lore in Borneo_ (Wallingford, Pennsylvania, 1899, privately + printed), p. 26; _id._, _Home-life of Borneo Head-hunters_, pp. 17 + _sq._, 55; A. W. Nieuwenhuis, _Quer durch Borneo_, i. 75: among the + Mantras of Malacca, see W. W. Skeat and C. O. Blagden, _Pagan Races + of the Malay Peninsula_, ii. 16 _sq._: among the Negritos of + Zambales in the Philippines, see W. A. Reed, _Negritos of Zambales_ + (Manilla, 1904), p. 55: in the islands between Celebes and New + Guinea, see J. G. F. Riedel, _De sluik- en kroesharige rassen + tusschen Selebes en Papua_, pp. 5, 137, 152 _sq._, 238, 260, 353, + 392, 418, 450; J. H. W. van der Miesen, "Een en ander over Boeroe," + _Mededeelingen van wege het Nederlandsche Zendelinggenootschap_, + xlvi. (1902) p. 444; in Celebes and other parts of the Indian + Archipelago, see J. H. F. Kohlbrugge, "Naamgeving in Insulinde," + _Bijdragen tot de Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde van + Nederlandsch-Indie_, lii. (1901) pp. 160-170; G. A. Wilken, + _Handleiding voor de vergelijkende Volkenkunde van + Nederlandsch-Indie_, pp. 216 _sqq._: in New Guinea, see P. W. + Schmidt, "Ethnographisches von Berlinhafen, Deutsch-Neu-Guinea," + _Mittheilungen der Anthropologischen Gesellschaft in Wien_, xxx. + (1899) p. 28: among the Kasias of North-eastern India, see Col. H. + Yule, in _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, ix. (1880) p. + 298; L. A. Waddell, "The Tribes of the Brahmaputra Valley," _Journal + of the Asiatic Society of Bengal_, lxix. part iii. (Calcutta, 1901) + p. 46: among some of the indigenous races of southern China, see P. + Vial, "Les Gni ou Gnipa, tribu Lolote du Yun-Nan," _Missions + Catholiques_, xxv. (1893) p. 270; _La Mission lyonnaise + d'exploration commerciale en Chine_ (Lyons, 1898), p. 369: in Corea, + see Mrs. Bishop, _Korea and her Neighbours_ (London, 1898), i. 136: + among the Yukagirs of north-eastern Asia, see W. Jochelson, "Die + Jukagiren im aeussersten Nordosten Asiens," xvii. _Jahresbericht der + Geographischen Gesellschaft von Bern_ (Bern, 1900), pp. 26 _sq._; P. + von Stenin, "Jochelson's Forschungen unter den Jukagiren," _Globus_, + lxxvi. (1899) p. 169: among the Masai, see M. Merker, _Die Masai_ + (Berlin, 1904), pp. 59, 235: among the Bechuanas, Basutos, and other + Caffre tribes of South Africa, see D. Livingston, _Missionary + Travels and Researches in South Africa_ (London, 1857), p. 126; J. + Shooter, _The Kafirs of Natal_ (London, 1857), pp. 220 _sq._; D. + Leslie, _Among the Zulus and Amatongas_2 (Edinburgh, 1875), pp. 171 + _sq._; G. M'Call Theal, _Kaffir Folk-lore_2 (London, 1886), p. 225; + Father Porte, "Les reminiscences d'un missionaire du Basutoland," + _Missions Catholiques_, xxviii. (1896) p. 300: among the Hos of + Togoland in West Africa, see J. Spieth, _Die Ewe-Stamme_, p. 217: + among the Patagonians, see G. C. Musters, _At Home with the + Patagonians_ (London, 1871), p. 177: among the Lengua Indians of the + Gran Chaco, see G. Kurze, "Sitten und Gebraeuche der + Lengua-Indianer," _Mittheilungen der Geographischen Gesellschaft zu + Jena_, xxiii. (1905) p. 28: among the Mayas of Guatemala, see H. H. + Bancroft, _Native Races of the Pacific States_, ii. 680: among the + Haida Indians of Queen Charlotte Islands, see J. R. Swanton, + "Contributions to the Ethnology of the Haida," _Memoir of the + American Museum of Natural History, The Jesup North Pacific + Expedition_, vol. v. part i. (Leyden and New York, 1905) p. 118: and + among the Tinneh and occasionally the Thlinkeet Indians of + north-west America, see E. Petitot, _Monographie des Dene-Dindjie_ + (Paris, 1876), p. 61; H. J. Holmberg, "Ethnographische Skizzen ueber + die Voelker des russischen Amerika," _Acta Societatis Scientiarum + Fennicae_, iv. (1856) p. 319. + + M204 The names of persons related to the speaker by blood and especially + by marriage may often not be mentioned. Women's speech among the + Caffres. + + 1259 J. Shooter, _The Kafirs of Natal_ (London, 1857), p. 221. + + 1260 Maclean, _Compendium of Kafir Laws and Customs_ (Cape Town, 1866), + pp. 92 _sq._; D. Leslie, _Among the Zulus and Amatongas_,2 pp. 141 + _sq._, 172; M. Kranz, _Natur- und Kulturleben der Zulus_ (Wiesbaden, + 1880), pp. 114 _sq._; G. M'Call Theal, _Kaffir Folk-lore_2 (London, + 1886), p. 214; _id._, _Records of South-Eastern Africa_, vii. 435; + Dudley Kidd, _The Essential Kafir_, pp. 236-243; Father Porte, "Les + reminiscences d'un missionaire du Basutoland," _Missions + Catholiques_, xxviii. (1896) p. 233. + + 1261 Rev. Francis Fleming, _Kaffraria and its Inhabitants_ (London, + 1853), p. 97; _id._, _Southern Africa_ (London, 1856), pp. 238 _sq._ + This writer states that the women are forbidden to pronounce "any + word which may happen to contain a sound similar to any one in the + names of their nearest male relatives." + + 1262 Maclean, _op. cit._ p. 93; D. Leslie, _Among the Zulus and + Amatongas_,2 pp. 46, 102, 172. The extensive system of taboos on + personal names among the Caffres is known as _Ukuhlonipa_, or simply + _hlonipa_. The fullest account of it with which I am acquainted is + given by Leslie, _op. cit._ pp. 141 _sq._, 172-180. See further Miss + A. Werner, "The Custom of _Hlonipa_ in its Influence on Language," + _Journal of the African Society_, No. 15 (April, 1905), pp. 346-356. + + 1263 Sir H. H. Johnston, _British Central Africa_ (London, 1897), p. 452. + + 1264 A. Merensky, "Das Konde-volk im deutschen Gebiet am Nyassa-See," + _Verhandlungen der Berliner Gesellschaft fuer Anthropologie, + Ethnologie, und Urgeschichte_, 1893, p. (296). + + 1265 W. Munzinger, _Ostafrikanische Studien_ (Schaffhausen, 1864), p. + 526; _id._, _Sitten und Recht der Bogos_ (Winterthur, 1859), p. 95. + + 1266 G. A. Krause, "Merkwuerdige Sitten der Haussa," _Globus_, lxix. + (1896) p. 375. + + 1267 Herodotus, i. 146. + + 1268 Servius, on Virgil, _Aen._ iv. 58. + + 1269 K. Rhamm, "Der Verkehr der Geschlecter unter den Slaven in seinen + gegensaetzlichen Erscheinungen," _Globus_, lxxxii. (1902) p. 192. + + 1270 W. Radloff, _Proben der Volkslitteratur der tuerkischen Staemme + Sued-Sibiriens_, iii. (St. Petersburg, 1870) p. 13, note 3. + + 1271 J. Batchelor, _The Ainu and their Folk-lore_ (London, 1901), pp. + 226, 249 _sq._, 252. + + 1272 Bringaud, "Les Karins de la Birmanie," _Missions Catholiques_, xx. + (1888) p. 308. + + 1273 W. H. R. Rivers, _The Todas_, p. 626. + + 1274 E. Thurston, _Ethnographic Notes in Southern India_, p. 533. + + 1275 Peter Jones, _History of the Ojebway Indians_, p. 162. + + 1276 E. James, _Expedition from Pittsburgh to the Rocky Mountains_ + (London, 1823), i. 232. + + 1277 S. R. Riggs, _Dakota Grammar, Texts, and Ethnography_ (Washington, + 1893), p. 204. + + 1278 S. Powers, _Tribes of California_, p. 315. + + M205 Names of relations, especially of persons related to the speaker by + marriage, may not be mentioned in the East Indies. + + 1279 Willer, "Verzameling der Battasche Wetten en Instellingen in + Mandheling en Pertibie," _Tijdschrift voor Nederlandsch-Indie_, + 1846, dl. ii. 337 _sq._ + + 1280 J. H. Meerwaldt, "Gebruiken der Bataks in het maatschappelijk + leven," _Mededeelingen van wege het Nederlandsche + Zendelinggenootschap_, xlix. (1905) pp. 123, 125. + + 1281 J. E. Neumann, "Kemali, Pantang en Reboe bij de Karo-Bataks," + _Tijdschrift voor Indische Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde_, xlviii. + (1906) p. 510. + + 1282 C. Hupe, "Korte Verhandeling over de Godsdienst, Zeden, enz. der + Dajakkers," _Tijdschrift voor Neerlands Indie_, 1846, dl. iii. pp. + 249 _sq._ + + 1283 "De Dajaks op Borneo," _Mededeelingen van wege het Nederlandsche + Zendelinggenootschap_, xiii. (1869) p. 78; G. A. Wilken, + _Handleiding voor de vergelijkende Volkenkunde van + Nederlandsch-Indie_, p. 599. + + 1284 R. Shelford, "Two Medicine-baskets from Sarawak," _Journal of the + Anthropological Institute_, xxxiii. (1903) pp. 78 _sq._ + + 1285 M. C. Schadee, "Bijdrage tot de kennis van den godsdienst der Dajaks + van Landak en Tajan," _Bijdragen tot de Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde + van Nederlandsche-Indie_, lvi. (1904) p. 536. + + 1286 A. C. Kruijt, "Een en ander aangaande het geestelijk en + maatschappelijk leven van den Poso-Alfoer," _Mededeelingen van wege + het Nederlandsche Zendelinggenootschap_, xl. (1896) pp. 273 _sq._ + The word for taboo among these people is _kapali_. See further A. C. + Kruijt, "Eenige ethnographische aanteekeningen omtrent de Toboengkoe + en Tomori," _op. cit._ xliv. (1900) pp. 219, 237. + + 1287 G. A. Wilken, _Handleiding voor de vergelijkende Volkenkunde van + Nederlandsch-Indie_, pp. 599 _sq._ + + 1288 G. A. Wilken, "Bijdrage tot de Kennis der Alfoeren van het Eiland + Boeroe," p. 26 (_Verhandelingen van het Bataviaasch Genootschap van + Kunsten en Wetenschappen_, xxxvi.). The words for taboo among these + Alfoors are _poto_ and _koin_; _poto_ applies to actions, _koin_ to + things and places. The literal meaning of _poto_ is "warm," "hot" + (Wilken, _op. cit._ p. 25). + + 1289 J. H. W. van der Miesen, "Een en ander over Boeroe," _Mededeelingen + van wege het Nederlandsche Zendelinggenootschap_, xlvi. (1902) p. + 455. + + 1290 N. P. Wilken and J. A. Schwarz, "Allerlei over het Land en Volk van + Bolaang Mongondou," _Mededeelingen van wege het Nederlandsche + Zendelinggenootschap_, xi. (1867) p. 356. + + 1291 C. F. H. Campen, "De godsdienstbegrippen der Halmaherasche + Alfoeren," _Tijdschrift voor Indische Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde_, + xxvii. (1882) p. 450. + + 1292 K. F. Holle, "Snippers van den Regent van Galoeh," _Tijdschrift voor + Indische Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde_, xxvii. (1882) pp. 101 _sq._ + The precise consequence supposed to follow is that the _oebi_ (?) + plantations would have no bulbs (_geen knollen_). The names of + several animals are also tabooed in Sunda. See below, p. 415. + + M206 Names of persons related by marriage to the speaker are tabooed in + New Guinea. + + 1293 Above, p. 332. + + 1294 Th. J. F. van Hasselt, "Gebruik van vermomde Taal door de Nufooren," + _Tijdschrift voor Indische Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde_, xlv. (1902) + pp. 278 _sq._ The writer explains that "to eat well" is a phrase + used in the sense of "to be decent, well-behaved," "to know what is + customary." + + 1295 M. Krieger, _Neu-Guinea_, pp. 171 _sq._ + + 1296 K. Vetter, in _Nachrichten ueber Kaiser Wilhelms-Land und den + Bismarck-Archipel_, 1897, p. 92. For more evidence of the observance + of this custom in German New Guinea see O. Schellong, "Ueber + Familienleben und Gebraeuche der Papuas der Umgebung von + Finschhafen," _Zeitschrift fuer Ethnologie_, xxi. (1889) p. 12; M. J. + Erdweg, "Die Bewohner der Insel Tumleo, Berlinhafen, + Deutsch-Neu-Guinea," _Mittheilungen der Anthropologischen + Gesellschaft in Wien_, xxxii. (1902) pp. 379 _sq._ + + 1297 B. A. Hely, "Notes on Totemism, etc., among the Western Tribes," + _British New Guinea, Annual Report for 1894-95_, pp. 54 _sq._ + Compare M. Krieger, _Neu-Guinea_, pp. 313 _sq._ + + M207 Names of persons related by marriage to the speaker are tabooed in + Melanesia. + +_ 1298 Reports of the Cambridge Anthropological Expedition to Torres + Straits_, v. 142 _sq._ + + 1299 Dr. Hahl, "Ueber die Rechtsanschauungen der Eingeborenen eines Teiles + der Blanchebucht und des Innern der Gazelle Halbinsel," _Nachrichten + ueber Kaiser Wilhelms-Land und den Bismarck-Archipel_, 1897, p. 80; + O. Schellong, in _Zeitschrift fuer Ethnologie_, xxi. (1889) p. 12. + + 1300 P. A. Kleintitschen, _Die Kuestenbewohner der Gazellehalbinsel_, pp. + 190, 238. + + 1301 Rev. W. O'Ferrall, "Native Stories from Santa Cruz and Reef + Islands," _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxxiv. (1904) + pp. 223 _sq._ + + 1302 Father Lambert, "Moeurs et superstitions de la tribu Belep," + _Missions Catholiques_, xii. (1880) pp. 30, 68; _id._, _Moeurs et + superstitions des Neo-Caledoniens_ (Noumea, 1900), pp. 94 _sq._ + + 1303 R. H. Codrington, _The Melanesians_, pp. 43 _sq._ + + M208 Names of relations tabooed in Australia. + + 1304 E. J. Eyre, _Journals of Expeditions_, ii. 339. + + 1305 J. Dawson, _Australian Aborigines_, p. 29. Specimens of this + peculiar form of speech are given by Mr. Dawson. For example, "It + will be very warm by and by" was expressed in the ordinary language + _Baawan kulluun_; in "turn tongue" it was _Gnullewa gnatnaen + tirambuul_. + + 1306 Joseph Parker, in Brough Smyth's _Aborigines of Victoria_, ii. 156. + + 1307 J. Macgillivray, _Narrative of the Voyage of H. M. S. Rattlesnake_ + (London, 1852), ii. 10 _sq._ It is obvious that the example given by + the writer does not illustrate his general statement. Apparently he + means to say that Nuki is the son-in-law, not the son, of the woman + in question, and that the prohibition to mention the names of + persons standing in that relationship is mutual. + + 1308 Mrs. James Smith, _The Booandik Tribe_, p. 5. + + 1309 D. Stewart, in E. M. Curr's _Australian Race_, iii. 461. + + M209 These taboos can hardly be accounted for by the intermarriage of + tribes speaking different languages. Differences of language between + husbands and wives. Intermixture of races speaking different + languages would hardly account for the taboos on the names of + relations. + + 1310 C. W. Schuermann, in _Native Tribes of South Australia_ (Adelaide, + 1879), p. 249. + + 1311 J. Dawson, _Australian Aborigines_, pp. 27, 30 _sq._, 40. So among + the Gowmditch-mara tribe of western Victoria the child spoke his + father's language, and not his mother's, when she happened to be of + another tribe (Fison and Howitt, _Kamilaroi and Kurnai_, p. 276). + Compare A. W. Howitt, _Native Tribes of South-East Australia_, pp. + 250 _sq._ + + 1312 A. Hale, "On the Sakais," _Journal of the Anthropological + Institute_, xv. (1886) p. 291. + + 1313 H. A. Coudreau, _La France equinoxiale_ (Paris, 1887), ii. 178. + + 1314 De Rochefort, _Histoire naturelle et morale des Iles Antilles de + l'Amerique_2 (Rotterdam, 1665), pp. 349 _sq._; De la Borde, + "Relation de l'origine, etc., des Caraibs sauvages des Isles + Antilles de l'Amerique," pp. 4, 39 (_Recueil de divers voyages faits + en Afrique et en Amerique, qui n'ont point este encore publiez_, + Paris, 1684); Lafitau, _Moeurs des sauvages ameriquains_, i. 55. On + the language of the Carib women see also Jean Baptiste du Tertre, + _Histoire generale des Isles de S. Christophe, de la Guadeloupe, de + la Martinique et autres dans l'Amerique_ (Paris, 1654), p. 462; + Labat, _Nouveau Voyage aux isles de l'Amerique_ (Paris, 1713), vi. + 127 _sq._; J. N. Rat, "The Carib Language," _Journal of the + Anthropological Institute_, xxvii. (1898) pp. 311 _sq._ + + 1315 See C. Sapper, "Mittelamericanische Caraiben," _Internationales + Archiv fuer Ethnographie_, x. (1897) pp. 56 _sqq._; and my article, + "A Suggestion as to the Origin of Gender in Language," _Fortnightly + Review_, January 1900, pp. 79-90; also _Totemism and Exogamy_, iv. + 237 _sq._ + + 1316 P. Ehrenreich, "Materialien zur Sprachenkunde Brasiliens," + _Zeitschrift fuer Ethnologie_, xxvi. (1894) pp. 23-35. + + M210 The names of the dead are in general not mentioned by the Australian + aborigines. + + 1317 Strabo, xi. 4. 8, p. 503. + + 1318 G. Grey, _Journals of Two Expeditions of Discovery in North-West and + Western Australia_ (London, 1841), ii. 232, 257. The writer is here + speaking especially of western Australia, but his statement applies, + with certain restrictions which will be mentioned presently, to all + parts of the continent. For evidence see D. Collins, _Account of the + English Colony in New South Wales_ (London, 1804), p. 390; Hueber, + "A travers l'Australie," _Bulletin de la Societe de Geographie_ + (Paris), Vme Serie, ix. (1865) p. 429; S. Gason, in _Native Tribes + of South Australia_, p. 275; K. Brough Smyth, _Aborigines of + Victoria_, i. 120, ii. 297; A. L. P. Cameron, in _Journal of the + Anthropological Institute_, xiv. (1885) p. 363; E. M. Curr, _The + Australian Race_, i. 88, 338, ii. 195, iii. 22, 29, 139, 166, 596; + J. D. Lang, _Queensland_ (London, 1861), pp. 367, 387, 388; C. + Lumholtz, _Among Cannibals_ (London, 1889), p. 279; _Report on the + Work of the Horn Scientific Expedition to Central Australia_ (London + and Melbourne, 1896), pp. 137, 168. More evidence is adduced below. + + 1319 On this latter motive see especially the remarks of A. W. Howitt, in + _Kamilaroi and Kurnai_, p. 249. Compare also C. W. Schurmann, in + _Native Tribes of South Australia_, p. 247; F. Bonney, in _Journal + of the Anthropological Institute_, xiii. (1884) p. 127. + + 1320 A. Oldfield, "The Aborigines of Australia," _Transactions of the + Ethnological Society of London_, N.S., iii. (1865) p. 238. + + 1321 A. Oldfield, _op. cit._ p. 240. + + 1322 W. Stanbridge, "On the Aborigines of Victoria," _Transactions of the + Ethnological Society of London_, N.S., i. (1861) p. 299. + + 1323 A. W. Howitt, "On some Australian Beliefs," _Journal of the + Anthropological Institute_, xiii. (1884) p. 191; _id._, _Native + Tribes of South-East Australia_, p. 440. + +_ 1324 Id._, _Native Tribes of South-East Australia_, p. 469. + + 1325 G. F. Angas, _Savage Life and Scenes in Australia and New Zealand_ + (London, 1847), i. 94. + + 1326 Spencer and Gillen, _Native Tribes of Central Australia_, p. 498. + + 1327 Spencer and Gillen, _Northern Tribes of Central Australia_, p. 526. + + 1328 E. Clement, "Ethnographical Notes on the Western Australian + Aborigines," _Internationales Archiv fuer Ethnographie_, xvi. (1904) + p. 9. + + M211 The names of the dead are not uttered by the American Indians. + + 1329 L. H. Morgan, _League of the Iroquois_ (Rochester, U.S., 1851), p. + 175. + + 1330 A. S. Gatschett, _The Klamath Indians of South-Western Oregon_ + (Washington, 1890) (_Contributions to North American Ethnology_, + vol. ii. pt. 1), p. xli; Chase, quoted by H. H. Bancroft, _Native + Races of the Pacific States_, i. 357, note 76. + + 1331 S. Powers, _Tribes of California_, p. 33; compare p. 68. + + 1332 S. Powers, _op. cit._ p. 240. + + 1333 F. A. Simons, "An Exploration of the Goajira Peninsula, U.S. of + Colombia," _Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society_, vii. + (1885) p. 791. + + 1334 M. Dobrizhoffer, _Historia de Abiponibus_, ii. 301, 498. For more + evidence of the observance of this taboo among the American Indians + see A. Woldt, _Captain Jacobsen's Reise an der Nordwestkueste + Americas_ (Leipsic, 1884), p. 57 (as to the Indians of the + north-west coast); W. Colquhoun Grant, "Description of Vancouver's + Island," _Journal of the Royal Geographical Society_, xxvii. (1857) + p. 303 (as to Vancouver Island); Capt. Wilson, "Report on the Indian + Tribes," _Transactions of the Ethnological Society of London_, N.S., + iv. (1866) p. 286 (as to Vancouver Island and neighbourhood); C. + Hill Tout, in _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxxv. + (1905) p. 138; _id._, _The Far West, the Land of the Salish and + Dene_, p. 201; A. Ross, _Adventures on the Oregon or Columbia + River_, p. 322; H. R. Schoolcraft, _Indian Tribes_, iv. 226 (as to + the Bonaks of California); Ch. N. Bell, "The Mosquito Territory," + _Journal of the Royal Geographical Society_, xxxii. (1862) p. 255; + A. Pinart, "Les Indiens de l'Etat de Panama," _Revue + d'Ethnographie_, vi. (1887) p. 56; G. C. Musters, in _Journal of the + Royal Geographical Society_, xli. (1871) p. 68 (as to Patagonia). + More evidence is adduced below. + + M212 Many other peoples are reluctant to mention the names of the dead. + This reluctance seems to be based on a fear of the ghosts, whose + attention might be attracted by the mention of their names. + + 1335 See P. S. Pallas, _Reise durch verschiedene Provinzen des russischen + Reichs_, iii. 76 (Samoyeds); J. W. Breeks, _Account of the Primitive + Tribes and Monuments of the Nilagiris_ (London, 1873), p. 19; W. E. + Marshall, _Travels amongst the Todas_, p. 177; W. H. R. Rivers, _The + Todas_, pp. 462, 496, 626; Plan de Carpin (de Plano Carpini), + _Relation des Mongols ou Tartares_, ed. D'Avezac, cap. iii. § iii.; + H. Duveyrier, _Exploration du Sahara, les Touareg du nord_ (Paris, + 1864), p. 415; Lieut. S. C. Holland, "The Ainos," _Journal of the + Anthropological Institute_, iii. (1874) p. 238; J. Batchelor, _The + Ainu and their Folk-lore_ (London, 1901), pp. 252, 564; J. M. + Hildebrandt, "Ethnographische Notizen ueber Wakamba und ihre + Nachbarn," _Zeitschrift fuer Ethnologie_, x. (1878) p. 405; A. C. + Hollis, _The Nandi_, p. 71; F. Blumentritt, _Versuch einer + Ethnographie der Philippinen_ (Gotha, 1882), p. 38 (_Petermann's + Mittheilungen, Ergaenzungsheft_, No. 67); N. Fontana, "On the Nicobar + Isles," _Asiatick Researches_, iii. (London, 1799) p. 154; W. H. + Furness, _Folk-lore in Borneo_ (Wallingford, Pennsylvania, 1899), p. + 26; A. van Gennep, _Tabou et totemisme a Madagascar_, pp. 70 _sq._; + J. E. Calder, "Native Tribes of Tasmania," _Journal of the + Anthropological Institute_, iii. (1874) p. 23; J. Bonwick, _Daily + Life of the Tasmanians_, pp. 97, 145, 183. + + 1336 H. Duveyrier, _Exploration du Sahara, les Touareg du nord_, p. 431. + + 1337 J. Dawson, _Australian Aborigines_, p. 42. + + 1338 K. Vetter, _Komm herueber und hilf uns!_ iii. (Barmen, 1898) p. 24; + _id._, in _Nachrichten ueber Kaiser Wilhelms-Land und den + Bismarck-Archipel_, 1897, p. 92. + + 1339 Dr. L. Loria, "Notes on the ancient War Customs of the Natives of + Logea," _British New Guinea, Annual Report for 1894-95_, pp. 45, 46 + _sq._ Compare M. Krieger, _Neu-Guinea_, p. 322. + + 1340 Myron Eels, "The Twana, Chemakum, and Klallam Indians of Washington + Territory," _Annual Report of the Smithsonian Institute for 1887_, + part i. p. 656. + + 1341 Baron C. C. von der Decken, _Reisen in Ost-Afrika_ (Leipsic, + 1869-1871), ii. 25; R. Andree, _Ethnographische Parallelen und + Vergleiche_, pp. 182 _sq._ + + 1342 S. L. Hinde and H. Hinde, _The last of the Masai_ (London, 1901), p. + 50; Sir H. Johnston, _The Uganda Protectorate_, ii. 826. + + M213 The like fear leads people who bear the same name as the dead to + change it for another. + + 1343 W. Wyatt, in _Native Tribes of South Australia_, p. 165. + + 1344 D. Collins, _Account of the English Colony in New South Wales_ + (London, 1804), p. 392. + + 1345 P. Beveridge, "Notes on the Dialects, Habits, and Mythology of the + Lower Murray Aborigines," _Transactions of the Royal Society of + Victoria_, vi. 20 _sq._ + + 1346 "Description of the Natives of King George's Sound (Swan River) and + adjoining Country," _Journal of the R. Geographical Society_, i. + (1832) pp. 46 _sq._ + + 1347 W. E. Roth, _North Queensland Ethnography, Bulletin No. 5_ + (Brisbane, 1903), § 72, p. 20. + + 1348 G. F. Angas, _Savage Life and Scenes in Australia and New Zealand_ + (London, 1847), ii. 228. + + 1349 J. F. Lafitau, _Moeurs des sauvages ameriquains_, ii. 434; R. + Southey, _History of Brazil_, iii. 894 (referring to Roger + Williams). + + 1350 Charlevoix, _Histoire de la Nouvelle France_, vi. 109. + + 1351 S. Powers, _Tribes of California_, p. 349; Myron Eels, "The Twana, + Chemakum, and Klallam Indians of Washington Territory," _Annual + Report of the Smithsonian Institute for 1887_, p. 656. + + 1352 S. L. Hinde and H. Hinde, _The Last of the Masai_, p. 50. + + M214 Sometimes all the near relations of the deceased change their names. + + 1353 J. Dawson, _Australian Aborigines_, p. 42. + + 1354 H. H. Bancroft, _Native Races of the Pacific States_, i. 248. + Compare K. F. v. Baer und Gr. v. Helmersen, _Beitraege zur Kenntniss + des russischen Reiches und der angraenzenden Laender Asiens_, i. (St. + Petersburg, 1839), p. 108 (as to the Kenayens of Cook's Inlet and + the neighbourhood). + + 1355 J. Mooney, "Calendar History of the Kiowa Indians," _Seventeenth + Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology_, part i. + (Washington, 1898) p. 231. + + 1356 F. de Azara, _Voyages dans l'Amerique Meridionale_ (Paris, 1808), + ii. 153 _sq._ + + 1357 P. Lozano, _Descripcion chorographica_, etc., _del Gran Chaco_ + (Cordova, 1733), p. 70. + + 1358 E. H. Man, "Notes on the Nicobarese," _Indian Antiquary_, xxviii. + (1899) p. 261. Elsewhere I have suggested that mourning costume in + general may have been adopted with this intention. See _Journal of + the Anthropological Institute_, xv. (1886) pp. 73, 98 _sqq._ + + 1359 J. Enderli, "Zwei Jahre bei den Tchuktschen und Korjaken," + _Petermanns Mitteilungen_, xlix. (1903) p. 257. + + M215 When the name of the deceased is that of a common object, the word + is often dropped in ordinary speech and another substituted for it. + + 1360 R. Brough Smyth, _Aborigines of Victoria_, ii. 266. + + 1361 E. J. Eyre, _Journals of Expeditions of Discovery_, ii. 354 _sq._ + + 1362 J. Macgillivray, _Narrative of the Voyage of H.M.S. Rattlesnake_ + (London, 1852), ii. 10 _sq._ + + 1363 J. Bulmer, in Brough Smyth's _Aborigines of Victoria_, ii. 94. + + 1364 H. E. A. Meyer, in _Native Tribes of South Australia_, p. 199, + compare p. xxix. + + 1365 J. Dawson, _Australian Aborigines_, p. 43. Mr. Howitt mentions the + case of a native who arbitrarily substituted the name _nobler_ + ("spirituous liquor") for _yan_ ("water") because Yan was the name + of a man who had recently died (_Kamilaroi and Kurnai_, p. 249). + + M216 This custom has transformed some of the languages of the American + Indians. + + 1366 M. Dobrizhoffer, _Historia de Abiponibus_ (Vienna, 1784), ii. 199, + 301. + + 1367 H. Ten Kate, "Notes ethnographiques sur les Comanches," _Revue + d'Ethnographie_, iv. (1885) p. 131. + + 1368 J. Mooney, "Calendar History of the Kiowa Indians," _Seventeenth + Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology_, part i. + (Washington, 1898) p. 231. + + M217 A similar custom has modified languages in Africa, Buru, New Guinea, + the Caroline Islands, and the Nicobarese. + + 1369 Rev. J. Roscoe in a letter to me dated Mengo, Uganda, 17th February + 1904. + + 1370 A. C. Hollis, _The Masai_ (Oxford, 1905), pp. 304 _sq._ As to the + Masai customs in this respect see also above, pp. 354 _sq._, 356. + + 1371 J. H. W. van der Miesen, "Een en ander over Boeroe," _Mededeelingen + van wege het Nederlandsche Zendelinggenootschap_, xlvi. (1902) p. + 455. + + 1372 Sir William Macgregor, _British New Guinea_ (London, 1897), p. 79. + + 1373 C. G. Seligmann, _The Melanesians of British New Guinea_ (Cambridge, + 1910), pp. 629-631. + + 1374 F. W. Christian, _The Caroline Islands_ (London, 1899), p. 366. + + 1375 F. A. de Roepstorff, "Tiomberombi, a Nicobar Tale," _Journal of the + Asiatic Society of Bengal_, liii. (1884) pt. i. pp. 24 _sq._ In some + tribes apparently the names of the dead are only tabooed in the + presence of their relations. See C. Hill-Tout, in "Report of the + Committee on the Ethnological Survey of Canada," _Report of the + British Association for the Advancement of Science_, Bradford, 1900, + p. 484; G. Brown, _Melanesians and Polynesians_ (London, 1910), p. + 399. But in the great majority of the accounts which I have + consulted no such limitation of the taboo is mentioned. + + M218 The suppression of the names of the dead cuts at the root of + historical tradition. + + 1376 A. S. Gatschet, _The Klamath Indians of South-Western Oregon_ + (Washington, 1890), p. xli. (_Contributions to North American + Ethnology_, vol. ii. pt. I). + + 1377 P. Beveridge, "Of the Aborigines inhabiting the great Lacustrine and + Riverine Depression of the Lower Murray," etc., _Journal and + Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales for 1883_, vol. + xvii. p. 65. The custom of changing common words on the death of + persons who bore them as their names seems also to have been + observed by the Tasmanians. See J. Bonwick, _Daily Life of the + Tasmanians_, p. 145. + + M219 Sometimes the names of the dead are revived after a certain time. + The American Indians used to bring the dead to life again by + solemnly bestowing their names on living persons, who were + thereafter regarded as reincarnations of the dead. + + 1378 G. Grey, _Journals of two Expeditions of Discovery in North-West and + Western Australia_, ii. 231 _sq._ + + 1379 J. Dawson, _Australian Aborigines_, p. 42. + + 1380 C. W. Schuermann, in _Native Tribes of South Australia_, p. 247. + + 1381 H. H. Bancroft, _Native Races of the Pacific States_, iii. 156. + + 1382 Myron Eels, "The Twana, Chemakum, and Klallam Indians of Washington + Territory," _Annual Report of the Smithsonian Institution for 1887_, + p. 656. + + 1383 S. R. M'Caw, "Mortuary Customs of the Puyallups," _The American + Antiquarian and Oriental Journal_, viii. (1886) p. 235. + + 1384 J. F. Lafitau, _Moeurs des sauvages ameriquains_ (Paris, 1724), ii. + 434. Charlevoix merely says that the taboo on the names of the dead + lasted "a certain time" (_Histoire de la Nouvelle France_, vi. 109). + "A good long while" is the phrase used by Captain J. G. Bourke in + speaking of the same custom among the Apaches (_On the Border with + Crook_, p. 132). + + M220 Mode of reviving the dead in the persons of their namesakes among + the North American Indians. + + 1385 Gabriel Sagard, _Le Grand Voyage du pays des Hurons_, Nouvelle + Edition (Paris, 1865), p. 202. The original edition of Sagard's book + was published at Paris in 1632. + +_ 1386 Relations des Jesuites_, 1636, p. 131; _id._, 1642, pp. 53, 85; + _id._, 1644, pp. 66 _sq._ (Canadian reprint, Quebec, 1858). + + 1387 Daniel W. Harmon, quoted by Rev. Jedidiah Morse, _Report to the + Secretary of War of the United States on Indian Affairs_ (New-Haven, + 1822), Appendix, p. 345. The custom seems now to be extinct. It is + not mentioned by Father A. G. Morice in his accounts of the tribe + (in _Proceedings of the Canadian Institute_, Third Series, vol. vii. + 1888-89; _Transactions of the Canadian Institute_, vol. iv. 1892-93; + _Annual Archaeological Report_, Toronto, 1905). + + 1388 Ch. Wilkes, _Narrative of the United States Exploring Expedition_ + (New York, 1851), iv. 453. + + M221 The dead revived in their namesakes among the Lapps, Khonds, + Yorubas, Baganda, and Makalaka. + + 1389 E. J. Jessen, _De Finnorum Lapponumque Norwegicorum religione + pagana_, pp. 33 _sq._ (bound up with C. Leemius, _De Lapponibus + Finmarchiae eorumque lingua, vita, et religione pristina + commentatio_, Copenhagen, 1767). + + 1390 Major S. C. Macpherson, _Memorials of Service in India_ (London, + 1865), pp. 72 _sq._ + + 1391 C. Spiess, "Einiges ueber die Bedeutung der Personennamen der Evheer + in Togo-Gebiete," _Mittheilungen des Seminars fuer orientalische + Sprachen zu Berlin_, vi. (1903) Dritte Abtheilung, pp. 56 _sq._ + + 1392 A. B. Ellis, _The Yoruba-speaking Peoples of the Slave Coast_, p. + 152; _id._, _The Ewe-speaking Peoples of the Slave Coast_, pp. 153 + _sq._ In the former passage the writer says nothing about the + child's name. In the latter he merely says that an ancestor is + supposed to have sent the child, who accordingly commonly takes the + name of that ancestor. But the analogy of other peoples makes it + highly probable that, as Col. Ellis himself states in his later work + (_The Yoruba-speaking Peoples_), the ancestor is believed to be + incarnate in the child. That the Yoruba child takes the name of the + ancestor who has come to life again in him is definitely stated by + A. Dieterich in _Archiv fuer Religionswissenschaft_, viii. (1904) p. + 20, referring to _Zeitschrift fuer Missionskunde und + Religionswissenschaft_, xv. (1900) p. 17, a work to which I have not + access. Dieterich's account of the subject of rebirth (_op. cit._ + pp. 18-21) deserves to be consulted. + + 1393 J. Roscoe, "Further Notes on the Manners and Customs of the + Baganda," _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxxii. (1902) + p. 32. + + 1394 C. Mauch, _Reisen im Inneren von Sued-Afrika_ (Gotha, 1874), p. 43 + (_Petermann's Mittheilungen, Ergaensungsheft_, No. 37). + + M222 Revival of the names of the dead among the Nicobarese and Gilyaks. + + 1395 Sir R. C. Temple, in _Census of India, 1901_, vol. iii. 207, 212. + + 1396 Plan de Carpin (de Plano Carpini), _Relation des Mongols ou + Tartares_, ed. D'Avezac, cap. iii. § iii. The writer's statement + ("_nec nomen proprium ejus usque ad tertiam generationem audet + aliquis nominare_") is not very clear. + + 1397 P. Labbe, _Un Bagne russe, l'ile de Sakhaline_ (Paris, 1903), p. + 166. + + M223 Namesakes of the dead treated as the dead in person among the + Esquimaux of Bering Strait. + + 1398 E. W. Nelson, "The Eskimo about Bering Strait," _Eighteenth Annual + Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology_, part i. (Washington, + 1899), pp. 363 _sq._, 365, 368, 371, 377, 379, 424 _sq._ + + M224 Ceremonies at the naming of children are probably often associated + with the idea of rebirth. + + 1399 On the doctrine of the reincarnation of ancestors in their + descendants see E. B. Tylor, _Primitive Culture_,2 ii. 3-5, who + observes with great probability that "among the lower races + generally the renewal of old family names by giving them to new-born + children may always be suspected of involving some such thought." + See further _Totemism and Exogamy_, iii. 297-299. + + M225 Sometimes the names of the dead may be pronounced after their bodies + have decayed. Arunta practice of chasing the ghost into the grave at + the end of the period of mourning. + + 1400 H. H. Bancroft, _Native Races of the Pacific States_, i. 248. + + 1401 G. Taplin, in _Native Tribes of South Australia_, p. 19. + + 1402 H. E. A. Meyer, in _Native Tribes of South Australia_, p. 199. + + 1403 Some of the Indians of Guiana bring food and drink to their dead so + long as the flesh remains on the bones; when it has mouldered away, + they conclude that the man himself has departed. See A. Biet, + _Voyage de la France equinoxiale en l'Isle de Cayenne_ (Paris, + 1664), p. 392. The Alfoors or Toradjas of central Celebes believe + that the souls of the dead cannot enter the spirit-land until all + the flesh has been removed from their bones; till that has been + done, the gods (_lamoa_) in the other world could not bear the + stench of the corpse. Accordingly at a great festival the bodies of + all who have died within a certain time are dug up and the decaying + flesh scraped from the bones. See A. C. Kruijt, "Een en ander + aangaande het geestelijk en maatschappelijk leven van den + Poso-Alfoer," _Mededeelingen van wege het Nederlandsche + Zendelinggenootschap_, xxxix. (1895) pp. 26, 32 _sqq._; _id._, "Het + wezen van het Heidendom te Posso," _ibid._ xlvii. (1903) p. 32. The + Matacos Indians of the Gran Chaco believe that the soul of a dead + man does not pass down into the nether world until his body is + decomposed or burnt. See J. Pelleschi, _Los Indios Matacos_ (Buenos + Ayres, 1897), p. 102. These ideas perhaps explain the widespread + custom of disinterring the dead after a certain time and disposing + of their bones otherwise. + + 1404 Spencer and Gillen, _Native Tribes of Central Australia_, pp. + 498-508. + + M226 The birth-names of kings kept secret or not pronounced. + + 1405 A. B. Ellis, _The Ewe-speaking Peoples of the Slave Coast_, pp. 98 + _sq._ + + 1406 A. Cecchi, _Da Zeila alle frontiere del Caffa_, ii. (Rome, 1885) p. + 551. + + 1407 Rev. J. Roscoe, "The Bahima," _Journal of the Royal Anthropological + Institute_, xxxvii. (1907) p. 96. + + 1408 J. F. Cunningham, _Uganda and its Peoples_ (London, 1905), pp. 14, + 16. + + 1409 De la Loubere, _Du royaume de Siam_ (Amsterdam, 1691), i. 306; + Pallegoix, _Royaume Thai ou Siam_, i. 260. + + 1410 J. S. Polack, _Manners and Customs of the New Zealanders_ (London, + 1840), ii. 127, note 43. + + 1411 A. Fytche, _Burma Past and Present_ (London, 1878), i. 238. + + 1412 J. Edkins, _Religion in China_2 (London, 1878), p. 35. + + 1413 Ch. Dallet, _Histoire de l'Eglise de Coree_, i. p. xxiv.; Mrs. + Bishop, _Korea and her Neighbours_ (London, 1898), i. 48. The custom + is now obsolete (G. N. Curzon, _Problems of the Far East_, + Westminster, 1896, p. 155 note). + + 1414 E. Aymonier, _Notice sur le Cambodge_ (Paris, 1875), p. 22; _id._, + _Le Cambodge_, i. (Paris, 1900) p. 58. + + 1415 K. F. Holle, "Snippers van den Regent van Galoeh," _Tijdschrift voor + Indische Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde_, xxvii. (1882) p. 101. + + 1416 N. P. Wilken en J. A. Schwarz, "Allerlei over het land en volk van + Bolaang Mongondou," _Mededeelingen van wege het Nederlandsche + Zendelinggenootschap_, xi. (1867) p. 356. + + 1417 S. Roos, "Bijdrage tot de Kennis van Taal, Land, en Volk op het + eiland Soemba," p. 70, _Verhandelingen van het Bataviaasch + Genootschap van Kunsten en Wetenschappen_, xxxvi. Compare J. H. F. + Kohlbrugge, "Naamgeving in Insulinde," _Bijdragen tot de Taal- Land- + en Volkenkunde van Nederlandsche-Indie_, ii. (1900) p. 173. + + M227 The names of Zulu kings and chiefs may not be pronounced. + + 1418 Above, pp. 335 _sq._ + + 1419 J. Shooter, _The Kafirs of Natal and the Zulu Country_, pp. 221 + _sq._; David Leslie, _Among the Zulus and Amatongas_2 (Edinburgh, + 1875), pp. 172-179; J. Macdonald, "Manners, Customs, Superstitions, + and Religions of South African Tribes," _Journal of the + Anthropological Institute_, xx. (1891) p. 131. The account in the + text is based mainly on Leslie's description, which is by far the + fullest. + + M228 The names of living kings and chiefs may not be pronounced in + Madagascar. + + 1420 D. Tyerman and G. Bennet, _Journal of Voyages and Travels_ (London, + 1831), ii. 525 _sq._; J. Sibree, _The Great African Island_ (London, + 1880), pp. 150 _sq._; _id._, "Curiosities of Words connected with + Royalty and Chieftainship," _Antananarivo Annual and Madagascar + Magazine_, No. xi. (Christmas, 1887) pp. 308 _sq._; _id._, in + _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxi. (1887) pp. 226 + _sqq._ On the custom of tabooing royal or chiefly names in + Madagascar, see A. van Gennep, _Tabou et totemisme a Madagascar_ + (Paris, 1904), pp. 104 _sqq._ + + M229 The names of dead kings and chiefs are also tabooed in Madagascar. + + 1421 V. Noel, "Ile de Madagascar, recherches sur les Sakkalava," + _Bulletin de la Societe de Geographie_ (Paris), IIme Serie, xx. + (1843) pp. 303-306. Compare A. Grandidier, "Les Rites funeraires + chez les Malgaches," _Revue d'Ethnographie_, v. (1886) p. 224; A. + Walen, "The Sakalava," _Antananarivo Annual and Madagascar + Magazine_, vol. ii., Reprint of the Second Four Numbers + (Antananarivo, 1896), p. 242; A. van Gennep, _Tabou et totemisme a + Madagascar_, pp. 110 _sq._ Amongst the Sakalavas it is forbidden to + mention the name of any dead person. See A. Voeltzkow, "Vom + Morondava zum Mangoky, Reiseskizzen aus West-Madagascar," + _Zeitschrift der Gesellschaft fuer Erdkunde zu Berlin_, xxxi. (1896) + p. 118. + + 1422 R. Baron, "The Bara," _Antananarivo Annual and Madagascar Magazine_, + vol. ii., Reprint of the Second Four Numbers (Antananarivo, 1896), + p. 83. + + 1423 A. Grandidier, "Madagascar," _Bulletin de la Societe de Geographie_ + (Paris), Vme Serie, xvii. (1869) pp. 401 _sq._ The writer is here + speaking specially of the Sakalavas, though his remarks appear to be + of general application. + + M230 The names of chiefs may not be pronounced in Polynesia. + + 1424 J. S. Polack, _Manners and Customs of the New Zealanders_, i. 37 + _sq._, ii. 126 _sq._ Compare E. Tregear, "The Maoris of New + Zealand," _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xix. (1890) p. + 123. + + 1425 Captain J. Cook, _Voyages_ (London, 1809), vi. 155 (Third Voyage). + Compare Captain James Wilson, _Missionary Voyage to the Southern + Pacific Ocean_ (London, 1799), p. 366; W. Ellis, _Polynesian + Researches_,2 iii. 101. + + 1426 Vancouver, _Voyage of Discovery to the North Pacific Ocean and round + the World_ (London, 1798), i. 135. + +_ 1427 United States Exploring Expedition, Ethnography and Philology_, by + Horatio Hale (Philadelphia, 1846), pp. 288 _sq._ + + 1428 G. Brown, D.D., _Melanesians and Polynesians_ (London, 1910), p. + 280. + + M231 The names of the Eleusinian priests might not be uttered. + + 1429 Lucian, _Lexiphanes_, 10. The inscriptional and other evidence of + this Greek superstition was first brought to the notice of + anthropologists by Mr. W. R. Paton in an interesting article, "The + Holy Names of the Eleusinian Priests," _International Folk-lore + Congress, 1891, Papers and Transactions_, pp. 202-214. Compare E. + Maass, _Orpheus_ (Munich, 1895), p. 70; Aug. Mommsen, _Feste der + Stadt Athen im Altertum_ (Leipsic, 1898), pp. 253-255; P. Foucart, + _Les Grands Mysteres d'Eleusis_ (Paris, 1900), pp. 28-31. The two + last writers shew that, contrary to what we might have expected, the + custom appears not to have been very ancient. + + 1430 G. Kaibel, _Epigrammata Graeca ex lapidibus conlecta_, No. 863; + {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH OXIA~}, 1883, col. 79 _sq._ From the latter of these + inscriptions we learn that the name might be made public after the + priest's death. Further, a reference of Eunapius (_Vitae + sophistarum_, p. 475 of the Didot edition) shews that the name was + revealed to the initiated. In the essay cited in the preceding note + Mr. W. R. Paton assumes that it was the new and sacred name which + was kept secret and committed to the sea. The case is not clear, but + both the evidence and the probability seem to me in favour of the + view that it was rather the old everyday name of the priest or + priestess which was put away at his or her consecration. If, as is + not improbable, these sacred personages had to act the parts of gods + and goddesses at the mysteries, it might well be deemed indecorous + and even blasphemous to recall the vulgar names by which they had + been known in the familiar intercourse of daily life. If our clergy, + to suppose an analogous case, had to personate the most exalted + beings of sacred history, it would surely be grossly irreverent to + address them by their ordinary names during the performance of their + solemn functions. + + M232 The old names of members of the Yewe order in Togo may not be + uttered. + + 1431 H. Seidel, "Der Yew'e Dienst im Togolande," _Zeitschrift fuer + afrikanische und oceanische Sprachen_, iii. (1897) pp. 161-173; H. + Klose, _Togo unter deutscher Flagge_ (Berlin, 1899), pp. 197-205. + Compare Lieut. Herold, "Bericht betreffend religioese Anschauungen + und Gebraeuche der deutschen Ewe-Neger," _Mittheilungen aus den + deutschen Schutzgebieten_, v. (1892) p. 146; J. Spieth, "Der Jehve + Dienst der Evhe-Neger," _Mittheilungen der Geographischen + Gesellschaft zu Jena_, xii. (1893) pp. 83-88; C. Spiess, + "Religionsbegriffe der Evheer in Westafrika," _Mittheilungen des + Seminars fuer orientalische Sprachen zu Berlin_, vi. (1903) Dritte + Abtheilung, p. 126. + + M233 The utterance of the names of gods and spirits is supposed to + disturb the course of nature. + + 1432 Spencer and Gillen, _Northern Tribes of Central Australia_, p. 227. + + 1433 G. Timkowski, _Travels of the Russian Mission through Mongolia to + China_ (London, 1827), ii. 348. + + 1434 J. Campbell, _Travels in South Africa, Second Journey_ (London, + 1822), ii. 204 _sq._ + + 1435 P. Rascher, "Die Sulka, ein Beitrag zur Ethnographie Neu-Pommern," + _Archiv fuer Anthropologie_, xxix. (1904) p. 216. Compare R. + Parkinson, _Dreissig Jahre in der Suedsee_, p. 198. + + 1436 Washington Matthews, "The Mountain Chant, a Navajo Ceremony," _Fifth + Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology_ (Washington, 1887), pp. + 386 _sq._ + + 1437 L. H. Morgan, _League of the Iroquois_ (Rochester, U.S., 1851), pp. + 167 _sq._ The writer derives the prohibition to tell tales of wonder + in summer "from a vague and indefinable dread." + + 1438 H. R. Schoolcraft, _Indian Tribes_, iii. 314, 492. + + 1439 K. Vetter, in _Mittheilungen der Geographischen Gesellschaft zu + Jena_, xii. (1893) p. 95; _id._, _Komm herueber und hilf uns!_ ii. + (Barmen, 1898) p. 26; B. Hagen, _Unter den Papuas_ (Wiesbaden, + 1898), p. 270. On myths or magical tales told as spells to produce + the effects which they describe, compare F. Kauffmann, _Balder_ + (Strasburg, 1902), pp. 299 _sqq._; C. Fossey, _La Magie assyrienne_ + (Paris, 1902), pp. 95-97. + + M234 Winter and summer names of the Kwakiutl Indians. + + 1440 Fr. Boas, "The Social Organization and the Secret Societies of the + Kwakiutl Indians," _Report of the U.S. National Museum for 1895_, + pp. 396, 418 _sq._, 503, 504. Compare _Totemism and Exogamy_, iii. + 333 _sq._, 517 _sq._ + + M235 Names of gods kept secret. How Isis discovered the name of Ra, the + sun-god. + + 1441 Xenophanes, quoted by Eusebius, _Praeparatio Evangelii_, xiii. 13, + pp. 269 _sq._, ed. Heinichen, and by Clement of Alexandria, _Strom._ + vii. 4, pp. 840 _sq._, ed. Potter; H. Diels, _Die Fragmente der + Vorsokratiker_2 (Berlin, 1906-1910), i. 49. + + 1442 A. Erman, _Aegypten und aegyptisches Leben im Altertum_, pp. 359-362; + A. Wiedemann, _Die Religion der alten Aegypter_, pp. 29-32; G. + Maspero, _Histoire ancienne des peuples de l'Orient classique: les + origines_, pp. 162-164; R. V. Lanzone, _Dizionario di mitologia + egizia_ (Turin, 1881-1884), pp. 818-822; E. A. Wallis Budge, _The + Book of the Dead_ (London, 1895), pp. lxxxix.-xci.; _id._, _Egyptian + Magic_, pp. 136 _sqq._; _id._, _The Gods of the Egyptians_ (London, + 1904), i. 360 _sq._ The abridged form of the story given in the text + is based on a comparison of these various versions, of which Erman's + is slightly, and Maspero's much curtailed. Mr. Budge's version is + reproduced by Mr. E. Clodd (_Tom Tit Tot_, pp. 180 _sqq._). + + M236 Egyptian wizards have worked enchantments by the names of the gods + both in ancient and modern times. Magical constraint exercised over + demons by means of their names in North Africa and China. + + 1443 G. Maspero, _Etudes de mythologie et d'archeologie egyptienne_ + (Paris, 1893), ii. 297 _sq._ + + 1444 E. Lefebure, "La Vertu et la vie du nom en Egypte," _Melusine_, + viii. (1897) coll. 227 _sq._ Compare A. Erman, _Aegypten und + aegyptisches Leben im Altertum_, pp. 472 _sq._; E. A. Wallis Budge, + _Egyptian Magic_, pp. 157 _sqq._ + + 1445 Lucan, _Pharsalia_, vi. 730 _sqq._ + + 1446 E. W. Lane, _Manners and Customs of the Ancient Egyptians_ (Paisley + and London, 1895), ch. xii. p. 273. + + 1447 E. Doutte, _Magie et religion dans l'Afrique du nord_, p. 130. + + 1448 J. J. M. de Groot, _The Religious System of China_, vi. (Leyden, + 1910) p. 1126. + + M237 Divine names used by the Romans to conjure with. + + 1449 Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ xxviii. 18; Macrobius, _Saturn._ iii. 9; Servius + on Virgil, _Aen._ ii. 351; Plutarch, _Quaest. Rom._ 61. According to + Servius (_l.c._) it was forbidden by the pontifical law to mention + any Roman god by his proper name, lest it should be profaned. + Compare Festus, p. 106, ed. C. O. Mueller: "_Indigetes dii quorum + nomina vulgari non licet_." On the other hand the Romans were + careful, for the sake of good omen, to choose men with lucky names, + like Valerius, Salvius, Statorius, to open any enterprise of moment, + such as to lead the sacrificial victims in a religious procession or + to be the first to answer to their names in a levy or a census. See + Cicero, _De divinatione_, i. 45. 102 _sq._; Festus, _s.v._ "Lacus + Lucrinus," p. 121, ed. C. O. Mueller; Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ xxviii. 22; + Tacitus, _Histor._ iv. 53. + + 1450 Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ iii. 65; Solinus, i. 4 _sq._; Macrobius, _Sat._ + iii. 9, 3, and 5; Servius, on Virgil, _Aen._ i. 277; Joannes Lydus, + _De mensibus_, iv. 50. + + 1451 F. Fossey, _La Magie assyrienne_ (Paris, 1902), pp. 58, 95. + + 1452 T. de Pauly, _Description ethnographique des peuples de la Russie_ + (St. Petersburg, 1862), _Peuples ouralo-altaiques_, p. 24. + + M238 The taboos on names of kings and commoners are alike in origin. + M239 Common words as well as personal names are often tabooed from + superstitious motives. + M240 Common words tabooed by Highland fowlers and fishermen. + + 1453 M. Martin, "Description of the Western Islands of Scotland," in + Pinkerton's _Voyages and Travels_, iii. 579 _sq._ As to the Flannan + Islands see also Sir J. Sinclair's _Statistical Account of + Scotland_, xix. (Edinburgh, 1797), p. 283. + + 1454 J. G. Campbell, _Superstitions of the Highlands and Islands of + Scotland_ (Glasgow, 1900), p. 239. + + 1455 Miss Morag Cameron, "Highland Fisher-folk and their Superstitions," + _Folk-lore_, xiv. (1903) p. 304. + + M241 Common words tabooed by Scotch fishermen and others. + + 1456 A. Edmonston, _Zetland Islands_ (Edinburgh, 1809), ii. 74. + + 1457 Ch. Rogers, _Social Life in Scotland_ (Edinburgh, 1884-1886), iii. + 218. + + 1458 W. Gregor, _Folk-lore of the North-East of Scotland_, pp. 199-201. + + 1459 "Traditions, Customs, and Superstitions of the Lewis," _Folk-lore_, + vi. (1895) p. 170; Miss A. Goodrich-Freer, "The Powers of Evil in + the Outer Hebrides," _Folk-lore_, x. (1899) p. 265. + + 1460 J. Mackenzie, _Ten Years north of the Orange River_ (Edinburgh, + 1871), p. 151, note 1. + + 1461 J. G. Campbell, _Witchcraft and Second Sight in the Highlands and + Islands of Scotland_ (Glasgow, 1902), pp. 184 _sq._ + + M242 Common words, especially the names of dangerous animals, tabooed in + various parts of Europe. + + 1462 J. Rhys, "Manx Folk-lore and Superstitions," _Folk-lore_, iii. + (1892) p. 84. + + 1463 A. Bosquet, _La Normandie romanesque et merveilleuse_ (Paris and + Rouen, 1845), p. 308. + + 1464 J. G. Gmelin, _Reise durch Sibirien_, ii. (Goettingen, 1752), p. 277 + +_ 1465 Bavaria, Landes- und Volkskunde des Koenigreichs Bayern_, ii. + (Munich, 1863), p. 304. + + 1466 Tettau und Temme, _Die Volkssagen Ostpreussens, Litthauens und + Westpreussens_ (Berlin, 1837), p. 281. + + 1467 W. Witzschel, _Sagen, Sitten, und Gebraeuche aus Thueringen_, p. 175, + § 30. + + 1468 K. Bartsch, _Sagen, Maerchen, und Gebraeuche aus Meklenburg_, ii. p. + 246, §§ 1273, 1274. + + 1469 A. Kuhn, _Maerkische Sagen und Maerchen_, p. 378, § 14. + + 1470 B. Thorpe, _Northern Mythology_, ii. 83 _sq._; L. Lloyd, _Peasant + Life in Sweden_ (London, 1870), p. 251. + + 1471 R. F. Kaindl, _Die Huzulen_ (Vienna, 1894), p. 103; _id._, + "Viehzucht und Viehzauber in den Ostkarpaten," _Globus_, lxix. + (1896) p. 387. + +_ 1472 Id._, "Neue Beitraege zur Ethnologie und Volkskunde der Huzulen," + _Globus_, lxix. (1896) p. 73. + + 1473 C. Leemius, _De Lapponibus Finmarchiae eorumque lingua, vita, et + religione pristina commentatio_ (Copenhagen, 1767), pp. 502 _sq._ + + 1474 M. A. Castren, _Vorlesungen ueber die finnische Mythologie_ (St. + Petersburg, 1853), p. 201. + + 1475 Varonen, reported by Hon. J. Abercromby in _Folk-lore_, ii. (1891) + pp. 245 _sq._ + + 1476 Boecler-Kreutzwald, _Der Ehsten aberglaeubische Gebraeuche, Weisen und + Gewohnheiten_, p. 120. + + M243 The names of various animals tabooed in Siberia, Kamtchatka, and + America. + + 1477 P. Labbe, _Un Bagne russe, l'ile de Sakhaline_ (Paris, 1903), p. + 231. + + 1478 G. W. Steller, _Beschreibung von dem Lande Kamtschatka_ (Frankfort + and Leipsic, 1774), p. 276. + + 1479 G. W. Steller, _op. cit._ p. 91; compare _ib._ pp. 129, 130. + + 1480 J. Mooney, "Sacred Formulas of the Cherokees," _Seventh Annual + Report of the Bureau of Ethnology_ (Washington, 1892), p. 352. + Compare _id._, "Myths of the Cherokee," _Nineteenth Annual Report of + the Bureau of American Ethnology_, Part i. (Washington, 1900) p. + 295. + + 1481 E. W. Nelson, "The Eskimo about Bering Strait," _Eighteenth Annual + Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology_, Part i. (Washington, + 1899) p. 438. + + 1482 F. Boas, "The Eskimo of Baffin Land and Hudson Bay," _Bulletin of + the American Museum of Natural History_, xv. (1901) p. 148. + + 1483 J. Teit, "The Thompson Indians of British Columbia," _Memoir of the + American Museum of Natural History, The Jesup North Pacific + Expedition_, vol. i. part iv. (April 1900) p. 374. + + M244 Names of animals and things tabooed by the Arabs, Africans, and + Malagasy. + + 1484 J. Wellhausen, _Reste arabischen Heidentums_2 (Berlin, 1897), p. + 199. + + 1485 A. Certeux et E. H. Carnoy, _L'Algerie traditionnelle_ (Paris and + Algiers, 1884), pp. 172, 175. + + 1486 Father Picarda, "Autour de Mandera," _Missions Catholiques_, xviii. + (1886) p. 227. + + 1487 J. J. Monteiro, _Angola and the River Congo_ (London, 1875), ii. + 116. + + 1488 J. Mackenzie, _Ten Years north of the Orange River_ (Edinburgh, + 1871), p. 151; C. R. Conder, in _Journal of the Anthropological + Institute_, xvi. (1887) p. 84. + + 1489 H. B. Johnstone, "Notes on the Customs of the Tribes occupying + Mombasa Sub-district, British East Africa," _Journal of the + Anthropological Institute_, xxxii. (1902) p. 268. + + 1490 J. J. M. de Groot, _The Religious System of China_, v. (Leyden, + 1907) p. 691. + + 1491 A. F. Mockler-Ferryman, _British Nigeria_ (London, 1902), p. 285. + + 1492 J. Irle, _Die Herero_ (Guetersloh, 1906), p. 133. + + 1493 A. C. Hollis, _The Nandi_ (Oxford, 1909), p. 43. + + 1494 H. F. Standing, "Malagasy _fady_," _Antananarivo Annual and + Madagascar Magazine_, vol. ii., _Reprint of the Second Four Numbers_ + (Antananarivo, 1896), p. 258. + + 1495 H. F. Standing, _op. cit._ p. 263. + + 1496 J. Sibree, _The Great African Island_, pp. 307 _sq._ + + 1497 R. H. Nassau, _Fetichism in West Africa_ (London, 1904), pp. 381 + _sqq._ + + M245 Names of animals, especially the snake and the tiger, tabooed in + India. + +_ 1498 Panjab Notes and Queries_, i. p. 15, § 122. + +_ 1499 North Indian Notes and Queries_, i. p. 104, § 690. + +_ 1500 Id._ v. p. 133, § 372. + + 1501 W. Crooke, _Popular Religion and Folk-lore of Northern India_ + (Westminster, 1896), ii. 142 _sq._ + + 1502 S. Mateer, _Native Life in Travancore_, pp. 320 _sq._ + +_ 1503 North Indian Notes and Queries_, v. p. 133, § 372. + + 1504 W. Crooke, _op. cit._ ii. 212. + + 1505 W. Crooke in _North Indian Notes and Queries_, i. p. 70, § 579; + _id._, _Tribes and Castes of the North-Western Provinces and Oudh_, + iii. 249; _id._, _Popular Religion and Folk-lore of Northern India_ + (Westminster, 1896), ii. 54. + + 1506 W. Crooke, _Tribes and Castes of the North-Western Provinces and + Oudh_, iii. 314. + + 1507 D. Sunder, "Exorcism of Wild Animals in the Sundarbans," _Journal of + the Asiatic Society of Bengal_, lxxii. part iii. (Calcutta, 1904) + pp. 45 _sqq._, 51. + + M246 Names of animals and things tabooed in Indo-China. + + 1508 H. Mouhot, _Travels in the Central Parts of Indo-China_ (London, + 1864), i. 263 _sq._ + + 1509 Mgr Masson, in _Annales de la Propagation de la Foi_, xxiv. (1852) + p. 323. Compare Le R. P. Cadiere, "Croyances et dictons populaires + de la vallee du Nguon-son," _Bulletin de l'Ecole Francaise + d'Extreme-Orient_, i. (1901) p. 134. + + 1510 E. Young, _The Kingdom of the Yellow Robe_ (Westminster, 1898), p. + 61. + + 1511 N. Annandale, "Primitive Beliefs and Customs of the Patani + Fishermen," _Fasciculi Malayenses, Anthropology_, part i. (April + 1903) p. 104. + + 1512 E. Aymonier, _Notes sur le Laos_, p. 113; _id._, _Voyage dans le + Laos_, i. (Paris, 1895) p. 311. In the latter passage the writer + observes that the custom of giving conventional names to common + objects is very generally observed in Indo-China during the + prosecution of long and perilous journeys undertaken periodically. + +_ 1513 Id._, "Les Tchames et leurs religions," _Revue de l'Histoire des + Religions_, xxiv. (1891) p. 278. Compare A. Cabaton, _Nouvelles + Recherches sur les Chams_ (Paris, 1901), p. 53. + + 1514 D. F. A. Hervey, in _Indian Notes and Queries_ (December 1886), p. + 45, § 154. + + M247 Special language used by East Indian searchers for camphor. + +_ 1515 Pantang_ is equivalent to taboo. In this sense it is used also by + the Dyaks. See S. W. Tromp, "Een Dajaksch Feest," _Bijdragen tot de + Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde van Nederlandsch-Indie_, xxxix. (1890) + pp. 31 _sq._ + + 1516 J. R. Logan, "The Orang Binua of Johore," _Journal of the Eastern + Archipelago and Eastern Asia_, i. (1847) pp. 249, 263-265; A. + Bastian, _Die Voelker des oestlichen Asien_, v. 37; H. Lake and H. J. + Kelsall, "The Camphor Tree and Camphor Language of Johore," _Journal + of the Straits Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society_, No. 26 (January + 1894), pp. 39 _sq._; W. W. Skeat, _Malay Magic_, pp. 212-214; W. W. + Skeat and C. O. Blagden, _Pagan Races of the Malay Peninsula_ + (London, 1906), ii. 414-431. + + 1517 C. M. Pleyte, "Herinneringen uit Oost-Indie," _Tijdschrift van het + koninklijk Nederlandsch Aardrijkskundig Genootschap_, II Serie, + xvii. (1900) pp. 27 _sq._ + + 1518 W. H. Furness, _Folk-lore in Borneo_ (Wallingford, Pennsylvania, + 1899; privately printed), p. 27; _id._, _Home-life of Borneo + Head-hunters_ (Philadelphia, 1902), p. 17. A special language is + also used in the search for camphor by some of the natives of + Sumatra. See Th. A. L. Heyting, "Beschrijving der onder-afdeeling + Groot-Mandeling en Batang-Natal," _Tijdschrift van het Nederlandsch + Aardrijkskundig Genootschap_, Tweede Serie, xiv. (1897) p. 276. + + 1519 W. H. Furness, _Home-life of Borneo Head-hunters_, pp. 168 _sq._ + + M248 Special languages used by Malay miners, fowlers, and fishermen. + + 1520 W. W. Skeat, _Malay Magic_, pp. 250, 253-260. In like manner the + people of Sikhim intensely dread all mining operations, believing + that the ores and veins of metals are the stored treasures of the + earth-spirits, who are enraged by the removal of these treasures and + visit the robbers with sickness, failure of crops, and other + calamities. Hence the Sikhimese leave the copper mines to be worked + by Nepaulese. See L. A. Waddell, _Among the Himalayas_ (Westminster, + 1899), p. 101. + + 1521 W. W. Skeat, _op. cit._ pp. 139 _sq._ + + 1522 W. W. Skeat, _op. cit._ pp. 192 _sq._ + + 1523 N. Annandale, "Primitive Beliefs and Customs of the Patani + Fishermen," _Fasciculi Malayenses, Anthropology_, part i. (April + 1903) pp. 84-86. + + 1524 C. Snouck Hurgronje, _De Atjehers_ (Batavia and Leyden, 1893-1894), + i. 303. + + M249 Names of things and animals tabooed in Sumatra, Nias, and Java. + + 1525 J. L. van der Toorn, "Het animisme bij den Minangkabauer der + Padangsche Bovenlanden," _Bijdragen tot de Taal- Land- en + Volkenkunde van Nederlandsch-Indie_, xxxix. (1890) p. 100. As to the + superstitions of gold-washers among the Gayos of Sumatra, see C. + Snouck Hurgronje, _Het Gajoland en zijne Bewoners_ (Batavia, 1903), + pp. 361 _sq._ + + 1526 M. T. H. Perelaer, _Ethnographische Beschrijving der Dajaks_ + (Zalt-Bommel, 1870), p. 215. + + 1527 J. T. Nieuwenhuisen en H. C. B. von Rosenberg, "Verslag omtrent het + eiland Nias," _Verhandelingen van het Bataviaasch Genootschap van + Kunsten en Wetenschappen_, xxx. (1863) p. 115. Compare W. Marsden, + _History of Sumatra_, p. 292; T. J. Newbold, _Account of the British + Settlements in the Straits of Malacca_, ii. 192 _sq._ + + 1528 J. E. Neumann, "_Kemali_, _Pantang_ en _Reboe_ bij de Karo-Bataks," + _Tijdschrift voor Indische Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde_, xlviii. + (1906) pp. 511 _sq._ + + 1529 C. Snouck Hurgronje, _Het Gajoland en zijne Bewoners_ (Batavia, + 1903), pp. 311 _sq._ + + 1530 J. W. Thomas, "De jacht op het eiland Nias," _Tijdschrift voor + Indische Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde_, xxvi. (1880) p. 275. + + 1531 L. N. H. A. Chatelin, "Godsdienst en bijgeloof der Niassers," + _Tijdschrift voor Indische Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde_, xxvi. (1880) + p. 165; H. Sundermann, "Die Insel Nias und die Mission daselbst," + _Allgemeine Missions-Zeitschrift_, xi. (1884) p. 349; E. Modigliani, + _Un Viaggio a Nias_ (Milan, 1890), p. 593. + + 1532 A. L. van Hasselt, "Nota, betreffende de rijstcultuur in de + Residentie Tapanoeli," _Tijdschrift voor Indische Taal- Land- en + Volkenkunde_, xxxvi. (1893) pp. 525 _sq._ The Singhalese also call + things by strange names when they are in the rice-fields. See A. A. + Perera, "Glimpses of Singhalese Social Life," _Indian Antiquary_, + xxxii. (1903) p. 437. + + 1533 G. A. J. Hazeu, "Kleine Bijdragen tot de Ethnografie en de Folk-lore + van Java," _Tijdschrift voor Indische Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde_, + xlvii. (1903) pp. 291 _sq._ + + M250 Names of things and animals tabooed in Celebes. + + 1534 A. C. Kruijt, "Een en ander aangaande het geestelijk en + maatschappelijk leven van den Poso-Alfoer," _Mededeelingen van wege + het Nederlandsche Zendelinggenootschap_, xxxix. (1895) pp. 146-148; + _id._, "Eenige ethnografische aanteekeningen omtrent de Toboengkoe + en de Tomori," _ibid._ xliv. (1900) pp. 228 _sq._ + + 1535 N. Adriani und A. C. Kruijt, "Van Posso naar Mori," _Mededeelingen + van wege het Nederlandsche Zendelinggenootschap_, xliv. (1900) pp. + 145 _sq._ + + 1536 A. C. Kruijt, "Regen lokken en regen verdrijven bij de Toradja's van + Midden Celebes," _Tijdschrift voor Indische Taal- Land- en + Volkenkunde_, xliv. (1901) p. 8; _id._, "Het rijk Mori," + _Tijdschrift van het Koniklijk Nederlandsch Aardrijkskundig + Genootschap_, II. Serie, xvii. (1900) p. 464, note. + + M251 Common words tabooed by East Indian mariners at sea. + + 1537 B. F. Matthes, _Bijdragen tot de Ethnologie van Zuid-Celebes_ (The + Hague, 1875), p. 107; _id._, "Over de _ada's_ of gewoonten der + Makassaren en Boegineezen," _Verslagen en Mededeelingen der + Koninklijke Akademie van Wetenschappen_, Afdeeling Letterkunde, III. + Reeks, ii. (Amsterdam, 1885) pp. 164 _sq._ + + 1538 H. E. D. Engelhard, "Mededeelingen over het eiland Saleijer," + _Bijdragen tot de Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde van Neerlandsch-Indie_, + Vierde Volgreeks, viii. (1884) p. 369. + + 1539 E. F. Jochim, "Beschrijving van den Sapoedi Archipel," _Tijdschrift + voor Indische Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde_, xxxvi. (1893) p. 361. + + 1540 M. J. van Baarda, "Fabelen, Verhalen en Overleveringen der + Galelareezen," _Bijdragen tot de Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde van + Nederlandsch-Indie_, xlv. (1895) p. 508. + + 1541 S. D. van de Velde van Cappellan, "Verslag eener Bezoekreis naar de + Sangi-eilanden," _Mededeelingen van wege het Nederlandsche + Zendelinggenootschap_, i. (1857) pp. 33, 35. + + 1542 A. C. Kruijt, "Een en ander aangaande het geestelijk en + maatschappelijk leven van den Poso-Alfoer," _Mededeelingen van wege + het Nederlandsche Zendelinggenootschap_, xxxix. (1895) p. 148. + + 1543 Th. J. F. van Hasselt, "Gebruik van vermomde Taal door de Nufooren," + _Tijdschrift voor Indische Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde_, xlv. (1902) + pp. 279 _sq._ + + M252 Common words tabooed in Sunda, Borneo, and the Philippines. + + 1544 K. F. Holle, "Snippers van den Regent van Galoeh," _Tijdschrift voor + Indische Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde_, xxvii. (1882) pp. 101 _sq._ + + 1545 Ch. Hose and W. McDougall, "The Relations between Men and Animals in + Sarawak," _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxxi. (1902) + p. 205; W. H. Furness, _Home-life of Borneo Head-hunters_ + (Philadelphia, 1902), pp. 17, 186 _sq._ + + 1546 Ch. Hose and W. McDougall, _op. cit._ p. 186. + + 1547 Ch. Brooke, _Ten Years in Sarawak_ (London, 1866), i. 208; Spenser + St. John, _Life in the Forests of the Far East_,2 i. 71 _sq._ + + 1548 Juan de la Concepcion, _Historia general de Philipinas_, i. + (Manilla, 1788), p. 20. Compare J. Mallat, _Les Philippines_ (Paris, + 1846), i. 64. + + M253 The avoidance of common words seems to be based on a fear of spirits + and a wish to deceive them or elude their notice. Common words + avoided by hunters and fowlers in order to deceive the beasts and + birds. + + 1549 On this subject Mr. R. J. Wilkinson's account of the Malay's + attitude to nature (_Malay Beliefs_, London and Leyden, 1906, pp. 67 + _sq._) deserves to be quoted: "The practice of magic arts enters + into every department of Malay life. If (as the people of the + Peninsula believe) all nature is teeming with spiritual life, some + spiritual weapon is necessary to protect man against possible + ghostly foes. Now the chief and most characteristic weapon of the + Malay in his fight against the invisible world is courtesy. The + peasant will speak no evil of a tiger in the jungle or of an evil + spirit within the limits of that spirit's authority.... The tiger is + the symbol of kingly oppression; still, he is royal and must not be + insulted; he is the 'shaggy-haired father' or 'grandfather' of the + traveller in the woods. Even the birds, the fish and the fruits that + serve as human food are entitled to a certain consideration: the + deer is addressed as a 'prince,' the coco-nut tree as a 'princess,' + the chevrotin as 'emperor of the jungle' (_shah alam di-rimba_). In + all this respect paid to unseen powers--for it is the soul of the + animal or plant that is feared--there is no contemptible adulation or + cringeing; the Malay believes that courtesy honours the speaker more + than the person addressed." + + 1550 The character of King Solomon appears to be a favourite one with the + Malay sorcerer when he desires to ingratiate himself with or lord it + over the powers of nature. Thus, for example, in addressing silver + ore the sage observes:-- + + "_If you do not come hither at this very moment_ + _ You shall be a rebel unto God,_ + _ And a rebel unto God's Prophet Solomon,_ + _ For I am God's Prophet Solomon._"-- + + See W. W. Skeat, _Malay Magic_, p. 273. No doubt the fame of his + wisdom has earned for the Hebrew monarch this distinction among the + dusky wizards of the East. + + M254 General conclusion. Human gods, on whom the welfare of the community + is believed to depend, are obliged to observe many rules to ensure + their own safety and that of their people. + M255 A study of these rules affords us an insight into the philosophy of + the savage. Our debt to our savage forefathers. + + 1551 "The mind of the savage is not a blank; and when one becomes + familiar with his beliefs and superstitions, and the complicated + nature of his laws and customs, preconceived notions of his + simplicity of thought go to the winds. I have yet to find that most + apocryphal of beings described as the 'unsophisticated African.' We + laugh at and ridicule his fetishes and superstitions, but we fail to + follow the succession of ideas and effort of mind which have created + these things. After most careful observations extending over + nineteen years, I have come to the conclusion that there is nothing + in the customs and fetishes of the African which does not represent + a definite course of reasoning" (Rev. Thomas Lewis, "The Ancient + Kingdom of Kongo," _The Geographical Journal_, xix. (1902) p. 554). + "The study of primitive peoples is extremely curious and full of + surprises. It is twenty years since I undertook it among the Thonga + and Pedi tribes of South Africa, and the further I advance, the more + I am astonished at the great number, the complexity, and the + profundity of the rites of these so-called savages. Only a + superficial observer could accuse their individual or tribal life of + superficiality. If we take the trouble to seek the reason of these + strange customs, we perceive that at their base there are secret, + obscure reasons, principles hard to grasp, even though the most + fervent adepts of the rite can give no account of it. To discover + these principles, and so to give a true explanation of the rites, is + the supreme task of the ethnographer,--a task in the highest degree + delicate, for it is impossible to perform it if we do not lay aside + our personal ideas to saturate ourselves with those of primitive + peoples" (Rev. H. A. Junod, "Les Conceptions physiologiques des + Bantou sud-africains et leurs tabous," _Revue d'Ethnographie et de + Sociologie_, i. (1910) p. 126). These weighty words, the fruit of + ripe experience, deserve to be pondered by those who fancy that the + elaborate system of savage custom can have grown up instinctively + without a correspondingly elaborate process of reasoning in the + minds of its founders. We may not, indeed, always be able to + discover the reason for which a particular custom or rite was + instituted, for we are only beginning to understand the mind of + uncivilised man; but all that we know of him tends to shew that his + practice, however absurd it may seem to us, originated in a definite + train of thought and for a definite and very practical purpose. + + 1552 See above, pp. 159 _sq._ + + 1553 M. J. van Baarda, "Fabelen, Verhalen en Overleveringen der + Galelareezen," _Bijdragen tot de Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde van + Nederlandsch-Indie_, xlv. (1895) p. 513. + + 1554 John Ramsay, _Scotland and Scotsmen in the Eighteenth Century_ + (Edinburgh, 1888), ii. 456. + + 1555 H. R. Schoolcraft, _Indian Tribes_, ii. 175. + + 1556 J. Macdonald, _Light in Africa_ (London, 1890), p. 209. + + 1557 Rev. J. Roscoe, in _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, + xxxii. (1902) p. 59. + + 1558 A. C. Hollis, _The Nandi_, pp. 24 _sq._, 36. In these cases the harm + is thought to fall on the person who steps over, not on the thing + which is stepped over. + + 1559 Rev. J. H. Weeks, "Customs of the Lower Congo People," _Folk-lore_, + xx. (1909) p. 474. + + 1560 B. Gutmann, "Trauer und Begraebnissitten der Wadschagga," _Globus_, + lxxxix. (1906) p. 199. + + 1561 E. Aymonier, _Voyage dans le Laos_, i. (Paris, 1895) p. 144. + + 1562 C. Lumholtz, _Unknown Mexico_ (London, 1903), i. 435. + + 1563 E. M. Curr, _The Australian Race_, i. 50. + + 1564 A. W. Howitt, _Native Tribes of South-East Australia_, p. 402. + + 1565 Father Lambert, _Moeurs et superstitions des Neo-Caledoniens_, pp. + 192 _sq._ + + 1566 P. von Stenin, "Das Gewohnheitsrecht der Samojeden," _Globus_, lx. + (1891) p. 173. + + 1567 J. Richardson, in _Antananarivo Annual and Madagascar Magazine_, + _Reprint of the First Four Numbers_ (Antananarivo, 1885), p. 529; + _id._, _Reprint of the Second Four Numbers_ (Antananarivo, 1896), p. + 296; J. Sibree, _The Great African Island_, p. 288; compare De + Flacourt, _Histoire de la grande isle Madagascar_ (Paris, 1658), p. + 99. + + 1568 J. Mooney, "Myths of the Cherokee," _Nineteenth Annual Report of the + Bureau of American Ethnology_, pt. i. (Washington, 1900) p. 424. + + 1569 H. A. Junod, "Les Conceptions physiologiques des Bantou + sud-africains," _Revue d'Ethnographie et de Sociologie_, i. (1910) + p. 138, note 3. + + 1570 F. S. Krauss, _Volksglaube und religioeser Brauch der Suedslaven_, p. + 52. + + 1571 See L. F. Sauve, _Folk-lore des Hautes-Vosges_, p. 226, compare pp. + 219 _sq._; E. Monseur, _Le Folk-lore Wallon_, p. 39; A. Wuttke, _Der + deutsche Volksaberglaube_,2 § 603; J. W. Wolf, _Beitraege zur + deutschen Mythologie_, i. p. 208, § 42; J. A. E. Koehler, + _Volksbrauch_, etc., _im Voigtlande_, p. 423; A. Kuhn und W. + Schwartz, _Norddeutsche Sagen, Maerchen und Gebraeuche_, p. 462, § + 461; E. Krause, "Aberglaeubische Kuren und sonstiger Aberglaube in + Berlin," _Zeitschrift fuer Ethnologie_, xv. (1883) p. 85; R. H. + Kaindl, _Die Huzulen_, p. 5; J. V. Grohmann, _Aberglauben und + Gebraeuche aus Boehmen und Maehren_, p. 109, §§ 798, 799; Eijueb Abela, + "Beitraege zur Kenntniss aberglaeubischer Gebraeuche in Syrien," + _Zeitschrift des deutschen Palaestina-Vereins_, vii. (1884) p. 81; + compare B. Chemali, "Naissance et premier age au Liban," + _Anthropos_, v. (1910) p. 741. + + + + + +***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE GOLDEN BOUGH (THIRD EDITION, VOL. 3 OF 12)*** + + + +CREDITS + + +January 12, 2013 + + Project Gutenberg TEI edition 1 + Produced by David Edwards, David King, and the Online + Distributed Proofreading Team at <http://www.pgdp.net/>. (This + file was produced from images generously made available by The + Internet Archive.) + + + +A WORD FROM PROJECT GUTENBERG + + +This file should be named 41832.txt or 41832.zip. + +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + + + http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/4/1/8/3/41832/ + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one -- the old editions will be +renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no one +owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation (and +you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without permission +and without paying copyright royalties. Special rules, set forth in the +General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to copying and +distributing Project Gutenberg{~TRADE MARK SIGN~} electronic works to protect the Project +Gutenberg{~TRADE MARK SIGN~} concept and trademark. Project Gutenberg is a registered +trademark, and may not be used if you charge for the eBooks, unless you +receive specific permission. If you do not charge anything for copies of +this eBook, complying with the rules is very easy. You may use this eBook +for nearly any purpose such as creation of derivative works, reports, +performances and research. They may be modified and printed and given away +-- you may do practically _anything_ with public domain eBooks. +Redistribution is subject to the trademark license, especially commercial +redistribution. + + + +THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE + + +_Please read this before you distribute or use this work._ + +To protect the Project Gutenberg{~TRADE MARK SIGN~} mission of promoting the free +distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work (or +any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project Gutenberg"), +you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project Gutenberg{~TRADE MARK SIGN~} +License (available with this file or online at +http://www.gutenberg.org/license). + + +Section 1. + + +General Terms of Use & Redistributing Project Gutenberg{~TRADE MARK SIGN~} electronic works + + +1.A. + + +By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg{~TRADE MARK SIGN~} electronic work, +you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to and accept all the +terms of this license and intellectual property (trademark/copyright) +agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all the terms of this +agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy all copies of +Project Gutenberg{~TRADE MARK SIGN~} electronic works in your possession. If you paid a fee +for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project Gutenberg{~TRADE MARK SIGN~} electronic work +and you do not agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement, you may +obtain a refund from the person or entity to whom you paid the fee as set +forth in paragraph 1.E.8. + + +1.B. + + +"Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark. It may only be used on or +associated in any way with an electronic work by people who agree to be +bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few things that you can +do with most Project Gutenberg{~TRADE MARK SIGN~} electronic works even without complying +with the full terms of this agreement. See paragraph 1.C below. There are +a lot of things you can do with Project Gutenberg{~TRADE MARK SIGN~} electronic works if you +follow the terms of this agreement and help preserve free future access to +Project Gutenberg{~TRADE MARK SIGN~} electronic works. See paragraph 1.E below. + + +1.C. + + +The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation" or +PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project +Gutenberg{~TRADE MARK SIGN~} electronic works. Nearly all the individual works in the +collection are in the public domain in the United States. If an individual +work is in the public domain in the United States and you are located in +the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from copying, +distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative works based on +the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg are removed. Of +course, we hope that you will support the Project Gutenberg{~TRADE MARK SIGN~} mission of +promoting free access to electronic works by freely sharing Project +Gutenberg{~TRADE MARK SIGN~} works in compliance with the terms of this agreement for +keeping the Project Gutenberg{~TRADE MARK SIGN~} name associated with the work. You can +easily comply with the terms of this agreement by keeping this work in the +same format with its attached full Project Gutenberg{~TRADE MARK SIGN~} License when you +share it without charge with others. + + +1.D. + + +The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern what you +can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are in a constant +state of change. If you are outside the United States, check the laws of +your country in addition to the terms of this agreement before +downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or creating +derivative works based on this work or any other Project Gutenberg{~TRADE MARK SIGN~} work. +The Foundation makes no representations concerning the copyright status of +any work in any country outside the United States. + + +1.E. + + +Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg: + + +1.E.1. + + +The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate access +to, the full Project Gutenberg{~TRADE MARK SIGN~} License must appear prominently whenever +any copy of a Project Gutenberg{~TRADE MARK SIGN~} work (any work on which the phrase +"Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project Gutenberg" +is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed, copied or +distributed: + + + This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with + almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away + or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License + included with this eBook or online at http://www.gutenberg.org + + +1.E.2. + + +If an individual Project Gutenberg{~TRADE MARK SIGN~} electronic work is derived from the +public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is posted with +permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied and +distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees or +charges. If you are redistributing or providing access to a work with the +phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the work, you +must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 +or obtain permission for the use of the work and the Project Gutenberg{~TRADE MARK SIGN~} +trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. + + +1.E.3. + + +If an individual Project Gutenberg{~TRADE MARK SIGN~} electronic work is posted with the +permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution must comply +with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional terms imposed +by the copyright holder. Additional terms will be linked to the Project +Gutenberg{~TRADE MARK SIGN~} License for all works posted with the permission of the +copyright holder found at the beginning of this work. + + +1.E.4. + + +Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg{~TRADE MARK SIGN~} License +terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this work or any +other work associated with Project Gutenberg{~TRADE MARK SIGN~}. + + +1.E.5. + + +Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this electronic +work, or any part of this electronic work, without prominently displaying +the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with active links or immediate +access to the full terms of the Project Gutenberg{~TRADE MARK SIGN~} License. + + +1.E.6. + + +You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary, compressed, +marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any word +processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access to or +distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg{~TRADE MARK SIGN~} work in a format other than +"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version posted +on the official Project Gutenberg{~TRADE MARK SIGN~} web site (http://www.gutenberg.org), +you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a +copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon +request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other form. +Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg{~TRADE MARK SIGN~} License as +specified in paragraph 1.E.1. + + +1.E.7. + + +Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying, performing, +copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg{~TRADE MARK SIGN~} works unless you comply +with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. + + +1.E.8. + + +You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing access to or +distributing Project Gutenberg{~TRADE MARK SIGN~} electronic works provided that + + - You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from + the use of Project Gutenberg{~TRADE MARK SIGN~} works calculated using the method you + already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is owed to + the owner of the Project Gutenberg{~TRADE MARK SIGN~} trademark, but he has agreed to + donate royalties under this paragraph to the Project Gutenberg + Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments must be paid within 60 + days following each date on which you prepare (or are legally + required to prepare) your periodic tax returns. Royalty payments + should be clearly marked as such and sent to the Project Gutenberg + Literary Archive Foundation at the address specified in Section 4, + "Information about donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary + Archive Foundation." + + - You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies + you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he + does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg{~TRADE MARK SIGN~} License. + You must require such a user to return or destroy all copies of the + works possessed in a physical medium and discontinue all use of and + all access to other copies of Project Gutenberg{~TRADE MARK SIGN~} works. + + - You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of + any money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the + electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days of + receipt of the work. + + - You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free + distribution of Project Gutenberg{~TRADE MARK SIGN~} works. + + +1.E.9. + + +If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg{~TRADE MARK SIGN~} electronic +work or group of works on different terms than are set forth in this +agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from both the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael Hart, the owner of the +Project Gutenberg{~TRADE MARK SIGN~} trademark. Contact the Foundation as set forth in +Section 3 below. + + +1.F. + + +1.F.1. + + +Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable effort to +identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread public domain +works in creating the Project Gutenberg{~TRADE MARK SIGN~} collection. Despite these +efforts, Project Gutenberg{~TRADE MARK SIGN~} electronic works, and the medium on which they +may be stored, may contain "Defects," such as, but not limited to, +incomplete, inaccurate or corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright +or other intellectual property infringement, a defective or damaged disk +or other medium, a computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot +be read by your equipment. + + +1.F.2. + + +LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES -- Except for the "Right of +Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project Gutenberg{~TRADE MARK SIGN~} +trademark, and any other party distributing a Project Gutenberg{~TRADE MARK SIGN~} +electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all liability to you for +damages, costs and expenses, including legal fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE +NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH +OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH F3. YOU AGREE THAT THE +FOUNDATION, THE TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT +WILL NOT BE LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, +PUNITIVE OR INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY +OF SUCH DAMAGE. + + +1.F.3. + + +LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND -- If you discover a defect in this +electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can receive a refund +of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a written explanation to +the person you received the work from. If you received the work on a +physical medium, you must return the medium with your written explanation. +The person or entity that provided you with the defective work may elect +to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a refund. If you received the +work electronically, the person or entity providing it to you may choose +to give you a second opportunity to receive the work electronically in +lieu of a refund. If the second copy is also defective, you may demand a +refund in writing without further opportunities to fix the problem. + + +1.F.4. + + +Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth in +paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS,' WITH NO OTHER +WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO +WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE. + + +1.F.5. + + +Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied warranties or the +exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages. If any disclaimer or +limitation set forth in this agreement violates the law of the state +applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be interpreted to make +the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by the applicable state +law. The invalidity or unenforceability of any provision of this agreement +shall not void the remaining provisions. + + +1.F.6. + + +INDEMNITY -- You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the trademark +owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone providing copies of +Project Gutenberg{~TRADE MARK SIGN~} electronic works in accordance with this agreement, and +any volunteers associated with the production, promotion and distribution +of Project Gutenberg{~TRADE MARK SIGN~} electronic works, harmless from all liability, costs +and expenses, including legal fees, that arise directly or indirectly from +any of the following which you do or cause to occur: (a) distribution of +this or any Project Gutenberg{~TRADE MARK SIGN~} work, (b) alteration, modification, or +additions or deletions to any Project Gutenberg{~TRADE MARK SIGN~} work, and (c) any Defect +you cause. + + +Section 2. + + + Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg{~TRADE MARK SIGN~} + + +Project Gutenberg{~TRADE MARK SIGN~} is synonymous with the free distribution of electronic +works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers including +obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It exists because of the +efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from people in all walks +of life. + +Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the assistance +they need, is critical to reaching Project Gutenberg{~TRADE MARK SIGN~}'s goals and ensuring +that the Project Gutenberg{~TRADE MARK SIGN~} collection will remain freely available for +generations to come. In 2001, the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive +Foundation was created to provide a secure and permanent future for +Project Gutenberg{~TRADE MARK SIGN~} and future generations. To learn more about the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and how your efforts and donations +can help, see Sections 3 and 4 and the Foundation web page at +http://www.pglaf.org. + + +Section 3. + + + Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation + + +The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit +501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the state of +Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal Revenue Service. +The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification number is 64-6221541. +Its 501(c)(3) letter is posted at +http://www.gutenberg.org/fundraising/pglaf. Contributions to the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full +extent permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws. + +The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. +S. Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered +throughout numerous locations. Its business office is located at 809 North +1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email +business@pglaf.org. Email contact links and up to date contact information +can be found at the Foundation's web site and official page at +http://www.pglaf.org + +For additional contact information: + + + Dr. Gregory B. Newby + Chief Executive and Director + gbnewby@pglaf.org + + +Section 4. + + + Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive + Foundation + + +Project Gutenberg{~TRADE MARK SIGN~} depends upon and cannot survive without wide spread +public support and donations to carry out its mission of increasing the +number of public domain and licensed works that can be freely distributed +in machine readable form accessible by the widest array of equipment +including outdated equipment. Many small donations ($1 to $5,000) are +particularly important to maintaining tax exempt status with the IRS. + +The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating +charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United States. +Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a considerable +effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up with these +requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations where we have not +received written confirmation of compliance. To SEND DONATIONS or +determine the status of compliance for any particular state visit +http://www.gutenberg.org/fundraising/donate + +While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we have +not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition against +accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who approach us +with offers to donate. + +International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make any +statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from outside the +United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff. + +Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation methods +and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other ways including +checks, online payments and credit card donations. To donate, please +visit: http://www.gutenberg.org/fundraising/donate + + +Section 5. + + + General Information About Project Gutenberg{~TRADE MARK SIGN~} electronic works. + + +Professor Michael S. Hart is the originator of the Project Gutenberg{~TRADE MARK SIGN~} +concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared with +anyone. For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project Gutenberg{~TRADE MARK SIGN~} +eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support. + +Project Gutenberg{~TRADE MARK SIGN~} eBooks are often created from several printed editions, +all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S. unless a copyright +notice is included. Thus, we do not necessarily keep eBooks in compliance +with any particular paper edition. + +Each eBook is in a subdirectory of the same number as the eBook's eBook +number, often in several formats including plain vanilla ASCII, compressed +(zipped), HTML and others. + +Corrected _editions_ of our eBooks replace the old file and take over the +old filename and etext number. The replaced older file is renamed. +_Versions_ based on separate sources are treated as new eBooks receiving +new filenames and etext numbers. + +Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility: + + + http://www.gutenberg.org + + +This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg{~TRADE MARK SIGN~}, including how +to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, +how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to subscribe to our email +newsletter to hear about new eBooks. + + + + + + +***FINIS*** +
\ No newline at end of file |