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diff --git a/41832-tei/41832-tei.tei b/41832-tei/41832-tei.tei new file mode 100644 index 0000000..83cebe4 --- /dev/null +++ b/41832-tei/41832-tei.tei @@ -0,0 +1,30220 @@ +<?xml version="1.0" encoding="utf-8" ?> + +<!DOCTYPE TEI.2 SYSTEM "http://www.gutenberg.org/tei/marcello/0.4/dtd/pgtei.dtd" [ + +<!ENTITY u5 "http://www.tei-c.org/Lite/"> + +]> + +<TEI.2 lang="en"> +<teiHeader> + <fileDesc> + <titleStmt> + <title>The Golden Bough (Third Edition, Vol. 3 of 12)</title> + <author><name reg="Frazer, James George">James George Frazer</name></author> + </titleStmt> + <editionStmt> + <edition n="3">Edition 3</edition> + </editionStmt> + <publicationStmt> + <publisher>Project Gutenberg</publisher> + <date>January 12, 2013</date> + <idno type="etext-no">41832</idno> + <availability> + <p>This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and + with almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it + away or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg + License online at www.gutenberg.org/license</p> + </availability> + </publicationStmt> + <sourceDesc> + <bibl> + Created electronically. + </bibl> + </sourceDesc> + </fileDesc> + <encodingDesc> + </encodingDesc> + <profileDesc> + <langUsage> + <language id="en"></language> + <language id="ja"></language> + <language id="fr"></language> + <language id="la"></language> + <language id="de"></language> + </langUsage> + </profileDesc> + <revisionDesc> + <change> + <date value="2013-01-12">January 12, 2013</date> + <respStmt> + <name> + Produced by David Edwards, David King, and the Online + Distributed Proofreading Team at <http://www.pgdp.net/>. + (This file was produced from images generously + made available by The Internet Archive.) + </name> + </respStmt> + <item>Project Gutenberg TEI edition 1</item> + </change> + </revisionDesc> +</teiHeader> + +<pgExtensions> + <pgStyleSheet> + .boxed { x-class: boxed } + .shaded { x-class: shaded } + .rules { x-class: rules; rules: all } + .indent { margin-left: 2 } + .bold { font-weight: bold } + .italic { font-style: italic } + .smallcaps { font-variant: small-caps } + </pgStyleSheet> + + <pgCharMap formats="txt.iso-8859-1"> + <char id="U0x2014"> + <charName>mdash</charName> + <desc>EM DASH</desc> + <mapping>--</mapping> + </char> + <char id="U0x2003"> + <charName>emsp</charName> + <desc>EM SPACE</desc> + <mapping> </mapping> + </char> + <char id="U0x2026"> + <charName>hellip</charName> + <desc>HORIZONTAL ELLIPSIS</desc> + <mapping>...</mapping> + </char> + </pgCharMap> +</pgExtensions> + +<text lang="en"> + <front> + <div> + <divGen type="pgheader" /> + </div> + <div> + <divGen type="encodingDesc" /> + </div> + + <div rend="page-break-before: always"> + <p rend="font-size: xx-large; text-align: center">The Golden Bough</p> + <p rend="font-size: x-large; text-align: center">A Study in Magic and Religion</p> + <p rend="text-align: center">By</p> + <p rend="font-size: x-large; text-align: center">James George Frazer, D.C.L., LL.D., Litt.D.</p> + <p rend="text-align: center">Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge</p> + <p rend="text-align: center">Professor of Social Anthropology in the University of Liverpool</p> + <p rend="font-size: large; text-align: center">Third Edition.</p> + <p rend="font-size: large; text-align: center">Vol. III.</p> + <p rend="font-size: large; text-align: center">Part II</p> + <p rend="font-size: large; text-align: center">Taboo and the Perils of the Soul</p> + <p rend="text-align: center">New York and London</p> + <p rend="text-align: center">MacMillan and Co.</p> + <p rend="text-align: center">1911</p> + </div> + <div rend="page-break-before: always"> + <head>Contents</head> + <divGen type="toc" /> + </div> + + </front> +<body> + +<div> +<p rend='text-align: center'> +<figure url='images/cover.jpg' rend='width: 40%'> +<figDesc>Cover Art</figDesc> +</figure> +</p> +<p> +[Transcriber's Note: The above cover image was produced by the submitter at +Distributed Proofreaders, and is being placed into the public domain.] +</p> +</div> + +<pb n='v'/><anchor id='Pgv'/> + +<div rend='page-break-before: always'> +<index index='toc'/> +<index index='pdf'/> +<head>Preface.</head> + +<p> +The term Taboo is one of the very few words which the +English language has borrowed from the speech of savages. +In the Polynesian tongue, from which we have adopted it, the +word designates a remarkable system which has deeply influenced +the religious, social, and political life of the Oceanic +islanders, both Polynesians and Melanesians, particularly +by inculcating a superstitious veneration for the persons of +nobles and the rights of private property. When about the +year 1886 my ever-lamented friend William Robertson +Smith asked me to write an article on Taboo for the Ninth +Edition of the <hi rend='italic'>Encyclopaedia Britannica</hi>, I shared what I +believe to have been at the time the current view of +anthropologists, that the institution in question was confined +to the brown and black races of the Pacific. But +an attentive study of the accounts given of Taboo by +observers who wrote while it still flourished in Polynesia +soon led me to modify that view. The analogies which the +system presents to the superstitions, not only of savages +elsewhere, but of the civilised races of antiquity, were too +numerous and too striking to be overlooked; and I came to +the conclusion that Taboo is only one of a number of similar +systems of superstition which among many, perhaps among +all races of men have contributed in large measure, under +many different names and with many variations of detail, to +build up the complex fabric of society in all the various sides +or elements of it which we describe as religious, social, +<pb n='vi'/><anchor id='Pgvi'/> +political, moral and economic. This conclusion I briefly +indicated in my article. My general views on the subject +were accepted by my friend Robertson Smith and applied +by him in his celebrated <hi rend='italic'>Lectures</hi> to the elucidation of some +aspects of Semitic religion. Since then the importance of +Taboo and of systems like it in the evolution of religion and +morality, of government and property, has been generally +recognised and has indeed become a commonplace of +anthropology. +</p> + +<p> +The present volume is merely an expansion of the +corresponding chapter in the first edition of <hi rend='italic'>The Golden +Bough</hi>. It treats of the principles of taboo in their special +application to sacred personages, such as kings and priests, +who are the proper theme of the book. It does not profess +to handle the subject as a whole, to pursue it into all its +ramifications, to trace the manifold influences which systems +of this sort have exerted in moulding the multitudinous +forms of human society. A treatise which should adequately +discuss these topics would far exceed the limits which I have +prescribed for myself in <hi rend='italic'>The Golden Bough</hi>. For example, I +have barely touched in passing on the part which these +superstitions have played in shaping the moral ideas and +directing the moral practice of mankind, a profound subject +fraught perhaps with momentous issues for the time when +men shall seriously set themselves to revise their ethical +code in the light of its origin. For that the ethical like +the legal code of a people stands in need of constant +revision will hardly be disputed by any attentive and dispassionate +observer. The old view that the principles of right +and wrong are immutable and eternal is no longer tenable. +The moral world is as little exempt as the physical world +from the law of ceaseless change, of perpetual flux. Contemplate +the diversities, the inconsistencies, the contradictions +of the ethical ideas and the ethical practice, not merely of +different peoples in different countries, but of the same +<pb n='vii'/><anchor id='Pgvii'/> +people in the same country in different ages, then say +whether the foundations of morality are eternally fixed and +unchanging. If they seem so to us, as they have probably +seemed to men in all ages who did not extend their views +beyond the narrow limits of their time and country, it is in +all likelihood merely because the rate of change is commonly +so slow that it is imperceptible at any moment and can only +be detected by a comparison of accurate observations +extending over long periods of time. Such a comparison, +could we make it, would probably convince us that if we +speak of the moral law as immutable and eternal, it can +only be in the relative or figurative sense in which we apply +the same words to the outlines of the great mountains, by +comparison with the short-lived generations of men. The +mountains, too, are passing away, though we do not see +it; nothing is stable and abiding under or above the sun. +We can as little arrest the process of moral evolution as we +can stay the sweep of the tides or the courses of the stars. +</p> + +<p> +Therefore, whether we like it or not, the moral code by +which we regulate our conduct is being constantly revised +and altered: old rules are being silently expunged and new +rules silently inscribed in the palimpsest by the busy, the +unresting hand of an invisible scribe. For unlike the public +and formal revision of a legal code, the revision of the moral +code is always private, tacit, and informal. The legislators +who make and the judges who administer it are not clad in +ermine and scarlet, their edicts are not proclaimed with the +blare of trumpets and the pomp of heraldry. We ourselves +are the lawgivers and the judges: it is the whole people who +make and alter the ethical standard and judge every case by +reference to it. We sit in the highest court of appeal, +judging offenders daily, and we cannot if we would rid +ourselves of the responsibility. All that we can do is to +take as clear and comprehensive a view as possible of the +evidence, lest from too narrow and partial a view we +<pb n='viii'/><anchor id='Pgviii'/> +should do injustice, perhaps gross and irreparable injustice, +to the prisoners at the bar. Few things, perhaps, can better +guard us from narrowness and illiberality in our moral judgments +than a survey of the amazing diversities of ethical +theory and practice which have been recorded among the +various races of mankind in different ages; and accordingly +the Comparative Method applied to the study of ethical +phenomena may be expected to do for morality what the +same method applied to religious phenomena is now doing +for religion, by enlarging our mental horizon, extending the +boundaries of knowledge, throwing light on the origin of +current beliefs and practices, and thereby directly assisting +us to replace what is effete by what is vigorous, and what is +false by what is true. The facts which I have put together +in this volume as well as in some of my other writings may +perhaps serve as materials for a future science of Comparative +Ethics. They are rough stones which await the master-builder, +rude sketches which more cunning hands than mine +may hereafter work up into a finished picture. +</p> + +<p> +J. G. Frazer. +</p> + +<lg> +<l><hi rend='smallcaps'>Cambridge</hi>,</l> +<l><hi rend='italic'>1st February 1911</hi>.</l> +</lg> + +</div> + +<pb n='001'/><anchor id='Pg001'/> + +<div rend='page-break-before: always'> +<index index='toc'/> +<index index='pdf'/> +<head>Chapter I. The Burden Of Royalty.</head> + +<div> +<index index='toc'/> +<index index='pdf' level1='1. Royal and Priestly Taboos.'/> +<head>§ 1. Royal and Priestly Taboos.</head> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Life of +divine +kings and +priests +regulated +by minute +rules. +The +Mikado or +Dairi of +Japan.</note> +At a certain stage of early society the king or priest is +often thought to be endowed with supernatural powers or +to be an incarnation of a deity, and consistently with +this belief the course of nature is supposed to be more or +less under his control, and he is held responsible for bad +weather, failure of the crops, and similar calamities.<note place='foot'>See <hi rend='italic'>The Magic Art and the Evolution +of Kings</hi>, vol. i. pp. 332 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>, +373 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></note> To +some extent it appears to be assumed that the king's power +over nature, like that over his subjects and slaves, is +exerted through definite acts of will; and therefore if +drought, famine, pestilence, or storms arise, the people +attribute the misfortune to the negligence or guilt of their +king, and punish him accordingly with stripes and bonds, +or, if he remains obdurate, with deposition and death.<note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>The Magic Art and the Evolution +of Kings</hi>, vol. i. pp. 352 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></note> +Sometimes, however, the course of nature, while regarded as +dependent on the king, is supposed to be partly independent +of his will. His person is considered, if we may express it +so, as the dynamical centre of the universe, from which lines +of force radiate to all quarters of the heaven; so that any +motion of his—the turning of his head, the lifting of his +hand—instantaneously affects and may seriously disturb +some part of nature. He is the point of support on which +hangs the balance of the world, and the slightest irregularity +on his part may overthrow the delicate equipoise. The +greatest care must, therefore, be taken both by and of him; +<pb n='002'/><anchor id='Pg002'/> +and his whole life, down to its minutest details, must be so +regulated that no act of his, voluntary or involuntary, may +disarrange or upset the established order of nature. Of this +class of monarchs the Mikado or Dairi, the spiritual emperor +of Japan, is or rather used to be a typical example. He is +an incarnation of the sun goddess, the deity who rules the +universe, gods and men included; once a year all the gods +wait upon him and spend a month at his court. During +that month, the name of which means <q>without gods,</q> no one +frequents the temples, for they are believed to be deserted.<note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>Manners and Customs of the Japanese +in the Nineteenth Century: from +recent Dutch Visitors to Japan, and the +German of Dr. Ph. Fr. von Siebold</hi> +(London, 1841), pp. 141 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></note> +The Mikado receives from his people and assumes in his +official proclamations and decrees the title of <q>manifest or +incarnate deity</q> (<foreign lang='ja' rend='italic'>Akitsu Kami</foreign>) and he claims a general +authority over the gods of Japan.<note place='foot'>W. G. Aston, <hi rend='italic'>Shinto</hi> (<hi rend='italic'>the Way of +the Gods</hi>) (London, 1905), p. 41; +Michel Revon, <hi rend='italic'>Le Shintoïsme</hi>, i. (Paris, +1907), pp. 189 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi> The Japanese +word for god or deity is <foreign lang='ja' rend='italic'>kami</foreign>. It is +thus explained by the native scholar +Motoöri, one of the chief authorities on +Japanese religion: <q>The term <foreign lang='ja' rend='italic'>Kami</foreign> +is applied in the first place to the various +deities of Heaven and Earth who +are mentioned in the ancient records as +well as their spirits (<foreign lang='ja' rend='italic'>mi-tama</foreign>) which +reside in the shrines where they are +worshipped. Moreover, not only +human beings, but birds, beasts, plants +and trees, seas and mountains, and all +other things whatsoever which deserve +to be dreaded and revered for the extraordinary +and pre-eminent powers +which they possess, are called <foreign lang='ja' rend='italic'>Kami</foreign>. +They need not be eminent for surpassing +nobleness, goodness, or serviceableness +alone. Malignant and uncanny +beings are also called <foreign lang='ja' rend='italic'>Kami</foreign> if only +they are the objects of general dread. +Among <foreign lang='ja' rend='italic'>Kami</foreign> who are human beings +I need hardly mention first of all the +successive Mikados—with reverence be +it spoken.... Then there have been +numerous examples of divine human +beings both in ancient and modern +times, who, although not accepted by +the nation generally, are treated as +gods, each of his several dignity, in +a single province, village, or family.</q> +Hirata, another native authority on +Japanese religion, defines <foreign lang='ja' rend='italic'>kami</foreign> as a +term which comprises all things strange, +wondrous, and possessing <foreign lang='ja' rend='italic'>isao</foreign> or virtue. +And a recent dictionary gives the following +definitions: <q><foreign lang='ja' rend='italic'>Kami</foreign>. 1. Something +which has no form but is only +spirit, has unlimited supernatural power, +dispenses calamity and good fortune, +punishes crime and rewards virtue. +2. Sovereigns of all times, wise and +virtuous men, valorous and heroic persons +whose spirits are prayed to after +their death. 3. Divine things which +transcend human intellect. 4. The +Christian God, Creator, Supreme Lord.</q> +See W. G. Aston, <hi rend='italic'>Shinto</hi> (<hi rend='italic'>the Way of +the Gods</hi>), pp. 8-10, from which the +foregoing quotations are made. Mr. +Aston himself considers that <q>the deification +of living Mikados was titular +rather than real,</q> and he adds: <q>I +am not aware that any specific so-called +miraculous powers were authoritatively +claimed for them</q> (<hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> p. +41). No doubt it is very difficult for +the Western mind to put itself at the +point of view of the Oriental and to +seize the precise point (if it can be said +to exist) where the divine fades into +the human or the human brightens into +the divine. In translating, as we must +do, the vague thought of a crude theology +into the comparatively exact language +of civilised Europe we must +allow for a considerable want of correspondence +between the two: we must +leave between them, as it were, a +margin of cloudland to which in the +last resort the deity may retreat from +the too searching light of philosophy +and science.</note> For example, in an +<pb n='003'/><anchor id='Pg003'/> +official decree of the year 646 the emperor is described as +<q>the incarnate god who governs the universe.</q><note place='foot'>M. Revon, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> i. 190 n.<hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi></note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Rules +of life +formerly +observed +by the +Mikado.</note> +The following description of the Mikado's mode of life +was written about two hundred years ago:—<note place='foot'>Kaempfer, <q>History of Japan,</q> +in Pinkerton's <hi rend='italic'>Voyages and Travels</hi>, +vii. 716 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> However, Mr. W. G. +Aston tells us that Kaempfer's statements +regarding the sacred character of +the Mikado's person cannot be depended +on (<hi rend='italic'>Shinto, the Way of the Gods</hi>, p. 41, +note †). M. Revon quotes Kaempfer's +account with the observation that, <q><foreign lang='fr' rend='italic'>les +naïvetés recèlent plus d'une idée juste</foreign></q> +(<hi rend='italic'>Le Shintoïsme</hi>, vol. i. p. 191, note <hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi>). +To me it seems that Kaempfer's description +is very strongly confirmed by +its close correspondence in detail with +the similar customs and superstitions +which have prevailed in regard to +sacred personages in many other parts +of the world and with which it is most +unlikely that Kaempfer was acquainted. +This correspondence will be brought +out in the following pages.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<q>Even to this day the princes descended of this family +more particularly those who sit on the throne, are looked +upon as persons most holy in themselves, and as Popes by +birth. And, in order to preserve these advantageous notions +in the minds of their subjects, they are obliged to take an +uncommon care of their sacred persons, and to do such +things, which, examined according to the customs of other +nations, would be thought ridiculous and impertinent. It +will not be improper to give a few instances of it. He +thinks that it would be very prejudicial to his dignity and +holiness to touch the ground with his feet; for this reason +when he intends to go anywhere, he must be carried thither +on men's shoulders. Much less will they suffer that he +should expose his sacred person to the open air, and the +sun is not thought worthy to shine on his head. There is +such a holiness ascribed to all the parts of his body that he +dares to cut off neither his hair, nor his beard, nor his nails. +However, lest he should grow too dirty, they may clean him +in the night when he is asleep; because, they say, that +which is taken from his body at that time, hath been stolen +from him, and that such a theft doth not prejudice his +holiness or dignity. In ancient times, he was obliged to sit +on the throne for some hours every morning, with the +imperial crown on his head, but to sit altogether like a +<pb n='004'/><anchor id='Pg004'/> +statue, without stirring either hands or feet, head or eyes, +nor indeed any part of his body, because, by this means, it +was thought that he could preserve peace and tranquillity +in his empire; for if, unfortunately, he turned himself on +one side or the other, or if he looked a good while towards +any part of his dominions, it was apprehended that war, +famine, fire, or some other great misfortune was near at hand +to desolate the country. But it having been afterwards discovered, +that the imperial crown was the palladium, which by +its immobility<note place='foot'>In Pinkerton's reprint this word +appears as <q>mobility.</q> I have made +the correction from a comparison with +the original (Kaempfer, <hi rend='italic'>History of +Japan</hi>, translated from the original +Dutch manuscript by J. G. Scheuchzer, +London, 1728, vol. i. p. 150).</note> could preserve peace in the empire, it was +thought expedient to deliver his imperial person, consecrated +only to idleness and pleasures, from this burthensome duty, +and therefore the crown is at present placed on the throne +for some hours every morning. His victuals must be dressed +every time in new pots, and served at table in new dishes: +both are very clean and neat, but made only of common +clay; that without any considerable expense they may be +laid aside, or broke, after they have served once. They +are generally broke, for fear they should come into the hands +of laymen, for they believe religiously, that if any layman +should presume to eat his food out of these sacred dishes, it +would swell and inflame his mouth and throat. The like ill +effect is dreaded from the Dairi's sacred habits; for they +believe that if a layman should wear them, without the +Emperor's express leave or command, they would occasion +swellings and pains in all parts of his body.</q> To the same +effect an earlier account of the Mikado says: <q>It was considered +as a shameful degradation for him even to touch the ground +with his foot. The sun and moon were not even permitted +to shine upon his head. None of the superfluities of the +body were ever taken from him, neither his hair, his beard, +nor his nails were cut. Whatever he eat was dressed in +new vessels.</q><note place='foot'>Caron, <q>Account of Japan,</q> in +Pinkerton's <hi rend='italic'>Voyages and Travels</hi>, vii. +613. Compare B. Varenius, <hi rend='italic'>Descriptio +regni Japoniae et Siam</hi> (Cambridge, +1673), p. 11: <q><foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Nunquam attingebant +(quemadmodum et hodie id observat) +pedes ipsius terram: radiis Solis caput +nunquam illustrabatur: in apertum +aërem non procedebat</foreign>,</q> etc. The first +edition of this book was published by +Elzevir at Amsterdam in 1649. The +<hi rend='italic'>Geographia Generalis</hi> of the same +writer had the honour of appearing in +an edition revised and corrected by +Isaac Newton (Cambridge, at the +University Press, 1672).</note> +</p> + +<pb n='005'/><anchor id='Pg005'/> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Rules +of life +observed +by kings +and priests +in Africa +and +America.</note> +Similar priestly or rather divine kings are found, at a +lower level of barbarism, on the west coast of Africa. At +Shark Point near Cape Padron, in Lower Guinea, lives the +priestly king Kukulu, alone in a wood. He may not touch a +woman nor leave his house; indeed he may not even quit +his chair, in which he is obliged to sleep sitting, for if he lay +down no wind would arise and navigation would be stopped. +He regulates storms, and in general maintains a wholesome +and equable state of the atmosphere.<note place='foot'>A. Bastian, <hi rend='italic'>Die deutsche Expedition +an der Loango-Küste</hi> (Jena, 1874-75), +i. 287 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, compare pp. 353 +<hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> On Mount Agu in +Togo, a German possession in West Africa, there lives a fetish +or spirit called Bagba, who is of great importance for the +whole of the surrounding country. The power of giving or +withholding rain is ascribed to him, and he is lord of the +winds, including the Harmattan, the dry, hot wind which +blows from the interior. His priest dwells in a house on +the highest peak of the mountain, where he keeps the winds +bottled up in huge jars. Applications for rain, too, are +made to him, and he does a good business in amulets, which +consist of the teeth and claws of leopards. Yet though his +power is great and he is indeed the real chief of the land, +the rule of the fetish forbids him ever to leave the mountain, +and he must spend the whole of his life on its summit. Only +once a year may he come down to make purchases in the +market; but even then he may not set foot in the hut of any +mortal man, and must return to his place of exile the same +day. The business of government in the villages is conducted +by subordinate chiefs, who are appointed by him.<note place='foot'>H. Klose, <hi rend='italic'>Togo unter deutscher +Flagge</hi> (Berlin, 1899), pp. 189, +268.</note> +In the West African kingdom of Congo there was a supreme +pontiff called Chitomé or Chitombé, whom the negroes +regarded as a god on earth and all-powerful in heaven. +Hence before they would taste the new crops they offered +him the first-fruits, fearing that manifold misfortunes would +befall them if they broke this rule. When he left his residence +to visit other places within his jurisdiction, all married people +had to observe strict continence the whole time he was out; +<pb n='006'/><anchor id='Pg006'/> +for it was supposed that any act of incontinence would prove +fatal to him. And if he were to die a natural death, they +thought that the world would perish, and the earth, which he +alone sustained by his power and merit, would immediately +be annihilated.<note place='foot'>J. B. Labat, <hi rend='italic'>Relation historique de +l'Éthiopie occidentale</hi> (Paris, 1732), i. +254 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></note> Similarly in Humbe, a kingdom of Angola, +the incontinence of young people under the age of puberty +used to be a capital crime, because it was believed to +entail the death of the king within the year. Of late the +death penalty has been commuted for a fine of ten oxen +inflicted on each of the culprits. This commutation has +attracted thousands of dissolute youth to Humbe from the +neighbouring tribes, among whom the old penalty is still +rigorously exacted.<note place='foot'>Ch. Wunenberger, <q>La Mission et +le royaume de Humbé, sur les bords +du Cunène,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Missions Catholiques</hi>, +xx. (1888) p. 262.</note> Amongst the semi-barbarous nations +of the New World, at the date of the Spanish conquest, +there were found hierarchies or theocracies like those of +Japan;<note place='foot'>See <hi rend='italic'>The Magic Art and the Evolution +of Kings</hi>, vol. i. pp. 415 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> in particular, the high pontiff of the Zapotecs +in Southern Mexico appears to have presented a close +parallel to the Mikado. A powerful rival to the king himself, +this spiritual lord governed Yopaa, one of the chief +cities of the kingdom, with absolute dominion. It is +impossible, we are told, to overrate the reverence in which +he was held. He was looked on as a god whom the earth +was not worthy to hold nor the sun to shine upon. He +profaned his sanctity if he even touched the ground with his +foot. The officers who bore his palanquin on their shoulders +were members of the highest families; he hardly deigned to +look on anything around him; and all who met him fell +with their faces to the earth, fearing that death would overtake +them if they saw even his shadow. A rule of continence +was regularly imposed on the Zapotec priests, especially +upon the high pontiff; but <q>on certain days in each year, +which were generally celebrated with feasts and dances, it +was customary for the high priest to become drunk. While +in this state, seeming to belong neither to heaven nor to +earth, one of the most beautiful of the virgins consecrated to +the service of the gods was brought to him.</q> If the child +<pb n='007'/><anchor id='Pg007'/> +she bore him was a son, he was brought up as a prince of +the blood, and the eldest son succeeded his father on the +pontifical throne.<note place='foot'>Brasseur de Bourbourg, <hi rend='italic'>Histoire des +nations civilisées du Mexique et de +l'Amérique-centrale</hi>, iii. 29 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; H. H. +Bancroft, <hi rend='italic'>Native Races of the Pacific +States</hi>, ii. 142 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> The supernatural powers attributed to +this pontiff are not specified, but probably they resembled +those of the Mikado and Chitomé. +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The rules +of life +imposed +on kings in +early +society are +intended +to preserve +their lives +for the +good of +their +people.</note> +Wherever, as in Japan and West Africa, it is supposed +that the order of nature, and even the existence of the world, +is bound up with the life of the king or priest, it is clear +that he must be regarded by his subjects as a source both of +infinite blessing and of infinite danger. On the one hand, +the people have to thank him for the rain and sunshine +which foster the fruits of the earth, for the wind which +brings ships to their coasts, and even for the solid ground +beneath their feet. But what he gives he can refuse; +and so close is the dependence of nature on his person, so +delicate the balance of the system of forces whereof he is the +centre, that the least irregularity on his part may set up a +tremor which shall shake the earth to its foundations. And +if nature may be disturbed by the slightest involuntary act of +the king, it is easy to conceive the convulsion which his death +might provoke. The natural death of the Chitomé, as we +have seen, was thought to entail the destruction of all things. +Clearly, therefore, out of a regard for their own safety, which +might be imperilled by any rash act of the king, and still more +by his death, the people will exact of their king or priest +a strict conformity to those rules, the observance of which is +deemed necessary for his own preservation, and consequently +for the preservation of his people and the world. The idea +that early kingdoms are despotisms in which the people +exist only for the sovereign, is wholly inapplicable to the +monarchies we are considering. On the contrary, the +sovereign in them exists only for his subjects; his life is +only valuable so long as he discharges the duties of his +position by ordering the course of nature for his people's +benefit. So soon as he fails to do so, the care, the devotion, +the religious homage which they had hitherto lavished on +him cease and are changed into hatred and contempt; he is +<pb n='008'/><anchor id='Pg008'/> +dismissed ignominiously, and may be thankful if he escapes +with his life. Worshipped as a god one day, he is killed +as a criminal the next. But in this changed behaviour +of the people there is nothing capricious or inconsistent. +On the contrary, their conduct is entirely of a piece. If +their king is their god, he is or should be also their +preserver; and if he will not preserve them, he must +make room for another who will. So long, however, as +he answers their expectations, there is no limit to the +care which they take of him, and which they compel him to +take of himself. A king of this sort lives hedged in by a +ceremonious etiquette, a network of prohibitions and observances, +of which the intention is not to contribute to his +dignity, much less to his comfort, but to restrain him from +conduct which, by disturbing the harmony of nature, might +involve himself, his people, and the universe in one common +catastrophe. Far from adding to his comfort, these observances, +by trammelling his every act, annihilate his freedom +and often render the very life, which it is their object to +preserve, a burden and sorrow to him. +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Taboos +observed +by African +kings.</note> +Of the supernaturally endowed kings of Loango it is +said that the more powerful a king is, the more taboos is he +bound to observe; they regulate all his actions, his walking +and his standing, his eating and drinking, his sleeping and +waking.<note place='foot'>A. Bastian, <hi rend='italic'>Die deutsche Expedition +an der Loango-Küste</hi>, i. 355.</note> To these restraints the heir to the throne is +subject from infancy; but as he advances in life the number +of abstinences and ceremonies which he must observe +increases, <q>until at the moment that he ascends the throne +he is lost in the ocean of rites and taboos.</q><note place='foot'>O. Dapper, <hi rend='italic'>Description de l'Afrique</hi> +(Amsterdam, 1686), p. 336.</note> In the crater +of an extinct volcano, enclosed on all sides by grassy slopes, +lie the scattered huts and yam-fields of Riabba, the capital +of the native king of Fernando Po. This mysterious being +lives in the lowest depths of the crater, surrounded by a +harem of forty women, and covered, it is said, with old silver +coins. Naked savage as he is, he yet exercises far more +influence in the island than the Spanish governor at Santa +Isabel. In him the conservative spirit of the Boobies or +aboriginal inhabitants of the island is, as it were, incorporate. +<pb n='009'/><anchor id='Pg009'/> +He has never seen a white man and, according to +the firm conviction of all the Boobies, the sight of a pale +face would cause his instant death. He cannot bear to look +upon the sea; indeed it is said that he may never see it +even in the distance, and that therefore he wears away his +life with shackles on his legs in the dim twilight of his hut. +Certain it is that he has never set foot on the beach. With +the exception of his musket and knife, he uses nothing that +comes from the whites; European cloth never touches his +person, and he scorns tobacco, rum, and even salt.<note place='foot'>O. Baumann, <hi rend='italic'>Eine afrikanische +Tropen-Insel, Fernando Póo und die +Bube</hi> (Wien und Olmütz, 1888), pp. +103 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Taboos +observed +by African +kings. +Prohibition +to see the +sea.</note> +Among the Ewe-speaking peoples of the Slave Coast, in +West Africa, <q>the king is at the same time high priest. In +this quality he was, particularly in former times, unapproachable +by his subjects. Only by night was he allowed to quit +his dwelling in order to bathe and so forth. None but his +representative, the so-called <q>visible king,</q> with three chosen +elders might converse with him, and even they had to sit on +an ox-hide with their backs turned to him. He might not +see any European nor any horse, nor might he look upon the +sea, for which reason he was not allowed to quit his capital +even for a few moments. These rules have been disregarded +in recent times.</q><note place='foot'>G. Zündel, <q>Land und Volk der +Eweer auf der Sclavenküste in Westafrika,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Zeitschrift der Gesellschaft für +Erdkunde zu Berlin</hi>, xii. (1877) p. +402.</note> The king of Dahomey himself is subject +to the prohibition of beholding the sea,<note place='foot'>Béraud, <q>Note sur le Dahomé,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Bulletin de la Société de Géographie</hi> +(Paris), Vme Série, xii. (1866) p. 377.</note> and so are the kings +of Loango<note place='foot'>A. Bastian, <hi rend='italic'>Die deutsche Expedition +an der Loango-Küste</hi>, i. 263.</note> and Great Ardra in Guinea.<note place='foot'>Bosman's <q>Guinea,</q> in Pinkerton's +<hi rend='italic'>Voyages and Travels</hi>, xvi. 500.</note> The sea is the +fetish of the Eyeos, to the north-west of Dahomey, and they +and their king are threatened with death by their priests if +ever they dare to look on it.<note place='foot'>A. Dalzell, <hi rend='italic'>History of Dahomey</hi> +(London, 1793), p. 15; Th. Winterbottom, +<hi rend='italic'>An Account of the Native +Africans in the Neighbourhood of Sierra +Leone</hi> (London, 1803), pp. 229 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> It is believed that the king +of Cayor in Senegal would infallibly die within the year if he +were to cross a river or an arm of the sea.<note place='foot'>J. B. L. Durand, <hi rend='italic'>Voyage au +Sénégal</hi> (Paris, 1802), p. 55.</note> In Mashonaland +down to recent times the chiefs would not cross certain +rivers, particularly the Rurikwi and the Nyadiri; and the +<pb n='010'/><anchor id='Pg010'/> +custom was still strictly observed by at least one chief +within the last few years. <q>On no account will the chief +cross the river. If it is absolutely necessary for him to do +so, he is blindfolded and carried across with shouting and +singing. Should he walk across, he will go blind or die and +certainly lose the chieftainship.</q><note place='foot'>W. S. Taberer (Chief Native +Commissioner for Mashonaland), +<q>Mashonaland Natives,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Journal of +the African Society</hi>, No. 15 (April +1905). p. 320.</note> So among the Mahafalys +and Sakalavas in the south of Madagascar some kings are +forbidden to sail on the sea or to cross certain rivers.<note place='foot'>A. van Gennep, <hi rend='italic'>Tabou et totémisme +à Madagascar</hi> (Paris, 1904), p. +113.</note> The +horror of the sea is not peculiar to kings. The Basutos are said +to share it instinctively, though they have never seen salt water, +and live hundreds of miles from the Indian Ocean.<note place='foot'>Father Porte, <q>Les Reminiscences +d'un missionnaire du Basutoland,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Missions Catholiques</hi>, xxviii. (1896) +p. 235.</note> The +Egyptian priests loathed the sea, and called it the foam of +Typhon; they were forbidden to set salt on their table, and +they would not speak to pilots because they got their +living by the sea; hence too they would not eat fish, and +the hieroglyphic symbol for hatred was a fish.<note place='foot'>Plutarch, <hi rend='italic'>Isis et Osiris</hi>, 32.</note> When +the Indians of the Peruvian Andes were sent by the Spaniards +to work in the hot valleys of the coast, the vast ocean which +they saw before them as they descended the Cordillera was +dreaded by them as a cause of disease; hence they +prayed to it that they might not fall ill. This they all +did without exception, even the little children.<note place='foot'>P. J. de Arriaga, <hi rend='italic'>Extirpacion de +la idolatria del Piru</hi> (Lima, 1621), pp. +11, 132.</note> Similarly +the inland people of Lampong in Sumatra are said to +pay a kind of adoration to the sea, and to make it an +offering of cakes and sweetmeats when they behold it +for the first time, deprecating its power of doing them +mischief.<note place='foot'>W. Marsden, <hi rend='italic'>History of Sumatra</hi> +(London, 1811), p. 301.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Taboos +observed +by chiefs +among the +Sakalavas +and the +hill tribes +of Assam.</note> +Among the Sakalavas of southern Madagascar the chief +is regarded as a sacred being, but <q>he is held in leash by a +crowd of restrictions, which regulate his behaviour like that +of the emperor of China. He can undertake nothing whatever +unless the sorcerers have declared the omens favourable: +he may not eat warm food: on certain days he may not quit +<pb n='011'/><anchor id='Pg011'/> +his hut; and so on.</q><note place='foot'>A. van Gennep, <hi rend='italic'>Tabou et totémisme +à Madagascar</hi>, p. 113, quoting +De Thuy, <hi rend='italic'>Étude historique, géographique +et ethnographique sur la province +de Tuléar</hi>, Notes, Rec., Expl., 1899, +p. 104.</note> Among some of the hill tribes of +Assam both the headman and his wife have to observe many +taboos in respect of food; thus they may not eat buffalo, +pork, dog, fowl, or tomatoes. The headman must be chaste, +the husband of one wife, and he must separate himself from +her on the eve of a general or public observance of taboo. +In one group of tribes the headman is forbidden to eat in a +strange village, and under no provocation whatever may he +utter a word of abuse. Apparently the people imagine that +the violation of any of these taboos by a headman would +bring down misfortune on the whole village.<note place='foot'>T. C. Hodson, <q>The <foreign rend='italic'>genna</foreign> +amongst the Tribes of Assam,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Journal +of the Anthropological Institute</hi>, xxxvi. +(1906) p. 98. The word for taboo +among these tribes is <foreign rend='italic'>genna</foreign>.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Taboos +observed +by Irish +kings.</note> +The ancient kings of Ireland, as well as the kings of the +four provinces of Leinster, Munster, Connaught, and Ulster, +were subject to certain quaint prohibitions or taboos, on the +due observance of which the prosperity of the people and +the country, as well as their own, was supposed to depend. +Thus, for example, the sun might not rise on the king of +Ireland in his bed at Tara, the old capital of Erin; he was +forbidden to alight on Wednesday at Magh Breagh, to +traverse Magh Cuillinn after sunset, to incite his horse at +Fan-Chomair, to go in a ship upon the water the Monday +after Bealltaine (May day), and to leave the track of his +army upon Ath Maighne the Tuesday after All-Hallows. +The king of Leinster might not go round Tuath Laighean +left-hand-wise on Wednesday, nor sleep between the Dothair +(Dodder) and the Duibhlinn<note place='foot'>The Duibhlinn is the part of the +Liffey on which Dublin now stands.</note> with his head inclining to one +side, nor encamp for nine days on the plains of Cualann, nor +travel the road of Duibhlinn on Monday, nor ride a dirty +black-heeled horse across Magh Maistean. The king of +Munster was prohibited from enjoying the feast of Loch +Lein from one Monday to another; from banqueting by +night in the beginning of harvest before Geim at Leitreacha; +from encamping for nine days upon the Siuir; and from +holding a border meeting at Gabhran. The king of +<pb n='012'/><anchor id='Pg012'/> +Connaught might not conclude a treaty respecting his ancient +palace of Cruachan<note place='foot'>The site, marked by the remains +of some earthen forts, is now known as +Rathcroghan, near Belanagare in the +county of Roscommon.</note> after making peace on All-Hallows +Day, nor go in a speckled garment on a grey speckled steed +to the heath of Dal Chais, nor repair to an assembly of +women at Seaghais, nor sit in autumn on the sepulchral +mounds of the wife of Maine, nor contend in running with +the rider of a grey one-eyed horse at Ath Gallta between +two posts. The king of Ulster was forbidden to attend the +horse fair at Rath Line among the youths of Dal Araidhe, +to listen to the fluttering of the flocks of birds of Linn +Saileach after sunset, to celebrate the feast of the bull of +Daire-mic-Daire, to go into Magh Cobha in the month of +March, and to drink of the water of Bo Neimhidh between +two darknesses. If the kings of Ireland strictly observed +these and many other customs, which were enjoined by +immemorial usage, it was believed that they would never +meet with mischance or misfortune, and would live for ninety +years without experiencing the decay of old age; that no +epidemic or mortality would occur during their reigns; and +that the seasons would be favourable and the earth yield its +fruit in abundance; whereas, if they set the ancient usages +at naught, the country would be visited with plague, famine, +and bad weather.<note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>The Book of Rights</hi>, edited with +translation and notes by John O'Donovan +(Dublin, 1847), pp. 3-8. This +work, comprising a list both of the +prohibitions (<foreign rend='italic'>urgharta</foreign> or <foreign rend='italic'>geasa</foreign>) and +the prerogatives (<foreign rend='italic'>buadha</foreign>) of the Irish +kings, is preserved in a number of +manuscripts, of which the two oldest +date from 1390 and about 1418 respectively. +The list is repeated twice, +first in prose and then in verse. I +have to thank my friend Professor Sir J. +Rhys for kindly calling my attention to +this interesting record of a long-vanished +past in Ireland. As to these taboos, +see P. W. Joyce, <hi rend='italic'>Social History of +Ancient Ireland</hi>, i. 310 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Taboos +observed +by +Egyptian +kings.</note> +The kings of Egypt were worshipped as gods,<note place='foot'>See <hi rend='italic'>The Magic Art and the Evolution +of Kings</hi>, vol. i. pp. 418 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></note> and +the routine of their daily life was regulated in every detail +by precise and unvarying rules. <q>The life of the kings +of Egypt,</q> says Diodorus, <q>was not like that of other +monarchs who are irresponsible and may do just what +they choose; on the contrary, everything was fixed for them +by law, not only their official duties, but even the details of +their daily life.... The hours both of day and night were +<pb n='013'/><anchor id='Pg013'/> +arranged at which the king had to do, not what he pleased, +but what was prescribed for him.... For not only were +the times appointed at which he should transact public +business or sit in judgment; but the very hours for his +walking and bathing and sleeping with his wife, and, in +short, performing every act of life were all settled. Custom +enjoined a simple diet; the only flesh he might eat was veal +and goose, and he might only drink a prescribed quantity of +wine.</q><note place='foot'>Diodorus Siculus, i. 70.</note> However, there is reason to think that these rules +were observed, not by the ancient Pharaohs, but by the +priestly kings who reigned at Thebes and in Ethiopia +at the close of the twentieth dynasty.<note place='foot'>G. Maspero, <hi rend='italic'>Histoire ancienne des +peuples de l'Orient classique</hi>, ii. 759, +note <hi rend='vertical-align: super'>3</hi>; A. Moret, <hi rend='italic'>Du caractère religieux +de la royauté Pharaonique</hi> +(Paris, 1902), pp. 314-318.</note> Among the +Karen-nis of Upper Burma a chief attains his position, +not by hereditary right, but on account of his habit of +abstaining from rice and liquor. The mother, too, of a +candidate for the chieftainship must have eschewed these +things and lived solely on yams and potatoes so long as +she was with child. During that time she may not eat any +meat nor drink water from a common well. And if her son +is to be qualified for the office of chief he must continue to +observe these habits.<note place='foot'>(Sir) J. G. Scott, <hi rend='italic'>Gazetteer of Upper +Burma and the Shan States</hi>, part ii. +vol. i. (Rangoon, 1901) p. 308.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Taboos +observed +by the +Flamen +Dialis at +Rome.</note> +Of the taboos imposed on priests we may see a striking +example in the rules of life prescribed for the Flamen Dialis +at Rome, who has been interpreted as a living image of +Jupiter, or a human embodiment of the sky-spirit.<note place='foot'>See <hi rend='italic'>The Magic Art and the Evolution +of Kings</hi>, vol. ii. pp. 191 sq.</note> +They were such as the following:—The Flamen Dialis +might not ride or even touch a horse, nor see an army +under arms,<note place='foot'>Among the Gallas the king, who +also acts as priest by performing sacrifices, +is the only man who is not +allowed to fight with weapons; he +may not even ward off a blow. See Ph. +Paulitschke, <hi rend='italic'>Ethnographie Nordost-Afrikas: +die geistige Cultur der Danâkil, +Galla und Somâl</hi>, p. 136.</note> nor wear a ring which was not broken, nor +have a knot on any part of his garments; no fire except +a sacred fire might be taken out of his house; he might +not touch wheaten flour or leavened bread; he might +not touch or even name a goat, a dog,<note place='foot'>Among the Kafirs of the Hindoo +Koosh men who are preparing to be +headmen are considered ceremonially +pure, and wear a semi-sacred uniform +which must not be defiled by coming +into contact with dogs. <q>The Kaneash +[persons in this state of ceremonial +purity] were nervously afraid of my +dogs, which had to be fastened up +whenever one of these august personages +was seen to approach. The +dressing has to be performed with the +greatest care, in a place which cannot +be defiled with dogs. Utah and +another had convenient dressing-rooms +on the top of their houses which +happened to be high and isolated, but +another of the four Kaneash had been +compelled to erect a curious-looking +square pen made of poles in front of +his house, his own roof being a common +thoroughfare</q> (Sir George Scott +Robertson, <hi rend='italic'>The Kafirs of the Hindu +Kush</hi> (London, 1898), p. 466).</note> raw meat, +<pb n='014'/><anchor id='Pg014'/> +beans,<note place='foot'>Similarly the Egyptian priests +abstained from beans and would not +even look at them. See Herodotus, +ii. 37, with A. Wiedemann's note; +Plutarch, <hi rend='italic'>Isis et Osiris</hi>, 5.</note> and ivy; he might not walk under a vine; the feet of +his bed had to be daubed with mud; his hair could be cut +only by a free man and with a bronze knife, and his hair +and nails when cut had to be buried under a lucky tree; he +might not touch a dead body nor enter a place where one +was burned;<note place='foot'>Similarly among the Kafirs of the +Hindoo Koosh the high priest <q>may +not traverse certain paths which go +near the receptacles for the dead, nor +may he visit the cemeteries. He may +not go into the actual room where a +death has occurred until after an effigy +has been erected for the deceased. +Slaves may cross his threshold, but +must not approach the hearth</q> (Sir +George Scott Robertson, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> p. +416).</note> he might not see work being done on holy +days; he might not be uncovered in the open air; if a man +in bonds were taken into his house, the captive had to be +unbound and the cords had to be drawn up through a hole +in the roof and so let down into the street. His wife, the +Flaminica, had to observe nearly the same rules, and others +of her own besides. She might not ascend more than three +steps of the kind of staircase called Greek; at a certain +festival she might not comb her hair; the leather of her +shoes might not be made from a beast that had died a +natural death, but only from one that had been slain or +sacrificed; if she heard thunder she was tabooed till she had +offered an expiatory sacrifice.<note place='foot'>Aulus Gellius, x. 15; Plutarch, +<hi rend='italic'>Quaest, Rom.</hi> 109-112; Pliny, <hi rend='italic'>Nat. +Hist.</hi> xxviii. 146; Servius on Virgil, +<hi rend='italic'>Aen.</hi> i. 179, 448, iv. 518; Macrobius, +<hi rend='italic'>Saturn.</hi> i. 16. 8 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; Festus, p. +161 <hi rend='smallcaps'>a</hi>, ed. C. O. Müller. For more +details see J. Marquardt, <hi rend='italic'>Römische +Staatsverwaltung</hi>, iii.<hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi> 326 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Taboos +observed +by the +Bodia of +Sierra +Leone.</note> +Among the Grebo people of Sierra Leone there is a +pontiff who bears the title of Bodia and has been compared, +on somewhat slender grounds, to the high priest of the Jews. +He is appointed in accordance with the behest of an oracle. +At an elaborate ceremony of installation he is anointed, a +<pb n='015'/><anchor id='Pg015'/> +ring is put on his ankle as a badge of office, and the door-posts +of his house are sprinkled with the blood of a sacrificed +goat. He has charge of the public talismans and idols, which +he feeds with rice and oil every new moon; and he sacrifices +on behalf of the town to the dead and to demons. Nominally +his power is very great, but in practice it is very limited; +for he dare not defy public opinion, and he is held responsible, +even with his life, for any adversity that befalls the +country. It is expected of him that he should cause the +earth to bring forth abundantly, the people to be healthy, +war to be driven far away, and witchcraft to be kept in +abeyance. His life is trammelled by the observance of +certain restrictions or taboos. Thus he may not sleep in +any house but his own official residence, which is called the +<q>anointed house</q> with reference to the ceremony of anointing +him at inauguration. He may not drink water on the +highway. He may not eat while a corpse is in the town, +and he may not mourn for the dead. If he dies while in +office, he must be buried at dead of night; few may hear of +his burial, and none may mourn for him when his death is +made public. Should he have fallen a victim to the poison +ordeal by drinking a decoction of sassywood, as it is called, +he must be buried under a running stream of water.<note place='foot'>Sir Harry Johnston, <hi rend='italic'>Liberia</hi> (London, +1906), ii. 1076 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, quoting from +Bishop Payne, who wrote <q>some fifty +years ago.</q> The Bodia described by +Bishop Payne is clearly identical with +the Bodio of the Grain Coast who is +described by the Rev. J. L. Wilson +(<hi rend='italic'>Western Africa</hi>, pp. 129 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>). See +below, p. 23; and <hi rend='italic'>The Magic Art and +the Evolution of Kings</hi>, vol. i. p. 353. +As to the iron ring which the pontiff +wears on his ankle as the badge of his +office we are told that it <q>is regarded +with as much veneration as the most +ancient crown in Europe, and the incumbent +suffers as deep disgrace by its removal +as any monarch in Europe +would by being deprived of his crown</q> +(J. L. Wilson, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> pp. 129 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>).</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Taboos +observed +by sacred +milkmen +among the +Todas +of South +India.</note> +Among the Todas of Southern India the holy milkman +(<foreign rend='italic'>palol</foreign>), who acts as priest of the sacred dairy, is subject to a +variety of irksome and burdensome restrictions during the +whole time of his incumbency, which may last many years. +Thus he must live at the sacred dairy and may never visit +his home or any ordinary village. He must be celibate; if +he is married he must leave his wife. On no account may +any ordinary person touch the holy milkman or the holy +dairy; such a touch would so defile his holiness that he +<pb n='016'/><anchor id='Pg016'/> +would forfeit his office. It is only on two days a week, +namely Mondays and Thursdays, that a mere layman may +even approach the milkman; on other days if he has any +business with him, he must stand at a distance (some say a +quarter of a mile) and shout his message across the intervening +space. Further, the holy milkman never cuts his +hair or pares his nails so long as he holds office; he never +crosses a river by a bridge, but wades through a ford and +only certain fords; if a death occurs in his clan, he may not +attend any of the funeral ceremonies, unless he first resigns +his office and descends from the exalted rank of milkman to +that of a mere common mortal. Indeed it appears that in +old days he had to resign the seals, or rather the pails, of +office whenever any member of his clan departed this life. +However, these heavy restraints are laid in their entirety +only on milkmen of the very highest class.<note place='foot'>W. H. R. Rivers, <hi rend='italic'>The Todas</hi> (London, +1906), pp. 98-103.</note> Among the +Todas there are milkmen and milkmen; and some of them +get off more lightly in consideration of their humbler +station in life.<note place='foot'>For restrictions imposed on these +lesser milkmen see W. H. R. Rivers, +<hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> pp. 62, 66, 67 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 72, 73, +79-81.</note> Still, apart from the dignity they enjoy, the +lot even of these other milkmen is not altogether a happy +one. Thus, for example, at a place called Kanodrs there is +a dairy-temple of a conical form. The milkman who has +charge of it must be celibate during the tenure of his office: +he must sleep in the calves' house, a very flimsy structure +with an open door and a fire-place that gives little heat: he +may wear only one very scanty garment: he must take his +meals sitting on the outer wall which surrounds the dairy: +in eating he may not put his hand to his lips, but must throw +the food into his mouth; and in drinking he may not put to +his lips the leaf which serves as a cup, he must tilt his head +back and pour the liquid into his mouth in a jet from above. +With the exception of a single layman, who is allowed to +bear the milkman company, but who is also bound to celibacy +and has a bed rigged up for him in the calves' house, +no other person is allowed to go near this very sacred dairy +under any pretext whatever. No wonder that some years +ago the dairy was unoccupied and the office of milkman +<pb n='017'/><anchor id='Pg017'/> +stood vacant. <q>At the present time,</q> says Dr. Rivers, <q>a +dairyman is appointed about once a year and holds office +for thirty or forty days only. So far as I could ascertain, +the failure to occupy the dairy constantly is due to the very +considerable hardships and restrictions which have to be +endured by the holder of the office of dairyman, and the +time is probably not far distant when this dairy, one of the +most sacred among the Todas, will cease altogether to be +used.</q><note place='foot'>W. H. R. Rivers, <hi rend='italic'>The Todas</hi>, pp. +79-81.</note> +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<index index='toc'/> +<index index='pdf' level1='2. Divorce of the Spiritual from the Temporal Power.'/> +<head>§ 2. Divorce of the Spiritual from the Temporal Power.</head> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The effect +of these +burdensome +rules +was to +divorce the +temporal +from the +spiritual +authority.</note> +The burdensome observances attached to the royal or +priestly office produced their natural effect. Either men +refused to accept the office, which hence tended to fall into +abeyance; or accepting it, they sank under its weight into +spiritless creatures, cloistered recluses, from whose nerveless +fingers the reins of government slipped into the firmer grasp +of men who were often content to wield the reality of +sovereignty without its name. In some countries this rift +in the supreme power deepened into a total and permanent +separation of the spiritual and temporal powers, the old +royal house retaining their purely religious functions, while +the civil government passed into the hands of a younger +and more vigorous race. +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Reluctance +to accept +sovereignty +with its +vexatious +restrictions.</note> +To take examples. In a previous part of this work +we saw that in Cambodia it is often necessary to force +the kingships of Fire and Water upon the reluctant successors,<note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>The Magic Art</hi>, vol. ii. p. 4.</note> +and that in Savage Island the monarchy actually +came to an end because at last no one could be induced +to accept the dangerous distinction.<note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>Id.</hi> vol. i. pp. 354 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> In some parts +of West Africa, when the king dies, a family council is +secretly held to determine his successor. He on whom +the choice falls is suddenly seized, bound, and thrown +into the fetish-house, where he is kept in durance till he +consents to accept the crown. Sometimes the heir finds +means of evading the honour which it is sought to thrust +upon him; a ferocious chief has been known to go about +<pb n='018'/><anchor id='Pg018'/> +constantly armed, resolute to resist by force any attempt to +set him on the throne.<note place='foot'>A. Bastian, <hi rend='italic'>Die deutsche Expedition +an der Loango-Küste</hi>, i. 354 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, ii. +9, 11.</note> The savage Timmes of Sierra +Leone, who elect their king, reserve to themselves the right +of beating him on the eve of his coronation; and they avail +themselves of this constitutional privilege with such hearty +goodwill that sometimes the unhappy monarch does not +long survive his elevation to the throne. Hence when the +leading chiefs have a spite at a man and wish to rid themselves +of him, they elect him king.<note place='foot'>Zweifel et Moustier, <q>Voyage aux +sources du Niger,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Bulletin de la Société +de Géographie</hi> (Paris), VIme Série, +xx. (1880) p. 111.</note> Formerly, before a +man was proclaimed king of Sierra Leone, it used to be the +custom to load him with chains and thrash him. Then the +fetters were knocked off, the kingly robe was placed on him, +and he received in his hands the symbol of royal dignity, +which was nothing but the axe of the executioner.<note place='foot'>O. Dapper, <hi rend='italic'>Description de l'Afrique</hi> +(Amsterdam, 1686), p. 250.</note> It is +not therefore surprising to read that in Sierra Leone, where +such customs have prevailed, <q>except among the Mandingoes +and Suzees, few kings are natives of the countries they +govern. So different are their ideas from ours, that very +few are solicitous of the honour, and competition is very +seldom heard of.</q><note place='foot'>J. Matthews, <hi rend='italic'>Voyage to Sierra-Leone</hi> +(London, 1791), p. 75.</note> Another writer on Sierra Leone tells +us that <q>the honour of reigning, so much coveted in Europe, +is very frequently rejected in Africa, on account of the +expense attached to it, which sometimes greatly exceeds +the revenues of the crown.</q><note place='foot'>T. Winterbottom, <hi rend='italic'>Account of the +Native Africans in the Neighbourhood +of Sierra Leone</hi> (London, 1803), +p. 124.</note> A reluctance to accept the +sovereignty in the Ethiopian kingdom of Gingiro was +simulated, if not really felt, as we learn from the old Jesuit +missionaries. <q>They wrap up the dead king's body in +costly garments, and killing a cow, put it into the hide; +then all those who hope to succeed him, being his sons or +others of the royal blood, flying from the honour they covet, +abscond and hide themselves in the woods. This done, the +electors, who are all great sorcerers, agree among themselves +who shall be king, and go out to seek him, when entering +the woods by means of their enchantments, they say, a large +<pb n='019'/><anchor id='Pg019'/> +bird called <foreign rend='italic'>liber</foreign>, as big as an eagle, comes down with mighty +cries over the place where he is hid, and they find him +encompass'd by lyons, tygers, snakes, and other creatures +gather'd about him by witchcraft. The elect, as fierce as +those beasts, rushes out upon those who seek him, wounding +and sometimes killing some of them, to prevent being seiz'd. +They take all in good part, defending themselves the best +they can, till they have seiz'd him. Thus they carry him +away by force, he still struggling and seeming to refuse +taking upon him the burthen of government, all which is +mere cheat and hypocrisy.</q><note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>The Travels of the Jesuits in +Ethiopia</hi>, collected and historically +digested by F. Balthazar Tellez +(London, 1710), pp. 197 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Sovereign +powers +divided +between a +temporal +and a +spiritual +head.</note> +The Mikados of Japan seem early to have resorted to +the expedient of transferring the honours and burdens of +supreme power to their infant children; and the rise of the +Tycoons, long the temporal sovereigns of the country, is +traced to the abdication of a certain Mikado in favour of +his three-year-old son. The sovereignty having been +wrested by a usurper from the infant prince, the cause of +the Mikado was championed by Yoritomo, a man of spirit +and conduct, who overthrew the usurper and restored +to the Mikado the shadow, while he retained for himself +the substance, of power. He bequeathed to his descendants +the dignity he had won, and thus became the founder of the +line of Tycoons. Down to the latter half of the sixteenth +century the Tycoons were active and efficient rulers; but the +same fate overtook them which had befallen the Mikados. +Immeshed in the same inextricable web of custom and law, +they degenerated into mere puppets, hardly stirring from +their palaces and occupied in a perpetual round of empty +ceremonies, while the real business of government was +managed by the council of state.<note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>Manners and Customs of the +Japanese</hi>, pp. 199 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>, 355 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></note> In Tonquin the monarchy +ran a similar course. Living like his predecessors in +effeminacy and sloth, the king was driven from the throne +by an ambitious adventurer named Mack, who from a +fisherman had risen to be Grand Mandarin. But the king's +brother Tring put down the usurper and restored the king, +retaining, however, for himself and his descendants the +<pb n='020'/><anchor id='Pg020'/> +dignity of general of all the forces. Thenceforward the +kings or <foreign rend='italic'>dovas</foreign>, though invested with the title and pomp of +sovereignty, ceased to govern. While they lived secluded +in their palaces, all real political power was wielded by the +hereditary generals or <foreign rend='italic'>chovas</foreign>.<note place='foot'>Richard, <q>History of Tonquin,</q> +in Pinkerton's <hi rend='italic'>Voyages and Travels</hi>, ix. +744 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></note> The present king of Sikhim, +<q>like most of his predecessors in the kingship, is a mere +puppet in the hands of his crafty priests, who have made +a sort of priest-king of him. They encourage him by +every means in their power to leave the government to +them, whilst he devotes all his time to the degrading rites +of devil-worship, and the ceaseless muttering of meaningless +jargon, of which the Tibetan form of Buddhism chiefly +consists. They declare that he is a saint by birth, that he +is the direct descendant of the greatest king of Tibet, the +canonised Srongtsan Gampo, who was a contemporary of +Mahomed in the seventh century <hi rend='smallcaps'>a.d.</hi> and who first introduced +Buddhism to Tibet.</q> <q>This saintly lineage, which +secures for the king's person popular homage amounting to +worship, is probably, however, a mere invention of the +priests to glorify their puppet-prince for their own sordid +ends. Such devices are common in the East.</q><note place='foot'>L. A. Waddell, <hi rend='italic'>Among the Himalayas</hi> +(Westminster, 1899), pp. 146 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> The +custom regularly observed by the Tahitian kings of abdicating +on the birth of a son, who was immediately proclaimed +sovereign and received his father's homage, may +perhaps have originated, like the similar custom occasionally +practised by the Mikados, in a wish to shift to other +shoulders the irksome burden of royalty; for in Tahiti as +elsewhere the sovereign was subjected to a system of +vexatious restrictions.<note place='foot'>W. Ellis, <hi rend='italic'>Polynesian Researches</hi>, +Second Edition (London, 1832-1836), +iii. 99 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></note> In Mangaia, another Polynesian +island, religious and civil authority were lodged in separate +hands, spiritual functions being discharged by a line of +hereditary kings, while the temporal government was entrusted +from time to time to a victorious war-chief, whose +investiture, however, had to be completed by the king. To +the latter were assigned the best lands, and he received +daily offerings of the choicest food.<note place='foot'>W. W. Gill, <hi rend='italic'>Myths and Songs of +the South Pacific</hi>, pp. 293 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></note> The Mikado and +<pb n='021'/><anchor id='Pg021'/> +Tycoon of Japan had their counterparts in the Roko Tui +and Vunivalu of Fiji. The Roko Tui was the Reverend +or Sacred King. The Vunivalu was the Root of War or +War King. In one kingdom a certain Thakambau, who +was the War King, kept all power in his own hands, but in +a neighbouring kingdom the real ruler was the Sacred +King.<note place='foot'>The late Rev. Lorimer Fison, in a +letter to the author, dated August 26, +1898.</note> Similarly in Tonga, besides the civil king or <foreign rend='italic'>How</foreign>, +whose right to the throne was partly hereditary and partly +derived from his warlike reputation and the number of his +fighting men, there was a great divine chief called <foreign rend='italic'>Tooitonga</foreign> +or <q>Chief of Tonga,</q> who ranked above the king and the +other chiefs in virtue of his supposed descent from one of the +chief gods. Once a year the first-fruits of the ground were +offered to him at a solemn ceremony, and it was believed +that if these offerings were not made the vengeance of the +gods would fall in a signal manner on the people. Peculiar +forms of speech, such as were applied to no one else, were +used in speaking of him, and everything that he chanced to +touch became sacred or tabooed. When he and the king +met, the monarch had to sit down on the ground in token +of respect until his holiness had passed by. Yet though he +enjoyed the highest veneration by reason of his divine +origin, this sacred personage possessed no political +authority, and if he ventured to meddle with affairs of +state it was at the risk of receiving a rebuff from the +king, to whom the real power belonged, and who finally +succeeded in ridding himself of his spiritual rival.<note place='foot'>W. Mariner, <hi rend='italic'>An Account of the +Natives of the Tonga Islands</hi>, Second +Edition (London, 1818), ii. 75-79, +132-136.</note> The +king of the Getae regularly shared his power with a +priest, whom his subjects called a god. This divine man +led a solitary life in a cave on a holy mountain, seeing +few people but the king and his attendants. His counsels +added much to the king's influence with his subjects, who +believed that he was thereby enabled to impart to them the +commands and admonitions of the gods.<note place='foot'>Strabo, vii. 3. 5, pp. 297 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> +Compare <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi> vii. 3. 11, p. 304.</note> At Athens the +kings degenerated into little more than sacred functionaries +and it is said that the institution of the new office of +<pb n='022'/><anchor id='Pg022'/> +Polemarch or War Lord was rendered necessary by their +growing effeminacy.<note place='foot'>Aristotle, <hi rend='italic'>Constitution of Athens</hi>, +iii. 2. My friend Professor Henry +Jackson kindly called my attention +to this passage.</note> American examples of the partition +of authority between a king and a pope have already been +cited from the early history of Mexico and Colombia.<note place='foot'>See <hi rend='italic'>The Magic Art and the Evolution +of Kings</hi>, vol. i. p. 416, and above, +p. 6.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Fetish +kings and +civil kings +in West +Africa.</note> +In some parts of western Africa two kings reign side by +side, a fetish or religious king and a civil king, but the +fetish king is really supreme. He controls the weather and +so forth, and can put a stop to everything. When he lays +his red staff on the ground, no one may pass that way. This +division of power between a sacred and a secular ruler is +to be met with wherever the true negro culture has been +left unmolested, but where the negro form of society has +been disturbed, as in Dahomey and Ashantee, there is a +tendency to consolidate the two powers in a single +king.<note place='foot'>Miss Mary H. Kingsley in <hi rend='italic'>Journal +of the Anthropological Institute</hi>, xxix. +(1899) pp. 61 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi> I had some conversation +on this subject with Miss +Kingsley (1st June 1897) and have +embodied the results in the text. Miss +Kingsley did not know the rule of +succession among the fetish kings.</note> Thus, for example, there used to be a fetish king +at New Calabar who ranked above the ordinary king in +all native matters, whether religious or civil, and always +walked in front of him on public occasions, attended by a +slave who held an umbrella over his head. His opinion +carried great weight.<note place='foot'>T. J. Hutchinson, <hi rend='italic'>Impressions of +Western Africa</hi> (London, 1858), pp. +101 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; Le Comte C. N. de Cardi, +<q>Ju-ju Laws and Customs in the Niger +Delta,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Journal of the Anthropological +Institute</hi>, xxix. (1899) p. 51.</note> The office and the causes which led +to its extinction are thus described by a missionary who +spent many years in Calabar: <q>The worship of the people +is now given especially to their various <foreign rend='italic'>idems</foreign>, one of which, +called Ndem Efik, is a sort of tutelary deity of the country. +An individual was appointed to take charge of this object +of worship, who bore the name of King Calabar; and +likely, in bypast times, possessed the power indicated by the +title, being both king and priest. He had as a tribute the +skins of all leopards killed, and should a slave take refuge +in his shrine he belonged to Ndem Efik. The office, however, +imposed certain restrictions on its occupant. He, for +instance, could not partake of food in the presence of +<pb n='023'/><anchor id='Pg023'/> +any one, and he was prohibited from engaging in traffic. +On account of these and other disabilities, when the last +holder of the office died, a poor old man of the Cobham +family, no successor was found for him, and the priesthood +has become extinct.</q><note place='foot'>H. Goldie, <hi rend='italic'>Calabar and its Mission</hi>, +New Edition (London, 1901), +P. 43.</note> One of the practical inconveniences +of such an office is that the house of the fetish king enjoys +the right of sanctuary, and so tends to become little better +than a rookery of bad characters. Thus on the Grain +Coast of West Africa the fetish king or Bodio, as he is +called, <q>exercises the functions of a high-priest, and is +regarded as protector of the whole nation. He lives in a +house provided for him by the people, and takes care of the +national fetiches. He enjoys some immunities in virtue of +his office, but is subject to certain restrictions which more +than counterbalance his privileges. His house is a sanctum +to which culprits may betake themselves without the +danger of being removed by any one except by the Bodio +himself.</q><note place='foot'>J. L. Wilson, <hi rend='italic'>Western Africa</hi> +(London, 1856), p. 129. As to the +taboos observed by the Bodio or Bodia +see above, p. <ref target='Pg015'>15</ref>.</note> One of these Bodios resigned office because of the +sort of people who quartered themselves on him, the cost +of feeding them, and the squabbles they had among themselves. +He led a cat-and-dog life with them for three years. +Then there came a man with homicidal mania varied by +epileptic fits; and soon afterwards the spiritual shepherd +retired into private life, but not before he had lost an ear +and sustained other bodily injury in a personal conflict with +this very black sheep.<note place='foot'>Miss Mary H. Kingsley, in +<hi rend='italic'>Journal of the Anthropological Institute</hi>, +xxix. (1899) p. 62.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The King +of the +Night.</note> +At Porto Novo there used to be, in addition to the +ordinary monarch, a King of the Night, who reigned during +the hours of darkness from sunset to sunrise. He might not +shew himself in the street after the sun was up. His duty +was to patrol the streets with his satellites and to arrest all +whom he found abroad after a certain hour. Each band of +his catchpoles was led by a man who went about concealed +from head to foot under a conical casing of straw and blew +blasts on a shell which caused every one that heard it to +shudder. The King of the Night never met the ordinary +<pb n='024'/><anchor id='Pg024'/> +king except on the first and last days of their respective +reign; for each of them invested the other with office and +paid him the last honours at death.<note place='foot'>Marchoux, <q>Ethnographie, Porto-Novo,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Revue Scientifique</hi>, Quatrième +Série, iii. (1895) pp. 595 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> This +passage was pointed out to me by +Mr. N. W. Thomas.</note> With this King of +the Night at Porto Novo we may compare a certain king of +Hawaii who was so very sacred that no man might see +him, even accidentally, by day under pain of death; he +only shewed himself by night.<note place='foot'>O. von Kotzebue, <hi rend='italic'>Entdeckungs-Reise +in die Süd-See und nach der +Berings-Strasse</hi> (Weimar, 1821), iii. +149.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Civil rajahs +and taboo +rajahs in +the East +Indies.</note> +In some parts of the East Indian island of Timor we +meet with a partition of power like that which is represented +by the civil king and the fetish king of western +Africa. Some of the Timorese tribes recognise two rajahs, +the ordinary or civil rajah, who governs the people, and +the fetish or taboo rajah (<foreign rend='italic'>radja pomali</foreign>), who is charged +with the control of everything that concerns the earth +and its products. This latter ruler has the right of +declaring anything taboo; his permission must be obtained +before new land may be brought under cultivation, and he +must perform certain necessary ceremonies when the work +is being carried out. If drought or blight threatens the +crops, his help is invoked to save them. Though he ranks +below the civil rajah, he exercises a momentous influence on +the course of events, for his secular colleague is bound to +consult him in all important matters. In some of the +neighbouring islands, such as Rotti and eastern Flores, a +spiritual ruler of the same sort is recognised under various +native names, which all mean <q>lord of the ground.</q><note place='foot'>J. J. de Hollander, <hi rend='italic'>Handleiding +bij de Beofening der Land- en Volkenkunde +van Nederlandsch Oost-Indië</hi>, +ii. 606 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> In other parts of Timor +the spiritual ruler is called <foreign rend='italic'>Anaha paha</foreign> +or <q>conjuror of the land.</q> Compare +H. Zondervan, <q>Timor en de Timoreezen,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Tijdschrift van het Nederlandsch +Aardrijkskundig Genootschap</hi>, +Tweede Serie, v. (1888) Afdeeling, mehr +uitgebreide artikelen, pp. 400-402.</note> +Similarly in the Mekeo district of British New Guinea +there is a double chieftainship. The people are divided +into two groups according to families, and each of the +groups has its chief. One of the two is the war chief, the +other is the taboo (<foreign rend='italic'>afu</foreign>) chief. The office of the latter is +hereditary; his duty is to impose a taboo on any of the +<pb n='025'/><anchor id='Pg025'/> +crops, such as the coco-nuts and areca nuts, whenever he +thinks it desirable to prohibit their use. In his office we +may perhaps detect the beginning of a priestly dynasty, but +as yet his functions appear to be more magical than +religious, being concerned with the control of the harvests +rather than with the propitiation of higher powers. The +members of another family are bound to see to it that the +taboo imposed by the chief is strictly observed. For this +purpose some fourteen or fifteen men of the family form +a sort of constabulary. Every evening they go round the +village armed with clubs and disguised with masks or leaves. +All the time they are in office they are forbidden to live +with their wives and even to look at a woman. Hence +women may not quit their houses while the men are going +their rounds. Further, the constables on duty are prohibited +from chewing betel nut and drinking coco-nut water, +lest the areca and coco-nuts should not grow. When there +is a good show of nuts, the taboo chief proclaims that on +a certain day the restriction will come to an end.<note place='foot'>A. C. Haddon, <hi rend='italic'>Head-hunters, +Black, White, and Brown</hi> (London, +1901), pp. 270-272.</note> In +Ponape, one of the Caroline Islands, the kingship is elective +within the limits of the blood royal, which runs in the +female line, so that the sovereignty passes backwards and +forwards between families which we, reckoning descent in +the male line, should regard as distinct. The chosen +monarch must be in possession of certain secrets. He must +know the places where the sacred stones are kept, on which +he has to seat himself. He must understand the holy +words and prayers of the liturgy, and after his election he +must recite them at the place of the sacred stones. But he +enjoys only the honours of his office; the real powers of +government are in the hands of his prime-minister or vizier.<note place='foot'>Dr. Hahl, <q>Mittheilungen über +Sitten und rechtliche Verhältnisse auf +Ponape,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Ethnologisches Notizblatt</hi>, ii. +Heft 2 (Berlin, 1901), pp. 5 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 7. +The title of the prime-minister is +<foreign rend='italic'>Nanekin</foreign>.</note> +</p> + +</div> + +</div> + +<pb n='026'/><anchor id='Pg026'/> + +<div rend='page-break-before: always'> +<index index='toc'/> +<index index='pdf'/> +<head>Chapter II. The Perils Of The Soul.</head> + +<div> +<index index='toc'/> +<index index='pdf' level1='1. The Soul as a Mannikin.'/> +<head>§ 1. The Soul as a Mannikin.</head> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>What +is the +primitive +conception +of death?</note> +The foregoing examples have taught us that the office of +a sacred king or priest is often hedged in by a series of +burdensome restrictions or taboos, of which a principal +purpose appears to be to preserve the life of the divine man +for the good of his people. But if the object of the taboos +is to save his life, the question arises, How is their observance +supposed to effect this end? To understand this we +must know the nature of the danger which threatens the +king's life, and which it is the intention of these curious +restrictions to guard against. We must, therefore, ask: +What does early man understand by death? To what +causes does he attribute it? And how does he think +it may be guarded against? +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Savages +conceive +the human +soul as a +mannikin, +the prolonged +absence of +which from +the body +causes +death.</note> +As the savage commonly explains the processes of +inanimate nature by supposing that they are produced by +living beings working in or behind the phenomena, so he +explains the phenomena of life itself. If an animal lives and +moves, it can only be, he thinks, because there is a little +animal inside which moves it: if a man lives and moves, it +can only be because he has a little man or animal inside who +moves him. The animal inside the animal, the man inside +the man, is the soul. And as the activity of an animal or +man is explained by the presence of the soul, so the repose +of sleep or death is explained by its absence; sleep or trance +being the temporary, death being the permanent absence of +the soul. Hence if death be the permanent absence of the +<pb n='027'/><anchor id='Pg027'/> +soul, the way to guard against it is either to prevent the soul +from leaving the body, or, if it does depart, to ensure that it +shall return. The precautions adopted by savages to secure +one or other of these ends take the form of certain prohibitions +or taboos, which are nothing but rules intended +to ensure either the continued presence or the return of the +soul. In short, they are life-preservers or life-guards. These +general statements will now be illustrated by examples. +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The soul +as a mannikin +in +Australia, +America, +and among +the +Malays.</note> +Addressing some Australian blacks, a European missionary +said, <q>I am not one, as you think, but two.</q> Upon this +they laughed. <q>You may laugh as much as you like,</q> +continued the missionary, <q>I tell you that I am two in one; +this great body that you see is one; within that there is +another little one which is not visible. The great body dies, +and is buried, but the little body flies away when the great +one dies.</q> To this some of the blacks replied, <q>Yes, yes. +We also are two, we also have a little body within the breast.</q> +On being asked where the little body went after death, some +said it went behind the bush, others said it went into the sea, +and some said they did not know.<note place='foot'>R. Salvado, <hi rend='italic'>Mémoires historiques +sur l'Australie</hi> (Paris, 1854), p. 162; +<hi rend='italic'>Journal of the Anthropological Institute</hi>, +vii. (1878) p. 282. In this edifying +catechism there is little to choose between +the savagery of the white man +and the savagery of the black.</note> The Hurons thought +that the soul had a head and body, arms and legs; in short, +that it was a complete little model of the man himself.<note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>Relations des Jésuites</hi>, 1634, p. 17; +<hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, 1636, p. 104; <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, 1639, p. 43 +(Canadian reprint, Quebec, 1858).</note> The +Esquimaux believe that <q>the soul exhibits the same shape +as the body it belongs to, but is of a more subtle and ethereal +nature.</q><note place='foot'>H. Rink, <hi rend='italic'>Tales and Traditions of +the Eskimo</hi>, p. 36. The Esquimaux +of Bering Strait believe that every +man has several souls, and that two of +these souls are shaped exactly like the +body. See E. W. Nelson, <q>The +Eskimo about Bering Strait,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Eighteenth +Annual Report of the Bureau of +American Ethnology</hi>, part i. (Washington, +1899) p. 422.</note> According to the Nootkas of British Columbia +the soul has the shape of a tiny man; its seat is the crown +of the head. So long as it stands erect, its owner is hale and +hearty; but when from any cause it loses its upright position, +he loses his senses.<note place='foot'>Fr. Boas, in <hi rend='italic'>Sixth Report on the +North-Western Tribes of Canada</hi>, p. +44 (separate reprint from the <hi rend='italic'>Report +of the British Association for 1890</hi>).</note> Among the Indian tribes of the Lower +Fraser River, man is held to have four souls, of which the +principal one has the form of a mannikin, while the other +<pb n='028'/><anchor id='Pg028'/> +three are shadows of it.<note place='foot'>Fr. Boas, in <hi rend='italic'>Ninth Report on the +North-Western Tribes of Canada</hi>, p. +461 (<hi rend='italic'>Report of the British Association +for 1894</hi>).</note> The Malays conceive the human +soul (<foreign rend='italic'>semangat</foreign>) as a little man, mostly invisible and of the +bigness of a thumb, who corresponds exactly in shape, proportion, +and even in complexion to the man in whose body +he resides. This mannikin is of a thin unsubstantial nature, +though not so impalpable but that it may cause displacement +on entering a physical object, and it can flit quickly +from place to place; it is temporarily absent from the +body in sleep, trance, and disease, and permanently absent +after death.<note place='foot'>W. W. Skeat, <hi rend='italic'>Malay Magic</hi> +(London, 1900), p. 47.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The soul +as a mannikin +in +ancient +Egypt.</note> +The ancient Egyptians believed that every man has a soul +(<foreign rend='italic'>ka</foreign>) which is his exact counterpart or double, with the same +features, the same gait, even the same dress as the man himself. +Many of the monuments dating from the eighteenth +century onwards represent various kings appearing before +divinities, while behind the king stands his soul or double, +portrayed as a little man with the king's features. Some of +the reliefs in the temple at Luxor illustrate the birth of King +Amenophis III. While the queen-mother is being tended +by two goddesses acting as midwives, two other goddesses +are bringing away two figures of new-born children, only one +of which is supposed to be a child of flesh and blood: the +inscriptions engraved above their heads shew that, while the +first is Amenophis, the second is his soul or double. And +as with kings and queens, so it was with common men and +women. Whenever a child was born, there was born with +him a double which followed him through the various stages +of life; young while he was young, it grew to maturity and +declined along with him. And not only human beings, but +gods and animals, stones and trees, natural and artificial +objects, everybody and everything had its own soul or double. +The doubles of oxen and sheep were the duplicates of the +original oxen or sheep; the doubles of linen or beds, of +chairs or knives, had the same form as the real linen, beds, +chairs, and knives. So thin and subtle was the stuff, so fine +and delicate the texture of these doubles, that they made no +impression on ordinary eyes. Only certain classes of priests +<pb n='029'/><anchor id='Pg029'/> +or seers were enabled by natural gifts or special training to +perceive the doubles of the gods, and to win from them a +knowledge of the past and the future. The doubles of men +and things were hidden from sight in the ordinary course of +life; still, they sometimes flew out of the body endowed with +colour and voice, left it in a kind of trance, and departed to +manifest themselves at a distance.<note place='foot'>G. Maspero, <hi rend='italic'>Études de mythologie +et d'archéologie égyptiennes</hi> (Paris, +1893), i. 388 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; A. Wiedemann, +<hi rend='italic'>The ancient Egyptian Doctrine of the +Immortality of the Soul</hi> (London, 1895), +pp. 10 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi> In Greek works of art, +especially vase-paintings, the human +soul is sometimes represented as a tiny +being in human form, generally winged, +sometimes clothed and armed, sometimes +naked. See O. Jahn, <hi rend='italic'>Archäologische +Beiträge</hi> (Berlin, 1847), pp. 128 +<hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>; E. Pottier, <hi rend='italic'>Étude sur les lécythes +blancs attiques</hi> (Paris, 1883), pp. 75-79; +<hi rend='italic'>American Journal of Archaeology</hi>, +ii. (1886) pll. xii., xiii.; O. Kern, in +<hi rend='italic'>Aus der Anomia, Archäologische Beiträge +Carl Robert zur Erinnerung an +Berlin dargebracht</hi> (Berlin, 1890), pp. +89-95. Greek artists of a later period +sometimes portrayed the human soul in +the form of a butterfly (O. Jahn, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> +pp. 138 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>). There was a particular sort +of butterfly to which the Greeks gave +the name of soul (ψυχή). See Aristotle, +<hi rend='italic'>Hist. anim.</hi> v. 19, p. 550 b 26, p. +551 b 13 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; Plutarch, <hi rend='italic'>Quaest. +conviv.</hi> ii. 3. 2.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The soul +as a mannikin +in +Nias, Fiji, +and India.</note> +So exact is the resemblance of the mannikin to the man, +in other words, of the soul to the body, that, as there are +fat bodies and thin bodies, so there are fat souls and thin +souls;<note place='foot'>W. W. Gill, <hi rend='italic'>Myths and Songs of +the South Pacific</hi> (London, 1876), p. +171.</note> as there are heavy bodies and light bodies, long bodies +and short bodies, so there are heavy souls and light souls, long +souls and short souls. The people of Nias (an island to the +west of Sumatra) think that every man, before he is born, +is asked how long or how heavy a soul he would like, and a +soul of the desired weight or length is measured out to him. +The heaviest soul ever given out weighs about ten grammes. +The length of a man's life is proportioned to the length of +his soul; children who die young had short souls.<note place='foot'>H. Sundermann, <q>Die Insel +Nias und die Mission daselbst,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Allgemeine +Missions-Zeitschrift</hi>, Bd. xi. +October 1884, p. 453.</note> The +Fijian conception of the soul as a tiny human being comes +clearly out in the customs observed at the death of a chief +among the Nakelo tribe. When a chief dies, certain men, +who are the hereditary undertakers, call him, as he lies, oiled +and ornamented, on fine mats, saying, <q>Rise, sir, the chief +and let us be going. The day has come over the land.</q> +Then they conduct him to the river side, where the ghostly +ferryman comes to ferry Nakelo ghosts across the stream +<pb n='030'/><anchor id='Pg030'/> +As they thus attend the chief on his last journey, they hold +their great fans close to the ground to shelter him, because, +as one of them explained to a missionary, <q>His soul is only +a little child.</q><note place='foot'>The late Rev. Lorimer Fison, in a +letter to the author, dated November +3, 1898.</note> People in the Punjaub who tattoo themselves +believe that at death the soul, <q>the little entire man +or woman</q> inside the mortal frame, will go to heaven +blazoned with the same tattoo patterns which adorned +the body in life.<note place='foot'>H. A. Rose, <q>Note on Female +Tattooing in the Panjâb,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Indian +Antiquary</hi>, xxxi. (1902) p. 298.</note> Sometimes, however, as we shall see, +the human soul is conceived not in human but in animal +form. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<index index='toc'/> +<index index='pdf' level1='2. Absense and Recall of the Soul.'/> +<head>§ 2. Absence and Recall of the Soul.</head> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Attempts +to prevent +the soul +from +escaping +from the +body.</note> +The soul is commonly supposed to escape by the +natural openings of the body, especially the mouth and +nostrils. Hence in Celebes they sometimes fasten fishhooks +to a sick man's nose, navel, and feet, so that if his +soul should try to escape it may be hooked and held +fast.<note place='foot'>B. F. Matthes, <hi rend='italic'>Over de Bissoes of +heidensche priesters en priesteressen der +Boeginezen</hi> (Amsterdam, 1872), p. 24 +(reprinted from the <hi rend='italic'>Verhandelingen der +Koninklijke Akademie van Wetenschappen</hi>, +Afdeeling Letterkunde, Deel +vii.).</note> A Turik on the Baram River, in Borneo, refused to +part with some hook-like stones, because they, as it were, +hooked his soul to his body, and so prevented the spiritual +portion of him from becoming detached from the material.<note place='foot'>A. C. Haddon, <hi rend='italic'>Head-hunters</hi>, p. +439.</note> +When a Sea Dyak sorcerer or medicine-man is initiated, +his fingers are supposed to be furnished with fish-hooks, +with which he will thereafter clutch the human soul in +the act of flying away, and restore it to the body of the +sufferer.<note place='foot'>H. Ling Roth, <q>Low's Natives of +Borneo,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Journal of the Anthropological +Institute</hi>, xxi. (1892) p. 115.</note> But hooks, it is plain, may be used to catch the +souls of enemies as well as of friends. Acting on this +principle head-hunters in Borneo hang wooden hooks beside +the skulls of their slain enemies in the belief that this helps +them on their forays to hook in fresh heads.<note place='foot'>A. C. Haddon, <hi rend='italic'>Head hunters</hi>, pp. +371, 396.</note> When an +epidemic is raging, the Goajiro Indians of Colombia attribute +it to an evil spirit, it may be the prowling ghost of an enemy. +<pb n='031'/><anchor id='Pg031'/> +So they hang strings furnished with hooks from the roofs of +their huts and from all the trees in the neighbourhood, in +order that the demon or ghost may be caught on a hook +and thus rendered powerless to harm them.<note place='foot'>H. Candelier, <hi rend='italic'>Rio-Hacha et les +Indiens Goajires</hi> (Paris, 1893), pp. +258 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> Similarly the +Calchaquis Indians to the west of Paraguay used to plant +arrows in the ground about a sick man to keep death from +getting at him.<note place='foot'>R. Southey, <hi rend='italic'>History of Brazil</hi>, iii. +396.</note> One of the implements of a Haida medicine-man +is a hollow bone, in which he bottles up departing +souls, and so restores them to their owners.<note place='foot'>G. M. Dawson, <q>On the Haida +Indians of the Queen Charlotte Islands,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Geological Survey of Canada, +Report of Progress for 1878-1879</hi> +(Montreal, 1880), pp. 123 B, 139 B.</note> When any one +yawns in their presence the Hindoos always snap their +thumbs, believing that this will hinder the soul from issuing +through the open mouth.<note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>Panjab Notes and Queries</hi>, ii. p. +114, § 665.</note> The Marquesans used to hold +the mouth and nose of a dying man, in order to keep him in +life by preventing his soul from escaping;<note place='foot'>M. Radiguet, <hi rend='italic'>Les Derniers Sauvages</hi> +(Paris, 1882), p. 245; Matthias +G——, <hi rend='italic'>Lettres sur Iles les Marquises</hi> +(Paris, 1843), p. 115; Clavel, <hi rend='italic'>Les +Marquisiens</hi>, p. 42 note.</note> the same custom +is reported of the New Caledonians;<note place='foot'>Gagnière, in <hi rend='italic'>Annales de la Propagation +de la Foi</hi>, xxxii. (1860) p. +439.</note> and with the like +intention the Bagobos of the Philippine Islands put rings of +brass wire on the wrists or ankles of their sick.<note place='foot'>F. Blumentritt, <q>Das Stromgebiet +des Rio Grande de Mindano,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Petermanns +Mitteilungen</hi>, xxxvii. (1891) p. +111.</note> On the +other hand, the Itonamas in South America seal up the +eyes, nose, and mouth of a dying person, in case his ghost +should get out and carry off others;<note place='foot'>A. d'Orbigny, <hi rend='italic'>L'Homme américain</hi>, +ii. 241; T. J. Hutchinson, <q>The +Chaco Indians,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Transactions of the +Ethnological Society of London</hi>, N.S., +iii. (1865) pp. 322 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; A. Bastian, +<hi rend='italic'>Culturländer des alten Amerika</hi>, i. +476. A similar custom is observed by +the Cayuvava Indians (A. d'Orbigny, +<hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> ii. 257).</note> and for a similar +reason the people of Nias, who fear the spirits of the +recently deceased and identify them with the breath, seek to +confine the vagrant soul in its earthly tabernacle by bunging +up the nose or tying up the jaws of the corpse.<note place='foot'>E. Modigliani, <hi rend='italic'>Un Viaggio a Nías</hi> +(Milan, 1890), p. 283.</note> Before +leaving a corpse the Wakelbura in Australia used to place +hot coals in its ears in order to keep the ghost in the body, +until they had got such a good start that he could not +<pb n='032'/><anchor id='Pg032'/> +overtake them.<note place='foot'>A. W. Howitt, <hi rend='italic'>Native Tribes of +South-East Australia</hi> (London, 1904), +p. 473.</note> Esquimaux mourners plug their nostrils +with deerskin, hair, or hay for several days,<note place='foot'>Fr. Boas, <q>The Central Eskimo,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Sixth Annual Report of the Bureau of +Ethnology</hi> (Washington, 1888), pp. 613 +<hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> Among the Esquimaux of Smith +Sound male mourners plug up the +right nostril and female mourners the +left (E. Bessels in <hi rend='italic'>American Naturalist</hi>, +xviii. (1884) p. 877; cp. J. Murdoch, +<q>Ethnological Results of the Point +Barrow Expedition,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Ninth Annual +Report of the Bureau of Ethnology</hi> +(Washington, 1892), p. 425). This +seems to point to a belief that the soul +enters by one nostril and goes out by +the other, and that the functions +assigned to the right and left nostrils +in this respect are reversed in men and +women. Among the Esquimaux of +Baffin land <q>the person who prepares +a body for burial puts rabbit's fur into +his nostrils to prevent the exhalations +from entering his own lungs</q> (Fr. +Boas, <q>The Eskimo of Baffin Land +and Hudson Bay,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Bulletin of the +American Museum of Natural History</hi>, +xv. part i. (1901) p. 144). But this +would hardly explain the custom of +stopping one nostril only.</note> probably to +prevent their souls from following that of their departed +friend; the custom is especially incumbent on the persons +who dress the corpse.<note place='foot'>G. F. Lyon, <hi rend='italic'>Private Journal</hi> +(London, 1824), p. 370.</note> In southern Celebes, to hinder +the escape of a woman's soul at childbirth, the nurse +ties a band as tightly as possible round the body +of the expectant mother.<note place='foot'>B. F. Matthes, <hi rend='italic'>Bijdragen tot +de Ethnologie van Zuid-Celebes</hi> (The +Hague, 1875), p. 54.</note> The Minangkabauers of +Sumatra observe a similar custom; a skein of thread or a +string is sometimes fastened round the wrist or loins of a +woman in childbed, so that when her soul seeks to depart +in her hour of travail it may find the egress barred.<note place='foot'>J. L. van der Toorn, <q>Het +animisme bij den Minangkabauer der +Padangsche Bovenlanden,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Bijdragen +tot de Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde +van Nederlandsch-Indië</hi>, xxxix. (1890) +p. 56.</note> +Among the Kayans of Borneo illness is attributed to +the absence of the soul; so when a man has been ill and +is well again, he attempts to prevent his soul from departing +afresh. For this purpose he ties the truant into his body +by fastening round his wrist a piece of string on which a +<foreign rend='italic'>lukut</foreign>, or antique bead, is threaded; for a magical virtue +appears to be ascribed to such beads. But lest the string +and the bead should be broken and lost, he will sometimes +tattoo the pattern of the bead on his wrist, and this is found +to answer the purpose of tethering his soul quite as well.<note place='foot'>C. Hose and R. Shelford, <q>Materials +for a Study of Tatu in Borneo,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Journal of the Anthropological Institute</hi>, +xxxvi. (1906) p. 65.</note> +Again, the Koryak of North-Eastern Asia fancy that if +<pb n='033'/><anchor id='Pg033'/> +there are two sick people in a house and one of them is at +the last extremity, the soul of the other is apt to be lured +away by the soul of the dying man; hence in order to +hinder its departure they tie the patient's neck by a string +to the bands of the sleeping-tent and recite a charm over +the string so that it may be sure to detain the soul.<note place='foot'>W. Jochelson, <q>The Koryak, +Religion and Myths</q> (Leyden and +New York, 1905), p. 103 (<hi rend='italic'>Memoir +of the American Museum of Natural +History, The Jesup North Pacific Expedition</hi>, +vol. vi. part i.).</note> And +lest the soul of a babe should escape and be lost as +soon as it is born, the Alfoors of Celebes, when a birth is +about to take place, are careful to close every opening in the +house, even the keyhole; and they stop up every chink and +cranny in the walls. Also they tie up the mouths of all +animals inside and outside the house, for fear one of them +might swallow the child's soul. For a similar reason all +persons present in the house, even the mother herself, are +obliged to keep their mouths shut the whole time the birth +is taking place. When the question was put, Why they did +not hold their noses also, lest the child's soul should get into +one of them? the answer was that breath being exhaled +as well as inhaled through the nostrils, the soul would +be expelled before it could have time to settle down.<note place='foot'>W. F. A. Zimmermann, <hi rend='italic'>Die +Inseln des Indischen und Stillen +Meeres</hi> (Berlin, 1864-65), ii. 386 +<hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> +Popular expressions in the language of civilised peoples, +such as to have one's heart in one's mouth, or the soul on +the lips or in the nose, shew how natural is the idea that the +life or soul may escape by the mouth or nostrils.<note place='foot'>Compare τοῦτον κατ᾽ ὤμου δεῖρον +ἄχρις ἡ ψυχὴ | αὐτοῦ ἐπὶ χειλέων μοῦνον +ἡ κακὴ λειφθῇ, Herodas, <hi rend='italic'>Mimiambi</hi>, +iii. 3 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; μόνον οὐκ ἐπὶ τοῖς χείλεσι +τὰς ψυχὰς ἕχοντας, Dio Chrysostom, +<hi rend='italic'>Orat.</hi> xxxii. vol. i. p. 417, ed. +Dindorf; modern Greek μὲ τὴ ψυχὴ ᾽ς +τὰ δόντια, G. F. Abbott, <hi rend='italic'>Macedonian +Folklore</hi>, p. 193 note; <q><foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>mihi anima +in naso esse, stabam tanquam mortuus</foreign>,</q> +Petronius, <hi rend='italic'>Sat.</hi> 62; <q><foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>in primis labris +animam habere</foreign>,</q> Seneca, <hi rend='italic'>Natur. +quaest.</hi> iii. praef. 16; <q><foreign lang='fr' rend='italic'>Voilà un +pauvre malade qui a le feu dans le +corps, et l'âme sur le bout des lèvres</foreign>,</q> +J. de Brebeuf, in <hi rend='italic'>Relations des +Jésuites</hi>, 1636, p. 113 (Canadian +reprint); <q>This posture keeps the +weary soul hanging upon the lip; ready +to leave the carcass, and yet not +suffered to take its wing,</q> R. Bentley, +<q>Sermon on Popery,</q> quoted in +Monk's <hi rend='italic'>Life of Bentley</hi>,<hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi> i. 382. In +Czech they say of a dying person that +his soul is on his tongue (Br. Jelínek, +in <hi rend='italic'>Mittheilungen der anthropolog. +Gesellschaft in Wien</hi>, xxi. (1891) p. +22).</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The soul +conceived +as a bird +ready to +fly away.</note> +Often the soul is conceived as a bird ready to take +flight. This conception has probably left traces in most +<pb n='034'/><anchor id='Pg034'/> +languages,<note place='foot'>Compare the Greek ποτάομαι, +ἀναπτερόω, etc.</note> and it lingers as a metaphor in poetry. But +what is metaphor to a modern European poet was sober +earnest to his savage ancestor, and is still so to many +people. The Bororos of Brazil fancy that the human +soul has the shape of a bird, and passes in that shape +out of the body in dreams.<note place='foot'>K. von den Steinen, <hi rend='italic'>Unter den +Naturvölkern Zentral-Brasiliens</hi> (Berlin, +1894), pp. 511, 512.</note> According to the Bilqula +or Bella Coola Indians of British Columbia the soul +dwells in the nape of the neck and resembles a bird +enclosed in an egg. If the shell breaks and the soul flies +away, the man must die. If he swoons or becomes crazed, +it is because his soul has flown away without breaking its +shell. The shaman can hear the buzzing of its wings, like +the buzz of a mosquito, as the soul flits past; and he may +catch and replace it in the nape of its owner's neck.<note place='foot'>Fr. Boas, in <hi rend='italic'>Seventh Report on the +North-Western Tribes of Canada</hi>, pp. 14 +<hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> (separate reprint of the <hi rend='italic'>Report of +the British Association for 1891</hi>).</note> A +Melanesian wizard in Lepers' Island has been known to +send out his soul in the form of an eagle to pursue a ship +and learn the fortunes of some natives who were being +carried off in it.<note place='foot'>R. H. Codrington, <hi rend='italic'>The Melanesians</hi>, +pp. 207 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> The soul of Aristeas of Proconnesus was +seen to issue from his mouth in the shape of a raven.<note place='foot'>Pliny, <hi rend='italic'>Nat. Hist.</hi> vii. 174. Compare +Herodotus, iv. 14 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; Maximus +Tyríus, <hi rend='italic'>Dissert.</hi> xvi. 2.</note> +There is a popular opinion in Bohemia that the parting soul +comes forth from the mouth like a white bird.<note place='foot'>Br. Jelínek, <q>Materialien zur +Vorgeschichte und Volkskunde Böhmens,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Mittheilungen der anthropologischen +Gesellschaft in Wien</hi>, xxi. +(1891) p. 22.</note> The Malays +carry out the conception of the bird-soul in a number of odd +ways. If the soul is a bird on the wing, it may be attracted +by rice, and so either prevented from taking wing or lured +back again from its perilous flight. Thus in Java when a +child is placed on the ground for the first time (a moment +which uncultured people seem to regard as especially +dangerous), it is put in a hen-coop and the mother makes a +clucking sound, as if she were calling hens.<note place='foot'>G. A. Wilken, <q>Het animisme +bij de volken van den Indischen +Archipel,</q> <hi rend='italic'>De Indische Gids</hi>, June +1884, p. 944.</note> Amongst the +Battas of Sumatra, when a man returns from a dangerous +enterprise, grains of rice are placed on his head, and these +<pb n='035'/><anchor id='Pg035'/> +grains are called <foreign rend='italic'>padiruma tondi</foreign>, that is, <q>means to make the +soul (<foreign rend='italic'>tondi</foreign>) stay at home.</q> In Java also rice is placed on the +head of persons who have escaped a great danger or have +returned home unexpectedly after it had been supposed that +they were lost.<note place='foot'>G. A. Wilken, <hi rend='italic'>l.c.</hi></note> Similarly in the district of Sintang in +West Borneo, if any one has had a great fright, or escaped a +serious peril, or comes back after a long and dangerous +journey, or has taken a solemn oath, the first thing that his +relations or friends do is to strew yellow rice on his head, +mumbling, <q>Cluck! cluck! soul!</q> (<foreign rend='italic'>koer, koer, semangat</foreign>). +And when a person, whether man, woman, or child, has +fallen out of a house or off a tree, and has been brought +home, his wife or other kinswoman goes as speedily as +possible to the spot where the accident happened, and there +strews rice, which has been coloured yellow, while she +utters the words, <q>Cluck! cluck! soul! So-and-so is in +his house again. Cluck! cluck! soul!</q> Then she gathers +up the rice in a basket, carries it to the sufferer, and drops +the grains from her hand on his head, saying again, <q>Cluck! +cluck! soul!</q><note place='foot'>E. L. M. Kühr, <q>Schetsen uit +Borneo's Westerafdeeling,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Bijdragen +tot de Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde +van Nederlandsch-Indie</hi>, xlvii. (1897) +p. 57.</note> Here the intention clearly is to decoy back +the loitering bird-soul and replace it in the head of its owner. +In southern Celebes they think that a bridegroom's soul is +apt to fly away at marriage, so coloured rice is scattered over +him to induce it to stay. And, in general, at festivals in +South Celebes rice is strewed on the head of the person in +whose honour the festival is held, with the object of detaining +his soul, which at such times is in especial danger of being +lured away by envious demons.<note place='foot'>B. F. Matthes, <hi rend='italic'>Bijdragen tot de +Ethnologie van Zuid-Celebes</hi>, p. 33; +<hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, <hi rend='italic'>Over de Bissoes of heidensche +priesters en priesteressen der Boeginezen</hi>, +pp. 9 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, <hi rend='italic'>Makassaarsch-Hollandsch +Woordenboek</hi>, <hi rend='italic'>s.vv.</hi> <hi rend='italic'>Kôerróe</hi> and <hi rend='italic'>soemāñgá</hi>, +pp. 41, 569. Of these two +words, the former means the sound made +in calling fowls, and the latter means +the soul. The expression for the ceremonies +described in the text is +<foreign rend='italic'>ápakôerróe soemāñgá</foreign>. So common is +the recall of the bird-soul among the +Malays that the words <foreign rend='italic'>koer (kur) +semangat</foreign> (<q>cluck! cluck! soul!</q>) +often amount to little more than an +expression of astonishment, like our +<q>Good gracious me!</q> See W. W. +Skeat, <hi rend='italic'>Malay Magic</hi>, p. 47, note 2.</note> For example, after a +successful war the welcome to the victorious prince takes the +form of strewing him with roasted and coloured rice <q>to +<pb n='036'/><anchor id='Pg036'/> +prevent his life-spirit, as if it were a bird, from flying out of +his body in consequence of the envy of evil spirits.</q><note place='foot'>B. F. Matthes, <q>Over de <foreign rend='italic'>âdá's</foreign> of +gewoonten der Makassaren en Boegineezen,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Verslagen en Mededeelingen der +koninklijke Akademie van Wetenschappen</hi> +(Amsterdam), Afdeeling Letterkunde, +Reeks iii. Deel ii. (1885) +pp. 174 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; J. K. Niemann, <q>De +Boegineezen en Makassaren,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Bijdragen +tot de Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde +van Nederlandsch-Indië</hi>, xxxviii.(1889) +p. 281.</note> +In Central Celebes, when a party of head-hunters returns +from a successful expedition, a woman scatters rice on their +heads for a similar purpose.<note place='foot'>A. C. Kruyt, <q>Het koppensnellen +der Toradja's,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Verslagen en Mededeelingen +der koninklijke Akademie van +Wetenschappen</hi> (Amsterdam), Afdeeling +Letterkunde, Reeks iv. Deel iii. +(1899) p. 162.</note> Among the Minangkabauers of +Sumatra the old rude notions of the soul seem to be dying +out. Nowadays most of the people hold that the soul, being +immaterial, has no shape or form. But some of the sorcerers +assert that the soul goes and comes in the shape of a tiny +man. Others are of opinion that it does so in the form of a +fly; hence they make food ready to induce the absent +soul to come back, and the first fly that settles on the food +is regarded as the returning truant. But in native poetry +and popular expressions there are traces of the belief that +the soul quits the body in the form of a bird.<note place='foot'>J. L. van der Toorn, <q>Het +animisme bij den Minangkabauer der +Padangsche Bovenlanden,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Bijdragen +tot de Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde van +Nederlandsch-Indië</hi>, xxxix. (1890) +pp. 56-58. On traces of the bird-soul +in Mohammedan popular belief, see +I. Goldziher, <q>Der Seelenvogel im +islamischen Volksglauben,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Globus</hi>, +lxxxiii. (1903) pp. 301-304; and on +the soul in bird-form generally, see +J. von Negelein, <q>Seele als Vogel,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Globus</hi>, lxxix. (1901) pp. 357-361, +381-384.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The soul +is supposed +to be +absent in +sleep.</note> +The soul of a sleeper is supposed to wander away from +his body and actually to visit the places, to see the persons, +and to perform the acts of which he dreams. For example, +when an Indian of Brazil or Guiana wakes up from a sound +sleep, he is firmly convinced that his soul has really been away +hunting, fishing, felling trees, or whatever else he has dreamed +of doing, while all the time his body has been lying motionless +in his hammock. A whole Bororo village has been +thrown into a panic and nearly deserted because somebody +had dreamed that he saw enemies stealthily approaching it. +A Macusi Indian in weak health, who dreamed that his +employer had made him haul the canoe up a series of +difficult cataracts, bitterly reproached his master next +<pb n='037'/><anchor id='Pg037'/> +morning for his want of consideration in thus making a poor +invalid go out and toil during the night.<note place='foot'>K. von den Steinen, <hi rend='italic'>Unter den +Naturvölkern Zentral-Brasiliens</hi>, p. +340; E. F. im Thurn, <hi rend='italic'>Among the Indians +of Guiana</hi>, pp. 344 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></note> The Indians of +the Gran Chaco are often heard to relate the most incredible +stories as things which they have themselves seen and heard; +hence strangers who do not know them intimately say in +their haste that these Indians are liars. In point of fact +the Indians are firmly convinced of the truth of what they +relate; for these wonderful adventures are simply their +dreams, which they do not distinguish from waking realities.<note place='foot'>V. Fric, <q>Eine Pilcomayo-Reise +in den Chaco Central,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Globus</hi>, lxxxix. +(1906) p. 233.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The soul +absent +in sleep +may be +prevented +from +returning +to the +body.</note> +Now the absence of the soul in sleep has its dangers, for +if from any cause the soul should be permanently detained +away from the body, the person thus deprived of the vital +principle must die.<note place='foot'>Shway Yoe, <hi rend='italic'>The Burman, his +Life and Notions</hi> (London, 1882), ii. +100.</note> There is a German belief that the +soul escapes from a sleeper's mouth in the form of a white +mouse or a little bird, and that to prevent the return of +the bird or animal would be fatal to the sleeper.<note place='foot'>R. Andree, <hi rend='italic'>Braunschweiger Volkskunde</hi> +(Brunswick, 1896), p. 266.</note> Hence +in Transylvania they say that you should not let a child +sleep with its mouth open, or its soul will slip out in +the shape of a mouse, and the child will never wake.<note place='foot'>H. von Wlislocki, <hi rend='italic'>Volksglaube und +Volksbrauch der Siebenbürger Sachsen</hi> +(Berlin, 1893), p. 167.</note> +Many causes may detain the sleeper's soul. Thus, his soul +may meet the soul of another sleeper and the two souls +may fight; if a Guinea negro wakens with sore bones in the +morning, he thinks that his soul has been thrashed by +another soul in sleep.<note place='foot'>J. L. Wilson, <hi rend='italic'>Western Africa</hi> +(London, 1856), p. 220; A. B. Ellis, +<hi rend='italic'>The Ewe-speaking Peoples of the Slave +Coast</hi>, p. 20.</note> Or it may meet the soul of a person +just deceased and be carried off by it; hence in the Aru +Islands the inmates of a house will not sleep the night after +a death has taken place in it, because the soul of the +deceased is supposed to be still in the house and they fear +to meet it in a dream.<note place='foot'>J. G. F. Riedel, <hi rend='italic'>De sluik- en +kroesharige rassen tusschen Selebes en +Papua</hi>, p. 267. For detention of a +sleeper's soul by spirits and consequent +illness, see also Mason, quoted in +A. Bastian's <hi rend='italic'>Die Völker des östlichen +Asien</hi>, ii. 387 note.</note> Similarly among the Upper Thompson +Indians of British Columbia, the friends and neighbours +<pb n='038'/><anchor id='Pg038'/> +who gathered in a house after a death and remained there +till the burial was over were not allowed to sleep, lest their +souls should be drawn away by the ghost of the deceased or +by his guardian spirit.<note place='foot'>J. Teit, <q>The Thompson Indians +of British Columbia,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Memoir of the +American Museum of Natural History, +The Jesup North Pacific Expedition</hi>, +vol. i. part iv. (April 1900) p. 327. +The Koryak of North-Eastern Asia +also keep awake so long as there is a +corpse in the house. See W. Jochelson, +<q>The Koryak, Religion and Myths,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Memoir of the American Museum for +Natural History, The Jesup North +Pacific Expedition</hi>, vol. vi. part i. +(Leyden and New York, 1905) p. 110.</note> The Lengua Indians of the Gran +Chaco hold that the vagrant spirits of the dead may come +to life again if only they can take possession of a sleeper's +body during the absence of his soul in dreams. Hence, +when the shades of night have fallen, the ghosts of the +departed gather round the villages, watching for a chance to +pounce on the bodies of dreamers and to enter into them +through the gateway of the breast.<note place='foot'>G. Kurze, <q>Sitten und Gebräuche +der Lengua-Indianer,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Mitteilungen +der Geographischen Gesellschaft zu +Jena</hi>, xxiii. (1905) p. 18.</note> Again, the soul of the +sleeper may be prevented by an accident or by physical +force from returning to his body. When a Dyak dreams +of falling into the water, he supposes that this accident +has really befallen his spirit, and he sends for a wizard, +who fishes for the spirit with a hand-net in a basin of +water till he catches it and restores it to its owner.<note place='foot'>H. Ling Roth, <q>Low's Natives +of Borneo,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Journal of the Anthropological +Institute</hi>, xxi. (1892) p. 112.</note> The +Santals tell how a man fell asleep, and growing very +thirsty, his soul, in the form of a lizard, left his body and +entered a pitcher of water to drink. Just then the owner of +the pitcher happened to cover it; so the soul could not +return to the body and the man died. While his friends +were preparing to burn the body some one uncovered the +pitcher to get water. The lizard thus escaped and returned +to the body, which immediately revived; so the man rose +up and asked his friends why they were weeping. They +told him they thought he was dead and were about to burn +his body. He said he had been down a well to get water, +but had found it hard to get out and had just returned. So +they saw it all.<note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>Indian Antiquary</hi>, vii. (1878) +p. 273; A. Bastian, <hi rend='italic'>Völkerstämme +am Brahmaputra</hi>, p. 127. A similar +story is told by the Hindoos and +Malays, though the lizard form of the +soul is not mentioned. See <hi rend='italic'>Panjab +Notes and Queries</hi>, iii. p. 166, § 679; +N. Annandale, <q>Primitive Beliefs and +Customs of the Patani Fishermen,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Fasciculi Malayenses, Anthropology</hi>, +part i. (April 1903) pp. 94 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> A similar story is reported from Transylvania +<pb n='039'/><anchor id='Pg039'/> +as follows. In the account of a witch's trial at Mühlbach in +the eighteenth century it is said that a woman had engaged +two men to work in her vineyard. After noon they all lay +down to rest as usual. An hour later the men got up and +tried to waken the woman, but could not. She lay motionless +with her mouth wide open. They came back at sunset +and still she lay like a corpse. Just at that moment a big +fly came buzzing past, which one of the men caught and +shut up in his leathern pouch. Then they tried again to +waken the woman, but could not. Afterwards they let out +the fly; it flew straight into the woman's mouth and she +awoke. On seeing this the men had no further doubt that +she was a witch.<note place='foot'>E. Gerard, <hi rend='italic'>The Land beyond the +Forest</hi>, ii. 27 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> A similar story is told +in Holland (J. W. Wolf, <hi rend='italic'>Nederlandsche +Sagen</hi>, No. 250, pp. 343 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>). The +story of King Gunthram belongs to the +same class; the king's soul comes out +of his mouth as a small reptile (Paulus +Diaconus, <hi rend='italic'>Hist. Langobardorum</hi>, iii. 34). +In an East Indian story of the same +type the sleeper's soul issues from his +nose in the form of a cricket (G. A. +Wilken, in <hi rend='italic'>De Indische Gids</hi>, June 1884, +p. 940). In a Swabian story a girl's +soul creeps out of her mouth in the form +of a white mouse (A. Birlinger, <hi rend='italic'>Volksthümliches +aus Schwaben</hi>, i. 303). In +a Saxon story the soul comes out of the +sleeper's mouth in the shape of a red +mouse. See E. Mogk, in R. Wuttke's +<hi rend='italic'>Sächsische Volkskunde</hi><hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi> (Dresden, 1901), +p. 318.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Danger of +awaking +a sleeper +suddenly +before his +soul has +time to +return.</note> +It is a common rule with primitive people not to waken +a sleeper, because his soul is away and might not have time +to get back; so if the man wakened without his soul, he +would fall sick. If it is absolutely necessary to rouse a +sleeper, it must be done very gradually, to allow the soul +time to return.<note place='foot'>Shway Yoe, <hi rend='italic'>The Burman</hi>, ii. 103; +M. and B. Ferrars, <hi rend='italic'>Burma</hi> (London, +1900), p. 77; R. G. Woodthorpe, in +<hi rend='italic'>Journal of the Anthropological Institute</hi>, +xxvi. (1897) p. 23; A. Bastian, <hi rend='italic'>Die +Völker des östlichen Asien</hi>, ii. 389; F. +Blumentritt, <q>Der Ahnencultus und +die religiösen Anschauungen der +Malaien des Philippinen-Archipels,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Mittheilungen der Wiener Geogr. Gesellschaft</hi>, +1882, p. 209; J. G. F. Riedel, +<hi rend='italic'>De sluik-en kroesharige rassen tusschen +Selebes en Papua</hi>, p. 440; <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, <q>Die +Landschaft Dawan oder West-Timor,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Deutsche geographische Blätter</hi>, x. 280; +A. C. Kruijt, <q>Een en ander aangaande +het geestelijk en maatschapelijk +leven van den Poso-Alfoer,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Mededeelingen +van wege het Nederlandsche Zendelinggenootschap</hi>, +xxxix. (1895) p. 4; +K. von den Steinen, <hi rend='italic'>Unter den Naturvölkern +Zentral-Brasiliens</hi>, pp. 340, +510; L. F. Gowing, <hi rend='italic'>Five Thousand +Miles in a Sledge</hi> (London, 1889), +p. 226; A. C. Hollis, <hi rend='italic'>The Masai</hi> +(Oxford, 1905), p. 308. The rule is +mentioned and a mystic reason assigned +for it in the <hi rend='italic'>Satapatha Brâhmana</hi> (part +v. p. 371, J. Eggeling's translation).</note> A Fijian in Matuku, suddenly wakened +from a nap by somebody treading on his foot, has been +<pb n='040'/><anchor id='Pg040'/> +heard bawling after his soul and imploring it to return. +He had just been dreaming that he was far away in Tonga, +and great was his alarm on suddenly wakening to find his +body in Matuku. Death stared him in the face unless his +soul could be induced to speed at once across the sea and +reanimate its deserted tenement. The man would probably +have died of fright if a missionary had not been at hand to +allay his terror.<note place='foot'>Rev. Lorimer Fison, in a letter +to the author dated August 26, +1898.</note> Some Brazilian Indians explain the headache +from which a man sometimes suffers after a broken +sleep by saying that his soul is tired with the exertions it +made to return quickly to the body.<note place='foot'>K. von den Steinen, <hi rend='italic'>Unter den +Naturvölkern Zentral-Brasiliens</hi>, p. +340.</note> A Highland story, +told to Hugh Miller on the picturesque shores of Loch Shin, +well illustrates the haste made by the soul to regain its body +when the sleeper has been prematurely roused by an indiscreet +friend. Two young men had been spending the early +part of a warm summer day in the open air, and sat down +on a mossy bank to rest. Hard by was an ancient ruin +separated from the bank on which they sat only by a +slender runnel, across which there lay, immediately over a +miniature cascade, a few withered stalks of grass. <q>Overcome +by the heat of the day, one of the young men fell +asleep; his companion watched drowsily beside him; when +all at once the watcher was aroused to attention by seeing a +little indistinct form, scarce larger than a humble-bee, issue +from the mouth of the sleeping man, and, leaping upon the +moss, move downwards to the runnel, which it crossed along +the withered grass stalks, and then disappeared among the +interstices of the ruin. Alarmed by what he saw, the +watcher hastily shook his companion by the shoulder, and +awoke him; though, with all his haste, the little cloud-like +creature, still more rapid in its movements, issued from the +interstice into which it had gone, and, flying across the +runnel, instead of creeping along the grass stalks and over +the sward, as before, it re-entered the mouth of the sleeper, +just as he was in the act of awakening. <q>What is the +matter with you?</q> said the watcher, greatly alarmed, <q>what +ails you?</q> <q>Nothing ails me,</q> replied the other; <q>but you +<pb n='041'/><anchor id='Pg041'/> +have robbed me of a most delightful dream. I dreamed I +was walking through a fine rich country, and came at length +to the shores of a noble river; and, just where the clear +water went thundering down a precipice, there was a bridge +all of silver, which I crossed; and then, entering a noble +palace on the opposite side, I saw great heaps of gold and +jewels; and I was just going to load myself with treasure, +when you rudely awoke me, and I lost all.</q></q><note place='foot'>Hugh Miller, <hi rend='italic'>My Schools and +Schoolmasters</hi> (Edinburgh, 1854), ch. +vi. pp. 106 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Danger of +moving a +sleeper or +altering his +appearance.</note> +Still more dangerous is it in the opinion of primitive +man to move a sleeper or alter his appearance, for if this +were done the soul on its return might not be able to find +or recognise its body, and so the person would die. The +Minangkabauers of Sumatra deem it highly improper to +blacken or dirty the face of a sleeper, lest the absent soul +should shrink from re-entering a body thus disfigured.<note place='foot'>J. L. van der Toorn, <q>Het animisme +bij den Minangkabauer der +Padangsche Bovenlanden,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Bijdragen +tot de Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde +van Nederlandsch-Indië</hi>, xxxix. (1890) +p. 50.</note> +Patani Malays fancy that if a person's face be painted while +he sleeps, the soul which has gone out of him will not recognise +him, and he will sleep on till his face is washed.<note place='foot'>N. Annandale, in <hi rend='italic'>Fasciculi Malayenses, +Anthropology</hi>, part i. (April +1903) p. 94.</note> In +Bombay it is thought equivalent to murder to change the +aspect of a sleeper, as by painting his face in fantastic +colours or giving moustaches to a sleeping woman. For +when the soul returns it will not know its own body and +the person will die.<note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>Panjab Notes and Queries</hi>, iii. +p. 116, § 530.</note> The Coreans are of opinion that +in sleep <q>the soul goes out of the body, and that if +a piece of paper is put over the face of the sleeper he +will surely die, for his soul cannot find its way back +into him again.</q><note place='foot'>W. W. Rockhill, <q>Notes on some +of the Laws, Customs, and Superstitions +of Korea,</q> <hi rend='italic'>American Anthropologist</hi>, +iv. (1891) p. 183.</note> The Servians believe that the soul of +a sleeping witch often leaves her body in the form of a +butterfly. If during its absence her body be turned round, +so that her feet are placed where her head was before, the +butterfly soul will not find its way back into her body +through the mouth, and the witch will die.<note place='foot'>W. R. S. Ralston, <hi rend='italic'>Songs of the +Russian People</hi>, pp. 117 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; F. S. +Krauss, <hi rend='italic'>Volksglaube und religiöser +Brauch der Südslaven</hi> (Münster i. W., +1890), p. 112. The latter writer tells +us that the witch's spirit is also supposed +to assume the form of a fly, a hen, +a turkey, a crow, and especially a +toad.</note> The Esthonians +<pb n='042'/><anchor id='Pg042'/> +of the island of Oesel think that the gusts which sweep up +all kinds of trifles from the ground and whirl them along +are the souls of old women, who have gone out in this shape +to seek what they can find. Meantime the beldame's body +lies as still as a stone, and if you turn it round her soul will +never be able to enter it again, until you have replaced the +body in its original position. You can hear the soul +whining and whimpering till it has found the right aperture.<note place='foot'>Holzmayer, <q>Osiliana,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Verhandlungen +der gelehrten Estnischen Gesellschaft +zu Dorpat</hi>, vii. (1872) No. 2, +p. 53.</note> +Similarly in Livonia they think that when the soul of a +were-wolf is out on his hateful business, his body lies like +dead; and if meanwhile the body were accidentally moved, +the soul would never more find its way into it, but would +remain in the body of a wolf till death.<note place='foot'>P. Einhorn, <q>Wiederlegunge der +Abgötterey,</q> etc., reprinted in <hi rend='italic'>Scriptores +rerum Livonicarun</hi>, ii. 645 (Riga +and Leipsic, 1848).</note> In the picturesque +but little known Black Mountain of southern France, which +forms a sort of link between the Pyrenees and the Cevennes, +they tell how a woman, who had long been suspected of +being a witch, one day fell asleep at noon among the +reapers in the field. Resolved to put her to the test, the +reapers carried her, while she slept, to another part of the +field, leaving a large pitcher on the spot from which they +had moved her. When her soul returned, it entered the +pitcher and cunningly rolled it over and over till the vessel +lay beside her body, of which the soul thereupon took +possession.<note place='foot'>A. de Nore, <hi rend='italic'>Coutumes, mythes et +traditions des provinces de France</hi> +(Paris and Lyons, 1846), p. 88.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The soul +may quit +the body +in waking +hours, +thereby +causing +sickness, +insanity +or death. Recalling +truant +souls in +Australia, +Burma, +China, +Sarawak, +Luzon and +Mongolia.</note> +But in order that a man's soul should quit his body, it +is not necessary that he should be asleep. It may quit him +in his waking hours, and then sickness, insanity, or death +will be the result. Thus a man of the Wurunjeri tribe in +Victoria lay at his last gasp because his spirit (<foreign rend='italic'>murup</foreign>) had +departed from him. A medicine-man went in pursuit and +caught the spirit by the middle just as it was about to +plunge into the sunset glow, which is the light cast by the +souls of the dead as they pass in and out of the underworld, +<pb n='043'/><anchor id='Pg043'/> +where the sun goes to rest. Having captured the +vagrant spirit, the doctor brought it back under his opossum +rug, laid himself down on the dying man, and put the +soul back into him, so that after a time he revived.<note place='foot'>A. W. Howitt, <hi rend='italic'>Native Tribes of +South-East Australia</hi>, p. 387.</note> +The Karens of Burma are perpetually anxious about their +souls, lest these should go roving from their bodies, leaving +the owners to die. When a man has reason to fear that +his soul is about to take this fatal step, a ceremony is +performed to retain or recall it, in which the whole family +must take part. A meal is prepared consisting of a cock +and hen, a special kind of rice, and a bunch of bananas. +Then the head of the family takes the bowl which is used to +skim rice, and knocking with it thrice on the top of the house-ladder +says: <q><foreign rend='italic'>Prrrroo!</foreign> Come back, soul, do not tarry +outside! If it rains, you will be wet. If the sun shines, +you will be hot. The gnats will sting you, the leeches will +bite you, the tigers will devour you, the thunder will crush +you. <foreign rend='italic'>Prrrroo!</foreign> Come back, soul! Here it will be well +with you. You shall want for nothing. Come and eat +under shelter from the wind and the storm.</q> After that the +family partakes of the meal, and the ceremony ends with +everybody tying their right wrist with a string which has +been charmed by a sorcerer.<note place='foot'>Bringaud, <q>Les Karens de la +Birmanie,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Missions Catholiques</hi>, xx. +(1888) pp. 297 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> Similarly the Lolos, an +aboriginal tribe of western China, believe that the soul +leaves the body in chronic illness. In that case they read +a sort of elaborate litany, calling on the soul by name and +beseeching it to return from the hills, the vales, the rivers, +the forests, the fields, or from wherever it may be straying. +At the same time cups of water, wine, and rice are set at the +door for the refreshment of the weary wandering spirit. When +the ceremony is over, they tie a red cord round the arm of +the sick man to tether the soul, and this cord is worn by him +until it decays and drops off.<note place='foot'>A. Henry, <q>The Lolos and other +tribes of Western China,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Journal of +the Anthropological Institute</hi>, xxxiii. +(1903) p. 102.</note> So among the Kenyahs of +Sarawak a medicine-man has been known to recall the stray +soul of a child, and to fasten it firmly in its body by +tying a string round the child's right wrist, and smearing +<pb n='044'/><anchor id='Pg044'/> +its little arm with the blood of a fowl.<note place='foot'>C. Hose and W. M'Dougall, <q>The +Relations between Men and Animals in +Sarawak,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Journal of the Anthropological +Institute</hi>, xxxi. (1901) pp. +183 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> The Ilocanes of Luzon +think that a man may lose his soul in the woods or gardens, +and that he who has thus lost his soul loses also his senses. +Hence before they quit the woods or the fields they call to +their soul, <q>Let us go! let us go!</q> lest it should loiter behind +or go astray. And when a man becomes crazed or mad, they +take him to the place where he is supposed to have lost his +soul and invite the truant spirit to return to his body.<note place='foot'>De los Reyes y Florentino, <q>Die +religiöse Anschauungen der Ilocanen +(Luzon),</q> <hi rend='italic'>Mittheilungen der k. k. +Geograph. Gesellschaft in Wien</hi>, xxxi +(1888) pp. 569 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> The +Mongols sometimes explain sickness by supposing that the +patient's soul is absent, and either does not care to return +to its body or cannot find the way back. To secure the +return of the soul it is therefore necessary on the one hand +to make its body as attractive as possible, and on the other +hand to shew the soul the way home. To make the body +attractive all the sick man's best clothes and most valued +possessions are placed beside him; he is washed, incensed, +and made as comfortable as may be; and all his friends +march thrice round the hut calling out the sick man's name +and coaxing his soul to return. To help the wanderer to find +its way back a coloured cord is stretched from the patient's +head to the door of the hut. The priest in his robes reads +a list of the horrors of hell and the dangers incurred by +souls which wilfully absent themselves from their bodies. +Then turning to the assembled friends and the patient he +asks, <q>Is it come?</q> All answer <q>Yes,</q> and bowing to the +returning soul throw seed over the sick man. The cord +which guided the soul back is then rolled up and placed +round the patient's neck, who must wear it for seven days +without taking it off. No one may frighten or hurt him, +lest his soul, not yet familiar with its body, should again +take flight.<note place='foot'>A. Bastian, <hi rend='italic'>Die Seele und ihre +Erscheinungswesen in der Ethnographie</hi>, +p. 36.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Recalling +truant +souls in +Africa and +America.</note> +Some of the Congo tribes believe that when a man is +ill, his soul has left his body and is wandering at large. +The aid of the sorcerer is then called in to capture the +<pb n='045'/><anchor id='Pg045'/> +vagrant spirit and restore it to the invalid. Generally the +physician declares that he has successfully chased the soul +into the branch of a tree. The whole town thereupon turns +out and accompanies the doctor to the tree, where the +strongest men are deputed to break off the branch in which +the soul of the sick man is supposed to be lodged. This +they do and carry the branch back to the town, insinuating +by their gestures that the burden is heavy and hard to bear. +When the branch has been brought to the sick man's hut, he +is placed in an upright position by its side, and the sorcerer +performs the enchantments by which the soul is believed +to be restored to its owner.<note place='foot'>H. Ward, <hi rend='italic'>Five Years with the +Congo Cannibals</hi> (London, 1890), pp. +53 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> The soul or shade of a Déné or +Tinneh Indian in the old days generally remained invisible, +but appeared wandering about in one form or another whenever +disease or death was imminent. All the efforts of the +sufferer's friends were therefore concentrated on catching +the roving shade. The method adopted was simple. +They stuffed the patient's moccasins with down and hung +them up. If next morning the down was warm, they made +sure that the lost soul was in the boots, with which accordingly +they carefully and silently shod their suffering friend. +Nothing more could reasonably be demanded for a perfect +cure.<note place='foot'>A. G. Morice, <q>The Western +Dénés, their Manners and Customs,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Proceedings of the Canadian Institute, +Toronto</hi>, Third Series, vii. (1888-1889) +pp. 158 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, <hi rend='italic'>Au pays de l'ours +noir, chez les sauvages de la Colombie +Britannique</hi> (Paris and Lyons, 1897), +p. 75.</note> An Ottawa medicine-man has been known to catch +a stray soul in a little box, which he brought back and +inserted in the patient's mouth.<note place='foot'>Clicteur, in <hi rend='italic'>Annales de l'Association +de la Propagation de la Foi</hi>, iv +(1830) p. 479.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Recalling +truant +souls in +Sumatra, Borneo, Celebes.</note> +Pining, sickness, great fright, and death are ascribed by the +Battas or Bataks of Sumatra to the absence of the soul (<foreign rend='italic'>tendi</foreign>) +from the body. At first they try to beckon the wanderer +back, and to lure him, like a fowl, by strewing rice. Then +the following form of words is commonly repeated: <q>Come +back, O soul, whether thou art lingering in the wood, or on +the hills, or in the dale. See, I call thee with a <foreign rend='italic'>toemba +bras</foreign>, with an egg of the fowl Rajah <foreign rend='italic'>moelija</foreign>, with the eleven +healing leaves. Detain it not, let it come straight here, +<pb n='046'/><anchor id='Pg046'/> +detain it not, neither in the wood, nor on the hill, nor in +the dale. That may not be. O come straight home!</q><note place='foot'>M. Joustra, <q>Het leven, de zeden +en gewoonten der Bataks,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Mededeelingen +van wege het Nederlandsche +Zendelinggenootschap</hi>, xlvi. (1902) p. +408.</note> +Sometimes the means adopted by the Battas to procure +the return of a sick person's soul are more elaborate. A +procession sets out from the village to the tuck of drum to +find and bring home the strayed soul. First goes a person +bearing a basket which contains cakes of rice-meal, rice +dyed yellow, and a boiled fowl's egg. The sorcerer follows +carrying a chicken, and behind him walks a man with a +black, red, and white flag. A crowd of sympathisers brings +up the rear. On reaching the spot where the lost soul is +supposed to tarry, they set up a small bamboo altar, and +the sorcerer offers on it the chicken to the spirit of the place, +the drums beating all the time. Then, waving his shawl to +attract the soul of the sick man, he says: <q>Come hither, +thou soul of So-and-So, whether thou sittest among the +stones or in the mud. In the house is thy place. We +have besought the spirit to let thee go.</q> After that the +procession reforms and marches back to the village to the +roll of drums and the clash of cymbals. On reaching the +door of the house the sorcerer calls out to the inmates, +<q>Has it come?</q> and a voice from within answers, <q>It is +here, good sorcerer.</q> At evening the drums beat again.<note place='foot'>J. H. Meerwaldt, <q>Gebruiken +der Bataks in het maatschappelijk +leven,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Mededeelingen van wege het +Nederlandsche Zendelinggenootschap</hi>, +li. (1907) pp. 98 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> The writer +gives <foreign rend='italic'>tondi</foreign> as the form of the Batak +word for <q>soul.</q></note> +A number of plants, including rice, a species of fig, and +garlic, are supposed by the Battas to possess soul-compelling +virtue and are accordingly made use of by them in rites +for the recovery of lost souls. When a child is sick, the +mother commonly waves a cloth to beckon home its wandering +spirit, and when a cock crows or a hen cackles in the +yard, she knows that the prodigal has returned. If the +little sufferer persists in being ill in spite of these favourable +omens, the mother will hang a bag of rice at the head of +her bed when she goes to sleep, and next morning on +getting up she measures the rice. If the rice has increased +in volume during the night, as it may do in a moisture-laden +<pb n='047'/><anchor id='Pg047'/> +atmosphere, she is confident that the lost soul has +indeed come home to stay.<note place='foot'>Dr. R. Römer, <q>Bijdrage tot de +Geneeskunst der Karo-Batak's,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Tijdschrift +voor Indische Taal- Land- en +Volkenkunde</hi>, i. (1908) pp. 212 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> The Kayans of Borneo +fasten packets of rice, flesh, and fish to the window in +the roof through which the wandering soul of a sick +man is expected to return home. The doctor sits cross-legged +on a mat under the open window with a display +of pretty things spread out temptingly before him as baits +to entice the spirit back to its deserted tabernacle. From +the window hangs a string of precious corals or pearls to serve +the returning prodigal as a ladder and so facilitate his descent +into the house. The lower end of the string is attached to +a bundle composed of wooden hooks, a fowl's feather, little +packets of rice, and so forth. Chanting his spells, the doctor +strokes the soul down the string into the bundle, which he +then deposits in a basket and hides in a corner till the dusk +of the evening. When darkness has fallen, he blows the +captured soul back into the patient's head and strokes the +sufferer's arm downwards with the point of an old spear in +order to settle the soul firmly in his body.<note place='foot'>A. W. Nieuwenhuis, <hi rend='italic'>In Centraal +Borneo</hi> (Leyden, 1900), i. 148, 152 +<hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 164 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, <hi rend='italic'>Quer durch Borneo</hi> +(Leyden, 1904-1907), i. 112 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 125.</note> Once when a +popular traveller was leaving a Kayan village, the mothers, +fearing that their children's souls might follow him on his +journey, brought him the boards on which they carry +their infants and begged him to pray that the souls of +the little ones would return to the familiar boards and +not go away with him into the far country. To each +board was fastened a looped string for the purpose of +tethering the vagrant spirits, and through the loop +each baby was made to pass a chubby finger to make sure +that its tiny soul would not wander away.<note place='foot'>A. W. Nieuwenhuis, <hi rend='italic'>Quer durch +Borneo</hi>, ii. 481.</note> When a Dyak +is dangerously ill, the medicine-men may say that his soul +has escaped far away, perhaps to the river; then they will +wave a garment or cloth about to imitate the casting of a +net, signifying thereby that they are catching the soul like a +fish in a net. Or they may give out that the soul has +escaped into the jungle; and then they will rush out of the +house to circumvent and secure it there. Or again they +<pb n='048'/><anchor id='Pg048'/> +may allege that it has been carried away over seas to some +unknown land; and then they will play at paddling a boat +to follow it across the great water. But more commonly +their mode of treatment is as follows. A spear is set up in +the middle of the verandah with a few leaves tied to it and +the medicine-boxes of the medicine-men laid at its foot. +Round this the doctors run at full speed, chanting the while, +till one of them falls down and lies motionless. The +bystanders cover him with a blanket, and wait while his +spirit hies away after the errant soul and brings it back. +Presently he comes to himself, stares vacantly about like a +man awaking from sleep, and then rises, holding the soul in +his clenched right hand. He then returns it to the patient +through the crown of his head, while he mutters a spell.<note place='foot'>J. Perham, <q>Manangism in +Borneo,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Journal of the Straits Branch +of the Royal Asiatic Society</hi>, No. 19 +(Singapore, 1887), p. 91, compare pp. +89, 90; H. Ling Roth, <hi rend='italic'>The Natives +of Sarawak and British North Borneo</hi>, +i. 274, compare pp. 272 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> +Among the Dyaks of the Kayan and Lower Melawie +districts you will often see, in houses where there are children, +a basket of a peculiar shape with shells and dried fruits +attached to it. These shells contain the remains of the +children's navel-strings, and the basket to which they are +fastened is commonly hung beside the place where the +children sleep. When a child is frightened, for example by +being bathed or by the bursting of a thunderstorm, its soul +flees from its body and nestles beside its old familiar friend +the navel-string in the basket, from which the mother easily +induces it to return by shaking the basket and pressing it to +the child's body.<note place='foot'>E. L. M. Kühr, <q>Schetsen uit +Borneo's Westerafdeeling,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Bijdragen +tot de Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde van +Nederlandsch-Indië</hi>, xlvii. (1897) pp. +60 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> The Toboongkoos of Central Celebes +believe that sickness in general is caused by the departure of +the soul. To recover the wanderer a priest will set out food +in the courtyard of the sufferer's house and then invoke the +soul, promising it many fine things if it will only come back. +When he thinks it has complied with his request, he catches +it in a cloth which he keeps ready for the purpose. This +cloth he afterwards claps on the sick man's head, thereby +restoring to him his lost soul.<note place='foot'>A. C. Kruijt, <q>Eenige ethnografische +aanteekeningen omtrent de +Toboengkoe en de Tomori,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Mededeelingen +van wege het Nederlandsche +Zendelinggenootschap</hi>, xliv. (1900) p. +225.</note> +</p> + +<pb n='049'/><anchor id='Pg049'/> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Wandering +souls in +popular +tales.</note> +In an Indian story a king conveys his soul into the +dead body of a Brahman, and a hunchback conveys his soul +into the deserted body of the king. The hunchback is now +king and the king is a Brahman. However, the hunchback +is induced to shew his skill by transferring his soul to the +dead body of a parrot, and the king seizes the opportunity +to regain possession of his own body.<note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>Pantschatantra</hi>, übersetzt von Th. +Benfey (Leipsic, 1859), ii. 124 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></note> A tale of the same +type, with variations of detail, reappears among the Malays. +A king has incautiously transferred his soul to an ape, upon +which the vizier adroitly inserts his own soul into the king's +body and so takes possession of the queen and the kingdom, +while the true king languishes at court in the outward +semblance of an ape. But one day the false king, who +played for high stakes, was watching a combat of rams, +and it happened that the animal on which he had laid his +money fell down dead. All efforts to restore animation +proved unavailing till the false king, with the instinct of a +true sportsman, transferred his own soul to the body of the +deceased ram, and thus renewed the fray. The real king in +the body of the ape saw his chance, and with great presence +of mind darted back into his own body, which the vizier +had rashly vacated. So he came to his own again, and the +usurper in the ram's body met with the fate he richly +deserved.<note place='foot'>J. Brandes, <q>Iets over het Pape-gaai-boek, +zooals het bij de Maleiers +voorkomt,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Tijdschrift voor Indische +Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde</hi>, xli. +(1899) pp. 480-483. A story of this +sort is quoted from the <hi rend='italic'>Persian Tales</hi> +in the <hi rend='italic'>Spectator</hi> (No. 578, Aug. 9, +1714).</note> In another Indian story a Brahman reanimates +the dead body of a king by conveying his own soul into it. +Meantime the Brahman's body has been burnt, and his soul +is obliged to remain in the body of the king.<note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>Katha Sarit Ságara</hi>, translated by +C. H. Tawney (Calcutta, 1880), i. 21 +<hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> For other Indian tales of the same +general type, with variations in detail, +see <hi rend='italic'>Lettres édifiantes et curieuses</hi>, +Nouvelle Édition, xii. 183 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; <hi rend='italic'>North +Indian Notes and Queries</hi>, iv. p. 28, +§ 54.</note> In a Chinese +story we read of a monk in a Buddhist monastery who used +from time to time to send his soul away out of himself. +Whenever he was thus absent from the body, he took the +precaution of locking the door of his cell. On one of these +occasions an envoy from the north arrived and put up at +<pb n='050'/><anchor id='Pg050'/> +the monastery, but there was no cell for him to pass the +night in. Then he looked into the cell of the brother whose +soul was not at home, and seeing his body lying there +motionless, he battered the door in and said, <q>I will lodge +here. The man is dead. Take the body and burn it.</q> +His servants obeyed his orders, the monks being powerless +to interfere. That very night the soul came back, only to +find its body reduced to ashes. Every night it could be +heard crying, <q>Where shall I settle?</q> Those who knew +him then opened their windows, saying, <q>Here I am.</q> So +the soul came in and united itself with their body, and the +result was that they became much cleverer than before.<note place='foot'>J. J. M. de Groot, <hi rend='italic'>The Religious +System of China</hi>, iv. 104.</note> +Similarly the Greeks told how the soul of Hermotimus of +Clazomenae used to quit his body and roam far and wide, +bringing back intelligence of what he had seen on his rambles +to his friends at home; until one day, when his spirit was +abroad, his enemies contrived to seize his deserted body and +committed it to the flames.<note place='foot'>Pliny, <hi rend='italic'>Nat. Hist.</hi> vii. 174; Plutarch, +<hi rend='italic'>De genio Socratis</hi>, 22; Lucian, +<hi rend='italic'>Muscae encomium</hi>, 7. Plutarch calls +the man Hermodorus. Epimenides, +the Cretan seer, had also the power of +sending his soul out of his body and +keeping it out as long as he pleased. +See Hesychius Milesius, in <hi rend='italic'>Fragmenta +historicorum Graecorum</hi>, ed. C. Müller, +v. 162; Suidas, <hi rend='italic'>s.v.</hi> Ἐπιμενίδης. On +such reported cases in antiquity see +further E. Rohde, <hi rend='italic'>Psyche</hi>,<hi rend='vertical-align: super'>3</hi> ii. 91 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></note> It is said that during the last +seven years of his life Sultan Bayazid ate nothing that had +life and blood in it. One day, being seized with a great +longing for sheep's trotters, he struggled long in this +glorious contest with his soul, until at last, a savoury dish +of trotters being set before him, he said unto his soul, <q>My +soul, the trotters are before thee; if thou wishest to enjoy +them, leave the body and feed on them.</q> Hardly had he +uttered these words when a living creature was seen to issue +from his mouth and drink of the juice in the dish, after +which it endeavoured to return whence it came. But the +austere sultan, determined to mortify his carnal appetite, +prevented it with his hand from entering his mouth, and +when it fell to the ground commanded that it should be +beaten. The pages kicked it to death, and after this +murder of his soul the sultan remained in gloomy seclusion, +taking no part or interest in the affairs of government.<note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>Narrative of Travels in Europe, +Asia, and Africa in the Seventeenth +Century by Evliyā Efendī</hi>, translated +from the Turkish by the Ritter Joseph +von Hammer (Oriental Translation +Fund), vol. i. pt. ii. p. 3. I have not +seen this work. An extract from it, +containing the above narrative, was +kindly sent me by Colonel F. Tyrrel, +and the exact title and reference were +supplied to me by Mr. R. A. Nicholson, +who was so good as to consult the +book for me in the British Museum.</note> +</p> + +<pb n='051'/><anchor id='Pg051'/> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The +wandering +soul may +be detained +by ghosts.</note> +The departure of the soul is not always voluntary. It +may be extracted from the body against its will by ghosts, +demons, or sorcerers. Hence, when a funeral is passing the +house, the Karens of Burma tie their children with a special +kind of string to a particular part of the house, lest the +souls of the children should leave their bodies and go into +the corpse which is passing. The children are kept tied in +this way until the corpse is out of sight.<note place='foot'>E. B. Cross, <q>On the Karens,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Journal of the American Oriental +Society</hi>, iv. (1854) p. 311.</note> And after the +corpse has been laid in the grave, but before the earth has +been shovelled in, the mourners and friends range themselves +round the grave, each with a bamboo split lengthwise in one +hand and a little stick in the other; each man thrusts his +bamboo into the grave, and drawing the stick along the +groove of the bamboo points out to his soul that in this way +it may easily climb up out of the tomb. While the earth is +being shovelled in, the bamboos are kept out of the way, lest +the souls should be in them, and so should be inadvertently +buried with the earth as it is being thrown into the grave; +and when the people leave the spot they carry away the +bamboos, begging their souls to come with them.<note place='foot'>A. R. McMahon, <hi rend='italic'>The Karens of +the Golden Chersonese</hi> (London, 1876), +p. 318.</note> Further, +on returning from the grave each Karen provides himself +with three little hooks made of branches of trees, and calling +his spirit to follow him, at short intervals, as he returns, he +makes a motion as if hooking it, and then thrusts the hook +into the ground. This is done to prevent the soul of the +living from staying behind with the soul of the dead.<note place='foot'>F. Mason, <q>Physical Character of +the Karens,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Journal of the Asiatic +Society of Bengal</hi>, 1866, pt. ii. pp. +28 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> On +the return of a Burmese or Shan family from a burial, old +men tie up the wrists of each member of the family with +string, to prevent his or her <q>butterfly</q> or soul from +escaping; and this string remains till it is worn out and +falls off.<note place='foot'>R. G. Woodthorpe, in <hi rend='italic'>Journal of +the Anthropological Institute</hi>, xxvi. +(1897) p. 23.</note> When a mother dies leaving a young baby, the +<pb n='052'/><anchor id='Pg052'/> +Burmese think that the <q>butterfly</q> or soul of the baby +follows that of the mother, and that if it is not recovered +the child must die. So a wise woman is called in to get +back the baby's soul. She places a mirror near the corpse, +and on the mirror a piece of feathery cotton down. +Holding a cloth in her open hands at the foot of the mirror, +she with wild words entreats the mother not to take with +her the <q>butterfly</q> or soul of her child, but to send it back. +As the gossamer down slips from the face of the mirror she +catches it in the cloth and tenderly places it on the baby's +breast. The same ceremony is sometimes observed when +one of two children that have played together dies, and is +thought to be luring away the soul of its playmate to the +spirit-land. It is sometimes performed also for a bereaved +husband or wife.<note place='foot'>C. J. S. F. Forbes, <hi rend='italic'>British +Burma</hi> (London, 1878), pp. 99 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; +Shway Yoe, <hi rend='italic'>The Burman</hi> (London, +1882), ii. 102; A. Bastian, <hi rend='italic'>Die Völker +des östlichen Asien</hi>, ii. 389.</note> The Bahnars of eastern Cochin-China +think that when a man is sick of a fever his soul has gone +away with the ghosts to the tombs. At sunset a sorcerer +attempts to lure the soul back by offering it sugar-cane, +bananas, and other fruits, while he sings an incantation +inviting the wanderer to return from among the dead to the +land of the living. He pretends to catch the truant soul +in a piece of cotton, which he then lays on the patient's +head.<note place='foot'>Guerlach, <q>Mœurs et superstitions +des sauvages Ba-hnars,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Missions +Catholiques</hi>, xix. (1887) pp. +525 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> When the Karo-Bataks of Sumatra have buried +somebody and are filling in the grave, a sorceress runs +about beating the air with a stick. This she does in order +to drive away the souls of the survivors, for if one of these +souls happened to slip into the grave and to be covered up +with earth, its owner would die.<note place='foot'>J. H. Neumann, <q>De <foreign rend='italic'>begoe</foreign> in de +godsdienstige begrippen der Karo-Bataks +in de Doesoen,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Mededeelingen +van wege het Nederlandsche Zendelinggenootschap</hi>, +xlvi. (1902) p. 27.</note> Among some of the +Dyak tribes of south-eastern Borneo, as soon as the coffin +is carried to the place of burial, the house in which the +death occurred is sprinkled with water, and the father of +the family calls out the names of all his children and the +other members of his household. For they think that the +ghost loves to decoy away the souls of his kinsfolk, but that +<pb n='053'/><anchor id='Pg053'/> +his designs upon them can be defeated by calling out their +names, which has the effect of bringing back the souls to +their owners. The same ceremony is repeated on the +return from the burial.<note place='foot'>F. Grabowsky, in <hi rend='italic'>Internationales +Archiv für Ethnographie</hi>, ii. (1889) +p. 182.</note> It is a rule with the Kwakiutl +Indians of British Columbia that a corpse must not be +coffined in the house, or the souls of the other inmates +would enter the coffin, and they, too, would die. The body +is taken out either through the roof or through a hole made +in one of the walls, and is then coffined outside the house.<note place='foot'>Fr. Boas, in <hi rend='italic'>Eleventh Report on +the North-Western Tribes of Canada</hi>, +p. 6 (separate reprint from the <hi rend='italic'>Report +of the British Association for 1896</hi>).</note> +In the East Indian island of Keisar it is deemed imprudent +to go near a grave at night, lest the ghosts should catch +and keep the soul of the passer-by.<note place='foot'>J. G. F. Riedel, <hi rend='italic'>De sluik- en +kroesharige rassen tusschen Selebes en +Papua</hi>, p. 414.</note> The Kei Islanders +believe that the spirits of their forefathers, angry at not +receiving food, make people sick by detaining their souls. +So they lay offerings of food on the grave and beg their +ancestors to allow the soul of the sick to return, or to +drive it home speedily if it should be lingering by the +way.<note place='foot'>J. G. F. Riedel, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> pp. +221 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Attempts +to rescue +the lost +soul from +the spirits +of the dead +who are detaining +it.</note> +In Bolang Mongondo, a district in the west of Celebes, +all sickness is ascribed to the ancestral spirits who have +carried off the patient's soul. The object therefore is to +bring back the soul of the sufferer and restore it to him. +An eye-witness has thus described the attempted cure of a +sick boy. The priestesses, who acted as physicians, made +a doll of cloth and fastened it to the point of a spear, which +an old woman held upright. Round this doll the priestesses +danced, uttering charms, and chirruping as when one calls +a dog. Then the old woman lowered the point of the spear +a little, so that the priestesses could reach the doll. By this +time the soul of the sick boy was supposed to be in the doll, +having been brought into it by the incantations. So the +priestesses approached it cautiously on tiptoe and caught the +soul in the many-coloured cloths which they had been waving +in the air. Then they laid the soul on the boy's head, that +is, they wrapped his head in the cloth in which the soul was +<pb n='054'/><anchor id='Pg054'/> +supposed to be, and stood still for some moments with great +gravity, holding their hands on the patient's head. Suddenly +there was a jerk, the priestesses whispered and shook their +heads, and the cloth was taken off—the soul had escaped. +The priestesses gave chase to it, running round and round +the house, clucking and gesticulating as if they were driving +hens into a poultry-yard. At last they recaptured the soul +at the foot of the stair and restored it to its owner as before.<note place='foot'>N. Ph. Wilken en J. A. Schwarz, +<q>Het heidendom en de Islam in +Bolaang Mongondou,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Mededeelingen +van wege het Nederlandsche Zendelinggenootschap</hi>, +xi. (1867) pp. 263 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> +Much in the same way an Australian medicine-man will +sometimes bring the lost soul of a sick man into a puppet +and restore it to the patient by pressing the puppet to his +breast.<note place='foot'>James Dawson, <hi rend='italic'>Australian Aborigines</hi> +(Melbourne, Sydney, and Adelaide, +1881), pp. 57 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> In Uea, one of the Loyalty Islands, the souls of +the dead seem to have been credited with the power of +stealing the souls of the living. For when a man was sick +the soul-doctor would go with a large troop of men and +women to the graveyard. Here the men played on flutes +and the women whistled softly to lure the soul home. After +this had gone on for some time they formed in procession and +moved homewards, the flutes playing and the women whistling +all the way, while they led back the wandering soul and drove +it gently along with open palms. On entering the patient's +dwelling they commanded the soul in a loud voice to enter +his body.<note place='foot'>W. W. Gill, <hi rend='italic'>Myths and Songs of +the South Pacific</hi> (London, 1876), pp. +171 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> In Madagascar when a man was sick or lunatic in +consequence of the loss of his soul, his friends despatched a +wizard in haste to fetch him a soul from the graveyard. +The emissary repaired by night to the spot, and having made +a hole in the wooden house which served as a tomb, begged +the spirit of the patient's father to bestow a soul on his son +or daughter, who had none. So saying he applied a bonnet +to the hole, then folded it up and rushed back to the house +of the sufferer, saying he had a soul for him. With that he +clapped the bonnet on the head of the invalid, who at once +said he felt much better and had recovered the soul which he +had lost.<note place='foot'>De Flacourt, <hi rend='italic'>Histoire de la grande +Isle Madagascar</hi> (Paris, 1658), pp. +101 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> +</p> + +<pb n='055'/><anchor id='Pg055'/> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Rescuing +the soul +from the +dead in +Borneo and +Melanesia.</note> +When a Dyak or Malay of some of the western tribes +or districts of Borneo is taken ill, with vomiting and profuse +sweating as the only symptoms, he thinks that one of his +deceased kinsfolk or ancestors is at the bottom of it. To +discover which of them is the culprit, a wise man or woman +pulls a lock of hair on the crown of the sufferer's head, calling +out the names of all his dead relations. The name at which +the lock gives forth a sound is the name of the guilty party. +If the patient's hair is too short to be tugged with effect, +he knocks his forehead seven times against the forehead +of a kinsman who has long hair. The hair of the latter +is then tugged instead of that of the patient and answers +to the test quite as well. When the blame has thus +been satisfactorily laid at the door of the ghost who is +responsible for the sickness, the physician, who, as in other +countries, is often an old woman, remonstrates with him on +his ill behaviour. <q>Go back,</q> says she, <q>to your grave; +what do you come here for? The soul of the sick man +does not choose to be called by you, and will remain yet a +long time in its body.</q> Then she puts some ashes from the +hearth in a winnowing fan and moulds out of them a small +figure or image in human likeness. Seven times she moves +the basket with the little ashen figure up and down before +the patient, taking care not to obliterate the figure, while at +the same time she says, <q>Sickness, settle in the head, belly, +hands, etc.; then quickly pass into the corresponding part +of the image,</q> whereupon the patient spits on the ashen +image and pushes it from him with his left hand. Next the +beldame lights a candle and goes to the grave of the person +whose ghost is doing all the mischief. On the grave she +throws the figure of ashes, calling out, <q>Ghost, plague the +sick man no longer, and stay in your grave, that he may see +you no more.</q> On her return she asks the anxious relations +in the house, <q>Has his soul come back?</q> and they must +answer quickly, <q>Yes, the soul of the sick man has come +back.</q> Then she stands beside the patient, blows out the +candle which had lighted the returning soul on its way, and +strews yellow-coloured rice on the head of the convalescent, +saying, <q>Cluck, soul! cluck, soul! cluck, soul!</q> Last of +all she fastens on his right wrist a bracelet or ring which he +<pb n='056'/><anchor id='Pg056'/> +must wear for three days.<note place='foot'>E. L. M. Kühr, <q>Schetsen uit +Borneo's Westerafdeeling,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Bijdragen +tot de Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde van +Nederlandsch-Indië</hi>, xlvii. (1897) pp. +61 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> In this case we see that the +saving of the soul is combined with a vicarious sacrifice to +the ghost, who receives a puppet on which to work his will +instead of on the poor soul. In San Cristoval, one of the +Melanesian islands, the vicarious sacrifice takes the form of +a pig or a fish. A malignant ghost of the name of Tapia +is supposed to have seized on the sick man's soul and tied it +up to a banyan-tree. Accordingly a man who has influence +with Tapia takes a pig or fish to the holy place where the +ghost resides and offers it to him, saying, <q>This is for you to +eat in place of that man; eat this, don't kill him.</q> This +satisfies the ghost; the soul is loosed from the tree and +carried back to the sufferer, who naturally recovers.<note place='foot'>R. H. Codrington, <hi rend='italic'>The Melanesians</hi>, +pp. 138 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> A +regular part of the stock-in-trade of a Dyak medicine-man is +a crystal into which he gazes to detect the hiding-place of a +lost soul or to identify the demon who is causing the +sickness.<note place='foot'>Bishop Hose, <q>The Contents of a +Dyak Medicine Chest,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Journal of the +Straits Branch of the Royal Asiatic +Society</hi>, No. 39, June 1903, p. 69.</note> In one of the New Hebrides a ghost will sometimes +impound the souls of trespassers within a magic fence +in his garden, and will only consent to pull up the fence and +let the souls out on receiving an unqualified apology and a +satisfactory assurance that no personal disrespect was +intended.<note place='foot'>R. H. Codrington, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> p. 208.</note> In Motlav, another Melanesian island, it is +enough to call out the sick man's name in the sacred place +where he rashly intruded, and then, when the cry of the +kingfisher or some other bird is heard, to shout <q>Come +back</q> to the soul of the sick man and run back with it to +the house.<note place='foot'>R. H. Codrington, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> pp. +146 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Buryat +mode of +recovering +a lost soul +from the +nether +world.</note> +It is a comparatively easy matter to save a soul which +is merely tied up to a tree or detained as a vagrant in a +pound; but it is a far harder task to fetch it up from the +nether world, if it once gets down there. When a Buryat +shaman is called in to attend a patient, the first thing he +does is to ascertain where exactly the soul of the invalid +is; for it may have strayed, or been stolen, or be languishing +<pb n='057'/><anchor id='Pg057'/> +in the prison of the gloomy Erlik, lord of the world +below. If it is anywhere in the neighbourhood, the +shaman soon catches and replaces it in the patient's body. +If it is far away, he searches the wide world till he finds +it, ransacking the deep woods, the lonely steppes, and the +bottom of the sea, not to be thrown off the scent even +though the cunning soul runs to the sheep-walks in the hope +that its footprints will be lost among the tracks of the +sheep. But when the whole world has been searched in +vain for the errant soul, the shaman knows that there is +nothing for it but to go down to hell and seek the lost one +among the spirits in prison. At the stern call of duty he +does not flinch, though he knows that the journey is +toilsome, and that the travelling expenses, which are naturally +defrayed by the patient, are very heavy. Sometimes the +lord of the infernal regions will only agree to release the +soul on condition of receiving another in its stead, and that +one the soul of the sick man's dearest friend. If the patient +consents to the substitution, the shaman turns himself into +a hawk, pounces upon the soul of the friend as it soars from +his slumbering body in the form of a lark, and hands over +the fluttering, struggling thing to the grim warden of the +dead, who thereupon sets the soul of the sick man at liberty. +So the sick man recovers and his friend dies.<note place='foot'>V. M. Mikhailovskii, <q>Shamanism +in Siberia and European Russia,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Journal of the Anthropological Institute</hi>, +xxiv. (1895) pp. 69 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>American +Indian +modes of +recovering +a lost soul +from the +land of +the dead.</note> +When a shaman declares that the soul of a sick +Thompson Indian has been carried off by the dead, the +good physician, who is the shaman himself, puts on a +conical mask and sets off in pursuit. He now acts as +if on a journey, jumping rivers and such like obstacles, +searching, talking, and sometimes engaging in a tussle for +the possession of the soul. His first step is to repair to the +old trail by which the souls of heathen Thompsons went to the +spirit-land; for nowadays the souls of Christian Thompsons +travel by a new road. If he fails to find the tracks of the +lost soul there, he searches all the graveyards, one after +the other, and almost always discovers it in one of them. +Sometimes he succeeds in heading off the departing soul by +taking a short cut to the other world. A shaman can only +<pb n='058'/><anchor id='Pg058'/> +stay a short time there. So as soon as he lays hands on +the soul he is after, he bolts with it. The other souls +give chase, but he stamps with his foot, on which he wears +a rattle made of deer's hoofs. At the rattle of the hoofs +the ghosts retreat and he hurries on. A bolder shaman +will sometimes ask the ghosts for the soul, and if they refuse +to give it, he will wrest it from them. They attack him, but +he clubs them and brings away the soul by force. When +he comes back to the world, he takes off his mask and shews +his club all bloody. Then the people know he had a +desperate struggle. If he foresees that the harrowing of +hell is likely to prove a tough job, he increases the number +of wooden pins in his mask. The rescued soul is placed by +him on the patient's head and so returned to his body.<note place='foot'>J. Teit, <q>The Thompson Indians +of British Columbia,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Memoir of the +American Museum of Natural History, +The Jesup North Pacific Expedition</hi>, +vol. i. part iv. (April 1900) pp. +363 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> +Among the Twana Indians of Washington State the descent +of the medicine-men into the nether world to rescue lost +souls is represented in pantomime before the eyes of the +spectators, who include women and children as well as men. +The surface of the ground is often broken to facilitate the +descent of the rescue party. When the adventurous band +is supposed to have reached the bottom, they journey along, +cross at least one stream, and travel till they come to the +abode of the spirits. These they surprise, and after a +desperate struggle, sustained with great ardour and a +prodigious noise, they succeed in rescuing the poor souls, +and so, wrapping them up in cloth, they make the best of +their way back to the upper world and restore the recovered +souls to their owners, who have been seen to cry heartily for +joy at receiving them back.<note place='foot'>Rev. Myron Eels, <q>The Twana, +Chemakum, and Klallam Indians of +Washington Territory,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Annual Report +of the Smithsonian Institution for +1887</hi>, pt. i. pp. 677 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Abduction +of souls by +demons in +Annam, +Cochin-China, +and China.</note> +Often the abduction of a man's soul is set down to +demons. The Annamites believe that when a man meets a +demon and speaks to him, the demon inhales the man's +breath and soul.<note place='foot'>A. Landes, <q>Contes et légendes +annamites,</q> No. 76 in <hi rend='italic'>Cochinchine +Française: excursions et reconnaissances</hi>, +No. 23 (Saigon, 1885), p. +80.</note> The souls of the Bahnars of eastern +Cochin-China are apt to be carried off by evil spirits, and +<pb n='059'/><anchor id='Pg059'/> +the modes of recovering them are various. If a man suffers +from a colic, the sorcerer may say that in planting sugar-cane, +maize or what-not, he has pierced the stomach of a +certain god who lives like a mole in the ground, and that +the injured deity has punished him by abstracting his soul +and burying it under a plant. Hence the cure for the colic +is to pull up the plant and water the hole with millet wine +and the blood of a fowl, a goat, or a pig. Again, if a child +falls ill in the forest or the fields, it is because some devil +has made off with its soul. To retrieve this spiritual loss +the sorcerer constructs an apparatus which comprises an egg-shell +in an egg-holder, a little waxen image of the sick +child, and a small bamboo full of millet wine. This +apparatus he sets up at a cross-road, praying the devil to +drink the wine and surrender the stolen soul by depositing +it in the egg-shell. Then he returns to the house, and +putting a little cotton to the child's head restores the soul +to its owner. Sometimes the sorcerer lays a trap for the +thievish demon, the bait consisting of the liver of a pig or a +fowl and the blood-smeared handle of a little mattock. At +nightfall he sets the trap at a cross-road and lies in wait +hard by. While the devil is licking the blood and munching +the liver, the artful sorcerer pounces out on him, and after a +severe struggle wrests the soul from his clutches, returning +to the village victorious, but breathless and bleeding +from his terrific encounter with the enemy of souls.<note place='foot'>Guerlach, <q>Chez les sauvages +Ba-hnars,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Missions Catholiques</hi>, xvi. +(1884) p. 436, xix. (1887) p. 453, +xxvi. (1894) pp. 142 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> +Fits and convulsions are generally set down by the +Chinese to the agency of certain mischievous spirits who +love to draw men's souls out of their bodies. At Amoy +the spirits who serve babies and children in this way +rejoice in the high-sounding titles of <q>celestial agencies +bestriding galloping horses</q> and <q>literary graduates residing +halfway up in the sky.</q> When an infant is writhing in +convulsions, the frightened mother hastens to the roof of the +house, and, waving about a bamboo pole to which one of +the child's garments is attached, cries out several times, <q>My +child So-and-so, come back, return home!</q> Meantime, +another inmate of the house bangs away at a gong in the +<pb n='060'/><anchor id='Pg060'/> +hope of attracting the attention of the strayed soul, which is +supposed to recognise the familiar garment and to slip into +it. The garment containing the soul is then placed on or +beside the child, and if the child does not die recovery is +sure to follow sooner or later.<note place='foot'>J. J. M. de Groot, <hi rend='italic'>The Religious +System of China</hi>, i. 243 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> Similarly we saw that some +Indians catch a man's lost soul in his boots and restore it to +his body by putting his feet into them.<note place='foot'>See above, p. <ref target='Pg045'>45</ref>.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Abduction +of souls by +demons in +the East +Indies.</note> +If Galelareese mariners are sailing past certain rocks or +come to a river where they never were before, they must +wash their faces, for otherwise the spirits of the rocks or the +river would snatch away their souls.<note place='foot'>M. J. van Baarda, <q>Fabelen, +Verhalen en Overleveringen der Galelareezen,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Bijdragen tot de Taal- Land- en +Volkenkunde van Nederlandsch-Indië</hi>, +xlv. (1895) p. 509.</note> When a Dyak is +about to leave a forest through which he has been walking +alone, he never forgets to ask the demons to give him back +his soul, for it may be that some forest-devil has carried it +off. For the abduction of a soul may take place without its +owner being aware of his loss, and it may happen either +while he is awake or asleep.<note place='foot'>M. T. H. Perelaer, <hi rend='italic'>Ethnographische +Beschrijving der Dajaks</hi> +(Zalt-Bommel, 1870), pp. 26 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> The Papuans of Geelvink +Bay in New Guinea are apt to think that the mists which +sometimes hang about the tops of tall trees in their tropical +forests envelop a spirit or god called Narbrooi, who draws +away the breath or soul of those whom he loves, thus +causing them to languish and die. Accordingly, when a +man lies sick, a friend or relation will go to one of these +mist-capped trees and endeavour to recover the lost soul. +At the foot of the tree he makes a peculiar sound to attract +the attention of the spirit, and lights a cigar. In its curling +smoke his fancy discerns the fair and youthful form of +Narbrooi himself, who, decked with flowers, appears and +informs the anxious enquirer whether the soul of his sick +friend is with him or not. If it is, the man asks, <q>Has he +done any wrong?</q> <q>Oh no!</q> the spirit answers, <q>I love +him, and therefore I have taken him to myself.</q> So the +man lays down an offering at the foot of the tree, and goes +home with the soul of the sufferer in a straw bag. Arrived +at the house, he empties the bag with its precious contents +<pb n='061'/><anchor id='Pg061'/> +over the sick man's head, rubs his arms and hands with +ginger-root, which he had first chewed small, and then ties a +bandage round one of the patient's wrists. If the bandage +bursts, it is a sign that Narbrooi has repented of his bargain, +and is drawing away the sufferer once more to himself.<note place='foot'><q>Eenige bijzonderheden betreffende +de Papoeas van de Geelvinksbaai van +Nieuw-Guinea,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Bijdragen tot de Taal- Land- en +Volkenkunde van Neêrlandsch-Indië</hi>, +ii. (1854) pp. 375 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> It is +especially the souls of children that +the spirit loves to take to himself. +See J. L. van Hasselt, <q>Die Papuastämme +an der Geelvinkbai,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Mitteilungen +der Geographischen Gesellschaft +zu Jena</hi>, ix. (1891) p. 103; compare +<hi rend='italic'>ib.</hi> iv. (1886) pp. 118 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> The mists +seen to hang about tree-tops are due +to the power of trees to condense +vapour, as to which see Gilbert White, +<hi rend='italic'>Natural History of Selborne</hi>, part ii. +letter 29.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Abduction +of souls by +demons +in the +Moluccas.</note> +In the Moluccas when a man is unwell it is thought that +some devil has carried away his soul to the tree, mountain, +or hill where he (the devil) resides. A sorcerer having +pointed out the devil's abode, the friends of the patient carry +thither cooked rice, fruit, fish, raw eggs, a hen, a chicken, a +silken robe, gold, armlets, and so forth. Having set out the +food in order they pray, saying: <q>We come to offer to you, +O devil, this offering of food, clothes, gold, and so on; take +it and release the soul of the patient for whom we pray. Let +it return to his body, and he who now is sick shall be made +whole.</q> Then they eat a little and let the hen loose as a +ransom for the soul of the patient; also they put down the +raw eggs; but the silken robe, the gold, and the armlets +they take home with them. As soon as they are come to +the house they place a flat bowl containing the offerings +which have been brought back at the sick man's head, and +say to him: <q>Now is your soul released, and you shall fare +well and live to grey hairs on the earth.</q><note place='foot'>Fr. Valentyn, <hi rend='italic'>Oud- en nieuw Oost-Indiën</hi>, +iii. 13 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> A more modern +account from the same region describes how the friend of the +patient, after depositing his offerings on the spot where the +missing soul is supposed to be, calls out thrice the name of +the sick person, adding, <q>Come with me, come with me.</q> +Then he returns, making a motion with a cloth as if he had +caught the soul in it. He must not look to right or left or +speak a word to any one he meets, but must go straight to +the patient's house. At the door he stands, and calling out +the sick person's name, asks whether he is returned. Being +<pb n='062'/><anchor id='Pg062'/> +answered from within that he is returned, he enters and lays +the cloth in which he has caught the soul on the patient's +throat, saying, <q>Now you are returned to the house.</q> Sometimes +a substitute is provided; a doll, dressed up in gay +clothing and tinsel, is offered to the demon in exchange for +the patient's soul, with these words, <q>Give us back the ugly +one which you have taken away and receive this pretty one +instead.</q><note place='foot'>Van Schmidt, <q>Aanteekeningen +nopens de zeden, gewoonten en gebruiken, +benevens de vooroordeelen en bijgelovigheden +der bevolking van de +eilanden Saparoea, Haroekoe, Noessa +Laut, en van een gedeelte van de zuidkust +van Ceram,</q> in <hi rend='italic'>Tijdschrift voor +Neêrlands Indië</hi>, 1843, dl. ii. 511 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Abduction +of souls by +demons in +Celebes +and +Siberia.</note> +Among the Alfoors or Toradjas of Poso, in Central +Celebes, a wooden puppet is offered to the demon as a substitute +for the soul which he has abstracted, and the patient must touch +the puppet in order to identify himself with it. The effigy is +then hung on a bamboo pole, which is planted at the place +of sacrifice outside of the house. Here too are deposited +offerings of rice, an egg, a little wood (which is afterwards +kindled), a sherd of a broken cooking-pot, and so forth. A +long rattan extends from the place of sacrifice to the sufferer, +who grasps one end of it firmly, for along it his lost soul will +return when the devil has kindly released it. All being +ready, the priestess informs the demon that he has come to +the wrong place, and that there are no doubt much better +quarters where he could reside. Then the father of the patient, +standing beside the offerings, takes up his parable as follows: +<q>O demon, we forgot to sacrifice to you. You have visited +us with this sickness; will you now go away from us to +some other place? We have made ready provisions for you +on the journey. See, here is a cooking-pot, here are rice, fire, +and a fowl. O demon, go away from us.</q> With that the +priestess strews rice towards the bamboo-pole to lure back +the wandering soul; and the fowl promised to the devil is +thrown in the same direction, but is instantly jerked back +again by a string which, in a spirit of intelligent economy, +has been previously attached to its leg. The demon is now +supposed to accept the puppet, which hangs from the pole, +and to release the soul, which, sliding down the pole and +along the rattan, returns to its proper owner. And lest the +<pb n='063'/><anchor id='Pg063'/> +evil spirit should repent of the barter which has just been +effected, all communication with him is broken off by cutting +down the pole.<note place='foot'>A. C. Kruijt, <q>Een en ander +aangaande het geestelijk en maatschappelijk +leven van den Poso-Alfoer,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Mededeelingen van wege het +Nederlandsche Zendelinggenootschap</hi>, +xxxix. (1895) pp. 5-8.</note> Similarly the Mongols make up a horse of +birch-bark and a doll, and invite the demon to take the doll +instead of the patient and to ride away on the horse.<note place='foot'>A. Bastian, <hi rend='italic'>Die Seele und ihre +Erscheinungswesen in der Ethnographie</hi> +(Berlin, 1868), pp. 36 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; +J. G. Gmelin, <hi rend='italic'>Reise durch Sibirien</hi>, ii. +359 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> This mode of curing sickness, +by inducing the demon to swap the soul +of the patient for an effigy, is practised +also by the Dyaks and by some tribes +on the northern coast of New Guinea. +See H. Ling Roth, <q>Low's Natives of +Borneo,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Journal of the Anthropological +Institute</hi>, xxi. (1892) p. 117; E. L. M. +Kühr, <q>Schetsen uit Borneo's Westerafdeeling,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Bijdragen tot de Taal- Land- en +Volkenkunde van Nederlandsch-Indië</hi>, +xlvii. (1897) pp. 62 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; F. S. A. +de Clercq, <q>De West- en Noordkust +van Nederlandsch Nieuw-Guinea,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Tijdschrift van het kon. Nederlandsch +Aardrijkskundig Genootschap</hi>, Tweede +Serie, x. (1893) pp. 633 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> A +Yakut shaman, rigged out in his professional costume, with +his drum in his hand, will boldly descend into the lower +world and haggle with the demon who has carried off a sick +man's soul. Not uncommonly the demon proves amenable +to reason, and in consideration of the narrow circumstances +of the patient's family will accept a more moderate ransom +than he at first demanded. For instance, he may be +brought to put up with the skin of an Arctic hare or Arctic +fox instead of a foal or a steer. The bargain being struck, +the shaman hurries back to the sufferer's bedside, from +which to the merely carnal eye he has never stirred, and +informs the anxious relatives of the success of his mission. +They in turn gladly hasten to provide the ransom.<note place='foot'>V. Priklonski, <q>Todtengebräuche +der Jakuten,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Globus</hi>, lix. (1891) pp. +81 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> Compare <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, <q>Über das +Schamenthum bei den Jakuten,</q> in +A. Bastian's <hi rend='italic'>Allerlei aus Volks- und +Menschenkunde</hi>, i. 218 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Souls +rescued +from +demons at +a house-warming +in +Minahassa.</note> +Demons are especially feared by persons who have just +entered a new house. Hence at a house-warming among the +Alfoors of Minahassa in Celebes the priest performs a ceremony +for the purpose of restoring their souls to the inmates. He +hangs up a bag at the place of sacrifice and then goes +through a list of the gods. There are so many of them that +this takes him the whole night through without stopping. +In the morning he offers the gods an egg and some rice. +By this time the souls of the household are supposed to be +<pb n='064'/><anchor id='Pg064'/> +gathered in the bag. So the priest takes the bag, and +holding it on the head of the master of the house, says, +<q>Here you have your soul; go (soul) to-morrow away +again.</q> He then does the same, saying the same words, +to the housewife and all the other members of the family.<note place='foot'>P. N. Wilken, <q>Bijdragen tot de +kennis van de zeden en gewoonten der +Alfoeren in de Minahassa,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Mededeelingen +van wege het Nederlandsche Zendelinggenootschap</hi>, +vii. (1863) pp. 146 +<hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> Why the priest, after restoring the +soul, tells it to go away again, is not +clear.</note> +Amongst the same Alfoors one way of recovering a sick +man's soul is to let down a bowl by a belt out of a window +and fish for the soul till it is caught in the bowl and hauled +up.<note place='foot'>J. G. F. Riedel <q>De Minahasa +in 1825,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Tijdschrift voor Indische +Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde</hi>, xviii. +523.</note> And among the same people, when a priest is bringing +back a sick man's soul which he has caught in a cloth, he is +preceded by a girl holding the large leaf of a certain palm +over his head as an umbrella to keep him and the soul from +getting wet, in case it should rain; and he is followed by a +man brandishing a sword to deter other souls from any +attempt at rescuing the captured spirit.<note place='foot'>N. Graafland, <hi rend='italic'>De Minahassa</hi> +(Rotterdam, 1869), i. 327 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Souls +carried off +by the sun +and other +gods.</note> +In Nias, when a man dreams that a pig is fastened +under a neighbour's house, it is a sign that some one in that +house will die. They think that the sun-god is drawing +away the shadows or souls of that household from this world +of shadows to his own bright world of radiant light, and a +ceremony must needs be performed to win back these passing +souls to earth. Accordingly, while it is still night, the +priest begins to drum and pray, and he continues his orisons +till about nine o'clock next morning. Then he takes his +stand at an opening in the roof through which he can +behold the sun, and spreading out a cloth waits till the +beams of the morning sun fall full upon it. In the sunbeams +he thinks the wandering souls have come back again; so he +wraps the cloth up tightly, and quitting the opening in the +roof, hastens with his precious charge to the expectant household. +Before each member of it he stops, and dipping his +fingers into the cloth takes out his or her soul and restores +it to the owner by touching the person on the forehead.<note place='foot'>Fr. Kramer, <q>Der Götzendienst +der Niasser,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Tijdschrift voor Indische +Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde</hi>, xxxiii. +(1890) pp. 490 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> +<pb n='065'/><anchor id='Pg065'/> +The Thompson Indians of British Columbia think that the +setting sun draws the souls of men away towards it; hence +they will never sleep with their heads to the sunset.<note place='foot'>J. Teit, <q>The Thompson Indians +of British Columbia,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Memoir of the +American Museum of Natural History, +The Jesup North Pacific Expedition</hi>, +vol. i. part iv. (April 1900) p. 357.</note> The +Samoans tell how two young wizards, passing a house +where a chief lay very sick, saw a company of gods from +the mountain sitting in the doorway. They were handing +from one to another the soul of the dying chief. It was +wrapt in a leaf, and had been passed from the gods inside +the house to those sitting in the doorway. One of the gods +handed the soul to one of the wizards, taking him for a god +in the dark, for it was night. Then all the gods rose up +and went away; but the wizard kept the chief's soul. In +the morning some women went with a present of fine mats +to fetch a famous physician. The wizards were sitting on +the shore as the women passed, and they said to the women, +<q>Give us the mats and we will heal him.</q> So they went to +the chief's house. He was very ill, his jaw hung down, and +his end seemed near. But the wizards undid the leaf and +let the soul into him again, and forthwith he brightened up +and lived.<note place='foot'>G. Turner, <hi rend='italic'>Samoa</hi>, pp. 142 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Lost souls +extracted +from a +fowl.</note> +The Battas or Bataks of Sumatra believe that the soul of +a living man may transmigrate into the body of an animal. +Hence, for example, the doctor is sometimes desired to +extract the patient's soul from the body of a fowl, in which +it has been hidden away by an evil spirit.<note place='foot'>J. B. Neumann, <q>Het Pane- en +Bila-stroomgebied op het eiland +Sumatra,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Tijdschrift van het Nederlandsch +Aardrijkskundig Genootschap</hi>, +Tweede Serie, dl. iii., Afdeeling, meer +uitgebreide artikelen, No. 2 (1886), +p. 302.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Lost souls +brought +back in a +visible +form. Soul lost +by a fall +and +recovered +from the +earth.</note> +Sometimes the lost soul is brought back in a visible +shape. In Melanesia a woman, knowing that a neighbour +was at the point of death, heard a rustling in her house, as +of a moth fluttering, just at the moment when a noise of +weeping and lamentation told her that the soul was flown. +She caught the fluttering thing between her hands and ran +with it, crying out that she had caught the soul. But +though she opened her hands above the mouth of the corpse, +it did not revive.<note place='foot'>R. H. Codrington, <q>Religious +Beliefs and Practices in Melanesia,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Journal of the Anthropological Institute</hi>, +x. (1881) p. 281; <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, <hi rend='italic'>The Melanesians</hi>, +p. 267.</note> In Lepers' Island, one of the New +<pb n='066'/><anchor id='Pg066'/> +Hebrides, for ten days after a birth the father is careful not +to exert himself or the baby would suffer for it. If during +this time he goes away to any distance, he will bring back +with him on his return a little stone representing the infant's +soul. Arrived at home he cries, <q>Come hither,</q> and puts +down the stone in the house. Then he waits till the child +sneezes, at which he cries, <q>Here it is</q>; for now he knows +that the little soul has not been lost after all.<note place='foot'>R. H. Codrington, <hi rend='italic'>The Melanesians</hi>, +p. 229</note> The Salish +or Flathead Indians of Oregon believe that a man's soul may +be separated for a time from his body without causing death +and without the man being aware of his loss. It is necessary, +however, that the lost soul should be soon found and restored +to its owner or he will die. The name of the man who has +lost his soul is revealed in a dream to the medicine-man, +who hastens to inform the sufferer of his loss. Generally a +number of men have sustained a like loss at the same time; +all their names are revealed to the medicine-man, and all +employ him to recover their souls. The whole night long +these soulless men go about the village from lodge to lodge, +dancing and singing. Towards daybreak they go into a +separate lodge, which is closed up so as to be totally dark. +A small hole is then made in the roof, through which the +medicine-man, with a bunch of feathers, brushes in the souls, +in the shape of bits of bone and the like, which he receives +on a piece of matting. A fire is next kindled, by the light +of which the medicine-man sorts out the souls. First he +puts aside the souls of dead people, of which there are usually +several; for if he were to give the soul of a dead person to +a living man, the man would die instantly. Next he picks +out the souls of all the persons present, and making them +all to sit down before him, he takes the soul of each, in the +shape of a splinter of bone, wood, or shell, and placing it on +the owner's head, pats it with many prayers and contortions +till it descends into the heart and so resumes its proper +place.<note place='foot'>Horatio Hale, <hi rend='italic'>United States Exploring +Expedition, Ethnography and +Philology</hi> (Philadelphia, 1846), pp. +208 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> Compare Ch. Wilkes, +<hi rend='italic'>Narrative of the United States Exploring +Expedition</hi> (London, 1845), +iv. 448 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> Similar methods of +recovering lost souls are practised +by the Haidas, Nootkas, Shuswap, +and other Indian tribes of British +Columbia. See Fr. Boas, in <hi rend='italic'>Fifth +Report on the North-Western Tribes of +Canada</hi>, pp. 58 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> (separate reprint +from the <hi rend='italic'>Report of the British Association +for 1889</hi>); <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi> in <hi rend='italic'>Sixth Report</hi>, +etc., pp. 30, 44, 59 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 94 (separate +reprint of the <hi rend='italic'>Report of the Brit. Assoc. +for 1890</hi>); <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi> in <hi rend='italic'>Ninth Report</hi>, etc., +p. 462 (in <hi rend='italic'>Report of the Brit. Assoc. +for 1894</hi>). Kwakiutl medicine-men +exhibit captured souls in the shape of +little balls of eagle down. See Fr. +Boas, in <hi rend='italic'>Report of the U.S. National +Museum for 1895</hi>, pp. 561, 575.</note> In Amboyna the sorcerer, to recover a soul detained +<pb n='067'/><anchor id='Pg067'/> +by demons, plucks a branch from a tree, and waving it to and +fro as if to catch something, calls out the sick man's name. +Returning he strikes the patient over the head and body +with the branch, into which the lost soul is supposed to +have passed, and from which it returns to the patient.<note place='foot'>J. G. F. Riedel, <hi rend='italic'>De sluik- en +kroesharige rassen tusschen Selebes en +Papua</hi>, pp. 77 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> In +the Babar Islands offerings for evil spirits are laid at the +root of a great tree (<foreign rend='italic'>wokiorai</foreign>), from which a leaf is plucked +and pressed on the patient's forehead and breast; the lost +soul, which is in the leaf, is thus restored to its owner.<note place='foot'>J. G. F. Riedel, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> pp. 356 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> In +some other islands of the same seas, when a man returns ill +and speechless from the forest, it is inferred that the evil +spirits which dwell in the great trees have caught and kept +his soul. Offerings of food are therefore left under a tree +and the soul is brought home in a piece of wax.<note place='foot'>J. G. F. Riedel, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> p. 376.</note> Amongst +the Dyaks of Sarawak the priest conjures the lost soul into +a cup, where it is seen by the uninitiated as a lock of hair, +but by the initiated as a miniature human being. This the +priest pokes back into the patient's body through an invisible +hole in his skull.<note place='foot'>Spenser St. John, <hi rend='italic'>Life in the +Forests of the Far East</hi>,<hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi> i. 189; H. +Ling Roth, <hi rend='italic'>The Natives of Sarawak +and British North Borneo</hi>, i. 261. +Sometimes the souls resemble cotton +seeds (Spenser St. John, <hi rend='italic'>l.c.</hi>). Compare +<hi rend='italic'>id.</hi> i. 183.</note> In Nias the sick man's soul is restored +to him in the shape of a firefly, visible only to the sorcerer, +who catches it in a cloth and places it on the forehead of +the patient.<note place='foot'>Nieuwenhuisen en Rosenberg, +<q>Verslag omtrent het Eiland Nias,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Verhandel. van het Batav. Genootsch. +van Kunsten en Wetenschappen</hi>, xxx. +(Batavia, 1863) p. 116; H. von Rosenberg, +<hi rend='italic'>Der Malayische Archipel</hi>, p. 174; +E. Modigliani, <hi rend='italic'>Viaggio a Nías</hi> (Milan, +1890), p. 192.</note> Amongst the Indians of Santiago Tepehuacan, +if a child has fallen from the arms of its bearer and an +illness has resulted from the fall, the parents will take the +child's shirt, stretch it out on the spot where the little one +fell, and say, <q>Come, come, come back to the infant.</q> +<pb n='068'/><anchor id='Pg068'/> +Then they bring back a little of the earth wrapped up in +the shirt, and put the shirt on the child. They say that in +this manner the spirit is replaced in the child's body and +that he will recover.<note place='foot'><q>Lettre du curé de Santiago +Tepehuacan à son évêque sur les +mœurs et coutumes des Indiens soumis +à ses soins,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Bulletin de la Société de +Géographie</hi> (Paris), IIme Série, ii. +(1834) p. 178.</note> With this we may compare an Irish +custom reported by Camden. When any one happens to +fall, he springs up again, and turning round thrice to the +right, digs the earth with a sword or knife, and takes up a +turf, because they say the earth restores his shade to him. +But if he falls sick within two or three days thereafter, a +woman skilled in these matters is sent to the spot, and +there says: <q>I call thee, So-and-so, from the East and +West, from the South and North, from the groves, woods, +rivers, marshes, fairies white, red, and black,</q> and so forth. +After uttering certain short prayers, she returns home to the +sick person, and whispering in his ear another prayer, along +with a <foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Pater Noster</foreign>, puts some burning coals into a cup of +clean water, and so decides whether the distemper has been +inflicted by the fairies.<note place='foot'>W. Camden, <hi rend='italic'>Britannia</hi> (London, +1607), p. 792. The passage has not +always been understood by Camden's +translators.</note> Here, though Camden is not very +explicit, and he probably did not quite understand the +custom he describes, it seems plain that the shade or soul of +a man who has fallen is conceived as adhering to the +ground where he fell. Accordingly he seeks to regain +possession of it by digging up the earth; but if he fails to +recover it, he sends a wise woman to the spot to win +back his soul from the fairies who are detaining it. +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Recovery +of the soul +in ancient +Egypt.</note> +The ancient Egyptians held that a dead man is not in a +state to enter on the life hereafter until his soul has been +found and restored to his mummified body. The vital spark +had been commonly devoured by the malignant god Sit, +who concealed his true form in the likeness of a horned +beast, such as an ox or a gazelle. So the priests went in +quest of the missing spirit, slaughtered the animal which +had devoured it, and cutting open the carcase found the soul +still undigested in its stomach. Afterwards the son of the +deceased embraced the mummy or the image of his father +in order to restore his soul to him. Formerly it was +<pb n='069'/><anchor id='Pg069'/> +customary to place the skin of the slain beast on the dead +man for the purpose of recruiting his strength with that of +the animal.<note place='foot'>A. Moret, <hi rend='italic'>Le Rituel du culte divin +journalier en Égypte</hi> (Paris, 1902), +pp. 32-35, 83 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Souls +stolen or +detained by +sorcerers in +Fiji and +Polynesia.</note> +Again, souls may be extracted from their bodies or +detained on their wanderings not only by ghosts and demons +but also by men, especially by sorcerers. In Fiji, if a criminal +refused to confess, the chief sent for a scarf with which <q>to +catch away the soul of the rogue.</q> At the sight or even at +the mention of the scarf the culprit generally made a clean +breast. For if he did not, the scarf would be waved over +his head till his soul was caught in it, when it would be +carefully folded up and nailed to the end of a chief's canoe; +and for want of his soul the criminal would pine and die.<note place='foot'>Th. Williams, <hi rend='italic'>Fiji and the Fijians</hi><hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi> +(London, 1860), i. 250.</note> +The sorcerers of Danger Island used to set snares for souls. +The snares were made of stout cinet, about fifteen to thirty +feet long, with loops on either side of different sizes, to suit +the different sizes of souls; for fat souls there were large +loops, for thin souls there were small ones. When a man +was sick against whom the sorcerers had a grudge, they set +up these soul-snares near his house and watched for the +flight of his soul. If in the shape of a bird or an insect it +was caught in the snare the man would infallibly die.<note place='foot'>W. W. Gill, <hi rend='italic'>Myths and Songs of +the South Pacific</hi>, p. 171; <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, <hi rend='italic'>Life in +the Southern Isles</hi>, pp. 181 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi> Cinet, +sinnet, or sennit is cordage made from +the dried fibre of the coco-nut husk. +Large quantities of it are used in Fiji. +See Th. Williams, <hi rend='italic'>Fiji and the Fijians</hi>,<hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi> +i. 69.</note> When +a Polynesian mother desired that the child in her womb +should grow up to be a great warrior or a great thief, she +repaired to the temple of the war-god Oro or of the thief-god +Hiro. There the priest obligingly caught the spirit of +the god in a snare made of coco-nut fibre, and then infused +it into the woman. When the child was born, the mother +took it to the temple and dedicated it to the god with +whose divine spirit the infant was already possessed.<note place='foot'>J. Williams, <hi rend='italic'>Narrative of Missionary +Enterprises in the South Sea Islands</hi> +(London, 1838), pp. 93, 466 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> A +traveller in Zombo-land found traps +commonly set at the entrances of +villages and huts for the purpose of +catching the devil. See Rev. Th. +Lewis, <q>The Ancient Kingdom of +Kongo,</q> <hi rend='italic'>The Geographical Journal</hi>, +xix. (1902) p. 554.</note> The +Algonquin Indians also used nets to catch souls, but only as +<pb n='070'/><anchor id='Pg070'/> +a measure of defence. They feared lest passing souls, which +had just quitted the bodies of dying people, should enter +their huts and carry off the souls of the inmates to deadland. +So they spread nets about their houses to catch and entangle +these ghostly intruders in the meshes.<note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>Relations des Jésuites</hi>, 1639, p. 44 +(Canadian reprint, Quebec, 1858).</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Detention +of souls by +sorcerers in +Africa.</note> +Among the Sereres of Senegambia, when a man wishes +to revenge himself on his enemy he goes to the <foreign rend='italic'>Fitaure</foreign> +(chief and priest in one), and prevails on him by presents to +conjure the soul of his enemy into a large jar of red +earthenware, which is then deposited under a consecrated +tree. The man whose soul is shut up in the jar soon dies.<note place='foot'>L. J. B. Bérenger-Féraud, <hi rend='italic'>Les +Peuplades de la Sénégambie</hi> (Paris, +1879), p. 277.</note> +Among the Baoules of the Ivory Coast it happened once +that a chief's soul was extracted by the magic of an enemy, +who succeeded in shutting it up in a box. To recover it, +two men held a garment of the sick man, while a witch +performed certain enchantments. After a time she declared +that the soul was now in the garment, which was +accordingly rolled up and hastily wrapped about the invalid +for the purpose of restoring his spirit to him.<note place='foot'>Delafosse, in <hi rend='italic'>L'Anthropologie</hi>, xi. +(1895) p. 558.</note> Some of the +Congo negroes think that enchanters can get possession +of human souls, and enclosing them in tusks of ivory, +sell them to the white man, who makes them work for +him in his country under the sea. It is believed that +very many of the coast labourers are men thus obtained; +so when these people go to trade they often look anxiously +about for their dead relations. The man whose soul is +thus sold into slavery will die <q>in due course, if not at the +time.</q><note place='foot'>W. H. Bentley, <hi rend='italic'>Life on the Congo</hi> +(London, 1887), p. 71.</note> In some parts of West Africa, indeed, wizards are +continually setting traps to catch souls that wander from their +bodies in sleep; and when they have caught one, they tie it +up over the fire, and as it shrivels in the heat the owner +sickens. This is done, not out of any grudge towards the +sufferer, but purely as a matter of business. The wizard +does not care whose soul he has captured, and will readily +restore it to its owner if only he is paid for doing so. Some +sorcerers keep regular asylums for strayed souls, and anybody +<pb n='071'/><anchor id='Pg071'/> +who has lost or mislaid his own soul can always have +another one from the asylum on payment of the usual fee. +No blame whatever attaches to men who keep these private +asylums or set traps for passing souls; it is their profession, +and in the exercise of it they are actuated by no harsh or +unkindly feelings. But there are also wretches who from pure +spite or for the sake of lucre set and bait traps with the +deliberate purpose of catching the soul of a particular man; +and in the bottom of the pot, hidden by the bait, are knives +and sharp hooks which tear and rend the poor soul, either +killing it outright or mauling it so as to impair the health of +its owner when it succeeds in escaping and returning to him. +Miss Kingsley knew a Kruman who became very anxious +about his soul, because for several nights he had smelt in +his dreams the savoury smell of smoked crawfish seasoned +with red pepper. Clearly some ill-wisher had set a trap +baited with this dainty for his dream-soul, intending to do +him grievous bodily, or rather spiritual, harm; and for the +next few nights great pains were taken to keep his soul +from straying abroad in his sleep. In the sweltering heat of +the tropical night he lay sweating and snorting under a +blanket, his nose and mouth tied up with a handkerchief to +prevent the escape of his precious soul.<note place='foot'>Mary H. Kingsley, <hi rend='italic'>Travels in West Africa</hi> (London, 1897), pp. 461 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Taking the +souls of +enemies +first and +their heads +afterwards.</note> +When Dyaks of the Upper Melawie are about to go out +head-hunting they take the precaution of securing the souls +of their enemies before they attempt to kill their bodies, +calculating apparently that mere bodily death will soon +follow the spiritual death, or capture, of the soul. With this +intention they clear a small space in the underwood of the +forest, and set up in the clearing one of those miniature +houses in which it is customary to deposit the ashes of the +dead. Food is placed in the little house, which, though +raised on four posts, is connected with the ground by a tiny +inverted ladder of the sort up which spirits are believed to +swarm. When these preparations have been completed, the +leader of the expedition comes and sits down a little way +from the miniature house, and addressing the spirits of +kinsmen who had the misfortune to be beheaded by their +enemies, he says, <q>O ghosts of So-and-so, come speedily back +<pb n='072'/><anchor id='Pg072'/> +to our village. We have rice in abundance. Our trees all +bear ripe fruit. Our baskets are full to the brim. O ghosts, +come swiftly back and forget not to bring your new friends +and acquaintances with you.</q> But by the new friends +and acquaintances of the ghosts he means the souls of the +enemies against whom he is about to lead the expedition. +Meantime the other warriors have hidden themselves close +by behind trees and bushes, and are listening with all their +ears. When the cry of an animal is heard in the forest, or +a humming sound seems to issue from the little house, it is +a sign that the ghosts of their friends have come, bringing +with them the souls of their enemies, which are accordingly +at their mercy. At that the lurking warriors leap forth from +their ambush, and with brandished blades hew and slash at +the souls of their foemen swarming unseen in the air. Taken +completely by surprise, the panic-stricken souls flee in all +directions, and are fain to hide under every leaf and stone on +the ground. But even here their retreat is cut off. For +now the leader of the expedition is hard at work, grubbing +up with his hands every stone and leaf to right and left, and +thrusting them with feverish haste into the basket, which he +at once ties up securely. He now flatters himself that he +has the souls of the enemy safe in his possession; and when +in the course of the expedition the heads of the foe are +severed from their bodies, he will pack them into the same +basket in which their souls are already languishing in +captivity.<note place='foot'>E. L. M. Kühr, in <hi rend='italic'>Internationales +Archiv für Ethnographie</hi>, ii. (1889) +p. 163; <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, <q>Schetsen uit Borneo's +Westerafdeeling,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Bijdragen tot de Taal- +Land- en Volkenkunde van Nederlandsch-Indië</hi>, +xlvii. (1897) pp. 59 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> Among +the Haida Indians of Queen Charlotte +Islands <q>every war-party must be +accompanied by a shaman, whose duty +it was to find a propitious time for +making an attack, etc., but especially +to war with and kill the souls of the +enemy. Then the death of their +natural bodies was certain.</q> See J. +R. Swanton, <q>Contributions to the +Ethnology of the Haida</q> (Leyden and +New York, 1905), p. 40 (<hi rend='italic'>Memoir of +the American Museum of Natural +History, The Jesup North Pacific +Expedition</hi>, vol. v. part i.). Some +of the Dyaks of south-eastern Borneo +perform a ceremony for the purpose of +extracting the souls from the bodies of +prisoners whom they are about to +torture to death. See F. Grabowsky, +<q>Der Tod, das Begräbnis, etc., bei +den Dajaken,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Internationales Archiv +für Ethnographie</hi>, ii. (1889) p. 199.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Injuries +of various +sorts done +to captured +souls by +wizards.</note> +In Hawaii there were sorcerers who caught souls of living +people, shut them up in calabashes, and gave them to people +<pb n='073'/><anchor id='Pg073'/> +to eat. By squeezing a captured soul in their hands they +discovered the place where people had been secretly buried.<note place='foot'>A. Bastian, <hi rend='italic'>Allerlei aus Volks- und +Menschenkunde</hi> (Berlin, 1888), i. +119.</note> +Amongst the Canadian Indians, when a wizard wished to kill +a man, he sent out his familiar spirits, who brought him the +victim's soul in the shape of a stone or the like. The wizard +struck the soul with a sword or an axe till it bled profusely, +and as it bled the man to whom it belonged fell ill and +died.<note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>Relations des Jésuites</hi>, 1637, p. +50 (Canadian reprint, Quebec, 1858).</note> In Amboyna if a doctor is convinced that a patient's +soul has been carried away by a demon beyond recovery, he +seeks to supply its place with a soul abstracted from another +man. For this purpose he goes by night to a house and +asks, <q>Who's there?</q> If an inmate is incautious enough +to answer, the doctor takes up from before the door a +clod of earth, into which the soul of the person who +replied is thought to have passed. This clod the doctor +lays under the sick man's pillow, and performs certain +ceremonies by which the stolen soul is conveyed into the +patient's body. Then as he goes home the doctor fires +two shots to frighten the soul from returning to its proper +owner.<note place='foot'>J. G. F. Riedel, <hi rend='italic'>De sluik- en +kroesharige rassen tusschen Selebes en +Papua</hi> (the Hague, 1886), pp. 78 +<hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> A Karen wizard will catch the wandering soul of +a sleeper and transfer it to the body of a dead man. The +latter, therefore, comes to life as the former dies. But the +friends of the sleeper in turn engage a wizard to steal the +soul of another sleeper, who dies as the first sleeper comes to +life. In this way an indefinite succession of deaths and +resurrections is supposed to take place.<note place='foot'>E. B. Cross, <q>On the Karens,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Journal of the American Oriental +Society</hi>, iv. (1854) p. 307.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Abduction +of human +souls by +Malay +wizards.</note> +Nowhere perhaps is the art of abducting human souls +more carefully cultivated or carried to higher perfection than +in the Malay Peninsula. Here the methods by which the +wizard works his will are various, and so too are his motives. +Sometimes he desires to destroy an enemy, sometimes to win +the love of a cold or bashful beauty. Some of the charms +operate entirely without contact; in others, the receptacle +into which the soul is to be lured has formed part of, or at +least touched, the person of the victim. Thus, to take an +<pb n='074'/><anchor id='Pg074'/> +instance of the latter sort of charm, the following are the +directions given for securing the soul of one whom you wish +to render distraught. Take soil from the middle of his +footprint; wrap it up in pieces of red, black, and yellow +cloth, taking care to keep the yellow outside; and hang it +from the centre of your mosquito curtain with parti-coloured +thread. It will then become your victim's soul. To +complete the transubstantiation, however, it is needful to +switch the packet with a birch composed of seven leaf-ribs +from a <q>green</q> coco-nut. Do this seven times at sunset, at +midnight, and at sunrise, saying, <q>It is not earth that I switch, +but the heart of So-and-so.</q> Then bury it in the middle +of a path where your victim is sure to step over it, and he +will unquestionably become distraught.<note place='foot'>W. W. Skeat, <hi rend='italic'>Malay Magic</hi> (London, 1900), pp. 568 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> Another way is to +scrape the wood of the floor where your intended victim has +been sitting, mix the scrapings with earth from his or her +footprint, and knead the whole with wax from a deserted +bees' comb into a likeness of him or her. Then fumigate the +figure with incense and beckon to the soul every night for +three nights successively by waving a cloth, while you recite +the appropriate spell.<note place='foot'>W. W. Skeat, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> pp. 569 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> In the following cases the charm +takes effect without any contact whatever, whether direct or +indirect, with the victim. When the moon, just risen, looks +red above the eastern horizon, go out, and standing in the +moonlight, with the big toe of your right foot on the big toe +of your left, make a speaking-trumpet of your right hand and +recite through it the following words: +</p> + +<quote rend='display'> + +<lg> +<l><q rend='pre'><hi rend='italic'>OM. I loose my shaft, I loose it and the moon clouds over,</hi></q></l> +<l><hi rend='italic'>I loose it, and the sun is extinguished.</hi></l> +<l><hi rend='italic'>I loose it, and the stars burn dim.</hi></l> +<l><hi rend='italic'>But it is not the sun, moon, and stars that I shoot at,</hi></l> +<l><hi rend='italic'>It is the stalk of the heart of that child of the congregation, So-and-so.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><hi rend='italic'>Cluck! cluck! soul of So-and-so, come and walk with me,</hi></l> +<l><hi rend='italic'>Come and sit with me,</hi></l> +<l><hi rend='italic'>Come and sleep and share my pillow.</hi></l> +<l><q rend='post'><hi rend='italic'>Cluck! cluck! soul.</hi></q></l> +</lg> + +</quote> + +<p> +Repeat this thrice and after every repetition blow through +<pb n='075'/><anchor id='Pg075'/> +your hollow fist.<note place='foot'>W. W. Skeat, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> pp. 574 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> Or you may catch the soul in your turban, +thus. Go out on the night of the full moon and the two +succeeding nights; sit down on an ant-hill facing the moon, +burn incense, and recite the following incantation: +</p> + +<quote rend='display'> +<lg> +<l><q rend='pre'><hi rend='italic'>I bring you a betel leaf to chew,</hi></q></l> +<l><hi rend='italic'>Dab the lime on to it, Prince Ferocious,</hi></l> +<l><hi rend='italic'>For Somebody, Prince Distraction's daughter, to chew.</hi></l> +<l><hi rend='italic'>Somebody at sunrise be distraught for love of me,</hi></l> +<l><hi rend='italic'>Somebody at sunset be distraught for love of me.</hi></l> +<l><hi rend='italic'>As you remember your parents, remember me;</hi></l> +<l><hi rend='italic'>As you remember your house and house-ladder, remember me.</hi></l> +<l><hi rend='italic'>When thunder rumbles, remember me;</hi></l> +<l><hi rend='italic'>When wind whistles, remember me;</hi></l> +<l><hi rend='italic'>When the heavens rain, remember me;</hi></l> +<l><hi rend='italic'>When cocks crow, remember me;</hi></l> +<l><hi rend='italic'>When the dial-bird tells its tales, remember me;</hi></l> +<l><hi rend='italic'>When you look up at the sun, remember me;</hi></l> +<l><hi rend='italic'>When you look up at the moon, remember me,</hi></l> +<l><hi rend='italic'>For in that self-same moon I am there.</hi></l> +<l><hi rend='italic'>Cluck! cluck! soul of Somebody come hither to me.</hi></l> +<l><hi rend='italic'>I do not mean to let you have my soul,</hi></l> +<l><q rend='post'><hi rend='italic'>Let your soul come hither to mine.</hi></q></l> +</lg> +</quote> + +<p> +Now wave the end of your turban towards the moon +seven times each night. Go home and put it under your +pillow, and if you want to wear it in the daytime, burn +incense and say, <q>It is not a turban that I carry in my girdle, +but the soul of Somebody.</q><note place='foot'>W. W. Skeat, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> pp. 576 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Athenian +curse accompanied +by the +shaking of +red cloths.</note> +Perhaps the magical ceremonies just described may help +to explain a curious rite, of immemorial antiquity, which +was performed on a very solemn occasion at Athens. On +the eve of the sailing of the fleet for Syracuse, when all +hearts beat high with hope, and visions of empire dazzled +all eyes, consternation suddenly fell on the people one May +morning when they rose and found that most of the images +of Hermes in the city had been mysteriously mutilated in +the night. The impious perpetrators of the sacrilege were +unknown, but whoever they were, the priests and priestesses +solemnly cursed them according to the ancient ritual, standing +with their faces to the west and shaking red cloths up +and down.<note place='foot'>Lysias, <hi rend='italic'>Or.</hi> vi. 51, p. 51 ed. C. +Scheibe. The passage was pointed +out to me by my friend Mr. W. Wyse. +As to the mutilation of the Hermae, +see Thucydides, vi. 27-29, 60 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; +Andocides, <hi rend='italic'>Or.</hi> i. 37 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>; Plutarch, +<hi rend='italic'>Alcibiades</hi>, 18.</note> Perhaps in these cloths they were catching the +<pb n='076'/><anchor id='Pg076'/> +souls of those at whom their curses were levelled, just as we +have seen that Fijian chiefs used to catch the souls of +criminals in scarves and nail them to canoes.<note place='foot'>Above, p. <ref target='Pg069'>69</ref>.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Extracting +a patient's +soul from +the stomach +of his +doctor.</note> +The Indians of the Nass River, in British Columbia, are +impressed with a belief that a physician may swallow his +patient's soul by mistake. A doctor who is believed to have +done so is made by the other members of the faculty to stand +over the patient, while one of them thrusts his fingers down +the doctor's throat, another kneads him in the stomach with +his knuckles, and a third slaps him on the back. If the +soul is not in him after all, and if the same process has been +repeated upon all the medical men without success, it is concluded +that the soul must be in the head-doctor's box. A +party of doctors, therefore, waits upon him at his house and +requests him to produce his box. When he has done so and +arranged its contents on a new mat, they take the votary of +Aesculapius and hold him up by the heels with his head in a +hole in the floor. In this position they wash his head, and +<q>any water remaining from the ablution is taken and poured +upon the sick man's head.</q><note place='foot'>J. B. McCullagh, in <hi rend='italic'>The Church +Missionary Gleaner</hi>, xiv. No. 164 +(August 1887), p. 91. The same +account is copied from the <q>North +Star</q> (Sitka, Alaska, December 1888) +in <hi rend='italic'>Journal of American Folk-lore</hi>, ii. +(1889) pp. 74 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> Mr. McCullagh's account +(which is closely followed in the +text) of the latter part of the custom is +not quite clear. It would seem that failing +to find the soul in the head-doctor's +box it occurs to them that he may have +swallowed it, as the other doctors were +at first supposed to have done. With +a view of testing this hypothesis they +hold him up by the heels to empty out +the soul; and as the water with which +his head is washed may possibly contain +the missing soul, it is poured on the +patient's head to restore the soul to +him. We have already seen that the +recovered soul is often conveyed into +the sick person's head.</note> Among the Kwakiutl Indians +of British Columbia it is forbidden to pass behind the back +of a shaman while he is eating, lest the shaman should inadvertently +swallow the soul of the passer-by. When that +happens, both the shaman and the person whose soul he +has swallowed fall down in a swoon. Blood flows from the +shaman's mouth, because the soul is too large for him and +is tearing his inside. Then the clan of the person whose +soul is doing this mischief must assemble and sing the +song of the shaman. In time the suffering sorcerer +<pb n='077'/><anchor id='Pg077'/> +vomits out the soul, which he exhibits in the shape of a +small bloody ball in the open palms of his hands. He +restores it to its owner, who is lying prostrate on a mat, by +throwing it at him and then blowing on his head. The +man whose soul was swallowed has very naturally to pay +for the damage he did to the shaman as well as for his +own cure.<note place='foot'>Fr. Boas in <hi rend='italic'>Eleventh Report on +the North-Western Tribes of Canada</hi>, +p. 571 (<hi rend='italic'>Report of the British Association +for 1896</hi>). For other examples of +the recapture or recovery of lost, stolen, +and strayed souls, in addition to those +which have been cited in the preceding +pages, see J. N. Vosmaer, <hi rend='italic'>Korte +Beschrijving van het Zuid-oostelijk +Schiereiland van Celebes</hi>, pp. 119-123 +(this work, of which I possess a copy, +forms part of a Dutch journal which I +have not identified; it is dated Batavia, +1835); J. G. F. Riedel, <q>De Topantunuasu +of oorspronkelijke volksstammen +van Central Selebes,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Bijdragen +tot de Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde van +Nederlandsch-Indië</hi>, xxxv. (1886) p. +93; J. B. Neumann, <q>Het Pane- en +Bilastroom-gebeid,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Tijdschrift van het +Nederlandsch Aardrijkskundig Genootschap</hi>, +Tweede Serie, dl. iii., Afdeeling, +meer uitgebreide artikelen, No. 2 +(1886), pp. 300 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; J. L. van der +Toorn, <q>Het animisme bei den +Minangkabauer,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Bijdragen tot de +Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde van +Nederlandsch-Indië</hi>, xxxix. (1890) pp. +51 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; H. Ris, <q>De onderafdeeling +Klein Mandailing Oeloe en Pahantan,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Bijdragen tot de Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde +van Nederlandsch-Indië</hi>, xlvi. +(1896) p. 529; C. Snouck Hurgronje, <hi rend='italic'>De +Atjéhers</hi> (Batavia and Leyden, 1893-4), i. +426 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; W. W. Skeat, <hi rend='italic'>Malay Magic</hi>, pp. +49-51, 452-455, 570 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>; <hi rend='italic'>Journal of +the Anthropological Institute</hi>, xxiv. +(1895) pp. 128, 287; Chimkievitch, +<q>Chez les Bouriates de l'Amoor,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Tour du monde</hi>, N.S. iii. (1897) pp. +622 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; Father Ambrosoli, <q>Notice +sur l'île de Rook,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Annales de la +Propagation de la Foi</hi>, xxvii. (1855) +p. 364; A. Bastian, <hi rend='italic'>Die Völker des +östlichen Asien</hi>, ii. 388, iii. 236; <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, +<hi rend='italic'>Völkerstämme am Brahmaputra</hi>, p. +23; <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, <q>Hügelstämme Assam's,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Verhandlungen der Berlin. Gesell. für +Anthropol., Ethnol. und Urgeschichte</hi>, +1881, p. 156; Shway Yoe, <hi rend='italic'>The +Burman</hi>, i. 283 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, ii. 101 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; +G. M. Sproat, <hi rend='italic'>Scenes and Studies of +Savage Life</hi>, p. 214; J. Doolittle, +<hi rend='italic'>Social Life of the Chinese</hi>, pp. 110 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> +(ed. Paxton Hood); T. Williams, <hi rend='italic'>Fiji +and the Fijians</hi>,<hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi> i. 242; E. B. Cross, +<q>On the Karens,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Journal of the +American Oriental Society</hi>, iv. (1854) +pp. 309 sq.; A. W. Howitt, <q>On +some Australian Beliefs,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Journal of the +Anthropological Institute</hi>, xiii. (1884) +pp. 187 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, <q>On Australian +Medicine Men,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Journ. Anthrop. Inst.</hi> +xvi. (1887) p. 41; E. P. Houghton, +<q>On the Land Dayaks of Upper Sarawak,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Memoirs of the Anthropological +Society of London</hi>, iii. (1870) pp. 196 +<hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; L. Dahle, <q>Sikidy and Vintana,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Antananarivo Annual and Madagascar +Annual</hi>, xi. (1887) pp. 320 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; C. +Leemius, <hi rend='italic'>De Lapponibus Finmarchiae +eorumque lingua, vita et religione pristina +commentatio</hi> (Copenhagen, 1767), +pp. 416 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; A. E. Jenks, <hi rend='italic'>The Bontoc +Igorot</hi> (Manilla, 1905), pp. 199 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; +C. G. Seligmann, <hi rend='italic'>The Melanesians of +British New Guinea</hi> (Cambridge, 1910), +pp. 185 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> My friend W. Robertson +Smith suggested to me that the practice +of hunting souls, which is denounced +in Ezekiel xiii. 17 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>, may have been +akin to those described in the text.</note> +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<index index='toc'/> +<index index='pdf' level1='3. The Soul as a Shadow and a Reflection.'/> +<head>§ 3. The Soul as a Shadow and a Reflection.</head> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>A man's +soul conceived +as +his shadow, +so that to +injure the +shadow is +to injure +the man.</note> +But the spiritual dangers I have enumerated are not the +only ones which beset the savage. Often he regards his +<pb n='078'/><anchor id='Pg078'/> +shadow or reflection as his soul, or at all events as a vital +part of himself, and as such it is necessarily a source of +danger to him. For if it is trampled upon, struck, or +stabbed, he will feel the injury as if it were done to his +person; and if it is detached from him entirely (as he +believes that it may be) he will die. In the island of Wetar +there are magicians who can make a man ill by stabbing +his shadow with a pike or hacking it with a sword.<note place='foot'>J. G. F. Riedel, <hi rend='italic'>De sluik- en +kroesharige rassen tusschen Selebes en +Papua</hi>, p. 440.</note> After +Sankara had destroyed the Buddhists in India, it is said +that he journeyed to Nepaul, where he had some difference +of opinion with the Grand Lama. To prove his supernatural +powers, he soared into the air. But as he mounted +up, the Grand Lama, perceiving his shadow swaying and +wavering on the ground, struck his knife into it and down +fell Sankara and broke his neck.<note place='foot'>A. Bastian, <hi rend='italic'>Die Völker des östlichen +Asien</hi>, v. 455.</note> In the Babar Islands the +demons get power over a man's soul by holding fast his +shadow, or by striking and wounding it.<note place='foot'>J. G. F. Riedel, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> p. 340.</note> Among the +Tolindoos of central Celebes to tread on a man's shadow is +an offence, because it is supposed to make the owner sick;<note place='foot'>N. Adriani en A. C. Kruijt, <q>Van +Posso naar Parigi, Sigi en Lindoe,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Mededeelingen van wege het Nederlandsche +Zendelinggenootschap</hi>, xlii. +(1898) p. 511; compare A. C. Kruijt, +<hi rend='italic'>ib.</hi> xliv. (1900) p. 247.</note> +and for the same reason the Toboongkoos of that region +forbid their children to play with their shadows.<note place='foot'>A. C. Kruijt, <q>Eenige ethnografische +aanteekeningen omtrent de +Toboengkoe en de Tomori,</q> <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> +xliv. (1900) p. 226.</note> The +Ottawa Indians thought they could kill a man by making +certain figures on his shadow.<note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>Annales de l'Association de la +Propagation de la Foi</hi>, iv. (1830) p. +481.</note> The Baganda of central +Africa regarded a man's shadow as his ghost; hence they +used to kill or injure their enemies by stabbing or treading +on their shadows.<note place='foot'>Rev. J. Roscoe, in a letter to +me dated Mengo, Uganda, May 26, +1904.</note> Among the Bavili of West Africa it +used to be considered a crime to trample on or even to cross +the shadow of another, especially if the shadow were that of +a married woman.<note place='foot'>R. E. Dennett, <q>Bavili Notes,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Folk-lore</hi>, xvi. (1905) p. 372; <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, <hi rend='italic'>At +the Back of the Black Man's Mind</hi> +(London, 1906), p. 79.</note> Some Caffres are very unwilling to let +anybody stand on their shadow, believing that they can be +<pb n='079'/><anchor id='Pg079'/> +influenced for evil through it.<note place='foot'>Dudley Kidd, <hi rend='italic'>The Essential Kafir</hi>, +p. 84.</note> They think that <q>a sick +man's shadow dwindles in intensity when he is about to +die; for it has such an intimate relation to the man +that it suffers with him.</q><note place='foot'>Dudley Kidd, <hi rend='italic'>Savage Childhood</hi>, +p. 68.</note> The Ja-Luo tribes of Kavirondo, +to the east of Lake Victoria Nyanza, tell of the ancestor +of all men, Apodtho by name, who descended to earth +from above, bringing with him cattle, fowls, and seeds. +When he was old, the Ja-Luo plotted to kill him, but for a +long time they did not dare to attack him. At last, hearing +that he was sick, they thought their chance had come, and +sent a girl to see how he was. She took a small horn, used +for cupping blood, in her hand, and while she talked with +him she placed the cupping-horn on his shadow. To her +surprise it drew blood. So she returned and told her +friends that, if they wished to kill Apodtho, they must not +touch his body, but spear his shadow. They did so, and he +died and turned into a rock, which has ever since possessed +the property of sharpening spears unusually well.<note place='foot'>C. W. Hobley, <q>British East +Africa,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Journal of the Anthropological +Institute</hi>, xxxiii. (1903) pp. 327 +<hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> In a +Chinese book we read of a sage who examined human +shadows by lamplight in order to discover the fate of their +owners. <q>A man's shadow,</q> he said, <q>ought to be deep, +for, if so, he will attain honourable positions, and a great +age. Shadows are averse to being reflected in water, or in +wells, or in washing-basins. It was on such grounds that +the ancients avoided shadows, and that in old days <foreign rend='italic'>Khü-seu</foreign>, +<foreign rend='italic'>twan-hu</foreign>, and other shadow-treading vermin caused injury by +hitting the shadows of men. In recent times there have +been men versed in the art of cauterizing the shadows of their +patients.</q> Another sapient Chinese writer observes: <q>I have +heard that, if the shadow of a bird is hit with a piece of wood +that was struck by thunder, the bird falls to the ground immediately. +I never tried it, but on account of the matter +stated above I consider the thing certain.</q><note place='foot'>J. J. M. de Groot, <hi rend='italic'>The Religious +System of China</hi>, iv. 84 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> The natives of +Nias tremble at the sight of a rainbow, because they think it +is a net spread by a powerful spirit to catch their shadows.<note place='foot'>E. Modigliani, <hi rend='italic'>Viaggio a Nías</hi>, p. +620, compare p. 624.</note> +</p> + +<pb n='080'/><anchor id='Pg080'/> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Danger to +a person +of letting +his shadow +fall on +certain +things. Animals +and trees also may +be injured +through +their +shadows.</note> +In the Banks Islands, Melanesia, there are certain +stones of a remarkably long shape which go by the name of +<foreign rend='italic'>tamate gangan</foreign> or <q>eating ghosts,</q> because certain powerful +and dangerous ghosts are believed to lodge in them. If a +man's shadow falls on one of these stones, the ghost will +draw his soul out from him, so that he will die. Such stones, +therefore, are set in a house to guard it; and a messenger +sent to a house by the absent owner will call out the name +of the sender, lest the watchful ghost in the stone should +fancy that he came with evil intent and should do him a +mischief.<note place='foot'>R. H. Codrington, <hi rend='italic'>The Melanesians</hi>, +p. 184.</note> In Florida, one of the Solomon Islands, there +are places sacred to ghosts, some in the village, some in the +gardens, and some in the bush. No man would pass one +of these places when the sun was so low as to cast his +shadow into it, for then the ghost would draw it from him.<note place='foot'>R. H. Codrington, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> p. +176.</note> +The Indian tribes of the Lower Fraser River believe that +man has four souls, of which the shadow is one, though not +the principal, and that sickness is caused by the absence of one +of the souls. Hence no one will let his shadow fall on a sick +shaman, lest the latter should purloin it to replace his own +lost soul.<note place='foot'>Fr. Boas, in <hi rend='italic'>Ninth Report on the +North-Western Tribes of Canada</hi>, pp. +461 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> (<hi rend='italic'>Report of the British Association +for 1894</hi>).</note> At a funeral in China, when the lid is about to +be placed on the coffin, most of the bystanders, with the +exception of the nearest kin, retire a few steps or even retreat +to another room, for a person's health is believed to be endangered +by allowing his shadow to be enclosed in a coffin. +And when the coffin is about to be lowered into the grave +most of the spectators recoil to a little distance lest their +shadows should fall into the grave and harm should thus be +done to their persons. The geomancer and his assistants stand +on the side of the grave which is turned away from the sun; +and the grave-diggers and coffin-bearers attach their shadows +firmly to their persons by tying a strip of cloth tightly round +their waists.<note place='foot'>J. J. M. de Groot, <hi rend='italic'>The Religious +System of China</hi>, i. 94, 210 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> In the Nicobar Islands burial usually takes +place at sundown, before midnight, or at early dawn. In no +case can an interment be carried out at noon or within an +hour of it, lest the shadows of the bearers who lower the +<pb n='081'/><anchor id='Pg081'/> +body into the earth, or of the mourners taking their last +look at the shrouded figure, should fall into the grave; for +that would cause them to be sick or die. And when the +dead has been laid in his last home, but before the earth is +shovelled in upon him, the leaves of a certain jungle tree are +waved over the grave, and a lighted torch is brandished +inside it, to disperse any souls of the sorrowing bystanders +that may be lingering with their departed friend in his +narrow bed. Then the signal is given, and the earth or +sand is rapidly shovelled in by a party of young men who +have been standing in readiness to perform the duty.<note place='foot'>E. H. Man, <q>Notes on the +Nicobarese,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Indian Antiquary</hi>, xxviii. +(1899) pp. 257-259. Compare Sir +R. C. Temple, in <hi rend='italic'>Census of India, +1901</hi>, iii. 209.</note> +When the Malays are building a house, and the central post +is being set up, the greatest precautions are taken to prevent +the shadow of any of the workers from falling either on the +post or on the hole dug to receive it; for otherwise they +think that sickness and trouble will be sure to follow.<note place='foot'>W. W. Skeat, <hi rend='italic'>Malay Magic</hi>, p. +143.</note> +When members of some Victorian tribes were performing +magical ceremonies for the purpose of bringing disease and +misfortune on their enemies, they took care not to let their +shadows fall on the object by which the evil influence was +supposed to be wafted to the foe.<note place='foot'>J. Dawson, <hi rend='italic'>Australian Aborigines</hi>, +p. 54.</note> In Darfur people think +that they can do an enemy to death by burying a certain +root in the earth on the spot where the shadow of his head +happens to fall. The man whose shadow is thus tampered +with loses consciousness at once and will die if the proper +antidote be not administered. In like manner they can +paralyse any limb, as a hand or leg, by planting a particular +root in the earth in the shadow of the limb they desire to +maim.<note place='foot'>Mohammed Ebn-Omar El-Tounsy, +<hi rend='italic'>Voyage au Darfour</hi>, traduit +de l'Arabe par le Dr. Perron (Paris, +1845), p. 347.</note> Nor is it human beings alone who are thus liable +to be injured by means of their shadows. Animals are to +some extent in the same predicament. A small snail, which +frequents the neighbourhood of the limestone hills in Perak, +is believed to suck the blood of cattle through their shadows; +hence the beasts grow lean and sometimes die from loss of +<pb n='082'/><anchor id='Pg082'/> +blood.<note place='foot'>W. W. Skeat, <hi rend='italic'>Malay Magic</hi>, p. +306.</note> The ancients supposed that in Arabia, if a hyæna +trod on a man's shadow, it deprived him of the power of +speech and motion; and that if a dog, standing on a roof in +the moonlight, cast a shadow on the ground and a hyæna +trod on it, the dog would fall down as if dragged with a +rope.<note place='foot'>[Aristotle] <hi rend='italic'>Mirab. Auscult.</hi> 145 +(157); <hi rend='italic'>Geoponica</hi>, xv. 1. In the latter +passage, for κατάγει ἑαυτήν we must read +κατάγει αὐτόν, an emendation necessitated +by the context, and confirmed by +the passage of Damïrï quoted and +translated by Bochart, <hi rend='italic'>Hierozoicon</hi>, i. +col. 833, <q><foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>cum ad lunam calcat umbram +canis, qui supra tectum est, canis ad +eam</foreign> [scil. hyaenam] <foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>decidit, et ea illum +devorat</foreign>.</q> Compare W. Robertson +Smith, <hi rend='italic'>The Religion of the Semites</hi>,<hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi> +p. 129.</note> Clearly in these cases the shadow, if not equivalent +to the soul, is at least regarded as a living part of the man +or the animal, so that injury done to the shadow is felt by +the person or animal as if it were done to his body. Even +the shadows of trees are supposed by the Caffres to be +sensitive. Hence when a Caffre doctor seeks to pluck the +leaves of a tree for medicinal purposes, he <q>takes care to run +up quickly, and to avoid touching the shadow lest it should +inform the tree of the danger, and so give the tree time to +withdraw the medicinal properties from its extremities into +the safety of the inaccessible trunk. The shadow of the tree +is said to feel the touch of the man's feet.</q><note place='foot'>Dudley Kidd, <hi rend='italic'>Savage Childhood</hi>, +p. 71.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Danger of +being overshadowed +by certain +birds or +people.</note> +Conversely, if the shadow is a vital part of a man or an +animal, it may under certain circumstances be as hazardous +to be touched by it as it would be to come into contact with +the person or animal. Thus in the North-West Provinces of +India people believe that if the shadow of the goat-sucker +bird falls on an ox or a cow, but especially on a cow buffalo, +the beast will soon die. The remedy is for some one to kill +the bird, rub his hands or a stick in the blood, and then +wave the stick over the animal. There are certain men who +are noted for their powers in this respect all over the district.<note place='foot'>W. Crooke, in <hi rend='italic'>Indian Antiquary</hi>, +xix. (1890) p. 254.</note> +The Kaitish of central Australia hold that if the shadow of +a brown hawk falls on the breast of a woman who is suckling +a child, the breast will swell up and burst. Hence if a +woman sees one of these birds in these circumstances, she +runs away in fear.<note place='foot'>Spencer and Gillen, <hi rend='italic'>Northern +Tribes of Central Australia</hi>, p. 612.</note> In the Central Provinces of India a +<pb n='083'/><anchor id='Pg083'/> +pregnant woman avoids the shadow of a man, believing that +if it fell on her, the child would take after him in features, +though not in character.<note place='foot'>M. R. Pedlow, in <hi rend='italic'>Indian Antiquary</hi>, +xxix. (1900) p. 60.</note> In Shoa any obstinate disorder, +for which no remedy is known, such as insanity, epilepsy, +delirium, hysteria, and St. Vitus's dance, is traced either to +possession by a demon or to the shadow of an enemy which +has fallen on the sufferer.<note place='foot'>W. Cornwallis Harris, <hi rend='italic'>The Highlands +of Aethiopia</hi> (London, 1844), +i. 158.</note> The Bushman is most careful +not to let his shadow fall on the dead game, as he thinks +this would bring bad luck.<note place='foot'>Dudley Kidd, <hi rend='italic'>The Essential Kafir</hi>, +p. 313.</note> Amongst the Caffres to overshadow +the king by standing in his presence was an offence +worthy of instant death.<note place='foot'>D. Kidd, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> p. 356.</note> And it is a Caffre superstition +that if the shadow of a man who is protected by a certain +charm falls on the shadow of a man who is not so protected, +the unprotected person will fall down, overcome by the +power of the charm which is transmitted through the +shadow.<note place='foot'>Dudley Kidd, <hi rend='italic'>Savage Childhood</hi>, +p. 70.</note> In the Punjaub some people believe that if the +shadow of a pregnant woman fell on a snake, it would +blind the creature instantly.<note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>Panjab Notes and Queries</hi>, i. p. +15, § 122.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The +shadows +of certain +persons +are +regarded as +peculiarly +dangerous. +The +savage's +dread of +his mother +in-law.</note> +Hence the savage makes it a rule to shun the shadow of +certain persons whom for various reasons he regards as +sources of dangerous influence. Amongst the dangerous +classes he commonly ranks mourners and women in general, +but especially his mother-in-law. The Shuswap Indians of +British Columbia think that the shadow of a mourner falling +upon a person would make him sick.<note place='foot'>Fr. Boas, in <hi rend='italic'>Sixth Report on the +North-Western Tribes of Canada</hi>, pp. +92, 94 (separate reprint from the +<hi rend='italic'>Report of the British Association for +1890</hi>); compare <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi> in <hi rend='italic'>Seventh Report</hi>, +etc., p. 13 (separate reprint from +the <hi rend='italic'>Rep. Brit. Assoc. for 1891</hi>).</note> Amongst the Kurnai +tribe of Victoria novices at initiation were cautioned not to +let a woman's shadow fall across them, as this would make +them thin, lazy, and stupid.<note place='foot'>A. W. Howitt, <q>The Jeraeil, or +Initiation Ceremonies of the Kurnai +Tribe,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Journal of the Anthropological +Institute</hi>, xiv. (1885) p. 316.</note> An Australian native is said +to have once nearly died of fright because the shadow of his +mother-in-law fell on his legs as he lay asleep under a tree.<note place='foot'>Miss Mary E. B. Howitt, <hi rend='italic'>Folk-lore +and Legends of some Victorian +Tribes</hi> (in manuscript).</note> +<pb n='084'/><anchor id='Pg084'/> +The awe and dread with which the untutored savage +contemplates his mother-in-law are amongst the most +familiar facts of anthropology. In the Yuin tribes of New +South Wales the rule which forbade a man to hold any +communication with his wife's mother was very strict. He +might not look at her or even in her direction. It was a +ground of divorce if his shadow happened to fall on his +mother-in-law: in that case he had to leave his wife, and +she returned to her parents.<note place='foot'>A. W. Howitt, <hi rend='italic'>Native Tribes of +South-East Australia</hi>, p. 266.</note> In the Hunter River tribes of +New South Wales it was formerly death for a man to speak +to his mother-in-law; however, in later times the wretch who +had committed this heinous crime was suffered to live, but +he was severely reprimanded and banished for a time from +the camp.<note place='foot'>A. W. Howitt, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> p. 267.</note> In the Kulin tribe it was thought that if a +woman looked at or spoke to her son-in-law or even his +brother, her hair would turn white. The same result, it was +supposed, would follow if she ate of game which had been +presented to her husband by her son-in-law; but she could +obviate this ill consequence by blackening her face, and +especially her mouth, with charcoal, for then her hair would +not turn white.<note place='foot'>A. W. Howitt, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> pp. +256 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> Similarly in the Kurnai tribe of Victoria a +woman is not permitted to see her daughter's husband in +camp or elsewhere. When he is present, she keeps her +head covered with an opossum rug. The camp of the +mother-in-law faces in a different direction to that of her +son-in-law. A screen of high bushes is erected between +both huts, so that no one can see over from either. When +the mother-in-law goes for firewood, she crouches down as +she goes out or in, with her head covered.<note place='foot'>A. W. Howitt, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> pp. 280 +<hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> Compare J. Dawson, <hi rend='italic'>Australian +Aborigines</hi>, pp. 32 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> In Uganda a +man may not see his mother-in-law nor speak to her face to +face. Should they meet by accident, she must turn aside +and cover her head with her clothes; or if her garments are +too scanty for that, she may squat on her haunches and hide +her face in her hands. If he wishes to hold any communication +with her, it must be done through a third person, +or through a wall or closed door. Were he to break these +<pb n='085'/><anchor id='Pg085'/> +rules, he would certainly be seized with a shaking of the +hands and general debility.<note place='foot'>Partly from notes sent me by my +friend the Rev. J. Roscoe, partly from +Sir H. Johnston's account (<hi rend='italic'>The Uganda +Protectorate</hi>, ii. 688). In his printed +notes (<hi rend='italic'>Journal of the Anthropological +Institute</hi>, xxxii. (1902) p. 39) Mr. +Roscoe says that the mother-in-law +<q>may be in another room out of sight +and speak to him through the wall or +open door.</q></note> Among some tribes of eastern +Africa which formerly acknowledged the suzerainty of the +sultan of Zanzibar, before a young couple had children they +might meet neither their father-in-law nor their mother-in-law. +To avoid them they must take a long roundabout. +But if they could not do that, they must throw themselves +on the ground and hide their faces till the father-in-law or +mother-in-law had passed by.<note place='foot'>Father Picarda, <q>Autour du +Mandera, Notes sur l'Ouzigoua, +l'Oukwéré et l'Oudoé (Zanguebar),</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Missions Catholiques</hi>, xviii. (1886) p. +286.</note> Among the Basutos a man +may never meet his wife's mother, nor speak to her, nor see +her. If his wife is ill and her mother comes to nurse her, +he must flee the house so long as she is in it; sentinels are +posted to warn him of her departure.<note place='foot'>Father Porte, <q>Les Réminiscences +d'un missionnaire du Basutoland,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Missions Catholiques</hi>, xxviii. (1896) +p. 318.</note> In New Britain the +native imagination fails to conceive the extent and nature of +the calamities which would result from a man's accidentally +speaking to his wife's mother; suicide of one or both would +probably be the only course open to them. The most +solemn form of oath a New Briton can take is, <q>Sir, if I +am not telling the truth, I hope I may shake hands with +my mother-in-law.</q><note place='foot'>H. H. Romily and Rev. George +Brown, in <hi rend='italic'>Proceedings of the Royal +Geographical Society</hi>, N.S. ix. (1887) +pp. 9, 17.</note> At Vanua Lava in the Banks Islands, +a man would not so much as follow his mother-in-law along +the beach until the rising tide had washed out her footprints +in the sand.<note place='foot'>R. H. Codrington, <hi rend='italic'>The Melanesians</hi>, +p. 43.</note> To avoid meeting his mother-in-law face to +face a very desperate Apache Indian, one of the bravest of +the brave, has been seen to clamber along the brink of a +precipice at the risk of his life, hanging on to rocks from +which had he fallen he would have been dashed to pieces or +at least have broken several of his limbs.<note place='foot'>J. G. Bourke, <hi rend='italic'>On the Border with +Crook</hi>, p. 132. More evidence of the +mutual avoidance of mother-in-law and +son-in-law among savages is collected +in my <hi rend='italic'>Totemism and Exogamy</hi>; see +the Index, <hi rend='italic'>s.v.</hi> <q>Mother-in-law.</q> +The custom is probably based on a fear +of incest between them. To the +almost universal rule of savage life +that a man must avoid his mother-in-law +there is a most remarkable exception +among the Wahehe of German +East Africa. In that tribe a bridegroom +must sleep with his mother-in-law +before he may cohabit with her +daughter. See Rev. H. Cole, <q>Notes +on the Wagogo of German East Africa,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Journal of the Anthropological Institute</hi>, +xxxii. (1902) p. 312.</note> Still more curious +<pb n='086'/><anchor id='Pg086'/> +and difficult to explain is the rule which forbids certain +African kings, after the coronation ceremonies have been +completed, ever to see their own mothers again. This +restriction was imposed on the kings of Benin and Uganda. +Yet the queen-mothers lived in regal state with a court and +lands of their own. In Uganda it was thought that if the +king were to see his mother again, some evil and probably +death would surely befall him.<note place='foot'>O. Dapper, <hi rend='italic'>Description de l'Afrique</hi>, +p. 312; H. Ling Roth, <hi rend='italic'>Great Benin</hi>, +p. 119; <hi rend='italic'>Missions Catholiques</hi>, xv. +(1883) p. 110; J. Roscoe, <q>Further +Notes on the Manners and Customs +of the Baganda,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Journal of the Anthropological +Institute</hi>, xxxii. (1902) +p. 67.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>A man's +health and +strength +supposed +to vary +with the +length of +his +shadow. Fear of +the loss +of the +shadow. +Fear +of the resemblance +of a child +to its +parents.</note> +Where the shadow is regarded as so intimately bound +up with the life of the man that its loss entails debility or +death, it is natural to expect that its diminution should be +regarded with solicitude and apprehension, as betokening a +corresponding decrease in the vital energy of its owner. +An elegant Greek rhetorician has compared the man who +lives only for fame to one who should set all his heart on +his shadow, puffed up and boastful when it lengthened, sad +and dejected when it shortened, wasting and pining away +when it dwindled to nothing. The spirits of such an one, he +goes on, would necessarily be volatile, since they must rise +or fall with every passing hour of the day. In the morning, +when the level sun, just risen above the eastern horizon, +stretched out his shadow to enormous length, rivalling the +shadows cast by the cypresses and the towers on the city +wall, how blithe and exultant would he be, fancying that in +stature he had become a match for the fabled giants of old; +with what a lofty port he would then strut and shew himself +in the streets and the market-place and wherever men congregated, +that he might be seen and admired of all. But +as the day wore on, his countenance would change and he +would slink back crestfallen to his house. At noon, when +his once towering shadow had shrunk to his feet, he would +shut himself up and refuse to stir abroad, ashamed to look +<pb n='087'/><anchor id='Pg087'/> +his fellow-townsmen in the face; but in the afternoon his +drooping spirits would revive, and as the day declined his +joy and pride would swell again with the length of the evening +shadows.<note place='foot'>Dio Chrysostom, <hi rend='italic'>Or.</hi> lxvii. vol. +ii. p. 230, ed. L. Dindorf.</note> The rhetorician who thus sought to expose +the vanity of fame as an object of human ambition by likening +it to an ever-changing shadow, little dreamed that in +real life there were men who set almost as much store by +their shadows as the fool whom he had conjured up in his +imagination to point a moral. So hard is it for the straining +wings of fancy to outstrip the folly of mankind. In +Amboyna and Uliase, two islands near the equator, where +necessarily there is little or no shadow cast at noon, the +people make it a rule not to go out of the house at mid-day, +because they fancy that by doing so a man may lose the +shadow of his soul.<note place='foot'>J. G. F. Riedel, <hi rend='italic'>De sluik- en +kroesharige rassen tusschen Selebes en +Papua</hi>, p. 61.</note> The Mangaians tell of a mighty +warrior, Tukaitawa, whose strength waxed and waned with +the length of his shadow. In the morning, when his shadow +fell longest, his strength was greatest; but as the shadow +shortened towards noon his strength ebbed with it, till exactly +at noon it reached its lowest point; then, as the shadow +stretched out in the afternoon, his strength returned. A +certain hero discovered the secret of Tukaitawa's strength +and slew him at noon.<note place='foot'>W. W. Gill, <hi rend='italic'>Myths and Songs of +the South Pacific</hi>, pp. 284 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></note> The savage Besisis of the Malay +Peninsula fear to bury their dead at noon, because they +fancy that the shortness of their shadows at that hour would +sympathetically shorten their own lives.<note place='foot'>W. W. Skeat and C. O. Blagden. +<hi rend='italic'>Pagan Races of the Malay Peninsula</hi> +(London, 1906), ii. 110.</note> The Baganda of +central Africa used to judge of a man's health by the length of +his shadow. They said, <q>So-and-so is going to die, his shadow +is very small</q>; or, <q>He is in good health, his shadow is +large.</q><note place='foot'>The Rev. J. Roscoe, in a letter to +me dated Mengo, Uganda, May 26, +1904.</note> Similarly the Caffres of South Africa think that a +man's shadow grows very small or vanishes at death. When +her husband is away at the wars, a woman hangs up his sleeping-mat; +if the shadow grows less, she says her husband is +killed; if it remains unchanged, she says he is unscathed.<note place='foot'>T. Arbousset et F. Daumas, <hi rend='italic'>Voyage +d'exploration</hi> (Paris, 1842), p. 291; +Dudley Kidd, <hi rend='italic'>The Essential Kafir</hi>, pp. +83, 303; <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, <hi rend='italic'>Savage Childhood</hi>, p. 69. +In the last passage Mr. Kidd tells +us that <q>the mat was <emph>not</emph> held up in +the sun, but was placed in the hut at +the marked-off portion where the <foreign rend='italic'>itongo</foreign> +or ancestral spirit was supposed to live; +and the fate of the man was divined, +not by the <emph>length</emph> of the shadow, but +by its <emph>strength</emph>.</q></note> +<pb n='088'/><anchor id='Pg088'/> +It is possible that even in lands outside the tropics the +observation of the diminished shadow at noon may have +contributed, even if it did not give rise, to the superstitious +dread with which that hour has been viewed by many peoples, +as by the Greeks, ancient and modern, the Bretons, the +Russians, the Roumanians of Transylvania, and the Indians +of Santiago Tepehuacan.<note place='foot'>Theocritus, i. 15 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>; Philostratus, +<hi rend='italic'>Heroic.</hi> i. 3; Porphyry, <hi rend='italic'>De antro nympharum</hi>, +26; Lucan, iii. 423 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>; +Drexler, <hi rend='italic'>s.v.</hi> <q>Meridianus daemon,</q> +in Roscher's <hi rend='italic'>Lexikon der griech. und +röm. Mythologie</hi>, ii. 2832 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>; Bernard +Schmidt, <hi rend='italic'>Das Volksleben der +Neugriechen</hi>, pp. 94 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>, 119 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; +Georgeakis et Pineau, <hi rend='italic'>Folk-lore de Lesbos</hi>, +p. 342; A. de Nore, <hi rend='italic'>Coutumes, +mythes, et traditions des provinces de +France</hi>, pp. 214 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; J. Grimm, +<hi rend='italic'>Deutsche Mythologie</hi>,<hi rend='vertical-align: super'>4</hi> ii. 972; C. L. +Rochholz, <hi rend='italic'>Deutscher Glaube und +Brauch</hi>, i. 62 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>; E. Gerard, <hi rend='italic'>The +Land beyond the Forest</hi>, i. 331; +<q>Lettre du curé de Santiago Tepehuacan,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Bulletin de la Société de +Géographie</hi> (Paris), IIme Série, ii. +(1834) p. 180; N. von Stenin, <q>Die +Permier,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Globus</hi>, lxxi. (1897) p. +374; D. Louwerier, <q>Bijgeloovige +gebruiken, die door die Javanen worden +in acht genomen,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Mededeelingen van +wege het Nederlandsche Zendelinggenootschap</hi>, +xlix. (1905) p. 257.</note> In this observation, too, we may +perhaps detect the reason why noon was chosen by the +Greeks as the hour for sacrificing to the shadowless dead.<note place='foot'>Schol. on Aristophanes, <hi rend='italic'>Frogs</hi>, 293.</note> +The loss of the shadow, real or apparent, has often been +regarded as a cause or precursor of death. Whoever entered +the sanctuary of Zeus on Mount Lycaeus in Arcadia was +believed to lose his shadow and to die within the year.<note place='foot'>Pausanias, viii. 38. 6; Polybius, +xvi. 12. 7; Plutarch, <hi rend='italic'>Quaestiones +Graecae</hi>, 39.</note> In +Lower Austria on the evening of St. Sylvester's day—the +last day of the year—the company seated round the table +mark whose shadow is not cast on the wall, and believe that +the seemingly shadowless person will die next year. Similar +presages are drawn in Germany both on St. Sylvester's day +and on Christmas Eve.<note place='foot'>Th. Vernaleken, <hi rend='italic'>Mythen und +Bräuche des Volkes in Österreich</hi>, +p. 341; Reinsberg-Düringsfeld, <hi rend='italic'>Das +festliche Jahr</hi>, p. 401; A. Wuttke, +<hi rend='italic'>Der deutsche Volksaberglaube</hi>,<hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi> p. 207, +§ 314.</note> The Galelareese fancy that if a +child resembles his father, they will not both live long; for +the child has taken away his father's likeness or shadow, and +consequently the father must soon die.<note place='foot'>M. J. van Baarda, <q>Fabelen, +Verhalen en Overleveringen der Galelareezen,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Bijdragen tot de Taal- Land- +en Volkenkunde van Nederlandsch-Indië</hi>, +xlv. (1895) p. 459.</note> Similarly among +<pb n='089'/><anchor id='Pg089'/> +some tribes of the Lower Congo, <q>if the child is like its +mother, father, or uncle, they think it has the spirit of the +person it resembles, and that that person will soon die. +Hence a parent will resent it if you say that the baby is like +him or her.</q><note place='foot'>J. H. Weeks, <q>Notes on some +Customs of the Lower Congo People,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Folk-lore</hi>, xix. (1908) p. 422.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The +shadows of +people +built into +foundations +to +strengthen +the edifices.</note> +Nowhere, perhaps, does the equivalence of the shadow +to the life or soul come out more clearly than in some +customs practised to this day in south-eastern Europe. In +modern Greece, when the foundation of a new building is +being laid, it is the custom to kill a cock, a ram, or a lamb, +and to let its blood flow on the foundation-stone, under +which the animal is afterwards buried. The object of the +sacrifice is to give strength and stability to the building. +But sometimes, instead of killing an animal, the builder +entices a man to the foundation-stone, secretly measures his +body, or a part of it, or his shadow, and buries the measure +under the foundation-stone; or he lays the foundation-stone +upon the man's shadow. It is believed that the man will +die within the year.<note place='foot'>B. Schmidt, <hi rend='italic'>Das Volksleben der +Neugriechen</hi> (Leipsic, 1871), pp. 196 +<hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> In the island of Lesbos it is deemed +enough if the builder merely casts a stone at the shadow of +a passer-by; the man whose shadow is thus struck will die, +but the building will be solid.<note place='foot'>Georgeakis et Pineau, <hi rend='italic'>Folk-lore de +Lesbos</hi>, pp. 346 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> A Bulgarian mason measures +the shadow of a man with a string, places the string in a +box, and then builds the box into the wall of the edifice. +Within forty days thereafter the man whose shadow was +measured will be dead and his soul will be in the box beside +the string; but often it will come forth and appear in its +former shape to persons who were born on a Saturday. If +a Bulgarian builder cannot obtain a human shadow for this +purpose, he will content himself with measuring the shadow +of the first animal that comes that way.<note place='foot'>A. Strausz, <hi rend='italic'>Die Bulgaren</hi> (Leipsic, +1898), p. 199; W. R. S. Ralston, +<hi rend='italic'>Songs of the Russian People</hi>, p. +127.</note> The Roumanians +of Transylvania think that he whose shadow is thus immured +will die within forty days; so persons passing by a building +which is in course of erection may hear a warning cry, +<q>Beware lest they take thy shadow!</q> Not long ago there +<pb n='090'/><anchor id='Pg090'/> +were still shadow-traders whose business it was to provide +architects with the shadows necessary for securing their +walls.<note place='foot'>W. Schmidt, <hi rend='italic'>Das Jahr und seine +Tage in Meinung und Brauch der +Romänen Siebenbürgens</hi> (Hermannstadt, +1866), p. 27; E. Gerard, <hi rend='italic'>The +Land beyond the Forest</hi>, ii. 17 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> +Compare F. S. Krauss, <hi rend='italic'>Volksglaube +und religiöser Brauch der Südslaven</hi>, +p. 161.</note> In these cases the measure of the shadow is looked +on as equivalent to the shadow itself, and to bury it is to +bury the life or soul of the man, who, deprived of it, must +die. Thus the custom is a substitute for the old practice of +immuring a living person in the walls, or crushing him under +the foundation-stone of a new building, in order to give +strength and durability to the structure, or more definitely in +order that the angry ghost may haunt the place and guard +it against the intrusion of enemies. Thus when a new gate +was made or an old gate was repaired in the walls of Bangkok, +it used to be customary to crush three men to death +under an enormous beam in a pit at the gateway. Before +they were led to their doom, they were regaled at a splendid +banquet; the whole court came to salute them; and the +king himself charged them straitly to guard well the gate +that was to be committed to their care, and to warn him +if enemies or rebels came to assault the city. The next +moment the ropes were cut and the beam descended on +them. The Siamese believed that these unfortunates were +transformed into the genii which they called <foreign rend='italic'>phi</foreign>.<note place='foot'>Mgr. Bruguière, in <hi rend='italic'>Annales de +l'Association de la Propagation de la +Foi</hi>, v. (1831) pp. 164 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; Pallegoix, +<hi rend='italic'>Description du royaume Thai ou Siam</hi>, +ii. 50-52.</note> It is said +that when the massive teak posts of the gateways of Mandalay +were set up, a man was bound and placed under each post +and crushed to death. The Burmese believe that men who +die a violent death turn into <foreign rend='italic'>nats</foreign> or demons and haunt the +spot where they were killed, doing a mischief to such as +attempt to molest the place. Thus their spirits become +guardians of the gates.<note place='foot'>A. Fytche, <hi rend='italic'>Burma, Past and +Present</hi> (London, 1878), i. 251 note.</note> This theory would explain why +such sacrifices appear to be offered most commonly at +thoroughfares, such as gates and bridges, where ghostly +warders may be deemed especially serviceable in keeping; +watch on the multitudes that go to and fro.<note place='foot'>On such practices in general, see +E. B. Tylor, <hi rend='italic'>Primitive Culture</hi>,<hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi> i. +104 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>; F. Liebrecht, <hi rend='italic'>Zur Volkskunde</hi>, pp. 284-296; F. S. Krauss, +<q>Der Bauopfer bei den Südslaven,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Mittheilungen der Anthropologischen +Gesellschaft in Wien</hi>, xvii. (1887) pp. +16-24; P. Sartori, <q>Über das +Bauopfer,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Zeitschrift für Ethnologie</hi>, +xxx. (1898) pp. 1-54; E. Westermarck, +<hi rend='italic'>Origin and Development of the +Moral Ideas</hi> (London, 1906-1908), i. +461 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi> For some special evidence, see +H. Oldenberg, <hi rend='italic'>Die Religion des Veda</hi>, +pp. 363 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi> (as to ancient India); +Sonnerat, <hi rend='italic'>Voyage aux Indes Orientales +et à la Chine</hi>, ii. 47 (as to Pegu); +Guerlach, <q>Chez les sauvages Bahnars,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Missions Catholiques</hi>, xvi. +(1884) p. 82 (as to the Sedans of +Cochin-China); W. H. Furness, <hi rend='italic'>Home-life +of Borneo Head-hunters</hi>, p. 3 (as to +the Kayans and Kenyahs of Burma); +A. C. Kruijt, <q>Van Paloppo naar +Posso,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Mededeelingen van wege het +Nederlandsche Zendelinggenootschap</hi>, +xlii. (1898) p. 56 note (as to central +Celebes); L. Hearn, <hi rend='italic'>Glimpses of Unfamiliar +Japan</hi> (London, 1894), i. 148 +<hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; H. Ternaux-Compans, <hi rend='italic'>Essai sur +l'ancien Cundinamarca</hi>, p. 70 (as to +the Indians of Colombia). These customs +are commonly called foundation-sacrifices. +But the name is inappropriate, +as Prof. H. Oldenberg has +rightly observed, since they are not +sacrifices but charms.</note> In Bima, a +<pb n='091'/><anchor id='Pg091'/> +district of the East Indian island of Sambawa, the custom is +marked by some peculiar features, which deserve to be +mentioned. When a new flag-pole is set up at the sultan's +palace a woman is crushed to death under it; but she must +be pregnant. If the destined victim should be brought to +bed before her execution, she goes free. The notion may +be that the ghost of such a woman would be more than +usually fierce and vigilant. Again, when the wooden doors +are set up at the palace, it is customary to bury a child +under each of the door-posts. For these purposes officers +are sent to scour the country for a pregnant woman or little +children, as the case may be, and if they come back empty-handed +they must give up their own wives or children to +serve as victims. When the gates are set up, the children +are killed, their bodies stript of flesh, and their bones laid in +the holes in which the door-posts are erected. Then the +flesh is boiled with horse's flesh and served up to the officers. +Any officer who refuses to eat of it is at once cut down.<note place='foot'>D. F. van Braam Morris, in +<hi rend='italic'>Tijdschrift voor Indische Taal- Land- +en Volkenkunde</hi>, xxxiv. (1891) p. +224.</note> +The intention of this last practice is perhaps to secure the +fidelity of the officers by compelling them to enter into a +covenant of the most solemn and binding nature with the +ghosts of the murdered children who are to guard the gates. +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Deification +of a +measuring +tape.</note> +The practice of burying the measure of a man's shadow, +as a substitute for the man himself, under the foundation-stone +of a building may perhaps throw light on the singular +deity whom the people of Kisser, an East Indian island, +<pb n='092'/><anchor id='Pg092'/> +choose to guard their houses and villages. The god in +question is nothing more or less than the measuring-tape +which was used to measure the foundations of the house or +of the village temple. After it has served this useful +purpose, the tape is wound about a stick shaped like a +paddle, and is then deposited in the thatch of the roof of the +house, where food is offered to it on all special occasions. The +deified measuring-tape of the whole village is that which was +used to measure the foundations of the first house or of the +village temple. The handle of the paddle-like stick on +which it is wound is carved into the figure of a person +squatting in the usual posture; and the whole is kept in a +rough wooden box along with one or two figures to act as +its guards.<note place='foot'>J. H. de Vries, <q>Reis door eenige +eilandgroepen der Residentie Amboina,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Tijdschrift van het koninklijk +Nederlandsch Aardrijkskundig Genootschap</hi>, +Tweedie Serie, xvii. (1900) pp. +612 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> It is possible, though perhaps hardly probable, +that these tapes may be thought to contain the souls of men +whose shadows they measured at the foundation ceremony. +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The soul +sometimes +supposed +to be in +the reflection. Dangers +to which +the reflection-soul +is +exposed.</note> +As some peoples believe a man's soul to be in his +shadow, so other (or the same) peoples believe it to be in +his reflection in water or a mirror. Thus <q>the Andamanese +do not regard their shadows but their reflections (in any +mirror) as their souls.</q><note place='foot'>E. H. Mann, <hi rend='italic'>Aboriginal Inhabitants +of the Andaman Islands</hi>, p. 94.</note> According to one account, some +of the Fijians thought that man has two souls, a light one +and a dark one; the dark one goes to Hades, the light one +is his reflection in water or a mirror.<note place='foot'>T. Williams, <hi rend='italic'>Fiji and the Fijians</hi>,<hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi> +i. 241. However, the late Mr. +Lorimer Fison wrote to me that +this reported belief in a bright +soul and a dark soul <q>is one of +Williams' absurdities. I inquired into +it on the island where he was, and +found that there was no such belief. +He took the word for <q>shadow,</q> which +is a reduplication of <foreign rend='italic'>yalo</foreign>, the word for +soul, as meaning the dark soul. But +<foreign rend='italic'>yaloyalo</foreign> does not mean the soul at all. +It is not part of a man as his soul is. +This is made certain by the fact that +it does not take the possessive suffix +<foreign rend='italic'>yalo-na</foreign> = his soul; but <foreign rend='italic'>nona yaloyalo</foreign> = +his shadow. This settles the question +beyond dispute. If <foreign rend='italic'>yaloyalo</foreign> were any +kind of soul, the possessive form would +be <foreign rend='italic'>yaloyalona</foreign></q> (letter dated August +26, 1898).</note> When the Motumotu +of New Guinea first saw their likenesses in a looking-glass +they thought that their reflections were their souls.<note place='foot'>James Chalmers, <hi rend='italic'>Pioneering in +New Guinea</hi> (London, 1887), p. 170.</note> In +New Caledonia the old men are of opinion that a person's +reflection in water or a mirror is his soul; but the younger men, +<pb n='093'/><anchor id='Pg093'/> +taught by the Catholic priests, maintain that it is a reflection +and nothing more, just like the reflection of palm-trees in the +water.<note place='foot'>Father Lambert, <hi rend='italic'>Mœurs et superstitions +des Néo-Calédoniens</hi> (Nouméa, +1900), pp. 45 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> The reflection-soul, being external to the man, is +exposed to much the same dangers as the shadow-soul. +Among the Galelareese, half-grown lads and girls may not +look at themselves in a mirror; for they say that the mirror +takes away their bloom and leaves them ugly.<note place='foot'>M. J. van Baarda, <q>Fabelen, +Verhalen en Overleveringen der Galelareezen,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Bijdragen tot de Taal- Land- +en Volkenkunde van Nederlandsch-Indië</hi>, +xlv. (1895) p. 462.</note> And as the +shadow may be stabbed, so may the reflection. Hence an +Aztec mode of keeping sorcerers from the house was to leave +a vessel of water with a knife in it behind the door. When +a sorcerer entered he was so much alarmed at seeing his +reflection in the water transfixed by a knife that he turned +and fled.<note place='foot'>B. de Sahagun, <hi rend='italic'>Histoire générale des +choses de la Nouvelle-Espagne</hi> (Paris, +1880), p. 314. The Chinese hang +brass mirrors over the idols in their +houses, because it is thought that evil +spirits entering the house and seeing +themselves in the mirrors will be scared +away (<hi rend='italic'>China Review</hi>, ii. 164).</note> In Corrèze, a district of the Auvergne, a cow's +milk had dried up through the maleficent spells of a neighbouring +witch, so a sorcerer was called in to help. He made +the woman whose cow was bewitched sit in front of a pail of +water with a knife in her hand till she thought she saw the +image of the witch in the water, whereupon he made her +stab the image with the knife. They say that if the knife +strikes the image fair in the eye, the person whose likeness it +is will suffer a corresponding injury in his or her eye. This +procedure, we are informed, has been successful in restoring +milk to the udders of a cow when even holy water had been +tried in vain.<note place='foot'>G. Vuillier, <q>Chez les magiciens +et les sorciers de la Corrèze,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Tour du +monde</hi>, N.S. v. (1899) pp. 522, 524.</note> The Zulus will not look into a dark pool +because they think there is a beast in it which will take +away their reflections, so that they die.<note place='foot'>H. Callaway, <hi rend='italic'>Nursery Tales, Traditions, +and Histories of the Zulus</hi> +(Natal and London, 1868), p. 342.</note> The Basutos say +that crocodiles have the power of thus killing a man by +dragging his reflection under water. When one of them +dies suddenly and from no apparent cause, his relatives will +allege that a crocodile must have taken his shadow some +time when he crossed a stream.<note place='foot'>T. Arbousset et F. Daumas, <hi rend='italic'>Voyage +d'exploration au nord-est de la colonie +du Cap de Bonne-Espérance</hi>, p. 12; T. +Lindsay Fairclough, <q>Notes on the +Basuto,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Journal of the African +Society</hi>, No. 14 (January 1905), p. 201.</note> In Saddle Island, +<pb n='094'/><anchor id='Pg094'/> +Melanesia, there is a pool <q>into which if any one looks he +dies; the malignant spirit takes hold upon his life by means +of his reflection on the water.</q><note place='foot'>R. H. Codrington, <q>Religious +Beliefs and Practices in Melanesia,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Journ. Anthrop. Inst.</hi> x. (1881) p. 313; +<hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, <hi rend='italic'>The Melanesians</hi>, p. 186.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Dread of +looking at +one's +reflection +in water.</note> +We can now understand why it was a maxim both in +ancient India and ancient Greece not to look at one's +reflection in water, and why the Greeks regarded it as an +omen of death if a man dreamed of seeing himself so +reflected.<note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>Fragmenta philosophorum Graecorum</hi>, +ed. F. G. A. Mullach, i. 510; +Artemidorus, <hi rend='italic'>Onirocr.</hi> ii. 7; <hi rend='italic'>Laws of +Manu</hi>, iv. 38 (p. 135, G. Bühler's +translation, <hi rend='italic'>Sacred Books of the East</hi>, +vol. xxv.).</note> They feared that the water-spirits would drag +the person's reflection or soul under water, leaving him soulless +to perish. This was probably the origin of the classical +story of the beautiful Narcissus, who languished and died +through seeing his reflection in the water. The explanation +that he died for love of his own fair image was +probably devised later, after the old meaning of the story +was forgotten. The same ancient belief lingers, in a faded +form, in the English superstition that whoever sees a water +fairy must pine and die. +</p> + +<quote rend='display'> + +<lg> +<l><q rend='pre'><hi rend='italic'>Alas, the moon should ever beam</hi></q></l> +<l><hi rend='italic'>To show what man should never see!—</hi></l> +<l><hi rend='italic'>I saw a maiden on a stream,</hi></l> +<l><hi rend='italic'>And fair was she!</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><hi rend='italic'>I staid to watch, a little space,</hi></l> +<l><hi rend='italic'>Her parted lips if she would sing;</hi></l> +<l><hi rend='italic'>The waters closed above her face</hi></l> +<l><hi rend='italic'>With many a ring.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><hi rend='italic'>I know my life will fade away,</hi></l> +<l><hi rend='italic'>I know that I must vainly pine,</hi></l> +<l><hi rend='italic'>For I am made of mortal clay,</hi></l> +<l><q rend='post'><hi rend='italic'>But she's divine!</hi></q></l> +</lg> + +</quote> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Reason for +covering +up mirrors +or turning +them to +the wall +after a +death.</note> +Further, we can now explain the widespread custom of +covering up mirrors or turning them to the wall after a death +has taken place in the house. It is feared that the soul, +projected out of the person in the shape of his reflection in +the mirror, may be carried off by the ghost of the departed, +<pb n='095'/><anchor id='Pg095'/> +which is commonly supposed to linger about the house till +the burial. The custom is thus exactly parallel to the Aru +custom of not sleeping in a house after a death for fear that +the soul, projected out of the body in a dream, may meet +the ghost and be carried off by it.<note place='foot'>See above, p. <ref target='Pg037'>37</ref>.</note> In Oldenburg it is thought +that if a person sees his image in a mirror after a death he +will die himself. So all the mirrors in the house are covered +up with white cloth.<note place='foot'>A. Wuttke, <hi rend='italic'>Der deutsche Volksaberglaube</hi>,<hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi> +pp. 429 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, § 726.</note> In some parts of Germany and +Belgium after a death not only the mirrors but everything +that shines or glitters (windows, clocks, etc.) is covered up,<note place='foot'>A. Wuttke, <hi rend='italic'>l.c.</hi>; E. Monseur, <hi rend='italic'>Le +Folklore Wallon</hi>, p. 40.</note> +doubtless because they might reflect a person's image. The +same custom of covering up mirrors or turning them to the +wall after a death prevails in England, Scotland, Madagascar,<note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>Folk-lore Journal</hi>, iii. (1885) p. +281; T. F. Thiselton Dyer, <hi rend='italic'>English +Folk-lore</hi>, p. 109; J. Napier, <hi rend='italic'>Folk-lore, +or Superstitious Beliefs in the West of +Scotland</hi>, p. 60; W. Ellis, <hi rend='italic'>History of +Madagascar</hi>, i. 238. Compare A. +Grandidier, <q>Des rites funéraires chez +les Malgaches,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Revue d'Ethnographie</hi>, +v. (1886) p. 215.</note> +and among the Karaits, a Jewish sect in the Crimea.<note place='foot'>S. Weissenberg, <q>Die Karäer der +Krim,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Globus</hi>, lxxxiv. (1903) p. 143; +<hi rend='italic'>id.</hi> <q>Krankheit und Tod bei den +südrussischen Juden,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Globus</hi>, xci. +(1907) p. 360.</note> The +Suni Mohammedans of Bombay cover with a cloth the mirror +in the room of a dying man and do not remove it until the +corpse is carried out for burial. They also cover the looking-glasses +in their bedrooms before retiring to rest at night.<note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>Panjab Notes and Queries</hi>, ii. p. +169, § 906.</note> +The reason why sick people should not see themselves in a +mirror, and why the mirror in a sick-room is therefore +covered up,<note place='foot'>J. V. Grohmann, <hi rend='italic'>Aberglauben und +Gebräuche aus Böhmen und Mähren</hi>, +p. 151, § 1097; <hi rend='italic'>Folk-lore Journal</hi>, vi. +(1888) pp. 145 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>: <hi rend='italic'>Panjab Notes and +Queries</hi>, ii. p. 61, § 378.</note> is also plain; in time of sickness, when the soul +might take flight so easily, it is particularly dangerous to +project it out of the body by means of the reflection +in a mirror. The rule is therefore precisely parallel to the +rule observed by some peoples of not allowing sick people +to sleep;<note place='foot'>J. G. Frazer, <q>On certain Burial +Customs as illustrative of the Primitive +Theory of the Soul,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Journal of the Anthropological +Institute</hi>, xv. (1886) pp. 82 +<hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi> Among the heathen Arabs, when a +man had been stung by a scorpion, he was +kept from sleeping for seven days, during +which he had to wear a woman's bracelets +and earrings (Rasmussen, <hi rend='italic'>Additamenta +ad historiam Arabum ante Islamismum</hi>, +p. 65, compare p. 69). The +old Mexican custom of masking and +the images of the gods so long +as the king was sick (Brasseur de Bourbourg, +<hi rend='italic'>Histoire des nations civilisées +du Mexique et de l'Amérique-Centrale</hi>, +iii. 571 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>) may perhaps have been +intended to prevent the images from +drawing away the king's soul.</note> for in sleep the soul is projected out of the body, +<pb n='096'/><anchor id='Pg096'/> +and there is always a risk that it may not return. <q>In the +opinion of the Raskolniks a mirror is an accursed thing, +invented by the devil,</q><note place='foot'>W. R. S. Ralston, <hi rend='italic'>Songs of the +Russian People</hi>, p. 117. The objection, +however, may be merely Puritanical. +W. Robertson Smith informed me that +the peculiarities of the Raskolniks are +largely due to exaggerated Puritanism.</note> perhaps on account of the mirror's +supposed power of drawing out the soul in the reflection and +so facilitating its capture. +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The soul +sometimes +supposed +to be in the +portrait. +This belief +among the +Esquimaux +and +American +Indians.</note> +As with shadows and reflections, so with portraits; they +are often believed to contain the soul of the person portrayed. +People who hold this belief are naturally loth to +have their likenesses taken; for if the portrait is the soul, +or at least a vital part of the person portrayed, whoever +possesses the portrait will be able to exercise a fatal influence +over the original of it. Thus the Esquimaux of Bering Strait +believe that persons dealing in witchcraft have the power of +stealing a person's <foreign rend='italic'>inua</foreign> or shade, so that without it he will +pine away and die. Once at a village on the lower Yukon +River an explorer had set up his camera to get a picture +of the people as they were moving about among their houses. +While he was focusing the instrument, the headman of the +village came up and insisted on peeping under the cloth. +Being allowed to do so, he gazed intently for a minute at +the moving figures on the ground glass, then suddenly withdrew +his head and bawled at the top of his voice to the people, +<q>He has all of your shades in this box.</q> A panic ensued among +the group, and in an instant they disappeared helter-skelter +into their houses.<note place='foot'>E. W. Nelson, <q>The Eskimo +about Bering Strait,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Eighteenth +Annual Report of the Bureau of +American Ethnology</hi>, Part I. (Washington, +1899) p. 422.</note> The Dacotas hold that every man has +several <foreign rend='italic'>wanagi</foreign> or <q>apparitions,</q> of which after death one +remains at the grave, while another goes to the place of the +departed. For many years no Yankton Dacota would consent +to have his picture taken lest one of his <q>apparitions</q> should +remain after death in the picture instead of going to the +spirit-land.<note place='foot'>J. Owen Dorsey, <q>A Study of +Siouan Cults,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Eleventh Annual Report +of the Bureau of Ethnology</hi> +(Washington, 1894), p. 484; <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi> +<q>Teton Folk-lore,</q> <hi rend='italic'>American Anthropologist</hi>, +ii. (1889) p. 143.</note> An Indian whose portrait the Prince of Wied +<pb n='097'/><anchor id='Pg097'/> +wished to get, refused to let himself be drawn, because he +believed it would cause his death.<note place='foot'>Maximilian Prinz zu Wied, <hi rend='italic'>Reise +in das innere Nord-America</hi>, i. 417.</note> The Mandan Indians +also thought that they would soon die if their portraits were +in the hands of another; they wished at least to have the +artist's picture as a kind of hostage.<note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>Ibid.</hi> ii. 166.</note> The Tepehuanes of +Mexico stood in mortal terror of the camera, and five days' +persuasion was necessary to induce them to pose for it. +When at last they consented, they looked like criminals +about to be executed. They believed that by photographing +people the artist could carry off their souls and devour them +at his leisure moments. They said that when the pictures +reached his country they would die or some other evil would +befall them.<note place='foot'>C. Lumholtz, <hi rend='italic'>Unknown Mexico</hi> +(London, 1903), i. 459 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> The Canelos Indians of Ecuador think that +their soul is carried away in their picture. Two of them, +who had been photographed, were so alarmed that they came +back next day on purpose to ask if it were really true that +their souls had been taken away.<note place='foot'>A. Simson, <q>Notes on the +Jivaros and Canelos Indians,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Journal +of the Anthropological Institute</hi>, ix. +(1880) p. 392.</note> Similar notions are entertained +by the Aymara Indians of Peru and Bolivia.<note place='foot'>D. Forbes, in <hi rend='italic'>Journal of the +Ethnological Society of London</hi>, ii. +(1870) p. 236.</note> The +Araucanians of Chili are unwilling to have their portraits +drawn, for they fancy that he who has their portraits in his +possession could, by means of magic, injure or destroy +themselves.<note place='foot'>E. R. Smith, <hi rend='italic'>The Araucanians</hi> +(London, 1855), p. 222.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The same +belief in +Africa.</note> +The Yaos, a tribe of British Central Africa in the neighbourhood +of Lake Nyassa, believe that every human being +has a <foreign rend='italic'>lisoka</foreign>, a soul, shade, or spirit, which they appear to +associate with the shadow or picture of the person. Some +of them have been known to refuse to enter a room where +pictures were hung on the walls, <q>because of the <foreign rend='italic'>masoka</foreign>, +souls, in them.</q> The camera was at first an object of dread +to them, and when it was turned on a group of natives +they scattered in all directions with shrieks of terror. They +said that the European was about to take away their shadows +and that they would die; the transference of the shadow or +portrait (for the Yao word for the two is the same, to wit +<pb n='098'/><anchor id='Pg098'/> +<foreign rend='italic'>chiwilili</foreign>) to the photographic plate would involve the disease +or death of the shadeless body. A Yao chief, after much +difficulty, allowed himself to be photographed on condition +that the picture should be shewn to none of his subjects, but +sent out of the country as soon as possible. He feared lest +some ill-wisher might use it to bewitch him. Some time +afterwards he fell ill, and his attendants attributed the illness +to some accident which had befallen the photographic plate +in England.<note place='foot'>Rev. A. Hetherwick, <q>Some +Animistic Beliefs among the Yaos of +British Central Africa,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Journal of the +Anthropological Institute</hi>, xxxii. (1902) +pp. 89 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> The Ngoni of the same region entertain a +similar belief, and formerly exhibited a similar dread of +sitting to a photographer, lest by so doing they should yield +up their shades or spirits to him and they should die.<note place='foot'>W. A. Elmslie, <hi rend='italic'>Among the Wild +Ngoni</hi> (Edinburgh and London, 1899), +pp. 70 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> When +Joseph Thomson attempted to photograph some of the +Wa-teita in eastern Africa, they imagined that he was a +magician trying to obtain possession of their souls, and that +if he got their likenesses they themselves would be entirely +at his mercy.<note place='foot'>J. Thomson, <hi rend='italic'>Through Masai +Land</hi> (London, 1885), p. 86.</note> When Dr. Catat and some companions were +exploring the Bara country on the west coast of Madagascar, +the people suddenly became hostile. The day before the +travellers, not without difficulty, had photographed the royal +family, and now found themselves accused of taking the +souls of the natives for the purpose of selling them when +they returned to France. Denial was vain; in compliance +with the custom of the country they were obliged to catch +the souls, which were then put into a basket and ordered by +Dr. Catat to return to their respective owners.<note place='foot'>E. Clodd, in <hi rend='italic'>Folk-lore</hi>, vi. (1895) +pp. 73 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, referring to <hi rend='italic'>The Times</hi> of +March 24, 1891.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The same +belief in +Asia and the East Indies.</note> +Some villagers in Sikhim betrayed a lively horror and +hid away whenever the lens of a camera, or <q>the evil eye of +the box</q> as they called it, was turned on them. They +thought it took away their souls with their pictures, and so +put it in the power of the owner of the pictures to cast spells +on them, and they alleged that a photograph of the scenery +blighted the landscape.<note place='foot'>L. A. Waddell, <hi rend='italic'>Among the Himalayas</hi> +(Westminster, 1899), pp. 85 +<hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> Until the reign of the late King +of Siam no Siamese coins were ever stamped with the image +<pb n='099'/><anchor id='Pg099'/> +of the king, <q>for at that time there was a strong prejudice +against the making of portraits in any medium. Europeans +who travel into the jungle have, even at the present time, +only to point a camera at a crowd to procure its instant +dispersion. When a copy of the face of a person is made +and taken away from him, a portion of his life goes with the +picture. Unless the sovereign had been blessed with the +years of a Methusaleh he could scarcely have permitted his +life to be distributed in small pieces together with the coins +of the realm.</q><note place='foot'>E. Young, <hi rend='italic'>The Kingdom of the +Yellow Robe</hi> (Westminster, 1898), p. +140.</note> Similarly, in Corea, <q>the effigy of the king +is not struck on the coins; only a few Chinese characters +are put on them. They would deem it an insult to the king +to put his sacred face on objects which pass into the most +vulgar hands and often roll on the ground in the dust or the +mud. When the French ships arrived for the first time in +Corea, the mandarin who was sent on board to communicate +with them was dreadfully shocked to see the levity with +which these western barbarians treated the face of their +sovereign, reproduced on the coins, and the recklessness with +which they put it in the hands of the first comer, without +troubling themselves in the least whether or not he would +shew it due respect.</q><note place='foot'>Ch. Dallet, <hi rend='italic'>Histoire de l'Église +de Corée</hi> (Paris, 1874), i. p. xxv. This +account of Corea was written at a time +when the country was still almost +secluded from European influence. +The events of recent years have naturally +wrought great changes in the +habits and ideas of the people.</note> In Minahassa, a district of Celebes, +many chiefs are reluctant to be photographed, believing that +if that were done they would soon die. For they imagine +that, were the photograph lost by its owner and found by +somebody else, whatever injury the finder chose to do to the +portrait would equally affect the person whom it represented.<note place='foot'><q>Iets over het bijgeloof in de +Minahasa,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Tijdschrift voor Nederlandsch +Indië</hi>, III. Série, iv. (1870) +pp. 8 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> +Mortal terror was depicted on the faces of the Battas upon +whom von Brenner turned the lens of his camera; they +thought he wished to carry off their shadows or spirits in a +little box.<note place='foot'>J. Freiherr von Brenner, <hi rend='italic'>Besuch +bei den Kannibalen Sumatras</hi> (Würzburg, +1894), p. 195.</note> When Dr. Nieuwenhuis attempted to photograph +the Kayans or Bahaus of central Borneo, they were much +alarmed, fearing that their souls would follow their photographs +<pb n='100'/><anchor id='Pg100'/> +into the far country and that their deserted bodies +would fall sick. Further, they imagined that possessing +their likenesses the explorer would be able by magic art +to work on the originals at a distance.<note place='foot'>A. W. Nieuwenhuis, <hi rend='italic'>Quer durch +Borneo</hi>, i. 314.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The same +belief in +Europe.</note> +Beliefs of the same sort still linger in various parts of +Europe. Not very many years ago some old women in the +Greek island of Carpathus were very angry at having their +likenesses drawn, thinking that in consequence they would +pine and die.<note place='foot'><q>A Far-off Greek Island,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Blackwood's +Magazine</hi>, February 1886, p. +235.</note> It is a German superstition that if you have +your portrait painted, you will die.<note place='foot'>J. A. E. Köhler, <hi rend='italic'>Volksbrauch, +Aberglauben, Sagen und andre alte +Überlieferungen im Voigtlande</hi> (Leipsic, +1867), p. 423.</note> Some people in Russia +object to having their silhouettes taken, fearing that if this +is done they will die before the year is out.<note place='foot'>W. R. S. Ralston, <hi rend='italic'>Songs of the +Russian People</hi>, p. 117.</note> In Albania +Miss Durham sketched an old man who boasted of being a +hundred and ten years old. When every one recognised +the likeness, a look of great anxiety came over the patriarch's +face, and most earnestly he besought the artist never to +destroy the sketch, for he was certain that the moment the +sketch was torn he would drop down dead.<note place='foot'>Miss M. E. Durham, <hi rend='italic'>High Albania</hi> +(London, 1909), p. 107.</note> An artist in +England once vainly attempted to sketch a gypsy girl. <q>I +won't have her drawed out,</q> said the girl's aunt. <q>I told her +I'd make her scrawl the earth before me, if ever she let herself +be drawed out again.</q> <q>Why, what harm can there be?</q> <q>I +know there's a fiz (a charm) in it. There was my youngest, +that the gorja drawed out on Newmarket Heath, she never +held her head up after, but wasted away, and died, and she's +buried in March churchyard.</q><note place='foot'>F. H. Groome, <hi rend='italic'>In Gipsy Tents</hi> +(Edinburgh, 1880), pp. 337 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> There are persons in the +West of Scotland <q>who refuse to have their likenesses taken +lest it prove unlucky; and give as instances the cases of +several of their friends who never had a day's health after +being photographed.</q><note place='foot'>James Napier, <hi rend='italic'>Folk-lore, or +Superstitious Beliefs in the West of +Scotland</hi>, p. 142. For more examples +of the same sort, see R. Andree, +<hi rend='italic'>Ethnographische Parallelen und Vergleiche</hi>, +Neue Folge (Leipsic, 1889), +pp. 18 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></note> +</p> + +</div> + +</div> + +<pb n='101'/><anchor id='Pg101'/> + +<div rend='page-break-before: always'> +<index index='toc'/> +<index index='pdf'/> +<head>Chapter III. Tabooed Acts.</head> + +<div> +<index index='toc'/> +<index index='pdf' level1='1. Taboos on Intercourse with Strangers.'/> +<head>§ 1. Taboos on Intercourse with Strangers.</head> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Primitive +conceptions +of the +soul helped +to mould +early kingships +by +dictating +rules to be +observed +by the king +for his +soul's +salvation.</note> +So much for the primitive conceptions of the soul and the +dangers to which it is exposed. These conceptions are not +limited to one people or country; with variations of detail +they are found all over the world, and survive, as we have +seen, in modern Europe. Beliefs so deep-seated and so +widespread must necessarily have contributed to shape the +mould in which the early kingship was cast. For if every +person was at such pains to save his own soul from the perils +which threatened it on so many sides, how much more +carefully must <emph>he</emph> have been guarded upon whose life hung +the welfare and even the existence of the whole people, and +whom therefore it was the common interest of all to preserve? +Therefore we should expect to find the king's life protected +by a system of precautions or safeguards still more numerous +and minute than those which in primitive society every man +adopts for the safety of his own soul. Now in point of fact +the life of the early kings is regulated, as we have seen and +shall see more fully presently, by a very exact code of rules. +May we not then conjecture that these rules are in fact the +very safeguards which we should expect to find adopted for +the protection of the king's life? An examination of the +rules themselves confirms this conjecture. For from this it +appears that some of the rules observed by the kings are +identical with those observed by private persons out of +regard for the safety of their souls; and even of those which +seem peculiar to the king, many, if not all, are most readily +<pb n='102'/><anchor id='Pg102'/> +explained on the hypothesis that they are nothing but safeguards +or lifeguards of the king. I will now enumerate +some of these royal rules or taboos, offering on each of them +such comments and explanations as may serve to set the +original intention of the rule in its proper light. +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The +general +effect of +these rules +is to isolate +the king, +especially +from +strangers. +The +savage +fears the +magic arts +of strangers +and hence +guards +himself +against +them. Various +modes of +disenchanting +strangers.</note> +As the object of the royal taboos is to isolate the king +from all sources of danger, their general effect is to compel +him to live in a state of seclusion, more or less complete, +according to the number and stringency of the rules he +observes. Now of all sources of danger none are more +dreaded by the savage than magic and witchcraft, and he +suspects all strangers of practising these black arts. To +guard against the baneful influence exerted voluntarily or +involuntarily by strangers is therefore an elementary dictate +of savage prudence. Hence before strangers are allowed +to enter a district, or at least before they are permitted +to mingle freely with the inhabitants, certain ceremonies +are often performed by the natives of the country for +the purpose of disarming the strangers of their magical +powers, of counteracting the baneful influence which is +believed to emanate from them, or of disinfecting, so to +speak, the tainted atmosphere by which they are supposed +to be surrounded. Thus, when the ambassadors sent by +Justin II., Emperor of the East, to conclude a peace with +the Turks had reached their destination, they were received +by shamans, who subjected them to a ceremonial purification +for the purpose of exorcising all harmful influence. Having +deposited the goods brought by the ambassadors in an open +place, these wizards carried burning branches of incense +round them, while they rang a bell and beat on a tambourine, +snorting and falling into a state of frenzy in their efforts to +dispel the powers of evil. Afterwards they purified the +ambassadors themselves by leading them through the flames.<note place='foot'>Menander Protector, in <hi rend='italic'>Fragmenta +historicorum Graecorum</hi>, ed. C. Müller, +iv. 227. Compare Gibbon, <hi rend='italic'>Decline and +Fall of the Roman Empire</hi>, ch. xlii. +vol. vii. pp. 294 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> (Edinburgh, +1811).</note> +In the island of Nanumea (South Pacific) strangers from +ships or from other islands were not allowed to communicate +with the people until they all, or a few as representatives of +the rest, had been taken to each of the four temples in the +<pb n='103'/><anchor id='Pg103'/> +island, and prayers offered that the god would avert any +disease or treachery which these strangers might have +brought with them. Meat offerings were also laid upon the +altars, accompanied by songs and dances in honour of the +god. While these ceremonies were going on, all the people +except the priests and their attendants kept out of sight.<note place='foot'>G. Turner, <hi rend='italic'>Samoa</hi>, pp. 291 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> +On returning from an attempted ascent of the great African +mountain Kilimanjaro, which is believed by the neighbouring +tribes to be tenanted by dangerous demons, Mr. New and +his party, as soon as they reached the border of the inhabited +country, were disenchanted by the inhabitants, being +sprinkled with <q>a professionally prepared liquor, supposed +to possess the potency of neutralising evil influences, and +removing the spell of wicked spirits.</q><note place='foot'>Charles New, <hi rend='italic'>Life, Wanderings, +and Labours in Eastern Africa</hi> (London, +1873), p. 432. Compare <hi rend='italic'>ibid.</hi> +pp. 400, 402. For the demons on +Mt. Kilimanjaro, see also J. L. Krapf, +<hi rend='italic'>Travels, Researches, and Missionary +Labours in Eastern Africa</hi> (London, +1860), p. 192.</note> In the interior of +Yoruba (West Africa) the sentinels at the gates of towns +often oblige European travellers to wait till nightfall before +they admit them, fearing that if the strangers were admitted +by day the devil would enter behind them.<note place='foot'>Pierre Bouche, <hi rend='italic'>La Côte des Esclaves +et le Dahomey</hi> (Paris, 1885), p. +133.</note> The whole +Mahafaly country in Madagascar used to be tabooed to +strangers of the white race, the natives imagining that the +intrusion of a white man would immediately cause the death +of their king. The traveller Bastard had the greatest +difficulty in overcoming the reluctance of the natives to allow +him to enter their land and especially to visit their holy city.<note place='foot'>A. van Gennep, <hi rend='italic'>Tabou et totémisme +à Madagascar</hi> (Paris, 1904), p. 42.</note> +Amongst the Ot Danoms of Borneo it is the custom +that strangers entering the territory should pay to the +natives a certain sum, which is spent in the sacrifice +of buffaloes or pigs to the spirits of the land and water, +in order to reconcile them to the presence of the strangers, +and to induce them not to withdraw their favour from +the people of the country, but to bless the rice-harvest, +and so forth.<note place='foot'>C. A. L. M. Schwaner, <hi rend='italic'>Borneo</hi> +(Amsterdam, 1853-54), ii. 77.</note> The men of a certain district in Borneo, +fearing to look upon a European traveller lest he should +make them ill, warned their wives and children not +<pb n='104'/><anchor id='Pg104'/> +to go near him. Those who could not restrain their +curiosity killed fowls to appease the evil spirits and smeared +themselves with the blood.<note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>Ibid.</hi> ii. 167.</note> <q>More dreaded,</q> says a +traveller in central Borneo, <q>than the evil spirits of the +neighbourhood are the evil spirits from a distance which +accompany travellers. When a company from the middle +Mahakam river visited me among the Blu-u Kayans in the +year 1897, no woman shewed herself outside her house without +a burning bundle of <foreign rend='italic'>plehiding</foreign> bark, the stinking smoke of +which drives away evil spirits.</q><note place='foot'>A. W. Nieuwenhuis, <hi rend='italic'>Quer durch +Borneo</hi>, ii. 102.</note> In Laos, before a stranger +can be accorded hospitality, the master of the house must offer +sacrifice to the ancestral spirits; otherwise the spirits would +be offended and would send disease on the inmates.<note place='foot'>E. Aymonier, <hi rend='italic'>Notes sur le Laos</hi> +(Saigon, 1885), p. 196.</note> When +Madame Pfeiffer arrived at the village of Hali-Bonar, among +the Battas of Sumatra, a buffalo was killed and the liver +offered to her. Then a ceremony was performed to propitiate +the evil spirits. Two young men danced, and one of +them in dancing sprinkled water from a buffalo's horn on +the visitor and the spectators.<note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>Bulletin de la Société de Géographie</hi> +(Paris), IVme Série, vi. (1853) pp. +134 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> In the Mentawei Islands, +when a stranger enters a house where there are children, the +father or other member of the family takes the ornament +which the children wear in their hair and hands it to the +stranger, who holds it in his hands for a while and then +gives it back to him. This is thought to protect the children +from the evil effect which the sight of a stranger might have +upon them.<note place='foot'>H. von Rosenberg, <hi rend='italic'>Der malayische +Archipel</hi> (Leipsic, 1878), p. 198.</note> When a Dutch steamship was approaching +their villages, the people of Biak, an island off the north +coast of New Guinea, shook and knocked their idols about +in order to ward off ill-luck.<note place='foot'>D. W. Horst, <q>Rapport van eene +reis naar de Noordkust van Nieuw +Guinea,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Tijdschrift voor Indische +Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde</hi>, xxxii. +(1889) p. 229.</note> At Shepherd's Isle Captain +Moresby had to be disenchanted before he was allowed to +land his boat's crew. When he leaped ashore, a devil-man +seized his right hand and waved a bunch of palm leaves +over the captain's head. Then <q>he placed the leaves in my +left hand, putting a small green twig into his mouth, still +<pb n='105'/><anchor id='Pg105'/> +holding me fast, and then, as if with great effort, drew the +twig from his mouth—this was extracting the evil spirit—after +which he blew violently, as if to speed it away. I now +held a twig between my teeth, and he went through the +same process.</q> Then the two raced round a couple of sticks +fixed in the ground and bent to an angle at the top, which +had leaves tied to it. After some more ceremonies the +devil-man concluded by leaping to the level of Captain +Moresby's shoulders (his hands resting on the captain's +shoulders) several times, <q>as if to show that he had +conquered the devil, and was now trampling him into +the earth.</q><note place='foot'>Capt. John Moresby, <hi rend='italic'>Discoveries +and Surveys in New Guinea</hi> (London, +1876), pp. 102 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> North American Indians <q>have an idea that +strangers, particularly white strangers, are ofttimes accompanied +by evil spirits. Of these they have great dread, as +creating and delighting in mischief. One of the duties of +the medicine chief is to exorcise these spirits. I have sometimes +ridden into or through a camp where I was unknown +or unexpected, to be confronted by a tall, half-naked savage, +standing in the middle of the circle of lodges, and yelling in +a sing-song, nasal tone, a string of unintelligible words.</q><note place='foot'>R. I. Dodge, <hi rend='italic'>Our Wild Indians</hi> +(Hartford, Conn., 1886), p. 119.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Disenchantment +effected by +means of +stinging +ants and +pungent +spices. Disenchantment +effected by +cuts with +knives.</note> +When Crevaux was travelling in South America he +entered a village of the Apalai Indians. A few moments +after his arrival some of the Indians brought him a number +of large black ants, of a species whose bite is painful, +fastened on palm leaves. Then all the people of the village, +without distinction of age or sex, presented themselves to +him, and he had to sting them all with the ants on their +faces, thighs, and other parts of their bodies. Sometimes +when he applied the ants too tenderly they called out +<q>More! more!</q> and were not satisfied till their skin was +thickly studded with tiny swellings like what might have +been produced by whipping them with nettles.<note place='foot'>J. Crevaux, <hi rend='italic'>Voyages dans +l'Amérique du Sud</hi> (Paris, 1883), p. +300.</note> The object +of this ceremony is made plain by the custom observed in +Amboyna and Uliase of sprinkling sick people with pungent +spices, such as ginger and cloves, chewed fine, in order by +the prickling sensation to drive away the demon of disease +<pb n='106'/><anchor id='Pg106'/> +which may be clinging to their persons.<note place='foot'>J. G. F. Riedel, <hi rend='italic'>De sluik- en +kroesharige rassen tusschen Selebes en +Papua</hi>, p. 78.</note> In Java a popular +cure for gout or rheumatism is to rub Spanish pepper into +the nails of the fingers and toes of the sufferer; the pungency +of the pepper is supposed to be too much for the gout +or rheumatism, who accordingly departs in haste.<note place='foot'>J. Kreemer, <q>Hoe de Javaan zijne +zieken verzorgt,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Mededeelingen van +wege het Nederlandsche Zendelinggenootschap</hi>, +xxxvi. (1892) p. 13. Mr. E. +W. Lewis, of Woodthorpe, Atkins +Rood, Clapham Park, London, S.W., +writes to me (July 2, 1902) that his +grandmother, a native of Cheshire, +used to make bees sting her as a cure for +local rheumatism; she said the remedy +was infallible and had been handed +down to her from her mother.</note> So on +the Slave Coast of Africa the mother of a sick child sometimes +believes that an evil spirit has taken possession of the +child's body, and in order to drive him out, she makes small +cuts in the body of the little sufferer and inserts green +peppers or spices in the wounds, believing that she will +thereby hurt the evil spirit and force him to be gone. The +poor child naturally screams with pain, but the mother +hardens her heart in the belief that the demon is suffering +equally.<note place='foot'>Father Baudin, <q>Le Fétichisme,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Missions Catholiques</hi>, xvi. (1884) p. +249; A. B. Ellis, <hi rend='italic'>The Yoruba-speaking +Peoples of the Slave Coast</hi> (London, +1894), pp. 113 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> In Hawaii a patient is sometimes pricked with +bamboo needles for the sake of hurting and expelling a refractory +demon who is lurking in the sufferer's body and +making him ill.<note place='foot'>A. Bastian, <hi rend='italic'>Allerlei aus Volks- +und Menschenkunde</hi> (Berlin, 1888), i. +116.</note> Dyak sorceresses in south-eastern Borneo +will sometimes slash the body of a sick man with sharp +knives in order, it is said, to allow the demon of disease +to escape through the cuts;<note place='foot'>J. B. de Callone, <q>Iets over de +geneeswijze en ziekten der Daijakers +ter Zuid Oostkust van Borneo,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Tijdschrift voor Neêrlands Indie</hi>, +1840, dl. i. p. 418.</note> but perhaps the notion +rather is to make the present quarters of the spirit too +hot for him. With a similar intention some of the natives +of Borneo and Celebes sprinkle rice upon the head or body +of a person supposed to be infested by dangerous spirits; a +fowl is then brought, which, by picking up the rice from the +person's head or body, removes along with it the spirit or +ghost which is clinging like a burr to his skin. This is done, +for example, to persons who have attended a funeral, and +who may therefore be supposed to be infested by the ghost +<pb n='107'/><anchor id='Pg107'/> +of the deceased.<note place='foot'>M. T. H. Perelaer, <hi rend='italic'>Ethnographische +Beschrijving der Dajaks</hi>, +pp. 44, 54, 252; B. F. Matthes, +<hi rend='italic'>Bijdragen tot de Ethnologie van Zuid-Celebes</hi> +(The Hague, 1875), p. 49.</note> Similarly Basutos, who have carried a +corpse to the grave, have their hands scratched with a knife +from the tip of the thumb to the tip of the forefinger, and +magic stuff is rubbed into the wound,<note place='foot'>H. Grützner, <q>Über die Gebräuche +der Basutho,</q> in <hi rend='italic'>Verhandlungen +der Berliner Gesellschaft für +Anthropologie, Ethnologie, und Urgeschichte</hi>, +1877, pp. 84 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> for the purpose, no +doubt, of removing the ghost which may be adhering to their +skin. Among the Barotse of south-eastern Africa a few +days after a funeral the sorcerer makes an incision in the +forehead of each surviving member of the family and fills it +with medicine, <q>in order to ward off contagion and the effect +of the sorcery which caused the death.</q><note place='foot'>L. Decle, <hi rend='italic'>Three Years in Savage +Africa</hi> (London, 1898), p. 81.</note> When elephant-hunters +in East Africa have killed an elephant they get +upon its carcase, make little cuts in their toes, and rub gunpowder +into the cuts. This is done with the double +intention of counteracting any evil influence that may +emanate from the dead elephant, and of acquiring thereby +the fleetness of foot possessed by the animal in its life.<note place='foot'>P. Reichard, <hi rend='italic'>Deutsch-Ostafrika</hi> +(Leipsic, 1892), p. 431.</note> +The people of Nias carefully scrub and scour the weapons +and clothes which they buy, in order to efface all connexion +between the things and the persons from whom they bought +them.<note place='foot'>Nieuwenhuisen en Rosenberg, +<q>Verslag omtrent het eiland Nias,</q> in +<hi rend='italic'>Verhandelingen van het Bataviaasch +Genootschap van Kunsten en Wetenschappen</hi>, +xxx. (Batavia, 1863) p. +26.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Ceremonies +observed +at the +reception +of strangers +may sometimes +be +intended to +counteract +their +enchantments.</note> +It is probable that the same dread of strangers, rather +than any desire to do them honour, is the motive of certain +ceremonies which are sometimes observed at their reception, +but of which the intention is not directly stated. In the +Ongtong Java Islands, which are inhabited by Polynesians, +and lie a little to the north of the Solomon Islands, the +priests or sorcerers seem to wield great influence. Their main +business is to summon or exorcise spirits for the purpose +of averting or dispelling sickness, and of procuring favourable +winds, a good catch of fish, and so on. When strangers +land on the islands, they are first of all received by the +sorcerers, sprinkled with water, anointed with oil, and girt +<pb n='108'/><anchor id='Pg108'/> +with dried pandanus leaves. At the same time sand and +water are freely thrown about in all directions, and the newcomer +and his boat are wiped with green leaves. After this +ceremony the strangers are introduced by the sorcerers to +the chief.<note place='foot'>R. Parkinson, <q>Zur Ethnographie +der Ontong Java- und Tasman-Inseln,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Internationales Archiv für +Ethnographie</hi>, x. (1897) p. 112.</note> In Afghanistan and in some parts of Persia +the traveller, before he enters a village, is frequently received +with a sacrifice of animal life or food, or of fire and incense. +The Afghan Boundary Mission, in passing by villages +in Afghanistan, was often met with fire and incense.<note place='foot'>T. S. Weir, <q>Note on Sacrifices +in India as a Means of averting Epidemics,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Journal of the Anthropological +Society of Bombay</hi>, i. 35.</note> +Sometimes a tray of lighted embers is thrown under the +hoofs of the traveller's horse, with the words, <q>You are +welcome.</q><note place='foot'>E. O'Donovan, <hi rend='italic'>The Merv Oasis</hi> +(London, 1882), ii. 58.</note> On entering a village in central Africa Emin +Pasha was received with the sacrifice of two goats; their +blood was sprinkled on the path and the chief stepped over +the blood to greet Emin.<note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>Emin Pasha in Central Africa, +being a Collection of his Letters and +Journals</hi> (London, 1888), p. 107.</note> Before strangers entered the +country or city of Benin, custom compelled them to have +their feet washed; sometimes the ceremony was performed +in a sacred place.<note place='foot'>H. Ling Roth, <hi rend='italic'>Great Benin</hi> +(Halifax, England, 1903), p. 123.</note> Amongst the Esquimaux of Cumberland +Inlet, when a stranger arrives at an encampment, the +sorcerer goes out to meet him. The stranger folds his +arms and inclines his head to one side, so as to expose +his cheek, upon which the magician deals a terrible blow, +sometimes felling him to the ground. Next the sorcerer in +his turn presents his cheek to the smiter and receives a buffet +from the stranger. Then they kiss each other, the ceremony +is over, and the stranger is hospitably received by all.<note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>Narrative of the Second Arctic +Expedition made by Charles F. Hall</hi>, +edited by Prof. J. G. Nourse, U.S.N. +(Washington, 1879), p. 269, note. +Compare Fr. Boas, <q>The Central +Eskimo,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Sixth Annual Report of the +Bureau of Ethnology</hi> (Washington, +1888), p. 609.</note> +Sometimes the dread of strangers and their magic is too +great to allow of their reception on any terms. Thus when +Speke arrived at a certain village, the natives shut their +doors against him, <q>because they had never before seen a +white man nor the tin boxes that the men were carrying: +<pb n='109'/><anchor id='Pg109'/> +<q>Who knows,</q> they said, <q>but that these very boxes are the +plundering Watuta transformed and come to kill us? You +cannot be admitted.</q> No persuasion could avail with them, +and the party had to proceed to the next village.</q><note place='foot'>J. A. Grant, <hi rend='italic'>A Walk across Africa</hi>, +pp. 104 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Ceremonies +observed +at entering +a strange +land to +disenchant +it. Ceremonies +at entering +a strange +land to +disenchant +it or to +propitiate +the local +spirits.</note> +The fear thus entertained of alien visitors is often mutual. +Entering a strange land the savage feels that he is treading +enchanted ground, and he takes steps to guard against the +demons that haunt it and the magical arts of its inhabitants. +Thus on going to a strange land the Maoris performed +certain ceremonies to make it <foreign rend='italic'>noa</foreign> (common), lest it might +have been previously <foreign rend='italic'>tapu</foreign> (sacred).<note place='foot'>E. Shortland, <hi rend='italic'>Traditions and +Superstitions of the New Zealanders</hi><hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi> +(London, 1856), p. 103.</note> When Baron Miklucho-Maclay +was approaching a village on the Maclay Coast of +New Guinea, one of the natives who accompanied him broke +a branch from a tree and going aside whispered to it for a +while; then stepping up to each member of the party, one +after another, he spat something upon his back and gave +him some blows with the branch. Lastly, he went into the +forest and buried the branch under withered leaves in the +thickest part of the jungle. This ceremony was believed to +protect the party against all treachery and danger in the +village they were approaching.<note place='foot'>N. von Miklucho-Maclay, <q>Ethnologische +Bemerkungen über die +Papuas der Maclay-Kuste in Neu-Guinea,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Natuurkundig Tijdschrift +voor Nederlandsch Indie</hi>, xxxvi. 317 +<hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> The idea probably was +that the malignant influences were drawn off from the +persons into the branch and buried with it in the depths of +the forest. Before Stuhlmann and his companions entered +the territory of the Wanyamwesi in central Africa, one of +his men killed a white cock and buried it in a pot just at +the boundary.<note place='foot'>Fr. Stuhlmann, <hi rend='italic'>Mit Emin Pascha +ins Herz von Afrika</hi> (Berlin, 1894), p. +94.</note> In Australia, when a strange tribe has been +invited into a district and is approaching the encampment +of the tribe which owns the land, <q>the strangers carry +lighted bark or burning sticks in their hands, for the purpose, +they say, of clearing and purifying the air.</q><note place='foot'>R. Brough Smyth, <hi rend='italic'>Aborigines of +Victoria</hi>, i. 134.</note> On the coast +of Victoria there is a tract of country between the La Trobe +River and the Yarra River, which some of the aborigines +called the Bad Country. It was supposed to act injuriously +<pb n='110'/><anchor id='Pg110'/> +on strangers. Hence when a man of another clan entered +it he needed some one of the natives to look after him; +and if his guardian went away from the camp, he deputed +another to take his place. During his first visit, before he +became as it were acclimatised, the visitor did nothing for +himself as to food, drinking-water, or lodging. He was +painted with a band of white pipe-clay across the face below +the eyes, and had to learn the Nulit language before going +further. He slept on a thick layer of leaves so that he +should not touch the ground; and he was fed with flesh-meat +from the point of a burnt stick, which he removed with +his teeth, not with his lips. His drinking-water was drawn +from a small hole in the ground by his entertainers, and they +made it muddy by stirring it with a stick. He might only +take three mouthfuls at a time, each of which he had to let +slowly trickle down his throat. If he did otherwise, his +throat would close up.<note place='foot'>A. W. Howitt, <hi rend='italic'>Native Tribes of South-East Australia</hi>, p. 403.</note> The Kayans and Kenyahs of +Borneo think it well to conciliate the spirit of the land +when they enter a strange country. <q>The old men, indeed, +trusting to the protection afforded by omens, are in little +need of further aid, but when young boys are brought into a +new river of importance, the hospitality of the local demons +is invoked. The Kayans make an offering of fowls' eggs, +which must not be bought on the spot, but are carried from +the house, sometimes for distances so long that the devotion +of the travellers is more apparent than their presents to the +spirits of the land. Each boy takes an egg and puts it in a +bamboo split at the end into four, while one of the older +men calls upon the hills, rocks, trees, and streams to hear +him and to witness the offering. Careful to disguise the +true nature of the gift, he speaks of it as <foreign rend='italic'>ovē</foreign>, a yam, using +a form of words fixed by usage. <q>Omen bird,</q> he shouts +into the air, <q>we have brought you these boys. It is on +their account only that we have prepared this feast. Harm +them not; make things go pleasantly; and they give you +the usual offering of a yam. I give this to the country.</q> +The little ceremony is performed behind the hut where the +night is spent, and the boys wait about for the charm to +take effect. The custom of the Kenyahs shows the same +<pb n='111'/><anchor id='Pg111'/> +feeling for the unknown and unseen spirits that are supposed +to abound. A fowl's feathers, one for each boy, are held by +an old man, while the youngsters touch his arm. The +invocation is quite a powerful example of native rhetoric: +<q>Smooth away trouble, ye mystic mountains, hills, valleys, +soil, rocks, trees. Shield the lives of the children who have +come hither.</q></q><note place='foot'>Ch. Hose, <hi rend='italic'>Notes on the Natives of +British Borneo</hi> (in manuscript).</note> When the Toradjas of central Celebes are +on a head-hunting expedition and have entered the enemy's +country, they may not eat any fruits which the foe has +planted nor any animal which he has reared until they have +first committed an act of hostility, as by burning a house or +killing a man. They think that if they broke this rule they +would receive something of the soul or spiritual essence of +the enemy into themselves, which would destroy the mystic +virtue of their talismans.<note place='foot'>A. C. Kruijt, <q>Het koppensnellen +der Toradja's van Midden-Celebes, +en zijne beteekenis,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Verslagen en +Mededeelingen der Konikl. Akademie +van Wetenschappen</hi>, Afdeeling Letterkunde, +iv. Reeks, iii. (1899) p. +204.</note> It is said that just before Greek +armies advanced to the shock of battle, a man bearing a +lighted torch stepped out from either side and threw his +torch into the space between the hosts. Then they retired +unmolested, for they were thought to be sacred to Ares and +inviolable.<note place='foot'>Scholiast on Euripides, <hi rend='italic'>Phoenissae</hi>, +1377, ed. E. Schwartz.</note> Now some peoples fancy that when they +advance to battle the spirits of their fathers hover in the +van.<note place='foot'>Conon, <hi rend='italic'>Narrationes</hi>, 18; Pausanias, +iii. 19. 12; Francis Fleming, <hi rend='italic'>Southern +Africa</hi> (London, 1856), p. 259; +Dudley Kidd, <hi rend='italic'>The Essential Kafir</hi>, p. +307.</note> Hence fire thrown out in front of the line of battle +may be meant to disperse these shadowy combatants, +leaving the issue of the fight to be determined by more +substantial weapons than ghosts can wield. Similarly the +fire which is sometimes borne at the head of an army<note place='foot'>See <hi rend='italic'>The Magic Art and the Evolution +of Kings</hi>, vol. ii. pp. 263 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> is +perhaps in some cases intended to dissipate the evil +influences, whether magical or spiritual, with which the air +of the enemy's country may be conceived to teem. +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Purificatory +ceremonies +observed +on the +return +from a +journey.</note> +Again, it is thought that a man who has been on a +journey may have contracted some magic evil from the +strangers with whom he has been brought into contact. +Hence, on returning home, before he is readmitted to the +<pb n='112'/><anchor id='Pg112'/> +society of his tribe and friends, he has to undergo certain +purificatory ceremonies. Thus the Bechuanas <q>cleanse or +purify themselves after journeys by shaving their heads, etc., +lest they should have contracted from strangers some evil +by witchcraft or sorcery.</q><note place='foot'>John Campbell, <hi rend='italic'>Travels in South +Africa, being a Narrative of a Second +Journey in the Interior of that Country</hi> +(London, 1822), ii. 205.</note> In some parts of western Africa +when a man returns home after a long absence, before he is +allowed to visit his wife, he must wash his person with a +particular fluid, and receive from the sorcerer a certain mark +on his forehead, in order to counteract any magic spell +which a stranger woman may have cast on him in his +absence, and which might be communicated through him to +the women of his village.<note place='foot'>Ladislaus Magyar, <hi rend='italic'>Reisen in Süd-Afrika</hi> +(Buda-Pesth and Leipsic, 1859), +p. 203.</note> Every year about one-third of +the men of the Wanyamwesi tribe make journeys to the east +coast of Africa either as porters or as traffickers. Before he +sets out, the husband smears his cheeks with a sort of meal-porridge, +and during his absence his wife may eat no flesh +and must keep for him the sediment of the porridge in the +pot. On their return from the coast the men sprinkle meal +every day on all the paths leading to the camp, for the +purpose, it is supposed, of keeping evil spirits off; and +when they reach their homes the men again smear porridge +on their faces, while the women who have stayed at home +strew ashes on their heads.<note place='foot'>Fr. Stuhlmann, <hi rend='italic'>Mit Emin Pascha +ins Herz von Afrika</hi> (Berlin, 1894), p. +89.</note> In Uganda, when a man +returns from a journey, his wife takes some of the bark +cloths from the bed of one of his children and lays them on +her husband's bed; and as he enters the house, he jumps +over one of his wives who has children by him, or over one +of his children. If he neglects to do this, one of his children +or one of his wives will die.<note place='foot'>J. Roscoe, <q>Further Notes on the +Manners and Customs of the Baganda,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Journal of the Anthropological Institute</hi>, +xxxii. (1902) p. 62.</note> When Damaras return home +after a long absence, they are given a small portion of the +fat of particular animals, which is supposed to possess +certain virtues.<note place='foot'>C. J. Andersson, <hi rend='italic'>Lake Ngami</hi><hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi> +(London, 1856), p. 223.</note> A story is told of a Navajo Indian +who, after long wanderings, returned to his own people. +When he came within sight of his house, his people +<pb n='113'/><anchor id='Pg113'/> +made him stop and told him not to approach nearer till +they had summoned a shaman. When the shaman was come +<q>ceremonies were performed over the returned wanderer, +and he was washed from head to foot, and dried with corn-meal; +for thus do the Navajo treat all who return to their +homes from captivity with another tribe, in order that all +alien substances and influences may be removed from them. +When he had been thus purified he entered the house, and +his people embraced him and wept over him.</q><note place='foot'>Washington Matthews, <q>The +Mountain Chant: a Navajo Ceremony,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Fifth Annual Report of the Bureau of +Ethnology</hi> (Washington, 1887), p. 410.</note> Two +Hindoo ambassadors, who had been sent to England by a +native prince and had returned to India, were considered to +have so polluted themselves by contact with strangers that +nothing but being born again could restore them to purity. +<q>For the purpose of regeneration it is directed to make an +image of pure gold of the female power of nature, in the +shape either of a woman or of a cow. In this statue the +person to be regenerated is enclosed, and dragged through +the usual channel. As a statue of pure gold and of proper +dimensions would be too expensive, it is sufficient to make +an image of the sacred <foreign rend='italic'>Yoni</foreign>, through which the person to be +regenerated is to pass.</q> Such an image of pure gold was +made at the prince's command, and his ambassadors were +born again by being dragged through it.<note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>Asiatick Researches</hi>, vi. 535 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> ed. +4to (p. 537 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> ed. 8vo).</note> In some of the +Moluccas, when a brother or young blood-relation returns +from a long journey, a young girl awaits him at the door with +a <foreign rend='italic'>caladi</foreign> leaf in her hand and water in the leaf. She throws +the water over his face and bids him welcome.<note place='foot'>François Valentyn, <hi rend='italic'>Oud en nieuw +Oost-Indiën</hi>, iii. 16.</note> Among the +Kayans of Borneo, men who have been absent on a long +journey are secluded for four days in a small hut made +specially for the purpose before they are allowed to +enter their own house.<note place='foot'>A. W. Nieuwenhuis, <hi rend='italic'>In Centraal +Borneo</hi>, i. 165.</note> The natives of Savage Island +(South Pacific) invariably killed, not only all strangers in +distress who were drifted to their shores, but also any +of their own people who had gone away in a ship and +returned home. This was done out of dread of disease. +Long after they began to venture out to ships they +<pb n='114'/><anchor id='Pg114'/> +would not immediately use the things they obtained from +them, but hung them up in quarantine for weeks in the +bush.<note place='foot'>G. Turner, <hi rend='italic'>Samoa</hi>, pp. 305 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Special +precautions +taken to +guard the +king +against the +magic of +strangers.</note> +When precautions like these are taken on behalf +of the people in general against the malignant influence +supposed to be exercised by strangers, it is no wonder +that special measures are adopted to protect the king +from the same insidious danger. In the middle ages the +envoys who visited a Tartar Khan were obliged to pass +between two fires before they were admitted to his presence, +and the gifts they brought were also carried between the +fires. The reason assigned for the custom was that the fire +purged away any magic influence which the strangers might +mean to exercise over the Khan.<note place='foot'>De Plano Carpini, <hi rend='italic'>Historia Mongolorum +quos nos Tartaros appellamus</hi>, +ed. D'Avezac (Paris, 1838), cap. iii. § iii. +p. 627, cap. ult. § i. x. p. 744, and +Appendix, p. 775; <q>Travels of William +de Rubriquis into Tartary and China,</q> +in Pinkerton's <hi rend='italic'>Voyages and Travels</hi>, vii. +82 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> When subject chiefs come +with their retinues to visit Kalamba (the most powerful +chief of the Bashilange in the Congo Basin) for the first +time or after being rebellious, they have to bathe, men and +women together, in two brooks on two successive days, +passing the nights under the open sky in the market-place. +After the second bath they proceed, entirely naked, to the +house of Kalamba, who makes a long white mark on the +breast and forehead of each of them. Then they return to +the market-place and dress, after which they undergo the +pepper ordeal. Pepper is dropped into the eyes of each of +them, and while this is being done the sufferer has to make +a confession of all his sins, to answer all questions that may +be put to him, and to take certain vows. This ends the +ceremony, and the strangers are now free to take up their +quarters in the town for as long as they choose to remain.<note place='foot'>Paul Pogge, <q>Bericht über die +Station Mukenge,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Mittheilungen der +Afrikanischen Gesellschaft in Deutschland</hi>, +iv. (1883-1885) pp. 182 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> +Before strangers were admitted to the presence of Lobengula, +king of the Matebeles, they had to be treated with +a sticky green medicine, which was profusely sprinkled +over them by means of a cow's tail.<note place='foot'>Coillard, <q>Voyage au pays des +Banyais et au Zambèse,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Bulletin de la +Société de Géographie</hi> (Paris), VIme +Série, xx. (1880) p. 393.</note> At Kilema, in +<pb n='115'/><anchor id='Pg115'/> +eastern Africa, when a stranger arrives, a medicine is +made out of a certain plant or a tree fetched from a +distance, mixed with the blood of a sheep or goat. With +this mixture the stranger is besmeared or besprinkled +before he is admitted to the presence of the king.<note place='foot'>J. L. Krapf, <hi rend='italic'>Travels, Researches, +and Missionary Labours during an +Eighteen Years' Residence in Eastern +Africa</hi> (London, 1860), pp. 252 +<hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> The +king of Monomotapa, in South-East Africa, might not wear +any foreign stuffs for fear of their being poisoned.<note place='foot'>O. Dapper, <hi rend='italic'>Description de l'Afrique</hi> +(Amsterdam, 1686), p. 391.</note> The +king of Cacongo, in West Africa, might not possess or even +touch European goods, except metals, arms, and articles +made of wood and ivory. Persons wearing foreign stuffs +were very careful to keep at a distance from his person, lest +they should touch him.<note place='foot'>Proyart, <q>History of Loango, +Kakongo,</q> etc., in Pinkerton's <hi rend='italic'>Voyages +and Travels</hi>, xvi. 583; Dapper, <hi rend='italic'>op. +cit.</hi> p. 340; J. Ogilby, <hi rend='italic'>Africa</hi> (London, +1670), p. 521. Compare A. Bastian, +<hi rend='italic'>Die deutsche Expedition an der Loango-Küste</hi>, +i. 288.</note> The king of Loango might not +look upon the house of a white man.<note place='foot'>A. Bastian, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> i. 268 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> We have already +seen how the native king of Fernando Po dwells secluded +from all contact with the whites in the depths of an extinct +volcano, shunning the very sight of a pale face, which, in the +belief of his subjects, would be instantly fatal to him.<note place='foot'>See above, pp. <ref target='Pg008'>8</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> In a +wild mountainous district of Java, to the south of Bantam, +there exists a small aboriginal race who have been described +as a living antiquity. These are the Baduwis, who about +the year 1443 fled from Bantam to escape conversion to +Islam, and in their mountain fastnesses, holding aloof from +their neighbours, still cleave to the quaint and primitive ways +of their heathen forefathers. Their villages are perched in +spots which deep ravines, lofty precipices, raging torrents, +and impenetrable forests combine to render almost inaccessible. +Their hereditary ruler bears the title of Girang-Pu-un +and unites in his hands the temporal and spiritual power. +He must never quit the capital, and none even of his subjects +who live outside the town are ever allowed to see him. +Were an alien to set foot in his dwelling, the place would +be desecrated and abandoned. In former times the representatives +of the Dutch Government and the Regent of Java +<pb n='116'/><anchor id='Pg116'/> +once paid a visit to the capital of the Baduwis. That very +night all the people fled the place and never returned.<note place='foot'>L. von Ende, <q>Die Baduwis auf +Java,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Mittheilungen der anthropologischen +Gesellschaft in Wien</hi>, xix. +(1889) pp. 7-10. As to the Baduwis +(Badoejs) see also G. A. Wilken, +<hi rend='italic'>Handleiding voor de vergelijkende Volkenkunde +van Nederlandsch-Indië</hi> +(Leyden, 1893), pp. 640-643.</note> +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<index index='toc'/> +<index index='pdf' level1='2. Taboos on Eating and Drinking.'/> +<head>§ 2. Taboos on Eating and Drinking.</head> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Spiritual +dangers of +eating and +drinking +and precautions +taken +against +them.</note> +In the opinion of savages the acts of eating and drinking +are attended with special danger; for at these times the soul +may escape from the mouth, or be extracted by the magic +arts of an enemy present. Among the Ewe-speaking peoples +of the Slave Coast <q>the common belief seems to be that the +indwelling spirit leaves the body and returns to it through +the mouth; hence, should it have gone out, it behoves a +man to be careful about opening his mouth, lest a homeless +spirit should take advantage of the opportunity and enter +his body. This, it appears, is considered most likely to take +place while the man is eating.</q><note place='foot'>A. B. Ellis, <hi rend='italic'>The Ewe-speaking +Peoples of the Slave Coast</hi>, p. 107.</note> Precautions are therefore +taken to guard against these dangers. Thus of the Battas +of Sumatra it is said that <q>since the soul can leave the body, +they always take care to prevent their soul from straying on +occasions when they have most need of it. But it is only +possible to prevent the soul from straying when one is in +the house. At feasts one may find the whole house shut +up, in order that the soul (<foreign rend='italic'>tondi</foreign>) may stay and enjoy the +good things set before it.</q><note place='foot'>J. B. Neumann, <q>Het Pane- en +Bila- Stroomgebied op het eiland +Sumatra,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Tijdschrift van het Nederlandsch +Aardrijkskundig Genootschap</hi>, +Tweede Serie, dl. iii. (1886) Afdeeling, +meer uitgebreide artikelen, No. 2, +p. 300.</note> The Zafimanelo in Madagascar +lock their doors when they eat, and hardly any one ever +sees them eating.<note place='foot'>J. Richardson, <q>Tanala Customs, +Superstitions and Beliefs,</q> <hi rend='italic'>The Antananarivo +Annual and Madagascar +Magazine, Reprint of the First Four +Numbers</hi> (Antananarivo, 1885), p. 219.</note> In Shoa, one of the southern provinces +of Abyssinia, the doors of the house are scrupulously barred +at meals to exclude the evil eye, and a fire is invariably +lighted, else devils would enter and there would be no +blessing on the meat.<note place='foot'>W. Cornwallis Harris, <hi rend='italic'>The Highlands +of Aethiopia</hi>, iii. 171 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> Every time that an Abyssinian of +rank drinks, a servant holds a cloth before his master to +<pb n='117'/><anchor id='Pg117'/> +guard him from the evil eye.<note place='foot'>Th. Lefebvre, <hi rend='italic'>Voyage en Abyssinie</hi>, +i. p. lxxii.</note> The Warua will not allow +any one to see them eating and drinking, being doubly +particular that no person of the opposite sex shall see them +doing so. <q>I had to pay a man to let me see him drink; +I could not make a man let a woman see him drink.</q> +When offered a drink of <foreign rend='italic'>pombe</foreign> they often ask that a cloth +may be held up to hide them whilst drinking. Further, +every man and woman must cook for themselves; each +person must have his own fire.<note place='foot'>Lieut. V. L. Cameron, <hi rend='italic'>Across +Africa</hi> (London, 1877), ii. 71; <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, in +<hi rend='italic'>Journal of the Anthropological Institute</hi>, +vi. (1877) p. 173.</note> The Tuaregs of the +Sahara never eat or drink in presence of any one else.<note place='foot'>Ebn-el-Dyn el-Eghouâthy, <q>Relation +d'un voyage dans l'intérieur +de l'Afrique septentrionale,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Bulletin +de la Société de Géographie</hi> (Paris), +IIme Série, i. (1834) p. 290.</note> +The Thompson Indians of British Columbia thought that a +shaman could bewitch them most easily when they were +eating, drinking, or smoking; hence they avoided doing any +of these things in presence of an unknown shaman.<note place='foot'>J. Teit, <q>The Thompson Indians +of British Columbia,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Memoir of the +American Museum of Natural History, +The Jesup North Pacific Expedition</hi>, +vol. i. part iv. (April 1900) p. 360.</note> In +Fiji persons who suspected others of plotting against them +avoided eating in their presence, or were careful to leave no +fragment of food behind.<note place='foot'>Th. Williams, <hi rend='italic'>Fiji and the Fijians</hi>.<hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi> +i. 249.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Seclusion +of kings at +their meals.</note> +If these are the ordinary precautions taken by common +people, the precautions taken by kings are extraordinary. +The king of Loango may not be seen eating or drinking by +man or beast under pain of death. A favourite dog having +broken into the room where the king was dining, the king +ordered it to be killed on the spot. Once the king's +own son, a boy of twelve years old, inadvertently saw the +king drink. Immediately the king ordered him to be finely +apparelled and feasted, after which he commanded him to +be cut in quarters, and carried about the city with a proclamation +that he had seen the king drink. <q>When the +king has a mind to drink, he has a cup of wine brought; he +that brings it has a bell in his hand, and as soon as he has +delivered the cup to the king, he turns his face from him and +rings the bell, on which all present fall down with their faces +to the ground, and continue so till the king has drank.... +<pb n='118'/><anchor id='Pg118'/> +His eating is much in the same style, for which he has a +house on purpose, where his victuals are set upon a bensa +or table: which he goes to, and shuts the door: when he +has done, he knocks and comes out. So that none ever see +the king eat or drink. For it is believed that if any one +should, the king shall immediately die.</q> The remnants of +his food are buried, doubtless to prevent them from falling +into the hands of sorcerers, who by means of these fragments +might cast a fatal spell over the monarch.<note place='foot'><q>Adventures of Andrew Battel,</q> +in Pinkerton's <hi rend='italic'>Voyages and Travels</hi>, +xvi. 330; O. Dapper, <hi rend='italic'>Description de +l'Afrique</hi>, p. 330; A. Bastian, <hi rend='italic'>Die +deutsche Expedition an der Loango-Küste</hi>, +i. 262 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; R. F. Burton, +<hi rend='italic'>Abeokuta and the Cameroons Mountains</hi>, +i. 147.</note> The rules +observed by the neighbouring king of Cacongo were similar; +it was thought that the king would die if any of his subjects +were to see him drink.<note place='foot'>Proyart's <q>History of Loango, +Kakongo,</q> etc., in Pinkerton's <hi rend='italic'>Voyages +and Travels</hi>, xvi. 584.</note> It is a capital offence to see the +king of Dahomey at his meals. When he drinks in public, +as he does on extraordinary occasions, he hides himself +behind a curtain, or handkerchiefs are held up round his +head, and all the people throw themselves with their faces to +the earth.<note place='foot'>J. L. Wilson, <hi rend='italic'>Western Africa</hi>, p. +202; John Duncan, <hi rend='italic'>Travels in Western +Africa</hi>, i. 222. Compare W. W. +Reade, <hi rend='italic'>Savage Africa</hi>, p. 543.</note> Any one who saw the Muata Jamwo (a great +potentate in the Congo Basin) eating or drinking would +certainly be put to death.<note place='foot'>Paul Pogge, <hi rend='italic'>Im Reiche des Muata +Jamwo</hi> (Berlin, 1880), p. 231.</note> When the king (<foreign rend='italic'>Muata</foreign>) of +Cazembe raises his glass to his mouth to drink, all who are +present prostrate themselves and avert their faces in such a +manner as not to see him drinking.<note place='foot'>F. T. Valdez, <hi rend='italic'>Six Years of a +Traveller's Life in Western Africa</hi> +(London, 1861), ii. 256.</note> At Asaba, on the +Lower Niger, where the kings or chiefs number fully four +hundred, no one is allowed to prepare the royal dishes. +The chiefs act as their own cooks and eat in the strictest +privacy.<note place='foot'>A. F. Mockler-Ferryman, <hi rend='italic'>Up the +Niger</hi> (London, 1892), p. 38.</note> The king and royal family of Walo, on the +Senegal, never take their meals in public; it is expressly +forbidden to see them eating.<note place='foot'>Baron Roger, <q>Notice sur le +gouvernement, les mœurs et les superstitions +des Nègres du pays de Walo,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Bulletin de la Société de Géographie</hi> +(Paris), viii. (1827) p. 351.</note> Among the Monbutto of +central Africa the king invariably takes his meals in +<pb n='119'/><anchor id='Pg119'/> +private; no one may see the contents of his dish, and all +that he leaves is carefully thrown into a pit set apart for +that purpose. Everything that the king has handled is +held sacred and may not be touched.<note place='foot'>G. Schweinfurth, <hi rend='italic'>The Heart of +Africa</hi>, ii. 45 (third edition, London, +1878); G. Casati, <hi rend='italic'>Ten Years in +Equatoria</hi> (London and New York, +1891), i. 177. As to the various +customs observed by Monbutto chiefs +in drinking see G. Burrows, <hi rend='italic'>The Land +of the Pigmies</hi> (London, 1898), pp. +88, 91.</note> When the king of +Unyoro in central Africa went to drink milk in the dairy, +every man must leave the royal enclosure and all the +women had to cover their heads till the king returned. No +one might see him drink. One wife accompanied him to +the dairy and handed him the milk-pot, but she turned +away her face while he drained it.<note place='foot'>J. G. Frazer, <hi rend='italic'>Totemism and Exogamy</hi>, +ii. 526, from information +furnished by the Rev. John Roscoe.</note> The king of Susa, +a region to the south of Abyssinia, presides daily at the +feast in the long banqueting-hall, but is hidden from the +gaze of his subjects by a curtain.<note place='foot'>W. Cornwallis Harris, <hi rend='italic'>The Highlands +of Aethiopia</hi>, iii. 78.</note> Among the Ewe-speaking +peoples of the Slave Coast the person of the king is sacred, +and if he drinks in public every one must turn away the +head so as not to see him, while some of the women of the +court hold up a cloth before him as a screen. He never +eats in public, and the people pretend to believe that he +neither eats nor sleeps. It is criminal to say the contrary.<note place='foot'>A. B. Ellis, <hi rend='italic'>The Ewe-speaking +Peoples of the Slave Coast</hi>, pp. 162 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> +When the king of Tonga ate, all the people turned their +backs to him.<note place='foot'>Capt. James Cook, <hi rend='italic'>Voyages</hi>, v. +374 (ed. 1809).</note> In the palace of the Persian kings there +were two dining-rooms opposite each other; in one of them +the king dined, in the other his guests. He could see them +through a curtain on the door, but they could not see him. +Generally the king took his meals alone; but sometimes his +wife or some of his sons dined with him.<note place='foot'>Heraclides Cumanus, in Athenaeus, +iv. 26, p. 145 <hi rend='smallcaps'>b-d</hi>. On the other hand, +in Kafa no one, not even the king, may +eat except in the presence of a legal +witness. A slave is appointed to witness +the king's meals, and his office +is esteemed honourable. See F. G. +Massaja, in <hi rend='italic'>Bulletin de la Société de +Géographie</hi> (Paris), Vme Série, i. +(1861) pp. 330 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; Ph. Paulitschke, +<hi rend='italic'>Ethnographie Nordost-Afrikas: die +geistige Cultur der Danâkil, Galla und +Somâl</hi> (Berlin, 1896), pp. 248 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> +</p> + +</div> + +<pb n='120'/><anchor id='Pg120'/> + +<div> +<index index='toc'/> +<index index='pdf' level1='3. Taboos on shewing the Face.'/> +<head>§ 3. Taboos on shewing the Face.</head> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Faces +veiled to +avert evil +influences. Kings not +to be seen +by their +subjects.</note> +In some of the preceding cases the intention of eating +and drinking in strict seclusion may perhaps be to hinder +evil influences from entering the body rather than to prevent +the escape of the soul. This certainly is the motive +of some drinking customs observed by natives of the +Congo region. Thus we are told of these people that +<q>there is hardly a native who would dare to swallow a +liquid without first conjuring the spirits. One of them +rings a bell all the time he is drinking; another crouches +down and places his left hand on the earth; another veils +his head; another puts a stalk of grass or a leaf in his +hair, or marks his forehead with a line of clay. This fetish +custom assumes very varied forms. To explain them, the +black is satisfied to say that they are an energetic mode of +conjuring spirits.</q> In this part of the world a chief will +commonly ring a bell at each draught of beer which he +swallows, and at the same moment a lad stationed in front +of him brandishes a spear <q>to keep at bay the spirits which +might try to sneak into the old chief's body by the same +road as the <foreign rend='italic'>massanga</foreign> (beer).</q><note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>Notes analytiques sur les collections +ethnographiques du Musée du +Congo</hi>, I. <hi rend='italic'>Les Arts, Religion</hi> (Brussels, +1902-1906), p. 164.</note> The same motive of +warding off evil spirits probably explains the custom +observed by some African sultans of veiling their faces. +The Sultan of Darfur wraps up his face with a piece of white +muslin, which goes round his head several times, covering +his mouth and nose first, and then his forehead, so that only +his eyes are visible. The same custom of veiling the face +as a mark of sovereignty is said to be observed in other +parts of central Africa.<note place='foot'>Mohammed Ibn-Omar el Tounsy, +<hi rend='italic'>Voyage au Darfour</hi> (Paris, 1845), p. +203; <hi rend='italic'>Travels of an Arab Merchant</hi> +[Mohammed Ibn-Omar el Tounsy] <hi rend='italic'>in +Soudan</hi>, abridged from the French +(of Perron) by Bayle St. John (London, +1854), pp. 91 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> The Sultan of Wadai always +speaks from behind a curtain; no one sees his face except +his intimates and a few favoured persons.<note place='foot'>Mohammed Ibn-Omar el Tounsy, +<hi rend='italic'>Voyage au Ouadây</hi> (Paris, 1851), p. +375.</note> Similarly the +Sultan of Bornu never shewed himself to his people and +<pb n='121'/><anchor id='Pg121'/> +only spoke to them from behind a curtain.<note place='foot'>Ibn Batoutah, <hi rend='italic'>Voyages</hi>, ed. C. +Defrémery et B. R. Sanguinetti (Paris, +1853-1858), iv. 441.</note> The king of +Chonga, a town on the right bank of the Niger above Egga, +may not be seen by his subjects nor by strangers. At an +interview he sits in his palace concealed by a mat which +hangs like a curtain, and from behind it he converses with +his visitor.<note place='foot'>Le Commandant Mattei, <hi rend='italic'>Bas-Niger, +Bénoué, Dahomey</hi> (Paris, 1895), +pp. 90 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> The Muysca Indians of Colombia had such a +respect for their chiefs that they dared not lift their eyes on +them, but always turned their backs when they had to +address them. If a thief, after repeated punishments, proved +incorrigible, they took him to the chief, and one of the nobles, +turning the culprit round, said to him, <q>Since you think +yourself so great a lord that you have the right to break the +laws, you have the right to look at the chief.</q> From that +moment the criminal was regarded as infamous. Nobody +would have anything to do with him or even speak to him, +and he died an outcast.<note place='foot'>H. Ternaux-Compans, <hi rend='italic'>Essai sur +l'ancien Cundinamarca</hi>, p. 60.</note> Montezuma was revered by his +subjects as a god, and he set so much store on their +reverence that if on going out of the city he saw a man +lift up his eyes on him, he had the rash gazer put to death. +He generally lived in the retirement of his palace, seldom +shewing himself. On the days when he went to visit his +gardens, he was carried in a litter through a street which +was enclosed by walls; none but his bearers had the right +to pass along that street.<note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>Manuscrit Ramirez, histoire de +l'origine des Indiens qui habitent la +Nouvelle Espagne selon leurs traditions</hi>, +publié par D. Charnay (Paris, 1903), +pp. 107 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> It was a law of the Medes that +their king should be seen by nobody.<note place='foot'>Herodotus, i. 99.</note> The king of Jebu, +on the Slave Coast of West Africa, is surrounded by a great +deal of mystery. Until lately his face might not be seen +even by his own subjects, and if circumstances compelled +him to communicate with them he did so through a screen +which concealed him from view. Now, though his face may +be seen, it is customary to hide his body; and at audiences +a cloth is held before him so as to conceal him from the +neck downwards, and it is raised so as to cover him altogether +whenever he coughs, sneezes, spits, or takes snuff. His face +<pb n='122'/><anchor id='Pg122'/> +is partially hidden by a conical cap with hanging strings of +beads.<note place='foot'>A. B. Ellis, <hi rend='italic'>The Yoruba-speaking +Peoples of the Slave Coast</hi>, p. 170.</note> Amongst the Tuaregs of the Sahara all the men +(but not the women) keep the lower part of their face, +especially the mouth, veiled constantly; the veil is never +put off, not even in eating or sleeping.<note place='foot'>Ebn-el-Dyn el-Eghouathy, <q>Relation +d'un voyage,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Bulletin de la +Société de Géographie</hi> (Paris), IIme +Série, i. (1834) p. 290; H. Duveyrier, +<hi rend='italic'>Exploration du Sahara: les Touareg +du Nord</hi>, pp. 391 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; Reclus, +<hi rend='italic'>Nouvelle Géographie Universelle</hi>, xi. +838 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; James Richardson, <hi rend='italic'>Travels +in the Great Desert of Sahara</hi>, ii. 208.</note> Among the Arabs +men remarkable for their good looks have been known to +veil their faces, especially at festivals and markets, in order +to protect themselves against the evil eye.<note place='foot'>J. Wellhausen, <hi rend='italic'>Reste arabischen +Heidentums</hi><hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi> (Berlin, 1897), p. 196.</note> The same +reason may explain the custom of muffling their faces which +has been observed by Arab women from the earliest times<note place='foot'>Tertullian, <hi rend='italic'>De virginibus velandis</hi>, +17 (Migne's <hi rend='italic'>Patrologia Latina</hi>, ii. +col. 912).</note> +and by the women of Boeotian Thebes in antiquity.<note place='foot'>Pseudo-Dicaearchus, <hi rend='italic'>Descriptio +Graeciae</hi>, 18, in <hi rend='italic'>Geographi Graeci +Minores</hi>, ed. C. Müller, i. 103; <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, +in <hi rend='italic'>Fragmenta Historicorum Graecorum</hi>, +ed. C. Müller, ii. 259.</note> In +Samoa a man whose family god was the turtle might not +eat a turtle, and if he helped a neighbour to cut up and +cook one he had to wear a bandage tied over his mouth lest +an embryo turtle should slip down his throat, grow up, and +be his death.<note place='foot'>G. Turner, <hi rend='italic'>Samoa</hi>, pp. 67 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> In West Timor a speaker holds his right +hand before his mouth in speaking lest a demon should +enter his body, and lest the person with whom he converses +should harm the speaker's soul by magic.<note place='foot'>J. G. F. Riedel, <q>Die Landschaft +Dawan oder West-Timor,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Deutsche +geographische Blätter</hi>, x. 230.</note> In New South +Wales for some time after his initiation into the tribal +mysteries, a young blackfellow (whose soul at this time is in +a critical state) must always cover his mouth with a rug when +a woman is present.<note place='foot'>A. W. Howitt, <q>On some Australian +Ceremonies of Initiation,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Journal of the Anthropological Institute</hi>, +xiii. (1884) p. 456.</note> We have already seen how common is +the notion that the life or soul may escape by the mouth or +nostrils.<note place='foot'>Above, pp. <ref target='Pg030'>30</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></note> +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<index index='toc'/> +<index index='pdf' level1='4. Taboos on quitting the House.'/> +<head>§ 4. Taboos on quitting the House.</head> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Kings forbidden +to +leave their +palaces or +to be seen +abroad by +their subjects.</note> +By an extension of the like precaution kings are sometimes +forbidden ever to leave their palaces; or, if they are +<pb n='123'/><anchor id='Pg123'/> +allowed to do so, their subjects are forbidden to see them +abroad. We have seen that the priestly king at Shark +Point, West Africa, may never quit his house or even his +chair, in which he is obliged to sleep sitting; and that the +king of Fernando Po, whom no white man may see, is +reported to be confined to his house with shackles on his +legs.<note place='foot'>See above, pp. <ref target='Pg005'>5</ref>, <ref target='Pg008'>8</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> The fetish king of Benin, who was worshipped as a +deity by his subjects, might not quit his palace.<note place='foot'>This rule was mentioned to me in +conversation by Miss Mary H. Kingsley. +However, he is said to have shewn +himself outside his palace on solemn +occasions once or twice a year. See +O. Dapper, <hi rend='italic'>Description de l'Afrique</hi>, +pp. 311 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; H. Ling Roth, <hi rend='italic'>Great +Benin</hi>, p. 74. As to the worship of the +king of Benin, see <hi rend='italic'>The Magic Art and +the Evolution of Kings</hi>, vol. i. p. 396.</note> After his +coronation the king of Loango is confined to his palace, +which he may not leave.<note place='foot'>A. Bastian, <hi rend='italic'>Die deutsche Expedition +an der Loango-Küste</hi>, i. 263. +However, a case is recorded in which he +marched out to war (<hi rend='italic'>ibid.</hi> i. 268 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>).</note> The king of Onitsha, on the +Niger, <q>does not step out of his house into the town unless +a human sacrifice is made to propitiate the gods: on this +account he never goes out beyond the precincts of his +premises.</q><note place='foot'>S. Crowther and J. C. Taylor, +<hi rend='italic'>The Gospel on the Banks of the Niger</hi> +(London, 1859), p. 433.</note> Indeed we are told that he may not quit his +palace under pain of death or of giving up one or more +slaves to be executed in his presence. As the wealth of the +country is measured in slaves, the king takes good care not +to infringe the law. One day the monarch, charmed by +some presents which he had received from a French officer, +politely attended his visitor to the gate, and in a moment of +forgetfulness was about to break bounds, when his chamberlain, +seizing his majesty by his legs, and his wives, friends, +and servants rushing up, prevented him from taking so fatal +a step. Yet once a year at the Feast of Yams the king is +allowed, and even required by custom, to dance before his +people outside the high mud wall of the palace. In dancing +he carries a great weight, generally a sack of earth, on his +back to prove that he is still able to support the burden and +cares of state. Were he unable to discharge this duty, he +would be immediately deposed and perhaps stoned.<note place='foot'>Le Commandant Mattei, <hi rend='italic'>Bas-Niger, +Bénoué, Dahomey</hi> (Paris, 1895), +pp. 67-72. The annual dance of the +king of Onitsha outside of his palace +is mentioned also by S. Crowther and +J. C. Taylor (<hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> p. 379), and +A. F. Mockler-Ferryman (<hi rend='italic'>Up the +Niger</hi>, p. 22).</note> The +<pb n='124'/><anchor id='Pg124'/> +Tomas or Habes, a hardy race of mountaineers who inhabit +Mount Bandiagara in Nigeria, revere a great fetish doctor +called the Ogom, who is not suffered to quit his house on +any pretext.<note place='foot'><q>Mission Voulet-Chanoine,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Bulletin +de la Société de Géographie</hi> (Paris), +VIIIme Série, xx. (1899) p. 223.</note> Among the natives of the Cross River in +Southern Nigeria the sacred chiefs of certain villages are +confined to their compounds, that is, to the enclosures in +which their houses are built. Such chiefs may be confined +for years within these narrow bounds. <q>Among these +primitive people, the head chief is often looked upon as half +divine, the human representative of their ancestral god. He +regulates their religious rites, and is by some tribes believed +to have the power of making rain fall when they require +it, and of bringing them good harvests. So, being of +such value to the community, he is not permitted, +except on very rare occasions, to go outside his compound, +lest evil should befall him, and the whole town have +to suffer.</q><note place='foot'>C. Partridge, <hi rend='italic'>Cross River Natives</hi> +(London, 1905), p. 7; compare <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi> pp. +8, 200, 202, 203 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> See also Major +A. G. Leonard, <hi rend='italic'>The Lower Niger and +its Tribes</hi> (London, 1906), pp. 371 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> The kings of Ethiopia were worshipped as +gods, but were mostly kept shut up in their palaces.<note place='foot'>Strabo, xvii. 2. 2 σέβονται δ᾽ ὡς +θεοὺς τουσ βασιλεασ, κατακλειστουσ οντασ +και οἰκουροὺς τὸ πλέον.</note> On +the mountainous coast of Pontus there dwelt in antiquity a +rude and warlike people named the Mosyni or Mosynoeci, +through whose rugged country the Ten Thousand marched +on their famous retreat from Asia to Europe. These +barbarians kept their king in close custody at the top of +a high tower, from which after his election he was never +more allowed to descend. Here he dispensed justice to his +people; but if he offended them, they punished him by +stopping his rations for a whole day, or even starving him +to death.<note place='foot'>Xenophon, <hi rend='italic'>Anabasis</hi>, v. 4. 26; +Scymnus Chius, <hi rend='italic'>Orbis descriptio</hi>, 900 +<hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi> (<hi rend='italic'>Geographi Graeci Minores</hi>, ed. C. +Müller, i. 234); Diodorus Siculus, +xiv. 30. 6 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; Nicolaus Damascenus, +quoted by Stobeaus, <hi rend='italic'>Florilegium</hi>, xliv. +41 (vol. ii. p. 185, ed. Meineke); +Apollonius Rhodius, <hi rend='italic'>Argon.</hi> ii. 1026, +<hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>, with the note of the scholiast; +Pomponius Mela, i. 106, p. 29, ed. +Parthey. Die Chrysostom refers to the +custom without mentioning the name +of the people (<hi rend='italic'>Or.</hi> xiv. vol. i. p. 257, +ed. L. Dindorf).</note> The kings of Sabaea or Sheba, the spice country +of Arabia, were not allowed to go out of their palaces; if they +did so, the mob stoned them to death.<note place='foot'>Strabo, xvi. 4. 19, p. 778; Diodorus +Siculus, iii. 47. Inscriptions found in +Sheba (the country about two hundred +miles north of Aden) seem to shew +that the land was at first ruled by a +succession of priestly kings, who were +afterwards followed by kings in the +ordinary sense. The names of many +of these priestly kings (<foreign rend='italic'>makarribs</foreign>, literally +<q>blessers</q>) are preserved in inscriptions. +See Prof. S. R. Driver, in +<hi rend='italic'>Authority and Archaeology Sacred and +Profane</hi>, edited by D. G. Hogarth +(London, 1899), p. 82. Probably these +<q>blessers</q> are the kings referred to by +the Greek writers. We may suppose +that the blessings they dispensed consisted +in a proper regulation of the +weather, abundance of the fruits of the +earth, and so on.</note> But at the top of +<pb n='125'/><anchor id='Pg125'/> +the palace there was a window with a chain attached to it. +If any man deemed he had suffered wrong, he pulled the +chain, and the king perceived him and called him in and +gave judgment.<note place='foot'>Heraclides Cumanus, in Athenaeus, +xii. 13, p. 517 <hi rend='smallcaps'>b.c.</hi></note> So down to recent times the kings of +Corea, whose persons were sacred and received <q>honours +almost divine,</q> were shut up in their palace from the age of +twelve or fifteen; and if a suitor wished to obtain justice of +the king he sometimes lit a great bonfire on a mountain +facing the palace; the king saw the fire and informed +himself of the case.<note place='foot'>Ch. Dallet, <hi rend='italic'>Histoire de l'Église de +Coreé</hi> (Paris, 1874), i. pp. xxiv-xxvi. +The king sometimes, though rarely, +left his palace. When he did so, notice +was given beforehand to his people. +All doors must be shut and each householder +must kneel before his threshold +with a broom and a dust-pan in his +hand. All windows, especially the +upper ones, must be sealed with slips +of paper, lest some one should look +down upon the king. See W. E. +Griffis, <hi rend='italic'>Corea, the Hermit Nation</hi>, p. +222. These customs are now obsolete +(G. N. Curzon, <hi rend='italic'>Problems of the Far +East</hi>, Westminster, 1896, pp. 154 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> +note).</note> The Emperor of China seldom quits +his palace, and when he does so, no one may look at him; +even the guards who line the road must turn their backs.<note place='foot'>This I learned from the late Mr. +W. Simpson, formerly artist of the +<hi rend='italic'>Illustrated London News</hi>.</note> +The king of Tonquin was permitted to appear abroad twice +or thrice a year for the performance of certain religious +ceremonies; but the people were not allowed to look at +him. The day before he came forth notice was given to all +the inhabitants of the city and country to keep from the +way the king was to go; the women were obliged to remain +in their houses and durst not shew themselves under pain of +death, a penalty which was carried out on the spot if any +one disobeyed the order, even through ignorance. Thus the +king was invisible to all but his troops and the officers of +his suite.<note place='foot'>Richard, <q>History of Tonquin,</q> +in Pinkerton's <hi rend='italic'>Voyages and Travels</hi>, +ix. 746.</note> In Mandalay a stout lattice-paling, six feet high +and carefully kept in repair, lined every street in the walled +<pb n='126'/><anchor id='Pg126'/> +city and all those streets in the suburbs through which the +king was likely at any time to pass. Behind this paling, +which stood two feet or so from the houses, all the people +had to stay when the king or any of the queens went out. +Any one who was caught outside it by the beadles after the +procession had started was severely handled, and might +think himself lucky if he got off with a beating. Nobody +was supposed to peep through the holes in the lattice-work, +which were besides partly stopped up with flowering shrubs.<note place='foot'>Shway Yoe, <hi rend='italic'>The Burman</hi> (London, 1882), i. 30 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; compare <hi rend='italic'>Indian Antiquary</hi>, +xx. (1891) p. 49.</note> +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<index index='toc'/> +<index index='pdf' level1='5. Taboos on leaving Food over.'/> +<head>§ 5. Taboos on leaving Food over.</head> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Magical +harm done +a man +through +the remains +of his food +or the +dishes he +has eaten +out of. +Ideas and +customs +of the +Narrinyeri +of South +Australia.</note> +Again, magic mischief may be wrought upon a man +through the remains of the food he has partaken of, or the +dishes out of which he has eaten. On the principles of +sympathetic magic a real connexion continues to subsist +between the food which a man has in his stomach and the +refuse of it which he has left untouched, and hence by +injuring the refuse you can simultaneously injure the eater. +Among the Narrinyeri of South Australia every adult is +constantly on the look-out for bones of beasts, birds, or fish, +of which the flesh has been eaten by somebody, in order to +construct a deadly charm out of them. Every one is therefore +careful to burn the bones of the animals which he has +eaten lest they should fall into the hands of a sorcerer. Too +often, however, the sorcerer succeeds in getting hold of such +a bone, and when he does so he believes that he has the +power of life and death over the man, woman, or child who +ate the flesh of the animal. To put the charm in operation +he makes a paste of red ochre and fish oil, inserts in it the +eye of a cod and a small piece of the flesh of a corpse, and +having rolled the compound into a ball sticks it on the top +of the bone. After being left for some time in the bosom of +a dead body, in order that it may derive a deadly potency +by contact with corruption, the magical implement is set up +in the ground near the fire, and as the ball melts, so the +person against whom the charm is directed wastes with +disease; if the ball is melted quite away, the victim will die. +<pb n='127'/><anchor id='Pg127'/> +When the bewitched man learns of the spell that is being +cast upon him, he endeavours to buy the bone from the +sorcerer, and if he obtains it he breaks the charm by throwing +the bone into a river or lake.<note place='foot'>G. Taplin, <q>The Narrinyeri,</q> in +<hi rend='italic'>Native Tribes of South Australia</hi> +(Adelaide, 1879), pp. 24-26; <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, in E. +M. Curr, <hi rend='italic'>The Australian Race</hi>, ii. p. +247.</note> Further, the Narrinyeri think +that if a man eats of the totem animal of his tribe, and an +enemy obtains a portion of the flesh, the latter can make it +grow in the inside of the eater, and so cause his death. +Therefore when a man partakes of his totem he is careful +either to eat it all or else to conceal or destroy the refuse.<note place='foot'>G. Taplin, <q>The Narrinyeri,</q> +in <hi rend='italic'>Native Tribes of South Australia</hi>, +p. 63; <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, <q>Notes on the Mixed +Races of Australia,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Journal of the +Anthropological Institute</hi>, iv. (1875) p. +53; <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, in E. M. Curr, <hi rend='italic'>The Australian +Race</hi>, ii. 245.</note> +In the Encounter Bay tribe of South Australia, when a man +cannot get the bone of an animal which his enemy has eaten, +he cooks a bird, beast, or fish, and keeping back one of the +creature's bones, offers the rest under the guise of friendship +to his enemy. If the man is simple enough to partake of +the proffered food, he is at the mercy of his perfidious foe, who +can kill him by placing the abstracted bone near the fire.<note place='foot'>H. E. A. Meyer, <q>Manners and +Customs of the Aborigines of the +Encounter Bay Tribe,</q> in <hi rend='italic'>Native +Tribes of South Australia</hi>, p. 196.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Ideas and +customs +as to the +leavings +of food in +Melanesia +and New +Guinea.</note> +Ideas and practices of the same sort prevail, or used to +prevail, in Melanesia; all that was needed to injure a +man was to bring the leavings of his food into contact +with a malignant ghost or spirit. Hence in the island of +Florida when a scrap of an enemy's dinner was secreted +and thrown into a haunted place, the man was supposed +to fall ill; and in the New Hebrides if a snake of a certain +sort carried away a fragment of food to a spot sacred to +a spirit, the man who had eaten the food would sicken as +the fragment decayed. In Aurora the refuse is made up by +the wizard with certain leaves; as these rot and stink, the +man dies. Hence it is, or was, a constant care with the +Melanesians to prevent the remains of their meals from +falling into the hands of persons who bore them a grudge; +for this reason they regularly gave the refuse of food to +the pigs.<note place='foot'>R. H. Codrington, <hi rend='italic'>The Melanesians</hi>, +pp. 203 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, compare pp. 178, +188, 214.</note> In Tana, one of the New Hebrides, people bury +<pb n='128'/><anchor id='Pg128'/> +or throw into the sea the leavings of their food, lest these +should fall into the hands of the disease-makers. For if +a disease-maker finds the remnants of a meal, say the skin +of a banana, he picks it up and burns it slowly in the fire. +As it burns, the person who ate the banana falls ill and sends +to the disease-maker, offering him presents if he will stop +burning the banana skin.<note place='foot'>G. Turner, <hi rend='italic'>Samoa</hi>, pp. 302 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> +See <hi rend='italic'>The Magic Art and the Evolution +of Kings</hi>, i. 341 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> In German New Guinea the +natives take the utmost care to destroy or conceal the husks +and other remains of their food, lest these should be found +by their enemies and used by them for the injury or destruction +of the eaters. Hence they burn their leavings, +throw them into the sea, or otherwise put them out of +harm's way. To such an extent does this fear influence +them that many people dare not stir beyond the territory of +their own village, lest they should leave behind them on the +land of their neighbours something by means of which a +hostile sorcerer might do them a mischief.<note place='foot'>K. Vetter, <hi rend='italic'>Komm herüber und hilf +uns!</hi> iii. (Barmen, 1898) p. 9; M. +Krieger, <hi rend='italic'>Neu-Guinea</hi>, pp. 185 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; +R. Parkinson, <q>Die Berlinhafen +Section, ein Beitrag zur Ethnographie +der Neu-Guinea Küste,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Internationales +Archiv für Ethnographie</hi>, xiii. (1900) +p. 44; M. J. Erdweg, <q>Die Bewohner +der Insel Tumleo, Berlinhafen, Deutsch-Neu-Guinea,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Mittheilungen der +Anthropologischen Gesellschaft in Wien</hi>, +xxxii. (1902) p. 287.</note> Similar fears +have led to similar customs in New Britain and the other +islands of what is now called the Bismarck Archipelago, off +the north coast of New Guinea. There also the natives bury, +burn, or throw into the sea the remains of their meals to +prevent them from falling into the hands of magicians; +there also the more superstitious of them will not eat in +another village because they dread the use which a sorcerer +might make of their leavings when their back is turned. +This theory has led to an odd practical result; all the cats +in the islands of the Archipelago go about with stumpy tails. +The reason of the peculiarity is this. The natives sometimes +roast and eat their cats; and unscrupulous persons might +be tempted to steal a neighbour's cat in order to furnish +a meal. Accordingly, in the interests of the higher morality +people remove this stumbling-block from the path of their +weaker brothers by docking their cats of a piece of their +tails and keeping the severed portions in a secret place. If +<pb n='129'/><anchor id='Pg129'/> +now a cat is stolen and eaten, the lawful owner of the animal +has it in his power to avenge the crime: he need only bury +the piece of tail with certain spells in the ground, and the +thief will fall ill. Hence a man will hardly dare to +steal and eat a cat with a stumpy tail, knowing the +righteous retribution that would sooner or later overtake +him for so doing.<note place='foot'>Mgr. Couppé, <q>En Nouvelle-Poméranie,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Missions Catholiques</hi>, +xxiii. (1891) p. 364; J. Graf Pfeil, +<hi rend='italic'>Studien und Beobachtungen aus der +Südsee</hi> (Brunswick, 1899), pp. 141 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; +P. A. Kleintitschen, <hi rend='italic'>Die Küstenbewohner +der Gazellehalbinsel</hi> (Hiltrup +bei Münster, <hi rend='smallcaps'>n.d.</hi>), pp. 343 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Ideas and +customs +as to the +leavings +of food in +Africa, +Celebes, +India, and +ancient +Rome.</note> +From a like fear, no doubt, of sorcery, no one may +touch the food which the king of Loango leaves upon +his plate; it is buried in a hole in the ground. And no one +may drink out of the king's vessel.<note place='foot'>O. Dapper, <hi rend='italic'>Description de l'Afrique</hi>, +p. 330. We have seen that the food +left by the king of the Monbutto, is +carefully buried (above, p. <ref target='Pg119'>119</ref>).</note> Similarly, no man may +drink out of the same cup or glass with the king of Fida +(Whydah) in Guinea; <q>he hath always one kept particularly +for himself; and that which hath but once touched another's +lips he never uses more, though it be made of metal that may +be cleansed by fire.</q><note place='foot'>Bosman's <q>Guinea,</q> in Pinkerton's +<hi rend='italic'>Voyages and Travels</hi>, xvi. 487.</note> Amongst the Alfoors of Celebes +there is a priest called the <foreign rend='italic'>Leleen</foreign>, whose duty appears to be +to make the rice grow. His functions begin about a month +before the rice is sown, and end after the crop is housed. +During this time he has to observe certain taboos; amongst +others he may not eat or drink with any one else, and he +may drink out of no vessel but his own.<note place='foot'>P. N. Wilken, <q>Bijdragen tot de +kennis van de zeden en gewoonten +der Alfoeren in de Minahassa,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Mededeelingen +van wege het Nederlandsche +Zendelinggenootschap</hi>, vii. (1863) p. +126.</note> An ancient +Indian way of injuring an enemy was to offer him a meal +of rice and afterwards throw the remains of the rice into a +fishpond; if the fish swam up in large numbers to devour +the grains, the man's fate was sealed.<note place='foot'>W. Caland, <hi rend='italic'>Altindisches Zauberritual</hi>, +pp. 163 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> In antiquity the +Romans used immediately to break the shells of eggs and of +snails which they had eaten in order to prevent enemies +from making magic with them.<note place='foot'>Pliny, <hi rend='italic'>Nat. Hist.</hi> xxviii. 19. For +other examples of witchcraft wrought +by means of the refuse of food, see +E. S. Hartland, <hi rend='italic'>The Legend of Perseus</hi>, +ii. 83 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></note> The common practice, +<pb n='130'/><anchor id='Pg130'/> +still observed among us, of breaking egg-shells after the +eggs have been eaten may very well have originated in the +same superstition. +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The fear +of the +magical +evil which +may be +done a man +through +his food +has had +beneficial +effects in +fostering +habits of +cleanliness +and in +strengthening +the +ties of +hospitality.</note> +The superstitious fear of the magic that may be wrought +on a man through the leavings of his food has had the +beneficial effect of inducing many savages to destroy refuse +which, if left to rot, might through its corruption have +proved a real, not a merely imaginary, source of disease +and death. Nor is it only the sanitary condition of a +tribe which has benefited by this superstition; curiously +enough the same baseless dread, the same false notion of +causation, has indirectly strengthened the moral bonds of +hospitality, honour, and good faith among men who entertain +it. For it is obvious that no one who intends to +harm a man by working magic on the refuse of his food +will himself partake of that food, because if he did so +he would, on the principles of sympathetic magic, suffer +equally with his enemy from any injury done to the +refuse. This is the idea which in primitive society lends +sanctity to the bond produced by eating together; by +participation in the same food two men give, as it were, +hostages for their good behaviour; each guarantees the +other that he will devise no mischief against him, since, +being physically united with him by the common food in +their stomachs, any harm he might do to his fellow would +recoil on his own head with precisely the same force with +which it fell on the head of his victim. In strict logic, +however, the sympathetic bond lasts only so long as the +food is in the stomach of each of the parties. Hence the +covenant formed by eating together is less solemn and +durable than the covenant formed by transfusing the blood +of the covenanting parties into each other's veins, for this +transfusion seems to knit them together for life.<note place='foot'>On the covenant entered into by +eating together see the classical exposition +of W. Robertson Smith, <hi rend='italic'>The +Religion of the Semites</hi><hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi> (London, +1894), pp. 269 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi> For examples +of the blood-covenant, see H. C. Trumbull, +<hi rend='italic'>The Blood Covenant</hi> (London, +1887). The examples might easily be +multiplied.</note> +</p> + +</div> + +</div> + +<pb n='131'/><anchor id='Pg131'/> + +<div rend='page-break-before: always'> +<index index='toc'/> +<index index='pdf'/> +<head>Chapter IV. Tabooed Persons.</head> + +<div> +<index index='toc'/> +<index index='pdf' level1='1. Chiefs and Kings tabooed.'/> +<head>§ 1. Chiefs and Kings tabooed.</head> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Disastrous +results supposed +to +follow from +using the +dishes of +the Mikado +or of a +Fijian +chief. Sacred persons +are a +source of +danger to +others: +their +divinity +burns like a +fire what it +touches. +African +examples.</note> +We have seen that the Mikado's food was cooked every +day in new pots and served up in new dishes; both pots +and dishes were of common clay, in order that they might +be broken or laid aside after they had been once used. +They were generally broken, for it was believed that if any +one else ate his food out of these sacred dishes, his mouth +and throat would become swollen and inflamed. The same +ill effect was thought to be experienced by any one who +should wear the Mikado's clothes without his leave; he +would have swellings and pains all over his body.<note place='foot'>Kaempfer's <q>History of Japan,</q> +in Pinkerton's <hi rend='italic'>Voyages and Travels</hi>, +vii. 717.</note> In Fiji +there is a special name (<foreign rend='italic'>kana lama</foreign>) for the disease supposed +to be caused by eating out of a chief's dishes or wearing his +clothes. <q>The throat and body swell, and the impious +person dies. I had a fine mat given to me by a man who +durst not use it because Thakambau's eldest son had sat +upon it. There was always a family or clan of commoners +who were exempt from this danger. I was talking about +this once to Thakambau. <q>Oh yes,</q> said he. <q>Here, So-and-so! +come and scratch my back.</q> The man scratched; he +was one of those who could do it with impunity.</q> The +name of the men thus highly privileged was <foreign rend='italic'>Na nduka ni</foreign>, +or the dirt of the chief.<note place='foot'>Rev. Lorimer Fison, in a letter to +me dated August 26, 1898. In Fijian, +<foreign rend='italic'>kana</foreign> is to eat; the meaning of <foreign rend='italic'>lama</foreign> is +unknown.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The taboo +of chiefs +and kings +in Tonga. The King's +Evil cured +by the +king's +touch.</note> +In the evil effects thus supposed to follow upon the use +<pb n='132'/><anchor id='Pg132'/> +of the vessels or clothes of the Mikado and a Fijian chief +we see that other side of the god-man's character to which +attention has been already called. The divine person is a +source of danger as well as of blessing; he must not only +be guarded, he must also be guarded against. His sacred +organism, so delicate that a touch may disorder it, is also, +as it were, electrically charged with a powerful magical or +spiritual force which may discharge itself with fatal effect +on whatever comes in contact with it. Accordingly the +isolation of the man-god is quite as necessary for the safety +of others as for his own. His magical virtue is in the +strictest sense of the word contagious: his divinity is a +fire, which, under proper restraints, confers endless blessings, +but, if rashly touched or allowed to break bounds, +burns and destroys what it touches. Hence the disastrous +effects supposed to attend a breach of taboo; the offender +has thrust his hand into the divine fire, which shrivels +up and consumes him on the spot. The Nubas, for example, +who inhabit the wooded and fertile range of Jebel +Nuba in eastern Africa, believe that they would die if they +entered the house of their priestly king; however they +can evade the penalty of their intrusion by baring the left +shoulder and getting the king to lay his hand on it. And +were any man to sit on a stone which the king has +consecrated to his own use, the transgressor would die +within the year.<note place='foot'><q>Coutumes étranges des indigènes +du Djebel-Nouba,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Missions Catholiques</hi>, +xiv. (1882) p. 460; Father S. +Carceri, <q>Djebel-Nouba,</q> <hi rend='italic'>ibid.</hi> xv. +(1883) p. 450. The title of the +priestly king is <foreign rend='italic'>cogiour</foreign> or <foreign rend='italic'>codjour</foreign>. +<q>The <foreign rend='italic'>codjour</foreign> is the pontifical king of +each group of villages; it is he who +regulates and administers the affairs of +the Nubas. He is an absolute monarch, +on whom all depend. But he has no +princely privileges or immunities; no +royal insignia, no badge mark him off +from his subjects. He lives like them +by the produce of his fields and his +industry; he works like them, earns +his daily bread, and has no guard of +honour, no tribunal, no code of laws, +no civil list</q> (Father S. Carceri, <hi rend='italic'>loc. +cit.</hi>).</note> The Cazembes, in the interior of Angola, +regard their king (the <foreign rend='italic'>Muata</foreign> or <foreign rend='italic'>Mambo</foreign>) as so holy that no +one can touch him without being killed by the magical +power which pervades his sacred person. But since contact +with him is sometimes unavoidable, they have devised a +means whereby the sinner can escape with his life. Kneeling +down before the king he touches the back of the royal hand +<pb n='133'/><anchor id='Pg133'/> +with the back of his own, then snaps his fingers; afterwards +he lays the palm of his hand on the palm of the king's +hand, then snaps his fingers again. This ceremony is +repeated four or five times, and averts the imminent danger +of death.<note place='foot'><q>Der Muata Cazembe und die +Völkerstämme der Maravis, Chevas, +Muembas, Lundas und andere von +Süd-Afrika,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Zeitschrift für allgemeine +Erdkunde</hi> (Berlin), vi. (1856) pp. +398 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; F. T. Valdez, <hi rend='italic'>Six Years of a +Traveller's Life in Western Africa</hi> +(London, 1861), ii. 251 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> In Tonga it was believed that if any one fed +himself with his own hands after touching the sacred person +of a superior chief or anything that belonged to him, he +would swell up and die; the sanctity of the chief, like a +virulent poison, infected the hands of his inferior, and, being +communicated through them to the food, proved fatal to the +eater. A commoner who had incurred this danger could +disinfect himself by performing a certain ceremony, which +consisted in touching the sole of a chief's foot with the palm +and back of each of his hands, and afterwards rinsing his +hands in water. If there was no water near, he rubbed his +hands with the juicy stem of a plantain or banana. After +that he was free to feed himself with his own hands without +danger of being attacked by the malady which would otherwise +follow from eating with tabooed or sanctified hands. +But until the ceremony of expiation or disinfection had been +performed, if he wished to eat, he had either to get some +one to feed him, or else to go down on his knees and pick +up the food from the ground with his mouth like a beast. +He might not even use a toothpick himself, but might guide +the hand of another person holding the toothpick. The +Tongans were subject to induration of the liver and certain +forms of scrofula, which they often attributed to a failure to +perform the requisite expiation after having inadvertently +touched a chief or his belongings. Hence they often went +through the ceremony as a precaution, without knowing that +they had done anything to call for it. The king of Tonga +could not refuse to play his part in the rite by presenting +his foot to such as desired to touch it, even when they +applied to him at an inconvenient time. A fat unwieldy +king, who perceived his subjects approaching with this +intention, while he chanced to be taking his walks abroad, +<pb n='134'/><anchor id='Pg134'/> +has been sometimes seen to waddle as fast as his legs could +carry him out of their way, in order to escape the importunate +and not wholly disinterested expression of their +homage. If any one fancied he might have already unwittingly +eaten with tabooed hands, he sat down before the +chief, and, taking the chief's foot, pressed it against his own +stomach, that the food in his belly might not injure him, +and that he might not swell up and die.<note place='foot'>W. Mariner, <hi rend='italic'>The Natives of the +Tonga Islands</hi>,<hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi> i. 141 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> note, 434 +note, ii. 82 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 221-224; Captain J. +Cook, <hi rend='italic'>Voyages</hi> (London, 1809), v. 427 +<hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> Similarly in Fiji any person who +had touched the head of a living chief +or the body of a dead one was forbidden +to handle his food, and must +be fed by another (J. E. Erskine, +<hi rend='italic'>The Western Pacific</hi>, p. 254).</note> Since scrofula was +regarded by the Tongans as a result of eating with tabooed +hands, we may conjecture that persons who suffered from it +among them often resorted to the touch or pressure of the +king's foot as a cure for their malady. The analogy of the +custom with the old English practice of bringing scrofulous +patients to the king to be healed by his touch is sufficiently +obvious, and suggests, as I have already pointed out elsewhere, +that among our own remote ancestors scrofula may have +obtained its name of the King's Evil, from a belief, like +that of the Tongans, that it was caused as well as cured +by contact with the divine majesty of kings.<note place='foot'>On the custom of touching for +the King's Evil, see <hi rend='italic'>The Magic Art +and the Evolution of Kings</hi>, vol. i. +pp. 368 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Fatal +effects of +contact +with sacred +chiefs in +New +Zealand.</note> +In New Zealand the dread of the sanctity of chiefs was +at least as great as in Tonga. Their ghostly power, derived +from an ancestral spirit or <foreign rend='italic'>atua</foreign>, diffused itself by contagion +over everything they touched, and could strike dead all who +rashly or unwittingly meddled with it.<note place='foot'><q>The idea in which this law [the +law of taboo or <foreign rend='italic'>tapu</foreign>, as it was called +in New Zealand] originated appears +to have been, that a portion of the +spiritual essence of an <foreign rend='italic'>atua</foreign> or of a +sacred person was communicated +directly to objects which they touched, +and also that the spiritual essence +so communicated to any object was +afterwards more or less retransmitted +to anything else brought into contact +with it</q> (E. Shortland, <hi rend='italic'>Traditions and +Superstitions of the New Zealanders</hi>, +Second Edition, London, 1856, p. +102). Compare <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, <hi rend='italic'>Maori Religion +and Mythology</hi>, p. 25.</note> For instance, it +once happened that a New Zealand chief of high rank and +great sanctity had left the remains of his dinner by the +wayside. A slave, a stout, hungry fellow, coming up after +the chief had gone, saw the unfinished dinner, and ate it +up without asking questions. Hardly had he finished when +<pb n='135'/><anchor id='Pg135'/> +he was informed by a horror-stricken spectator that the +food of which he had eaten was the chief's. <q>I knew the +unfortunate delinquent well. He was remarkable for +courage, and had signalised himself in the wars of the +tribe,</q> but <q>no sooner did he hear the fatal news than he +was seized by the most extraordinary convulsions and +cramp in the stomach, which never ceased till he died, about +sundown the same day. He was a strong man, in the +prime of life, and if any pakeha [European] freethinker +should have said he was not killed by the <foreign rend='italic'>tapu</foreign> of the chief, +which had been communicated to the food by contact, he +would have been listened to with feelings of contempt for +his ignorance and inability to understand plain and direct +evidence.</q><note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>Old New Zealand</hi>, by a Pakeha +Maori (London, 1884), pp. 96 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> This is not a solitary case. A Maori woman +having eaten of some fruit, and being afterwards told that +the fruit had been taken from a tabooed place, exclaimed +that the spirit of the chief, whose sanctity had been thus +profaned, would kill her. This was in the afternoon, and +next day by twelve o'clock she was dead.<note place='foot'>W. Brown, <hi rend='italic'>New Zealand and its +Aborigines</hi> (London, 1845), p. 76. +For more examples of the same kind +see <hi rend='italic'>ibid.</hi> pp. 177 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> An observer +who knows the Maoris well, says, <q>Tapu [taboo] is an awful +weapon. I have seen a strong young man die the same +day he was tapued; the victims die under it as though +their strength ran out as water.</q><note place='foot'>E. Tregear, <q>The Maoris of +New Zealand,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Journal of the Anthropological +Institute</hi>, xix. (1890) p. +100.</note> A Maori chief's tinder-box +was once the means of killing several persons; for, +having been lost by him, and found by some men who used +it to light their pipes, they died of fright on learning to +whom it had belonged. So, too, the garments of a high +New Zealand chief will kill any one else who wears them. +A chief was observed by a missionary to throw down a +precipice a blanket which he found too heavy to carry. +Being asked by the missionary why he did not leave it on +a tree for the use of a future traveller, the chief replied that +<q>it was the fear of its being taken by another which caused +him to throw it where he did, for if it were worn, his tapu</q> +(that is, his spiritual power communicated by contact to +the blanket and through the blanket to the man) <q>would +<pb n='136'/><anchor id='Pg136'/> +kill the person.</q><note place='foot'>R. Taylor, <hi rend='italic'>Te Ika a Maui, or, +New Zealand and its Inhabitants</hi>,<hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi> p. +164.</note> For a similar reason a Maori chief would +not blow a fire with his mouth; for his sacred breath would +communicate its sanctity to the fire, which would pass it on +to the pot on the fire, which would pass it on to the meat in +the pot, which would pass it on to the man who ate the +meat, which was in the pot, which stood on the fire, which +was breathed on by the chief; so that the eater, infected by +the chief's breath conveyed through these intermediaries, +would surely die.<note place='foot'>R. Taylor, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> p. 165.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Examples +of the fatal +effects of +imagination +in +other parts +of the +world.</note> +Thus in the Polynesian race, to which the Maoris belong, +superstition erected round the persons of sacred chiefs a +real, though at the same time purely imaginary barrier, to +transgress which actually entailed the death of the transgressor +whenever he became aware of what he had done. This +fatal power of the imagination working through superstitious +terrors is by no means confined to one race; it appears to +be common among savages. For example, among the +aborigines of Australia a native will die after the infliction of +even the most superficial wound if only he believes that the +weapon which inflicted the wound had been sung over and +thus endowed with magical virtue. He simply lies down, +refuses food, and pines away.<note place='foot'>Spencer and Gillen, <hi rend='italic'>Native Tribes +of Central Australia</hi>, pp. 537 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> Similarly among some of the +Indian tribes of Brazil, if the medicine-man predicted the +death of any one who had offended him, <q>the wretch took to +his hammock instantly in such full expectation of dying, +that he would neither eat nor drink, and the prediction was +a sentence which faith effectually executed.</q><note place='foot'>R. Southey, <hi rend='italic'>History of Brazil</hi>, +i.<hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi> (London, 1822), p. 238.</note> Speaking of +certain African races Major Leonard observes: <q>I have +seen more than one hardened old Haussa soldier dying +steadily and by inches, because he believed himself to be +bewitched; so that no nourishment or medicines that were +given to him had the slightest effect either to check the mischief +or to improve his condition in any way, and nothing +was able to divert him from a fate which he considered inevitable. +In the same way, and under very similar conditions, +I have seen Kru-men and others die, in spite of every effort +that was made to save them, simply because they had made +<pb n='137'/><anchor id='Pg137'/> +up their minds, not (as we thought at the time) to die, but +that being in the clutch of malignant demons they were +bound to die.</q><note place='foot'>Major A. G. Leonard, <hi rend='italic'>The Lower +Niger and its Tribes</hi> (London, 1906), +pp. 257 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> The Capuchin missionary Merolla da +Sorrento, who travelled in the West African kingdom of +Congo in the latter part of the seventeenth century, has +described a remarkable case of death wrought purely by +superstitious fear. He says: <q>It is a custom that either +the parents or the wizards give certain rules to be inviolably +observed by the young people, and which they call <foreign rend='italic'>chegilla</foreign>: +these are to abstain from eating either some sorts of poultry, +the flesh of some kinds of wild beasts, such and such fruits, +roots either raw or boiled after this or another manner, with +several other ridiculous injunctions of the like nature, too +many to be enumerated here. You would wonder with what +religious observance these commands are obeyed. These +young people would sooner chuse to fast several days together, +than to taste the least bit of what has been forbidden +them; and if it sometimes happen that the <foreign rend='italic'>chegilla</foreign> has been +neglected to have been given them by their parents, they +think they shall presently die unless they go immediately to +receive it from the wizards. A certain young negro, being +upon a journey, lodged in a friend's house by the way: his +friend, before he went out the next morning, had got a wild +hen ready for his breakfast, they being much better than the +tame ones. The negro hereupon demanded, <q>If it were a +wild hen?</q> His host answered, <q>No</q>: then he fell on +heartily, and afterwards proceeded on his journey. About +four years after these two met together again, and the aforesaid +negro being not yet married, his old friend asked him, +<q>If he would eat a wild hen?</q> To which he answered, +<q>That he had received the <foreign rend='italic'>chegilla</foreign>, and therefore could not.</q> +Hereat the host began immediately to laugh, enquiring of +him, <q>What made him refuse it now, when he had eaten one +at his table about four years ago?</q> At the hearing of this +the negro immediately fell a trembling, and suffered himself +to be so far possessed with the effects of imagination, that +he died in less than twenty-four hours after.</q><note place='foot'>Merolla's <q>Voyage to Congo,</q> in +Pinkerton's <hi rend='italic'>Voyages and Travels</hi>, xvi. +237 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> As to these <foreign rend='italic'>chegilla</foreign> or taboos on +food, which are commonly observed by +the natives of this part of Africa, see +further my <hi rend='italic'>Totemism and Exogamy</hi>, ii. +614 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></note> +</p> + +</div> + +<pb n='138'/><anchor id='Pg138'/> + +<div> +<index index='toc'/> +<index index='pdf' level1='2. Mourners tabooed.'/> +<head>§ 2. Mourners tabooed.</head> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The taboos +observed +by sacred +kings resemble +those imposed +on +persons +who are +commonly +regarded as +unclean, +such as +menstruous +women, +homicides, +and so +forth. +Taboos +laid on +persons +who have +been in +contact +with the +dead in +New +Zealand.</note> +Thus regarding his sacred chiefs and kings as charged +with a mysterious spiritual force which so to say explodes at +contact, the savage naturally ranks them among the dangerous +classes of society, and imposes upon them the same +sort of restraints that he lays on manslayers, menstruous +women, and other persons whom he looks upon with a +certain fear and horror. For example, sacred kings and +priests in Polynesia were not allowed to touch food with +their hands, and had therefore to be fed by others;<note place='foot'>W. Ellis, <hi rend='italic'>Polynesian Researches</hi> +(Second Edition, London, 1832-1836), +iv. 388. Ellis appears to imply that +the rule was universal in Polynesia, +but perhaps he refers only to Hawaii, +of which in this part of his work he is +specially treating. We are told that +in Hawaii the priest who carried the +principal idol about the country was +tabooed during the performance of this +sacred office; he might not touch anything +with his hands, and the morsels of +food which he ate had to be put into his +mouth by the chiefs of the villages +through which he passed or even by the +king himself, who accompanied the +priest on his rounds (L. de Freycinet, +<hi rend='italic'>Voyage autour du monde</hi>, Historique, +ii. Première Partie, Paris, 1829, p. 596). +In Tonga the rule applied to chiefs only +when their hands had become tabooed +by touching a superior chief (W. Mariner, +<hi rend='italic'>Tonga Islands</hi>, i. 82 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>). In New +Zealand chiefs were fed by slaves (A. S. +Thomson, <hi rend='italic'>The Story of New Zealand</hi>, +i. 102); or they may, like tabooed +people in general, have taken up their +food from little stages with their mouths +or by means of fern-stalks (R. Taylor, +<hi rend='italic'>Te Ika a Maui, or New Zealand and +its Inhabitants</hi>,<hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi> p. 162).</note> and as +we have just seen, their vessels, garments, and other property +might not be used by others on pain of disease and death. +Now precisely the same observances are exacted by some +savages from girls at their first menstruation, women after +childbirth, homicides, mourners, and all persons who have +come into contact with the dead. Thus, for example, +to begin with the last class of persons, among the +Maoris any one who had handled a corpse, helped to +convey it to the grave, or touched a dead man's bones, was +cut off from all intercourse and almost all communication +with mankind. He could not enter any house, or come into +contact with any person or thing, without utterly bedevilling +them. He might not even touch food with his hands, which +had become so frightfully tabooed or unclean as to be quite +useless. Food would be set for him on the ground, and he +<pb n='139'/><anchor id='Pg139'/> +would then sit or kneel down, and, with his hands carefully +held behind his back, would gnaw at it as best he could. In +some cases he would be fed by another person, who with +outstretched arm contrived to do it without touching the +tabooed man; but the feeder was himself subjected to many +severe restrictions, little less onerous than those which were +imposed upon the other. In almost every populous village +there lived a degraded wretch, the lowest of the low, who +earned a sorry pittance by thus waiting upon the defiled. +Clad in rags, daubed from head to foot with red ochre and +stinking shark oil, always solitary and silent, generally old, +haggard, and wizened, often half crazed, he might be seen +sitting motionless all day apart from the common path or +thoroughfare of the village, gazing with lack-lustre eyes on +the busy doings in which he might never take a part. Twice +a day a dole of food would be thrown on the ground before +him to munch as well as he could without the use of his +hands; and at night, huddling his greasy tatters about him, +he would crawl into some miserable lair of leaves and refuse, +where, dirty, cold, and hungry, he passed, in broken ghost-haunted +slumbers, a wretched night as a prelude to another +wretched day. Such was the only human being deemed fit +to associate at arm's length with one who had paid the last +offices of respect and friendship to the dead. And when, the +dismal term of his seclusion being over, the mourner was +about to mix with his fellows once more, all the dishes he +had used in his seclusion were diligently smashed, and all the +garments he had worn were carefully thrown away, lest they +should spread the contagion of his defilement among others,<note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>Old New Zealand</hi>, by a Pakeha +Maori (London, 1884), pp. 104-114. +For more evidence see W. Yate, <hi rend='italic'>New +Zealand</hi>, p. 85; G. F. Angas, <hi rend='italic'>Savage +Life and Scenes in Australia and New +Zealand</hi>, ii. 90; E. Dieffenbach, <hi rend='italic'>Travels +in New Zealand</hi>, ii. 104 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; J. +Dumont D'Urville, <hi rend='italic'>Voyage autour du +monde et à la recherche de La Pérouse</hi>, +ii. 530; Father Servant, <q>Notice sur la +Nouvelle Zélande,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Annales de la Propagation +de la Foi</hi>, xv. (1843) p. 22.</note> +just as the vessels and clothes of sacred kings and chiefs are +destroyed or cast away for a similar reason. So complete +in these respects is the analogy which the savage traces +between the spiritual influences that emanate from divinities +and from the dead, between the odour of sanctity and the +stench of corruption. +</p> + +<pb n='140'/><anchor id='Pg140'/> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The rule +which forbids +persons +who +have been +in contact +with a +corpse to +touch food +with their +hands +seems to +have been +universal in +Polynesia. A rule of +the same +sort is observed +in +Melanesia +and Africa.</note> +The rule which forbids persons who have been in contact +with the dead to touch food with their hands would seem to +have been universal in Polynesia. Thus in Samoa <q>those +who attended the deceased were most careful not to handle +food, and for days were fed by others as if they were helpless +infants. Baldness and the loss of teeth were supposed to be +the punishment inflicted by the household god if they violated +the rule.</q><note place='foot'>G. Turner, <hi rend='italic'>Samoa</hi>, p. 145. Compare +G. Brown, D.D., <hi rend='italic'>Melanesians +and Polynesians</hi> (London, 1910), p. +402: <q>The men who took hold of +the body were <foreign rend='italic'>paia</foreign> (sacred) for the +time, were forbidden to touch their +own food, and were fed by others. +No food wad eaten in the same house +with the dead body.</q></note> Again, in Tonga, <q>no person can touch a dead +chief without being taboo'd for ten lunar months, except +chiefs, who are only taboo'd for three, four, or five months, +according to the superiority of the dead chief; except again +it be the body of Tooitonga [the great divine chief], and then +even the greatest chief would be taboo'd ten months, as was +the case with Finow's wife above mentioned. During the +time a man is taboo'd he must not feed himself with his own +hands, but must be fed by somebody else: he must not even +use a toothpick himself, but must guide another person's hand +holding the toothpick. If he is hungry and there is no one +to feed him, he must go down upon his hands and knees, +and pick up his victuals with his mouth: and if he infringes +upon any of these rules, it is firmly expected that he will +swell up and die: and this belief is so strong that Mr. +Mariner thinks no native ever made an experiment to prove +the contrary. They often saw him feed himself with his +hands after having touched dead chiefs, and not observing +his health to decline, they attributed it to his being a +foreigner, and being governed by different gods.</q><note place='foot'>W. Mariner, <hi rend='italic'>The Natives of the +Tonga Islands</hi><hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi> (London, 1818), i. +141 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, note.</note> Again, in +Wallis Island <q>contact with a corpse subjects the hands to +the law of taboo till they are washed, which is not done +for several weeks. Until that purification has taken place, +the tabooed persons may not themselves put food to their +mouths; other people render them that service.</q><note place='foot'>Father Bataillon, in <hi rend='italic'>Annales de la +Propagation de la Foi</hi>, xiii. (1841) p. +19. For more evidence of the practice +of this custom in Polynesia, see Captain +J. Cook, <hi rend='italic'>Voyages</hi> (London, 1809), vii. +147; James Wilson, <hi rend='italic'>Missionary Voyage +to the Southern Pacific Ocean</hi> +(London, 1799), p. 363.</note> A rule +<pb n='141'/><anchor id='Pg141'/> +of the same sort is or was observed in various parts of +Melanesia. Thus in Fiji the taboo for handling a dead chief +lasted from one to ten months according to his rank; for a +commoner it lasted not more than four days. It was +commonly resorted to by the lazy and idle; for during the +time of their seclusion they were not only provided with food, +but were actually fed by attendants or ate their food from +the ground.<note place='foot'>Ch. Wilkes, <hi rend='italic'>Narrative of the +United States Exploring Expedition</hi>, +New Edition (New York, 1851), iii. +99 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> Similarly in the Motu tribe of New Guinea a +man is tabooed, generally for three days, after handling a +corpse, and while the taboo lasts he may not touch food +with his hands. At the end of the time he bathes and the +taboo is over.<note place='foot'>W. G. Lawes, <q>Ethnological +Notes on the Motu, Koitapu, and +Koiari Tribes of New Guinea,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Journal +of the Anthropological Institute</hi>, viii. +(1879) p. 370.</note> So in New Caledonia the two men who are +charged with the duty of burying and guarding a corpse +have to remain in seclusion and observe a number of rules of +abstinence. They live apart from their wives. They may not +shave or cut their hair. Their food is laid for them on leaves +and they take it up with their mouth or a stick; but oftener +an attendant feeds them, just as he might feed a man whose +limbs were palsied.<note place='foot'>Father Lambert, in <hi rend='italic'>Missions +Catholiques</hi>, xii. (1880) p. 365; <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, +<hi rend='italic'>Mœurs et superstitions des Néo-Calédoniens</hi> +(Nouméa, 1900), pp. 238 +<hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> So among the Nandi of British East +Africa persons who have handled a corpse bathe in a river, +anoint their bodies with fat, partially shave their heads, and +live in the hut of the deceased for four days. All these +days they may not be seen by boys or women: they may +not drink milk; and they may not touch food with their +hands, but must eat it with the help of a potsherd or chip +of a gourd.<note place='foot'>A. C. Hollis, <hi rend='italic'>The Nandi</hi> (Oxford, +1909), p. 70.</note> Similarly in the Ba-Pedi and Ba-Thonga +tribes of South Africa men who have dug a grave may not +touch food with their fingers till the rites of their purification +are accomplished; meantime they eat with the help of +special spoons. If they broke this rule, it is thought that they +would be consumptive.<note place='foot'>H. A. Junod, <q>Les Conceptions +physiologiques des Bantou sud-africains +et leurs tabous,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Revue d'Ethnographie +et de Sociologie</hi>, i. (1910) p. 153.</note> So in the Ngarigo tribe of New South +Wales a novice who has just passed through the ceremony +<pb n='142'/><anchor id='Pg142'/> +of initiation has to go away to the mountains and stay there +for a while, sometimes for more than six months, under the +charge of one or more old men; and all the time of his +absence among the mountains he may not touch cooked +food with his hands; the food is put into his mouth by the +man who looks after him.<note place='foot'>A. W. Howitt, <hi rend='italic'>Native Tribes of +South-East Australia</hi>, p. 563.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Taboos +laid on +mourners +among the +Indian +tribes of +North +America.</note> +Among the Shuswap of British Columbia widows and +widowers in mourning are secluded and forbidden to touch +their own head or body; the cups and cooking-vessels which +they use may be used by no one else. They must build +a sweat-house beside a creek, sweat there all night and +bathe regularly, after which they must rub their bodies +with branches of spruce. The branches may not be used +more than once, and when they have served their purpose +they are stuck into the ground all round the hut. No hunter +would come near such mourners, for their presence is unlucky. +If their shadow were to fall on any one, he would be taken +ill at once. They employ thorn bushes for bed and pillow, +in order to keep away the ghost of the deceased; and thorn +bushes are also laid all around their beds.<note place='foot'>Fr. Boas, in <hi rend='italic'>Sixth Report on the +North-Western Tribes of Canada</hi>, pp. 91 +<hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> (separate Reprint from the <hi rend='italic'>Report of +the British Association for 1890</hi>).</note> This last precaution +shews clearly what the spiritual danger is which +leads to the exclusion of such persons from ordinary society; +it is simply a fear of the ghost who is supposed to be hovering +near them. Among the Thompson Indians of British +Columbia the persons who handled a corpse and dug the +grave were secluded for four days. They fasted until the +body was buried, after which they were given food apart +from the other people. They would not touch the food with +their hands, but must put it into their mouths with sharp-pointed +sticks. They ate off a small mat, and drank out of +birch-bark cups, which, together with the mat, were thrown +away at the end of the four days. The first four mouthfuls +of food, as well as of water, had to be spit into the fire. +During their seclusion they bathed in a stream and might +not sleep with their wives. Widows and widowers were +obliged to observe rules of a similar kind. Immediately +after the death they went out and passed through a patch of +<pb n='143'/><anchor id='Pg143'/> +rose-bushes four times, probably in order to rid themselves +of the ghost, who might be supposed to stick on a thorn. +For a year they had to sleep on a bed of fir-boughs, on +which sticks of rose-bushes were laid; many wore twigs of +rose-bush and juniper in a piece of buckskin on their persons. +The first four days they might not touch their food, but ate +with sharp-pointed sticks and spat out the first four mouthfuls +of each meal, and the first four of water, into the fire. A +widower might not fish at another man's fishing-place or +with another man's net; if he did, it would make the place +and the net useless for the season. If he transplanted a +trout into another lake, before releasing it he blew on the +head of the fish, and after chewing deer-fat, he spat some of +the grease on its head in order to remove the baneful effect +of his touch. Then he let the trout go, bidding it farewell, +and asking it to propagate its kind in plenty. Any grass +or branches that a widow or widower sat or lay down on +withered up. If a widow should break sticks or boughs, her +hands or arms would also break. She might not pick berries +for a year, else the whole crop of berries would fall off the +bushes or wither up. She might not cook food or fetch +water for her children, nor let them lie down on her bed, nor +should she lie or sit where they slept. Sometimes a widow +would wear a breech-cloth made of dry bunch-grass for +several days to prevent her husband's ghost from having +intercourse with her.<note place='foot'>J. Teit, <q>The Thompson Indians of +British Columbia,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Memoir of the American +Museum of Natural History, The +Jesup North Pacific Expedition</hi>, vol. i. +part iv. (April 1900) pp. 331, 332 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> Among the Tinneh or Déné Indians +of North-West America all who have handled a corpse are +subject to many restrictions and taboos. They are debarred +for a certain period from eating any fresh meat: they may +never use a knife to cut their food but must tear it with +their teeth: they may not drink out of a vessel in common +use, but must employ a gourd which they carry about for +the purpose; and they wear peeled willow wands about +their arms and necks or carry them in their hands as +disinfectants to annul the evil consequences which are +supposed to follow from handling the dead.<note place='foot'>C. Hill-Tout, <hi rend='italic'>The Far West, the +Home of the Salish and Déné</hi> (London, +1907), pp. 193 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> Among the +<pb n='144'/><anchor id='Pg144'/> +Indian tribes of Queen Charlotte Sound a widow or +widower goes into special mourning for a month; among +the Koskimos the period of mourning is four months. +During this time he or she lives apart in a very small hut +behind the house, eating and drinking alone, and using for +that purpose dishes which are not employed by other +members of the tribe.<note place='foot'>G. M. Dawson, <q>Notes and Observations +on the Kwakiool People of +the Northern part of Vancouver Island +and adjacent Coasts,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Proceedings and +Transactions of the Royal Society of +Canada for the Year 1887</hi>, vol. v. +(Montreal, 1888) Trans. Section ii. +pp. 78 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Seclusion +of widows +and +widowers +in the +Philippines +and New +Guinea.</note> +Among the Agutainos, who inhabit Palawan, one of the +Philippine Islands, a widow may not leave her hut for seven +or eight days after the death; and even then she may only +go out at an hour when she is not likely to meet anybody, +for whoever looks upon her dies a sudden death. To prevent +this fatal catastrophe, the widow knocks with a wooden peg +on the trees as she goes along, thus warning people of her +dangerous proximity; and the very trees on which she +knocks soon die.<note place='foot'>F. Blumentritt, <q>Über die Eingeborenen +der Insel Palawan und der +Inselgruppe der Talamlanen,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Globus</hi>, +lix. (1891) p. 182.</note> So poisonous is the atmosphere of death +that surrounds those to whom the ghost of the departed +may be thought to cleave. In the Mekeo district of British +New Guinea a widower loses all his civil rights and becomes +a social outcast, an object of fear and horror, shunned by all. +He may not cultivate a garden, nor shew himself in public, +nor traverse the village, nor walk on the roads and paths. +Like a wild beast he must skulk in the long grass and the +bushes; and if he sees or hears any one coming, especially +a woman, he must hide behind a tree or a thicket. If he +wishes to fish or hunt, he must do it alone and at night. If +he would consult any one, even the missionary, he does so +by stealth and at night; he seems to have lost his voice and +speaks only in whispers. Were he to join a party of fishers +or hunters, his presence would bring misfortune on them; +the ghost of his dead wife would frighten away the fish or +the game. He goes about everywhere and at all times +armed with a tomahawk to defend himself, not only against +wild boars in the jungle, but against the dreaded spirit of +his departed spouse, who would do him an ill turn if she +<pb n='145'/><anchor id='Pg145'/> +could; for all the souls of the dead are malignant and their +only delight is to harm the living.<note place='foot'>Father Guis, <q>Les Canaques, +Mort-Deuil,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Missions Catholiques</hi>, +xxxiv. (1902) pp. 208 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<index index='toc'/> +<index index='pdf' level1='3. Women tabooed at Menstruation and Childbirth.'/> +<head>§ 3. Women tabooed at Menstruation and Childbirth.</head> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Taboos +imposed on +women at +menstruation.</note> +In general, we may say that the prohibition to use the +vessels, garments, and so on of certain persons, and the effects +supposed to follow an infraction of the rule, are exactly the +same whether the persons to whom the things belong are +sacred or what we might call unclean and polluted. As the +garments which have been touched by a sacred chief kill +those who handle them, so do the things which have been +touched by a menstruous woman. An Australian blackfellow, +who discovered that his wife had lain on his blanket +at her menstrual period, killed her and died of terror himself +within a fortnight.<note place='foot'>Capt. W. E. Armit, <q>Customs of +the Australian Aborigines,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Journal of +the Anthropological Institute</hi>, ix. (1880) +p. 459.</note> Hence Australian women at these times +are forbidden under pain of death to touch anything that +men use, or even to walk on a path that any man frequents. +They are also secluded at childbirth, and all vessels used by +them during their seclusion are burned.<note place='foot'>W. Ridley, <q>Report on Australian +Languages and Traditions,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Journal of the Anthropological Institute</hi>, +ii. (1873) p. 268.</note> In Uganda the +pots which a woman touches while the impurity of childbirth +or of menstruation is on her should be destroyed; spears +and shields defiled by her touch are not destroyed but only +purified.<note place='foot'>From information given me by +Messrs. Roscoe and Miller, missionaries +to Uganda (June 24, 1897), and +afterwards corrected by the <foreign rend='italic'>Katikiro</foreign> +(Prime Minister) of Uganda in conversation +with Mr. Roscoe (June 20, 1902).</note> No Esquimaux of Alaska will willingly drink out +of the same cup or eat out of the same dish that has been +used by a woman at her confinement until it has been purified +by certain incantations.<note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>Report of the International Polar +Expedition to Point Barrow, Alaska</hi> +(Washington, 1885), p. 46.</note> Amongst some of the Indians of +North America, women at menstruation are forbidden to +touch men's utensils, which would be so defiled by their +touch that their subsequent use would be attended by certain +mischief or misfortune.<note place='foot'>Alexander Mackenzie, <hi rend='italic'>Voyages +from Montreal through the Continent +of North America</hi> (London, 1801), +p. cxxiii.</note> For instance, in some of the Tinneh +<pb n='146'/><anchor id='Pg146'/> +or Déné tribes girls verging on maturity take care that the +dishes out of which they eat are used by no one else. When +their first periodical sickness comes on, they are fed by their +mothers or nearest kinswomen, and will on no account touch +their food with their own hands. At the same time they +abstain from touching their heads with their hands, and keep +a small stick to scratch their heads with when they itch. +They remain outside the house in a hut built for the purpose, +and wear a skull-cap made of skin to fit very tight, which +they never lay aside till the first monthly infirmity is over. +A fringe of shells, bones, and so on hangs down from their +forehead so as to cover their eyes, lest any malicious sorcerer +should harm them during this critical period.<note place='foot'>Gavin Hamilton, <q>Customs of the +New Caledonian Women,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Journal of +the Anthropological Institute</hi>, vii. (1878) +p. 206. Among the Nootkas of British +Columbia a girl at puberty is hidden +from the sight of men for several days +behind a partition of mats; during her +seclusion she may not scratch her head +or her body with her hands, but she +may do so with a comb or a piece of +bone, which is provided for the purpose. +See Fr. Boas, in <hi rend='italic'>Sixth Report on the +North-Western Tribes of Canada</hi>, p. 41 +(separate reprint from the <hi rend='italic'>Report of +the British Association for 1890</hi>). +Again, among the Shuswap of British +Columbia a girl at puberty lives alone +in a little hut on the mountains and is +forbidden to touch her head or scratch +her body; but she may scratch her +head with a three-toothed comb and her +body with the painted bone of a deer. +See Fr. Boas, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> pp. 89 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> In the +East Indian island of Ceram a girl may +not scratch herself with her fingers the +night before her teeth are filed, but she +may do it with a piece of bamboo. See +J. G. F. Riedel, <hi rend='italic'>De sluik- en kroesharige +rassen tusschen Selebes en Papua</hi>, +p. 137.</note> <q>Among all +the Déné and most other American tribes, hardly any other +being was the object of so much dread as a menstruating +woman. As soon as signs of that condition made themselves +apparent in a young girl she was carefully segregated +from all but female company, and had to live by herself in a +small hut away from the gaze of the villagers or of the male +members of the roving band. While in that awful state, she +had to abstain from touching anything belonging to man, or +the spoils of any venison or other animal, lest she would +thereby pollute the same, and condemn the hunters to +failure, owing to the anger of the game thus slighted. Dried +fish formed her diet, and cold water, absorbed through a +drinking tube, was her only beverage. Moreover, as the +very sight of her was dangerous to society, a special skin +bonnet, with fringes falling over her face down to her +breast, hid her from the public gaze, even some time +<pb n='147'/><anchor id='Pg147'/> +after she had recovered her normal state.</q><note place='foot'>A. G. Morice, <q>The Canadian +Dénés,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Annual Archaeological Report +(Toronto), 1905</hi>, p. 218.</note> Among the +Bribri Indians of Costa Rica a menstruous woman is +regarded as unclean (<foreign rend='italic'>bukuru</foreign>). The only plates she may +use for her food are banana leaves, which, when she has +done with them, she throws away in some sequestered +spot; for were a cow to find them and eat them, the animal +would waste away and perish. And she drinks out of a +special vessel for a like reason; because if any one drank +out of the same cup after her, he would surely die.<note place='foot'>H. Pittier de Fabrega, <q>Die +Sprache der Bribri-Indianer in Costa +Rica,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Sitzungsberichte der philosophischen-historischen +Classe der Kaiserlichen +Akademie der Wissenschaften</hi> +(Vienna), cxxxviii. (1898) p. 20.</note> In +the islands of Mabuiag and Saibai, in Torres Straits, girls +at their first menstruation are strictly secluded from the +sight of men. In Mabuiag the seclusion lasts three months, +in Saibai about a fortnight. During the time of her separation +the girl is forbidden to feed herself or to handle food, +which is put into her mouth by women or girls told off to +wait on her.<note place='foot'>C. G. Seligmann, in <hi rend='italic'>Reports of +the Cambridge Anthropological Expedition +to Torres Straits</hi>, v. (Cambridge, +1904) pp. 201, 203.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Taboos +imposed +on women +in childbed.</note> +Among many peoples similar restrictions are imposed +on women in childbed and apparently for similar reasons; +at such periods women are supposed to be in a dangerous +condition which would infect any person or thing they +might touch; hence they are put into quarantine until, with +the recovery of their health and strength, the imaginary +danger has passed away. Thus, in Tahiti a woman after +childbirth was secluded for a fortnight or three weeks in +a temporary hut erected on sacred ground; during the +time of her seclusion she was debarred from touching provisions, +and had to be fed by another. Further, if any +one else touched the child at this period, he was subjected +to the same restrictions as the mother until the ceremony of +her purification had been performed.<note place='foot'>James Wilson, <hi rend='italic'>Missionary Voyage +to the Southern Pacific Ocean</hi>, p. 354.</note> Similarly in Manahiki, +an island of the Southern Pacific, for ten days after her +delivery a woman was not allowed to handle food, and had +to be fed by some other person.<note place='foot'>G. Turner, <hi rend='italic'>Samoa</hi>, p. 276.</note> In the Sinaugolo tribe of +British New Guinea, for about a month after her confinement +<pb n='148'/><anchor id='Pg148'/> +a woman may not prepare or handle food; she may not +even cook for herself, and when she is eating the food +made ready for her by her friends she must use a +sharpened stick to transfer it to her mouth.<note place='foot'>C. G. Seligmann, <q>The Medicine, +Surgery, and Midwifery of the Sinaugolo,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Journal of the Anthropological +Institute</hi>, xxxii. (1902) p. 302. In +Uganda a bride is secluded for a month, +during which she only receives near +relatives; she wears her veil all this +time. She may not handle food, but +is fed by one of her attendants. A +peasant's wife is secluded for two or +three days only. See J. Roscoe, +<q>Further Notes on the Manners and +Customs of the Baganda,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Journal of +the Anthropological Institute</hi>, xxxii. +(1902) p. 37.</note> Similarly +in the Roro and Mekeo districts of British New Guinea a +woman after childbirth becomes for a time taboo (<foreign rend='italic'>opu</foreign>), +and any person or thing she may chance to touch +becomes taboo also. Accordingly during this time she +abstains from cooking; for were she to cook food, not only +the victuals themselves but the pot and the fire would be +tabooed, so that nobody could eat the victuals, or use the +pot, or warm himself at the fire. Further at meals she may +not dip her hand into the dish and help herself, as the +natives commonly do; she must use for the purpose a long +fork, with which she takes up the bananas, sweet potatoes, +yams, and so forth, in order not to contaminate the rest of +the food in the vessel by the touch of her fingers. If she +wishes to drink, a gourd is set before her, and wrapping up +her hands in a cloth or coco-nut fibre she pours the water +into a small calabash for her use; or she may pour the water +directly into her mouth without letting the gourd touch her +lips. If anything has to be handed to her, it is not given +from hand to hand but reached to her at the end of a long +stick.<note place='foot'>Father Guis, <q>Les Canaques, ce +qu'ils font, ce qu'ils disent,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Missions +Catholiques</hi>, xxx. (1898) p. 119.</note> Similarly in the island of Kadiak, off Alaska, a +woman about to be delivered retires to a miserable low +hovel built of reeds, where she must remain for twenty days +after the birth of her child, whatever the season may be, and +she is considered so unclean that no one will touch her, and +food is reached to her on sticks.<note place='foot'>V. Lisiansky, <hi rend='italic'>A Voyage Round the +World</hi> (London, 1814), p. 201.</note> In the Ba-Pedi and Ba-Thonga +tribes of South Africa a woman in childbed may +not touch her food with her hands all the time of her +seclusion; she must eat with the help of a wooden spoon. +<pb n='149'/><anchor id='Pg149'/> +They think that if she touched her victuals she might infect +them with her bloody flux, and that having partaken of such +tainted food she would fall into a consumption.<note place='foot'>H. A. Junod, <q>Les Conceptions +physiologiques des Bantou sud-africains +et leurs tabous,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Revue d' Ethnographie +et de Sociologie</hi>, i. (1910) p. 153.</note> The Bribri +Indians regard the pollution of childbed as much more dangerous +even than that of menstruation. When a woman feels her +time approaching, she informs her husband, who makes haste +to build a hut for her in a lonely spot. There she must live +alone, holding no converse with anybody save her mother +or another woman. After her delivery the medicine-man +purifies her by breathing on her and laying an animal, it +matters not what, upon her. But even this ceremony only +mitigates her uncleanness into a state considered to be +equivalent to that of a menstruous woman; and for a full +lunar month she must live apart from her housemates, +observing the same rules with regard to eating and drinking +as at her monthly periods. The case is still worse, the +pollution is still more deadly, if she has had a miscarriage or +has been delivered of a stillborn child. In that case she +may not go near a living soul: the mere contact with things +she has used is exceedingly dangerous: her food is handed +to her at the end of a long stick. This lasts generally for +three weeks, after which she may go home subject only +to the restrictions incident to an ordinary confinement.<note place='foot'>H. Pittier de Fábrega, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> +pp. 20 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> +Among the Adivi or forest Gollas of Southern India, when +a woman feels the first pains of labour, she is turned clean +out of the village and must take up her quarters in a little +hut made of leaves or mats about two hundred yards +away. In this hut she must bring forth her offspring +unaided, unless a midwife can be fetched in time to be with +her before the child is born; if the midwife arrives after the +birth has taken place she may not go near the woman. For +ninety days the mother lives in the hut by herself. If any +one touches her, he or she becomes, like the mother herself, +an outcast and is expelled from the village for three months, +The woman's husband generally makes a little hut about +fifty yards from hers and stays in it sometimes to watch +over her, but he may not go near her on pain of being an +<pb n='150'/><anchor id='Pg150'/> +outcast for three months. Food is placed on the ground +near the woman's hut and she takes it. On the fourth day +after the birth a woman of the village goes to her and pours +water on her, but may not come into contact with her. +On the fifth day the villagers clear away the stones and +thorny bushes from a patch of ground about ten yards on +the village side of the hut, and to this clearing the woman +removes her hut unaided; no one may help her to do so. +On the ninth, fifteenth, and thirtieth days she again shifts +her hut nearer and nearer to the village; and again once in +each of the two following months she brings her hut still +nearer. On the ninetieth day of her seclusion the woman +is called out from her hut, washed, clad in clean clothes, and +after being taken to the village temple is conducted to her own +house by a man of the caste, who performs purificatory +ceremonies.<note place='foot'>F. Fawcett, <q>Note on a Custom +of the Mysore <q>Gollaválu</q> or Shepherd +Caste People,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Journal of the Anthropological +Society of Bombay</hi>, i. 536 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; +E. Thurston, <hi rend='italic'>Castes and Tribes of +Southern India</hi> (Madras, 1909), ii. +287 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Dangers +apprehended +from +women in +childbed.</note> +These customs shew that in the opinion of some primitive +peoples a woman at and after childbirth is pervaded by a +certain dangerous influence which can infect anything and +anybody she touches; so that in the interest of the community +it becomes necessary to seclude her from society +for a while until the virulence of the infection has passed +away, when, after submitting to certain rites of purification, +she is again free to mingle with her fellows. This dread of +lying-in women appears to be widespread, for the practice +of shutting them up at such times in lonely huts away from +the rest of the people is very common. Sometimes the +nature of the danger which is apprehended from them is +explicitly stated. Thus in the island of Tumleo, off German +New Guinea, after the birth of her first child a woman is +shut up with her infant for five to eight days, during which +no man, not even her husband, may see her; for the men +think that were they to see her, their bodies would swell up +and they would die.<note place='foot'>M. J. Erdweg, <q>Die Bewohner +der Insel Tumleo, Berlinhafen, Deutsch +Neu-Guinea,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Mittheilungen der Anthropologischen +Gesellschaft in Wien</hi>, +xxxii. (1902) p. 280.</note> Apparently their notion is that the +sight of a woman who has just been big with child will, on +<pb n='151'/><anchor id='Pg151'/> +the principles of homoeopathic magic, make their bodies big +also to bursting. The Sulka of New Britain imagine that, +when a woman has been delivered of a child, the men +become cowardly, weapons lose their force, and the slips +which are to be planted out are deprived of their power of +germinating. Hence they perform a ceremony which is +intended to counteract this mysterious influence on men and +plants. As soon as it is known that a woman has been +brought to bed, all the male population of the village +assembles in the men's clubhouse. Branches of a strong-smelling +tree are fetched, the twigs are broken off, the leaves +stripped off and put on the fire. All the men present then +seize branches with young buds. One of them holds ginger +in his hand, which, after reciting a spell over it, he distributes +to the others. They chew it and spit it out on the twigs, +and these twigs are afterwards laid on the shields and other +weapons in the house, and also on the slips which are to be +planted; moreover they are fastened on the roofs and over +the doorways of the houses. In this way they seek to annul +the noxious infection of childbirth.<note place='foot'>P. Rascher, <q>Die Sulka,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Archiv +für Anthropologie</hi>, xxix. (1904) p. +212; R. Parkinson, <hi rend='italic'>Dreissig Jahre +in der Südsee</hi> (Stuttgart, 1907), p. +180.</note> Among the Yabim of +German New Guinea, when a birth has taken place in the +village, all the inhabitants remain at home next morning +<q>in order that the fruits of the field may not be spoiled.</q><note place='foot'>K. Vetter, in <hi rend='italic'>Nachrichten über +Kaiser Wilhelms-Land und den Bismarck-Archipel</hi>, +1897, p. 87.</note> +Apparently they fear that if they went out to their fields +and gardens immediately after a woman had been brought +to bed, they would carry with them a dangerous contagion +which might blight the crops. When a Herero woman has +given birth to a child, her female companions hastily construct +a special hut for her to which she is transferred. Both +the hut and the woman are sacred and <q>for this reason, the +men are not allowed to see the lying-in woman until the +navel string has separated from the child, otherwise they +would become weaklings, and when later they <foreign rend='italic'>yumbana</foreign>, that +is, go to war with spear and bow, they would be shot.</q><note place='foot'>Rev. E. Dannert, <q>Customs of +the Ovaherero at the Birth of a Child,</q> +(<hi rend='italic'>South African</hi>) <hi rend='italic'>Folk-lore Journal</hi>, ii. +(1880) p. 63.</note> +Thus the Herero like the Sulka appear to imagine that the +<pb n='152'/><anchor id='Pg152'/> +weakness of a lying-in woman can, on the principles of +homoeopathic magic, infect any men who may chance to +see her. +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Dangers +apprehended +from +women in +childbed +by Indians +and Esquimaux.</note> +Among the Saragacos Indians of eastern Ecuador, as +soon as a woman feels the travail-pangs beginning, she +retires into the forest to a distance of three or four leagues +from her home, where she takes up her abode in a hut of +leaves which has been already prepared for her. <q>This +banishment,</q> we are told, <q>is the fruit of the superstition +of these Indians, who are persuaded that the spirit of evil +would attach himself to their house if the women were +brought to bed in it.</q><note place='foot'>Levrault, <q>Rapport sur les provinces +de Canélos et du Napo,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Bulletin +de la Société de Géographie</hi> (Paris), +Deuxième Série, xi. (1839) p. 74.</note> The Esquimaux of Baffin Land +think that the body of a lying-in woman exhales a vapour +which would adhere to the souls of seals if she ate the flesh +of any seals except such as have been caught by her +husband, by a boy, or by an aged man. <q>Cases of premature +birth require particularly careful treatment. The event +must be announced publicly, else dire results will follow. If +a woman should conceal from the other people that she has +had a premature birth, they might come near her, or even +eat in her hut of the seals procured by her husband. The +vapor arising from her would thus affect them, and they +would be avoided by the seals. The transgression would +also become attached to the soul of the seal, which would +take it down to Sedna,</q> the mythical mother of the sea-mammals, +who lives in the lower world and controls the +destinies of mankind.<note place='foot'>Franz Boas, <q>The Eskimo of +Baffin Land and Hudson Bay,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Bulletin +of the American Museum of Natural +History</hi>, xv. part i. (New York, 1901) +pp. 125 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> As to Sedna, see <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi> pp. +119 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Dangers +apprehended +from +women in +childbed +by Bantu +tribes of +South +Africa. Dangers +apprehended +from a +concealed +miscarriage.</note> +Some Bantu tribes of South Africa entertain even more +exaggerated notions of the virulent infection spread by a +woman who has had a miscarriage and has concealed it. +An experienced observer of these people tells us that the +blood of childbirth <q>appears to the eyes of the South +Africans to be tainted with a pollution still more dangerous +than that of the menstrual fluid. The husband is excluded +from the hut for eight days of the lying-in period, chiefly +from fear that he might be contaminated by this secretion. +<pb n='153'/><anchor id='Pg153'/> +He dare not take his child in his arms for the three first +months after the birth. But the secretion of childbed is +particularly terrible when it is the product of a miscarriage, +especially <emph>a concealed miscarriage</emph>. In this case it is not +merely the man who is threatened or killed, it is the whole +country, it is the sky itself which suffers. By a curious +association of ideas a physiological fact causes cosmic +troubles!</q><note place='foot'>H. A. Junod, <q>Les Conceptions +physiologiques des Bantou sud-africains +et leurs tabous,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Revue d'Ethnographie +et de Sociologie</hi>, i. (1910) p. 139.</note> Thus, for example, the Ba-Pedi believe that a +woman who has procured abortion can kill a man merely by +lying with him; her victim is poisoned, shrivels up, and +dies within a week. As for the disastrous effect which a +miscarriage may have on the whole country I will quote the +words of a medicine-man and rain-maker of the Ba-Pedi +tribe: <q>When a woman has had a miscarriage, when she +has allowed her blood to flow, and has hidden the child, it +is enough to cause the burning winds to blow and to parch +the country with heat. The rain no longer falls, for the +country is no longer in order. When the rain approaches +the place where the blood is, it will not dare to approach. +It will fear and remain at a distance. That woman has +committed a great fault. She has spoiled the country of +the chief, for she has hidden blood which had not yet been +well congealed to fashion a man. That blood is taboo +(<foreign rend='italic'>yila</foreign>). It should never drip on the road! The chief will +assemble his men and say to them, <q>Are you in order in your +villages?</q> Some one will answer, <q>Such and such a woman +was pregnant and we have not yet seen the child which she +has given birth to.</q> Then they go and arrest the woman. +They say to her, <q>Shew us where you have hidden it.</q> They +go and dig at the spot, they sprinkle the hole with a +decoction of <foreign rend='italic'>mbendoula</foreign> and <foreign rend='italic'>nyangale</foreign> (two sorts of roots) +prepared in a special pot. They take a little of the earth +of this grave, they throw it into the river, then they bring +back water from the river and sprinkle it where she shed her +blood. She herself must wash every day with the medicine. +Then the country will be moistened again (by rain). +Further, we (medicine-men) summon the women of the +country; we tell them to prepare a ball of the earth which +<pb n='154'/><anchor id='Pg154'/> +contains the blood. They bring it to us one morning. If +we wish to prepare medicine with which to sprinkle the +whole country, we crumble this earth to powder; at the end +of five days we send little boys and little girls, girls that yet +know nothing of women's affairs and have not yet had +relations with men. We put the medicine in the horns of +oxen, and these children go to all the fords, to all the +entrances of the country. A little girl turns up the soil +with her mattock, the others dip a branch in the horn and +sprinkle the inside of the hole saying, <q>Rain! rain!</q> So +we remove the misfortune which the women have brought +on the roads; the rain will be able to come. The country +is purified!</q><note place='foot'>H. A. Junod, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> pp. 139 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Belief of +the Ba-Thonga +that severe +droughts +result from +the concealment +of miscarriages +by women.</note> +Similarly the Ba-Thonga, another Bantu tribe of South +Africa in the valley of the Limpopo river, attribute severe +droughts to the concealment of miscarriages by women, +and they perform the following rites to remove the pollution +and procure rain. A small clearing is made in a +thick and thorny wood, and here a pot is buried in the +ground so that its mouth is flush with the surface. From +the pot four channels run in the form of a cross to the four +cardinal points of the horizon. Then a black ox or a +black ram, without a speck of white on it, is killed and the +pot is stuffed with the half-digested grass found in the +animal's stomach. Next, little girls, still in the age of +innocence, are sent to draw water, which they pour into the +pot till it overflows into the four channels. After that the +women assemble, strip off their clothes, and covering their +nakedness only with a scanty petticoat of grass they dance, +leap, and sing, <q>Rain, fall!</q> Then they go and dig up the +remains of the prematurely born infants and of twins buried +in dry ground on a hill. These they collect in one place. +No man may approach the spot. The women would beat +any male who might be so indiscreet as to intrude on their +privacy, and they would put riddles to him which he would +have to answer in the most filthy language borrowed from +the circumcision ceremonies; for obscene words, which are +usually forbidden, are customary and legitimate on these +occasions. The women pour water on the graves of the +<pb n='155'/><anchor id='Pg155'/> +infants and of twins in order to <q>extinguish</q> (<foreign rend='italic'>timula</foreign>) them, +as the natives phrase it; which seems to imply that the +graves are thought to be the source of the scorching heat +which is blasting the country. At the fall of evening they +bury all the remains they have discovered, poking them +away in the mud near a stream. Then the rain will be free +to fall.<note place='foot'>H. A. Junod, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> pp. 140 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> In these ceremonies the pouring of water into +channels which run in the direction of the four quarters of the +heaven is clearly a charm based on the principles of homoeopathic +magic to procure rain. The supposed influence of +twins over the waters of heaven and the use of foul language +at rain-making ceremonies have been illustrated in another +part of this work.<note place='foot'>See <hi rend='italic'>The Magic Art and the Evolution +of Kings</hi>, vol. i. pp. 262 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>, 278.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Dangers +apprehended +from +women in +childbed +by some +tribes of +Annam.</note> +Among the natives of the Nguôn So'n valley in Annam, +during the first month after a woman has been delivered of +a child, all the persons of the house are supposed to be +affected with an evil destiny or ill luck called <foreign rend='italic'>phong long</foreign>. +If a member of such a household enters another house, the +inmates never fail to say to him, <q>You bring me the <foreign rend='italic'>phong +long</foreign>!</q> Should a member of a family in which somebody +is seriously ill have to enter a house infected by the <foreign rend='italic'>phong +long</foreign>, on returning home he always fumigates himself with +tea leaves or some other plant in order to rid himself of the +infection which he has contracted; for they fear that the +blood of the woman who has been brought to bed may harm +the patient. All the time a house is tainted with the <foreign rend='italic'>phong +long</foreign>, a branch of cactus (<foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Euphorbia antiquorum</foreign>) or pandanus +is hung at the door. The same thing is done to a house +infected by small-pox: it is a danger signal to warn +people off. The <foreign rend='italic'>phong long</foreign> only disappears when the woman +has gone to market for the first time after her delivery.<note place='foot'>Le R. P. Cadière, <q>Coutumes +populaires de la vallée du Nguôn-So'n,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Bulletin de l'École Française +d'Extrême-Orient</hi>, ii. (Hanoi, 1902) +pp. 353 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> A +trace of a similar belief in the dangerous infection of childbirth +may be seen in the rule of ancient Greek religion, +which forbade persons who had handled a corpse or been in +contact with a lying-in woman to enter a temple or approach +an altar for a certain time, sometimes for two days.<note place='foot'><p>Dittenberger, <hi rend='italic'>Sylloge inscriptionum +Graecarum</hi>,<hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi> No. 566; Ch. Michel, +<hi rend='italic'>Recueil d'inscriptions grecques</hi>, No. +730 ἁγνευέτωσαν δὲ καὶ εἰσίτωσαν εἰς +τὸν τῆς θεο[ῦ ναὸν] ... ὡσαύτως δὲ καὶ +ἀπὸ κήδους καὶ τεκούσης γυναικὸς δευτεραῖος: +Euripides, <hi rend='italic'>Iphigenia in Tauris</hi>, +380 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>: +</p> +<p> +τὰ τῆς θεοῦ δὲ μέμφομαι σοφίσματα, +ἤτις. βροτῶν μὲν ἤν τις ἄψηται φόνου +ἥ καὶ λοχείας ἢ νεκροῦ θιγῇ χεροῖν, +βωμῶν ἀπείργει, μυσαρὸν ὡς ἡγουμένη. +</p> +<p> +Compare also a mutilated Greek inscription +found in Egypt (<hi rend='italic'>Revue archéologique</hi>, +IIIme Série, ii. 182 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>). +In the passage of Euripides which I +have just quoted an acute verbal +scholar, the late Dr. Badham, proposed +to omit the line ἢ καὶ λοχείας ἢ νεκροῦ +θιγῇ χεροῖν with the comment: <q><foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Nihil +facit ad argumentum puerperae mentio; +patet versum a sciolo additum</foreign>.</q> To +do Dr. Badham justice, the inscription +which furnishes so close a parallel to +the line of Euripides had not yet +been discovered among the ruins of +Pergamum, when he proposed to mutilate +the text of the poet.</p></note> +</p> + +<pb n='156'/><anchor id='Pg156'/> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Taboos +imposed +on lads at +initiation.</note> +Restrictions and taboos like those laid on menstruous +and lying-in women are imposed by some savages on lads +at the initiatory rites which celebrate the attainment of +puberty; hence we may infer that at such times young +men are supposed to be in a state like that of women at +menstruation and in childbed. Thus, among the Creek +Indians a lad at initiation had to abstain for twelve moons +from picking his ears or scratching his head with his +fingers; he had to use a small stick for these purposes. +For four moons he must have a fire of his own to cook +his food at; and a little girl, a virgin, might cook for him. +During the fifth moon any person might cook for him, but +he must serve himself first, and use one spoon and pan. +On the fifth day of the twelfth moon he gathered corn +cobs, burned them to ashes, and with the ashes rubbed his +body all over. At the end of the twelfth moon he sweated +under blankets, and then bathed in water, which ended the +ceremony. While the ceremonies lasted, he might touch no +one but lads who were undergoing a like course of initiation.<note place='foot'>B. Hawkins, <q>The Creek Confederacy,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Collections of the Georgia +Historical Society</hi>, iii. pt. i. (Savannah, +1848) pp. 78 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> Hawkins's account is +reproduced by A. S. Gatschett, in his +<hi rend='italic'>Migration Legend of the Creek Indians</hi>, +i. 185 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> (Philadelphia, 1884). In +the Turrbal tribe of southern Queensland +boys at initiation were not allowed +to scratch themselves with their fingers, +but they might do it with a stick. See +A. W. Howitt, <hi rend='italic'>Native Tribes of South-East +Australia</hi>, p. 596.</note> +Caffre boys at circumcision live secluded in a special hut; they +are smeared from head to foot with white clay; they wear tall +head-dresses with horn-like projections and short skirts like +those of ballet-dancers. When their wounds are healed, all the +vessels which they had used during their seclusion and the +boyish mantles which they had hitherto worn are burned, +<pb n='157'/><anchor id='Pg157'/> +together with the hut, and the boys rush away from the +burning hut without looking back, <q>lest a fearful curse +should cling to them.</q> After that they are bathed, +anointed, and clad in new garments.<note place='foot'>L. Alberti, <hi rend='italic'>De Kaffers</hi> (Amsterdam, +1810), pp. 76 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; H. Lichtenstein, +<hi rend='italic'>Reisen im südlichen Afrika</hi> +(Berlin, 1811-12), i. 427; S. Kay, +<hi rend='italic'>Travels and Researches in Caffraria</hi> +(London, 1833), pp. 273 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; Dudley +Kidd, <hi rend='italic'>The Essential Kafir</hi>, p. 208; +J. Stewart, D.D., <hi rend='italic'>Lovedale, South +Africa</hi> (Edinburgh, 1894), pp. 105 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, +with illustrations.</note> +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<index index='toc'/> +<index index='pdf' level1='4. Warriors tabooed.'/> +<head>§ 4. Warriors tabooed.</head> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Taboos +laid on +warriors +when they +go forth to +fight.</note> +Once more, warriors are conceived by the savage to +move, so to say, in an atmosphere of spiritual danger which +constrains them to practise a variety of superstitious observances +quite different in their nature from those rational +precautions which, as a matter of course, they adopt against +foes of flesh and blood. The general effect of these observances +is to place the warrior, both before and after victory, +in the same state of seclusion or spiritual quarantine in +which, for his own safety, primitive man puts his human +gods and other dangerous characters. Thus when the +Maoris went out on the war-path they were sacred or taboo +in the highest degree, and they and their friends at home +had to observe strictly many curious customs over and above +the numerous taboos of ordinary life. They became, in the +irreverent language of Europeans who knew them in the +old fighting days, <q>tabooed an inch thick</q>; and as for the +leader of the expedition, he was quite unapproachable.<note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>Old New Zealand</hi>, by a Pakeha +Maori (London, 1884), pp. 96, 114 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> +One of the customs mentioned by the +writer was that all the people left in +the camp had to fast strictly while the +warriors were out in the field. This rule +is obviously based on the sympathetic +connexion supposed to exist between +friends at a distance, especially at +critical times. See <hi rend='italic'>The Magic Art +and the Evolution of Kings</hi>, vol. i. +pp. 126 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></note> +Similarly, when the Israelites marched forth to war they +were bound by certain rules of ceremonial purity identical +with rules observed by Maoris and Australian blackfellows +on the war-path. The vessels they used were +sacred, and they had to practise continence and a custom of +personal cleanliness of which the original motive, if we may +judge from the avowed motive of savages who conform to +the same custom, was a fear lest the enemy should obtain +<pb n='158'/><anchor id='Pg158'/> +the refuse of their persons, and thus be enabled to work +their destruction by magic.<note place='foot'><p>Deuteronomy xxiii. 9-14; 1 +Samuel xxi. 5. The rule laid down +in Deuteronomy xxiii. 10, 11, suffices +to prove that the custom of continence +observed in time of war by the +Israelites, as by a multitude of savage +and barbarous peoples, was based on a +superstitious, not a rational motive. To +convince us of this it is enough to remark +that the rule is often observed by warriors +for some time after their victorious +return, and also by the persons left at +home during the absence of the fighting +men. In these cases the observance +of the rule evidently does not +admit of a rational explanation, which +could hardly, indeed, be entertained by +any one conversant with savage modes +of thought. For examples, see <hi rend='italic'>The +Magic Art and the Evolution of +Kings</hi>, vol. i. pp. 125, 128, 131, 133, +and below, pp. 161, 163, 165, 166, +167, 168, 169, 175 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 178, 179, 181. +</p> +<p> +The other rule of personal cleanliness +referred to in the text is exactly +observed, for the reason I have +indicated, by the aborigines in various +parts of Australia. See (Sir) George +Grey, <hi rend='italic'>Journals</hi>, ii. 344; R. Brough +Smyth, <hi rend='italic'>Aborigines of Victoria</hi>, i. 165; +J. Dawson, <hi rend='italic'>Australian Aborigines</hi>, p. +12; P. Beveridge, in <hi rend='italic'>Journal and Proceedings +of the Royal Society of New +South Wales</hi>, xvii. (1883) pp. 69 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> +Compare W. Stanbridge, <q>On the +Aborigines of Victoria,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Transactions +of the Ethnological Society of London</hi>, +N.S. i. (1861) p. 299; Fison and +Howitt, <hi rend='italic'>Kamilaroi and Kurnai</hi>, p. 251; +E. M. Curr, <hi rend='italic'>The Australian Race</hi>, iii. +178 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 547; W. E. Roth, <hi rend='italic'>North +Queensland Ethnography, Bulletin No. +5</hi> (Brisbane, 1903), p. 22, § 80. The +same dread has resulted in a similar +custom of cleanliness in Melanesia and +Africa. See R. Parkinson, <hi rend='italic'>Im Bismarck-Archipel</hi>, +pp. 143 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; R. H. +Codrington, <hi rend='italic'>The Melanesians</hi>, p. 203 +note; F. von Luschan, <q>Einiges über +Sitten und Gebräuche der Eingeborenen +Neu-Guineas,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Verhandlungen +der Berliner Gesellschaft für Anthropologie, +Ethnologie, und Urgeschichte</hi> +(1900), p. 416; J. Macdonald, +<q>Manners, Customs, Superstitions, +and Religions of South African Tribes,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Journal of the Anthropological Institute</hi>, +xx. (1891) p. 131. Mr. Lorimer +Fison sent me some notes on the +Fijian practice, which agrees with the +one described by Dr. Codrington. The +same rule is observed, probably from +the same motives, by the Miranha +Indians of Brazil. See Spix und +Martius, <hi rend='italic'>Reise in Brasilien</hi>, iii. 1251 +note. On this subject compare F. +Schwally, <hi rend='italic'>Semitische Kriegsaltertümer</hi>, +i. (Leipsic, 1901) pp. 67 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></p></note> Among some Indian tribes of +North America a young warrior in his first campaign had to +conform to certain customs, of which two were identical with +the observances imposed by the same Indians on girls at +their first menstruation: the vessels he ate and drank out of +might be touched by no other person, and he was forbidden +to scratch his head or any other part of his body with his +fingers; if he could not help scratching himself, he had to +do it with a stick.<note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>Narrative of the Captivity and +Adventures of John Tanner</hi> (London, +1830), p. 122.</note> The latter rule, like the one which +forbids a tabooed person to feed himself with his own fingers, +seems to rest on the supposed sanctity or pollution, whichever +we choose to call it, of the tabooed hands.<note place='foot'>We have seen (pp. <ref target='Pg146'>146</ref>, <ref target='Pg156'>156</ref>) that +the same rule is observed by girls at +puberty among some Indian tribes of +British Columbia and by Creek lads at +initiation. It is also observed by +Kwakiutl Indians who have eaten +human flesh (see below, p. <ref target='Pg189'>189</ref>). Among +the Blackfoot Indians the man who was +appointed every four years to take +charge of the sacred pipe and other +emblems of their religion might not +scratch his body with his finger-nails, +but carried a sharp stick in his hair +which he used for this purpose. During +the term of his priesthood he had to +fast and practise strict continence. +None but he dare handle the sacred +pipe and emblems (W. W. Warren, +<q>History of the Ojibways,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Collections +of the Minnesota Historical Society</hi>, v. +(1885) pp. 68 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>). In Vedic India +the man who was about to offer the +solemn sacrifice of soma prepared himself +for his duties by a ceremony of +consecration, during which he carried +the horn of a black deer or antelope +wherewith to scratch himself if necessary +(<hi rend='italic'>Satapatha-Brâhmana</hi>, bk. iii. 31, vol. +ii. pp. 33 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> trans. by J. Eggeling; H. +Oldenberg, <hi rend='italic'>Die Religion des Veda</hi>, p. +399). Some of the Peruvian Indians +used to prepare themselves for an important +office by fasting, continence, +and refusing to wash themselves, to +comb their hair, and to put their hands +to their heads; if they wished to scratch +themselves, they must do it with a +stick. See P. J. de Arriaga, <hi rend='italic'>Extirpacion +de la idolatria del Piru</hi> (Lima, 1621), +p. 20. Among the Isistines Indians +of Paraguay mourners refrained from +scratching their heads with their +fingers, believing that to break the rule +would make them bald, no hair growing +on the part of the head which their +fingers had touched. See Guevara, +<q>Historia del Paraguay,</q> in P. de +Angelis's <hi rend='italic'>Coleccion de obras y documentos +relativos a la historia antigua +y moderna de las provincias del Rio de +la Plata</hi>, ii. (Buenos-Aires, 1836) p. +30. Amongst the Macusis of British +Guiana, when a woman has given birth +to a child, the father hangs up his hammock +beside that of his wife and stays +there till the navel-string drops off the +child. During this time the parents +have to observe certain rules, of which +one is that they may not scratch their +heads or bodies with their nails, but +must use for this purpose a piece of +palm-leaf. If they broke this rule, +they think the child would die or be an +invalid all its life. See R. Schomburgk, +<hi rend='italic'>Reisen in Britisch-Guiana</hi>, ii. 314. +Some aborigines of Queensland believe +that if they scratched themselves with +their fingers during a rain-making ceremony, +no rain would fall. See <hi rend='italic'>The +Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings</hi>, +vol. i. p. 254. In all these cases, +plainly, the hands are conceived to be +so strongly infected with the venom of +taboo that it is dangerous even for the +owner of the hands to touch himself +with them. The cowboy who herded +the cows of the king of Unyoro had +to live strictly chaste, no one might +touch him, and he might not scratch or +wound himself so as to draw blood. +But it is not said that he was forbidden +to touch himself with his own hands. +See my <hi rend='italic'>Totemism and Exogamy</hi>, ii. +527.</note> Moreover +<pb n='159'/><anchor id='Pg159'/> +among these Indian tribes the men on the war-path had +always to sleep at night with their faces turned towards +their own country; however uneasy the posture they might +not change it. They might not sit upon the bare ground, +nor wet their feet, nor walk on a beaten path if they could +help it; when they had no choice but to walk on a path, +they sought to counteract the ill effect of doing so by +doctoring their legs with certain medicines or charms which +they carried with them for the purpose. No member of the +party was permitted to step over the legs, hands, or body of +any other member who chanced to be sitting or lying on the +<pb n='160'/><anchor id='Pg160'/> +ground; and it was equally forbidden to step over his +blanket, gun, tomahawk, or anything that belonged to him. +If this rule was inadvertently broken, it became the duty of +the member whose person or property had been stepped over +to knock the other member down, and it was similarly the +duty of that other to be knocked down peaceably and without +resistance. The vessels out of which the warriors ate +their food were commonly small bowls of wood or birch bark, +with marks to distinguish the two sides; in marching from +home the Indians invariably drank out of one side of the +bowl, and in returning they drank out of the other. When +on their way home they came within a day's march of the +village, they hung up all their bowls on trees, or threw them +away on the prairie,<note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>Narrative of the Captivity and +Adventures of John Tanner</hi> (London, +1830), p. 123. As to the custom of +not stepping over a person or his +weapons, see the note at the end of +the volume.</note> doubtless to prevent their sanctity or +defilement from being communicated with disastrous effects +to their friends, just as we have seen that the vessels and +clothes of the sacred Mikado, of women at childbirth and +menstruation, of boys at circumcision, and of persons defiled +by contact with the dead are destroyed or laid aside for a +similar reason. The first four times that an Apache Indian +goes out on the war-path, he is bound to refrain from scratching +his head with his fingers and from letting water touch +his lips. Hence he scratches his head with a stick, and +drinks through a hollow reed or cane. Stick and reed are +attached to the warrior's belt and to each other by a leathern +thong.<note place='foot'>J. G. Bourke, <hi rend='italic'>On the Border with +Crook</hi> (New York, 1891), p. 133; <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, +in <hi rend='italic'>Folk-lore</hi>, ii. (1891) p. 453; <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, in +<hi rend='italic'>Ninth Annual Report of the Bureau of +Ethnology</hi> (Washington, 1892), p. 490.</note> The rule not to scratch their heads with their +fingers, but to use a stick for the purpose instead, was +regularly observed by Ojebways on the war-path.<note place='foot'>J. G. Kohl, <hi rend='italic'>Kitschi-Gami</hi>, ii. 168.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Ceremonies +observed +by +American +Indians +before they +went out +on the war-path. Rules +observed +by Indians +on a war-expedition.</note> +For three or four weeks before they went on a warlike +expedition, the Nootka Indians made it an invariable rule to +go into the water five or six times a day, when they washed +and scrubbed themselves from head to foot with bushes intermixed +with briars, so that their bodies and faces were often +entirely covered with blood. During this severe exercise +they continually exclaimed, <q>Good or great God, let me live, +<pb n='161'/><anchor id='Pg161'/> +not be sick, find the enemy, not fear him, find him asleep, +and kill a great many of them.</q> All this time they had no +intercourse with their women, and for a week before setting +out abstained from feasting and every kind of merriment. +For the last three days they were almost constantly in the +water, scrubbing and lacerating themselves in a terrible +manner. They believed that this hardened their skin, so +that the weapons of the enemy could not pierce them.<note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>Narrative of the Adventures and +Sufferings of John R. Jewitt</hi> (Middletown, +1820), pp. 148 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> +Before they went out on the war-path the Arikaras and the +Big Belly Indians (<q><hi rend='italic'>Gros Ventres</hi></q>) <q>observe a rigorous +fast, or rather abstain from every kind of food for four days. +In this interval their imagination is exalted to delirium; +whether it be through bodily weakness or the natural effect +of the warlike plans they cherish, they pretend to have strange +visions. The elders and sages of the tribe, being called upon +to interpret these dreams, draw from them omens more or +less favourable to the success of the enterprise; and their +explanations are received as oracles by which the expedition +will be faithfully regulated. So long as the preparatory fast +continues, the warriors make incisions in their bodies, insert +pieces of wood in the flesh, and having fastened leather +thongs to them cause themselves to be hung from a beam +which is fixed horizontally above an abyss a hundred and +fifty feet deep. Often indeed they cut off one or two fingers +which they offer in sacrifice to the Great Spirit in order that +they may come back laden with scalps.</q><note place='foot'>J. de Smet, in <hi rend='italic'>Annales de la Propagation +de la Foi</hi>, xiv. (1842) pp. 67 +<hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> These customs have doubtless +long passed away, and the Indians +who practised them may well have +suffered the extinction which they did +their best to incur.</note> It is hard to +conceive any course of training which could more effectually +incapacitate men for the business of war than that which +these foolish Indians actually adopted. With regard to +the Creek Indians and kindred tribes we are told they +<q>will not cohabit with women while they are out at war; +they religiously abstain from every kind of intercourse even +with their own wives, for the space of three days and nights +before they go to war, and so after they return home, +because they are to sanctify themselves.</q><note place='foot'>J. Adair, <hi rend='italic'>History of the American +Indians</hi> (London, 1775), p. 163.</note> And as a +<pb n='162'/><anchor id='Pg162'/> +preparation for attacking the enemy they <q>go to the aforesaid +winter house, and there drink a warm decoction of their +supposed holy consecrated herbs and roots for three days and +nights, sometimes without any other refreshment. This is to +induce the deity to guard and prosper them, amidst their +impending dangers. In the most promising appearance of +things, they are not to take the least nourishment of food, +nor so much as to sit down, during that time of sanctifying +themselves, till after sunset. While on their expedition, they +are not allowed to lean themselves against a tree, though +they may be exceedingly fatigued, after a sharp day's march; +nor must they lie by, a whole day to refresh themselves, or +kill and barbicue deer and bear for their war journey. The +more virtuous they are, they reckon the greater will be their +success against the enemy, by the bountiful smiles of the +deity. To gain that favourite point, some of the aged +warriors narrowly watch the young men who are newly +initiated, lest they should prove irreligious, and prophane the +holy fast, and bring misfortunes on the out-standing camp. +A gentleman of my acquaintance, in his youthful days observed +one of their religious fasts, but under the greatest +suspicion of his virtue in this respect, though he had often +headed them against the common enemy: during their three +days' purification, he was not allowed to go out of the +sanctified ground, without a trusty guard, lest hunger should +have tempted him to violate their old martial law, and by +that means have raised the burning wrath of the holy fire +against the whole camp.</q> <q>Every war captain chuses a +noted warrior, to attend on him and the company. He is +called <foreign rend='italic'>Etissû</foreign>, or <q>the waiter.</q> Everything they eat or drink +during their journey, he gives them out of his hand, +by a rigid abstemious rule,—though each carries on his +back all his travelling conveniencies, wrapt in a deer +skin, yet they are so bigoted in their religious customs +in war that none, though prompted by sharp hunger or +burning thirst, dares relieve himself. They are contented +with such trifling allowance as the religious waiter distributes +to them, even with a scanty hand. Such a regimen would +be too mortifying to any of the white people, let their opinion +of its violation be ever so dangerous. When I roved the +<pb n='163'/><anchor id='Pg163'/> +woods in a war party with the Indians, though I carried no +scrip, nor bottle, nor staff, I kept a large hollow cane well +corked at each end, and used to sheer off now and then to +drink, while they suffered greatly by thirst. The constancy +of the savages in mortifying their bodies, to gain the divine +favour, is astonishing, from the very time they beat to arms, +till they return from their campaign. All the while they are +out, they are prohibited by ancient custom, the leaning +against a tree, either sitting or standing; nor are they allowed +to sit in the day-time, under the shade of trees, if it can be +avoided; nor on the ground, during the whole journey, but +on such rocks, stones, or fallen wood, as their ark of war +rests upon. By the attention they invariably pay to those +severe rules of living, they weaken themselves much more +than by the unavoidable fatigues of war; but it is fruitless +to endeavour to dissuade them from those things which they +have by tradition, as the appointed means to move the +deity, to grant them success against the enemy, and a safe +return home.</q><note place='foot'>J. Adair, <hi rend='italic'>History of the American +Indians</hi>, pp. 380-382.</note> <q>An Indian, intending to go to war, will +commence by blacking his face, permitting his hair to grow +long, and neglecting his personal appearance, and also will +frequently fast, sometimes for two or three days together, +and refrain from all intercourse with the other sex. If his +dreams are favorable, he thinks that the Great Spirit will +give him success.</q><note place='foot'>Maj. M. Marston, in Rev. Jedidiah +Morse's <hi rend='italic'>Report to the Secretary of War +of the United States on Indian Affairs</hi> +(New-haven, 1822), Appendix, p. 130. +The account in the text refers especially +to the Sauk, Fox, and Kickapoo +Indians, at the junction of the Rock +and Mississippi rivers.</note> Among the Ba-Pedi and Ba-Thonga +tribes of south Africa not only have the warriors to abstain +from women, but the people left behind in the villages are +also bound to continence; they think that any incontinence +on their part would cause thorns to grow on the ground +traversed by the warriors, and that success would not attend +the expedition.<note place='foot'>H. A. Junod, <q>Les Conceptions +physiologiques des Bantou sud-africains +et leurs tabous,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Revue d'Ethnographie +et de Sociologie</hi>, i. (1910) p. 149.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The rule of +continence +observed +by savage +warriors is +perhaps +based on a +fear of +infecting +themselves +sympathetically +with +feminine +weakness +and +cowardice.</note> +When we observe what pains these misguided savages +took to unfit themselves for the business of war by abstaining +from food, denying themselves rest, and lacerating +<pb n='164'/><anchor id='Pg164'/> +their bodies, we shall probably not be disposed to attribute +their practice of continence in war to a rational fear of dissipating +their bodily energies by indulgence in the lusts of +the flesh. On the contrary, we can scarcely doubt that the +motive which impelled them to observe chastity on a campaign +was just as frivolous as the motive which led them simultaneously +to fritter away their strength by severe fasts, +gratuitous fatigue, and voluntary wounds at the very +moment when prudence called most loudly for a precisely +opposite regimen. Why exactly so many savages have +made it a rule to refrain from women in time of war,<note place='foot'>For more evidence of the practice of +continence by warriors, see R. Taylor, +<hi rend='italic'>Te Ika A Maui, or New Zealand and its +Inhabitants</hi>,<hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi> p. 189; E. Dieffenbach, +<hi rend='italic'>Travels in New Zealand</hi>, ii. 85 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; +Ch. Wilkes, <hi rend='italic'>Narrative of the United +States Exploring Expedition</hi>, iii. 78; +J. Chalmers, <q>Toaripi,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Journal of +the Anthropological Institute</hi>, xxvii. +(1898) p. 332; <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, <hi rend='italic'>Pioneering in New +Guinea</hi>, p. 65; Van Schmidt, <q>Aanteekeningen +nopens de zeden, etc., der +bevolking van de eilanden Saparoea, +Haroekoe, Noessa Laut, etc.,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Tijdschrift +voor Neêrlands Indie</hi>, 1843, deel +ii. p. 507; J. G. F. Riedel, <hi rend='italic'>De +sluikharige en kroesharige rassen tusschen Selebes +en Papua</hi>, p. 223; <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, <q>Galela und +Tobeloresen,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Zeitschrift für Ethnologie</hi>, +xvii. (1885) p. 68; W. W. Skeat, +<hi rend='italic'>Malay Magic</hi>, p. 524; E. Reclus, +<hi rend='italic'>Nouvelle Géographie universelle</hi>, viii. +126 (compare J. Biddulph, <hi rend='italic'>Tribes of +the Hindoo Koosh</hi>, p. 18); N. Isaacs, +<hi rend='italic'>Travels and Adventures in Eastern +Africa</hi>, i. 120; H. Callaway, <hi rend='italic'>Religious +System of the Amazulu</hi>, iv. 437 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; +Dudley Kidd, <hi rend='italic'>The Essential Kafir</hi>, p. +306; A. Bastian, <hi rend='italic'>Die deutsche Expedition +an der Loango-Küste</hi>, i. 203; +H. Cole, <q>Notes on the Wagogo of +German East Africa,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Journal of the +Anthropological Institute</hi>, xxxii. (1902) +p. 317; R. H. Nassau, <hi rend='italic'>Fetichism in +West Africa</hi>, p. 177; H. R. Schoolcraft, +<hi rend='italic'>Indian Tribes</hi>, iv. 63; J. Morse, +<hi rend='italic'>Report to the Secretary of War of the +U.S. on Indian Affairs</hi> (New-haven, +1822), pp. 130, 131; H. H. Bancroft, +<hi rend='italic'>Native Races of the Pacific States</hi>, i. +189. On the other hand in Uganda, +before an army set out, the general and +all the chiefs had either to lie with +their wives or to jump over them. +This was supposed to ensure victory +and plenty of booty. See J. Roscoe, +in <hi rend='italic'>Journal of the Anthropological Institute</hi>, +xxxii. (1902) p. 59. And in +Kiwai Island, off British New Guinea, +men had intercourse with their wives +before they went to war, and they drew +omens from it. See J. Chalmers, <q>Notes +on the Natives of Kiwai,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Journal of +the Anthropological Institute</hi>, xxxiii. +(1903) p. 123.</note> we +cannot say for certain, but we may conjecture that their +motive was a superstitious fear lest, on the principles of +sympathetic magic, close contact with women should infect +them with feminine weakness and cowardice. Similarly some +savages imagine that contact with a woman in childbed +enervates warriors and enfeebles their weapons.<note place='foot'>See above, pp. <ref target='Pg151'>151</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> Indeed the +Kayans of central Borneo go so far as to hold that to touch +a loom or women's clothes would so weaken a man that he +<pb n='165'/><anchor id='Pg165'/> +would have no success in hunting, fishing, and war.<note place='foot'>A. W. Nieuwenhuis, <hi rend='italic'>Quer durch +Borneo</hi>, i. 350.</note> Hence +it is not merely sexual intercourse with women that the +savage warrior sometimes shuns; he is careful to avoid the +sex altogether. Thus among the hill tribes of Assam, not +only are men forbidden to cohabit with their wives during +or after a raid, but they may not eat food cooked by +a woman; nay they should not address a word even to +their own wives. Once a woman, who unwittingly broke the +rule by speaking to her husband while he was under the +war taboo, sickened and died when she learned the awful +crime she had committed.<note place='foot'>T. C. Hodson, <q>The <foreign rend='italic'>genna</foreign> +amongst the Tribes of Assam,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Journal +of the Anthropological Institute</hi>, xxxvi. +(1906) p. 100.</note> +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<index index='toc'/> +<index index='pdf' level1='5. Manslayers tabooed.'/> +<head>§ 5. Manslayers tabooed.</head> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Taboos +laid on +warriors +after slaying +their +foes. +The effect +of the +taboos is +to seclude +the tabooed +person +from +ordinary +society. +Seclusion +of manslayers +in +the East +Indies.</note> +If the reader still doubts whether the rules of conduct +which we have just been considering are based on superstitious +fears or dictated by a rational prudence, his doubts +will probably be dissipated when he learns that rules of the +same sort are often imposed even more stringently on +warriors after the victory has been won and when all fear +of the living corporeal foe is at an end. In such cases one +motive for the inconvenient restrictions laid on the victors in +their hour of triumph is probably a dread of the angry ghosts +of the slain; and that the fear of the vengeful ghosts does +influence the behaviour of the slayers is often expressly +affirmed. The general effect of the taboos laid on sacred +chiefs, mourners, women at childbirth, men on the war-path, +and so on, is to seclude or isolate the tabooed persons from +ordinary society, this effect being attained by a variety of rules, +which oblige the men or women to live in separate huts or +in the open air, to shun the commerce of the sexes, to avoid +the use of vessels employed by others, and so forth. Now +the same effect is produced by similar means in the case of +victorious warriors, particularly such as have actually shed +the blood of their enemies. In the island of Timor, when a +warlike expedition has returned in triumph bringing the +heads of the vanquished foe, the leader of the expedition is +<pb n='166'/><anchor id='Pg166'/> +forbidden by religion and custom to return at once to his +own house. A special hut is prepared for him, in which he +has to reside for two months, undergoing bodily and spiritual +purification. During this time he may not go to his wife +nor feed himself; the food must be put into his mouth by +another person.<note place='foot'>S. Müller, <hi rend='italic'>Reizen en Onderzoekingen +in den Indischen Archipel</hi> +(Amsterdam, 1857), ii. 252.</note> That these observances are dictated by +fear of the ghosts of the slain seems certain; for from +another account of the ceremonies performed on the return +of a successful head-hunter in the same island we learn that +sacrifices are offered on this occasion to appease the soul of +the man whose head has been taken; the people think that +some misfortune would befall the victor were such offerings +omitted. Moreover, a part of the ceremony consists of a +dance accompanied by a song, in which the death of the +slain man is lamented and his forgiveness is entreated. <q>Be +not angry,</q> they say, <q>because your head is here with us; +had we been less lucky, our heads might now have been +exposed in your village. We have offered the sacrifice to +appease you. Your spirit may now rest and leave us at +peace. Why were you our enemy? Would it not have +been better that we should remain friends? Then +your blood would not have been spilt and your head would +not have been cut off.</q><note place='foot'>J. S. G. Gramberg, <q>Eene maand +in de binnenlanden van Timor,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Verhandelingen +van het Bataviaasch +Genootschap van Kunsten en Wetenschappen</hi>, +xxxvi. (1872) pp. 208, 216 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> +Compare H. Zondervan, <q>Timor en +de Timoreezen,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Tijdschrift van het +Nederlandsch Aardrijkskundig Genootschap</hi>, +Tweede Serie, v. (1888) Afdeeling, +meer uitgebreide artikelen, pp. +399, 413. Similarly Gallas returning +from war sacrifice to the jinn or +guardian spirits of their slain foes +before they will re-enter their own +houses (Ph. Paulitschke, <hi rend='italic'>Ethnographie +Nordost-Afrikas, die geistige Cultur der +Danâkil, Galla und Somâl</hi>, pp. 50, 136). +Sometimes perhaps the sacrifice consists +of the slayers' own blood. See +below, pp. <ref target='Pg174'>174</ref>, <ref target='Pg176'>176</ref>, <ref target='Pg180'>180</ref>. Orestes is +said to have appeased the Furies of his +murdered mother by biting off one of +his fingers (Pausanias, viii. 34. 3).</note> The people of Paloo, in +central Celebes, take the heads of their enemies in war +and afterwards propitiate the souls of the slain in the +temple.<note place='foot'>N. Adriani en A. C. Kruijt, +<q>Van Posso naar Parigi, Sigi en +Lindoe,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Mededeelingen van wege het +Nederlandsche Zendelinggenootschap</hi>, +xlii. (1898) p. 451.</note> In some Dyak tribes men on returning from an +expedition in which they have taken human heads are +obliged to keep by themselves and abstain from a variety +<pb n='167'/><anchor id='Pg167'/> +of things for several days; they may not touch iron nor eat +salt or fish with bones, and they may have no intercourse +with women.<note place='foot'>S. W. Tromp, <q>Uit de Salasila +van Koetei,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Bijdragen tot de Taal- Land- +en Volkenkunde van Nederlandsch-Indië</hi>, +xxxvii. (1888) p. 74.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Seclusion +of manslayers +in +New +Guinea.</note> +In Logea, an island off the south-eastern extremity of +New Guinea, men who have killed or assisted in killing +enemies shut themselves up for about a week in their +houses. They must avoid all intercourse with their wives +and friends, and they may not touch food with their hands. +They may eat vegetable food only, which is brought to +them cooked in special pots. The intention of these +restrictions is to guard the men against the smell of the +blood of the slain; for it is believed that if they smelt the +blood, they would fall ill and die.<note place='foot'>Dr. L. Loria, <q>Notes on the +Ancient War Customs of the Natives +of Logea and Neighbourhood,</q> <hi rend='italic'>British +New Guinea, Annual Report for 1894-1895</hi> +(London, 1896), p. 52.</note> In the Toaripi or +Motumotu tribe of south-eastern New Guinea a man who +has killed another may not go near his wife, and may +not touch food with his fingers. He is fed by others, +and only with certain kinds of food. These observances +last till the new moon.<note place='foot'>Rev. J. Chalmers, <q>Toaripi,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Journal of the Anthropological Institute</hi>, +xxvii. (1898) p. 333.</note> Among the tribes at the mouth of +the Wanigela River, in New Guinea, <q>a man who has taken +life is considered to be impure until he has undergone +certain ceremonies: as soon as possible after the deed +he cleanses himself and his weapon. This satisfactorily +accomplished, he repairs to his village and seats himself on +the logs of sacrificial staging. No one approaches him or +takes any notice whatever of him. A house is prepared for +him which is put in charge of two or three small boys as +servants. He may eat only toasted bananas, and only the +centre portion of them—the ends being thrown away. On +the third day of his seclusion a small feast is prepared by +his friends, who also fashion some new perineal bands for +him. This is called <foreign rend='italic'>ivi poro</foreign>. The next day the man dons +all his best ornaments and badges for taking life, and sallies +forth fully armed and parades the village. The next day a +hunt is organised, and a kangaroo selected from the game +captured. It is cut open and the spleen and liver rubbed +<pb n='168'/><anchor id='Pg168'/> +over the back of the man. He then walks solemnly down +to the nearest water, and standing straddle-legs in it washes +himself. All the young untried warriors swim between his +legs. This is supposed to impart courage and strength to +them. The following day, at early dawn, he dashes out of +his house, fully armed, and calls aloud the name of his +victim. Having satisfied himself that he has thoroughly +scared the ghost of the dead man, he returns to his house. +The beating of flooring-boards and the lighting of fires is +also a certain method of scaring the ghost. A day later +his purification is finished. He can then enter his wife's +house.</q><note place='foot'>R. E. Guise, <q>On the Tribes +inhabiting the Mouth of the Wanigela +River, New Guinea,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Journal of the +Anthropological Institute</hi>, xxviii. (1899) +pp. 213 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> Among the Roro-speaking tribes of British New +Guinea homicides were secluded in the warriors' clubhouse. +They had to pass the night in the building, but during the +day they might paint and decorate themselves and dance in +front of it. For some time they might not eat much food +nor touch it with their hands, but were obliged to pick it up +on a bone fork, the heft of which was wrapped in a banana +leaf. After a while they bathed in the sea and thence +forward for a period of about a month, though they had +still to sleep in the warriors' clubhouse, they were free to eat +as much food as they pleased and to pick it up with their +bare hands. Finally, those warriors who had never killed +a man before assumed a beautiful ornament made of fretted +turtle shell, which none but homicides were allowed to flaunt in +their head-dresses. Then came a dance, and that same night +the men who wore the honourable badge of homicide for +the first time were chased about the village; embers were +thrown at them and firebrands waved in order, apparently, +to drive away the souls of the dead enemies, who seem to +be conceived as immanent in some way in the headgear of +their slayers.<note place='foot'>C. G. Seligmann, <hi rend='italic'>The Melanesians +of British New Guinea</hi> (Cambridge, +1910), p. 298.</note> Again, among the Koita of British New +Guinea, when a man had killed another, whether the victim +were male or female, he did not wash the blood off the +spear or club, but carefully allowed it to dry on the weapon. +On his way home he bathed in fresh or salt water, and +<pb n='169'/><anchor id='Pg169'/> +on reaching his village went straight to his own house, +where he remained in seclusion for about a week. He was +taboo (<foreign rend='italic'>aina</foreign>): he might not approach women, and he lifted his +food to his mouth with a bone fork. His women-folk were +not obliged to leave the house, but they might not come +near him. At the end of a week he built a rough shelter +in the forest, where he lived for a few days. During this +time he made a new waist-band, which he wore on his +return to the village. A man who has slain another is +supposed to grow thin and emaciated, because he had been +splashed with the blood of his victim, and as the corpse +rotted he wasted away.<note place='foot'>C. G. Seligmann, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> pp. +129 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> Among the Southern Massim of +British New Guinea a warrior who has taken a prisoner or +slain a man remains secluded in his house for six days. +During the first three days he may eat only roasted food +and must cook it for himself. Then he bathes and blackens +his face for the remaining three days.<note place='foot'>C. G. Seligmann, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> pp. +563 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The manslayer +unclean. +Driving +away the +ghosts of +the slain.</note> +Among the Monumbos of German New Guinea any one +who has slain a foe in war becomes thereby <q>unclean</q> +(<foreign rend='italic'>bolobolo</foreign>), and they apply the same term <q>unclean</q> to +menstruous and lying-in women and also to everything that +has come into contact with a corpse, which shews that all +these classes of persons and things are closely associated +in their minds. The <q>unclean</q> man who has killed an +enemy in battle must remain a long time in the men's clubhouse, +while the villagers gather round him and celebrate his +victory with dance and song. He may touch nobody, not +even his own wife and children; if he were to touch them +it is believed that they would be covered with sores. He +becomes clean again by washing and using other modes of +purification.<note place='foot'>P. Franz Vormann, <q>Zur Psychologie, +Religion, Soziologie und +Geschichte der Monumbo-Papua, +Deutsch-Neuguinea,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Anthropos</hi>, v. +(1910) pp. 410 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> In Windessi, Dutch New Guinea, when a party +of head-hunters has been successful, and they are nearing +home, they announce their approach and success by blowing +on triton shells. Their canoes are also decked with +branches. The faces of the men who have taken a head +are blackened with charcoal. If several have taken part in +<pb n='170'/><anchor id='Pg170'/> +killing the same victim, his head is divided among them. +They always time their arrival so as to reach home in the +early morning. They come rowing to the village with a +great noise, and the women stand ready to dance in the +verandahs of the houses. The canoes row past the <foreign rend='italic'>room +sram</foreign> or house where the young men live; and as they pass, +the murderers throw as many pointed sticks or bamboos at +the wall or the roof as there were enemies killed. The day +is spent very quietly. Now and then they drum or blow +on the conch; at other times they beat the walls of the +houses with loud shouts to drive away the ghosts of the +slain.<note place='foot'>J. L. D. van der Roest, <q>Uit het +leven der Bevolking van Windessi,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Tijdschrift voor Indische Taal- Land- en +Volkenkunde</hi>, xl. (1898) pp. 157 +<hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> Similarly in the Doreh district of Dutch New +Guinea, if a murder has taken place in the village, the +inhabitants assemble for several evenings in succession and +utter frightful yells to drive away the ghost of the victim in +case he should be minded to hang about the village.<note place='foot'>H. von Rosenberg, <hi rend='italic'>Der malayische +Archipel</hi>, p. 461.</note> So +the Yabim of German New Guinea believe that the spirit of +a murdered man pursues his murderer and seeks to do him +a mischief. Hence they drive away the spirit with shouts +and the beating of drums.<note place='foot'>K. Vetter, in <hi rend='italic'>Nachrichten über +Kaiser Wilhelms-Land und den Bismarck-Archipel</hi>, +1897, p. 94.</note> When the Fijians had buried a +man alive, as they often did, they used at nightfall to make +a great uproar by means of bamboos, trumpet-shells, and so +forth, for the purpose of frightening away his ghost, lest he +should attempt to return to his old home. And to render +his house unattractive to him they dismantled it and clothed +it with everything that to their ideas seemed most repulsive.<note place='foot'>J. E. Erskine, <hi rend='italic'>The Western Pacific</hi> +(London, 1853), p. 477.</note> +On the evening of the day on which they had tortured a +prisoner to death, the American Indians were wont to run +through the village with hideous yells, beating with sticks +on the furniture, the walls, and the roofs of the huts to +prevent the angry ghost of their victim from settling there +and taking vengeance for the torments that his body had +endured at their hands.<note place='foot'>Charlevoix, <hi rend='italic'>Histoire de la Nouvelle +France</hi>, vi. pp. 77, 122 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; J. F. +Lafitau, <hi rend='italic'>Mœ urs des sauvages ameriquains</hi>, +ii. 279. In many places it is +customary to drive away the ghosts +even of persons who have died a +natural death. An account of these +customs is reserved for another work.</note> <q>Once,</q> says a traveller, <q>on +<pb n='171'/><anchor id='Pg171'/> +approaching in the night a village of Ottawas, I found all the +inhabitants in confusion: they were all busily engaged in +raising noises of the loudest and most inharmonious kind. +Upon inquiry, I found that a battle had been lately fought +between the Ottawas and the Kickapoos, and that the object +of all this noise was to prevent the ghosts of the departed +combatants from entering the village.</q><note place='foot'>W. H. Keating, <hi rend='italic'>Narrative of an +Expedition to the Source of St. Peter's +River</hi> (London, 1825), i. 109.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Precautions +taken by +executioners +against the +ghosts of +their +victims.</note> +The executioner at Porto Novo, on the coast of Guinea, +used to decorate his walls with the jawbones of the persons +on whom he had operated in the course of business. But +for this simple precaution their ghosts would unquestionably +have come at night to knock with sobs and groans, in +an insufferable manner, at the door of the room where +he slept the sleep of the just.<note place='foot'>Father Baudin, <q>Féticheurs, ou +ministres religieux des Nègres de la +Guinée,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Missions Catholiques</hi>, xvi. +(1884) p. 332.</note> The temper of a man +who has just been executed is naturally somewhat short, +and in a burst of vexation his ghost is apt to fall foul +of the first person he comes across, without discriminating +between the objects of his wrath with that nicety of judgment +which in calmer moments he may be expected to +display. Hence in China it is, or used to be, customary +for the spectators of an execution to shew a clean pair +of heels to the ghosts as soon as the last head was off.<note place='foot'>Juan de la Concepcion, <hi rend='italic'>Historia +general de Philipinas</hi>, xi. (Manilla, +1791) p. 387.</note> +The same fear of the spirits of his victims leads the +executioner sometimes to live in seclusion for some time +after he has discharged his office. Thus an old writer, +speaking of Issini on the Gold Coast of West Africa, tells +us that the <q>executioners, being reckoned impure for three +days, they build them a separate hut at a distance from +the village. Meantime these fellows run like madmen +through the place, seizing all they can lay hands on; +poultry, sheep, bread, and oil; everything they can touch +is theirs; being deemed so polluted that the owners +willingly give it up. They continue three days confined +to their hut, their friends bringing them victuals. This +time expired, they take their hut in pieces, which they +<pb n='172'/><anchor id='Pg172'/> +bundle up, not leaving so much as the ashes of their fire. +The first executioner, having a pot on his head, leads them +to the place where the criminal suffered. There they all +call him thrice by his name. The first executioner breaks +his pot, and leaving their old rags and bundles they all +scamper home.</q><note place='foot'>G. Loyer, <q>Voyage to Issini on +the Gold Coast,</q> in T. Astley's <hi rend='italic'>New +General Collection of Voyages and +Travels</hi>, ii. (London, 1745) p. 444. +Among the tribes of the Lower Niger +it is customary for the executioner to +remain in the house for three days +after the execution; during this time +he sleeps on the bare floor, eats off +broken platters, and drinks out of +calabashes or mugs, which are also +damaged. See Major A. G. Leonard, +<hi rend='italic'>The Lower Niger and its Tribes</hi> +(London, 1906), p. 180.</note> Here the thrice-repeated invocation of +the victim by name gives the clue to the rest of the +observances; all of them are probably intended to ward +off the angry ghost of the slain man or to give him the +slip. +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Purification +of +manslayers +among the +Basutos, +Bechuanas, and Bageshu. Expulsion +of the +ghosts of +the slain by +the Angoni.</note> +Among the Basutos <q>ablution is specially performed on +return from battle. It is absolutely necessary that the +warriors should rid themselves, as soon as possible, of the +blood they have shed, or the shades of their victims would +pursue them incessantly, and disturb their slumbers. They +go in a procession, and in full armour, to the nearest +stream. At the moment they enter the water a diviner, +placed higher up, throws some purifying substances into +the current. This is, however, not strictly necessary. The +javelins and battle-axes also undergo the process of washing.</q><note place='foot'>E. Casalis, <hi rend='italic'>The Basutos</hi>, p. 258. +So Caffres returning from battle are +unclean and must wash before they +enter their houses (L. Alberti, <hi rend='italic'>De +Kaffers</hi>, p. 104). It would seem that +after the slaughter of a foe the Greeks +or Romans had also to bathe in running +water before they might touch holy +things (Virgil, <hi rend='italic'>Aen.</hi> ii. 719 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>).</note> +According to another account of the Basuto custom, +<q>warriors who have killed an enemy are purified. The +chief has to wash them, sacrificing an ox in presence of the +whole army. They are also anointed with the gall of the +animal, which prevents the ghost of the enemy from pursuing +them any further.</q><note place='foot'>Father Porte, <q>Les Réminiscences +d'un missionnaire du Basutoland,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Missions Catholiques</hi>, xxviii. (1896) +p. 371. For a fuller description of a +ceremony of this sort see T. Arbousset +et F. Daumas, <hi rend='italic'>Voyage d'exploration +au nord-est de la colonie du Cap de +Bonne-Espérance</hi> (Paris, 1842), pp. +561-563.</note> Among the Bechuanas a man +who has killed another, whether in war or in single combat, +is not allowed to enter the village until he has been purified. +<pb n='173'/><anchor id='Pg173'/> +The ceremony takes place in the evening. An ox is +slaughtered, and a hole having been made through the +middle of the carcase with a spear, the manslayer has to force +himself through the animal, while two men hold its stomach +open.<note place='foot'><q>Extrait du journal des missions +évangeliques,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Bulletin de la Société de +Géographie</hi> (Paris), IIme Série, ii. +(1834) pp. 199 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> Sometimes instead of being obliged to squeeze through +the carcase of an ox the manslayer is merely smeared with +the contents of its stomach. The ceremony has been +described as follows: <q>In the purification of warriors, too, +the ox takes a conspicuous part. The warrior who has +slain a man in the battle is unclean, and must on no account +enter his own courtyard, for it would be a serious thing if +even his shadow were to fall upon his children. He +studiously keeps himself apart from the civil life of the +town until he is purified. The purification ceremony is +significant. Having bathed himself in running water, or, if +that is not convenient, in water that has been appropriately +medicated, he is smeared by the doctor with the contents +of the stomach of an ox, into which certain powdered +roots have been already mixed, and then the doctor strikes +him on the back, sides, and belly with the large bowel of +an ox.... A doctor takes a piece of roasted beef and +cuts it into small lumps of about the size of a walnut, +laying them carefully on a large wooden trencher. He +has already prepared charcoal, by roasting the root of +certain trees in an old cracked pot, and this he grinds +down and sprinkles on the lumps of meat on the trencher. +Then the army surrounds the trencher, and every one +who has slain a foe in the battle steps forth, kneels +down before the trencher, and takes out a piece of +meat with his mouth, taking care not to touch it or the +trencher with his hands. As he takes the meat, the doctor +gives him a smart cut with a switch. And when he has +eaten that lump of meat his purification is complete. This +ceremony is called <foreign rend='italic'>Go alafsha dintèè</foreign>, or <q>the purification of +the strikers.</q></q> The writer to whom we owe this description +adds: <q>This taking of meat from the trencher without +using the hands is evidently a matter of ritual.</q><note place='foot'>Rev. W. C. Willoughby, <q>Notes +on the Totemism of the Becwana,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Journal of the Anthropological Institute</hi>, +xxxv. (1905) pp. 305 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> The +<pb n='174'/><anchor id='Pg174'/> +observation is correct. Here as in so many cases persons +ceremonially unclean are forbidden to touch food with +defiled hands until their uncleanness has been purged away. +The same taboo is laid on the manslayer by the Bageshu +of British East Africa. Among them a man who has +killed another may not return to his own house on the +same day, though he may enter the village and spend +the night in a friend's house. He kills a sheep and smears +his chest, his right arm, and his head with the contents of +the animal's stomach. His children are brought to him +and he smears them in like manner. Then he smears each +side of the doorway with the tripe and entrails, and finally +throws the rest of the stomach on the roof of his house. +For a whole day he may not touch food with his hands, +but picks it up with two sticks and so conveys it to his +mouth. His wife is not under any such restrictions. She +may even go to mourn for the man whom her husband has +killed, if she wishes to do so.<note place='foot'>Rev. J. Roscoe, <q>Notes on the +Bageshu,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Journal of the Royal Anthropological +Institute</hi>, xxxix. (1909) +p. 190.</note> In some Bechuana tribes the +victorious warrior is obliged to eat a piece of the skin of the man +he killed; the skin is taken from about the navel of his victim, +and without it he may not enter the cattle pen. Moreover, +the medicine-man makes a gash with a spear in the warrior's +thigh for every man he has killed.<note place='foot'>Dudley Kidd, <hi rend='italic'>The Essential Kafir</hi>, +p. 310.</note> Among the Angoni, a +Zulu tribe settled to the north of the Zambesi, warriors who +have slain foes on an expedition smear their bodies and +faces with ashes, hang garments of their victims on their +persons, and tie bark ropes round their necks, so that the +ends hang down over their shoulders or breasts. This +costume they wear for three days after their return, and +rising at break of day they run through the village uttering +frightful yells to drive away the ghosts of the slain, which, +if they were not thus banished from the houses, might bring +sickness and misfortune on the inmates.<note place='foot'>C. Wiese, <q>Beiträge zur Geschichte +der Zulu im Norden des Zambesi,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Zeitschrift für Ethnologie</hi>, xxxii. (1900) +pp. 197 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> In some Caffre +tribes of South Africa men who have been wounded or +killed an enemy in fight may not see the king nor drink +<pb n='175'/><anchor id='Pg175'/> +milk till they have been purified. An ox is killed, and its +gall, intestines, and other parts are boiled with roots. Of +this decoction the men have to take three gulps, and the +rest is sprinkled on their bodies. The wounded man has +then to take a stick, spit on it thrice, point it thrice at the +enemy, and then throw it in his direction. After that he +takes an emetic and is declared clean.<note place='foot'>Dudley Kidd, <hi rend='italic'>The Essential Kafir</hi>, +pp. 309 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Seclusion +and +purification +of manslayers +in Africa.</note> +In some of these accounts nothing is said of an +enforced seclusion, at least after the ceremonial cleansing, +but some South African tribes certainly require the slayer +of a very gallant foe in war to keep apart from his wife +and family for ten days after he has washed his body in +running water. He also receives from the tribal doctor a +medicine which he chews with his food.<note place='foot'>Rev. J. Macdonald, <q>Manners, +Customs, Superstitions, and Religions +of South African Tribes,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Journal of the +Anthropological Institute</hi>, xx. (1891) +p. 138; <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, <hi rend='italic'>Light in Africa</hi>, p. +220.</note> When a Nandi +of British East Africa has killed a member of another tribe, +he paints one side of his body, spear, and sword red, and the +other side white. For four days after the slaughter he is +considered unclean and may not go home. He has to build +a small shelter by a river and live there; he may not +associate with his wife or sweetheart, and he may eat +nothing but porridge, beef, and goat's flesh. At the end of +the fourth day he must purify himself by taking a strong +purge made from the bark of the <foreign rend='italic'>segetet</foreign> tree and by +drinking goat's milk mixed with blood.<note place='foot'>A. C. Hollis, <hi rend='italic'>The Nandi</hi> (Oxford, +1909), p. 74. As to the painting of +the body red on one side and white on +the other see also C. W. Hobley, +<hi rend='italic'>Eastern Uganda</hi>, pp. 38, 42; Sir H. +Johnston, <hi rend='italic'>The Uganda Protectorate</hi>, +ii. 868. As to the custom of painting +the bodies of homicides, see below, +p. <ref target='Pg178'>178</ref> note <hi rend='vertical-align: super'>1</hi> and p. <ref target='Pg186'>186</ref> note <hi rend='vertical-align: super'>1</hi>.</note> Among the +Akikuya of British East Africa all who have shed human +blood must be purified. The elders assemble and one of +them cuts a strip of hair from above both ears of each manslayer. +After that the warriors rub themselves with the +dung taken from the stomach of a sheep which has been +slaughtered for the occasion. Finally their bodies are +cleansed with water. All the hair remaining on their heads +is subsequently shaved off by their wives. For a month +after the shedding of blood they may have no contact with +<pb n='176'/><anchor id='Pg176'/> +women.<note place='foot'>H. R. Tate, <q>Further Notes on +the Kikuyu Tribe of British East Africa,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Journal of the Anthropological Institute</hi>, +xxxiv. (1904) p. 264.</note> On the contrary, when a Ketosh warrior of British +East Africa, who has killed a foe in battle, returns home +<q>it is considered essential that he should have connection +with his wife as soon as convenient; this is believed to +prevent the spirit of his dead enemy from haunting and +bewitching him.</q><note place='foot'>C. W. Hobley, <q>British East +Africa,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Journal of the Anthropological +Institute</hi>, xxxiii. (1903) p. 353.</note> An Angoni who has killed a man in battle +is obliged to perform certain purificatory ceremonies before +he may return to ordinary life. Amongst other things, he +must be sure to make an incision in the corpse of his slain +foe, in order to let the gases escape and so prevent the body +from swelling. If he fails to do so, his own body will swell +in proportion as the corpse becomes inflated.<note place='foot'>Miss Alice Werner, <hi rend='italic'>Natives of +British Central Africa</hi> (London, 1906), +pp. 67 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> Among the +Ovambos of southern Africa, when the warriors return to +their villages, those who have killed an enemy pass the first +night in the open fields, and may not enter their houses +until they have been cleansed of the guilt of blood by an +older man, who smears them for this purpose with a kind of +porridge.<note place='foot'>H. Schinz, <hi rend='italic'>Deutsch-Südwest-Afrika</hi>, +p. 321.</note> Herero warriors on their return from battle may +not approach the sacred hearth until they have been purified +from the guilt of bloodshed. They crouch in a circle round +the hearth, but at some distance from it, while the chief +besprinkles their brows and temples with water in which +branches of a holy bush have been placed.<note place='foot'>P. H. Brincker, <q>Heidnisch-religiöse +Sitten der Bantu, speciell +der Ovaherero und Ovambo,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Globus</hi>, +lxvii. (1895) p. 289; id., <q>Charakter, +Sitten und Gebräuche speciell +der Bantu Deutsch-Südwestafrikas,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Mittheilungen des Seminars für orientalische +Sprachen zu Berlin</hi>, iii. (1900) +Dritte Abtheilung, p. 76.</note> Again, +ancient Herero custom requires that he who has killed a +man or a lion should have blood drawn from his breast and +upper arm so as to trickle on the ground: a special name +(<foreign rend='italic'>outoni</foreign>) is given to the cuts thus made; they must be made +with a flint, not with an iron tool.<note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>Id.</hi>, <q>Beobachtungen über die +Deisidämonie der Eingeborenen +Deutsch-Südwest-Afrikas,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Globus</hi>, +lviii. (1890) p. 324; id., in <hi rend='italic'>Globus</hi>, +lxvii. (1895) p. 289; id., in <hi rend='italic'>Mittheilungen +des Seminars für orientalische +Sprachen zu Berlin</hi>, iii. (1900) Dritte +Abtheilung, p. 83.</note> Among the Bantu +tribes of Kavirondo, in eastern Africa, when a man has +<pb n='177'/><anchor id='Pg177'/> +killed an enemy in warfare he shaves his head on his return +home, and his friends rub a medicine, which generally +consists of goat's dung, over his body to prevent the spirit +of the slain man from troubling him.<note place='foot'>Sir H. Johnston, <hi rend='italic'>The Uganda +Protectorate</hi> (London, 1902), ii. 743 +<hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; C. W. Hobley, <hi rend='italic'>Eastern Uganda</hi> +(London, 1902), p. 20.</note> Exactly the same +custom is practised for the same reason by the Wageia +of German East Africa.<note place='foot'>M. Weiss, <hi rend='italic'>Die Völkerstämme im +Norden Deutsch-Ostafrikas</hi> (Berlin, +1910), p. 198.</note> With the Ja-Luo of Kavirondo +the custom is somewhat different. Three days after his +return from the fight the warrior shaves his head. But +before he may enter his village he has to hang a live +fowl, head uppermost, round his neck; then the bird is +decapitated and its head left hanging round his neck. Soon +after his return a feast is made for the slain man, in order +that his ghost may not haunt his slayer.<note place='foot'>Sir H. Johnston, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> ii. 794; +C. W. Hobley, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> p. 31.</note> After the +slaughter of the Midianites the Israelitish warriors were +obliged to remain outside the camp for seven days: whoever +had killed a man or touched the slain had to purify +himself and his captive. The spoil taken from the enemy +had also to be purified, according to its nature, either by fire +or water.<note place='foot'>Numbers xxxi. 19-24.</note> Similarly among the Basutos cattle taken from +the enemy are fumigated with bundles of lighted branches +before they are allowed to mingle with the herds of the +tribe.<note place='foot'>E. Casalis, <hi rend='italic'>The Basutos</hi>, pp. 258 +<hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Manslayers +in +Australia +guard +themselves +against the +ghosts of +the slain.</note> +The Arunta of central Australia believe that when a +party of men has been out against the enemy and taken a +life, the spirit of the slain man follows the party on its +return and is constantly on the watch to do a mischief +to those of the band who actually shed the blood. It +takes the form of a little bird called the <foreign rend='italic'>chichurkna</foreign>, and +may be heard crying like a child in the distance as it +flies. If any of the slayers should fail to hear its cry, +he would become paralysed in his right arm and shoulder. +At night-time especially, when the bird is flying over +the camp, the slayers have to lie awake and keep the +right arm and shoulder carefully hidden, lest the bird should +look down upon and harm them. When once they have +<pb n='178'/><anchor id='Pg178'/> +heard its cry their minds are at ease, because the spirit of +the dead then recognises that he has been detected, and can +therefore do no mischief. On their return to their friends, +as soon as they come in sight of the main camp, they begin +to perform an excited war-dance, approaching in the form of +a square and moving their shields as if to ward off something +which was being thrown at them. This action is intended +to repel the angry spirit of the dead man, who is striving to +attack them. Next the men who did the deed of blood +separate themselves from the others, and forming a line, +with spears at rest and shields held out in front, stand silent +and motionless like statues. A number of old women now +approach with a sort of exulting skip and strike the shields +of the manslayers with fighting-clubs till they ring again. +They are followed by men who smite the shields with +boomerangs. This striking of the shields is supposed to be +a very effective way of frightening away the spirit of the +dead man. The natives listen anxiously to the sounds +emitted by the shields when they are struck; for if any +man's shield gives forth a hollow sound under the blow, that +man will not live long, but if it rings sharp and clear, he is +safe. For some days after their return the slayers will not +speak of what they have done, and continue to paint themselves +all over with powdered charcoal, and to decorate their +foreheads and noses with green twigs. Finally, they paint +their bodies and faces with bright colours, and become free +to talk about the affair; but still of nights they must lie +awake listening for the plaintive cry of the bird in which +they fancy they hear the voice of their victim.<note place='foot'>Spencer and Gillen, <hi rend='italic'>Native Tribes +of Central Australia</hi>, pp. 493-495; +<hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, <hi rend='italic'>Northern Tribes of Central Australia</hi>, +pp. 563-568. The writers +suggest that the practice of painting +the slayers black is meant to render +them invisible to the ghost. A widow, +on the contrary, must paint her body +white, in order that her husband's spirit +may see that she is mourning for him.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Seclusion +of manslayers +in +Polynesia.</note> +In the Washington group of the Marquesas Islands, the +man who has slain an enemy in battle becomes tabooed for +ten days, during which he may hold no intercourse with his +wife, and may not meddle with fire. Hence another has to +make fire and to cook for him. Nevertheless he is treated +with marked distinction and receives presents of pigs.<note place='foot'>G. H. von Langsdorff, <hi rend='italic'>Reise um +die Welt</hi> (Frankfort, 1812), i. 114 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> In +<pb n='179'/><anchor id='Pg179'/> +Fiji any one who had clubbed a human being to death in +war was consecrated or tabooed. He was smeared red by +the king with turmeric from the roots of his hair to his +heels. A hut was built, and in it he had to pass the next +three nights, during which he might not lie down, but must +sleep as he sat. Till the three nights had elapsed he might +not change his garment, nor remove the turmeric, nor enter +a house in which there was a woman.<note place='foot'>T. Williams, <hi rend='italic'>Fiji and the Fijians</hi>,<hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi> +i. 55 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> In the Pelew +Islands, when the men return from a warlike expedition in +which they have taken a life, the young warriors who have +been out fighting for the first time, and all who handled the +slain, are shut up in the large council-house and become +tabooed. They may not quit the edifice, nor bathe, nor +touch a woman, nor eat fish; their food is limited to coco-nuts +and syrup. They rub themselves with charmed leaves +and chew charmed betel. After three days they go together +to bathe as near as possible to the spot where the man was +killed.<note place='foot'>J. Kubary, <hi rend='italic'>Die socialen Einrichtungen +der Pelauer</hi> (Berlin, 1885), pp. +126 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 130.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Seclusion +and +purification +of manslayers +among +the Tupi +Indians +of Brazil.</note> +When the Tupi Indians of Brazil had made a +prisoner in war, they used to bring him home amid great +rejoicings, decked with the gorgeous plumage of tropical +birds. In the village he was well treated: he received a +house and furniture and was married to a wife. When he +was thus comfortably installed, the relations and friends of +his captor, who had the first pick, came and examined him +and decided which of his limbs and joints they proposed +to eat; and according to their choice they were bound +to provide him with victuals. Thus he might live for +months or years, treated like a king, supplied with all the +delicacies of the country, and rearing a family of children +who, when they were big, might or might not be eaten +with their father. While he was thus being fattened like +a capon for the slaughter, he wore a necklace of fruit or +of fish-bones strung on a cotton thread. This was the +measure of his life. For every fruit or every bone on the +string he had a month to live; and as each moon waned +and vanished they took a fruit or a bone from the necklace. +<pb n='180'/><anchor id='Pg180'/> +When only one remained, they sent out invitations to +friends and neighbours far and near, who flocked in, sometimes +to the number of ten or twelve thousand, to witness +the spectacle and partake of the feast; for often a number +of prisoners were to die the same day, father, mother, and +children all together. As a rule they shewed a remarkable +stolidity and indifference to death. The club with which +they were to be despatched was elaborately prepared by the +women, who adorned it with tassels of feathers, smeared it +with the pounded shells of a macaw's eggs, and traced lines +on the egg-shell powder. Then they hung it to a pole, +above the ground, in an empty hut, and sang around it all +night. The executioner, who was painted grey with ashes +and his whole body covered with the beautiful feathers of +parrots and other birds of gay plumage, performed his office +by striking the victim on the head from behind and dashing +out his brains. No sooner had he despatched the prisoner +than he retired to his house, where he had to stay all that +day without eating or drinking, while the rest of the people +feasted on the body of the victim or victims. And for +three days he was obliged to fast and remain in seclusion. +All this time he lay in his hammock and might not set foot +on the ground; if he had to go anywhere, he was carried +by bearers. They thought that, were he to break this rule, +some disaster would befall him or he would die. Meantime +he was given a small bow and passed his time in shooting +arrows into wax. This he did in order to keep his hand +and aim steady. In some of the tribes they rubbed the +pulse of the executioner with one of the eyes of his victim, +and hung the mouth of the murdered man like a bracelet +on his arm. Afterwards he made incisions in his breast, +arms, and legs, and other parts of his body with a saw +made of the teeth of an animal. An ointment and a black +powder were then rubbed into the wounds, which left +ineffaceable scars so artistically arranged that they presented +the appearance of a tightly-fitting garment. It was +believed that he would die if he did not thus draw blood +from his own body after slaughtering the captive.<note place='foot'>F. A. Thevet, <hi rend='italic'>Les Singularités de +la France Antarctique, autrement +nommée Amérique</hi> (Antwerp, 1558), +pp. 74-76; <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, <hi rend='italic'>Cosmographie universelle</hi> +(Paris, 1575), pp. 944 [978] <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; +Pero de Magalhanes de Gandavo, +<hi rend='italic'>Histoire de la province de Sancta-Cruz</hi> +(Paris, 1837), pp. 134-141 (H. Ternaux-Compans, +<hi rend='italic'>Voyages, relations, et +mémoires originaux pour servir à +l'histoire de la découverte de l'Amérique</hi>; +the original of Gandavo's work +was published in Portuguese at Lisbon +in 1576); J. Lery, <hi rend='italic'>Historia navigationis +in Brasiliam, quae et America +dicitur</hi> (1586), pp. 183-194; <hi rend='italic'>The +Captivity of Hans Stade of Hesse, in +<hi rend='smallcaps'>a.d.</hi> 1547-1555, among the Wild +Tribes of Eastern Brazil</hi>, translated +by A. Tootal (London, 1874), pp. +155-159; J. F. Lafitau, <hi rend='italic'>Mœurs des +sauvages ameriquains</hi>, ii. 292 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>; R. +Southey, <hi rend='italic'>History of Brazil</hi>, i.<hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi> 227-232.</note> We +<pb n='181'/><anchor id='Pg181'/> +may conjecture that the original intention of these customs +was to guard the executioner against the angry and +dangerous ghosts of his victims. +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Seclusion +and +purification +of manslayers +among +the North +American +Indians.</note> +Among the Natchez of North America young braves +who had taken their first scalps were obliged to observe +certain rules of abstinence for six months. They +might not sleep with their wives nor eat flesh; their +only food was fish and hasty-pudding. If they broke +these rules, they believed that the soul of the man +they had killed would work their death by magic, that +they would gain no more successes over the enemy, and +that the least wound inflicted on them would prove +mortal.<note place='foot'><q>Relation des Natchez,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Voyages +au nord</hi>, ix. 24 (Amsterdam, 1737); +<hi rend='italic'>Lettres édifiantes et curieuses</hi>, vii. 26; +Charlevoix, <hi rend='italic'>Histoire de la Nouvelle +France</hi>, vi. 186 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> When a Choctaw had killed an enemy and taken +his scalp, he went into mourning for a month, during +which he might not comb his hair, and if his head itched +he might not scratch it except with a little stick which he +wore fastened to his wrist for the purpose.<note place='foot'>Bossu, <hi rend='italic'>Nouveaux Voyages aux +Indes occidentales</hi> (Paris, 1768), ii. 94.</note> This ceremonial +mourning for the enemies they had slain was not uncommon +among the North American Indians. Thus the Dacotas, when +they had killed a foe, unbraided their hair, blackened themselves +all over, and wore a small knot of swan's down on the +top of the head. <q>They dress as mourners yet rejoice.</q><note place='foot'>H. R. Schoolcraft, <hi rend='italic'>Indian Tribes</hi>, +iv. 63.</note> A +Thompson River Indian of British Columbia, who had slain +an enemy, used to blacken his own face, lest his victim's +ghost should blind him.<note place='foot'>J. Teit, <q>The Thompson Indians +of British Columbia,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Memoir of the +American Museum of Natural History, +The Jesup North Pacific Expedition</hi>, +vol. i. part iv. (April 1900) p. 357.</note> When the Osages have mourned +over their own dead, <q>they will mourn for the foe just as if +he was a friend.</q><note place='foot'>J. O. Dorsey, <q>An Account of the +War Customs of the Osages,</q> <hi rend='italic'>American +Naturalist</hi>, xviii. (1884) p. 126.</note> From observing the great respect paid by +<pb n='182'/><anchor id='Pg182'/> +the Indians to the scalps they had taken, and listening to the +mournful songs which they howled to the shades of their +victims, Catlin was convinced that <q>they have a superstitious +dread of the spirits of their slain enemies, and many conciliatory +offices to perform, to ensure their own peace.</q><note place='foot'>G. Catlin, <hi rend='italic'>North American +Indians</hi>, i. 246.</note> When +a Pima Indian has killed an Apache, he must undergo purification. +Sixteen days he fasts, and only after the fourth day +is he allowed to drink a little pinole. During the whole time +he may not touch meat nor salt, nor look on a blazing fire, +nor speak to a human being. He lives alone in the woods, +waited on by an old woman, who brings him his scanty dole +of food. He bathes often in a river, and keeps his head +covered almost the whole time with a plaster of mud. On +the seventeenth day a large space is cleared near the village +and a fire lit in the middle of it. The men of the tribe +form a circle round the fire, and outside of it sit all the +warriors who have just been purified, each in a small +excavation. Some of the old men then take the weapons +of the purified and dance with them in the circle, after which +both the slayer and his weapon are considered clean; but +not until four days later is the man allowed to return to +his family.<note place='foot'>H. H. Bancroft, <hi rend='italic'>Native Races of +the Pacific States</hi>, i. 553; Capt. +Grossman, cited in <hi rend='italic'>Ninth Annual +Report of the Bureau of Ethnology</hi> +(Washington, 1892), pp. 475 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> The +custom of plastering the head with mud +was observed by Egyptian women in +mourning (Herodotus, ii. 85; Diodorus +Siculus, i. 91). Among some of +the aboriginal tribes of Victoria and +New South Wales widows wore a thick +skullcap of clay or burned gypsum, +forming a cast of the head, for some +months after the death; when the +period of mourning was over, the cap +was removed, baked in the fire, and +laid on the husband's grave. One of +these widows' caps is exhibited in the +British Museum. See T. L. Mitchell, +<hi rend='italic'>Three Expeditions into the Interior of +Eastern Australia</hi> (London, 1838), i. +251 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; E. J. Eyre, <hi rend='italic'>Journals of +Expeditions of Discovery into Central +Australia</hi>, ii. 354; G. F. Angas, <hi rend='italic'>Savage +Life and Scenes in Australia and New +Zealand</hi> (London, 1847), i. 86; G. +Krefft, <q>On the Manners and Customs +of the Aborigines of the Lower Murray +and Darling,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Transactions of the Philosophical +Society of New South Wales</hi>, +1862-1865 (Sydney, 1866), pp. 373 +<hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; J. Dawson, <hi rend='italic'>Australian Aborigines</hi>, +p. 66; R. Brough Smyth, <hi rend='italic'>The Aborigines +of Victoria</hi>, i. p. xxx.; W. +Stanbridge, <q>On the Aborigines of +Victoria,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Transactions of the Ethnological +Society of London</hi>, N.S., i. (1861) +p. 298; A. Oldfield, <q>The Aborigines +of Australia,</q> <hi rend='italic'>ibid.</hi> iii. (1865) p. 248; +F. Bonney, <q>On some Customs of the +Aborigines of the River Darling, New +South Wales,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Journal of the Anthropological +Institute</hi>, xiii. (1884) p. 135; +E. M. Curr, <hi rend='italic'>The Australian Race</hi>, i. +88, ii. 238 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, iii. 21; A. W. Howitt, +<hi rend='italic'>Native Tribes of South-East Australia</hi>, +pp. 248, 452; R. Etheridge, jun., +<q>The <q>Widow's Cap</q> of the Australian +Aborigines,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Proceedings of the Linnaean +Society of New South Wales for the Year +1899</hi>, xxiv. (Sydney, 1900) pp. 333-345 +(with illustrations). In the +Andaman Islands mourners coat their +heads with a thick mass of white clay +(Jagor, in <hi rend='italic'>Verhandlungen der Berliner +Gesellschaft für Anthropologie</hi>, 1876, +p. (57); M. V. Portman, <q>Disposal +of the Dead among the Andamanese,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Indian Antiquary</hi>, xxv. (1896) p. 57; +compare E. H. Man, <hi rend='italic'>Aboriginal Inhabitants +of the Andaman Islands</hi>, pp. +73, 75). Among the Bahima of the +Uganda Protectorate, when herdsmen +water their cattle in the evening, they +plaster their faces and bodies with +white clay, at the same time stiffening +their hair with mud into separate +lumps. This mud is left on the head +for days till it crumbles into dust (Sir +H. Johnston, <hi rend='italic'>The Uganda Protectorate</hi>, +ii. 626, compare 620).</note> No doubt the peace enforced by the +<pb n='183'/><anchor id='Pg183'/> +government of the United States has, along with tribal +warfare, abolished also these quaint customs. A fuller +account of them has been given by a recent writer, and it +deserves to be quoted at length. <q>There was no law among +the Pimas,</q> he says, <q>observed with greater strictness than +that which required purification and expiation for the deed +that was at the same time the most lauded—the killing of +an enemy. For sixteen days the warrior fasted in seclusion +and observed meanwhile a number of tabus.... Attended +by an old man, the warrior who had to expiate the crime of +blood guilt retired to the groves along the river bottom at +some distance from the villages or wandered about the +adjoining hills. During the period of sixteen days he was +not allowed to touch his head with his fingers or his hair +would turn white. If he touched his face it would become +wrinkled. He kept a stick to scratch his head with, and at +the end of every four days this stick was buried at the root +and on the west side of a cat's claw tree and a new stick +was made of greasewood, arrow bush, or any other convenient +shrub. He then bathed in the river, no matter how cold +the temperature. The feast of victory which his friends +were observing in the meantime at the village lasted eight +days. At the end of that time, or when his period of retirement +was half-completed, the warrior might go to his home +to get a fetish made from the hair of the Apache whom he +had killed. The hair was wrapped in eagle down and tied +with a cotton string and kept in a long medicine basket. +He drank no water for the first two days and fasted for the +first four. After that time he was supplied with pinole by +his attendant, who also instructed him as to his future conduct, +telling him that he must henceforth stand back until +<pb n='184'/><anchor id='Pg184'/> +all others were served when partaking of food and drink. +If he was a married man his wife was not allowed to eat +salt during his retirement, else she would suffer from the +owl disease which causes stiff limbs. The explanation +offered for the observance of this law of lustration is that +if it is not obeyed the warrior's limbs will become stiffened +or paralyzed.</q><note place='foot'>F. Russell, <q>The Pima Indians,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Twenty-Sixth Annual Report of the +Bureau of American Ethnology</hi> (Washington, +1908), pp. 204 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> The Apaches, the enemies of the Pimas, +purify themselves for the slaughter of their foes by means of +baths in the sweat-house, singing, and other rites. These +ceremonies they perform for all the dead simultaneously +after their return home; but the Pimas, more punctilious on +this point, resort to their elaborate ceremonies of purification +the moment a single one of their own band or of the enemy +has been laid low.<note place='foot'>J. G. Bourke, <hi rend='italic'>On the Border with +Crook</hi>, p. 203.</note> How heavily these religious scruples +must have told against the Pimas in their wars with their +ferocious enemies is obvious enough. <q>This long period of +retirement immediately after a battle,</q> says an American +writer, <q>greatly diminished the value of the Pimas as scouts +and allies for the United States troops operating against +the Apaches. The bravery of the Pimas was praised by all +army officers having any experience with them, but Captain +Bourke and others have complained of their unreliability, due +solely to their rigid observance of this religious law.</q><note place='foot'>F. Russell, <q>The Pima Indians,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Twenty-Sixth Annual Report of the +Bureau of American Ethnology</hi> (Washington, +1908), p. 204.</note> In +nothing, perhaps, is the penalty which superstition sooner or +later entails on its devotees more prompt and crushing than +in the operations of war. +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Taboos +observed +by Indians +who had +slain Esquimaux.</note> +Far away from the torrid home of the Pima and Apaches, +an old traveller witnessed ceremonies of the same sort practised +near the Arctic Circle by some Indians who had surprised +and brutally massacred an unoffending and helpless party +of Esquimaux. His description is so interesting that I will +quote it in full. <q>Among the various superstitious customs +of those people, it is worth remarking, and ought to have been +mentioned in its proper place, that immediately after my companions +had killed the Esquimaux at the Copper River, they +considered themselves in a state of uncleanness, which induced +<pb n='185'/><anchor id='Pg185'/> +them to practise some very curious and unusual ceremonies. +In the first place, all who were absolutely concerned in the +murder were prohibited from cooking any kind of victuals, +either for themselves or others. As luckily there were two in +company who had not shed blood, they were employed always +as cooks till we joined the women. This circumstance was +exceedingly favourable on my side; for had there been no +persons of the above description in company, that task, I +was told, would have fallen on me; which would have been +no less fatiguing and troublesome, than humiliating and +vexatious. When the victuals were cooked, all the +murderers took a kind of red earth, or oker, and painted all +the space between the nose and chin, as well as the greater +part of their cheeks, almost to the ears, before they would +taste a bit, and would not drink out of any other dish, or +smoke out of any other pipe, but their own; and none of +the others seemed willing to drink or smoke out of theirs. +We had no sooner joined the women, at our return from the +expedition, than there seemed to be an universal spirit of +emulation among them, vying who should first make a suit of +ornaments for their husbands, which consisted of bracelets +for the wrists, and a band for the forehead, composed of +porcupine quills and moose-hair, curiously wrought on +leather. The custom of painting the mouth and part of +the cheeks before each meal, and drinking and smoking out +of their own utensils, was strictly and invariably observed, +till the winter began to set in; and during the whole of that +time they would never kiss any of their wives or children. +They refrained also from eating many parts of the deer and +other animals, particularly the head, entrails, and blood; and +during their uncleanness, their victuals were never sodden in +water, but dried in the sun, eaten quite raw, or broiled, when +a fire fit for the purpose could be procured. When the +time arrived that was to put an end to these ceremonies, +the men, without a female being present, made a fire at +some distance from the tents, into which they threw all +their ornaments, pipe-stems, and dishes, which were soon +consumed to ashes; after which a feast was prepared, consisting +of such articles as they had long been prohibited +from eating; and when all was over, each man was at +<pb n='186'/><anchor id='Pg186'/> +liberty to eat, drink, and smoke as he pleased; and also to +kiss his wives and children at discretion, which they seemed +to do with more raptures than I had ever known them do +it either before or since.</q><note place='foot'>S. Hearne, <hi rend='italic'>Journey from Prince of +Wales's Fort in Hudson's Bay to the +Northern Ocean</hi> (London, 1795), pp. +204-206. The custom of painting the +face or the body of the manslayer, +which may perhaps be intended to +disguise him from the vengeful spirit +of the slain, is practised by other +peoples, as by the Nandi (see above, +p. <ref target='Pg175'>175</ref>). Among the Ba-Yaka of the +Congo Free State a man who has been +slain in battle is supposed to send his +soul to avenge his death on his slayer; +but the slayer can protect himself +against the ghost by wearing the red +tail-feathers of a parrot in his hair and +painting his forehead red (E. Torday +and T. A. Joyce, <q>Notes on the +Ethnography of the Ba-Yaka,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Journal +of the Anthropological Institute</hi>, xxxvi. +(1906) pp. 50 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>). Among the Borâna +Gallas, when a war-party has returned +to the village, the victors who have slain +a foe are washed by the women with a +mixture of fat and butter, and their +faces are painted with red and white +(Ph. Paulitschke, <hi rend='italic'>Ethnographie Nord-ost-Afrikas: +die materielle Cultur der +Danâkil, Galla und Somâl</hi> (Berlin, +1893), p. 258). When Masai warriors +kill enemies in fight they paint the +right half of their own bodies red and +the left half white (A. C. Hollis, <hi rend='italic'>The +Masai</hi>, p. 353). Among the Wagogo of +German East Africa, a man who has +killed an enemy in battle paints a red +circle round his right eye and a black +circle round his left eye (Rev. H. Cole, +<q>Notes on the Wagogo of German +East Africa,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Journal of the Anthropological +Institute</hi>, xxxii. (1902) p. 314). +Among the Angoni of central Africa, +after a successful raid, the leader calls +together all who have killed an enemy +and paints their faces and heads white; +also he paints a white band round the +body under the arms and across the +chest (<hi rend='italic'>British Central Africa Gazette</hi>, +No. 86, vol. v. No. 6 (April 30, +1898), p. 2). A Koossa Caffre who +has slain a man is accounted unclean. +He must roast some flesh on a fire +kindled with wood of a special sort +which imparts a bitter flavour to the +meat. This flesh he eats, and afterwards +blackens his face with the ashes +of the fire. After a time he may wash +himself, rinse his mouth with fresh +milk, and paint himself brown again. +From that moment he is clean (H. +Lichtenstein, <hi rend='italic'>Reisen im südlichen +Africa</hi>, i. 418). Among the Yabim of +German New Guinea, when the +relations of a murdered man have +accepted a bloodwit instead of avenging +his death, they must allow the family +of the murderer to mark them with +chalk on the brow. If this is not +done, the ghost of their murdered +kinsman may come and trouble them +for not doing their duty by him; for +example, he may drive away their +swine or loosen their teeth (K. Vetter, +in <hi rend='italic'>Nachrichten über Kaiser Wilhelms-Land +und den Bismarck-Archipel</hi>, +1897, p. 99). In this last case the +marking the face with chalk seems to be +clearly a disguise to outwit the ghost.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The purification +of +murderers, +like that of +warriors +who have +slain +enemies, +was probably +intended +to +avert or +appease +the ghosts +of the +slain. Ancient +Greek +dread of +the ghosts +of the +slain.</note> +Thus we see that warriors who have taken the life of +a foe in battle are temporarily cut off from free intercourse +with their fellows, and especially with their wives, and +must undergo certain rites of purification before they are +readmitted to society. Now if the purpose of their seclusion +and of the expiatory rites which they have to perform is, +as we have been led to believe, no other than to shake +off, frighten, or appease the angry spirit of the slain man, +<pb n='187'/><anchor id='Pg187'/> +we may safely conjecture that the similar purification of +homicides and murderers, who have imbrued their hands in +the blood of a fellow-tribesman, had at first the same significance, +and that the idea of a moral or spiritual regeneration +symbolised by the washing, the fasting, and so on, was merely +a later interpretation put upon the old custom by men who +had outgrown the primitive modes of thought in which the +custom originated. The conjecture will be confirmed if we +can shew that savages have actually imposed certain restrictions +on the murderer of a fellow-tribesman from a definite +fear that he is haunted by the ghost of his victim. This +we can do with regard to the Omahas, a tribe of the +Siouan stock in North America. Among these Indians the +kinsmen of a murdered man had the right to put the +murderer to death, but sometimes they waived their right in +consideration of presents which they consented to accept. +When the life of the murderer was spared, he had to observe +certain stringent rules for a period which varied from two to +four years. He must walk barefoot, and he might eat no warm +food, nor raise his voice, nor look around. He was compelled +to pull his robe about him and to have it tied at the +neck even in hot weather; he might not let it hang loose or +fly open. He might not move his hands about, but had to +keep them close to his body. He might not comb his hair +and it might not be blown about by the wind. When the +tribe went out hunting, he was obliged to pitch his tent +about a quarter of a mile from the rest of the people <q>lest +the ghost of his victim should raise a high wind, which might +cause damage.</q> Only one of his kindred was allowed to +remain with him at his tent. No one wished to eat with him, +for they said, <q>If we eat with him whom Wakanda hates +Wakanda will hate us.</q> Sometimes he wandered at night +crying and lamenting his offence. At the end of his long +isolation the kinsmen of the murdered man heard his crying +and said, <q>It is enough. Begone, and walk among the crowd. +Put on moccasins and wear a good robe.</q><note place='foot'>J. Owen Dorsey, <q>Omaha Sociology,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Third Annual Report of the +Bureau of Ethnology</hi> (Washington, +1884), p. 369.</note> Here the reason +alleged for keeping the murderer at a considerable distance +from the hunters gives the clue to all the other restrictions +<pb n='188'/><anchor id='Pg188'/> +laid on him: he was haunted and therefore dangerous. The +ancient Greeks believed that the soul of a man who had just +been killed was wroth with his slayer and troubled him; +wherefore it was needful even for the involuntary homicide +to depart from his country for a year until the anger of the +dead man had cooled down; nor might the slayer return +until sacrifice had been offered and ceremonies of purification +performed. If his victim chanced to be a foreigner, the +homicide had to shun the native country of the dead man as +well as his own.<note place='foot'>Plato, Laws, ix. pp. 865 D-866 A; +Demosthenes, <hi rend='italic'>Contra Aristocr.</hi> pp. 643 +<hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; Hesychius, <hi rend='italic'>s.v.</hi> ἀπενιαυτιαμὸς.</note> The legend of the matricide Orestes, how +he roamed from place to place pursued by the Furies of his +murdered mother, and none would sit at meat with him, or take +him in, till he had been purified,<note place='foot'>Euripides, <hi rend='italic'>Iphig. in Taur.</hi> 940 +<hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>; Pausanias, ii. 31. 8. We may +compare the wanderings of the other +matricide Alcmaeon, who could find no +rest till he came to a new land on +which the sun had not yet shone when +he murdered his mother (Thucydides, +ii. 102; Apollodorus, iii. 7. 5; Pausanias, +viii. 24. 8).</note> reflects faithfully the real +Greek dread of such as were still haunted by an angry ghost. +When the turbulent people of Cynaetha, after perpetrating +an atrocious massacre, sent an embassy to Sparta, every +Arcadian town through which the envoys passed on their +journey ordered them out of its walls at once; and the +Mantineans, after the embassy had departed, even instituted +a solemn purification of the city and its territory by carrying +sacrificial victims round them both.<note place='foot'>Polybius, iv. 21.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Taboos +imposed on +men who +have partaken +of +human +flesh.</note> +Among the Kwakiutl Indians of British Columbia, men +who have partaken of human flesh as a ceremonial rite +are subject for a long time afterwards to many restrictions +or taboos of the sort we have been dealing with. They +may not touch their wives for a whole year; and during the +same time they are forbidden to work or gamble. For four +months they must live alone in their bedrooms, and when +they are obliged to quit the house for a necessary purpose, +they may not go out at the ordinary door, but must use +only the secret door in the rear of the house. On such +occasions each of them is attended by all the rest, carrying +small sticks. They must all sit down together on a long +log, then get up, then sit down again, repeating this three +<pb n='189'/><anchor id='Pg189'/> +times before they are allowed to remain seated. Before +they rise they must turn round four times. Then they go +back to the house. Before entering they must raise their +feet four times; with the fourth step they really pass the +door, taking care to enter with the right foot foremost. In +the doorway they turn four times and walk slowly into +the house. They are not permitted to look back. During +the four months of their seclusion each man in eating +must use a spoon, dish, and kettle of his own, which are +thrown away at the end of the period. Before he draws +water from a bucket or a brook, he must dip his cup +into it thrice; and he may not take more than four +mouthfuls at one time. He must carry a wing-bone of +an eagle and drink through it, for his lips may not touch +the brim of his cup. Also he keeps a copper nail to +scratch his head with, for were his own nails to touch his +own skin they would drop off. For sixteen days after +he has partaken of human flesh he may not eat any +warm food, and for the whole of the four months he is +forbidden to cool hot food by blowing on it with his +breath. At the end of winter, when the season of ceremonies +is over, he feigns to have forgotten the ordinary ways of +men, and has to learn everything anew. The reason for +these remarkable restrictions imposed on men who have +eaten human flesh is not stated; but we may surmise that +fear of the ghost of the man whose body was eaten has at +least a good deal to do with them. We are confirmed in +our conjecture by observing that though these cannibals +sometimes content themselves with taking bites out of living +people, the rules in question are especially obligatory on +them after they have devoured a corpse. Moreover, the +careful treatment of the bones of the victim points to the +same conclusion; for during the four months of seclusion +observed by the cannibals, the bones of the person on whom +they feasted are kept alternately for four days at a time under +rocks in the sea and in their bedrooms on the north side of +the house, where the sun cannot shine on them. Finally the +bones are taken out of the house, tied up, weighted with a +stone, and thrown into deep water, <q>because it is believed +that if they were buried they would come back and take +<pb n='190'/><anchor id='Pg190'/> +their master's soul.</q><note place='foot'>Fr. Boas, <q>The Social Organization +and the Secret Societies of the +Kwakiutl Indians,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Report of the U.S. +National Museum for 1895</hi>, pp. 440, +537 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> This seems to mean that if the bones +of the victim were buried, his ghost would come back and +fetch away the souls of the men who had eaten his body. +The Gebars, a cannibal tribe in the north of New Guinea, +are much afraid of the spirit of a slain man or woman. +Among them persons who have partaken of human flesh +for the first time reside for a month afterwards in a small +hut and may not enter the dwelling-house.<note place='foot'>Th. H. Ruys, <q>Bezoek an den +Kannibalenstam van Noord Nieuw-Guinea,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Tijdschrift van het koninklijk +Nederlandsch Aardrijkskundig Genootschap</hi>, +Tweede Serie, xxiii. (1906) p. +328. Among these savages the genitals +of a murdered man are eaten by +an old woman, and the genitals of +a murdered woman are eaten by an +old man. What the object of this +curious practice may be is not apparent. +Perhaps the intention is to unsex and +disarm the dangerous ghost. On the +dread of ghosts, especially the ghosts +of those who have died a violent death, +see further <hi rend='italic'>Psyche's Task</hi>, pp. 52 sqq.</note> +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<index index='toc'/> +<index index='pdf' level1='6. Hunters and Fishers tabooed.'/> +<head>§ 6. Hunters and Fishers tabooed.</head> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Hunters +and fishers +have to +observe +taboos and +undergo +rites of +purification, +which +are probably +dictated +by +a fear of +the spirits +of the +animals or +fish which +they have +killed or +intended to +kill.</note> +In savage society the hunter and the fisherman have +often to observe rules of abstinence and to submit to +ceremonies of purification of the same sort as those which +are obligatory on the warrior and the manslayer; and +though we cannot in all cases perceive the exact purpose +which these rules and ceremonies are supposed to serve, +we may with some probability assume that, just as the +dread of the spirits of his enemies is the main motive for +the seclusion and purification of the warrior who hopes +to take or has already taken their lives, so the huntsman or +fisherman who complies with similar customs is principally +actuated by a fear of the spirits of the beasts, birds, or fish +which he has killed or intends to kill. For the savage +commonly conceives animals to be endowed with souls and +intelligences like his own, and hence he naturally treats them +with similar respect. Just as he attempts to appease the +ghosts of the men he has slain, so he essays to propitiate the +spirits of the animals he has killed. These ceremonies of propitiation +will be described later on in this work;<note place='foot'>Meantime I may refer the reader +to <hi rend='italic'>The Golden Bough</hi>, Second Edition, +vol. ii. pp. 389 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></note> here we have +to deal, first, with the taboos observed by the hunter and the +<pb n='191'/><anchor id='Pg191'/> +fisherman before or during the hunting and fishing seasons, +and, second, with the ceremonies of purification which have +to be practised by these men on returning with their booty +from a successful chase. +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Taboos +and ceremonies +observed +before +catching +whales. Taboos +observed as +a preparation +for +catching +dugong +and turtle. Taboos +observed +as a preparation +for hunting +and fishing. Taboos +and ceremonies +observed +at the +hatching +and pairing +of silkworms.</note> +While the savage respects, more or less, the souls of all +animals, he treats with particular deference the spirits of +such as are either especially useful to him or formidable on +account of their size, strength, or ferocity. Accordingly the +hunting and killing of these valuable or dangerous beasts +are subject to more elaborate rules and ceremonies than the +slaughter of comparatively useless and insignificant creatures. +Thus the Indians of Nootka Sound prepared themselves for +catching whales by observing a fast for a week, during which +they ate very little, bathed in the water several times a day, +sang, and rubbed their bodies, limbs, and faces with shells +and bushes till they looked as if they had been severely torn +with briars. They were likewise required to abstain from +any commerce with their women for the like period, this last +condition being considered indispensable to their success. +A chief who failed to catch a whale has been known to +attribute his failure to a breach of chastity on the part of +his men.<note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>Narrative of the Adventures and +Sufferings of John R. Jewitt</hi> (Middletown, +1820), pp. 133, 136.</note> It should be remarked that the conduct thus +prescribed as a preparation for whaling is precisely that +which in the same tribe of Indians was required of men +about to go on the war-path.<note place='foot'>See above, pp. <ref target='Pg160'>160</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> Rules of the same sort are, +or were formerly, observed by Malagasy whalers. For eight +days before they went to sea the crew of a whaler used to +fast, abstaining from women and liquor, and confessing their +most secret faults to each other; and if any man was found +to have sinned deeply he was forbidden to share in the +expedition.<note place='foot'>Baron d'Unienville, <hi rend='italic'>Statistique de +l'Île Maurice</hi> (Paris, 1838), iii. 271. +Compare A. van Gennep, <hi rend='italic'>Tabou et +Totémisme à Madagascar</hi> (Paris, 1904), +p. 253, who refers to Le Gentil, <hi rend='italic'>Voyage +dans les Mers de l'Inde</hi> (Paris, 1781), +ii. 562.</note> In the island of Kadiak, off the south coast of +Alaska, whalers were reckoned unclean during the fishing +season, and nobody would eat out of the same dish with +them or even come near them. Yet we are told that great +respect was paid to them, and that they were regarded as +<pb n='192'/><anchor id='Pg192'/> +the purveyors of their country.<note place='foot'>U. Lisiansky, <hi rend='italic'>Voyage Round the +World</hi> (London, 1814), pp. 174, 209.</note> Though it is not expressly +said it seems to be implied, and on the strength of analogy +we may assume, that these Kadiak whalers had to remain +chaste so long as the whaling season lasted. In the island +of Mabuiag continence was imposed on the people both +before they went to hunt the dugong and while the turtles +were pairing. The turtle-season lasts during parts of +October and November; and if at that time unmarried +persons had sexual intercourse with each other, it was +believed that when the canoe approached the floating turtle, +the male would separate from the female and both would +dive down in different directions.<note place='foot'>A. C. Haddon, <q>The Ethnography +of the Western Tribe of Torres Straits,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Journal of the Anthropological Institute</hi>, +xix. (1890) p. 397; <hi rend='italic'>Reports of the +Cambridge Anthropological Expedition +to Torres Straits</hi>, v. 271.</note> So at Mowat in New +Guinea men have no relation with women when the turtle +are coupling, though there is considerable laxity of morals +at other times.<note place='foot'>A. C. Haddon, in <hi rend='italic'>Journal of the +Anthropological Institute</hi>, xix. (1890) +p. 467.</note> Among the Motu of Port Moresby, in +New Guinea, chastity is enjoined before fishing and wallaby-hunting; +they believe that men who have been unchaste +will be unable to catch the fish and the wallabies, which will +turn round and jeer at their pursuers.<note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>Reports of the Cambridge Anthropological +Expedition to Torres Straits</hi>, v. +271 note.</note> Among the tribes +about the mouth of the Wanigela River in New Guinea the +preparations for fishing turtle and dugong are most elaborate. +They begin two months before the fishing. A headman is +appointed who becomes holy. On his strict observance of +the laws of the dugong net depends the success of the +season. While the men of the village are making the nets, +this sanctified leader lives entirely secluded from his family, +and may only eat a roasted banana or two after the sun has +gone down. Every evening at sundown he goes ashore and, +stripping himself of all his ornaments, which he is never +allowed to doff at other times, bathes near where the dugongs +feed; as he does so he throws scraped coco-nut and scented +herbs and gums into the water to charm the dugong.<note place='foot'>R. E. Guise, <q>On the Tribes inhabiting +the Mouth of the Wanigela +River,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Journal of the Anthropological +Institute</hi>, xxviii. (1899) p. 218. The +account refers specially to Bulaa, which +the author describes (pp. 205, 217) as +<q>a marine village</q> and <q>the greatest +fishing village in New Guinea.</q> Probably +it is built out over the water. +This would explain the allusion to the +sanctified headman going ashore daily +at sundown.</note> +<pb n='193'/><anchor id='Pg193'/> +Among the Roro-speaking tribes of British New Guinea the +magician who performs ceremonies for the success of a wallaby +hunt must abstain from intercourse with his wife for a month +before the hunt takes place; and he may not eat food cooked +by his wife or by any other woman.<note place='foot'>Captain F. R. Barton and Dr. +Strong, in C. G. Seligmann's <hi rend='italic'>The +Melanesians of British New Guinea</hi> +(Cambridge, 1910), pp. 292, 293 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> In the island of Uap, +one of the Caroline group, every fisherman plying his craft +lies under a most strict taboo during the whole of the fishing +season, which lasts for six or eight weeks. Whenever he is +on shore he must spend all his time in the men's clubhouse +(<foreign rend='italic'>failu</foreign>), and under no pretext whatever may he visit his own +house or so much as look upon the faces of his wife and +womenkind. Were he but to steal a glance at them, they +think that flying fish must inevitably bore out his eyes at +night. If his wife, mother, or daughter brings any gift for +him or wishes to talk with him, she must stand down towards +the shore with her back turned to the men's clubhouse. +Then the fisherman may go out and speak to her, or with +his back turned to her he may receive what she has brought +him; after which he must return at once to his rigorous +confinement. Indeed the fishermen may not even join in +dance and song with the other men of the clubhouse in the +evening; they must keep to themselves and be silent.<note place='foot'>W. H. Furness, <hi rend='italic'>The Island of +Stone Money, Uap of the Carolines</hi> +(Philadelphia and London, 1910), pp. +38 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 44 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> Though the fisherman +may have nothing to do with his wife +and family, he is not wholly debarred +from female society; for each of the +men's clubhouses has one young woman, +or sometimes two young women, who +have been captured from another district, +and who cohabit promiscuously +with all the men of the clubhouse. The +name for one of these concubines is +<foreign rend='italic'>mispil</foreign>. See W. H. Furness, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> pp. +46 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi> There is a similar practice of +polyandry in the men's clubhouses of the +Pelew Islands. See J. Kubary, <hi rend='italic'>Die +socialen Einrichtungen der Pelauer</hi> +(Berlin, 1885), pp. 50 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi> Compare +<hi rend='italic'>Adonis, Attis, Osiris</hi>, Second Edition, +pp. 435 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> In the +Pelew Islands, also, which belong to the Caroline group, fishermen +are likewise debarred from intercourse with women, since +it is believed that any such intercourse would infallibly have +a prejudicial effect on the fishing. The same taboo is said +to be observed in all the other islands of the South Sea.<note place='foot'>J. S. Kubary, <hi rend='italic'>Ethnographische +Beiträge zur Kenntnis des Karolinen +Archipels</hi> (Leyden, 1895), p. 127.</note> In +<pb n='194'/><anchor id='Pg194'/> +Mirzapur, when the seed of the silkworm is brought into the +house, the Kol or Bhuiyar puts it in a place which has been +carefully plastered with holy cow-dung to bring good luck. +From that time the owner must be careful to avoid +ceremonial impurity. He must give up cohabitation with +his wife; he may not sleep on a bed, nor shave himself, nor +cut his nails, nor anoint himself with oil, nor eat food cooked +with butter, nor tell lies, nor do anything else that he deems +wrong. He vows to Singarmati Devi that if the worms are +duly born he will make her an offering. When the cocoons +open and the worms appear, he assembles the women of the +house and they sing the same song as at the birth of a baby, +and red lead is smeared on the parting of the hair of all the +married women of the neighbourhood. When the worms +pair, rejoicings are made as at a marriage.<note place='foot'>W. Crooke, <hi rend='italic'>Popular Religion and +Folk-lore of Northern India</hi> (Westminster, +1896), ii. 257. In Chota +Nagpur and the Central Provinces of +India the rearers of silk-worms <q>carefully +watch over and protect the worms, +and while the rearing is going on, live +with great cleanliness and self-denial, +abstaining from alcohol and all intercourse +with women, and adhering very +strictly to certain ceremonial observances. +The business is a very +precarious one, much depending on +favourable weather</q> (<hi rend='italic'>Indian Museum +Notes, issued by the Trustees</hi>, vol. i. +No. 3 (Calcutta, 1890), p. 160).</note> Thus the silkworms +are treated as far as possible like human beings. +Hence the custom which prohibits the commerce of the +sexes while the worms are hatching may be only an +extension, by analogy, of the rule which is observed by +many races, that the husband may not cohabit with his +wife during pregnancy and lactation. +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Taboos +observed +by fishermen +in +Uganda. Continence +observed +by Bangala +fishermen +and +hunters.</note> +On Lake Victoria Nyanza the Baganda fishermen use a +long stout line which is supported on the surface of the water +by wooden floats, while short lines with baited hooks attached +to them depend from it at frequent intervals. The place +where the fisherman makes his line, whether in his hut or +his garden, is tabooed. People may not step over his cords +or tools, and he himself has to observe a number of restrictions. +He may not go near his wife or any other woman. +He eats alone, works alone, sleeps alone. He may not +wash, except in the lake. He may not eat salt or meat or +butter. He may not smear any fat on his body. When +the line is ready he goes to the god, asks his blessing on it, +and offers him a pot of beer. In return he receives from +<pb n='195'/><anchor id='Pg195'/> +the deity a stick or bit of wood to fasten to the line, and +also some medicine of herbs to smoke and blow over the +water in order that the fish may come to the line and be +caught. Then he carries the line to the lake. If in going +thither he should stumble over a stone or a tree-root, he +takes it with him, and he does the same with any grass-seeds +that may stick to his clothes. These stones, roots, and seeds +he puts on the line, believing that just as he stumbled over +them and they stuck to him, so the fish will also stumble +over them and stick to the line. The taboo lasts till he has +caught his first fish. If his wife has kept the taboo, he eats +the fish with her; but if she has broken it, she may not +partake of the fish. After that if he wishes to go in to his +wife, he must take his line out of the water and place it in a +tree or some other place of safety; he is then free to be +with her. But so long as the line is in the water, he must +keep apart from women, or the fish would at once leave the +shore. Any breach of this taboo renders the line useless to +him. He must sell it and make a new one and offer an +expiatory offering to the god.<note place='foot'>The Rev. J. Roscoe in letters to +me dated Mengo, Uganda, April 23 +and June 6, 1903.</note> Again, in Uganda the +fisherman offers fish to his canoe, believing that if he +neglected to make this offering more than twice, his net +would catch nothing. The fish thus offered to the canoe is +eaten by the fishermen. But if at the time of emptying the +traps there is any man in the canoe who has committed +adultery, eaten flesh or salt, or rubbed his body with butter +or fat, that man is not allowed to partake of the fish offered +to the canoe. And if the sinner has not confessed his fault +to the priest and been purified, the catch will be small. +When the adulterer has confessed his sin, the priest calls the +husband of the guilty woman and tells him of her crime. +Her paramour has to wear a sign to shew that he is doing +penance, and he makes a feast for the injured husband, +which the latter is obliged to accept in token of reconciliation. +After that the husband may not punish either of the +erring couple; the sin is atoned for and they are able to +catch fish again.<note place='foot'>Rev. J. Roscoe, <q>Further Notes +on the Manners and Customs of the +Baganda,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Journal of the Anthropological +Institute</hi>, xxxii. (1902) p. +56.</note> Among the Bangala of the Upper Congo, +<pb n='196'/><anchor id='Pg196'/> +while fishermen are making their traps, they must observe +strict continence, and the restriction lasts until the traps +have caught fish and the fish have been eaten. Similarly +Bangala hunters may have no sexual intercourse from the +time they made their traps till they have caught game and +eaten it; it is believed that any hunter who broke this rule +of chastity would have bad luck in the chase.<note place='foot'>Rev. J. H. Weeks, <q>Anthropological +Notes on the Bangala of the +Upper Congo,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Journal of the Anthropological +Institute</hi>, xxxix. (1909) pp. +458, 459.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Taboos +observed +by hunters +in Nias.</note> +In the island of Nias the hunters sometimes dig pits, +cover them lightly over with twigs, grass, and leaves, and +then drive the game into them. While they are engaged in +digging the pits, they have to observe a number of taboos. +They may not spit, or the game would turn back in disgust +from the pits. They may not laugh, or the sides of the pit +would fall in. They may eat no salt, prepare no fodder for +swine, and in the pit they may not scratch themselves, for if +they did, the earth would be loosened and would collapse. +And the night after digging the pit they may have no intercourse +with a woman, or all their labour would be in vain.<note place='foot'>J. W. Thomas, <q>De jacht op het +eiland Nias,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Tijdschrift voor Indische +Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde</hi>, xxvi. +(1880) pp. 276 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The practice +of +continence +by fishers +and hunters +seems to be +based on a +notion +that incontinence +offends the +fish and the +animals.</note> +This practice of observing strict chastity as a condition +of success in hunting and fishing is very common among +rude races; and the instances of it which have been cited +render it probable that the rule is always based on a +superstition rather than on a consideration of the temporary +weakness which a breach of the custom may entail on the +hunter or fisherman. In general it appears to be supposed +that the evil effect of incontinence is not so much that it +weakens him, as that, for some reason or other, it offends +the animals, who in consequence will not suffer themselves +to be caught. In the Motumotu tribe of New Guinea a +man will not see his wife the night before he starts on a +great fishing or hunting expedition; if he did, he would +have no luck. In the Motu tribe he is regarded as holy +that night, and in the morning no one may speak to him or +call out his name.<note place='foot'>J. Chalmers, <hi rend='italic'>Pioneering in New +Guinea</hi> (London, 1887), p. 186.</note> In German East Africa elephant hunters +must refrain from women for several days before they set out +<pb n='197'/><anchor id='Pg197'/> +for the chase.<note place='foot'>P. Reichard, <hi rend='italic'>Deutsch-Ostafrika</hi> +(Leipsic, 1892), p. 427.</note> We have seen that in the same region a +wife's infidelity during the hunter's absence is believed to +give the elephant power over him so as to kill or wound +him.<note place='foot'>See <hi rend='italic'>The Magic Art and the Evolution +of Kings</hi>, vol. i. p. 123.</note> As this belief is clearly a superstition, based on +sympathetic magic, so doubtless is the practice of chastity +before the hunt. The pygmies of the great African forest +are also reported to observe strict continence the night +before an important hunt. It is said that at this time they +propitiate their ancestors by rubbing their skulls, which they +keep in boxes, with palm oil and with water in which the +ashes of the bark and leaves of a certain tree (<foreign rend='italic'>moduma</foreign>) have +been mixed.<note place='foot'>Mgr. Le Roy, <q>Les Pygmées,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Missions Catholiques</hi>, xxix. (1897) p. +269.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Chastity +observed +by American +Indians +before +hunting.</note> +The Huichol Indians of Mexico think that only the pure +of heart should hunt the deer. The deer would never enter +a snare put up by a man in love; it would only look at it, +snort <q>Pooh, pooh,</q> and go back the way it came. Good +luck in love means bad luck in deer-hunting. But even +those who have been abstinent must invoke the aid of the +fire to burn the last taint or blemish out of them. So the +night before they set out for the chase they gather round the +fire and pray aloud, all trying to get as near as they can to +the flaming god, and turning every side of their bodies to +his blessed influence. They hold out their open hands to it, +warm the palms, spit on them, and then rub them quickly +over their joints, legs, and shoulders, as the shamans do in +curing a sick man, in order that their limbs and sinews may +be as strong as their hearts are pure for the task of the +morrow.<note place='foot'>C. Lumholtz, <hi rend='italic'>Unknown Mexico</hi>, +ii. 40 sq.</note> A Carrier Indian of British Columbia used to +separate from his wife for a full month before he set traps +for bears, and during this time he might not drink from +the same vessel as his wife, but had to use a special cup +made of birch bark. The neglect of these precautions +would cause the game to escape after it had been +snared. But when he was about to snare martens, the +period of continence was cut down to ten days.<note place='foot'>Father A. G. Morice, <q>Notes, +Archaeological, Industrial, and Sociological +on the Western Denés,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Transactions of the Canadian Institute</hi>, iv. +(1892-93) pp. 107, 108.</note> The Sia, +<pb n='198'/><anchor id='Pg198'/> +a tribe of Pueblo Indians, observe chastity for four days +before a hunt as well as the whole time that it lasts, even if +the game be only rabbits.<note place='foot'>M. C. Stevenson, <q>The Sia,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Eleventh Annual Report of the Bureau +of Ethnology</hi> (Washington, 1894), p. +118.</note> Among the Tsetsaut Indians of +British Columbia hunters who desire to secure good luck +fast and wash their bodies with ginger-root for three or four +days, and do not touch a woman for two or three months.<note place='foot'>Fr. Boas, in <hi rend='italic'>Tenth Report on the +North-Western Tribes of Canada</hi>, p. +47 (separate reprint from the <hi rend='italic'>Report of +the British Association for 1895</hi>).</note> +A Shuswap Indian, who intends to go out hunting must +also keep away from his wife, or he would have no luck.<note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>Id.</hi>, in <hi rend='italic'>Sixth Report on the North-Western +Tribes of Canada</hi>, p. 90 +(separate reprint from the <hi rend='italic'>Report of the +British Association for 1890</hi>).</note> +Among the Thompson Indians the grisly-bear hunter must +abstain from sexual intercourse for some time before he went +forth to hunt. These Indians believe that bears always hear +what is said of them. Hence a man who intends to go +bear-hunting must be very careful what he says about the +beasts or about his preparations for killing them, or they +will get wind of it and keep out of his way.<note place='foot'>J. Teit, <q>The Thompson Indians +of British Columbia,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Memoir of the +American Museum of Natural History, +The Jesup North Pacific Expedition</hi>, +vol. i. part iv. (April 1900) p. 347.</note> In the same +tribe of Indians some trappers and hunters, who were +very particular, would not eat with other people when they +were engaged, or about to be engaged, in hunting or +trapping; neither would they eat food cooked by any +woman, unless she were old. They drank cold water in +which mountain juniper or wild rhubarb had been soaked, +using a cup of their own, which no one else might touch. +Hunters seldom combed their hair when they were on an +expedition, but waited to do so till their return.<note place='foot'>J. Teit, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> p. 348.</note> The +reason for this last rule is certainly not that at such seasons +they have no time to attend to their persons; the custom is +probably based on that superstitious objection to touch the +heads of tabooed persons of which some examples have already +been given, and of which more will be adduced shortly. +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Taboos +observed +by Hidatsa +Indians at +catching +eagles.</note> +In the late autumn or early winter a few families of the +Hidatsa Indians seek some quiet spot in the forest and +pitch their camp there to catch eagles. After setting up their +<pb n='199'/><anchor id='Pg199'/> +tents they build a small medicine-lodge, where the ceremonies +supposed to be indispensable for trapping the eagles are performed. +No woman may enter it. The traps are set on high +places among the neighbouring hills. When some of the men +wish to take part in the trapping, they fast and then go by day +to the medicine-lodge. There they continue without food +until about midnight, when they partake of a little nourishment +and fall asleep. They get up just before dawn, or +when the morning-star has risen, and go to their traps. +There they sit all day without food or drink, watching for +their prey, and struggling, it may be, from time to time with +a captive eagle, for they always take the birds alive. They +return to the camp at sunset. As they approach, every one +rushes into his tent; for the hunter may neither see nor be +seen by any of his fellow-hunters until he enters the +medicine-lodge. They spend the night in the lodge, and +about midnight eat and drink for the first time since the +previous midnight; then they lie down to sleep, only to +rise again before dawn and repair anew to the traps. If any +one of them has caught nothing during the day, he may not +sleep at night, but must spend his time in loud lamentation +and prayer. This routine has to be observed by each +hunter for four days and four nights, after which he returns +to his own tent, hungry, thirsty, and tired, and follows his +ordinary pursuits till he feels able to go again to the eagle-traps. +During the four days of the trapping he sees none +of his family, and speaks to none of his friends except those +who are engaged in the trapping at the same time. They +believe that if any hunter fails to perform all these rites, the +captive eagle will get one of his claws loose and tear his +captor's hands. There are men in the tribe who have had +their hands crippled for life in that way.<note place='foot'>Washington Matthews, <hi rend='italic'>Ethnography +and Philology of the Hidatsa +Indians</hi> (Washington, 1877), pp. +58-60. Other Indian tribes also +observe elaborate superstitious ceremonies +in hunting eagles. See <hi rend='italic'>Totemism +and Exogamy</hi>, iii. 182, 187 +<hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> It is obvious that +the severe fasting coupled with the short sleep, or even the +total sleeplessness, of these eagle-hunters can only impair +their physical vigour and so far tend to incapacitate them +for capturing the eagles. The motive of their behaviour in +<pb n='200'/><anchor id='Pg200'/> +these respects is purely superstitious, not rational, and so, we +may safely conclude, is the custom which simultaneously +cuts them off from all intercourse with their wives and +families. +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Miscellaneous +examples +of chastity +practised +from superstitious +motives.</note> +An examination of all the many cases in which the savage +bridles his passions and remains chaste from motives of superstition, +would be instructive, but I cannot attempt it now. I will +only add a few miscellaneous examples of the custom before +passing to the ceremonies of purification which are observed by +the hunter and fisherman after the chase and the fishing are +over. The workers in the salt-pans near Siphoum, in Laos, +must abstain from all sexual relations at the place where they +are at work; and they may not cover their heads nor shelter +themselves under an umbrella from the burning rays of the +sun.<note place='foot'>E. Aymonier, <hi rend='italic'>Notes sur le Laos</hi> +(Saigon, 1885), p. 141.</note> Among the Kachins of Burma the ferment used in +making beer is prepared by two women, chosen by lot, who +during the three days that the process lasts may eat nothing +acid and may have no conjugal relations with their husbands; +otherwise it is supposed that the beer would be sour.<note place='foot'>P. Ch. Gilhodes, <q>La Culture +matérielle des Katchins (Birmanie),</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Anthropos</hi>, v. (1910) p. 622. Compare +J. Anderson, <hi rend='italic'>From Mandalay to +Momien</hi> (London, 1876), p. 198, who +observes that among the Kakhyens +(Kachins) the brewing of beer <q>is +regarded as a serious, almost sacred, +task, the women, while engaged in +it, having to live in almost vestal +seclusion.</q></note> Among +the Masai honey-wine is brewed by a man and a woman who +live in a hut set apart for them till the wine is ready for +drinking. But they are strictly forbidden to have sexual +intercourse with each other during this time; it is deemed +essential that they should be chaste for two days before they +begin to brew and for the whole of the six days that the +brewing lasts. The Masai believe that were the couple +to commit a breach of chastity, not only would the wine be +undrinkable but the bees which made the honey would fly +away. Similarly they require that a man who is making +poison should sleep alone and observe other taboos which +render him almost an outcast.<note place='foot'>J. G. Frazer, <hi rend='italic'>Totemism and Exogamy</hi>, +ii. 410 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, on Mr. A. C. +Hollis's authority.</note> The Wandorobbo, a tribe +of the same region as the Masai, believe that the mere +presence of a woman in the neighbourhood of a man who is +brewing poison would deprive the poison of its venom, and +<pb n='201'/><anchor id='Pg201'/> +that the same thing would happen if the wife of the poison-maker +were to commit adultery while her husband was +brewing the poison.<note place='foot'>M. Weiss, <hi rend='italic'>Die Völker-Stämme im +Norden Deutsch-Ostafrikas</hi> (Berlin, +1910), p. 396.</note> In this last case it is obvious that a +rationalistic explanation of the taboo is impossible. How +could the loss of virtue in the poison be a physical consequence +of the loss of virtue in the poison-maker's wife? +Clearly the effect which the wife's adultery is supposed +to have on the poison is a case of sympathetic magic; her +misconduct sympathetically affects her husband and his +work at a distance. We may, accordingly, infer with some +confidence that the rule of continence imposed on the poison-maker +himself is also a simple case of sympathetic magic, +and not, as a civilised reader might be disposed to +conjecture, a wise precaution designed to prevent him +from accidentally poisoning his wife. Again, to take +other instances, in the East Indian island of Buru people +smear their bodies with coco-nut oil as a protection +against demons. But in order that the charm may be +effective, the oil must have been made by young unmarried +girls.<note place='foot'>G. A. Wilken, <q>Bijdrage tot de +Kennis der Alfoeren van het eiland +Boeroe,</q> p. 30 (<hi rend='italic'>Verhandelingen van het +Bataviaasch Genootschap van Kunsten +en Wetenschappen</hi>, xxxvi.).</note> In the Seranglao and Gorong archipelagoes +the same oil is regarded as an antidote to poison; +but it only possesses this virtue if the nuts have been +gathered on a Friday by a youth who has never known +a woman, and if the oil has been extracted by a pure +maiden, while a priest recited the appropriate spells.<note place='foot'>J. G. F. Riedel, <hi rend='italic'>De sluik- en kroesharige +rassen tusschen Selebes en Papua</hi>, +p. 179.</note> So in +the Marquesas Islands, when a woman was making coco-nut +oil, she was tabooed for four or five or more days, +during which she might have no intercourse with her husband. +If she broke this rule, it was believed that she would obtain +no oil.<note place='foot'>G. H. von Langsdorff, <hi rend='italic'>Reise um +die Welt</hi> (Frankfort, 1812), i. 118 +<hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> In the same islands when a man had placed a dish of +bananas and coco-nuts in an oven of hot stones to bake over +night, he might not go in to his wife, or the food would not +be found baked in the morning.<note place='foot'>G. H. von Langsdorff, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> i. +117.</note> In ancient Mexico +the men who distilled the wine known as <foreign rend='italic'>pulque</foreign> from the +<pb n='202'/><anchor id='Pg202'/> +sap of the great aloe, might not touch a woman for four days; +if they were unchaste, they thought the wine would be sour +and putrid.<note place='foot'>B. de Sahagun, <hi rend='italic'>Histoire générale +des choses de la Nouvelle Espagne</hi>, +traduite par D. Jourdanet et R. Simeon, +p. 45.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Miscellaneous +examples +of continence +observed +from superstitious +motives. Continence +observed +by the +Motu of +New +Guinea +before and +during a +trading +voyage. Continence +observed +by the +Akamba +and +Akikuyu +on a +journey +and other +occasions.</note> +Among the Ba-Pedi and Ba-thonga tribes of South +Africa, when the site of a new village has been chosen and +the houses are building, all the married people are forbidden +to have conjugal relations with each other. If it were +discovered that any couple had broken this rule, the work +of building would immediately be stopped, and another site +chosen for the village. For they think that a breach of +chastity would spoil the village which was growing up, +that the chief would grow lean and perhaps die, and +that the guilty woman would never bear another child.<note place='foot'>H. A. Junod, <q>Les Conceptions +physiologiques des Bantou sud-africains +et leurs tabous,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Revue d'Ethnographie +et de Sociologie</hi>, i. (1910) p. +148.</note> +Among the Chams of Cochin-China, when a dam is made or +repaired on a river for the sake of irrigation, the chief who +offers the traditional sacrifices and implores the protection of +the deities on the work, has to stay all the time in a wretched +hovel of straw, taking no part in the labour, and observing the +strictest continence; for the people believe that a breach of +his chastity would entail a breach of the dam.<note place='foot'>Dameon Grangeon, <q>Les Chams +et leurs superstitions,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Missions Catholiques</hi>, +xxviii. (1896) p. 70.</note> Here, it is +plain, there can be no idea of maintaining the mere bodily +vigour of the chief for the accomplishment of a task in +which he does not even bear a hand. In New Caledonia +the wizard who performs certain superstitious ceremonies at +the building and launching of a large canoe is bound to the +most rigorous chastity the whole time that the vessel is on +the stocks.<note place='foot'>Father Lambert, <q>Mœurs et +superstitions de la tribu Bélep,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Missions Catholiques</hi>, xii. (1880) p. +215; <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, <hi rend='italic'>Mœurs et superstitions des +Néo-Calédoniens</hi> (Nouméa, 1900), pp. +191 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> Among the natives of the Gazelle Peninsula in +New Britain men who are engaged in making fish-traps avoid +women and observe strict continence. They believe that +if a woman were even to touch a fish-trap, it would catch +nothing.<note place='foot'>R. Parkinson, <hi rend='italic'>Dreissig Jahre in +der Südsee</hi> (Stuttgart, 1907), p. 99.</note> Here, therefore, the rule of continence probably +springs from a fear of infecting sympathetically the traps +<pb n='203'/><anchor id='Pg203'/> +with feminine weakness or perhaps with menstrual pollution. +Every year at the end of September or the beginning of +October, when the north-east monsoon is near an end, a fleet +of large sailing canoes leaves Port Moresby and the neighbouring +Motu villages of New Guinea on a trading voyage to +the deltas of the rivers which flow into the Papuan Gulf. The +canoes are laden with a cargo of earthenware pots, and +after about three months they return, sailing before the north-west +monsoon and bringing back a cargo of sago which they +have obtained by barter for their crockery. It is about the +beginning of the south-east monsoon, that is, in April or May, +that the skippers, who are leading men in the villages, make +up their minds to go on these trading voyages. When their +resolution is taken they communicate it to their wives, and +from about that time husband and wife cease to cohabit. +The same custom of conjugal separation is observed by what +we may call the mate or second in command of each vessel. +But it is not till the month of August that the work of +preparing the canoes for sea by overhauling and caulking +them is taken seriously in hand. From that time both +skipper and mate become particularly sacred or taboo +(<foreign rend='italic'>helaga</foreign>), and consequently they keep apart from their wives +more than ever. Husband and wife, indeed, sleep in the +same house but on opposite sides of it. In speaking of his +wife he calls her <q>maiden,</q> and she calls him <q>youth.</q> +They have no direct conversation or dealings with each +other. If he wishes to communicate with her, he does so +through a third person, usually a relative of one of them. +Both refrain from washing themselves, and he from combing +his hair. <q>The wife's position indeed becomes very much +like that of a widow.</q> When the canoe has been launched, +skipper, mate, and crew are all forbidden to touch their food +with their fingers; they must always handle it and convey +it to their mouths with a bone fork.<note place='foot'>Captain F. R. Barton, in C. G. +Seligmann's <hi rend='italic'>The Melanesians of British +New Guinea</hi> (Cambridge, 1910), pp. +100-102. The native words which I +have translated respectively <q>skipper</q> +and <q>mate</q> are <foreign rend='italic'>baditauna</foreign> and <foreign rend='italic'>doritauna</foreign>. +The exact meaning of the +words is doubtful.</note> A briefer account of +the custom and superstition had previously been given by a +native pastor settled in the neighbourhood of Port Moresby. +<pb n='204'/><anchor id='Pg204'/> +He says: <q>Here is a custom of trading-voyage parties:—If +it is arranged to go westward, to procure arrowroot, the +leader of the party sleeps apart from his wife for the time +being, and on until the return from the expedition, which is +sometimes a term of five months. They say if this is not +done the canoe of the chief will be sunk on the return +voyage, all the arrowroot lost in the sea, and he himself +covered with shame. He, however, who observes the rule of +self-denial, returns laden with arrowroot, has not a drop +of salt water to injure his cargo, and so is praised by his +companions and crew.</q><note place='foot'>Quoted by Dr. George Turner, +<hi rend='italic'>Samoa</hi> (London, 1884), pp. 349 +<hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> The Akamba and Akikuyu of +eastern Africa refrain from the commerce of the sexes on a +journey, even if their wives are with them in the caravan; +and they observe the same rule of chastity so long as the +cattle are at pasture, that is, from the time the herds are +driven out to graze in the morning till they come back in the +evening.<note place='foot'>J. M. Hildebrandt, <q>Ethnographische +Notizen über Wakamba und ihre +Nachbarn,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Zeitschrift für Ethnologie</hi>, +x. (1878) p. 401.</note> Why the rule should be in force just while the +cattle are at pasture is not said, but we may conjecture that +any act of incontinence at that time is somehow supposed, +on the principles of sympathetic magic, to affect the animals +injuriously. The conjecture is confirmed by the observation +that among the Akikuyu for eight days after the quarterly +festivals, which they hold for the sake of securing God's +blessing on their flocks and herds, no commerce is permitted +between the sexes. They think that any breach of continence +in these eight days would be followed by a mortality +among the flocks.<note place='foot'>H. R. Tate, <q>Further Notes on +the Kikuyu Tribe of British East Africa,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Journal of the Anthropological Institute</hi>, +xxxiv. (1904) pp. 260 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> At the +festivals sheep and goats are sacrificed +to God (<foreign rend='italic'>Ngai</foreign>), and the people feast on +the roast flesh.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The taboos +observed +by hunters +and fishers +are often +continued +and even +increased +in stringency +after +the game +has been +killed and +the fish +caught. +The motive +for this +conduct +can only +be superstitious.</note> +If the taboos or abstinences observed by hunters and +fishermen before and during the chase are dictated, as we +have seen reason to believe, by superstitious motives, and +chiefly by a dread of offending or frightening the spirits of +the creatures whom it is proposed to kill, we may expect +that the restraints imposed after the slaughter has been +perpetrated will be at least as stringent, the slayer and his +<pb n='205'/><anchor id='Pg205'/> +friends having now the added fear of the angry ghosts of his +victims before their eyes. Whereas on the hypothesis that +the abstinences in question, including those from food, drink, +and sleep, are merely salutary precautions for maintaining +the men in health and strength to do their work, it is +obvious that the observance of these abstinences or taboos +after the work is done, that is, when the game is killed and +the fish caught, must be wholly superfluous, absurd, and +inexplicable. But as I shall now shew, these taboos often +continue to be enforced or even increased in stringency after +the death of the animals, in other words, after the hunter or +fisher has accomplished his object by making his bag or +landing his fish. The rationalistic theory of them therefore +breaks down entirely; the hypothesis of superstition is clearly +the only one open to us. +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Taboos +observed +by the +Bering +Strait +Esquimaux +after catching +whales +or salmon.</note> +Among the Inuit or Esquimaux of Bering Strait <q>the +dead bodies of various animals must be treated very carefully +by the hunter who obtains them, so that their shades may +not be offended and bring bad luck or even death upon him +or his people.</q> Hence the Unalit hunter who has had a +hand in the killing of a white whale, or even has helped to +take one from the net, is not allowed to do any work for the +next four days, that being the time during which the shade +or ghost of the whale is supposed to stay with its body. At +the same time no one in the village may use any sharp or +pointed instrument for fear of wounding the whale's shade, +which is believed to be hovering invisible in the neighbourhood; +and no loud noise may be made lest it should frighten +or offend the ghost. Whoever cuts a whale's body with an +iron axe will die. Indeed the use of all iron instruments is +forbidden in the village during these four days. These Inuit +have a special name (<foreign rend='italic'>nu-na hlukh-tuk</foreign>) <q>for a spot of +ground where certain things are tabooed, or where there is +to be feared any evil influence caused by the presence of +offended shades of men or animals, or through the influence +of other supernatural means. This ground is sometimes considered +unclean, and to go upon it would bring misfortune to +the offender, producing sickness, death, or lack of success in +hunting or fishing. The same term is also applied to ground +where certain animals have been killed or have died.</q> In +<pb n='206'/><anchor id='Pg206'/> +the latter case the ground is thought to be dangerous only to +him who there performs some forbidden act. For example, +the shore where a dead white whale has been beached is so +regarded. At such a place and time to chop wood with an +iron axe is supposed to be fatal to the imprudent person who +chops. Death, too, is supposed to result from cutting wood +with an iron axe where salmon are being dressed. An old +man at St. Michael told Mr. Nelson of a melancholy case of +this kind which had fallen within the scope of his own observation. +A man began to chop a log near a woman who +was splitting salmon: both of them died soon afterwards. +The reason of this disaster, as the old man explained, was +that the shade or ghost (<foreign rend='italic'>inua</foreign>) of the salmon and the spirit +or mystery (<foreign rend='italic'>yu-a</foreign>) of the ground were incensed at the proceeding. +Such offences are indeed fatal to every person who +may be present at the desecrated spot. Dogs are regarded +as very unclean and offensive to the shades of game animals, +and great care is taken that no dog shall get at the bones of +a white whale. Should a dog touch one of them, the +hunter might lose his luck; his nets would break or be +shunned by the whales, and his spears would not strike. +But in addition to the state of uncleanness or taboo which +arises from the presence of the shades of men or animals, +these Esquimaux believe in uncleanness of another sort +which, though not so serious, nevertheless produces sickness +or bad luck in hunting. It consists, we are told, of a kind +of invisible, impalpable vapour, which may attach itself to a +person from some contamination. A hunter infected by +such a vapour is much more than usually visible to game, so +that his luck in the chase is gone until he succeeds in +cleansing himself once more. That is why hunters must +avoid menstruous women; if they do not, they will be unable +to catch game.<note place='foot'>E. W. Nelson, <q>The Eskimo +about Bering Strait,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Eighteenth +Annual Report of the Bureau of +American Ethnology</hi>, part i. (Washington, +1899) pp. 438, 440.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Taboos +observed +by the +Bering +Strait +Esquimaux +and the +Aleuts of +Alaska out +of regard +for the +animals +they have +killed.</note> +These same Esquimaux of Bering Strait celebrate a great +annual festival in December, when the bladders of all the +seals, whales, walrus, and white bears that have been killed +in the year are taken into the assembly-house of the village. +<pb n='207'/><anchor id='Pg207'/> +They remain there for several days, and so long as they do +so the hunters avoid all intercourse with women, saying that +if they failed in that respect the shades of the dead animals +would be offended.<note place='foot'>E. W. Nelson, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> p. 440, +compare pp. 380 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> The bladder +festival of these Esquimaux will be +described in a later part of this work.</note> Similarly among the Aleuts of Alaska +the hunter who had struck a whale with a charmed spear +would not throw again, but returned at once to his home and +separated himself from his people in a hut specially constructed +for the purpose, where he stayed for three days +without food or drink, and without touching or looking upon +a woman. During this time of seclusion he snorted +occasionally in imitation of the wounded and dying whale, +in order to prevent the whale which he had struck from +leaving the coast. On the fourth day he emerged from his +seclusion and bathed in the sea, shrieking in a hoarse voice +and beating the water with his hands. Then, taking with +him a companion, he repaired to that part of the shore +where he expected to find the whale stranded. If the beast +was dead he at once cut out the place where the death-wound +had been inflicted. If the whale was not dead, he +again returned to his home and continued washing himself +until the whale died.<note place='foot'>I. Petroff, <hi rend='italic'>Report on the Population, +Industries, and Resources of +Alaska</hi> (preface dated August 7, +1882), pp. 154 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> Here the hunter's imitation of the +wounded whale is probably intended by means of homoeopathic +magic to make the beast die in earnest. Among the +Kaniagmuts of Alaska the men who attacked the whale were +considered by their countrymen as unclean during the fishing +season, though otherwise they were held in high honour.<note place='foot'>W. H. Dall, <hi rend='italic'>Alaska and its Resources</hi> +(London, 1870), p. 404.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Taboos +observed +by the +central +Esquimaux +after killing +sea-beasts. +The sea-mammals +may not be +brought +into contact +with +reindeer.</note> +The central Esquimaux of Baffin Land and Hudson Bay +think that whales, ground seals, and common seals originated +in the severed fingers of the goddess Sedna. Hence an +Esquimau of these regions must make atonement for each +of these animals that he kills, and must observe strictly +certain taboos after their slaughter. Some of the rules of +conduct thus enjoined are identical with those which are in +force after the death of a human being. Thus after the +killing of one of these sea-mammals, as after the decease of +a person, it is forbidden to scrape the frost from the window, +<pb n='208'/><anchor id='Pg208'/> +to shake the bed or to disturb the shrubs under the bed, to +remove the drippings of oil from under the lamp, to scrape +hair from skins, to cut snow for the purpose of melting it, +to work on iron, wood, stone, or ivory. Furthermore, women +are forbidden to comb their hair, to wash their faces, and to +dry their boots and stockings. All these regulations must +be kept with the greatest care after a ground seal has been +killed, because the transgression of taboos that refer to this +animal makes the hands of Sedna very sore. When a seal +is brought into the hut, the women must stop working until +it is cut up. After the capture of a ground seal, walrus, or +whale, they must rest for three days. Not all kinds of work, +however, are forbidden; they may mend articles made of +sealskin, but they may not make anything new. Working +on the new skins of caribou, the American reindeer, is strictly +prohibited; for a series of rules forbids all contact between +that animal and the sea-mammals. Thus reindeer-skins +obtained in summer may not be prepared before the ice +has formed and the first seal is caught with the harpoon. +Later, as soon as the first walrus has been killed, the work +must stop again until the next autumn. Hence everybody is +eager to have his reindeer-skins ready as quickly as possible, +for until that is done the walrus season will not begin. When +the first walrus has been killed a messenger goes from village +to village and announces the news, whereupon all work on +reindeer-skins immediately ceases. On the other hand, when +the season for hunting the reindeer begins, all the winter +clothing and the winter tents that had been in use during +the walrus hunting season become tabooed and are buried +under stones; they may not be used again till the next walrus +hunting season comes round. No walrus-hide or thongs made +of such hide may be taken inland, where the reindeer live. +Venison may not be put in the same boat with walrus-meat, +nor yet with salmon. If venison or the antlers of the reindeer +were in a boat which goes walrus-hunting, the boat would be +liable to be broken by the walrus. The Esquimaux are not +allowed to eat venison and walrus on the same day, unless +they first strip naked or put on clothing of reindeer-skin that +has never been worn in hunting walrus. The transgression +of these taboos gives umbrage to the souls of walrus; and a +<pb n='209'/><anchor id='Pg209'/> +myth is told to account for the mutual aversion of the walrus +and the reindeer. And in general the Esquimaux say that +Sedna dislikes the reindeer, wherefore they may not bring +the beast into contact with her favourites, the sea-mammals. +Hence the meat of the whale and the seal, as well as of the +walrus, may not be eaten on the same day with venison. It +is not permitted that both sorts of meat lie on the floor of +the hut or behind the lamps at the same time. If a man +who has eaten venison in the morning happens to enter a +hut in which seal meat is being cooked, he is allowed to eat +venison on the bed, but it must be wrapped up before it is +carried into the hut, and he must take care to keep clear of +the floor. Before they change from one food to the other +the Esquimaux must wash themselves. +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Even +among the +sea-beasts +themselves +there are +rules of +mutual +avoidance +which the +central +Esquimaux +must +observe.</note> +But even among the sea-beasts themselves there are rules +of mutual avoidance which these central Esquimaux must +observe. Thus a person who has been eating or hunting +walrus must strip naked or change his clothes before he eats +seal; otherwise the transgression will become fastened to +the soul of the walrus in a manner which will be explained +presently. Again, the soul of a salmon is very powerful, +and its body may not be eaten on the same day with walrus +or venison. Salmon may not be cooked in a pot that has +been used to boil any other kind of meat; and it must +always be cooked at some distance from the hut. The +salmon-fisher is not allowed to wear boots that have been +used in hunting walrus; and no work may be done on boot-legs +till the first salmon has been caught and put on a boot-leg. +Once more the soul of the grim polar bear is offended +if the taboos which concern him are not observed. His soul +tarries for three days near the spot where it left his body, +and during these days the Esquimaux are particularly careful +to conform rigidly to the laws of taboo, because they +believe that punishment overtakes the transgressor who sins +against the soul of a bear far more speedily than him who +sins against the souls of the sea-beasts.<note place='foot'>Fr. Boas, <q>The Central Eskimo,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Sixth Annual Report of the Bureau of +Ethnology</hi> (Washington, 1888), pp. +584 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 595; <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi> <q>The Eskimo of +Baffin Land and Hudson Bay,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Bulletin +of the American Museum of Natural +History</hi>, xv. part i. (1901) pp. 121-124. +See also <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi> <q>Die Sagen der +Baffin-land Eskimo,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Verhandlungen +der Berliner Gesellschaft für Anthropologie, +Ethnologie, und Urgeschichte</hi> +(1885), pp. 162 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, in <hi rend='italic'>Proceedings +and Transactions of the Royal Society +of Canada</hi>, v. (Montreal, 1888) section +ii. pp. 35 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; C. F. Hall, <hi rend='italic'>Life with +the Esquimaux</hi> (London, 1864), ii. +321 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, <hi rend='italic'>Narrative of the Second +Arctic Expedition made by Charles F. +Hall</hi>, edited by Professor J. E. Nourse +(Washington, 1879), pp. 191 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Native explanation +of these +Esquimau +taboos.</note> +The native explanation of the taboos thus enjoined on +<pb n='210'/><anchor id='Pg210'/> +hunters among the central Esquimaux has been given us by the +eminent American ethnologist Dr. Franz Boas. As it sets +what may be called the spiritual basis of taboo in the clearest +light, it deserves to be studied with attention. +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The object +of the +taboos observed +after +killing sea-beasts +is to +prevent the +souls of the +slain animals +from +contracting +certain +attachments, +which +would hurt +not only +them, but +also the +great goddess +Sedna, +in whose +house the +disembodied +souls of the +sea-beasts +reside.</note> +The goddess Sedna, he tells us, the mother of the sea-mammals, +may be considered to be the chief deity of the +central Esquimaux. She is supposed to bear supreme +sway over the destinies of mankind, and almost all the +observances of these tribes have for their object to retain her +good will or appease her anger. Her home is in the lower +world, where she dwells in a house built of stone and whale-ribs. +<q rend='pre'>The souls of seals, ground seals, and whales are believed +to proceed from her house. After one of these animals has +been killed, its soul stays with the body for three days. Then +it goes back to Sedna's abode, to be sent forth again by her. +If, during the three days that the soul stays with the body, +any taboo or proscribed custom is violated, the violation +(<foreign rend='italic'>pitssēte</foreign>) becomes attached to the animal's soul, and causes +it pain. The soul strives in vain to free itself of these +attachments, but is compelled to take them down to Sedna. +The attachments, in some manner not explained, make her +hands sore, and she punishes the people who are the cause +of her pains by sending to them sickness, bad weather, and +starvation. If, on the other hand, all taboos have been +observed, the sea-animals will allow themselves to be caught; +they will even come to meet the hunter. The object of the +innumerable taboos that are in force after the killing of these +sea-animals, therefore, is to keep their souls free from attachments +that would hurt their souls as well as Sedna.</q> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The souls +of the sea-beasts +have +a great +aversion to +the dark +colour of +death and +to the +vapour that +arises from +flowing +blood, and +they avoid +persons +who are +affected by +these +things.</note> +<q rend='pre'>The souls of the sea-animals are endowed with greater +powers than those of ordinary human beings. They can +see the effect of contact with a corpse, which causes objects +touched by it to appear dark in colour; and they can see +the effect of flowing human blood, from which a vapour rises +that surrounds the bleeding person and is communicated to +<pb n='211'/><anchor id='Pg211'/> +every one and every thing that comes in contact with such +a person. This vapour and the dark colour of death are +exceedingly unpleasant to the souls of the sea-animals, that +will not come near a hunter thus affected. The hunter must +therefore avoid contact with people who have touched a body, +or with those who are bleeding, more particularly with menstruating +women or with those who have recently given +birth. The hands of menstruating women appear red to the +sea-animals. If any one who has touched a body or who +is bleeding should allow others to come in contact with him, +he would cause them to become distasteful to the seals, and +therefore to Sedna as well. For this reason custom demands +that every person must at once announce if he has touched +a body, and that women must make known when they are +menstruating or when they have had a miscarriage. If they +do not do so, they will bring ill-luck to all the hunters.</q> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The transgresser +of +a taboo +must +announce +his transgression, +in +order that +other +people may +shun him.</note> +<q rend='pre'>These ideas have given rise to the belief that it is necessary +to announce the transgression of any taboo. The transgressor +of a custom is distasteful to Sedna and to the animals, +and those who abide with him will become equally distasteful +through contact with him. For this reason it has come to +be an act required by custom and morals to confess any and +every transgression of a taboo, in order to protect the community +from the evil influence of contact with the evil-doer. +The descriptions of Eskimo life given by many observers +contain records of starvation, which, according to the belief +of the natives, was brought about by some one transgressing +a law, and not announcing what he had done.</q> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Hence the +central +Esquimaux +have come +to think +that sin +can be +atoned for +by confession.</note> +<q rend='pre'>I presume the importance of the confession of a transgression, +with a view to warning others to keep at a distance +from the transgressor, has gradually led to the idea that a +transgression, or, we might say, a sin can be atoned for by +confession. This is one of the most remarkable traits +among the religious beliefs of the central Eskimo. There +are innumerable tales of starvation brought about by the +transgression of a taboo. In vain the hunters try to +supply their families with food; gales and drifting snow +make their endeavours fruitless. Finally the help of the +<hi rend='italic'>angakok</hi><note place='foot'>That is, the wizard or sorcerer.</note> is invoked, and he discovers that the cause of the +<pb n='212'/><anchor id='Pg212'/> +misfortune of the people is due to the transgression of a +taboo. Then the guilty one is searched for. If he confesses, +all is well; the weather moderates, and the seals allow +themselves to be caught; but if he obstinately maintains +his innocence, his death alone will soothe the wrath of +the offended deity....</q> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The transgression +of taboos +affects the +soul of the +transgressor, +becoming +attached to +it and +making +him sick. +If the +attachment +is not removed +by +the wizard, +the man +will die.</note> +<q rend='pre'>The transgressions of taboos do not affect the souls of +game alone. It has already been stated that the sea-mammals +see their effect upon man also, who appears to +them of a dark colour, or surrounded by a vapour which is +invisible to ordinary man. This means, of course, that the +transgression also affects the soul of the evil-doer. It becomes +attached to it, and makes him sick. The <foreign rend='italic'>angakok</foreign><note place='foot'>That is, the wizard or sorcerer.</note> +is able to see these attachments with the help of his +guardian spirit, and is able to free the soul from them. If +this is not done, the person must die. In many cases the +transgressions become fastened also to persons who come in +contact with the evil-doer. This is especially true of +children, to whose souls the sins of their parents, and +particularly of their mothers, become readily attached. +Therefore, when a child is sick, the <foreign rend='italic'>angakok</foreign> first of all, +asks its mother if she has transgressed any taboos. The +attachment seems to have a different appearance, according +to the taboo that has been violated. A black attachment is +due to removing oil-drippings from under the lamp, a piece +of caribou-skin represents the scrapings removed from a +caribou-skin at a time when such work was forbidden. As +soon as the mother acknowledges the transgression of a taboo, +the attachment leaves the child's soul, and the child recovers.</q> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The Esquimaux +try to +keep the +sea-beasts +free from +contaminating +influences, +especially +from contact +with +corpses +and with +women +who have +recently +been +brought to +bed.</note> +<q rend='pre'>A number of customs may be explained by the +endeavours of the natives to keep the sea-mammals free +from contaminating influences. All the clothing of a dead +person, the tent in which he died, and the skins obtained by +him, must be discarded; for if a hunter should wear clothing +made of skins that had been in contact with the deceased, +these would appear dark, and the seal would avoid him. +Neither would a seal allow itself to be taken into a hut +darkened by a dead body; and all those who entered such a +hut would appear dark to it, and would be avoided.</q> +</p> + +<pb n='213'/><anchor id='Pg213'/> + +<p> +<q rend='pre'>While it is customary for a successful hunter to invite +all the men of the village to eat of the seal that he has +caught, they must not take any of the seal-meat out of the +hut, because it might come in contact with persons who are +under taboo, and thus the hunter might incur the displeasure +of the seal and of Sedna. This is particularly strictly +forbidden in the case of the first seal of the season.</q> +</p> + +<p> +<q rend='pre'>A woman who has a new-born child, and who has not +quite recovered, must eat only of seals caught by her husband, +by a boy, or by an aged man; else the vapour arising from +her body would become attached to the souls of other seals, +which would take the transgression down to Sedna, thus +making her hands sore.</q> +</p> + +<p> +<q>Cases of premature birth require particularly careful +treatment. The event must be announced publicly, else dire +results will follow. If a woman should conceal from the +other people that she has had a premature birth, they might +come near her, or even eat in her hut of the seals procured +by her husband. The vapour arising from her would thus +affect them, and they would be avoided by the seals. The +transgression would also become attached to the soul of +the seal, which would take it down to Sedna.</q><note place='foot'>Fr. Boas, <q>The Eskimo of Baffin +Land and Hudson Bay,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Bulletin of +the American Museum of Natural +History</hi>, xv. pt. i. (1901) pp. 119-121, +124-126. In quoting these +passages I have changed the spelling +of a few words in accordance with +English orthography.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>In the +system of +taboos +of the +central +Esquimaux +we see +animism +passing +into +religion; +morality is +coming to +rest on a +supernatural +basis, +namely the +will of the +goddess +Sedna. In this +evolution of +religion the +practice of +confession +has played +a part. +It seems +to have +been +regarded +as a +spiritual +purge or +emetic, by +which sin, +conceived +as a sort +of morbid +substance, +was expelled +from +the body of +the sinner.</note> +In these elaborate taboos so well described by Dr. Boas +we seem to see a system of animism in the act of passing +into religion. The rules themselves bear the clearest traces +of having originated in a doctrine of souls, and of being +determined by the supposed likes and dislikes, sympathies +and antipathies of the various classes of spirits toward each +other. But above and behind the souls of men and animals +has grown up the overshadowing conception of a powerful +goddess who rules them all, so that the taboos come more +and more to be viewed as a means of propitiating her rather +than as merely adapted to suit the tastes of the souls themselves. +Thus the standard of conduct is shifted from a +natural to a supernatural basis: the supposed wish of the +deity or, as we commonly put it, the will of God, tends to supersede +<pb n='214'/><anchor id='Pg214'/> +the wishes, real or imaginative, of purely natural beings +as the measure of right and wrong. The old savage taboos, +resting on a theory of the direct relations of living creatures +to each other, remain in substance unchanged, but they are +outwardly transformed into ethical precepts with a religious +or supernatural sanction. In this gradual passage of a rude +philosophy into an elementary religion the place occupied by +confession as a moral purgative is particularly interesting. +I can hardly agree with Dr. Boas that among these +Esquimaux the confession of sins was in its origin no more +than a means of warning others against the dangerous +contagion of the sinner; in other words, that its saving +efficacy consisted merely in preventing the innocent +from suffering with the guilty, and that it had no healing +virtue, no purifying influence, for the evil-doer himself. +It seems more probable that originally the violation of +taboo, in other words, the sin, was conceived as something +almost physical, a sort of morbid substance lurking in the +sinner's body, from which it could be expelled by confession +as by a sort of spiritual purge or emetic. This is confirmed +by the form of auricular confession which is practised by +the Akikuyu of British East Africa. Amongst them, we +are told, <q>sin is essentially remissable; it suffices to confess +it. Usually this is done to the sorcerer, who expels the sin +by a ceremony of which the principal rite is a pretended +emetic: <foreign rend='italic'>kotahikio</foreign>, derived from <foreign rend='italic'>tahika</foreign>, <q>to vomit.</q></q><note place='foot'>Le P. P. Cayzac, <q>La Religion des Kikuyu,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Anthropos</hi>, v. (1905) p. +311.</note> Thus +among these savages the confession and absolution of sins is, +so to say, a purely physical process of relieving a sufferer of +a burden which sits heavy on his stomach rather than on his +conscience. This view of the matter is again confirmed by +the observation that these same Akikuyu resort to another +physical mode of expelling sin from a sinner, and that is by +the employment of a scapegoat, which by them, as by the +Jews and many other people, has been employed as a vehicle +for carting away moral rubbish and dumping it somewhere +else. For example, if a Kikuyu man has committed incest, +which would naturally entail his death, he produces a substitute +in the shape of a he-goat, to which by an ignoble ceremony +<pb n='215'/><anchor id='Pg215'/> +he transfers his guilt. Then the throat of the animal +is cut, and the human culprit is thereby purged of his sin.<note place='foot'>Le P. P. Cayzac, <hi rend='italic'>loc. cit.</hi> The +nature of the <q>ignoble ceremony</q> of +transferring sin to a he-goat is not +mentioned by the missionary. It can +hardly have been the simple Jewish one +of laying hands on the animal's head.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Hence the +confession +of sins is +employed +as a sort of +medicine +for the +recovery +of the sick. Similarly +the +confession +of sins is +sometimes +resorted +to by +women +in hard +labour as +a means of +accelerating +their +delivery. In these +cases confession +is +a magical +ceremony +designed +to relieve +the sinner.</note> +Hence we may suspect that the primary motive of the +confession of sins among savages was self-regarding; in other +words, the intention was rather to benefit the sinner himself +than to safeguard others by warning them of the danger they +would incur by coming into contact with him. This view is +borne out by the observation that confession is sometimes +used as a means of healing the sick transgressor himself, who +is supposed to recover as soon as he has made a clean breast +of his transgression. Thus <q>when the Carriers are severely +sick, they often think that they shall not recover, unless they +divulge to a priest or magician every crime which they may +have committed, which has hitherto been kept secret. In +such a case they will make a full confession, and then they +expect that their lives will be spared for a time longer. But +should they keep back a single crime, they as firmly believe +that they shall suffer almost instant death.</q><note place='foot'>D. W. Harmon, in Rev. Jedidiah +Morse's <hi rend='italic'>Report to the Secretary of War +of the United States on Indian Affairs</hi> +(New-haven, 1822), p. 345. The +Carriers are an Indian tribe of North-West +America who call themselves +<foreign rend='italic'>Ta-cul-lies</foreign>, <q>a people who go upon +water</q> (<hi rend='italic'>ibid.</hi> p. 343).</note> Again, the +Aurohuaca Indians, who, under the tropical sun of South +America, inhabit a chilly region bordering on the perpetual +snows of the Sierra Nevada in Colombia, believe that all +sickness is a punishment for sin. So when one of their +medicine-men is summoned to a sick bed, he does not enquire +after the patient's symptoms but makes strange passes over +him and asks in a sepulchral voice whether he will confess +his sins. If the sick man persists in drawing a veil of +silence over his frailties, the doctor will not attempt to treat +him, but will turn on his heel and leave the house. On the +other hand if a satisfactory confession has been made, the +leech directs the patient's friends to procure certain odd-looking +bits of stone or shell to which the sins of the sufferer +may be transferred, for when that is done he will be made +whole. For this purpose the sin-laden stones or shells are +carried high up into the mountains and laid in some spot +<pb n='216'/><anchor id='Pg216'/> +where the first beams of the sun, rising in clear or clouded +majesty above the long white slopes or the towering crags of +the Sierra Nevada, will strike down on them, driving sin and +sickness far away by their radiant influence.<note place='foot'>Francis C. Nicholas, <q>The Aborigines +of Santa Maria, Colombia,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>American Anthropologist</hi>, N.S. iii. +(1901) pp. 639-641.</note> Here, again, +we see that sin is regarded as something almost material +which by confession can be removed from the body of the +patient and laid on stones or shells. Further, the confession +of sins has been resorted to by some people as a means of +accelerating the birth of a child when the mother was in +hard labour. Thus, <q>among the Indians of Guatemala, in +the time of their idolatry when a woman was in labour, the +midwife ordered her to confess her sins; and if she was not +delivered, the husband was to confess his; and if that did not +do they took off his clouts and put them about his wife's +loins; if still she could not be delivered, the midwife drew +blood from herself and sprinkled it towards the four quarters +of heaven with some invocations and ceremonies.</q><note place='foot'>A. de Herrera, <hi rend='italic'>The General History +of the Vast Continent and Islands +of America</hi>, translated by Capt. J. +Stevens (London, 1725-26), iv. 148. +The confession of sins appears to +have held an important place in the +native religion of the American Indians, +particularly the Mexicans and Peruvians. +There is no sufficient reason +to suppose that they learned the +practice from Catholic priests. For +more evidence of the custom among +the aborigines of America see L. H. +Morgan, <hi rend='italic'>League of the Iroquois</hi> (Rochester, +U.S. America, 1851), pp. 170 +<hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 187 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; B. de Sahagun, <hi rend='italic'>Histoire +générale des choses de la Nouvelle +Espagne</hi>, bk. i. ch. 12, bk. vi. ch. 7, +pp. 22-27, 339-344 (Jourdanet and +Simeon's French translation); A. de +Herrera, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> iv. 173, 190; Diego +de Landa, <hi rend='italic'>Relation des choses de +Yucatan</hi> (Paris, 1864), pp. 154 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>; +Brasseur de Bourbourg, <hi rend='italic'>Histoire des +nations civilisées du Mexique et de +l'Amérique Centrale</hi>, ii. 114 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, +567, iii. 567-569; P. J. de Arriaga, +<hi rend='italic'>Extirpacion de la idolatria del Piru</hi> +(Lima, 1621), pp. 18, 28 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> In these +attempts of the Indians to accelerate the birth of the child it +seems clear that the confession of sins on the part first of the +wife and afterwards of the husband is nothing but a magical +ceremony like the putting of the husband's clothes on the +suffering woman<note place='foot'>As to this means of hastening the +delivery see <hi rend='italic'>Totemism and Exogamy</hi>, +iv. 248 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi> The intention of the exchange +of clothes at childbirth between +husband and wife seems to be to relieve +the woman by transferring the travail +pangs to the man.</note> or the sprinkling of the midwife's blood +towards the four quarters of the heaven. Amongst the +Antambahoaka, a savage tribe of Madagascar, when a woman +is in hard labour, a sorcerer is called in to her aid. After +<pb n='217'/><anchor id='Pg217'/> +making some magical signs and uttering some incantations, +he generally declares that the patient cannot be delivered +until she has publicly confessed a secret fault which she has +committed. In such a case a woman has been known to +confess to incest with her brother; and immediately after +her confession the child was born.<note place='foot'>G. Ferrand, <hi rend='italic'>Les Musulmans à +Madagascar</hi>, Deuxième Partie (Paris, +1893), pp. 20 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> In these cases the confession +of sins is clearly not a mode of warning people to +keep clear of the sinner; it is a magical ceremony primarily +intended to benefit the sinner himself or herself and no +other. The same thing may perhaps be said of a confession +which was prescribed in a certain case by ancient Hindoo +ritual. At a great festival of Varuna, which fell at the +beginning of the rainy season, the priest asked the wife of +the sacrificer to name her paramour or paramours, and she +had to mention their names or at least to take up as many +grass-stalks as she had lovers.<note place='foot'>H. Oldenberg, <hi rend='italic'>Die Religion des +Veda</hi> (Berlin, 1894), pp. 319 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> <q>Now when a woman who +belongs to one man carries on intercourse with another, she +undoubtedly commits a sin against Varuna. He therefore +thus asks her, lest she should sacrifice with a secret pang in +her mind; for when confessed the sin becomes less, since it +becomes truth; this is why he thus asks her. And whatever +connection she confesses not, that indeed will turn out +injurious to her relatives.</q><note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>Satapatha Brahmana</hi>, translated +by J. Eggeling, pt. i. p. 397 (<hi rend='italic'>Sacred +Books of the East</hi>, vol. xii.).</note> In this passage of the <hi rend='italic'>Satapatha +Brahmana</hi> confession of sin is said to diminish the +sin, just as if the mere utterance of the words ejected or +expelled some morbid matter from the person of the sinner, +thereby relieving her of its burden and benefiting also her +relatives, who would suffer through any sin which she might +not have confessed. +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Thus the +confession +of sins is +at first +rather a +bodily than +a moral +purgation, +resembling +the ceremonies of +washing, +fumigation, +and so on, +which are +observed +by many +primitive +peoples +for the +removal +of sin.</note> +Thus at an early stage of culture the confession of sins +wears the aspect of a bodily rather than of a moral and +spiritual purgation; it is a magical rather than a religious +rite, and as such it resembles the ceremonies of washing, +scouring, fumigation, and so forth, which in like manner +are applied by many primitive peoples to the purification +of what we should regard as moral guilt, but what they +<pb n='218'/><anchor id='Pg218'/> +consider rather as a corporeal pollution or infection, which +can be removed by the physical agencies of fire, water, +fasts, purgatives, abrasion, scarification, and so forth. But +when the guilt of sin ceases to be regarded as something +material, a sort of clinging vapour of death, and is conceived +as the transgression of the will of a wise and good God, it +is obvious that the observance of these outward rites of +purification becomes superfluous and absurd, a vain show +which cannot appease the anger of the offended deity. The +only means of turning away his wrath and averting the fatal +consequences of sin is now believed to be the humble confession +and true repentance of the sinner. At this stage of +ethical evolution the practice of confession loses its old +magical character as a bodily purge and assumes the new +aspect of a purely religious rite, the propitiation of a great +supernatural and moral being, who by a simple fiat can +cancel the transgression and restore the transgressor to +a state of pristine innocence. This comfortable doctrine +teaches us that in order to blot out the effects of our +misdeeds we have only to acknowledge and confess them +with a lowly and penitent heart, whereupon a merciful +God will graciously pardon our sin and absolve us and ours +from its consequences. It might indeed be well for the +world if we could thus easily undo the past, if we could +recall the words that have been spoken amiss, if we could +arrest the long train that follows, like a flight of avenging +Furies, on every evil action. But this we cannot do. +Our words and acts, good and bad, have their natural, +their inevitable consequences. God may pardon sin, but +Nature cannot. +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>It is +possible +that some +savage +taboos may +still lurk, +under +various +disguises, +in the +morality of +civilised +peoples.</note> +It seems not improbable that in our own rules of conduct, +in what we call the common decencies of life as well as in +the weightier matters of morality, there may survive not a +few old savage taboos which, masquerading as an expression +of the divine will or draped in the flowing robes of a false +philosophy, have maintained their credit long after the crude +ideas out of which they sprang have been discarded by the +progress of thought and knowledge; while on the other hand +many ethical precepts and social laws, which now rest firmly +on a solid basis of utility, may at first have drawn some +<pb n='219'/><anchor id='Pg219'/> +portion of their sanctity from the same ancient system of +superstition. For example, we can hardly doubt that in +primitive society the crime of murder derived much of its +horror from a fear of the angry ghost of the murdered man. +Thus superstition may serve as a convenient crutch to +morality till she is strong enough to throw away the crutch +and walk alone. To judge by the legislation of the +Pentateuch the ancient Semites appear to have passed +through a course of moral evolution not unlike that which +we can still detect in process among the Esquimaux of +Baffin Land. Some of the old laws of Israel are clearly +savage taboos of a familiar type thinly disguised as commands +of the deity. This disguise is indeed a good deal +more perfect in Palestine than in Baffin Land, but in +substance it is the same. Among the Esquimaux it is +the will of Sedna; among the Israelites it is the will of +Jehovah.<note place='foot'>The similarity of some of the +Mosaic laws to savage customs has +struck most Europeans who have acquired +an intimate knowledge of the +savage and his ways. They have often +explained the coincidences as due to a +primitive revelation or to the dispersion +of the Jews into all parts of the earth. +Some examples of these coincidences +were cited in my article <q>Taboo,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Encyclopaedia Britannica</hi>,<hi rend='vertical-align: super'>9</hi> xxiii. 17. +The subject has since been handled, +with consummate ability and learning, +by my lamented friend W. Robertson +Smith in his <hi rend='italic'>Religion of the Semites</hi> +(New Edition, London, 1894). In +<hi rend='italic'>Psyche's Task</hi> I have illustrated by +examples the influence of superstition +on the growth of morality.</note> +</p> + +<p> +But it is time to return to our immediate subject, to wit, +the rules of conduct observed by hunters after the slaughter +of the game. +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Ceremonies +observed +by the +Kayans +after killing +a panther. Ceremonies +of +purification +observed +by African +hunters +after killing +dangerous +beasts. Ceremonies +observed +by +Lapp +hunters +after killing +a bear.</note> +When the Kayans or Bahaus of central Borneo have shot +one of the dreaded Bornean panthers, they are very anxious +about the safety of their souls, for they think that the soul +of a panther is almost more powerful than their own. Hence +they step eight times over the carcase of the dead beast +reciting the spell, <q>Panther, thy soul under my soul.</q> On +returning home they smear themselves, their dogs, and their +weapons with the blood of fowls in order to calm their souls +and hinder them from fleeing away; for being themselves +fond of the flesh of fowls they ascribe the same taste to +their souls. For eight days afterwards they must bathe by +day and by night before going out again to the chase.<note place='foot'>A. W. Nieuwenhuis, <hi rend='italic'>Quer durch +Borneo</hi>, i. 106 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> +<pb n='220'/><anchor id='Pg220'/> +After killing an animal some Indian hunters used to +purify themselves in water as a religious rite.<note place='foot'>J. Adair, <hi rend='italic'>History of the American +Indians</hi>, p. 118.</note> When a +Damara hunter returns from a successful chase he takes +water in his mouth and ejects it three times over his feet, +and also into the fire on his own hearth.<note place='foot'>C. J. Andersson, <hi rend='italic'>Lake Ngami</hi>, p. +224.</note> Amongst the +Caffres of South Africa <q>the slaughter of a lion, however +honourable it is esteemed, is nevertheless associated with an +idea of moral uncleanness, and is followed by a very strange +ceremony. When the hunters approach the village on their +return, the man who gave the lion the first wound is hidden +from every eye by the shields which his comrades hold up +before him. One of the hunters steps forward and, leaping +and bounding in a strange manner, praises the courage of +the lion-killer. Then he rejoins the band, and the same +performance is repeated by another. All the rest meanwhile +keep up a ceaseless shouting, rattling with their clubs on +their shields. This goes on till they have reached the village. +Then a mean hut is run up not far from the village; and in +this hut the lion-killer, because he is unclean, must remain +four days, cut off from all association with the tribe. There +he dyes his body all over with white paint; and lads who +have not yet been circumcised, and are therefore, in respect +to uncleanness, in the same state as himself, bring him a calf +to eat, and wait upon him. When the four days are over, +the unclean man washes himself, paints himself with red +paint in the usual manner, and is escorted back to the village +by the head chief, attended with a guard of honour. Lastly, +a second calf is killed; and, the uncleanness being now at +an end, every one is free to eat of the calf with him.</q><note place='foot'>L. Alberti, <hi rend='italic'>De Kaffers aan de +Zuidkust van Afrika</hi> (Amsterdam, +1810), pp. 158 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> Compare H. +Lichtenstein, <hi rend='italic'>Reisen im südlichen +Africa</hi> (Berlin, 1811-12), i. 419. +These accounts were written about a +century ago. The custom may since +have become obsolete. A similar remark +applies to other customs described +in this and the following paragraph.</note> +Among the Hottentots, when a man has killed a lion, leopard, +elephant, or rhinoceros he is esteemed a great hero, but he +is deluged with urine by the medicine-man and has to remain +at home quite idle for three days, during which his wife may +not come near him; she is also enjoined to restrict herself +<pb n='221'/><anchor id='Pg221'/> +to a poor diet and to eat no more than is barely necessary +to keep her in health.<note place='foot'>P. Kolbe, <hi rend='italic'>Present State of the Cape +of Good Hope</hi>, I.<hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi> (London, 1738) pp. +251-255. The reason alleged for the +custom is to allow the slayer to recruit +his strength. But the reason is clearly +inadequate as an explanation of this and +similar practices.</note> Similarly the Lapps deem it the +height of glory to kill a bear, which they consider the king +of beasts. Nevertheless, all the men who take part in the +slaughter are regarded as unclean, and must live by themselves +for three days in a hut or tent made specially for +them, where they cut up and cook the bear's carcase. The +reindeer which brought in the carcase on a sledge may not +be driven by a woman for a whole year; indeed, according +to one account, it may not be used by anybody for that +period. Before the men go into the tent where they are to +be secluded, they strip themselves of the garments they had +worn in killing the bear, and their wives spit the red juice of +alder bark in their faces. They enter the tent not by the +ordinary door but by an opening at the back. When the +bear's flesh has been cooked, a portion of it is sent by the +hands of two men to the women, who may not approach the +men's tent while the cooking is going on. The men who +convey the flesh to the women pretend to be strangers +bringing presents from a foreign land; the women keep up +the pretence and promise to tie red threads round the legs +of the strangers. The bear's flesh may not be passed in to +the women through the door of their tent, but must be thrust +in at a special opening made by lifting up the hem of the +tent-cover. When the three days' seclusion is over and the +men are at liberty to return to their wives, they run, one +after the other, round the fire, holding the chain by which +pots are suspended over it. This is regarded as a form of +purification; they may now leave the tent by the ordinary +door and rejoin the women. But the leader of the party +must still abstain from cohabitation with his wife for two +days more.<note place='foot'>J. Scheffer, <hi rend='italic'>Lapponia</hi> (Frankfort, +1673), pp. 234-243; C. Leemius, <hi rend='italic'>De +Lapponibus Finmarchiae eorumque +lingua, vita et religione pristina commentatio</hi> +(Copenhagen, 1767), pp. +502 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; E. J. Jessen, <hi rend='italic'>De Finnorum +Lapponumque Nouvegicorum religione +pagana tractatus singularis</hi>, pp. 64 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> +(bound up with Leemius's work).</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Expiatory +ceremonies +performed +for the +slaughter +of serpents.</note> +Again, the Caffres are said to dread greatly the boa-constrictor +or an enormous serpent resembling it; <q>and being +<pb n='222'/><anchor id='Pg222'/> +influenced by certain superstitious notions they even fear to +kill it. The man who happened to put it to death, whether +in self-defence or otherwise, was formerly required to lie in +a running stream of water during the day for several +weeks together; and no beast whatever was allowed to be +slaughtered at the hamlet to which he belonged, until this +duty had been fully performed. The body of the snake was +then taken and carefully buried in a trench, dug close to the +cattle-fold, where its remains, like those of a chief, were +henceforward kept perfectly undisturbed. The period of +penance, as in the case of mourning for the dead, is now +happily reduced to a few days.</q><note place='foot'>S. Kay, <hi rend='italic'>Travels and Researches in +Caffraria</hi> (London, 1833), pp. 341 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> Amongst the Ewe-speaking +peoples of the Slave Coast, who worship the python, a native +who killed one of these serpents used to be burned alive. +But for some time past, though a semblance of carrying out +the old penalty is preserved, the culprit is allowed to escape +with his life, but he has to pay a heavy fine. A small hut +of dry faggots and grass is set up, generally near the lagoon +at Whydah, if the crime has been perpetrated there; the +guilty man is thrust inside, the door of plaited grass is shut +on him, and the hut is set on fire. Sometimes a dog, a kid, +and two fowls are enclosed along with him, and he is +drenched with palm-oil and yeast, probably to render him +the more combustible. As he is unbound, he easily breaks +out of the frail hut before the flames consume him; but he +has to run the gauntlet of the angry serpent-worshippers, +who belabour the murderer of their god with sticks and +pelt him with clods until he reaches water and plunges +into it, which is supposed to wash away his sin. Thirteen +days later a commemoration service is held in honour +of the deceased python.<note place='foot'>J. Duncan, <hi rend='italic'>Travels in Western +Africa</hi> (London, 1847), i. 195 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; +F. E. Forbes, <hi rend='italic'>Dahomey and the +Dahomans</hi> (London, 1851), i. 107; P. +Bouche, <hi rend='italic'>La Côte des Esclaves</hi> (Paris, +1885), p. 397; A. B. Ellis, <hi rend='italic'>The Ewe-speaking +Peoples of the Slave Coast</hi>, pp. +58 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> In Madras it is considered a +great sin to kill a cobra. When this has happened, the +people generally burn the body of the serpent just as they +burn the bodies of human beings. The murderer deems +himself polluted for three days. On the second day milk +is poured on the remains of the cobra. On the third +<pb n='223'/><anchor id='Pg223'/> +day the guilty wretch is free from pollution.<note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>Indian Antiquary</hi>, xxi. (1892) p. +224. Many of the above examples of +expiation exacted for the slaughter of +animals have already been cited by me +in a note on Pausanias, ii. 7. 7, where +I suggested that the legendary purification +of Apollo for the slaughter of the +python at Delphi (Plutarch, <hi rend='italic'>Quaest. +Graec.</hi>, 12; <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, <hi rend='italic'>De defectu oraculorum</hi>, +15; Aelian, <hi rend='italic'>Var. Hist.</hi> iii. 1) may be +a reminiscence of a custom of this sort.</note> Under native +rule, we may suspect, he would not get off so lightly. +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>All such +expiatory +rites are +based on +the respect +which the +savage +feels for +the souls of +animals.</note> +In these last cases the animal whose slaughter has to be +atoned for is sacred, that is, it is one whose life is commonly +spared from motives of superstition. Yet the treatment of +the sacrilegious slayer seems to resemble so closely the treatment +of hunters and fishermen who have killed animals for +food in the ordinary course of business, that the ideas on +which both sets of customs are based may be assumed to +be substantially the same. Those ideas, if I am right, +are the respect which the savage feels for the souls +of beasts, especially valuable or formidable beasts, and +the dread which he entertains of their vengeful ghosts. +Some confirmation of this view may be drawn from the +ceremonies observed by fishermen of Annam when the carcase +of a whale is washed ashore. These fisherfolk, we are told, +worship the whale on account of the benefits they derive from +it. There is hardly a village on the sea-shore which has not +its small pagoda, containing the bones, more or less authentic, +of a whale. When a dead whale is washed ashore, the people +accord it a solemn burial. The man who first caught sight +of it acts as chief mourner, performing the rites which as +chief mourner and heir he would perform for a human kinsman. +He puts on all the garb of woe, the straw hat, the +white robe with long sleeves turned inside out, and the other +paraphernalia of full mourning. As next of kin to the +deceased he presides over the funeral rites. Perfumes are +burned, sticks of incense kindled, leaves of gold and silver +scattered, crackers let off. When the flesh has been cut off +and the oil extracted, the remains of the carcase are buried +in the sand. Afterwards a shed is set up and offerings are +made in it. Usually some time after the burial the spirit of +the dead whale takes possession of some person in the village +and declares by his mouth whether he is a male or a female.<note place='foot'>Le R. P. Cadière, <q>Croyances et +dictons populaires de la Vallée du +Nguôn-son, Province de Quang-binh +(Annam),</q> <hi rend='italic'>Bulletin de l'École Française +d'Extrême Orient</hi>, i. (1901) pp. 183 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> +</p> + +</div> + +</div> + +<pb n='224'/><anchor id='Pg224'/> + +<div rend='page-break-before: always'> +<index index='toc'/> +<index index='pdf'/> +<head>Chapter V. Tabooed Things.</head> + +<div> +<index index='toc'/> +<index index='pdf' level1='1. The meaning of Taboo.'/> +<head>§ 1. The Meaning of Taboo.</head> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Taboos of +holiness +agree with +taboos of +pollution, +because in +the savage +mind the +ideas of +holiness +and pollution +are +not yet +differentiated.</note> +Thus in primitive society the rules of ceremonial purity +observed by divine kings, chiefs, and priests agree in many +respects with the rules observed by homicides, mourners, +women in childbed, girls at puberty, hunters and fishermen, +and so on. To us these various classes of persons appear to +differ totally in character and condition; some of them we +should call holy, others we might pronounce unclean and +polluted. But the savage makes no such moral distinction +between them; the conceptions of holiness and pollution are +not yet differentiated in his mind. To him the common +feature of all these persons is that they are dangerous and +in danger, and the danger in which they stand and to which +they expose others is what we should call spiritual or ghostly, +and therefore imaginary. The danger, however, is not less +real because it is imaginary; imagination acts upon man as +really as does gravitation, and may kill him as certainly as a +dose of prussic acid. To seclude these persons from the rest +of the world so that the dreaded spiritual danger shall neither +reach them, nor spread from them, is the object of the taboos +which they have to observe. These taboos act, so to say, +as electrical insulators to preserve the spiritual force with +which these persons are charged from suffering or inflicting +harm by contact with the outer world.<note place='foot'>On the nature of taboo see my +article <q>Taboo</q> in the <hi rend='italic'>Encyclopaedia +Britannica</hi>, 9th edition, vol. xxiii. (1888) +pp. 15 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>; W. Robertson Smith, <hi rend='italic'>Religion +of the Semites</hi><hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi> (London, 1894), pp. +148 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>, 446 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi> Some languages +have retained a word for that general +idea which includes under it the notions +which we now distinguish as sanctity +and pollution. The word in Latin is +<foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>sacer</foreign>, in Greek, ἅγιος. In Polynesian +it is <foreign rend='italic'>tabu</foreign> (Tongan), <foreign rend='italic'>tapu</foreign> (Samoan, +Tahitian, Marquesan, Maori, etc.), or +<foreign rend='italic'>kapu</foreign> (Hawaiian). See E. Tregear, +<hi rend='italic'>Maori-Polynesian Comparative Dictionary</hi> +(Wellington, N.Z., 1891), <hi rend='italic'>s.v.</hi> +<foreign rend='italic'>tapu</foreign>. In Dacotan the word is <foreign rend='italic'>wakan</foreign>, +which in Riggs's <hi rend='italic'>Dakota-English Dictionary</hi> +(<hi rend='italic'>Contributions to North American +Ethnology</hi>, vol. vii., Washington, +1890, pp. 507 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>) is defined as <q><emph>spiritual</emph>, +<emph>sacred</emph>, <emph>consecrated</emph>; <emph>wonderful</emph>, <emph>incomprehensible</emph>; +said also of women at the +menstrual period.</q> Another writer +in the same dictionary defines <foreign rend='italic'>wakan</foreign> +more fully as follows: <q><emph>Mysterious</emph>; +<emph>incomprehensible</emph>; <emph>in a peculiar state, +which, from not being understood, it is +dangerous to meddle with</emph>; hence the +application of this word to women at +the <emph>menstrual period</emph>, and from hence, +too, arises the feeling among the +wilder Indians, that if the Bible, the +church, the missionary, etc., are +<q>wakan,</q> they are to be <emph>avoided</emph>, or +<emph>shunned</emph>, not as being <emph>bad</emph> or <emph>dangerous</emph>, +but as wakan. The word seems to be +the only one suitable for <emph>holy</emph>, <emph>sacred</emph>, +etc., but the common acceptation of it, +given above, makes it quite misleading +to the <emph>heathen</emph>.</q> On the notion designated +by <foreign rend='italic'>wakan</foreign>, see also G. H. Pond, +<q>Dakota Superstitions,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Collections of +the Minnesota Historical Society for +the year 1867</hi> (Saint Paul, 1867), p. +33; J. Owen Dorsey, in <hi rend='italic'>Eleventh +Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology</hi> +(Washington, 1894), pp. 366 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> +It is characteristic of the equivocal +notion denoted by these terms that, +whereas the condition of women in +childbed is commonly regarded by the +savage as what we should call unclean, +among the Herero the same condition +is described as holy; for some +time after the birth of her child, the +woman is secluded in a hut made +specially for her, and every morning +the milk of all the cows is brought to +her that she may consecrate it by +touching it with her mouth. See H. +Schinz, <hi rend='italic'>Deutsch-Südwest-Afrika</hi>, p. +167. Again, whereas a girl at puberty is +commonly secluded as dangerous, among +the Warundi of eastern Africa she is led +by her grandmother all over the house +and obliged to touch everything (O. Baumann, +<hi rend='italic'>Durch Massailand sur Nilquelle</hi> +(Berlin, 1894), p. 221), as if her touch +imparted a blessing instead of a curse.</note> +</p> + +<pb n='225'/><anchor id='Pg225'/> + +<p> +To the illustrations of these general principles which +have been already given I shall now add some more, drawing +my examples, first, from the class of tabooed things, and, +second, from the class of tabooed words; for in the opinion +of the savage both things and words may, like persons, be +charged or electrified, either temporarily or permanently, +with the mysterious virtue of taboo, and may therefore +require to be banished for a longer or shorter time from the +familiar usage of common life. And the examples will be +chosen with special reference to those sacred chiefs, kings +and priests, who, more than anybody else, live fenced about +by taboo as by a wall. Tabooed things will be illustrated +in the present chapter, and tabooed words in the next. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<index index='toc'/> +<index index='pdf' level1='2. Iron tabooed.'/> +<head>§ 2. Iron tabooed.</head> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Kings may +not be +touched. +The use of +iron forbidden +to +kings and +priests. Use of iron +forbidden +at circumcision, +childbirth, +and so +forth. Use of iron +forbidden +at certain +times and +places +among the +Esquimaux. Use of iron +forbidden +on certain +occasions +among +the Highlanders +of +Scotland. Iron not +used in +building +sacred +edifices.</note> +In the first place we may observe that the awful +sanctity of kings naturally leads to a prohibition to +<pb n='226'/><anchor id='Pg226'/> +touch their sacred persons. Thus it was unlawful to lay +hands on the person of a Spartan king;<note place='foot'>Plutarch, <hi rend='italic'>Agis</hi>, 19.</note> no one might +touch the body of the king or queen of Tahiti;<note place='foot'>W. Ellis, <hi rend='italic'>Polynesian Researches</hi>,<hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi> +iii. 102.</note> it is +forbidden to touch the person of the king of Siam under +pain of death;<note place='foot'>E. Aymonier, <hi rend='italic'>Le Cambodge</hi>, ii. +(Paris, 1901) p. 25.</note> and no one may touch the king of +Cambodia, for any purpose whatever, without his express +command. In July 1874 the king was thrown from his +carriage and lay insensible on the ground, but not one +of his suite dared to touch him; a European coming to the +spot carried the injured monarch to his palace.<note place='foot'>J. Moura, <hi rend='italic'>Le Royaume du Cambodge</hi> +(Paris, 1883), i. 226.</note> Formerly +no one might touch the king of Corea; and if he deigned +to touch a subject, the spot touched became sacred, and the +person thus honoured had to wear a visible mark (generally +a cord of red silk) for the rest of his life. Above all, no iron +might touch the king's body. In 1800 King Tieng-tsong-tai-oang +died of a tumour in the back, no one dreaming of +employing the lancet, which would probably have saved his +life. It is said that one king suffered terribly from an +abscess in the lip, till his physician called in a jester, whose +pranks made the king laugh heartily, and so the abscess +burst.<note place='foot'>Ch. Dallet, <hi rend='italic'>Histoire de l'Église de +Corée</hi> (Paris, 1874), i. pp. xxiv. <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; +W. E. Griffis, <hi rend='italic'>Corea, the Hermit Nation</hi> +(London, 1882), p. 219. These +customs are now obsolete (G. N. +Curzon, <hi rend='italic'>Problems of the Far East</hi> +(Westminster, 1896), pp. 154 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> +note).</note> Roman and Sabine priests might not be shaved with +iron but only with bronze razors or shears;<note place='foot'>Macrobius, <hi rend='italic'>Sat.</hi> v. 19. 13; Servius +on Virgil, <hi rend='italic'>Aen.</hi> i. 448; Joannes +Lydus, <hi rend='italic'>De mensibus</hi>, i. 31. We have +already seen (p. <ref target='Pg016'>16</ref>) that the hair of +the Flamen Dialis might only be cut +with a bronze knife. The Greeks +attributed a certain cleansing virtue to +bronze; hence they employed it in +expiatory rites, at eclipses, etc. See +the Scholiast on Theocritus, ii. 36.</note> and whenever +an iron graving-tool was brought into the sacred grove of +the Arval Brothers at Rome for the purpose of cutting an +inscription in stone, an expiatory sacrifice of a lamb and a +pig must be offered, which was repeated when the graving-tool +was removed from the grove.<note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>Acta Fratrum Arvalium</hi>, ed. G. +Henzen (Berlin, 1874), pp. 128-135; J. +Marquardt, <hi rend='italic'>Römische Staatsverwaltung</hi>, +iii.<hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi> (<hi rend='italic'>Das Sacralwesen</hi>) pp. 459 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> As a general rule iron might +not be brought into Greek sanctuaries.<note place='foot'>Plutarch, <hi rend='italic'>Praecepta gerendae reipublicae</hi>, +xxvi. 7. Plutarch here mentions +that gold was also excluded from +some temples. At first sight this is +surprising, for in general neither the +gods nor their ministers have displayed +any marked aversion to gold. But a +little enquiry suffices to clear up the +mystery and set the scruple in its proper +light. From a Greek inscription discovered +some years ago we learn that no +person might enter the sanctuary of the +Mistress at Lycosura wearing golden +trinkets, unless for the purpose of dedicating +them to the goddess; and if any +one did enter the holy place with such +ornaments on his body but no such +pious intention in his mind, the trinkets +were forfeited to the use of religion. +See Ἐφημερὶς ἀρχαιολογική (Athens, +1898), col. 249; Dittenberger, <hi rend='italic'>Sylloge +inscriptionum Graecarum</hi>,<hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi> No. 939. +The similar rule, that in the procession +at the mysteries of Andania no woman +might wear golden ornaments (Dittenberger, +<hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> No. 653), was probably +subject to a similar exception and enforced +by a similar penalty. Once +more, if the maidens who served Athena +on the Acropolis at Athens put on gold +ornaments, the ornaments became +sacred, in other words, the property +of the goddess (Harpocration, <hi rend='italic'>s.v.</hi> +ἀρρηφορεῖν, vol. i. p. 59, ed. Dindorf). +Thus it appears that the pious scruple +about gold was concerned rather with +its exit from, than with its entrance +into, the sacred edifice. At the sacrifice +to the Sun in ancient Egypt +worshippers were forbidden to wear +golden trinkets and to give hay to +an ass (Plutarch, <hi rend='italic'>Isis et Osiris</hi>, 30)—a +singular combination of religious precepts. +In India gold and silver are +common totems, and members of such +clans are forbidden to wear gold and +silver trinkets respectively. See +<hi rend='italic'>Totemism and Exogamy</hi>, iv. 24.</note> In Crete sacrifices +<pb n='227'/><anchor id='Pg227'/> +were offered to Menedemus without the use of iron, because +the legend ran that Menedemus had been killed by an iron +weapon in the Trojan war.<note place='foot'>Callimachus, referred to by the +Old Scholiast on Ovid, <hi rend='italic'>Ibis</hi>. See +<hi rend='italic'>Callimachea</hi>, ed. O. Schneider, ii. p. +282, Frag. 100<hi rend='vertical-align: super'>a</hi> E.; Chr. A. Lobeck, +<hi rend='italic'>Aglaophamus</hi>, p. 686.</note> The Archon of Plataea might +not touch iron; but once a year, at the annual commemoration +of the men who fell at the battle of Plataea, he was +allowed to carry a sword wherewith to sacrifice a bull.<note place='foot'>Plutarch, <hi rend='italic'>Aristides</hi>, 21. This +passage was pointed out to me by my +friend Mr. W. Wyse.</note> To +this day a Hottentot priest never uses an iron knife, but +always a sharp splint of quartz, in sacrificing an animal or +circumcising a lad.<note place='foot'>Theophilus Hahn, <hi rend='italic'>Tsuni-Goam, +the Supreme Being of the Khoi-Khoi</hi> +(London, 1881), p. 22.</note> Among the Ovambo of south-west +Africa custom requires that lads should be circumcised with +a sharp flint; if none is to hand, the operation may be performed +with iron, but the iron must afterwards be buried.<note place='foot'>Dr. P. H. Brincker, <q>Charakter, +Sitten und Gebräuche speciell der +Bantu Deutsch-Südwestafrikas,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Mittheilungen +des Seminars für orientalische +Sprachen zu Berlin</hi>, iii. (1900) +Dritte Abtheilung, p. 80.</note> +The Antandroy and Tanala of Madagascar cut the navel-strings +of their children with sharp wood or with a thread, +but never with an iron knife.<note place='foot'>A. van Gennep, <hi rend='italic'>Tabou et totémisme +à Madagascar</hi> (Paris, 1904), p. 38.</note> In Uap, one of the Caroline +Islands, wood of the hibiscus tree, which was used to make +the fire-drill, must be cut with shell knives or shell +<pb n='228'/><anchor id='Pg228'/> +axes, never with iron or steel.<note place='foot'>W. H. Furness, <hi rend='italic'>The Island of +Stone Money, Uap of the Carolines</hi> +(Philadelphia and London, 1910), p. +151.</note> Amongst the Moquis +of Arizona stone knives, hatchets, and so on have passed +out of common use, but are retained in religious ceremonies.<note place='foot'>J. G. Bourke, <hi rend='italic'>The Snake Dance of +the Moquis of Arizona</hi> (New York, +1891), pp. 178 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> +After the Pawnees had ceased to use stone +arrow-heads for ordinary purposes, they still employed +them to slay the sacrifices, whether human captives or +buffalo and deer.<note place='foot'>G. B. Grinnell, <hi rend='italic'>Pawnee Hero +Stories and Folk-tales</hi> (New York, +1889), p. 253.</note> We have seen that among the Esquimaux +of Bering Strait the use of iron implements is forbidden +for four days after the slaughter of a white whale, and +that the use of an iron axe at a place where salmon are being +dressed is believed by these people to be a fatal imprudence.<note place='foot'>See above, pp. <ref target='Pg205'>205</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> +They hold a festival in the assembly-house of the village, +while the bladders of the slain beasts are hanging there, +and during its celebration no wood may be cut with an iron +axe. If it is necessary to split firewood, this may be done +with wedges of bone.<note place='foot'>E. W. Nelson, <q>The Eskimo +about Bering Strait,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Eighteenth Annual +Report of the Bureau of American +Ethnology</hi>, Part I. (Washington, 1899) +p. 392.</note> At Kushunuk, near Cape Vancouver, +it happened that Mr. Nelson and his party entered an +assembly-house of these Esquimaux while the festival of +the bladders was in progress. <q>When our camping outfit +was brought in from the sledges, two men took drums, and +as the clothing and goods of the traders who were with me +were brought in, the drums were beaten softly and a song +was sung in a low, humming tone, but when our guns and +some steel traps were brought in, with other articles of iron, +the drums were beaten loudly and the songs raised in proportion. +This was done that the shades of the animals +present in the bladders might not be frightened.</q><note place='foot'>E. W. Nelson, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> p. 383.</note> The +Esquimaux on the western coast of Hudson Bay may not +work on iron during the season for hunting musk-oxen, +which falls in March. And no such work may be done by +them until the seals have their pups.<note place='foot'>Fr. Boas, <q>The Eskimo of Baffin +Land and Hudson Bay,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Bulletin of +the American Museum of Natural +History</hi>, xv. Part I. (1901) p. 149.</note> Negroes of the Gold +Coast remove all iron or steel from their person when they +<pb n='229'/><anchor id='Pg229'/> +consult their fetish.<note place='foot'>C. F. Gordon Cumming, <hi rend='italic'>In the +Hebrides</hi> (ed. 1883), p. 195.</note> The men who made the need-fire in +Scotland had to divest themselves of all metal.<note place='foot'>James Logan, <hi rend='italic'>The Scottish Gael</hi> +(ed. Alex. Stewart), ii. 68 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> There was +hardly any belief, we are told, that had a stronger hold on +the mind of a Scottish Highlander than that on no account +whatever should iron be put in the ground on Good Friday. +Hence no grave was dug and no field ploughed on that day. +It has been suggested that the belief was based on that +rooted aversion to iron which fairies are known to feel. +These touchy beings live underground, and might resent +having the roof pulled from over their heads on the hallowed +day.<note place='foot'>J. G. Campbell, <hi rend='italic'>Witchcraft and +Second Sight in the Highlands and +Islands of Scotland</hi> (Glasgow, 1902), +pp. 262, 298, 299.</note> Again, in the Highlands of Scotland the shoulder-blades +of sheep are employed in divination, being consulted +as to future marriages, births, deaths, and funerals; but the +forecasts thus made will not be accurate unless the flesh has +been removed from the bones without the use of any iron.<note place='foot'>R. C. Maclagan, M.D., <q>Notes +on Folklore Objects from Argyleshire,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Folk-lore</hi>, vi. (1895) p. 157; J. G. +Campbell, <hi rend='italic'>Superstitions of the Highlands +and Islands of Scotland</hi> (Glasgow, +1900), pp. 263-266. The shoulder-blades +of sheep have been used in +divination by many peoples, for example +by the Corsicans, South Slavs, +Tartars, Kirghiz, Calmucks, Chukchees, +and Lolos, as well as by the Scotch. +See J. Brand, <hi rend='italic'>Popular Antiquities</hi>, +iii. 339 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> (Bohn's ed.); Sir John +Lubbock (Lord Avebury), <hi rend='italic'>Origin of +Civilisation</hi>,<hi rend='vertical-align: super'>4</hi> pp. 237 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; Ch. Rogers, +<hi rend='italic'>Social Life in Scotland</hi>, iii. 224; +Camden, <hi rend='italic'>Britannia</hi>, translated by +E. Gibson (London, 1695), col. 1046; +M. MacPhail, <q>Traditions, Customs, +and Superstitions of the Lewis,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Folk-lore</hi>, +vi. (1895) p. 167; J. G. Dalyell, +<hi rend='italic'>Darker Superstitions of Scotland</hi>, pp. +515 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>; F. Gregorovius, <hi rend='italic'>Corsica</hi>, +(London, 1855), p. 187; F. S. Krauss, +<hi rend='italic'>Volksglaube und religiöser Brauch der +Südslaven</hi>, pp. 166-170; M. E. Durham, +<hi rend='italic'>High Albania</hi> (London, 1909), +pp. 104 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>; E. Doutté, <hi rend='italic'>Magie et +religion dans l'Afrique du Nord</hi> +(Algiers, 1908), p. 371; W. Radloff, +<hi rend='italic'>Proben der Volksliteratur der türkischen +Stämme Süd-Sibiriens</hi>, iii. 115, +note 1, compare p. 132; J. Grimm, +<hi rend='italic'>Deutsche Mythologie</hi>,<hi rend='vertical-align: super'>4</hi> ii. 932; W. W. +Rockhill, <hi rend='italic'>The Land of the Lamas</hi> +(London, 1891), pp. 176, 341-344; +P. S. Pallas, <hi rend='italic'>Reise durch verschiedene +Provinzen des russischen Reichs</hi>, i. +393; J. G. Georgi, <hi rend='italic'>Beschreibung aller +Nationen des russischen Reichs</hi>, p. +223; T. de Pauly, <hi rend='italic'>Description ethnographique +des peuples de la Russie, +peuples de la Sibérie orientale</hi> (St. +Petersburg, 1862), p. 7; Krahmer, +<q>Der Anadyr-Bezirk nach A. W. +Olssufjew,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Petermann's Mittheilungen</hi>, +xlv. (1899) pp. 230 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; W. Bogoras, +<q>The Chuckchee Religion,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Memoir +of the American Museum of Natural +History, The Jesup North Pacific +Expedition</hi>, vol. vii. part ii. (Leyden and +New York) pp. 487 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>; Crabouillet, +<q>Les Lolos,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Missions Catholiques</hi>, v. +(1873) p. 72; W. G. Aston, <hi rend='italic'>Shinto</hi>, +p. 339; R. Andree, <q>Scapulimantia,</q> +in <hi rend='italic'>Boas Anniversary Volume</hi> (New +York, 1906), pp. 143-165.</note> +In making the <foreign rend='italic'>clavie</foreign> (a kind of Yule-tide fire-wheel) at +<pb n='230'/><anchor id='Pg230'/> +Burghead, no hammer may be used; the hammering must +be done with a stone.<note place='foot'>C. F. Gordon Cumming, <hi rend='italic'>In the +Hebrides</hi>, p. 226; E. J. Guthrie, <hi rend='italic'>Old +Scottish Customs</hi> (London and Glasgow, +1885), p. 223.</note> Amongst the Jews no iron tool was +used in building the Temple at Jerusalem or in making an +altar.<note place='foot'>1 Kings vi. 7; Exodus xx. 25.</note> The old wooden bridge (<foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Pons Sublicius</foreign>) at Rome, +which was considered sacred, was made and had to be kept +in repair without the use of iron or bronze.<note place='foot'>Dionysius Halicarnasensis, <hi rend='italic'>Antiquit. +Roman.</hi> iii. 45, v. 24; Plutarch, +<hi rend='italic'>Numa</hi>, 9; Pliny, <hi rend='italic'>Nat. Hist.</hi> xxxvi. 100.</note> It was +expressly provided by law that the temple of Jupiter Liber +at Furfo might be repaired with iron tools.<note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>Acta Fratrum Arvalium</hi>, ed. G. +Henzen, p. 132; <hi rend='italic'>Corpus Inscriptionum +Latinarum</hi>, i. No. 603.</note> The council +chamber at Cyzicus was constructed of wood without any +iron nails, the beams being so arranged that they could be +taken out and replaced.<note place='foot'>Pliny, <hi rend='italic'>Nat. Hist.</hi> xxxvi. 100.</note> The late Rajah Vijyanagram, a +member of the Viceroy's Council, and described as one of +the most enlightened and estimable of Hindoo princes, would +not allow iron to be used in the construction of buildings +within his territory, believing that its use would inevitably +be followed by small-pox and other epidemics.<note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>Indian Antiquary</hi>, x. (1881) p. 364.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Everything +new excites +the awe +and fear +of the +savage.</note> +This superstitious objection to iron perhaps dates from +that early time in the history of society when iron was still +a novelty, and as such was viewed by many with suspicion +and dislike.<note place='foot'>Prof. W. Ridgeway ingeniously +suggests that the magical virtue of iron +may be based on an observation of its +magnetic power, which would lead +savages to imagine that it was possessed +of a spirit. See <hi rend='italic'>Report of the British +Association for 1903</hi>, p. 816.</note> For everything new is apt to excite the awe +and dread of the savage. <q>It is a curious superstition,</q> +says a pioneer in Borneo, <q>this of the Dusuns, to attribute +anything—whether good or bad, lucky or unlucky—that +happens to them to something novel which has arrived in +their country. For instance, my living in Kindram has +caused the intensely hot weather we have experienced of +late.</q><note place='foot'>Frank Hatton, <hi rend='italic'>North Borneo</hi> +(1886), p. 233.</note> Some years ago a harmless naturalist was collecting +plants among the high forest-clad mountains on the borders +of China and Tibet. From the summit of a pass he gazed +with delight down a long valley which, stretching away as +far as eye could reach to the south, resembled a sea of +bloom, for everywhere the forest was ablaze with the +<pb n='231'/><anchor id='Pg231'/> +gorgeous hues of the rhododendron and azalea in flower. +In this earthly paradise the votary of science hastened to +install himself beside a lake. But hardly had he done so +when, alas! the weather changed. Though the season was +early June, the cold became intense, snow fell heavily, and +the bloom of the rhododendrons was cut off. The inhabitants +of a neighbouring village at once set down the unusual +severity of the weather to the presence of a stranger in the +forest; and a round-robin, signed by them unanimously, +was forwarded to the nearest mandarin, setting forth that +the snow which had blocked the road, and the hail which was +blasting their crops, were alike caused by the intruder, and +that all sorts of disturbances would follow if he were allowed +to remain. In these circumstances the naturalist, who had +intended to spend most of the summer among the mountains, +was forced to decamp. <q>Collecting in this country,</q> he +adds pathetically, <q>is not an easy matter.</q><note place='foot'>A. E. Pratt, <q>Two Journeys to +Ta-tsien-lu on the eastern Borders of +Tibet,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Proceedings of the R. Geographical +Society</hi>, xiii. (1891) p. 341.</note> The unusually +heavy rains which happened to follow the English survey +of the Nicobar Islands in the winter of 1886-1887 were +imputed by the alarmed natives to the wrath of the spirits +at the theodolites, dumpy-levellers, and other strange instruments +which had been set up in so many of their favourite +haunts; and some of them proposed to soothe the anger of +the spirits by sacrificing a pig.<note place='foot'>W. Svoboda, <q>Die Bewohner des +Nikobaren-Archipels,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Internationales +Archiv für Ethnographie</hi>, vi. (1893) +p. 13.</note> When the German Hans +Stade was a captive in a cannibal tribe of Brazilian Indians, +it happened that, shortly before a prisoner was to be eaten, a +great wind arose and blew away part of the roofs of the +huts. The savages were angry with Stade, and said he had +made the wind to come by looking into his thunder-skins, by +which they meant a book he had been reading, in order to +save the prisoner, who was a friend of his, from their +stomachs. So the pious German prayed to God, and God +mercifully heard his prayer; for next morning the weather +was beautifully fine, and his friend was butchered, carved, +and eaten in the most perfect comfort.<note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>The Captivity of Hans Stade of +Hesse, in <hi rend='smallcaps'>a.d.</hi> 1547-1555</hi>, translated +by A. Tootal (London, 1874), pp. +85 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> According to the +<pb n='232'/><anchor id='Pg232'/> +Orotchis of eastern Siberia, misfortunes have multiplied on +them with the coming of Europeans; <q>they even go so far +as to lay the appearance of <emph>new</emph> phenomena like thunder at +the door of the Russians.</q><note place='foot'>E. H. Fraser, <q>The Fish-skin +Tartars,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Journal of the China Branch +of the R. Asiatic Society for the Year +1891-92</hi>, N.S. xxvi. p. 15.</note> In the seventeenth century a +succession of bad seasons excited a revolt among the Esthonian +peasantry, who traced the origin of the evil to a water-mill, +which put a stream to some inconvenience by checking its +flow.<note place='foot'>Fr. Kreutzwald und H. Neus, +<hi rend='italic'>Mythische und magische Lieder der +Ehsten</hi> (St. Petersburg, 1854), p. +113.</note> The first introduction of iron ploughshares into +Poland having been followed by a succession of bad harvests, +the farmers attributed the badness of the crops to the iron +ploughshares, and discarded them for the old wooden ones.<note place='foot'>Alexand. Guagninus, <q>De ducatu +Samogitiae,</q> in <hi rend='italic'>Respublica sive status +regni Poloniae, Lituaniae, Prussiae, +Livoniae</hi>, etc. (Elzevir, 1627) p. 276; +Johan. Lasicius, <q>De diis Samogitarum +caeterorumque Sarmatum,</q> in +<hi rend='italic'>Respublica</hi>, etc. (<hi rend='italic'>ut supra</hi>), p. 294 +(p. 84, ed. W. Mannhardt, in <hi rend='italic'>Magazin +herausgegeben von der Lettisch—Literärischen +Gesellschaft</hi>, vol. xiv.).</note> +To this day the primitive Baduwis of Java, who live chiefly +by husbandry, will use no iron tools in tilling their fields.<note place='foot'>L. von Ende, <q>Die Baduwis +von Java,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Mittheilungen der anthropologischen +Gesellschaft in Wien</hi>, xix. +(1889) p. 10.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The dislike +of spirits to +iron allows +men to use +the metal +as a +weapon +against +them. +Iron used +as a charm +against +fairies in +the Highlands +of +Scotland. Iron used +as a +protective +charm by +Scotch +fishermen +and others. Iron used +as a +protective +charm +against +devils and +ghosts in +India, Annam. Africa, and Scotland.</note> +The general dislike of innovation, which always makes +itself strongly felt in the sphere of religion, is sufficient by +itself to account for the superstitious aversion to iron entertained +by kings and priests and attributed by them to the +gods; possibly this aversion may have been intensified in +places by some such accidental cause as the series of bad +seasons which cast discredit on iron ploughshares in Poland. +But the disfavour in which iron is held by the gods and +their ministers has another side. Their antipathy to the +metal furnishes men with a weapon which may be turned +against the spirits when occasion serves. As their dislike +of iron is supposed to be so great that they will not approach +persons and things protected by the obnoxious metal, iron +may obviously be employed as a charm for banning ghosts +and other dangerous spirits. And often it is so used. Thus +in the Highlands of Scotland the great safeguard against the +elfin race is iron, or, better yet, steel. The metal in any +form, whether as a sword, a knife, a gun-barrel, or what not, +is all-powerful for this purpose. Whenever you enter a fairy +<pb n='233'/><anchor id='Pg233'/> +dwelling you should always remember to stick a piece of +steel, such as a knife, a needle, or a fish-hook, in the door; +for then the elves will not be able to shut the door till you +come out again. So too when you have shot a deer and +are bringing it home at night, be sure to thrust a knife into +the carcase, for that keeps the fairies from laying their weight +on it. A knife or a nail in your pocket is quite enough to +prevent the fairies from lifting you up at night. Nails in +the front of a bed ward off elves from women <q>in the straw</q> +and from their babes; but to make quite sure it is better to +put the smoothing-iron under the bed, and the reaping-hook +in the window. If a bull has fallen over a rock and been +killed, a nail stuck into it will preserve the flesh from the +fairies. Music discoursed on that melodious instrument, a +Jew's harp, keeps the elfin women away from the hunter, +because the tongue of the instrument is of steel.<note place='foot'>J. G. Campbell, <hi rend='italic'>Superstitions of +the Highlands and Islands of Scotland</hi> +(Glasgow, 1900), pp. 46 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> Again, +when Scotch fishermen were at sea, and one of them +happened to take the name of God in vain, the first man +who heard him called out <q>Cauld airn,</q> at which every +man of the crew grasped the nearest bit of iron and held +it between his hands for a while.<note place='foot'>E. J. Guthrie, <hi rend='italic'>Old Scottish Customs</hi>, +p. 149; Ch. Rogers, <hi rend='italic'>Social Life in Scotland</hi> +(Edinburgh, 1884-1886), iii. 218.</note> So too when he hears +the unlucky word <q>pig</q> mentioned, a Scotch fisherman +will feel for the nails in his boots and mutter <q>Cauld +airn.</q><note place='foot'>J. Macdonald, <hi rend='italic'>Religion and Myth</hi>, +p. 91.</note> The same magic words are even whispered in +the churches of Scotch fishing-villages when the clergyman +reads the passage about the Gadarene swine.<note place='foot'>W. Gregor, <hi rend='italic'>Folk-lore of the North-East +of Scotland</hi> (London, 1881), p. +201. The fishermen think that if the +word <q>pig,</q> <q>sow,</q> or <q>swine</q> be +uttered while the lines are being baited, +the line will certainly be lost.</note> In +Morocco iron is considered a great protection against demons; +hence it is usual to place a knife or dagger under a sick +man's pillow.<note place='foot'>A. Leared, <hi rend='italic'>Morocco and the Moors</hi> +(London, 1876), p. 273.</note> The Singhalese believe that they are constantly +surrounded by evil spirits, who lie in wait to do them +harm. A peasant would not dare to carry good food, such +as cakes or roast meat, from one place to another without +putting an iron nail on it to prevent a demon from taking +possession of the viands and so making the eater ill. No +<pb n='234'/><anchor id='Pg234'/> +sick person, whether man or woman, would venture out of +the house without a bunch of keys or a knife in his hand, +for without such a talisman he would fear that some devil +might take advantage of his weak state to slip into his body. +And if a man has a large sore on his body he tries to keep +a morsel of iron on it as a protection against demons.<note place='foot'>Wickremasinghe, in <hi rend='italic'>Am Urquell</hi>, +v. (1894) p. 7.</note> The +inhabitants of Salsette, an island near Bombay, dread a spirit +called <foreign rend='italic'>gîrâ</foreign>, which plays many pranks with a solitary +traveller, leading him astray, lowering him into an empty +well, and so on. But a <foreign rend='italic'>gîrâ</foreign> dare not touch a person who +has on him anything made of iron or steel, particularly a +knife or a nail, of which the spirit stands in great fear. Nor +will he meddle with a woman, especially a married woman, +because he is afraid of her bangles.<note place='foot'>G. F. D'Penha, <q>Superstitions and +Customs in Salsette,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Indian Antiquary</hi>, +xxviii. (1899) p. 114.</note> Among the Majhwâr, +an aboriginal tribe in the hill country of South Mirzapur, an +iron implement such as a sickle or a betel-cutter is constantly +kept near an infant's head during its first year for +the purpose of warding off the attacks of ghosts.<note place='foot'>W. Crooke, <hi rend='italic'>Tribes and Castes of +the North-Western Provinces and Oudh</hi>, +iii. 431.</note> Among +the Maravars, an aboriginal race of southern India, a knife +or other iron object lies beside a woman after childbirth to +keep off the devil.<note place='foot'>F. Jagor, <q>Bericht über verschiedene +Volksstämme in Vorderindien,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Zeitschrift für Ethnologie</hi>, xxvi. (1894) +p. 70.</note> When a Mala woman is in labour, a +sickle and some <foreign rend='italic'>nïm</foreign> leaves are always kept on the cot. In +Malabar people who have to pass by burning-grounds or +other haunted places commonly carry with them iron in some +form, such as a knife or an iron rod used as a walking-stick. +When pregnant women go on a journey, they carry +with them a few twigs or leaves of the <foreign rend='italic'>nïm</foreign> tree, or iron +in some shape, to scare evil spirits lurking in groves or +burial-grounds which they may pass.<note place='foot'>E. Thurston, <hi rend='italic'>Ethnographic Notes +in Southern India</hi> (Madras, 1906), +p. 341.</note> In Bilaspore people +attribute cholera to a goddess who visits the afflicted family. +But they think that she may be kept off by iron; hence +during an epidemic of cholera people go about with axes +or sickles in their hands. <q>Their horses are not shod, +otherwise they might possibly nail horse-shoes to the door, +<pb n='235'/><anchor id='Pg235'/> +but their belief is more primitive; for with them iron does +not <emph>bring</emph> good luck, but it <emph>scares away</emph> the evil spirits, so +when a man has had an epileptic fit he will wear an iron +bracelet to keep away the evil spirit which was supposed +to have possessed him.</q><note place='foot'>E. M. Gordon, <hi rend='italic'>Indian Folk Tales</hi> +(London, 1908), p. 31.</note> The Annamites imagine that a +new-born child is exposed to the attacks of evil spirits. +To protect the infant from these malignant beings the +parents sometimes sell the child to the village smith, who +makes a small ring or circlet of iron and puts it on the +child's foot, commonly adding a little chain of iron. When +the infant has been sold to the smith and firmly +attached to him by the chain, the demons no longer have +any power over him. After the child has grown big and +the danger is over, the parents ask the smith to break +the iron ring and thank him for his services. No metal but +iron will serve the purpose.<note place='foot'>L. R. P. Cadière, <q>Coutumes +populaires de la vallée du Nguôn-So'n,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Bulletin de l'École Française +d'Extrême-Orient</hi>, ii. (1902) pp. +354 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> On the Slave Coast of Africa +when a mother sees her child gradually wasting away, she concludes +that a demon has entered into the child and takes her +measures accordingly. To lure the demon out of the body +of her offspring, she offers a sacrifice of food; and while the +devil is bolting it, she attaches iron rings and small bells to +her child's ankles and hangs iron chains round his neck. +The jingling of the iron and the tinkling of the bells are +supposed to prevent the demon, when he has concluded his +repast, from entering again into the body of the little sufferer. +Hence many children may be seen in this part of Africa +weighed down with iron ornaments.<note place='foot'>Baudin, <q>Le Fétichisme,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Missions +Catholiques</hi>, xvi. (1884) p. 249; A. B. +Ellis, <hi rend='italic'>The Yoruba-speaking Peoples of +the Slave Coast</hi>, p. 113.</note> The use of iron as a +means to exorcise demons was forbidden by the Coptic +church.<note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>Il Fetha Nagast o legislazione dei +re, codice ecclesiastico e civile di +Abissinia</hi>, tradotto e annotato da +Ignazio Guidi (Rome, 1899), p. +140.</note> In India <q>the mourner who performs the ceremony +of putting fire into the dead person's mouth carries with him +a piece of iron: it may be a key or a knife, or a simple piece +of iron, and during the whole time of his separation (for he +is unclean for a certain time, and no one will either touch +him or eat or drink with him, neither can he change his +<pb n='236'/><anchor id='Pg236'/> +clothes<note place='foot'>The reader may observe how closely +the taboos laid upon mourners resemble +those laid upon kings. From what has +gone before, the reason of the resemblance +is obvious.</note>) he carries the piece of iron about with him to keep +off the evil spirit. In Calcutta the Bengali clerks in the +Government Offices used to wear a small key on one of +their fingers when they had been chief mourners.</q><note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>Panjab Notes and Queries</hi>, iii. +p. 61, § 282.</note> When +a woman dies in childbed in the island of Salsette, they put +a nail or other piece of iron in the folds of her dress; this is +done especially if the child survives her. The intention +plainly is to prevent her spirit from coming back; for they +believe that a dead mother haunts the house and seeks to +carry away her child.<note place='foot'>G. F. D'Penha, <q>Superstitions +and Customs in Salsette,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Indian +Antiquary</hi>, xxviii. (1899) p. 115.</note> In the north-east of Scotland +immediately after a death had taken place, a piece of iron, +such as a nail or a knitting-wire, used to be stuck into all the +meal, butter, cheese, flesh, and whisky in the house, <q>to +prevent death from entering them.</q> The neglect of this +salutary precaution is said to have been closely followed by +the corruption of the food and drink; the whisky has been +known to become as white as milk.<note place='foot'>W. Gregor, <hi rend='italic'>Folk-lore of the North-East +of Scotland</hi>, p. 206.</note> When iron is used as +a protective charm after a death, as in these Hindoo and +Scotch customs, the spirit against which it is directed is the +ghost of the deceased.<note place='foot'>This is expressly said in <hi rend='italic'>Panjab +Notes and Queries</hi>, iii. p. 202, § 846. +On iron as a protective charm see also +F. Liebrecht, <hi rend='italic'>Gervasius von Tilbury</hi>, +pp. 99 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>; <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, <hi rend='italic'>Zur Volkskunde</hi>, p. +311; L. Strackerjan, <hi rend='italic'>Aberglaube und +Sagen aus dem Herzogthum Oldenburg</hi>, +i. pp. 354 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> § 233; A. Wuttke, <hi rend='italic'>Der +deutsche Volksaberglaube</hi>,<hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi> § 414 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; +E. B. Tylor, <hi rend='italic'>Primitive Culture</hi>,<hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi> i. +140; W. Mannhardt, <hi rend='italic'>Baumkultus</hi>, p. +132 note. Many peoples, especially in +Africa, regard the smith's craft with +awe or fear as something uncanny and +savouring of magic. Hence smiths +are sometimes held in high honour, +sometimes looked down upon with +great contempt. These feelings probably +spring in large measure from the +superstitions which cluster round iron. +See R. Andree, <hi rend='italic'>Ethnographische +Parallelen und Vergleiche</hi>, pp. 153-159; +G. McCall Theal, <hi rend='italic'>Records of +South-Eastern Africa</hi>, vii. 447; O. +Lenz, <hi rend='italic'>Skizzen aus West-Afrika</hi> (Berlin, +1878), p. 184; A. Bastian, <hi rend='italic'>Die deutsche +Expedition an der Loango-Küste</hi>, ii. +217; M. Merkel, <hi rend='italic'>Die Masai</hi> (Berlin, +1904), pp. 110 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; A. C. Hollis, <hi rend='italic'>The +Masai</hi> (Oxford, 1905), pp. 330 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; +<hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, <hi rend='italic'>The Nandi</hi> (Oxford, 1909), pp. 36 +<hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; J. Spieth, <hi rend='italic'>Die Ewe-Stämme</hi> +(Berlin, 1906), p. 776; E. Doutté, +<hi rend='italic'>Magie et religion dans l'Afrique du +Nord</hi>, pp. 40 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>; Ph. Paulitschke, +<hi rend='italic'>Ethnographie Nordost-Afrikas, die +geistige Cultur der Danâkil, Galla +und Somâl</hi> (Berlin, 1896), p. 30; <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, +<hi rend='italic'>Ethnographie Nordost-Afrikas, die +materielle Cultur der Danâkil, Galla +und Somâl</hi> (Berlin, 1893), p. 202; Th. +Levebvre, <hi rend='italic'>Voyage en Abyssinie</hi>, i. p. +lxi.; A. Cecchi, <hi rend='italic'>Da Zeila alle frontiere +del Caffa</hi>, i. (Rome, 1886) p. 45; M. +Parkyns, <hi rend='italic'>Life in Abyssinia</hi><hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi> (London, +1868), pp. 300 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; J. T. Bent, <hi rend='italic'>Sacred +City of the Ethiopians</hi> (London, 1893), +p. 212; G. Rohlf, <q>Reise durch +Nord-Afrika,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Petermann's Mittheilungen, +Ergänzungsheft</hi>, No. 25 +(Gotha, 1868), pp. 30, 54; G. +Nachtigal, <q>Die Tibbu,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Zeitschrift +für Erdkunde zu Berlin</hi>, v. (1870) +pp. 312 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, <hi rend='italic'>Sahara und Sudan</hi>, +i. 443 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, ii. 145, 178, 371, iii. 189, +234 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> The Kayans of Borneo think +that a smith is inspired by a special +spirit, the smith's spirit, and that +without this inspiration he could do no +good work. See A. W. Nieuwenhuis, +<hi rend='italic'>Quer durch Borneo</hi>, ii. 198.</note> +</p> + +</div> + +<pb n='237'/><anchor id='Pg237'/> + +<div> +<index index='toc'/> +<index index='pdf' level1='3. Sharp Weapons tabooed.'/> +<head>§ 3. Sharp Weapons tabooed.</head> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The use of +sharp-edged +weapons is +sometimes +forbidden +lest they +should +wound +spirits. Sharp-edged +weapons +removed +from +a room +where +there is +a lying-in +woman.</note> +There is a priestly king to the north of Zengwih in +Burma, revered by the Sotih as the highest spiritual and +temporal authority, into whose house no weapon or cutting +instrument may be brought.<note place='foot'>A. Bastian, <hi rend='italic'>Die Völker des östlichen +Asien</hi>, i. (Leipsic, 1866) p. 136.</note> This rule may perhaps be +explained by a custom observed by various peoples after a +death; they refrain from the use of sharp instruments so +long as the ghost of the deceased is supposed to be near, +lest they should wound it. Thus among the Esquimaux of +Bering Strait <q>during the day on which a person dies in the +village no one is permitted to work, and the relatives must +perform no labour during the three following days. It is +especially forbidden during this period to cut with any +edged instrument, such as a knife or an axe; and the use of +pointed instruments, like needles or bodkins, is also forbidden. +This is said to be done to avoid cutting or injuring +the shade, which may be present at any time during this +period, and, if accidentally injured by any of these things, it +would become very angry and bring sickness or death to the +people. The relatives must also be very careful at this time +not to make any loud or harsh noises that may startle or +anger the shade.</q><note place='foot'>E. W. Nelson, <q>The Eskimo +about Bering Strait,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Eighteenth +Annual Report of the Bureau of +American Ethnology</hi>, part i. (Washington, +1899) p. 312. Compare <hi rend='italic'>ibid.</hi> +pp. 315, 364; W. H. Dall, <hi rend='italic'>Alaska +and its Resources</hi>, p. 146; <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, in +<hi rend='italic'>American Naturalist</hi>, xii. 7; <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, in +<hi rend='italic'>The Yukon Territory</hi> (London, 1898), +p. 146.</note> We have seen that in like manner after +killing a white whale these Esquimaux abstain from the use +of cutting or pointed instruments for four days, lest they +should unwittingly cut or stab the whale's ghost.<note place='foot'>See above, p. <ref target='Pg205'>205</ref>.</note> The +same taboo is sometimes observed by them when there is a +sick person in the village, probably from a fear of injuring +<pb n='238'/><anchor id='Pg238'/> +his shade which may be hovering outside of his body.<note place='foot'>A. Woldt, <hi rend='italic'>Captain Jacobsen's Reise +an der Nordwestküste Americas 1881-1883</hi> +(Leipsic, 1884), p. 243.</note> +After a death the Roumanians of Transylvania are careful +not to leave a knife lying with the sharp edge uppermost as +long as the corpse remains in the house, <q>or else the soul +will be forced to ride on the blade.</q><note place='foot'>W. Schmidt, <hi rend='italic'>Das Jahr und +seine Tage in Meinung und Brauch +der Romänen Siebenbürgens</hi> (Hermannstadt, +1866), p. 40; E. Gerard, <hi rend='italic'>The +Land beyond the Forest</hi>, i. 312.</note> For seven days after +a death, the corpse being still in the house, the Chinese abstain +from the use of knives and needles, and even of chopsticks, +eating their food with their fingers.<note place='foot'>J. H. Gray, <hi rend='italic'>China</hi> (London, 1878), +i. 288.</note> On the third, sixth, +ninth, and fortieth days after the funeral the old Prussians +and Lithuanians used to prepare a meal, to which, standing +at the door, they invited the soul of the deceased. At these +meals they sat silent round the table and used no knives, +and the women who served up the food were also without +knives. If any morsels fell from the table they were left +lying there for the lonely souls that had no living relations +or friends to feed them. When the meal was over the priest +took a broom and swept the souls out of the house, saying, +<q>Dear souls, ye have eaten and drunk. Go forth, go +forth.</q><note place='foot'>Jo. Meletius (Maeletius, Menecius), +<q>De religione et sacrificiis veterum +Borussorum,</q> in <hi rend='italic'>De Russorum Muscovitarum +et Tartarorum religione, +sacrificiis, nuptiarum, funerum ritu</hi> +(Spires, 1582), p. 263; <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, reprinted +in <hi rend='italic'>Scriptores rerum Livonicarum</hi>, +vol. ii. (Riga and Leipsic, 1848) pp. +391 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, and in <hi rend='italic'>Mitteilungen der +Litterarischen Gesellschaft Masovia</hi>, +viii. (Lötzen, 1902) pp. 194 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> +Compare Chr. Hartknoch, <hi rend='italic'>Alt und +neues Preussen</hi> (Frankfort and Leipsic, +1684), pp. 187 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> In cutting the nails and combing the hair of a +dead prince in South Celebes only the back of the knife and +of the comb may be used.<note place='foot'>B. F. Matthes, <hi rend='italic'>Bijdragen tot +de Ethnologie van Zuid-Celebes</hi>, p. +136.</note> The Germans say that a knife +should not be left edge upwards, because God and the spirits +dwell there, or because it will cut the face of God and the +angels.<note place='foot'>Tettau und Temme, <hi rend='italic'>Die Volkssagen +Ostpreussens, Litthauens und Westpreussens</hi>, +p. 285; J. Grimm, <hi rend='italic'>Deutsche +Mythologie</hi>,<hi rend='vertical-align: super'>4</hi> iii. 454, compare pp. +441, 469; J. V. Grohmann, <hi rend='italic'>Aberglauben +und Gebräuche aus Böhmen +und Mähren</hi>, p. 198, § 1387.</note> Among the Monumbos of New Guinea a pregnant +woman may not use sharp instruments; for example, she +may not sew. If she used such instruments, they think that +she would thereby stab the child in her womb.<note place='foot'>Franz Vormann, <q>Zur Psychologie, +Soziologie und Geschichte der +Monumbo-Papua, Deutsch-Neuginea,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Anthropos</hi>, v. (1910) p. 410.</note> Among +<pb n='239'/><anchor id='Pg239'/> +the Kayans of Borneo, when the birth-pangs begin, all +men leave the room, and all cutting weapons and iron +are also removed, <q>perhaps in order not to frighten the +child,</q> says the writer who reports the custom.<note place='foot'>A. W. Nieuwenhuis, <hi rend='italic'>In Centraal +Borneo</hi> (Leyden, 1900), i. 61; <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, +<hi rend='italic'>Quer durch Borneo</hi>, i. 69.</note> The +reason may rather be a fear of injuring the flitting soul of +mother or babe. In Uganda, when the hour of a woman's +delivery is at hand, her husband carries all spears and +weapons out of the house,<note place='foot'>Fr. Stuhlmann, <hi rend='italic'>Mit Emin Pascha +ins Herz von Afrika</hi> (Berlin, 1894), p. +184.</note> doubtless in order that they +may not hurt the tender soul of the new-born child. +Early in the period of the Ming dynasty a professor of +geomancy made the alarming discovery that the spiritual +atmosphere of Kü-yung, a city near Nanking, was in a truly +deplorable condition through the intrusion of an evil spirit. +The Chinese emperor, with paternal solicitude, directed that +the north gate, by which the devil had effected his entrance, +should be built up solid, and that for the future the population +of the city should devote their energies to the pursuits +of hair-dressing, corn-cutting, and the shaving of bamboo-roots, +because, as he sagaciously perceived, all these professions +call for the use of sharp-edged instruments, which could not +fail to keep the demon at bay.<note place='foot'>J. J. M. de Groot, <hi rend='italic'>The Religious +System of China</hi>, iii. 1045 (Leyden, +1897).</note> We can now understand +why no cutting instrument may be taken into the house +of the Burmese pontiff. Like so many priestly kings, he is +probably regarded as divine, and it is therefore right that +his sacred spirit should not be exposed to the risk of being +cut or wounded whenever it quits his body to hover invisible +in the air or to fly on some distant mission. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<index index='toc'/> +<index index='pdf' level1='4. Blood tabooed.'/> +<head>§ 4. Blood tabooed.</head> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Raw meat +tabooed +because the +life or +spirit is in +the blood.</note> +We have seen that the Flamen Dialis was forbidden to +touch or even name raw flesh.<note place='foot'>Plutarch, <hi rend='italic'>Quaest. Rom.</hi> 110; Aulus +Gellius, x. 15. 12. See above, p. 13.</note> At certain times a Brahman +teacher is enjoined not to look on raw flesh, blood, or persons +whose hands have been cut off.<note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>Grihya-Sutras</hi>, translated by H. +Oldenberg, part i. pp. 81, 141 (<hi rend='italic'>Sacred +Books of the East</hi>, vol. xxix.).</note> In Uganda the father of +<pb n='240'/><anchor id='Pg240'/> +twins is in a state of taboo for some time after the birth; +among other rules he is forbidden to kill anything or to see +blood.<note place='foot'>J. Roscoe, <q>Further Notes on the +Manners and Customs of the Baganda,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Journal of the Anthropological Institute</hi>, +xxxii. (1902) p. 53.</note> In the Pelew Islands when a raid has been made +on a village and a head carried off, the relations of the slain +man are tabooed and have to submit to certain observances +in order to escape the wrath of his ghost. They are shut +up in the house, touch no raw flesh, and chew betel over +which an incantation has been uttered by the exorcist. +After this the ghost of the slaughtered man goes away to +the enemy's country in pursuit of his murderer.<note place='foot'>J. Kubary, <hi rend='italic'>Die socialen Einrichtungen +der Pelauer</hi> (Berlin, 1885), pp. +126 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> The taboo +is probably based on the common belief that the soul or +spirit of the animal is in the blood. As tabooed persons are +believed to be in a perilous state—for example, the relations +of the slain man are liable to the attacks of his indignant +ghost—it is especially necessary to isolate them from contact +with spirits; hence the prohibition to touch raw meat. But +as usual the taboo is only the special enforcement of a +general precept; in other words, its observance is particularly +enjoined in circumstances which seem urgently to call +for its application, but apart from such circumstances the +prohibition is also observed, though less strictly, as a common +rule of life. Thus some of the Esthonians will not taste +blood because they believe that it contains the animal's soul, +which would enter the body of the person who tasted the +blood.<note place='foot'>F. J. Wiedemann, <hi rend='italic'>Aus dem inneren +und äussern Leben der Ehsten</hi> (St. +Petersburg, 1876), pp. 448, 478.</note> Some Indian tribes of North America, <q>through a +strong principle of religion, abstain in the strictest manner +from eating the blood of any animal, as it contains the life +and spirit of the beast.</q> These Indians <q>commonly pull +their new-killed venison (before they dress it) several times +through the smoke and flame of the fire, both by the way of +a sacrifice and to consume the blood, life, or animal spirits +of the beast, which with them would be a most horrid +abomination to eat.</q><note place='foot'>James Adair, <hi rend='italic'>History of the American +Indians</hi> (London, 1775), pp. 134, +117. The Indians described by Adair +are the Creek, Cherokee, and other +tribes in the south-east of the United +States.</note> Among the western Dénés or +Tinneh Indians of British Columbia until lately no woman +<pb n='241'/><anchor id='Pg241'/> +would partake of blood, <q>and both men and women +abhorred the flesh of a beaver which had been caught and +died in a trap, and of a bear strangled to death in a snare, +because the blood remained in the carcase.</q><note place='foot'>A. G. Morice, <q>The Western +Dénés, their Manners and Customs,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Proceedings of the Canadian Institute</hi>, +Third Series, vii. (1888-89) p. 164.</note> Many of the +Slave, Hare, and Dogrib Indians scruple to taste the blood +of game; hunters of the former tribes collect the blood in +the animal's paunch and bury it in the snow.<note place='foot'>E. Petitot, <hi rend='italic'>Monographie des Dènè-Dindjié</hi> +(Paris, 1876), p. 76.</note> The Malepa, +a Bantu tribe in the north of the Transvaal, will taste no +blood. Hence they cut the throats of the cattle they +slaughter and let the blood drain out of the carcase before +they will eat it. And they do the same with game.<note place='foot'>Schlömann, <q>Die Malepa in +Transvaal,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Verhandlungen der Berliner +Gesellschaft für Anthropologie, Ethnologie +und Urgeschichte</hi>, 1894, p. (67).</note> +Jewish hunters poured out the blood of the game they had +killed and covered it up with dust. They would not taste +the blood, believing that the soul or life of the animal was +in the blood, or actually was the blood.<note place='foot'>Leviticus xvii. 10-14. The Hebrew +word (נפש) translated <q>life</q> in the +English version of verse 11 means also +<q>soul</q> (marginal note in the Revised +Version). Compare Deuteronomy xii. +23-25.</note> The same belief +was held by the Romans,<note place='foot'>Servius on Virgil, <hi rend='italic'>Aen.</hi> v. 79; +compare <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi> on <hi rend='italic'>Aen.</hi> iii. 67.</note> and is shared by the Arabs,<note place='foot'>J. Wellhausen, <hi rend='italic'>Reste arabischen +Heidentumes</hi> (Berlin, 1887), p. 217.</note> by +Chinese medical writers,<note place='foot'>J. J. M. de Groot, <hi rend='italic'>Religious +System of China</hi>, iv. 80-82.</note> and by some of the Papuan tribes +of New Guinea.<note place='foot'>A. Goudswaard, <hi rend='italic'>De Papoewa's van +de Geelvinksbaai</hi> (Schiedam, 1863), p. +77.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Royal +blood may +not be spilt +on the +ground; +hence +kings and +princes are +put to +death by +methods +which do +not involve +bloodshed.</note> +It is a common rule that royal blood may not be shed +upon the ground. Hence when a king or one of his family +is to be put to death a mode of execution is devised by which +the royal blood shall not be spilt upon the earth. About the +year 1688 the generalissimo of the army rebelled against +the king of Siam and put him to death <q>after the manner +of royal criminals, or as princes of the blood are treated when +convicted of capital crimes, which is by putting them into a +large iron caldron, and pounding them to pieces with wooden +pestles, because none of their royal blood must be spilt on +the ground, it being, by their religion, thought great impiety +to contaminate the divine blood by mixing it with earth.</q><note place='foot'>Hamilton's <q>Account of the East +Indies,</q> in Pinkerton's <hi rend='italic'>Voyages and +Travels</hi>, viii. 469. Compare W. +Robertson Smith, <hi rend='italic'>Religion of the +Semites</hi>,<hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi> i. 369, note 1.</note> +<pb n='242'/><anchor id='Pg242'/> +Other Siamese modes of executing a royal person are +starvation, suffocation, stretching him on a scarlet cloth and +thrusting a billet of fragrant sandal-wood into his stomach,<note place='foot'>De la Loubere, <hi rend='italic'>Du royaume de +Siam</hi> (Amsterdam, 1691), i. 317.</note> +or lastly, sewing him up in a leather sack with a large stone +and throwing him into the river; sometimes the sufferer's +neck is broken with sandal-wood clubs before he is thrown +into the water.<note place='foot'>Pallegoix, <hi rend='italic'>Description du royaume +Thai ou Siam</hi>, i. 271, 365 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> When Kublai Khan defeated and took his +uncle Nayan, who had rebelled against him, he caused Nayan +to be put to death by being wrapt in a carpet and tossed to +and fro till he died, <q>because he would not have the blood +of his Line Imperial spilt upon the ground or exposed in the +eye of Heaven and before the Sun.</q><note place='foot'>Marco Polo, translated by Col. H. +Yule (Second Edition, 1875), i. 335.</note> <q>Friar Ricold mentions +the Tartar maxim: <q>One Khan will put another to death to +get possession of the throne, but he takes great care that the +blood be not spilt. For they say that it is highly improper +that the blood of the Great Khan should be spilt upon the +ground; so they cause the victim to be smothered somehow +or other.</q> The like feeling prevails at the court of Burma, +where a peculiar mode of execution without bloodshed is +reserved for princes of the blood.</q><note place='foot'>Col. H. Yule on Marco Polo, <hi rend='italic'>l.c.</hi></note> Another writer on +Burma observes that <q>according to Mongolian tradition, it +is considered improper to spill the blood of any member of +the royal race. Princes of the Blood are executed by a +blow, or blows, of a bludgeon, inflicted on the back of the +neck. The corpse is placed in a red velvet sack, which is +fixed between two large perforated jars, and then sunk in +the river Irawadi. Princesses are executed in a similar +manner, with the exception that they are put to death by a +blow in front, instead of the back of the neck.</q><note place='foot'>A. Fytche, <hi rend='italic'>Burma, Past and +Present</hi> (London, 1878), i. 217 note. +Compare <hi rend='italic'>Indian Antiquary</hi>, xxix. +(1900) p. 199.</note> In 1878 +the relations of Theebaw, king of Burma, were despatched +by being beaten across the throat with a bamboo.<note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>Indian Antiquary</hi>, xx. (1891) +p. 49.</note> In +Tonquin the ordinary mode of execution is beheading, but +persons of the blood royal are strangled.<note place='foot'>Baron's <q>Description of the Kingdom of Tonqueen,</q> in Pinkerton's +<hi rend='italic'>Voyages and Travels</hi>, ix. 691.</note> In Ashantee the +<pb n='243'/><anchor id='Pg243'/> +blood of none of the royal family may be shed; if one of +them is guilty of a great crime he is drowned in the river +Dah.<note place='foot'>T. E. Bowdich, <hi rend='italic'>Mission from +Cape Coast Castle to Ashantee</hi> (London, +1873), p. 207.</note> As the blood royal of Dahomey may not be spilled, +offenders of the royal family are drowned or strangled. +Commonly they are bound hand and foot, carried out to sea +in a canoe, and thrown overboard.<note place='foot'>A. B. Ellis, <hi rend='italic'>Ewe-speaking Peoples of +the Slave Coast</hi>, p. 224, compare p. 89.</note> When a king of Benin +came to the throne he used to put his brothers to death; +but as no one might lay hands on a prince of the blood, the +king commanded his brothers to hang themselves, after +which he buried their bodies with great pomp.<note place='foot'>O. Dapper, <hi rend='italic'>Description de l'Afrique</hi> +(Amsterdam, 1686), p. 313.</note> In Madagascar +the blood of nobles might not be shed; hence when +four Christians of that class were to be executed they were +burned alive.<note place='foot'>J. Sibree, <hi rend='italic'>Madagascar and its +People</hi>, p. 430.</note> In Uganda <q>no one may shed royal blood +on any account, not even when ordered by the king to slay +one of the royal house; royalty may only be starved or +burned to death.</q><note place='foot'>J. Roscoe, <q>Further Notes on the +Manners and Customs of the Baganda,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Journal of the Anthropological Institute</hi>, +xxxii. (1902) p. 50.</note> Formerly when a young king of +Uganda came of age all his brothers were burnt except two +or three, who were preserved to keep up the succession.<note place='foot'>C. T. Wilson and R. W. Felkin, +<hi rend='italic'>Uganda and the Egyptian Soudan</hi> +(London, 1882), i. 200.</note> +Or a space of ground having been fenced in with a high +paling and a deep ditch, the doomed men were led into the +enclosure and left there till they died, while guards kept +watch outside to prevent their escape.<note place='foot'>J. Roscoe, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> p. 67. There +is an Arab legend of a king who was +slain by opening the veins of his arms +and letting the blood drain into a bowl; +not a drop might fall on the ground, +otherwise there would be blood revenge +for it. Robertson Smith conjectured +that the legend was based on an old +form of sacrifice regularly applied to +captive chiefs (<hi rend='italic'>Religion of the Semites</hi>,<hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi> +p. 369 note, compare p. 418 note).</note> Among the Bawenda +of southern Africa dangerous princes are strangled, for their +blood may not be shed.<note place='foot'>Rev. E. Gottschling, <q>The Bawenda,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Journal of the Anthropological +Institute</hi>, xxxv. (1905) p. 366.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Reluctance +to shed +any human +blood on +the ground. Reluctance +to allow +human +blood to +fall on the +ground.</note> +The reluctance to spill royal blood seems to be only a +particular case of a general unwillingness to shed blood or at +least to allow it to fall on the ground. Marco Polo tells us +that in his day persons caught in the streets of Cambaluc +<pb n='244'/><anchor id='Pg244'/> +(Peking) at unseasonable hours were arrested, and if found +guilty of a misdemeanour were beaten with a stick. <q>Under +this punishment people sometimes die, but they adopt it in +order to eschew bloodshed, for their <foreign rend='italic'>Bacsis</foreign> say that it is an +evil thing to shed man's blood.</q><note place='foot'>Marco Polo, i. 399, Yule's translation, +Second Edition.</note> When Captain Christian +was shot by the Manx Government at the Restoration in 1660, +the spot on which he stood was covered with white blankets, +that his blood might not fall on the ground.<note place='foot'>Sir Walter Scott, note 2 to <hi rend='italic'>Peveril +of the Peak</hi>, ch. v.</note> In West +Sussex people believe that the ground on which human blood +has been shed is accursed and will remain barren for ever.<note place='foot'>Charlotte Latham, <q>Some West +Sussex Superstitions,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Folk-lore Record</hi>, +i. (1878) p. 17.</note> +Among some primitive peoples, when the blood of a tribesman +has to be spilt it is not suffered to fall upon the ground, +but is received upon the bodies of his fellow-tribesmen. +Thus in some Australian tribes boys who are being circumcised +are laid on a platform, formed by the living bodies of +the tribesmen;<note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>Native Tribes of South Australia</hi>, +p. 230; E. J. Eyre, <hi rend='italic'>Journals of Expeditions +of Discovery into Central +Australia</hi>, ii. 335; R. Brough Smyth, +<hi rend='italic'>Aborigines of Victoria</hi>, i. 75 note.</note> and when a boy's tooth is knocked out as +an initiatory ceremony, he is seated on the shoulders of a +man, on whose breast the blood flows and may not be wiped +away.<note place='foot'>D. Collins, <hi rend='italic'>Account of the English +Colony of New South Wales</hi> (London, +1798), p. 580.</note> When Australian blacks bleed each other as a cure +for headache and other ailments, they are very careful not to +spill any of the blood on the ground, but sprinkle it on each +other.<note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>Native Tribes of South Australia</hi>, +pp. 224 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; G. F. Angas, <hi rend='italic'>Savage Life +and Scenes in Australia and New +Zealand</hi> (London, 1847), i. 110 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> We have already seen that in the Australian +ceremony for making rain the blood which is supposed to +imitate the rain is received upon the bodies of the tribesmen.<note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>The Magic Art and the Evolution +of Kings</hi>, vol. i. p. 256.</note> +<q>Also the Gauls used to drink their enemies' blood +and paint themselves therewith. So also they write that the +old Irish were wont; and so have I seen some of the Irish +do, but not their enemies' but friends' blood, as, namely, +at the execution of a notable traitor at Limerick, called +Murrogh O'Brien, I saw an old woman, which was his foster-mother, +take up his head whilst he was quartered and suck +<pb n='245'/><anchor id='Pg245'/> +up all the blood that ran thereout, saying that the earth was +not worthy to drink it, and therewith also steeped her face +and breast and tore her hair, crying out and shrieking most +terribly.</q><note place='foot'>Edmund Spenser, <hi rend='italic'>View of the State +of Ireland</hi>, p. 101 (reprinted in H. +Morley's <hi rend='italic'>Ireland under Elizabeth and +James the First</hi>, London, 1890).</note> After a battle in Horne Island, South Pacific, it +was found that the brother of the vanquished king was +among the wounded. <q>It was sad to see his wife collect in +her hands the blood which had flowed from his wounds, and +throw it on to her head, while she uttered piercing cries. +All the relatives of the wounded collected in the same +manner the blood which had flowed from them, down even +to the last drop, and they even applied their lips to the +leaves of the shrubs and licked it all up to the last drop.</q><note place='foot'><q>Futuna, or Horne Island and its +People,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Journal of the Polynesian +Society</hi>, vol. i. No. 1 (April 1892), p. +43.</note> +In the Marquesas Islands the persons who helped a woman +at childbirth received on their heads the blood which flowed +at the cutting of the navel-string; for the blood might not +touch anything but a sacred object, and in Polynesia the +head is sacred in a high degree.<note place='foot'>Max Radiguet, <hi rend='italic'>Les Derniers Sauvages</hi> +(Paris, 1882), p. 175.</note> In South Celebes at +childbirth a female slave stands under the house (the houses +being raised on posts above the ground) and receives in a +basin on her head the blood which trickles through the +bamboo floor.<note place='foot'>B. F. Matthes, <hi rend='italic'>Bijdragen tot de +Ethnologie van Zuid-Celebes</hi>, p. 53.</note> Among the Latuka of central Africa the +earth on which a drop of blood has fallen at childbirth is +carefully scraped up with an iron shovel, put into a pot along +with the water used in washing the mother, and buried +tolerably deep outside the house on the left-hand side.<note place='foot'>Fr. Stuhlmann, <hi rend='italic'>Mit Emin Pascha +ins Herz von Afrika</hi>, p. 795.</note> In +West Africa, if a drop of your blood has fallen on the ground, +you must carefully cover it up, rub and stamp it into the +soil; if it has fallen on the side of a canoe or a tree, the +place is cut out and the chip destroyed.<note place='foot'>Miss Mary H. Kingsley, <hi rend='italic'>Travels +in West Africa</hi>, pp. 440, 447.</note> The Caffres, we +are told, have a great horror of blood, and must purify +themselves from the pollution if they have shed it and been +bespattered by it. Hence warriors on the return from +battle purge themselves with emetics, and that so violently +that some of them give up the ghost. A Caffre would +<pb n='246'/><anchor id='Pg246'/> +never allow even a drop of blood from his nose or a wound +to lie uncovered, but huddles it over with earth, that his +feet may not be defiled by it.<note place='foot'>A. Kropf, <q>Die religiösen Anschauungen +der Kaffern,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Verhandlungen +der Berliner Gesellschaft für +Anthropologie, Ethnologie und Urgeschichte</hi>, +1888, p. (46).</note> One motive of these African +customs may be a wish to prevent the blood from falling +into the hands of magicians, who might make an evil use +of it. That is admittedly the reason why people in West +Africa stamp out any blood of theirs which has fallen on +the ground or cut out any wood that has been soaked +with it.<note place='foot'>R. H. Nassau, <hi rend='italic'>Fetichism in West +Africa</hi> (London, 1904), p. 83.</note> From a like dread of sorcery natives of New +Guinea are careful to burn any sticks, leaves, or rags which +are stained with their blood; and if the blood has dripped +on the ground they turn up the soil and if possible light a +fire on the spot.<note place='foot'>Le R. P. Guis, <q>Les <hi rend='italic'>Nepu</hi> ou +Sorciers,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Missions Catholiques</hi>, xxxvi. +(1904) p. 370. See also <hi rend='italic'>The Magic +Art and the Evolution of Kings</hi>, vol. +i. p. 205.</note> The same fear explains the curious +duties discharged by a class of men called <foreign rend='italic'>ramanga</foreign> or +<q>blue blood</q> among the Betsileo of Madagascar. It is +their business to eat all the nail-parings and to lick up all +the spilt blood of the nobles. When the nobles pare their +nails, the parings are collected to the last scrap and +swallowed by these <foreign rend='italic'>ramanga</foreign>. If the parings are too large, +they are minced small and so gulped down. Again, should +a nobleman wound himself, say in cutting his nails or +treading on something, the <foreign rend='italic'>ramanga</foreign> lick it up as fast as +possible. Nobles of high rank hardly go anywhere without +these humble attendants; but if it should happen that +there are none of them present, the cut nails and the +spilt blood are carefully collected to be afterwards swallowed +by the <foreign rend='italic'>ramanga</foreign>. There is scarcely a nobleman of any +pretensions who does not strictly observe this custom,<note place='foot'>A. van Gennep, <hi rend='italic'>Tabou et +totémisme à Madagascar</hi>, p. 338, +quoting J. Sibree, <q>Remarkable Ceremonial +at the Decease and Burial of +a Betsileo Prince,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Antananarivo +Annual</hi>, No. xxii. (1898) pp. 195 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> the +intention of which probably is to prevent these parts of his +person from falling into the hands of sorcerers, who on +the principles of contagious magic could work him harm +thereby. The tribes of the White Nile are said never to +shed human blood in their villages because they think the +<pb n='247'/><anchor id='Pg247'/> +sight of it would render women barren or bring misfortune +on their children. Hence executions and murders commonly +take place on the roads or in the forest.<note place='foot'>Brun-Rollet, <hi rend='italic'>Le Nil Blanc et le +Soudan</hi> (Paris, 1855), pp. 239 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Unwillingness +to +shed the +blood of +animals.</note> +The unwillingness to shed blood is extended by some +peoples to the blood of animals. Thus, when the Caffres +offer an ox to the spirits, the blood of the beast must be +carefully caught in a calabash, and none of it may fall on +the ground.<note place='foot'>Dudley Kidd, <hi rend='italic'>The Essential Kafir</hi>, +p. 169.</note> When the Wanika in eastern Africa kill their +cattle for food, <q>they either stone or beat the animal to +death, so as not to shed the blood.</q><note place='foot'>Lieut. Emery, in <hi rend='italic'>Journal of the R. +Geographical Society</hi>, iii. 282.</note> Amongst the Damaras +cattle killed for food are suffocated, but when sacrificed they +are speared to death.<note place='foot'>Ch. Andersson, <hi rend='italic'>Lake Ngami</hi> +(London, 1856), p. 224.</note> But like most pastoral tribes in +Africa, both the Wanika and Damaras very seldom kill +their cattle, which are indeed commonly invested with a +kind of sanctity.<note place='foot'>Ch. New, <hi rend='italic'>Life, Wanderings, and +Labours in Eastern Africa</hi>, p. 124; +Francis Galton, <q>Domestication of +Animals,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Transactions of the Ethnological +Society of London</hi>, N.S., iii. (1865) +p. 135. On the original sanctity of +domestic animals see, above all, W. +Robertson Smith, <hi rend='italic'>The Religion of +the Semites</hi>,<hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi> pp. 280 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>, 295 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></note> Some of the Ewe-speaking negroes of +Togoland, in West Africa, celebrate a festival in honour of +the Earth at which it is unlawful to shed blood on the +ground. Hence the fowls which are sacrificed on these +occasions have their necks wrung, not their throats cut.<note place='foot'>J. Spieth, <hi rend='italic'>Die Ewe-Stämme</hi>, p. +796.</note> +In killing an animal for food the Easter Islanders do not +shed its blood, but stun it or suffocate it in smoke.<note place='foot'>L. Linton Palmer, <q>A Visit to +Easter Island,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Journal of the R. +Geographical Society</hi>, xl. (1870) p. +171.</note> When +the natives of San Cristoval, one of the Solomon Islands, +sacrifice a pig to a ghost in a sacred place, they take great +care that the blood shall not fall on the ground; so they +place the animal in a large bowl and cut it up there.<note place='foot'>R. H. Codrington, <hi rend='italic'>The Melanesians</hi>, +p. 129.</note> It is +said that in ancient India the sacrificial victims were not +slaughtered but strangled.<note place='foot'>Strabo, xv. 1. 54, p. 710.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Anything +on which +a Maori +chief's +blood falls +becomes +sacred to +him.</note> +The general explanation of the reluctance to shed blood +on the ground is probably to be found in the belief that the +soul is in the blood, and that therefore any ground on which it +<pb n='248'/><anchor id='Pg248'/> +may fall necessarily becomes taboo or sacred. In New Zealand +anything upon which even a drop of a high chief's blood +chances to fall becomes taboo or sacred to him. For +instance, a party of natives having come to visit a chief in a +fine new canoe, the chief got into it, but in doing so a splinter +entered his foot, and the blood trickled on the canoe, which +at once became sacred to him. The owner jumped out, +dragged the canoe ashore opposite the chief's house, and left +it there. Again, a chief in entering a missionary's house +knocked his head against a beam, and the blood flowed. +The natives said that in former times the house would have +belonged to the chief.<note place='foot'>R. Taylor, <hi rend='italic'>Te Ika a Maui, or +New Zealand and its Inhabitants</hi>,<hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi> pp. +194 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> As usually happens with taboos of +universal application, the prohibition to spill the blood of a +tribesman on the ground applies with peculiar stringency to +chiefs and kings, and is observed in their case long after it +has ceased to be observed in the case of others. +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The prohibition +to +pass under +a trellised +vine is +probably +based on +the idea +that the +juice of the +grape is the +blood or +spirit of the +vine. This +notion is +confirmed +by the intoxicating +or inspiring +effect of +wine.</note> +We have seen that the Flamen Dialis was not allowed to +walk under a trellised vine.<note place='foot'>Plutarch, <hi rend='italic'>Quaest. Rom.</hi> 112; +Aulus Gellius, x. 15. 13. See above, +p. 14.</note> The reason for this prohibition +was perhaps as follows. It has been shewn that plants are +considered as animate beings which bleed when cut, the red +juice which exudes from some of them being regarded as the +blood of the plant.<note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>The Magic Art and the Evolution +of Kings</hi>, vol. ii. pp. 18, 20.</note> The juice of the grape is therefore +naturally conceived as the blood of the vine.<note place='foot'>Compare W. Robertson Smith, +<hi rend='italic'>Religion of the Semites</hi>,<hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi> p. 230.</note> And since, +as we have just seen, the soul is often believed to be in the +blood, the juice of the grape is regarded as the soul, or as +containing the soul, of the vine. This belief is strengthened +by the intoxicating effects of wine. For, according to +primitive notions, all abnormal mental states, such as intoxication +or madness, are caused by the entrance of a spirit into +the person; such mental states, in other words, are accounted +forms of possession or inspiration. Wine, therefore, is considered +on two distinct grounds as a spirit, or containing a +spirit; first because, as a red juice, it is identified with the +blood of the plant, and second because it intoxicates or +inspires. Therefore if the Flamen Dialis had walked under +a trellised vine, the spirit of the vine, embodied in the +<pb n='249'/><anchor id='Pg249'/> +clusters of grapes, would have been immediately over his +head and might have touched it, which for a person like him +in a state of permanent taboo<note place='foot'><q><foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Dialis cotidie feriatus est</foreign>,</q> Aulus +Gellius, x. 15. 16.</note> would have been highly +dangerous. This interpretation of the prohibition will be +made probable if we can shew, first, that wine has been +actually viewed by some peoples as blood, and intoxication +as inspiration produced by drinking the blood; and, second, +that it is often considered dangerous, especially for tabooed +persons, to have either blood or a living person over their +heads. +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Wine +treated as +blood, and +intoxication +as +inspiration.</note> +With regard to the first point, we are informed by +Plutarch that of old the Egyptian kings neither drank wine +nor offered it in libations to the gods, because they held it +to be the blood of beings who had once fought against the +gods, the vine having sprung from their rotting bodies; +and the frenzy of intoxication was explained by the supposition +that the drunken man was filled with the blood of +the enemies of the gods.<note place='foot'>Plutarch, <hi rend='italic'>Isis et Osiris</hi>, 6. A +myth apparently akin to this has been +preserved in some native Egyptian +writings. See Ad. Erman, <hi rend='italic'>Ägypten +und ägyptisches Leben im Altertum</hi>, p. +364. Wine might not be taken into +the temple at Heliopolis (Plutarch, +<hi rend='italic'>Isis et Osiris</hi>, 6). It was apparently +forbidden to enter the temple at Delos +after drinking wine (Dittenberger, +<hi rend='italic'>Sylloge Inscriptionum Graecarum</hi>,<hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi> No. +564). When wine was offered to the +Good Goddess at Rome it was not +called wine but milk (Macrobius, +<hi rend='italic'>Saturn</hi>, i. 12. 5; Plutarch, <hi rend='italic'>Quaest. +Rom.</hi> 20). It was a rule of Roman +religion that wine might not be poured +out in libations to the gods which had +been made either from grapes trodden +with bleeding feet or from the clusters +of a vine beside which a human body +had hung in a noose (Pliny, <hi rend='italic'>Nat. Hist.</hi> +xiv. 119). This rule shews that wine +was supposed to be defiled by blood +or death.</note> The Aztecs regarded <foreign rend='italic'>pulque</foreign> or +the wine of the country as bad, on account of the wild deeds +which men did under its influence. But these wild deeds +were believed to be the acts, not of the drunken man, but of +the wine-god by whom he was possessed and inspired; and +so seriously was this theory of inspiration held that if any +one spoke ill of or insulted a tipsy man, he was liable to be +punished for disrespect to the wine-god incarnate in his +votary. Hence, says Sahagun, it was believed, not without +ground, that the Indians intoxicated themselves on purpose +to commit with impunity crimes for which they would +certainly have been punished if they had committed them +<pb n='250'/><anchor id='Pg250'/> +sober.<note place='foot'>Bernardino de Sahagun, <hi rend='italic'>Histoire +générale des choses de la Nouvelle-Espagne</hi>, +traduite par Jourdanet et +Siméon (Paris, 1880), pp. 46 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> The +native Mexican wine (<foreign rend='italic'>pulque</foreign>) is made +from the sap of the great American +aloe. See the note of the French +translators of Sahagun, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> pp. +858 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>; E. J. Payne, <hi rend='italic'>History of the +New World called America</hi>, i. 374 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi> +The Chiquites Indians of Paraguay +believed that the spirit of <foreign rend='italic'>chica</foreign>, or +beer made from maize, could punish +with sickness the person who was so +irreverent or careless as to upset a +vessel of the liquor. See Charlevoix, +<hi rend='italic'>Histoire du Paraguay</hi> (Paris, 1756), +ii. 234.</note> Thus it appears that on the primitive view intoxication +or the inspiration produced by wine is exactly parallel +to the inspiration produced by drinking the blood of animals.<note place='foot'>See <hi rend='italic'>The Magic Art and the Evolution +of Kings</hi>, vol. i. pp. 381 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></note> +The soul or life is in the blood, and wine is the blood of the +vine. Hence whoever drinks the blood of an animal is +inspired with the soul of the animal or of the god, who, as +we have seen,<note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>Op. cit.</hi> vol. i. pp. 384 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> is often supposed to enter into the animal +before it is slain; and whoever drinks wine drinks the blood, +and so receives into himself the soul or spirit, of the god of +the vine. +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Fear of +passing +under +women's +blood.</note> +With regard to the second point, the fear of passing +under blood or under a living person, we are told that some +of the Australian blacks have a dread of passing under a +leaning tree or even under the rails of a fence. The reason +they give is that a woman may have been upon the tree or +fence, and some blood from her may have fallen on it and +might fall from it on them.<note place='foot'>E. M. Curr, <hi rend='italic'>The Australian Race</hi> +(Melbourne and London, 1887), iii. +179.</note> In Ugi, one of the Solomon +Islands, a man will never, if he can help it, pass under a tree +which has fallen across the path, for the reason that a woman +may have stepped over it before him.<note place='foot'>H. B. Guppy, <hi rend='italic'>The Solomon +Islands and their Natives</hi> (London, +1887), p. 41.</note> Amongst the Karens +of Burma <q>going under a house, especially if there are +females within, is avoided; as is also the passing under +trees of which the branches extend downwards in a particular +direction, and the butt-end of fallen trees, etc.</q><note place='foot'>E. B. Cross, <q>On the Karens,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Journal of the American Oriental +Society</hi>, iv. (1854) p. 312.</note> The +Siamese think it unlucky to pass under a rope on which +women's clothes are hung, and to avert evil consequences +the person who has done so must build a chapel to the +earth-spirit.<note place='foot'>A. Bastian, <hi rend='italic'>Die Völker des östlichen +Asien</hi>, iii. 230.</note> +</p> + +<pb n='251'/><anchor id='Pg251'/> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Disastrous +effect of +women's +blood on +men.</note> +Probably in all such cases the rule is based on a fear of +being brought into contact with blood, especially the blood +of women. From a like fear a Maori will never lean his +back against the wall of a native house.<note place='foot'>For the reason, see E. Shortland, +<hi rend='italic'>Traditions and Superstitions of the +New Zealanders</hi>, pp. 112 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 292; +E. Tregear, <q>The Maoris of New +Zealand,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Journal of the Anthropological +Institute</hi>, xix. (1890) p. 118.</note> For the blood of +women is supposed to have disastrous effects upon males. +The Arunta of central Australia believe that a draught of +woman's blood would kill the strongest man.<note place='foot'>F. J. Gillen, in <hi rend='italic'>Report of the Horn +Scientific Expedition to Central Australia</hi>, +pt. iv. p. 182.</note> In the +Encounter Bay tribe of South Australia boys are warned +that if they see the blood of women they will early become +grey-headed and their strength will fail prematurely.<note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>Native Tribes of South Australia</hi>, +p. 186.</note> Men of +the Booandik tribe in South Australia think that if they see the +blood of their women they will not be able to fight against +their enemies and will be killed; if the sun dazzles their eyes +at a fight, the first woman they afterwards meet is sure to +get a blow from their club.<note place='foot'>Mrs. James Smith, <hi rend='italic'>The Booandik +Tribe</hi>, p. 5.</note> In the island of Wetar it is +thought that if a man or a lad comes upon a woman's blood +he will be unfortunate in war and other undertakings, and +that any precautions he may take to avoid the misfortune +will be vain.<note place='foot'>J. G. F. Riedel, <hi rend='italic'>De sluik- en +kroesharige rassen tusschen Selebes en +Papua</hi>, p. 450.</note> The people of Ceram also believe that +men who see women's blood will be wounded in battle.<note place='foot'>J. G. F. Riedel, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> p. 139, +compare p. 209.</note> +It is an Esthonian belief that men who see women's blood +will suffer from an eruption on the skin.<note place='foot'>F. J. Wiedemann, <hi rend='italic'>Aus dem innern +und äussern Leben der Ehsten</hi>, p. 475.</note> A Fan negro +told Miss Kingsley that a young man in his village, who +was so weak that he could hardly crawl about, had fallen +into this state through seeing the blood of a woman who +had been killed by a falling tree. <q>The underlying idea +regarding blood is of course the old one that the blood is +the life. The life in Africa means a spirit, hence the +liberated blood is the liberated spirit, and liberated spirits +are always whipping into people who do not want them. In +the case of the young Fan, the opinion held was that the +weak spirit of the woman had got into him.</q><note place='foot'>Miss Mary H. Kingsley, <hi rend='italic'>Travels +in West Africa</hi>, p. 447. Conversely +among the central Australian tribes +women are never allowed to witness +the drawing of blood from men, which +is often done for purposes of decoration; +and when a quarrel has taken place and +men's blood has been spilt in the presence +of women, it is usual for the man +whose blood has been shed to perform a +ceremony connected with his own or his +father or mother's totem. See Spencer +and Gillen, <hi rend='italic'>Native Tribes of Central +Australia</hi>, p. 463.</note> +</p> + +</div> + +<pb n='252'/><anchor id='Pg252'/> + +<div> +<index index='toc'/> +<index index='pdf' level1='5. The Head tabooed.'/> +<head>§ 5. The Head tabooed.</head> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The head +sacred +because a +spirit +resides +in it.</note> +Again, the reason for not passing under dangerous +objects, like a vine or women's blood, is a fear that they +may come in contact with the head; for among many +peoples the head is peculiarly sacred. The special sanctity +attributed to it is sometimes explained by a belief that it is +the seat of a spirit which is very sensitive to injury or +disrespect. Thus the Yorubas of the Slave Coast hold that +every man has three spiritual inmates, of whom the first, +called Olori, dwells in the head and is the man's protector, +guardian, and guide. Offerings are made to this spirit, chiefly +of fowls, and some of the blood mixed with palm-oil is rubbed +on the forehead.<note place='foot'>A. B. Ellis, <hi rend='italic'>The Yoruba-speaking +Peoples of the Slave Coast</hi>, pp. 125 +<hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> The Karens of Burma suppose that a +being called the <foreign rend='italic'>tso</foreign> resides in the upper part of the head, +and while it retains its seat no harm can befall the person +from the efforts of the seven <foreign rend='italic'>Kelahs</foreign>, or personified passions. +<q>But if the <foreign rend='italic'>tso</foreign> becomes heedless or weak certain evil to the +person is the result. Hence the head is carefully attended +to, and all possible pains are taken to provide such dress +and attire as will be pleasing to the <foreign rend='italic'>tso</foreign>.</q><note place='foot'>E. B. Cross, <q>On the Karens,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Journal of the American Oriental +Society</hi>, iv. (1854) pp. 311 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> The Siamese +think that a spirit called <foreign rend='italic'>khuan</foreign> or <foreign rend='italic'>kwun</foreign> dwells in the human +head, of which it is the guardian spirit. The spirit must be +carefully protected from injury of every kind; hence the act +of shaving or cutting the hair is accompanied with many +ceremonies. The <foreign rend='italic'>kwun</foreign> is very sensitive on points of honour, +and would feel mortally insulted if the head in which he +resides were touched by the hand of a stranger. When Dr. +Bastian, in conversation with a brother of the king of Siam, +raised his hand to touch the prince's skull in order to illustrate +some medical remarks he was making, a sullen and +threatening murmur bursting from the lips of the crouching +<pb n='253'/><anchor id='Pg253'/> +courtiers warned him of the breach of etiquette he had committed, +for in Siam there is no greater insult to a man of rank +than to touch his head. If a Siamese touch the head of +another with his foot, both of them must build chapels to the +earth-spirit to avert the omen. Nor does the guardian spirit +of the head like to have the hair washed too often; it might +injure or incommode him. It was a grand solemnity when +the king of Burma's head was washed with water drawn +from the middle of the river. Whenever the native professor, +from whom Dr. Bastian took lessons in Burmese at Mandalay, +had his head washed, which took place as a rule once a +month, he was generally absent for three days together, that +time being consumed in preparing for, and recovering from, +the operation of head-washing. Dr. Bastian's custom of +washing his head daily gave rise to much remark.<note place='foot'>A. Bastian, <hi rend='italic'>Die Völker des östlichen +Asien</hi>, ii. 256, iii. 71, 230, 235 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> +The spirit is called <foreign rend='italic'>kwun</foreign> by E. Young +(<hi rend='italic'>The Kingdom of the Yellow Robe</hi>, pp. +75 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>). See below, pp. <ref target='Pg266'>266</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> The +head of the king of Persia was cleaned only once a year, on +his birthday.<note place='foot'>Herodotus, ix. 110. This passage +was pointed out to me by the late +Mr. E. S. Shuckburgh of Emmanuel +College, Cambridge.</note> Roman women washed their heads annually +on the thirteenth of August, Diana's day.<note place='foot'>Plutarch, <hi rend='italic'>Quaestiones Romanae</hi>, +100. Plutarch's words (μάλιστα ῥύπτεσθαι +τὰς κεφαλὰς καὶ καθαίρειν ἐπιτηδεύουσι) +leave room to hope that the +ladies did not strictly confine their +ablutions to one day in the year.</note> The Indians of +Peru fancied they could rid themselves of their sins by +scrubbing their heads with a small stone and then washing +them in a stream.<note place='foot'>P. J. de Arriaga, <hi rend='italic'>Extirpación de +la Idolatria del Piru</hi> (Lima, 1621), +pp. 28, 29.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Objection +to have any +one overhead.</note> +Again, the Burmese think it an indignity to have any +one, especially a woman, over their heads, and for this +reason Burmese houses have never more than one story. +The houses are raised on posts above the ground, and +whenever anything fell through the floor Dr. Bastian had +always difficulty in persuading a servant to fetch it from +under the house. In Rangoon a priest, summoned to the +bedside of a sick man, climbed up a ladder and got in at +the window rather than ascend the staircase, to reach which +he must have passed under a gallery. A pious Burman of +Rangoon, finding some images of Buddha in a ship's cabin, +offered a high price for them, that they might not be degraded +<pb n='254'/><anchor id='Pg254'/> +by sailors walking over them on the deck.<note place='foot'>A. Bastian, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> ii. 150; Sangermano, +<hi rend='italic'>Description of the Burmese Empire</hi> +(Rangoon, 1885), p. 131; C. F. S. +Forbes, <hi rend='italic'>British Burma</hi>, p. 334; Shway +Yoe, <hi rend='italic'>The Burman</hi> (London, 1882), +i. 91.</note> Formerly in +Siam no person might cross a bridge while his superior in +rank was passing underneath, nor might he walk in a room +above one in which his superior was sitting or lying.<note place='foot'>E. Young, <hi rend='italic'>The Kingdom of the +Yellow Robe</hi> (Westminster, 1898), p. +131.</note> The +Cambodians esteem it a grave offence to touch a man's +head; some of them will not enter a place where anything +whatever is suspended over their heads; and the meanest +Cambodian would never consent to live under an inhabited +room. Hence the houses are built of one story only; and +even the Government respects the prejudice by never placing +a prisoner in the stocks under the floor of a house, though +the houses are raised high above the ground.<note place='foot'>J. Moura, <hi rend='italic'>Le Royaume du Cambodge</hi>, +i. 178, 388.</note> The same +superstition exists amongst the Malays; for an early +traveller reports that in Java people <q>wear nothing on their +heads, and say that nothing must be on their heads ... +and if any person were to put his hand upon their head they +would kill him; and they do not build houses with storeys, +in order that they may not walk over each other's heads.</q><note place='foot'>Duarte Barbosa, <hi rend='italic'>Description of the +Coasts of East Africa and Malabar in +the beginning of the Sixteenth Century</hi> +(Hakluyt Society, 1866), p. 197.</note> +In Uganda no person belonging to the king's totem clan +was allowed to get on the top of the palace to roof it, for +that would have been regarded as equivalent to getting on +the top of the king. Hence the palace had to be roofed by +men of a different clan from the king.<note place='foot'>This I learned in conversation +with Messrs. Roscoe and Miller, missionaries +to Uganda. The system of +totemism exists in full force in Uganda. +No man will eat his totem animal +or marry a woman of his own totem +clan. Among the totems of the clans +are the lion, leopard, elephant, antelope, +mushroom, buffalo, sheep, grasshopper, +crocodile, otter, beaver, and lizard. See +<hi rend='italic'>Totemism and Exogamy</hi>, ii. 472 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Sanctity of +the head, +especially +of a chief's +head, in +Polynesia and elsewhere.</note> +The same superstition as to the head is found in full +force throughout Polynesia. Thus of Gattanewa, a Marquesan +chief, it is said that <q>to touch the top of his head, or anything +which had been on his head, was sacrilege. To pass +over his head was an indignity never to be forgotten. +Gattanewa, nay, all his family, scorned to pass a gateway +which is ever closed, or a house with a door; all must be +<pb n='255'/><anchor id='Pg255'/> +as open and free as their unrestrained manners. He would +pass under nothing that had been raised by the hand of +man, if there was a possibility of getting round or over it. +Often have I seen him walk the whole length of our barrier, +in preference to passing between our water-casks; and at +the risk of his life scramble over the loose stones of a wall, +rather than go through the gateway.</q><note place='foot'>David Porter, <hi rend='italic'>Journal of a Cruise +made to the Pacific Ocean in the U.S. +Frigate <q>Essex</q></hi> (New York, 1822), +ii. 65.</note> Marquesan women +have been known to refuse to go on the decks of ships for +fear of passing over the heads of chiefs who might be below.<note place='foot'>Vincendon-Dumoulin et C. Desgraz +<hi rend='italic'>Îles Marquises</hi> (Paris, 1843), p. 262.</note> +The son of a Marquesan high priest has been seen to roll +on the ground in an agony of rage and despair, begging for +death, because some one had desecrated his head and +deprived him of his divinity by sprinkling a few drops of +water on his hair.<note place='foot'>Le P. Matthias G——, <hi rend='italic'>Lettres sur +les Îles Marquises</hi> (Paris, 1843), p. 50.</note> But it was not the Marquesan chiefs +only whose heads were sacred. The head of every Marquesan +was taboo, and might neither be touched nor stepped +over by another; even a father might not step over the +head of his sleeping child;<note place='foot'>G. H. von Langsdorff, <hi rend='italic'>Reise um +die Welt</hi> (London, 1812), i. 115 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> women were forbidden to carry +or touch anything that had been in contact with, or had +merely hung over, the head of their husband or father.<note place='foot'>Max Radiguet, <hi rend='italic'>Les Derniers Sauvages</hi> +(Paris, 1882), p. 156.</note> No +one was allowed to be over the head of the king of Tonga.<note place='foot'>Capt. James Cook, <hi rend='italic'>Voyages</hi>, v. 427 +(London, 1809).</note> +In Hawaii (the Sandwich Islands) if a man climbed upon a +chiefs house or upon the wall of his yard, he was put to +death; if his shadow fell on a chief, he was put to death; +if he walked in the shadow of a chiefs house with his head +painted white or decked with a garland or wetted with +water, he was put to death.<note place='foot'>Jules Remy, <hi rend='italic'>Ka Mooolelo Hawaii, +Histoire de l'Archipel Havaiien</hi> (Paris +and Leipsic, 1862), p. 159.</note> In Tahiti any one who +stood over the king or queen, or passed his hand over +their heads, might be put to death.<note place='foot'>W. Ellis, <hi rend='italic'>Polynesian Researches</hi><hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi> +(London, 1832-36), iii. 102.</note> Until certain rites +were performed over it, a Tahitian infant was especially +taboo; whatever touched the child's head, while it was +in this state, became sacred and was deposited in a consecrated +<pb n='256'/><anchor id='Pg256'/> +place railed in for the purpose at the child's house. +If a branch of a tree touched the child's head, the tree +was cut down; and if in its fall it injured another tree +so as to penetrate the bark, that tree also was cut down as +unclean and unfit for use. After the rites were performed +these special taboos ceased; but the head of a Tahitian was +always sacred, he never carried anything on it, and to touch +it was an offence.<note place='foot'>James Wilson, <hi rend='italic'>A Missionary +Voyage to the Southern Pacific Ocean</hi> +(London, 1799), pp. 354 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> In New Zealand <q>the heads of the +chiefs were always tabooed (<foreign rend='italic'>tapu</foreign>), hence they could not +pass, or sit, under food hung up; or carry food, as others, +on their backs; neither would they eat a meal in a house, +nor touch a calabash of water in drinking. No one could +touch their head, nor, indeed, commonly speak of it, or +allude to it; to do so offensively was one of their heaviest +curses, and grossest insults, only to be wiped out with +blood.</q><note place='foot'>W. Colenso, <q>The Maori Races +of New Zealand,</q> p. 43, in <hi rend='italic'>Transactions +and Proceedings of the New +Zealand Institute</hi>, 1868, vol. i. (separately +paged).</note> So sacred was the head of a Maori chief that +<q>if he only touched it with his fingers, he was obliged +immediately to apply them to his nose, and snuff up the +sanctity which they had acquired by the touch, and thus +restore it to the part from whence it was taken.</q><note place='foot'>R. Taylor, <hi rend='italic'>To Ika a Maui, or +New Zealand and its Inhabitants</hi>,<hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi> p. +165. We have seen that under certain +special circumstances common persons +also are temporarily forbidden to touch +their heads with their hands. See above, +pp. <ref target='Pg146'>146</ref>, <ref target='Pg156'>156</ref>, <ref target='Pg158'>158</ref>, <ref target='Pg160'>160</ref>, <ref target='Pg183'>183</ref>.</note> On account +of the sacredness of his head a Maori chief <q>could not blow +the fire with his mouth, for the breath being sacred, communicated +his sanctity to it, and a brand might be taken by +a slave, or a man of another tribe, or the fire might be used +for other purposes, such as cooking, and so cause his death.</q><note place='foot'>R. Taylor, <hi rend='italic'>l.c.</hi></note> +It is a crime for a sacred person in New Zealand to leave +his comb, or anything else which has touched his head, in +a place where food has been cooked, or to suffer another +person to drink out of any vessel which has touched his +lips. Hence when a chief wishes to drink he never puts his +lips to the vessel, but holds his hands close to his mouth so +as to form a hollow, into which water is poured by another +person, and thence is allowed to flow into his mouth. If a +light is needed for his pipe, the burning ember taken from +<pb n='257'/><anchor id='Pg257'/> +the fire must be thrown away as soon as it is used; for the +pipe becomes sacred because it has touched his mouth; the +coal becomes sacred because it has touched the pipe; and +if a particle of the sacred cinder were replaced on the +common fire, the fire would also become sacred and could +no longer be used for cooking.<note place='foot'>E. Shortland, <hi rend='italic'>The Southern Districts +of New Zealand</hi> (London, 1851), +p. 293; <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, <hi rend='italic'>Traditions and Superstitions +of the New Zealanders</hi>, pp. +107 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> Some Maori chiefs, like +other Polynesians, object to go down into a ship's cabin +from fear of people passing over their heads.<note place='foot'>J. Dumont D'Urville, <hi rend='italic'>Voyage autour +du monde et à la recherche de La Pérouse, +exécuté sous son commandement sur la +corvette <q>Austrolabe</q>: histoire du +voyage</hi>, ii. 534.</note> Dire misfortune +was thought by the Maoris to await those who +entered a house where any article of animal food was +suspended over their heads. <q>A dead pigeon, or a piece +of pork hung from the roof, was a better protection from +molestation than a sentinel.</q><note place='foot'>R. A. Cruise, <hi rend='italic'>Journal of a Ten +Months' Residence in New Zealand</hi> +(London, 1823), p. 187; J. Dumont +D'Urville, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> ii. 533; E. Shortland, +<hi rend='italic'>The Southern Districts of New +Zealand</hi>, p. 30.</note> If I am right, the reason for +the special objection to having animal food over the head +is the fear of bringing the sacred head into contact with the +spirit of the animal; just as the reason why the Flamen +Dialis might not walk under a vine was the fear of bringing +his sacred head into contact with the spirit of the vine. +Similarly King Darius would not pass through a gate over +which there was a tomb, because in doing so he would have +had a corpse above his head.<note place='foot'>Herodotus, i. 187.</note> Among the Awuna tribes of +the Gold Coast, West Africa, the worshippers of Hebesio, +the god of thunder, believe that their heads are sacred, being +associated in some mysterious way with the presence of the +protective spirit of their god, which has passed into them +through this channel at baptism. Hence they carefully +guard their heads against injury, especially against any +wound that might draw blood, for they think that such a +wound would entail the loss of reason on the sufferer, and +that it would bring down the wrath of the thundering god +and of his mouth-piece the fetish priest on the impious +smiter.<note place='foot'>H. France, <q>Customs of the +Awuna Tribes,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Journal of the African +Society</hi>, No. 17 (October, 1905), p. +39.</note> +</p> + +</div> + +<pb n='258'/><anchor id='Pg258'/> + +<div> +<index index='toc'/> +<index index='pdf' level1='6. Hair tabooed.'/> +<head>§ 6. Hair tabooed.</head> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>When the +head is +sacred, the +cutting of +the hair +becomes a +difficult +and +dangerous +operation. +The hair of +kings, +priests, +chiefs, sorcerers, +and other +tabooed +persons is +sometimes +kept +unshorn. Hair kept +unshorn +on various +occasions, +such as +a wife's +pregnancy, +a journey, +and war.</note> +When the head was considered so sacred that it might not +even be touched without grave offence, it is obvious that the +cutting of the hair must have been a delicate and difficult +operation. The difficulties and dangers which, on the +primitive view, beset the operation are of two kinds. There +is first the danger of disturbing the spirit of the head, which +may be injured in the process and may revenge itself upon +the person who molests him. Secondly, there is the difficulty +of disposing of the shorn locks. For the savage believes +that the sympathetic connexion which exists between himself +and every part of his body continues to exist even after +the physical connexion has been broken, and that therefore +he will suffer from any harm that may befall the severed +parts of his body, such as the clippings of his hair or the +parings of his nails. Accordingly he takes care that these +severed portions of himself shall not be left in places where +they might either be exposed to accidental injury or fall +into the hands of malicious persons who might work magic +on them to his detriment or death. Such dangers are +common to all, but sacred persons have more to fear from +them than ordinary people, so the precautions taken by them +are proportionately stringent. The simplest way of evading +the peril is not to cut the hair at all; and this is the +expedient adopted where the risk is thought to be more +than usually great. The Frankish kings were never allowed +to crop their hair; from their childhood upwards they had +to keep it unshorn.<note place='foot'>Agathias, <hi rend='italic'>Hist.</hi> i. 3; J. Grimm, +<hi rend='italic'>Deutsche Rechtsalterthümer</hi>,<hi rend='vertical-align: super'>3</hi> pp. 239 +<hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi> Compare F. Kauffmann, <hi rend='italic'>Balder</hi> +(Strasburg, 1902), pp. 209 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> The +story of the Phrygian king Midas, who +concealed the ears of an ass under his +long hair (Aristophanes, <hi rend='italic'>Plutus</hi>, 287; +Ovid, <hi rend='italic'>Metam.</hi> xi. 146-193) may perhaps +be a distorted reminiscence of a similar +custom in Phrygia. Parallels to the +story are recorded in modern Greece, +Ireland, Brittany, Servia, India, and +among the Mongols. See B. Schmidt, +<hi rend='italic'>Griechische Märchen, Sagen und +Volkslieder</hi>, pp. 70 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 224 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; +Grimm's <hi rend='italic'>Household Tales</hi>, ii. 498, +trans. by M. Hunt; Patrick Kennedy, +<hi rend='italic'>Legendary Fictions of the Irish Celts</hi>, +pp. 248 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi> (ed. 1866); A. de Nore, +<hi rend='italic'>Coutumes, mythes, et traditions des +provinces de la France</hi>, pp. 219 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; +W. S. Karadschitsch, <hi rend='italic'>Volksmärchen +der Serben</hi>, No. 39, pp. 225 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>; +<hi rend='italic'>North Indian Notes and Queries</hi>, iii. +p. 104, § 218; B. Jülg, <hi rend='italic'>Mongolische +Märchen-Sammlung</hi>, No. 22, pp. 182 +<hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>; <hi rend='italic'>Sagas from the Far East</hi>, No. +21, pp. 206 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></note> To poll the long locks that floated +<pb n='259'/><anchor id='Pg259'/> +on their shoulders would have been to renounce their right +to the throne. When the wicked brothers Clotaire and +Childebert coveted the kingdom of their dead brother +Clodomir, they inveigled into their power their little nephews, +the two sons of Clodomir; and having done so, they sent +a messenger bearing scissors and a naked sword to the +children's grandmother, Queen Clotilde, at Paris. The envoy +shewed the scissors and the sword to Clotilde, and bade +her choose whether the children should be shorn and live +or remain unshorn and die. The proud queen replied that if +her grandchildren were not to come to the throne she would +rather see them dead than shorn. And murdered they were +by their ruthless uncle Clotaire with his own hand.<note place='foot'>Gregory of Tours, <hi rend='italic'>Histoire +ecclésiastique des Francs</hi>, iii. 18, compare +vi. 24 (Guizot's translation).</note> The +king of Ponape, one of the Caroline Islands, must wear his +hair long, and so must his grandees.<note place='foot'>Dr. Hahl, <q>Mitteilungen über +Sitten und rechtliche Verhältnisse auf +Ponape,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Ethnologisches Notizblatt</hi>, ii. +Heft 2 (Berlin, 1901), p. 6.</note> The hair of the Aztec +priests hung down to their hams, so that the weight of it +became very troublesome; for they might never poll it so +long as they lived, or at least until they had been relieved +of their office on the score of old age. They wore it braided +in great tresses, six fingers broad, and tied with cotton.<note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>Manuscrit Ramirez, Histoire de +l'origine des Indiens qui habitent la +Nouvelle Espagne</hi> (Paris, 1903), p. 171; +J. de Acosta, <hi rend='italic'>Natural and Moral +History of the Indies</hi>, ii. 365 (Hakluyt +Society); A. de Herrera, <hi rend='italic'>General History +of the vast Continent and Islands +of America</hi>, iii. 216 (Stevens's translation). +The author of the <hi rend='italic'>Manuscrit +Ramirez</hi> speaks as if the rule applied +only to the priests of the god Tezcatlipoca.</note> A +Haida medicine-man may neither clip nor comb his tresses, +so they are always long and tangled.<note place='foot'>G. M. Dawson, <q>On the Haida +Indians of Queen Charlotte Islands,</q> +in <hi rend='italic'>Geological Survey of Canada, Report +of Progress for 1878-79</hi>, p. 123 <hi rend='smallcaps'>b</hi>.</note> Among the Hos, +a negro tribe of Togoland in West Africa, <q>there are priests +on whose head no razor may come during the whole of +their lives. The god who dwells in the man forbids the +cutting of his hair on pain of death. If the hair is at last +too long, the owner must pray to his god to allow him at +least to clip the tips of it. The hair is in fact conceived as +the seat and lodging-place of his god, so that were it shorn +the god would lose his abode in the priest.</q><note place='foot'>J. Spieth, <hi rend='italic'>Die Ewe-Stämme</hi>, p. 229.</note> A rain-maker at +Boroma, on the lower Zambesi, used to give out that he was +<pb n='260'/><anchor id='Pg260'/> +possessed by two spirits, one of a lion, the other of a leopard, +and in the assemblies of the people he mimicked the roaring +of these beasts. In order that their spirits might not leave +him, he never cut his hair nor drank alcohol.<note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>Missions Catholiques</hi>, xxv. (1893) +p. 266.</note> The Masai +clan of the El Kiboron, who are believed to possess the art +of making rain, may not pluck out their beards, because the +loss of their beards would, it is supposed, entail the loss of +their rain-making powers. The head chief and the sorcerers +of the Masai observe the same rule for a like reason: they +think that were they to pull out their beards, their supernatural +gifts would desert them.<note place='foot'>M. Merker, <hi rend='italic'>Die Masai</hi> (Berlin, +1904), pp. 21, 22, 143.</note> In central Borneo +the chiefs of a particular Kayan family never allow +their hair to be shorn.<note place='foot'>A. W. Nieuwenhuis, <hi rend='italic'>Quer durch +Borneo</hi>, i. 68.</note> Ancient Indian law required that +when a new king had performed the ceremony of consecration +he might not shave his hair for a year, though +he was allowed to crop it. According to one account none +of his subjects, except a Brahman, might have his hair cut +during this period, and even horses were left unclipped.<note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>Satapatha Brahmana</hi>, translated +by J. Eggeling, part iii. pp. 126, 128, +with the translator's note on p. 126 +(<hi rend='italic'>Sacred Books of the East</hi>, vol. xli.).</note> +Amongst the Alfoors of Celebes the <foreign rend='italic'>Leleen</foreign> or priest who +looks after the rice-fields may not shear his hair during the +time that he exercises his special functions, that is from +a month before the rice is sown until it is housed.<note place='foot'>P. N. Wilken, <q>Bijdragen tot +de kennis van de zeden en gewoonten +der Alfoeren in de Minahassa,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Mededeelingen +van wege het Nederlandsche +Zendelinggenootschap</hi>, vii. (1863) p. 126.</note> In +Usukuma, a district to the south of Lake Victoria Nyanza, +the people are forbidden to shave their heads till the corn +has been sown.<note place='foot'>R. P. Ashe, <hi rend='italic'>Two Kings of Uganda</hi> +(London, 1889), p. 109.</note> Men of the Tsetsaut tribe in British +Columbia do not cut their hair, believing that if they cut it +they would quickly grow old.<note place='foot'>Fr. Boas, in <hi rend='italic'>Tenth Report on the +North-Western Tribes of Canada</hi>, p. 45 +(separate reprint from the <hi rend='italic'>Report of +the British Association for 1895</hi>).</note> In Ceram men do not crop +their hair: if married men did so, they would lose their wives; +if young men did so, they would grow weak and enervated.<note place='foot'>J. G. F. Riedel, <hi rend='italic'>De sluik- en +kroesharige rassen tusschen Selebes en +Papua</hi>, p. 137.</note> +In Timorlaut married men may not poll their hair for the +same reason as in Ceram, but widowers and men on a +<pb n='261'/><anchor id='Pg261'/> +journey may do so after offering a fowl or a pig in sacrifice.<note place='foot'>J. G. F. Riedel, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> pp. +292 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> +Malays of the Peninsula are forbidden to clip their hair +during their wife's pregnancy and for forty days after the +child has been born; and a similar abstention is said to +have been formerly incumbent on all persons prosecuting +a journey or engaged in war.<note place='foot'>W. W. Skeat, <hi rend='italic'>Malay Magic</hi>, p. 44.</note> Elsewhere men travelling +abroad have been in the habit of leaving their hair unshorn +until their return. The reason for this custom is probably +the danger to which, as we have seen, a traveller is believed +to be exposed from the magic arts of the strangers amongst +whom he sojourns; if they got possession of his shorn hair, +they might work his destruction through it. The Egyptians +on a journey kept their hair uncut till they returned home.<note place='foot'>Diodorus Siculus, i. 18.</note> +<q>At Tâif when a man returned from a journey his first duty +was to visit the Rabba and poll his hair.</q><note place='foot'>W. Robertson Smith, <hi rend='italic'>Kinship and +Marriage in Early Arabia</hi> (Cambridge, +1885), pp. 152 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> Achilles kept +unshorn his yellow hair, because his father had vowed to +offer it to the River Sperchius if ever his son came home +from the wars beyond the sea.<note place='foot'>Homer, <hi rend='italic'>Iliad</hi>, xxiii. 141 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi> +This Homeric passage has been imitated +by Valerius Flaccus (<hi rend='italic'>Argonaut.</hi> +i. 378). The Greeks often dedicated +a lock of their hair to rivers. See +Aeschylus, <hi rend='italic'>Choephori</hi>, 5 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; Philostratus, +<hi rend='italic'>Heroica</hi>, xiii. 4; Pausanias, i. +37. 3, viii. 20. 3, viii. 41. 3. The +lock might be at the side or the back of +the head or over the brow; it received +a special name (Pollux, ii. 30).</note> Formerly when Dyak +warriors returned with the heads of their enemies, each man +cut off a lock from the front of his head and threw it into +the river as a mode of ending the taboo to which they had +been subjected during the expedition.<note place='foot'>S. W. Tromp, <q>Een Dajaksch +Feest,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Bijdragen tot de Taal- Land- en +Volkenkunde van Nederlandsch-Indië</hi>, +xxxix. (1890) p. 38.</note> Bechuanas after a +battle had their hair shorn by their mothers <q>in order that +new hair might grow, and that all which was old and polluted +might disappear and be no more.</q><note place='foot'>T. Arbousset et F. Daumas, <hi rend='italic'>Relation +d'un voyage d'exploration</hi>, p. 565.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Hair +unshorn +during a +vow. +The nails +of infants +should not +be pared. Child's +hair left +unshorn as +a refuge for +its soul.</note> +Again, men who have taken a vow of vengeance sometimes +keep their hair unshorn till they have fulfilled their +vow. Thus of the Marquesans we are told that <q>occasionally +they have their head entirely shaved, except one lock on the +crown, which is worn loose or put up in a knot. But the +latter mode of wearing the hair is only adopted by them +<pb n='262'/><anchor id='Pg262'/> +when they have a solemn vow, as to revenge the death of +some near relation, etc. In such case the lock is never cut +off until they have fulfilled their promise.</q><note place='foot'>D. Porter, <hi rend='italic'>Journal of a Cruise +made to the Pacific Ocean</hi>, ii. 120.</note> A similar +custom was sometimes observed by the ancient Germans; +among the Chatti the young warriors never clipped their +hair or their beard till they had slain an enemy.<note place='foot'>Tacitus, <hi rend='italic'>Germania</hi>, 31. Vows of +the same sort were occasionally made +by the Romans (Suetonius, <hi rend='italic'>Julius</hi>, 67; +Tacitus, <hi rend='italic'>Hist.</hi> iv. 61).</note> Six +thousand Saxons once swore that they would not poll their +hair nor shave their beards until they had taken vengeance +on their foes.<note place='foot'>Paulus Diaconus, <hi rend='italic'>Hist. Langobard.</hi> +iii. 7; Gregory of Tours, <hi rend='italic'>Histoire +ecclésiastique des Francs</hi>, v. 15, vol. i. +p. 268 (Guizot's translation, Nouvelle +Edition, Paris, 1874).</note> On one occasion a Hawaiian taboo is +said to have lasted thirty years, <q>during which the men +were not allowed to trim their beards, etc.</q><note place='foot'>W. Ellis, <hi rend='italic'>Polynesian Researches</hi>,<hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi> +iv. 387.</note> While his +vow lasted, a Nazarite might not have his hair cut: <q>All +the days of the vow of his separation there shall no razor +come upon his head.</q><note place='foot'>Numbers vi. 5.</note> Possibly in this case there was +a special objection to touching the tabooed man's head with +iron. The Roman priests, as we have seen, were shorn with +bronze knives. The same feeling perhaps gave rise to the +European rule that a child's nails should not be pared during +the first year, but that if it is absolutely necessary to shorten +them they should be bitten off by the mother or nurse.<note place='foot'>J. A. E. Köhler, <hi rend='italic'>Volksbrauch</hi>, etc., +<hi rend='italic'>im Voigtlande</hi>, p. 424; W. Henderson, +<hi rend='italic'>Folk-lore of the Northern Counties</hi>, +pp. 16 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; F. Panzer, <hi rend='italic'>Beitrag zur +deutschen Mythologie</hi>, i. p. 258, § 23; +I. V. Zingerle, <hi rend='italic'>Sitten, Bräuche und +Meinungen des Tiroler Volkes</hi>,<hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi> §§ 46, +72; J. W. Wolf, <hi rend='italic'>Beiträge zur deutschen +Mythologie</hi>, i. p. 208, § 45, p. 209 § 53; +O. Knoop, <hi rend='italic'>Volkssagen, Erzählungen</hi>, +etc., <hi rend='italic'>aus dem östlichen Hinterpommern</hi>, +p. 157, § 23; E. Veckenstedt, <hi rend='italic'>Wendische +Sagen, Märchen und abergläubische +Gebräuche</hi>, p. 445; J. Haltrich, <hi rend='italic'>Zur +Volkskunde der Siebenbürger Sachsen</hi>, +p. 313; E. Krause, <q>Abergläubische +Kuren und sonstiger Aberglaube in +Berlin,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Zeitschrift für Ethnologie</hi>, xv. +(1883) p. 84.</note> +For in all parts of the world a young child is believed to be +especially exposed to supernatural dangers, and particular +precautions are taken to guard it against them; in other +words, the child is under a number of taboos, of which the +rule just mentioned is one. <q>Among Hindus the usual +custom seems to be that the nails of a first-born child are +cut at the age of six months. With other children a year +<pb n='263'/><anchor id='Pg263'/> +or two is allowed to elapse.</q><note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>Panjab Notes and Queries</hi>, ii. p. +205, § 1092.</note> The Slave, Hare, and Dogrib +Indians of North-West America do not pare the nails of female +children till they are four years of age.<note place='foot'>G. Gibbs, <q>Notes on the Tinneh +or Chepewyan Indians of British and +Russian America,</q> in <hi rend='italic'>Annual Report +of the Smithsonian Institution</hi>, 1866, +p. 305; W. Dall, <hi rend='italic'>Alaska and its +Resources</hi>, p. 202. The reason alleged +by the Indians is that if the girls' nails +were cut sooner the girls would be lazy +and unable to embroider in porcupine +quill-work. But this is probably a +late invention like the reasons assigned +in Europe for the similar custom, of +which the commonest is that the child +would become a thief if its nails were +cut.</note> In Uganda a child's +hair may not be cut until the child has received a name. +Should any of it be rubbed or plucked off accidentally, it is +refastened to the child's head with string or by being knotted +to the other hair.<note place='foot'>J. Roscoe, <q>Further Notes on the +Manners and Customs of the Baganda,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Journal of the Anthropological Institute</hi>, +xxxii. (1902) p. 30.</note> Amongst the Ewe negroes of the Slave +Coast, a mother sometimes vows a sacrifice to the fetish if +her infant should live. She then leaves the child unshorn +till its fourth or sixth year, when she fulfils her vow and has +the child's hair cut by a priest.<note place='foot'>Lieut. Herold, <q>Religiöse Anschauungen +und Gebräuche der deutschen +Ewe-Neger,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Mittheilungen aus +den Deutschen Schutzgebieten</hi>, v. 148 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> To this day a Syrian +mother will sometimes, like Hannah, devote her little one to +God. When the child reaches a certain age, its hair is cut +and weighed, and money is paid in proportion to the weight. +If the boy thus dedicated is a Moslem, he becomes in time +a dervish; if he is a Christian, he becomes a monk.<note place='foot'>S. J. Curtiss, <hi rend='italic'>Primitive Semitic +Religion To-day</hi> (Chicago, etc., 1902), +p.153.</note> Among +the Toradjas of central Celebes, when a child's hair is cut +to rid it of vermin, some locks are allowed to remain on the +crown of the head as a refuge for one of the child's souls. +Otherwise the soul would have no place in which to settle, +and the child would sicken.<note place='foot'>A. C. Kruyt, <q>Het koppensnellen +der Toradja's,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Verslagen en Mededeelingen +der konink. Akademie van +Wetenschapen</hi>, Afdeeling Letterkunde, +iv. Reeks, iii. 198 n<hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi> (Amsterdam, +1899).</note> The Karo-Bataks of Sumatra +are much afraid of frightening away the soul (<foreign rend='italic'>tĕndi</foreign>) of a +child; hence when they cut its hair, they always leave a +patch unshorn, to which the soul can retreat before the +shears. Usually this lock remains unshorn all through life, +or at least up till manhood.<note place='foot'>R. Römer, <q>Bijdrage tot de Geneeskunst +der Karo-Batak's,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Tijdschrift +voor Indische Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde</hi>, +i. (1908) p. 216.</note> In some parts of Germany it +<pb n='264'/><anchor id='Pg264'/> +is thought that if a child's hair is combed in its first year +the child will be unlucky;<note place='foot'>O. Knoop, <hi rend='italic'>Volkssagen, Erzählungen, +etc., aus dem östlichen Hinterpommern</hi> +(Posen, 1885), p. 157, § 23.</note> or that if a boy's hair is cut +before his seventh year he will have no courage.<note place='foot'>J. W. Wolf, <hi rend='italic'>Beiträge zur deutschen +Mythologie</hi>, i. p. 209, § 57.</note> +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<index index='toc'/> +<index index='pdf' level1='7. Ceremonies at Hair-cutting.'/> +<head>§ 7. Ceremonies at Hair-cutting.</head> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Solemn +ceremonies +observed at +hair-cutting.</note> +But when it becomes necessary to crop the hair, measures +are taken to lessen the dangers which are supposed to attend +the operation. The chief of Namosi in Fiji always ate a +man by way of precaution when he had had his hair cut. +<q>There was a certain clan that had to provide the victim, +and they used to sit in solemn council among themselves to +choose him. It was a sacrificial feast to avert evil from the +chief.</q><note place='foot'>Rev. Lorimer Fison, in a letter +to the author, dated August 26, +1898.</note> This remarkable custom has been described more +fully by another observer. The old heathen temple at Namosi +is called Rukunitambua, <q>and round about it are hundreds +of stones, each of which tells a fearful tale. A subject tribe, +whose town was some little distance from Namosi, had +committed an unpardonable offence, and were condemned +to a frightful doom. The earth-mound on which their +temple had stood was planted with the mountain <foreign rend='italic'>ndalo</foreign> +(arum), and when the crop was ripe, the poor wretches had +to carry it down to Namosi, and give at least one of their +number to be killed and eaten by the chief. He used to +take advantage of these occasions to have his hair cut, +for the human sacrifice was supposed to avert all danger +of witchcraft if any ill-wisher got hold of the cuttings of his +hair, human hair being the most dangerous channel for the +deadliest spells of the sorcerers. The stones round Rukunitambua +represented these and other victims who had been +killed and eaten at Namosi. Each stone was the record of +a murder succeeded by a cannibal feast.</q><note place='foot'>From the report of a lecture +delivered in Melbourne, December +9, 1898, by the Rev. H. Worrall, +of Fiji, missionary. The newspaper +cutting from which the above extract +is quoted was sent to me by the Rev. +Lorimer Fison in a letter, dated Melbourne, +January 9, 1899. Mr. Fison +omitted to give the name and date of +the newspaper.</note> Amongst the +Maoris many spells were uttered at hair-cutting; one, for +<pb n='265'/><anchor id='Pg265'/> +example, was spoken to consecrate the obsidian knife with +which the hair was cut; another was pronounced to avert +the thunder and lightning which hair-cutting was believed to +cause.<note place='foot'>R. Taylor, <hi rend='italic'>Te Ika a Maui, or +New Zealand and its Inhabitants</hi><hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi> +(London, 1870), pp. 206 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></note> <q>He who has had his hair cut is in immediate charge +of the Atua (spirit); he is removed from the contact and +society of his family and his tribe; he dare not touch his +food himself; it is put into his mouth by another person; +nor can he for some days resume his accustomed occupations +or associate with his fellow-men.</q><note place='foot'>Richard A. Cruise, <hi rend='italic'>Journal of a +Ten Months' Residence in New Zealand</hi> +(London, 1823), pp. 283 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> Compare +J. Dumont D'Urville, <hi rend='italic'>Voyage autour du +monde et à la recherche de La Pérouse: +histoire du voyage</hi> (Paris, 1832), ii. 533.</note> The person who cuts +the hair is also tabooed; his hands having been in contact +with a sacred head, he may not touch food with them or +engage in any other employment; he is fed by another +person with food cooked over a sacred fire. He cannot be +released from the taboo before the following day, when he +rubs his hands with potato or fern root which has been +cooked on a sacred fire; and this food having been taken to +the head of the family in the female line and eaten by her, +his hands are freed from the taboo. In some parts of New +Zealand the most sacred day of the year was that appointed +for hair-cutting; the people assembled in large numbers on +that day from all the neighbourhood.<note place='foot'>E. Shortland, <hi rend='italic'>Traditions and +Superstitions of the New Zealanders</hi>, +pp. 108 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>; R. Taylor, <hi rend='italic'>l.c.</hi></note> Sometimes a Maori +chief's hair was shorn by his wife, who was then tabooed for +a week as a consequence of having touched his sacred locks.<note place='foot'>G. F. Angas, <hi rend='italic'>Savage Life and +Scenes in Australia and New Zealand</hi> +(London, 1847), ii. 90 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> +It is an affair of state when the king of Cambodia's hair is +cropped. The priests place on the barber's fingers certain old +rings set with large stones, which are supposed to contain +spirits favourable to the kings, and during the operation the +Brahmans keep up a noisy music to drive away the evil +spirits.<note place='foot'>J. Moura, <hi rend='italic'>Le Royaume du Cambodge</hi>, +i. 226 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> The hair and nails of the Mikado could only be cut +while he was asleep,<note place='foot'>See above, p. <ref target='Pg003'>3</ref>.</note> perhaps because his soul being then +absent from his body, there was less chance of injuring it +with the shears. +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Ceremonies +at +cutting the +hair of +Siamese +children.</note> +From their earliest days little Siamese children have the +<pb n='266'/><anchor id='Pg266'/> +crown of the head clean shorn with the exception of a single +small tuft of hair, which is daily combed, twisted, oiled, and +tied in a little knot until the day when it is finally removed +with great pomp and ceremony. The ceremony of shaving +the top-knot takes place before the child has reached puberty, +and great anxiety is felt at this time lest the <foreign rend='italic'>kwun</foreign>, or +guardian-spirit who commonly resides in the body and +especially the head of every Siamese,<note place='foot'>See above, p. <ref target='Pg252'>252</ref>.</note> should be so disturbed +by the tonsure as to depart and leave the child a hopeless +wreck for life. Great pains are therefore taken to recall this +mysterious being in case he should have fled, and to fix him +securely in the child. This is the object of an elaborate +ceremony performed on the afternoon of the day when the +top-knot has been cut. A miniature pagoda is erected, and +on it are placed several kinds of food known to be favourites +of the spirit. When the <foreign rend='italic'>kwun</foreign> has arrived and is feasting +on these dainties, he is caught and held fast under a cloth +thrown over the food. The child is now placed near the +pagoda, and all the family and friends form a circle, with the +child, the captured spirit, and the Brahman priests in the +middle. Hereupon the priests address the spirit, earnestly +entreating him to enter into the child. They amuse him +with tales, and coax and wheedle him with flattery, jest, and +song; the gongs ring out their loudest; the people cheer +and only a <foreign rend='italic'>kwun</foreign> of the sourest and most obdurate disposition +could resist the combined appeal. The last sentences of +the formal invocation run as follows: <q>Benignant <foreign rend='italic'>kwun</foreign>! +Thou fickle being who art wont to wander and dally about! +From the moment that the child was conceived in the +womb, thou hast enjoyed every pleasure, until ten (lunar) +months having elapsed and the time of delivery arrived, +thou hast suffered and run the risk of perishing by being +born alive into the world. Gracious <foreign rend='italic'>kwun</foreign>! thou wast at +that time so tender, delicate, and wavering as to cause great +anxiety concerning thy fate; thou was exactly like a child, +youthful, innocent, and inexperienced. The least trifle +frightened thee and made thee shudder. In thy infantile +playfulness thou wast wont to frolic and wander to no +purpose. As thou didst commence to learn to sit, and, +<pb n='267'/><anchor id='Pg267'/> +unassisted, to crawl totteringly on all fours, thou wast ever +falling flat on thy face or on thy back. As thou didst grow +up in years and couldst move thy steps firmly, thou didst +begin to run and sport thoughtlessly and rashly all round +the rooms, the terrace, and bridging planks of travelling boat +or floating house, and at times thou didst fall into the +stream, creek, or pond, among the floating water-weeds, to +the utter dismay of those to whom thy existence was most +dear. O gentle <foreign rend='italic'>kwun</foreign>, come into thy corporeal abode; do +not delay this auspicious rite. Thou art now full-grown and +dost form everybody's delight and admiration. Let all the +tiny particles of <foreign rend='italic'>kwun</foreign> that have fallen on land or water +assemble and take permanent abode in this darling little +child. Let them all hurry to the site of this auspicious +ceremony and admire the magnificent preparations made for +them in this hall.</q> The brocaded cloth from the pagoda, +under which lurks the captive spirit, is now rolled up tightly +and handed to the child, who is told to clasp it firmly to +his breast and not let the <foreign rend='italic'>kwun</foreign> escape. Further, the child +drinks the milk of the coco-nuts which had been offered to +the spirit, and by thus absorbing the food of the <foreign rend='italic'>kwun</foreign> +ensures the presence of that precious spirit in his body. A +magic cord is tied round his wrist to keep off the wicked +spirits who would lure the <foreign rend='italic'>kwun</foreign> away from home; and for +three nights he sleeps with the embroidered cloth from the +pagoda fast clasped in his arms.<note place='foot'>E. Young, <hi rend='italic'>The Kingdom of the +Yellow Robe</hi> (Westminster, 1898), +pp. 64 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 67-84. I have abridged +the account of the ceremonies by +omitting some details. For an account +of the ceremonies observed at cutting +the hair of a young Siamese prince, +at the age of thirteen or fourteen, +see Mgr. Bruguière, in <hi rend='italic'>Annales de +l'Association de la Propagation de la +Foi</hi>, v. (1831) pp. 197 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<index index='toc'/> +<index index='pdf' level1='8. Disposal of Cut Hair and Nails.'/> +<head>§ 8. Disposal of Cut Hair and Nails.</head> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Belief that +people +may be +bewitched +through +the clippings +of +their hair, +the parings +of their +nails, and +other +severed +parts +of their +persons.</note> +But even when the hair and nails have been safely cut, +there remains the difficulty of disposing of them, for their +owner believes himself liable to suffer from any harm that +may befall them. The notion that a man may be +bewitched by means of the clippings of his hair, the parings +of his nails, or any other severed portion of his person is +<pb n='268'/><anchor id='Pg268'/> +almost world-wide,<note place='foot'>The aboriginal tribes of Central +Australia form an exception to this +rule; for among them no attempt is +made to injure a person by performing +magical ceremonies over his shorn hair. +See Spencer and Gillen, <hi rend='italic'>Northern +Tribes of Central Australia</hi>, p. 478.</note> and attested by evidence too ample, +too familiar, and too tedious in its uniformity to be here +analysed at length. The general idea on which the +superstition rests is that of the sympathetic connexion +supposed to persist between a person and everything that +has once been part of his body or in any way closely related +to him. A very few examples must suffice. They belong +to that branch of sympathetic magic which may be called +contagious.<note place='foot'>See <hi rend='italic'>The Magic Art and the Evolution +of Kings</hi>, vol. i. pp. 52-54, 174 +<hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></note> Thus, when the Chilote Indians, inhabiting the +wild, deeply indented coasts and dark rain-beaten forests +of southern Chili, get possession of the hair of an enemy, +they drop it from a high tree or tie it to a piece of +seaweed and fling it into the surf; for they think that the +shock of the fall, or the blows of the waves as the tress is +tossed to and fro on the heaving billows, will be transmitted +through the hair to the person from whose head it was cut.<note place='foot'>C. Martin, <q>Über die Eingeborenen +von Chiloe,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Zeitschrift für +Ethnologie</hi>, ix. (1877) p. 177.</note> +Dread of sorcery, we are told, formed one of the most salient +characteristics of the Marquesan islanders in the old days. +The sorcerer took some of the hair, spittle, or other bodily +refuse of the man he wished to injure, wrapped it up in a leaf, +and placed the packet in a bag woven of threads or fibres, +which were knotted in an intricate way. The whole was then +buried with certain rites, and thereupon the victim wasted away +of a languishing sickness which lasted twenty days. His life, +however, might be saved by discovering and digging up the +buried hair, spittle, or what not; for as soon as this was +done the power of the charm ceased.<note place='foot'>Vincendon-Dumoulin et C. Desgraz, +<hi rend='italic'>Îles Marquises</hi> (Paris, 1843), pp. +247 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> A Marquesan chief +told Lieutenant Gamble that he was extremely ill, the +Happah tribe having stolen a lock of his hair and buried it +in a plantain leaf for the purpose of taking his life. +Lieutenant Gamble argued with him, but in vain; die he +must unless the hair and the plantain leaf were brought back +to him; and to obtain them he had offered the Happahs the +greater part of his property. He complained of excessive +<pb n='269'/><anchor id='Pg269'/> +pain in the head, breast, and sides.<note place='foot'>D. Porter, <hi rend='italic'>Journal of a Cruise +made to the Pacific Ocean</hi><hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi> (New York, +1882), ii. 188.</note> A Maori sorcerer +intent on bewitching somebody sought to get a tress +of his victim's hair, the parings of his nails, some of his +spittle, or a shred of his garment. Having obtained the +object, whatever it was, he chanted certain spells and curses +over it in a falsetto voice and buried it in the ground. As +the thing decayed, the person to whom it had belonged was +supposed to waste away.<note place='foot'>R. Taylor, <hi rend='italic'>Te Ika a Maui, or +New Zealand and its Inhabitants</hi>,<hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi> pp. +203 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; A. S. Thomson, <hi rend='italic'>The Story +of New Zealand</hi> (London, 1859), i. +116 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> Again, an Australian girl, sick of +a fever, laid the blame of her illness on a young man who +had come behind her and cut off a lock of her hair; she was +sure he had buried it and that it was rotting. <q>Her hair,</q> +she said, <q>was rotting somewhere, and her <foreign rend='italic'>Marm-bu-la</foreign> +(kidney fat) was wasting away, and when her hair had +completely rotted, she would die.</q><note place='foot'>R. Brough Smyth, <hi rend='italic'>Aborigines of +Victoria</hi>, i. 468 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> When an Australian +blackfellow wishes to get rid of his wife, he cuts off a lock of +her hair in her sleep, ties it to his spear-thrower, and goes with +it to a neighbouring tribe, where he gives it to a friend. His +friend sticks the spear-thrower up every night before the +camp fire, and when it falls down it is a sign that the wife +is dead.<note place='foot'>J. Dawson, <hi rend='italic'>Australian Aborigines</hi>, +p. 36.</note> The way in which the charm operates was +explained to Dr. Howitt by a Wirajuri man. <q>You see,</q> +he said, <q>when a blackfellow doctor gets hold of something +belonging to a man and roasts it with things, and sings over +it, the fire catches hold of the smell of the man, and that +settles the poor fellow.</q><note place='foot'>A. W. Howitt, <q>On Australian +Medicine-men,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Journal of the Anthropological +Institute</hi>, xvi. (1887) p. 27. +Compare <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, <hi rend='italic'>Native Tribes of South-East +Australia</hi>, pp. 360 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> A slightly different form of the +charm as practised in Australia is to fasten the enemy's hair +with wax to the pinion bone of a hawk, and set the bone in +a small circle of fire. According as the sorcerer desires the +death or only the sickness of his victim he leaves the bone +in the midst of the fire or removes it and lays it in the sun. +When he thinks he has done his enemy enough harm, he +places the bone in water, which ends the enchantment.<note place='foot'>E. Palmer, <q>Notes on some Australian +Tribes,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Journal of the Anthropological +Institute</hi>, xiii. (1884) p. 293.</note> +<pb n='270'/><anchor id='Pg270'/> +Lucian describes how a Syrian witch professed to bring back +a faithless lover to his forsaken fair one by means of a lock +of his hair, his shoes, his garments, or something of that +sort. She hung the hair, or whatever it was, on a peg and +fumigated it with brimstone, sprinkling salt on the fire and +mentioning the names of the lover and his lass. Then she +drew a magic wheel from her bosom and set it spinning, +while she gabbled a spell full of barbarous and fearsome +words. This soon brought the false lover back to the feet of +his charmer.<note place='foot'>Lucian, <hi rend='italic'>Dial. meretr.</hi> iv. 4 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> Apuleius tells how an amorous Thessalian witch +essayed to win the affections of a handsome Boeotian youth by +similar means. As darkness fell she mounted the roof, and +there, surrounded by a hellish array of dead men's bones, she +knotted the severed tresses of auburn hair and threw them on +the glowing embers of a perfumed fire. But her cunning handmaid +had outwitted her; the hair was only goat's hair; and +all her enchantments ended in dismal and ludicrous failure.<note place='foot'>Apuleius, <hi rend='italic'>Metamorph.</hi> iii. 16 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi> +For more evidence of the same sort, see +Th. Williams, <hi rend='italic'>Fiji and the Fijians</hi>,<hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi> i. +248; James Bonwick, <hi rend='italic'>Daily Life of the +Tasmanians</hi>, p. 178; James Chalmers, +<hi rend='italic'>Pioneering in New Guinea</hi>, p. 187; +J. S. Polack, <hi rend='italic'>Manners and Customs of +the New Zealanders</hi>, i. 282; A. Bastian, +<hi rend='italic'>Die Völker des östlichen Asien</hi>, iii. +270; G. H. von Langsdorff, <hi rend='italic'>Reise um +die Welt</hi>, i. 134 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; W. Ellis, <hi rend='italic'>Polynesian +Researches</hi>,<hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi> i. 364; A. B. Ellis, +<hi rend='italic'>Ewe-speaking peoples of the Slave Coast</hi>, +p. 99; R. H. Codrington, <hi rend='italic'>The +Melanesians</hi>, p. 203; K. von den +Steinen, <hi rend='italic'>Unter den Naturvölkern Zentral-Brasiliens</hi>, +p. 343; Miss Mary H. +Kingsley, <hi rend='italic'>Travels in West Africa</hi>, p. +447; I. V. Zingerle, <hi rend='italic'>Sitten, Bräuche +und Meinungen des Tiroler Volkes</hi>,<hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi> +§ 178; R. Andree, <hi rend='italic'>Ethnographische +Parallelen und Vergleiche</hi>, Neue Folge, +pp. 12 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>; E. S. Hartland, <hi rend='italic'>Legend +of Perseus</hi>, ii. 64-74, 132-139.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Clipped +hair may +cause headache.</note> +The Huzuls of the Carpathians imagine that if mice get +a person's shorn hair and make a nest of it, the person will +suffer from headache or even become idiotic.<note place='foot'>R. F. Kaindl, <q>Neue Beiträge +zur Ethnologie und Volkeskunde der +Huzulen,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Globus</hi>, lxix. (1896) p. 94.</note> Similarly in +Germany it is a common notion that if birds find a person's +cut hair, and build their nests with it, the person will suffer +from headache;<note place='foot'>E. Meier, <hi rend='italic'>Deutsche Sagen, Sitten +und Gebräuche aus Schwaben</hi>, p. 509; +A. Birlinger, <hi rend='italic'>Volksthümliches aus +Schwaben</hi>, i. 493; F. Panzer, <hi rend='italic'>Beitrag +zur deutschen Mythologie</hi>, i. 258; J. A. +E. Köhler, <hi rend='italic'>Volksbrauch</hi>, etc., <hi rend='italic'>im +Voigtlande</hi>, p. 425; A. Witzschel, +<hi rend='italic'>Sagen, Sitten und Gebräuche aus +Thüringen</hi>, p. 282; I. V. Zingerle, +<hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> § 180; J. W. Wolf, <hi rend='italic'>Beiträge +zur deutschen Mythologie</hi>, i. p. 224, +§ 273. A similar belief prevails among +the gypsies of Eastern Europe (H. von +Wlislocki, <hi rend='italic'>Volksglaube und religiöser +Brauch der Zigeuner</hi>, p. 81).</note> sometimes it is thought that he will have +an eruption on the head.<note place='foot'>I. V. Zingerle, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> § 181.</note> The same superstition prevails, +<pb n='271'/><anchor id='Pg271'/> +or used to prevail, in West Sussex. <q>I knew how it would +be,</q> exclaimed a maidservant one day, <q>when I saw that +bird fly off with a bit of my hair in its beak that blew out +of the window this morning when I was dressing; I knew I +should have a clapping headache, and so I have.</q><note place='foot'>Charlotte Latham, <q>Some West +Sussex Superstitions,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Folk-lore Record</hi>, +i. (1878) p. 40.</note> In like +manner the Scottish Highlanders believe that if cut or loose +hair is allowed to blow away with the wind and it passes +over an empty nest, or a bird takes it to its nest, the head +from which it came will ache.<note place='foot'>J. G. Campbell, <hi rend='italic'>Superstitions of +the Highlands and Islands of Scotland</hi> +(Glasgow, 1900), p. 237.</note> The Todas of southern India +hide their clipped hair in bushes or hollows in the rocks, in +order that it may not be found by crows, and they bury the +parings of their nails lest they should be eaten by buffaloes, +with whom, it is believed, they would disagree.<note place='foot'>W. H. R. Rivers, <hi rend='italic'>The Todas</hi> +(London, 1906), pp. 268 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Cut hair +may cause +rain, hail, +thunder +and lightning. Magical +uses of +cut hair.</note> +Again it is thought that cut or combed-out hair may +disturb the weather by producing rain and hail, thunder and +lightning. We have seen that in New Zealand a spell was +uttered at hair-cutting to avert thunder and lightning. In the +Tyrol, witches are supposed to use cut or combed-out hair to +make hailstones or thunderstorms with.<note place='foot'>I. V. Zingerle, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> §§ 176, 179.</note> Thlinkeet Indians +have been known to attribute stormy weather to the rash +act of a girl who had combed her hair outside of the house.<note place='foot'>A. Krause, <hi rend='italic'>Die Tlinkit-Indianer</hi> +(Jena, 1885), p. 300.</note> +The Romans seem to have held similar views, for it was a +maxim with them that no one on shipboard should cut his +hair or nails except in a storm,<note place='foot'>Petronius, <hi rend='italic'>Sat.</hi> 104.</note> that is, when the mischief +was already done. In the Highlands of Scotland it is said +that no sister should comb her hair at night if she have a +brother at sea.<note place='foot'>J. G. Campbell, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> pp. 236 +<hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> In West Africa, when the Mani of Chitombe +or Jumba died, the people used to run in crowds to the +corpse and tear out his hair, teeth, and nails, which they +kept as a rain-charm, believing that otherwise no rain would +fall. The Makoko of the Anzikos begged the missionaries +to give him half their beards as a rain-charm.<note place='foot'>A. Bastian, <hi rend='italic'>Die deutsche Expedition +an der Loango-Küste</hi>, i. 231 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, +<hi rend='italic'>Ein Besuch in San Salvador</hi>, pp. 117 +<hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> When +Du Chaillu had his hair cut among the Ashira of West +<pb n='272'/><anchor id='Pg272'/> +Africa, the people scuffled and fought for the clippings of +his hair, even the aged king himself taking part in the +scrimmage. Every one who succeeded in getting some +of the hairs wrapped them up carefully and went off in +triumph. When the traveller, who was regarded as a spirit +by these simple-minded folk, asked the king what use the +clippings could be to him, his sable majesty replied, <q>Oh, +spirit! these hairs are very precious; we shall make <foreign rend='italic'>mondas</foreign> +(fetiches) of them, and they will bring other white men to +us, and bring us great good luck and riches. Since you +have come to us, oh spirit! we have wished to have some +of your hair, but did not dare to ask for it, not knowing +that it could be cut.</q><note place='foot'>P. B. du Chaillu, <hi rend='italic'>Explorations +and Adventures in Equatorial Africa</hi> +(London, 1861), pp. 426 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> The Wabondei of eastern Africa +preserve the hair and nails of their dead chiefs and +use them both for the making of rain and the healing +of the sick.<note place='foot'>O. Baumann, <hi rend='italic'>Usambara und +seine Nachbargebiete</hi> (Berlin, 1891), +p. 141.</note> The hair, beard, and nails of their deceased +chiefs are the most sacred possession, the most precious +treasure of the Baronga of south-eastern Africa. Preserved +in pellets of cow-dung wrapt round with leathern +thongs, they are kept in a special hut under the charge +of a high priest, who offers sacrifices and prayers at +certain seasons, and has to observe strict continence for a +month before he handles these holy relics in the offices of +religion. A terrible drought was once the result of this +palladium falling into the hands of the enemy.<note place='foot'>A. Junod, <hi rend='italic'>Les Ba-Ronga</hi> (Neuchâtel, +1898), pp. 398-400.</note> In some +Victorian tribes the sorcerer used to burn human hair in +time of drought; it was never burned at other times for fear +of causing a deluge of rain. Also when the river was low, +the sorcerer would place human hair in the stream to +increase the supply of water.<note place='foot'>W. Stanbridge, <q>On the Aborigines +of Victoria,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Transactions of the +Ethnological Society of London</hi>, N.S., +i. (1861) p. 300.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Cut hair +and nails +may be +used as +hostages +for good +behaviour +of the +persons +from whose +bodies they +have been +taken.</note> +If cut hair and nails remain in sympathetic connexion +with the person from whose body they have been severed, +it is clear that they can be used as hostages for his good +behaviour by any one who may chance to possess them; +for on the principles of contagious magic he has only to +<pb n='273'/><anchor id='Pg273'/> +injure the hair or nails in order to hurt simultaneously +their original owner. Hence when the Nandi have taken +a prisoner they shave his head and keep the shorn hair as +a surety that he will not attempt to escape; but when the +captive is ransomed, they return his shorn hair with him +to his own people.<note place='foot'>A. C. Hollis, <hi rend='italic'>The Nandi</hi> (Oxford, +1909), pp. 30, 74 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> For a similar reason, perhaps, when the +Tiaha, an Arab tribe of Moab, have taken a prisoner whom +they do not wish to put to death, they shave one corner of +his head above his temples and let him go. So, too, an +Arab of Moab who pardons a murderer will sometimes +cut off the man's hair and shave his chin before releasing +him. Again, when two Moabite Arabs had got hold of a +traitor who had revealed their plan of campaign to the +enemy, they contented themselves with shaving completely +one side of his head and his moustache on the other, +after which they set him at liberty.<note place='foot'>Le P. A. Jaussen, <hi rend='italic'>Coutumes des +Arabes au pays de Moab</hi> (Paris, 1908), +pp. 94 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> We can now, perhaps, +understand why Hanun King of Ammon shaved off one-half +of the beards of King David's messengers and cut +off half their garments before he sent them back to their +master.<note place='foot'>2 Samuel, x. 4.</note> His intention, we may conjecture, was not simply +to put a gross affront on the envoys. He distrusted the +ambitious designs of King David and wished to have some +guarantee of the maintenance of peace and friendly relations +between the two countries. That guarantee he may have +imagined that he possessed in half of the beards and +garments of the ambassadors; and if that was so, we may +suppose that when the indignant David set the army of +Israel in motion against Ammon, and the fords of Jordan +were alive with the passage of his troops, the wizards of +Ammon were busy in the strong keep of Rabbah muttering +their weird spells and performing their quaint enchantments +over the shorn hair and severed skirts in order to dispel the +thundercloud of war that was gathering black about their +country. Vain hopes! The city fell, and from the gates +the sad inhabitants trooped forth in thousands to be laid +in long lines on the ground and sawed asunder or ripped +up with harrows or to walk into the red glow of the +<pb n='274'/><anchor id='Pg274'/> +burning brick kilns.<note place='foot'>2 Samuel, x., xii. 26-31.</note> Again, the parings of nails may serve +the same purpose as the clippings of hair; they too may +be treated as bail for the good behaviour of the persons +from whose fingers they have been cut. It is apparently +on this principle that when the Ba-yaka of the Congo +valley cement a peace, the chiefs of the two tribes meet +and eat a cake which contains some of their nail-parings +as a pledge of the maintenance of the treaty. They believe +that he who breaks an engagement contracted in this solemn +manner will die.<note place='foot'>R. Torday and T. A. Joyce, +<q>Notes on the Ethnography of the +Ba-Yaka,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Journal of the Anthropological +Institute</hi>, xxxvi. (1906) p. 49.</note> Each of the high contracting parties has +in fact given hostages to fortune in the shape of the nail-parings +which are lodged in the other man's stomach. +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Cut hair +and nails +are deposited +in +sacred +places, +such as +temples +and cemeteries, +to +preserve +them from +injury. Cut hair +and nails +buried +under +certain +trees or +deposited +among the +branches.</note> +To preserve the cut hair and nails from injury and from +the dangerous uses to which they may be put by sorcerers, +it is necessary to deposit them in some safe place. Hence +the natives of the Maldives carefully keep the cuttings of +their hair and nails and bury them, with a little water, in +the cemeteries; <q>for they would not for the world tread +upon them nor cast them in the fire, for they say that they +are part of their body, and demand burial as it does; and, +indeed, they fold them neatly in cotton; and most of them +like to be shaved at the gates of temples and mosques.</q><note place='foot'>François Pyrard, <hi rend='italic'>Voyages to the +East Indies, the Maldives, the Moluccas, +and Brazil</hi>, translated by Albert Gray +(Hakluyt Society, 1887), i. 110 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> +In New Zealand the severed hair was deposited on some +sacred spot of ground <q>to protect it from being touched +accidentally or designedly by any one.</q><note place='foot'>E. Shortland, <hi rend='italic'>Traditions and +Superstitions of the New Zealanders</hi>, +p. 110.</note> The shorn locks +of a chief were gathered with much care and placed in an +adjoining cemetery.<note place='foot'>J. S. Polack, <hi rend='italic'>Manners and Customs +of the New Zealanders</hi>, i. 38 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> +Compare G. F. Angas, <hi rend='italic'>Savage Life +and Scenes in Australia and New +Zealand</hi> (London, 1847), ii. 108 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> The Tahitians buried the cuttings of +their hair at the temples.<note place='foot'>James Wilson, <hi rend='italic'>A Missionary Voyage +to the Southern Pacific Ocean</hi> +(London, 1799), p. 355.</note> In the streets of Soku, West +Africa, a modern traveller observed cairns of large stones +piled against walls with tufts of human hair inserted in the +crevices. On asking the meaning of this, he was told that +when any native of the place polled his hair he carefully +<pb n='275'/><anchor id='Pg275'/> +gathered up the clippings and deposited them in one of these +cairns, all of which were sacred to the fetish and therefore +inviolable. These cairns of sacred stones, he further learned, +were simply a precaution against witchcraft, for if a man +were not thus careful in disposing of his hair, some of it +might fall into the hands of his enemies, who would, by +means of it, be able to cast spells over him and so compass +his destruction.<note place='foot'>R. A. Freeman, <hi rend='italic'>Travels and Life +in Ashanti and Jaman</hi> (Westminster, +1898), pp. 171 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> When the top-knot of a Siamese child has +been cut with great ceremony, the short hairs are put into +a little vessel made of plantain leaves and set adrift on the +nearest river or canal. As they float away, all that was +wrong or harmful in the child's disposition is believed to +depart with them. The long hairs are kept till the child +makes a pilgrimage to the holy Footprint of Buddha on the +sacred hill at Prabat. They are then presented to the +priests, who are supposed to make them into brushes with +which they sweep the Footprint; but in fact so much hair +is thus offered every year that the priests cannot use it all, +so they quietly burn the superfluity as soon as the pilgrims' +backs are turned.<note place='foot'>E. Young, <hi rend='italic'>The Kingdom of the +Yellow Robe</hi>, p. 79.</note> The cut hair and nails of the Flamen +Dialis were buried under a lucky tree.<note place='foot'>Aulus Gellius, x. 15. 15. The +ancients were not agreed as to the distinction +between lucky and unlucky +trees. According to Cato and Pliny, +trees that bore fruit were lucky, and +trees which did not were unlucky +(Festus, ed. C. O. Müller, p. 29, <hi rend='italic'>s.v.</hi> +<hi rend='italic'>Felices</hi>; Pliny, <hi rend='italic'>Nat. Hist.</hi> xvi. 108); +but according to Tarquitius Priscus +those trees were unlucky which were +sacred to the infernal gods and bore +black berries or black fruit (Macrobius, +<hi rend='italic'>Saturn</hi>, ii. 16, but iii. 20 in L. Jan's +edition, Quedlinburg and Leipsic, +1852).</note> The shorn tresses +of the Vestal virgins were hung on an ancient lotus-tree.<note place='foot'>Pliny, <hi rend='italic'>Nat. Hist.</hi> xvi. 235; Festu, +p. 57 ed. C. O. Müller, <hi rend='italic'>s.v.</hi> <hi rend='italic'>Capillatam +vel capillarem arborem</hi>.</note> +In Morocco women often hang their cut hair on a tree that +grows on or near the grave of a wonder-working saint; for +they think thus to rid themselves of headache or to guard +against it.<note place='foot'>M. Quedenfelt, <q>Aberglaube und +halbreligiöse Bruderschaft bei den +Marokkanern,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Verhandlungen der +Berliner Gesellschaft für Anthropologie, +Ethnologie und Urgeschichte</hi>, 1886, p. +(680).</note> In Germany the clippings of hair used often to +be buried under an elder-bush.<note place='foot'>A. Wuttke, <hi rend='italic'>Der deutsche Volksaberglaube</hi>,<hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi> +pp. 294 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, § 464.</note> In Oldenburg cut hair and +nails are wrapt in a cloth which is deposited in a hole in an +<pb n='276'/><anchor id='Pg276'/> +elder-tree three days before the new moon; the hole is then +plugged up.<note place='foot'>W. Mannhardt, <hi rend='italic'>Germanische Mythen</hi> +(Berlin, 1858), p. 630.</note> In the West of Northumberland it is thought +that if the first parings of a child's nails are buried under an +ash-tree, the child will turn out a fine singer.<note place='foot'>W. Henderson, <hi rend='italic'>Folk-lore of the +Northern Counties</hi> (London, 1879), +p. 17.</note> In Amboyna, +before a child may taste sago-pap for the first time, the +father cuts off a lock of the infant's hair, which he buries +under a sago-palm.<note place='foot'>J. G. F. Riedel, <hi rend='italic'>De sluik- en +kroesharige rassen tusschen Selebes en +Papua</hi>, p. 74.</note> In the Aru Islands, when a child is +able to run alone, a female relation shears a lock of its +hair and deposits it on a banana-tree.<note place='foot'>J. G. F. Riedel, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> p. 265.</note> In the island of +Rotti it is thought that the first hair which a child gets is +not his own, and that, if it is not cut off, it will make him +weak and ill. Hence, when the child is about a month old, +his hair is polled with much ceremony. As each of the +friends who are invited to the ceremony enters the house he +goes up to the child, snips off a little of its hair and drops it +into a coco-nut shell full of water. Afterwards the father +or another relation takes the hair and packs it into a little +bag made of leaves, which he fastens to the top of a palm-tree. +Then he gives the leaves of the palm a good shaking, +climbs down, and goes home without speaking to any one.<note place='foot'>G. Heijmering, <q>Zeden en gewoonten +op het eiland Rottie,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Tijdschrift +voor Neêrlands Indië</hi>, 1843, dl. ii. pp. +634-637.</note> +Indians of the Yukon territory, Alaska, do not throw away +their cut hair and nails, but tie them up in little bundles +and place them in the crotches of trees or wherever they are +not likely to be disturbed by beasts. For <q>they have a +superstition that disease will follow the disturbance of such +remains by animals.</q><note place='foot'>W. Dall, <hi rend='italic'>Alaska and its Resources</hi> +(London, 1870), p. 54; F. Whymper, +<q>The Natives of the Youkon River,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Transactions of the Ethnological Society +of London</hi>, N.S., vii. (1869) p. +174.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Cut hair +and nails +may be +stowed +away for +safety in +any secret +place.</note> +Often the clipped hair and nails are stowed away in any +secret place, not necessarily in a temple or cemetery or at +a tree, as in the cases already mentioned. Thus in Swabia +you are recommended to deposit your clipped hair in some +spot where neither sun nor moon can shine on it, for example +in the earth or under a stone.<note place='foot'>E. Meier, <hi rend='italic'>Deutsche Sagen, Sitten +und Gebräuche aus Schwaben</hi>, p. +509; A. Birlinger, <hi rend='italic'>Volksthümliches aus +Schwaben</hi>, i. 493.</note> In Danzig it is buried in a +<pb n='277'/><anchor id='Pg277'/> +bag under the threshold.<note place='foot'>W. Mannhardt, <hi rend='italic'>Germanische Mythen</hi>, +p. 630.</note> In Ugi, one of the Solomon +Islands, men bury their hair lest it should fall into the hands +of an enemy who would make magic with it and so bring +sickness or calamity on them.<note place='foot'>H. B. Guppy, <hi rend='italic'>The Solomon Islands +and their Natives</hi> (London, 1887), p. +54.</note> The same fear seems to be +general in Melanesia, and has led to a regular practice of +hiding cut hair and nails.<note place='foot'>R. H. Codrington, <hi rend='italic'>The Melanesians</hi>, +p. 203.</note> In Fiji, the shorn hair is concealed +in the thatch of the house.<note place='foot'>Th. Williams, <hi rend='italic'>Fiji and the Fijians</hi>,<hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi> +i. 249.</note> Most Burmese and Shans tie +the combings of their hair and the parings of their nails to a +stone and sink them in deep water or bury them in the +ground.<note place='foot'>J. G. Scott and J. P. Hardiman, +<hi rend='italic'>Gazetteer of Upper Burma and the Shan +States</hi>, part i. vol. ii. p. 37.</note> The Zend-Avesta directs that the clippings of hair +and the parings of nails shall be placed in separate holes, +and that three, six, or nine furrows shall be drawn round +each hole with a metal knife.<note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>The Zend-Avesta, Vendîdâd</hi> +Fargaard, xvii. (vol. i. pp. 186 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>, +translated by J. Darmesteter, <hi rend='italic'>Sacred +Books of the East</hi>, vol. iv.).</note> In the <hi rend='italic'>Grihya-Sûtras</hi> it is +provided that the hair cut from a child's head at the end of +the first, third, fifth, or seventh year shall be buried in the +earth at a place covered with grass or in the neighbourhood +of water.<note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>Grihya-Sûtras</hi>, translated by H. +Oldenberg, part i. p. 57; compare +<hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, pp. 303, 399, part ii. p. 62 (<hi rend='italic'>Sacred +Books of the East</hi>, vols. xxix., xxx.). +Compare H. Oldenberg, <hi rend='italic'>Die Religion +des Veda</hi>, p. 487.</note> At the end of the period of his studentship a +Brahman has his hair shaved and his nails cut; and a person +who is kindly disposed to him gathers the shorn hair and +the clipped nails, puts them in a lump of bull's dung, and +buries them in a cow-stable or near an <foreign rend='italic'>adumbara</foreign> tree or in +a clump of <foreign rend='italic'>darbha</foreign> grass, with the words, <q>Thus I hide the +sins of So-and-so.</q><note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>Grihya-Sûtras</hi>, translated by H. +Oldenberg, part ii. pp. 165 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, +218.</note> The Madi or Moru tribe of central +Africa bury the parings of their nails in the ground.<note place='foot'>R. W. Felkin, <q>Notes on the +Madi or Moru Tribe of Central Africa,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Proceedings of the Royal Society of +Edinburgh</hi>, xii. (1882-84) p. 332.</note> In +Uganda grown people throw away the clippings of their +hair, but carefully bury the parings of their nails.<note place='foot'>Fr. Stuhlmann, <hi rend='italic'>Mit Emin Pascha +ins Herz von Afrika</hi>, p. 185 note. +The same thing was told me in conversation +by the Rev. J. Roscoe, +missionary to Uganda; but I understood +him to mean that the hair was +not carelessly disposed of, but thrown +away in some place where it would not +easily be found.</note> The A-lur +<pb n='278'/><anchor id='Pg278'/> +are careful to collect and bury both their hair and nails in +safe places.<note place='foot'>Fr. Stuhlmann, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> pp. 516 +<hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> The same practice prevails among many tribes +of South Africa, from a fear lest wizards should get hold of +the severed particles and work evil with them.<note place='foot'>J. Macdonald, <hi rend='italic'>Light in Africa</hi>, p. +209; <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, <q>Manners, Customs, Superstitions +and Religions of South African +Tribes,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Journal of the Anthropological +Institute</hi>, xx. (1891) p. 131.</note> The Caffres +carry still further this dread of allowing any portion of themselves +to fall into the hands of an enemy; for not only do +they bury their cut hair and nails in a secret spot, but when +one of them cleans the head of another he preserves the +vermin which he catches, <q>carefully delivering them to the +person to whom they originally appertained, supposing, according +to their theory, that as they derived their support +from the blood of the man from whom they were taken, +should they be killed by another, the blood of his neighbour +would be in his possession, thus placing in his hands the +power of some superhuman influence.</q><note place='foot'>A. Steedman, <hi rend='italic'>Wanderings and +Adventures in the Interior of Southern +Africa</hi> (London, 1835), i. 266.</note> Amongst the +Wanyoro of central Africa all cuttings of the hair and nails +are carefully stored under the bed and afterwards strewed +about among the tall grass.<note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>Emin Pasha in Central Africa, +being a Collection of his Letters and +Journals</hi> (London, 1888), p. 74.</note> Similarly the Wahoko of +central Africa take pains to collect their cut hair and nails +and scatter them in the forest.<note place='foot'>Fr. Stuhlmann, <hi rend='italic'>Mit Emin Pascha +ins Herz von Afrika</hi>, p. 625.</note> The Asa, a branch of the +Masai, hide the clippings of their hair and the parings of +their nails or throw them away far from the kraal, lest a +sorcerer should get hold of them and make their original +owners ill by his magic.<note place='foot'>M. Merkel, <hi rend='italic'>Die Masai</hi> (Berlin, +1904), p. 243.</note> In North Guinea the parings of the +finger-nails and the shorn locks of the head are scrupulously +concealed, lest they be converted into a charm for the +destruction of the person to whom they belong.<note place='foot'>J. L. Wilson, <hi rend='italic'>Western Africa</hi>, p. +215.</note> For +the same reason the clipped hair and nail-parings of +chiefs in Southern Nigeria are secretly buried.<note place='foot'>Ch. Partridge, <hi rend='italic'>Cross River Natives</hi> +(London, 1905), pp. 8, 203 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> Among +the Thompson Indians of British Columbia loose hair was +buried, hidden, or thrown into the water, because, if an +<pb n='279'/><anchor id='Pg279'/> +enemy got hold of it, he might bewitch the owner.<note place='foot'>James Teit, <q>The Thompson River +Indians of British Columbia,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Memoir +of the American Museum of Natural +History, The Jesup North Pacific +Expedition</hi>, vol. i. part iv. (April +1900) p. 360.</note> In +Bolang Mongondo, a district of western Celebes, the first +hair cut from a child's head is kept in a young coco-nut, +which is commonly hung on the front of the house, under +the roof.<note place='foot'>N. P. Wilken en J. A. Schwarz, +<q>Allerlei over het land en volk van +Bolaang Mongondou,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Mededeelingen +van wege het Nederlandsche Zendelinggenootschap</hi>, +xi. (1867) p. 322.</note> To spit upon the hair before throwing it away is +thought in some parts of Europe to be a sufficient safeguard +against its use by witches.<note place='foot'>I. V. Zingerle, <hi rend='italic'>Sitten, Bräuche +und Meinungen des Tiroler Volkes</hi><hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi> +(Innsbruck, 1871), §§ 176, 580; +<hi rend='italic'>Mélusine</hi>, 1878, col. 79; E. Monseur, +<hi rend='italic'>Le Folklore Wallon</hi>, p. 91.</note> Spitting as a protective charm +is well known.<note place='foot'>Pliny, <hi rend='italic'>Nat. Hist.</hi>, xxviii. 35; +Theophrastus, <hi rend='italic'>Characters</hi>, <q>The Superstitious +Man</q>; Theocritus, <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi> vi. 39, +vii. 127; Persius, <hi rend='italic'>Sat.</hi> ii. 31 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi> At +the siege of Danzig in 1734, when the +old wives saw a bomb coming, they +used to spit thrice and cry, <q>Fi, ti, fi, +there comes the dragon!</q> in the persuasion +that this secured them against +being hit (Tettau und Temme, <hi rend='italic'>Die +Volkssagen Ostpreussens, Litthauens +und Westpreussens</hi> (Berlin, 1837), p. +284). For more examples, see J. E. B. +Mayor on Juvenal, <hi rend='italic'>Sat.</hi> vii. 112; J. E. +Crombie, <q>The Saliva Superstition,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>International Folk-lore Congress</hi>, 1891, +<hi rend='italic'>Papers and Transactions</hi>, pp. 249 sq.; +C. de Mensignac, <hi rend='italic'>Recherches ethnographiques +sur la salive et le crachat</hi> +(Bordeaux, 1892), pp. 50 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>; F. W. +Nicolson, <q>The Saliva Superstition in +Classical Literature,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Harvard Studies +in Classical Philology</hi>, viii. (1897) pp. +35 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Cut hair +and nails +kept +against the +resurrection.</note> +Sometimes the severed hair and nails are preserved, not +to prevent them from falling into the hands of a magician, +but that the owner may have them at the resurrection of the +body, to which some races look forward. Thus the Incas +of Peru <q>took extreme care to preserve the nail-parings and +the hairs that were shorn off or torn out with a comb; +placing them in holes or niches in the walls; and if they fell +out, any other Indian that saw them picked them up and +put them in their places again. I very often asked different +Indians, at various times, why they did this, in order to see +what they would say, and they all replied in the same words +saying, <q>Know that all persons who are born must return to +life</q> (they have no word to express resuscitation), <q>and the +souls must rise out of their tombs with all that belonged to +their bodies. We, therefore, in order that we may not have +to search for our hair and nails at a time when there will be +much hurry and confusion, place them in one place, that +<pb n='280'/><anchor id='Pg280'/> +they may be brought together more conveniently, and, +whenever it is possible, we are also careful to spit in one +place.</q></q><note place='foot'>Garcilasso de la Vega, <hi rend='italic'>First Part +of the Royal Commentaries of the Yncas</hi>, +bk. ii. ch. 7 (vol. i. p. 127, Markham's +translation).</note> In Chili this custom of stuffing the shorn hair +into holes in the wall is still observed, it being thought the +height of imprudence to throw the hair away.<note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>Mélusine</hi>, 1878, coll. 583 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> Similarly +the Turks never throw away the parings of their nails, but +carefully stow them in cracks of the walls or of the boards, +in the belief that they will be needed at the resurrection.<note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>The People of Turkey</hi>, by a Consul's +daughter and wife, ii. 250.</note> +The Armenians do not throw away their cut hair and nails +and extracted teeth, but hide them in places that are +esteemed holy, such as a crack in the church wall, a pillar +of the house, or a hollow tree. They think that all these +severed portions of themselves will be wanted at the resurrection, +and that he who has not stowed them away in a +safe place will have to hunt about for them on the great +day.<note place='foot'>M. Abeghian, <hi rend='italic'>Der armenische +Volksglaube</hi>, p. 68.</note> With the same intention the Macedonians bury the +parings of their nails in a hole,<note place='foot'>G. F. Abbott, <hi rend='italic'>Macedonian Folklore</hi> +(Cambridge, 1903), p. 214.</note> and devout Moslems in +Morocco hide them in a secret place.<note place='foot'>M. Quedenfelt, <q>Aberglaube und +halbreligiöse Bruderschaft bei den +Marokkanern,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Verhandlungen der +Berliner Gesellschaft für Anthropologie, +Ethnologie und Urgeschichte</hi>, 1886, +p. (680).</note> Similarly the +Arabs of Moab bestow the parings of their nails in the crannies +of walls, where they are sanguine enough to expect to find +them when they appear before their Maker.<note place='foot'>Le P. A. Jaussen, <hi rend='italic'>Coutumes des +Arabes au pays de Moab</hi> (Paris, 1908), +p. 94 note <hi rend='vertical-align: super'>1</hi>.</note> Some of the +Esthonians keep the parings of their finger and toe nails +in their bosom, in order to have them at hand when they +are asked for them at the day of judgment.<note place='foot'>Boecler-Kreutzwald, <hi rend='italic'>Der Ehsten +abergläubische Gebräuche, Weisen und +Gewohnheiten</hi>, p. 139; F. J. Wiedemann, +<hi rend='italic'>Aus dem innern und äussern +Leben der Ehsten</hi>, p. 491.</note> In a like +spirit peasants of the Vosges will sometimes bury their +extracted teeth secretly, marking the spot well so that they +may be able to walk straight to it on the resurrection day.<note place='foot'>L. F. Sauvé, <hi rend='italic'>Le Folk-lore des +Hautes-Vosges</hi> (Paris, 1889), p. 41.</note> +In the village of Drumconrath, near Abbeyleix, in Ireland, +there used to be some old women who, having ascertained +from Scripture that the hairs of their heads were all +<pb n='281'/><anchor id='Pg281'/> +numbered by the Almighty, expected to have to account +for them at the day of judgment. In order to be able to +do so they stuffed the severed hair away in the thatch of +their cottages.<note place='foot'>Miss A. H. Singleton, in a letter +to me, dated Rathmoyle House, +Abbeyleix, Ireland, 24th February +1904.</note> In Abyssinia men who have had their +hands or feet cut off are careful to dry the severed limbs +over a fire and preserve them in butter for the purpose of +being buried with them in the grave. Thus they expect to +get up with all their limbs complete at the general rising.<note place='foot'>Dr. Antoine Petit, in Th. Lefebvre, +<hi rend='italic'>Voyage en Abyssinie</hi>, i. 373.</note> +The pains taken by the Chinese to preserve corpses entire +and free from decay seems to rest on a firm belief in the +resurrection of the dead; hence it is natural to find their +ancient books laying down a rule that the hair, nails, and +teeth which have fallen out during life should be buried with +the dead in the coffin, or at least in the grave.<note place='foot'>J. J. M. de Groot, <hi rend='italic'>The Religious +System of China</hi>, i. 342 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> (Leyden, +1892).</note> The Fors +of central Africa object to cut any one else's nails, for +should the part cut off be lost and not delivered into its +owner's hands, it will have to be made up to him somehow +or other after death. The parings are buried in the ground.<note place='foot'>R. W. Felkin, <q>Notes on the +For Tribe of Central Africa,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Proceedings +of the Royal Society of Edinburgh</hi>, +xiii. (1884-86) p. 230.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Cut hair +and nails +burnt to +prevent +them from +falling +into the +hands of +sorcerers.</note> +Some people burn their loose hair to save it from falling +into the hands of sorcerers. This is done by the Patagonians +and some of the Victorian tribes.<note place='foot'>A. D'Orbigny, <hi rend='italic'>Voyage dans l'Amérique +méridionale</hi>, ii. 93; Lieut. Musters, +<q>On the Races of Patagonia,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Journal +of the Anthropological Institute</hi>, i. +(1872) p. 197; J. Dawson, <hi rend='italic'>Australian +Aborigines</hi>, p. 36. The Patagonians +sometimes throw their hair into a river +instead of burning it.</note> In the Upper Vosges +they say that you should never leave the clippings of your +hair and nails lying about, but burn them to hinder the +sorcerers from using them against you.<note place='foot'>L. F. Sauvé, <hi rend='italic'>Le Folk-lore des +Hautes-Vosges</hi>, p. 170.</note> For the same +reason Italian women either burn their loose hairs or throw +them into a place where no one is likely to look for them.<note place='foot'>Z. Zanetti, <hi rend='italic'>La Medicina delle +nostre donne</hi> (Città di Castello, 1892), +pp. 234 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> +The almost universal dread of witchcraft induces the West +African negroes, the Makololo of South Africa, and the +Tahitians to burn or bury their shorn hair.<note place='foot'>A. B. Ellis, <hi rend='italic'>The Ewe-speaking +Peoples of the Slave Coast</hi>, p. 99; Miss +Mary H. Kingsley, <hi rend='italic'>Travels in West +Africa</hi>, p. 447; R. H. Nassau, <hi rend='italic'>Fetichism +in West Africa</hi> (London, 1904), +p. 83; A. F. Mockler-Ferryman, +<hi rend='italic'>British Nigeria</hi> (London, 1902), +p. 286; David Livingstone, <hi rend='italic'>Narrative +of Expedition to the Zambesi</hi>, pp. 46 +<hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; W. Ellis, <hi rend='italic'>Polynesian Researches</hi>,<hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi> +i. 365. In some parts of New Guinea +cut hair is destroyed for the same +reason (H. H. Romilly, <hi rend='italic'>From my +Verandah in New Guinea</hi>, London, +1889, p. 83).</note> For the +<pb n='282'/><anchor id='Pg282'/> +same reason the natives of Uap, one of the Caroline +Islands, either burn or throw into the sea the clippings +of their hair and the parings of their nails.<note place='foot'>W. H. Furness, <hi rend='italic'>The Island of +Stone Money, Uap of the Carolines</hi> +(Philadelphia and London, 1910), +P. 137.</note> One of the +pygmies who roam through the gloomy depths of the vast +central African forests has been seen to collect carefully the +clippings of his hair in a packet of banana leaves and keep +them till next morning, when, the camp breaking up for the +day's march, he threw them into the hot ashes of the abandoned +fire.<note place='foot'>Fr. Stuhlmann, <hi rend='italic'>Mit Emin Pascha +ins Herz von Afrika</hi>, p. 451.</note> Australian aborigines of the Proserpine River, +in Queensland, burn a woman's cut hair to prevent it from +getting into a man's bag; for if it did, the woman would +fall ill.<note place='foot'>W. E. Roth, <hi rend='italic'>North Queensland +Ethnography, Bulletin No. 5</hi> (Brisbane, +1903), p. 21.</note> When an English officer had cut off a lock of hair +of a Fuegian woman, the men of her party were angry, and +one of them, taking the lock away, threw half of it into the +fire and swallowed the rest. <q>Immediately afterwards, +placing his hands to the fire, as if to warm them, and +looking upwards, he uttered a few words, apparently of +invocation: then, looking at us, pointed upwards, and exclaimed, +with a tone and gesture of explanation, <q><foreign rend='italic'>Pecheray, +Pecheray</foreign>.</q> After which they cut off some hair from several +of the officers who were present, and repeated a similar +ceremony.</q><note place='foot'>Captain R. Fitzroy, <hi rend='italic'>Narrative of +the Surveying Voyages of His Majesty's +Ships Adventure and Beagle</hi>, i. (London, +1839). pp. 313 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> The Thompson Indians used to burn the +parings of their nails, because if an enemy got possession +of the parings he might bewitch the person to whom they +belonged.<note place='foot'>J. Teit, <q>The Thompson Indians +of British Columbia,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Memoir of the +American Museum of Natural History, +The Jesup North Pacific Expedition</hi>, +vol. i. part iv. (April 1900) p. 360.</note> In the Tyrol many people burn their hair +lest the witches should use it to raise thunderstorms; others +burn or bury it to prevent the birds from lining their nests +with it, which would cause the heads from which the hair +came to ache.<note place='foot'>I. V. Zingerle, <hi rend='italic'>Sitten, Bräuche +und Meinungen des Tiroler Volkes</hi><hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi> +(Innsbruck, 1871), p. 28, §§ 177, 179, +180.</note> Cut and combed-out hair is burned in +<pb n='283'/><anchor id='Pg283'/> +Pomerania and sometimes in Belgium.<note place='foot'>U. Jahn, <hi rend='italic'>Hexenwesen und Zauberei +in Pommern</hi> (Breslau, 1886), p. +15; <hi rend='italic'>Mélusine</hi>, 1878, col. 79; E. Monseur, +<hi rend='italic'>Le Folklore Wallon</hi>, p. 91.</note> In Norway the +parings of nails are either burned or buried, lest the elves +or the Finns should find them and make them into bullets +wherewith to shoot the cattle.<note place='foot'>E. H. Meyer, <hi rend='italic'>Indogermanische +Mythen</hi>, ii. <hi rend='italic'>Achilleis</hi> (Berlin, 1877), p. +523.</note> In Corea all the clippings +and combings of the hair of a whole family are carefully +preserved throughout the year and then burned in potsherds +outside the house on the evening of New Year's Day. At +such seasons the streets of Seoul, the capital, present a weird +spectacle. They are for the most part silent and deserted, +sometimes muffled deep in snow; but through the dusk of +twilight red lights glimmer at every door, where little groups +are busy tending tiny fires whose flickering flames cast a +ruddy fitful glow on the moving figures. The burning of +the hair in these fires is thought to exclude demons from +the house for a year; but coupled with this belief may well +be, or once have been, a wish to put these relics out of the +reach of witches and wizards.<note place='foot'>P. Lowell, <hi rend='italic'>Chosön, the Land of +the Morning Calm, a Sketch of Korea</hi> +(London, Preface dated 1885), pp. 199-201; +Mrs. Bishop, <hi rend='italic'>Korea and her +Neighbours</hi> (London, 1898), ii. 55 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Inconsistency +in +burning +cut hair +and nails.</note> +This destruction of the hair and nails plainly involves +an inconsistency of thought. The object of the destruction +is avowedly to prevent these severed portions of the body +from being used by sorcerers. But the possibility of their +being so used depends upon the supposed sympathetic connexion +between them and the man from whom they were +severed. And if this sympathetic connexion still exists, +clearly these severed portions cannot be destroyed without +injury to the man. +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Hair is +sometimes +cut because +it is infected +with the +virus of +taboo. +In these +cases hair-cutting +is +a form of +purification. Hair of +mourners +cut to rid +them of the +pollution +of death.</note> +Before leaving this subject, on which I have perhaps +dwelt too long, it may be well to call attention to the motive +assigned for cutting a young child's hair in Rotti.<note place='foot'>Above, p. <ref target='Pg276'>276</ref>.</note> In that +island the first hair is regarded as a danger to the child, and +its removal is intended to avert the danger. The reason of +this may be that as a young child is almost universally +supposed to be in a tabooed or dangerous state, it is necessary, +in removing the taboo, to remove also the separable +<pb n='284'/><anchor id='Pg284'/> +parts of the child's body because they are infected, so to +say, by the virus of taboo and as such are dangerous. The +cutting of the child's hair would thus be exactly parallel +to the destruction of the vessels which have been used by a +tabooed person.<note place='foot'>Above, pp. <ref target='Pg004'>4</ref>, <ref target='Pg131'>131</ref>, <ref target='Pg139'>139</ref>, <ref target='Pg145'>145</ref>, <ref target='Pg156'>156</ref>.</note> This view is borne out by a practice, +observed by some Australians, of burning off part of a +woman's hair after childbirth as well as burning every vessel +which has been used by her during her seclusion.<note place='foot'>W. Ridley, <q>Report on Australian +Languages and Traditions,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Journal +of the Anthropological Institute</hi>, ii. +(1873) p. 268.</note> Here +the burning of the woman's hair seems plainly intended to +serve the same purpose as the burning of the vessels used by +her; and as the vessels are burned because they are believed +to be tainted with a dangerous infection, so, we must suppose, +is also the hair. Similarly among the Latuka of central +Africa, a woman is secluded for fourteen days after the +birth of her child, and at the end of her seclusion her hair is +shaved off and burnt.<note place='foot'>Fr. Stuhlmann, <hi rend='italic'>Mit Emin Pascha +ins Herz von Afrika</hi>, p. 795.</note> Again, we have seen that girls at +puberty are strongly infected with taboo; hence it is not +surprising to find that the Ticunas of Brazil tear out all the +hair of girls at that period.<note place='foot'>F. de Castelnau, <hi rend='italic'>Expédition dans +les parties centrales de l'Amérique du +Sud</hi>, v. (Paris, 1851) p. 46.</note> Once more, the father of twins +in Uganda is tabooed for some time after the birth of the +children, and during that time he may not dress his hair nor +cut his finger nails. This state of taboo lasts until the next +war breaks out. When the army is under orders to march, +the father of twins has the whole of his body shaved and his +nails cut. The shorn hair and the cut nails are then tied +up in a ball, which the man takes with him to the war, +together with the bark cloth he wore at the ceremonial +dances after the birth of the twins. When he has killed a +foe, he crams the ball into the dead man's mouth, ties the +bark cloth round the neck of the corpse, and leaves them there +on the battlefield.<note place='foot'>J. Roscoe, <q>Further Notes on the +Manners and Customs of the Baganda,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Journal of the Anthropological Institute</hi>, +xxxii. (1902) p. 34.</note> The ceremony appears to be intended +to rid the man of the taint of taboo which may be supposed +to adhere to his hair, nails, and the garment he wore. +Hence we can understand the importance attached by many +<pb n='285'/><anchor id='Pg285'/> +peoples to the first cutting of a child's hair and the elaborate +ceremonies by which the operation is accompanied.<note place='foot'>See G. A. Wilken, <hi rend='italic'>Über das +Haaropfer und einige andere Trauergebräuche +bei den Völkern Indonesiens</hi>, +pp. 94 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi> (reprinted from the <hi rend='italic'>Revue +Coloniale Internationale</hi>, Amsterdam, +1886-87); H. Ploss, <hi rend='italic'>Das Kind in +Brauch und Sitte der Völker</hi>,<hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi> i. 289 +<hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>; K. Potkanski, <q>Die Ceremonie +der Haarschur bei den Slaven und +Germanen,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Anzeiger der Akademie +der Wissenschaften in Krakau</hi>, May +1896, pp. 232-251.</note> Again, +we can understand why a man should poll his head +after a journey.<note place='foot'>Above, p. <ref target='Pg261'>261</ref>.</note> For we have seen that a traveller is +often believed to contract a dangerous infection from +strangers, and that, therefore, on his return home he is +obliged to submit to various purificatory ceremonies before +he is allowed to mingle freely with his own people.<note place='foot'>Above, pp. <ref target='Pg111'>111</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></note> On +my hypothesis the polling of the hair is simply one of +these purificatory or disinfectant ceremonies. Certainly +this explanation applies to the custom as practised by the +Bechuanas, for we are expressly told that <q>they cleanse or +purify themselves after journeys by shaving their heads, etc., +lest they should have contracted from strangers some evil +by witchcraft or sorcery.</q><note place='foot'>J. Campbell, <hi rend='italic'>Travels in South +Africa, Second Journey</hi> (London, 1822), +ii. 205.</note> The cutting of the hair after a +vow may have the same meaning. It is a way of ridding +the man of what has been infected by the dangerous state, +whether we call it taboo, sanctity, or uncleanness (for all +these are only different expressions for the same primitive +conception), under which he laboured during the continuance +of the vow. Still more clearly does the meaning of the +practice come out in the case of mourners, who cut their +hair and nails and use new vessels when the period of their +mourning is at an end. This was done in ancient India, +obviously for the purpose of purifying such persons from the +dangerous influence of death and the ghost to which for a +time they had been exposed.<note place='foot'>H. Oldenberg, <hi rend='italic'>Die Religion des +Veda</hi>, pp. 426 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> Among the Bodos and +Dhimals of Assam, when a death has occurred, the family of +the deceased is reckoned unclean for three days. At the end +of that time they bathe, shave, and are sprinkled with holy +water, after which they hold the funeral feast.<note place='foot'>L. F. Alfred Maury, <q>Les Populations +primitives du nord de l'Hindoustan,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Bulletin de la Société de Géographie</hi> +(Paris), IVme Série, vii. +(1854) p. 197.</note> Here the act +<pb n='286'/><anchor id='Pg286'/> +of shaving must clearly be regarded as a purificatory rite, like +the bathing and sprinkling with holy water. At Hierapolis +no man might enter the great temple of Astarte on the same +day on which he had seen a corpse; next day he might +enter, provided he had first purified himself. But the kinsmen +of the deceased were not allowed to set foot in the sanctuary +for thirty days after the death, and before doing so they had +to shave their heads.<note place='foot'>Lucian, <hi rend='italic'>De dea Syria</hi>, 53.</note> At Agweh, on the Slave Coast of +West Africa, widows and widowers at the end of their +period of mourning wash themselves, shave their heads, pare +their nails, and put on new cloths; and the old cloths, +the shorn hair, and the nail-parings are all burnt.<note place='foot'>A. B. Ellis, <hi rend='italic'>The Ewe-speaking +Peoples of the Slave Coast</hi>, p. 160.</note> The +Kayans of Borneo are not allowed to cut their hair or shave +their temples during the period of mourning; but as soon +as the mourning is ended by the ceremony of bringing home +a newly severed human head, the barber's knife is kept busy +enough. As each man leaves the barber's hands, he gathers +up the shorn locks and spitting on them murmurs a prayer +to the evil spirits not to harm him. He then blows the +hair out of the verandah of the house.<note place='foot'>W. H. Furness, <hi rend='italic'>Folk-lore in Borneo</hi> +(Wallingford, Pennsylvania, 1899; +privately printed), p. 28.</note> Among the +Wajagga of East Africa mourners shear their hair under a +fruit-bearing banana-tree and lay their shorn locks at the +foot of the tree. When the fruit of the tree is ripe, they +brew beer with it and invite all the mourners to partake of +it, saying, <q>Come and drink the beer of those hair-bananas.</q><note place='foot'>B. Gutmann, <q>Trauer und Begräbnissitten +der Wadschagga,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Globus</hi>, +lxxxix. (1906) p. 198.</note> +The tribes of British Central Africa destroy the house in +which a man has died, and on the day when this is done the +mourners have their heads shaved and bury the shorn hair on +the site of the house; the Atonga burn it in a new fire made +by the rubbing of two sticks.<note place='foot'>Miss A. Werner, <hi rend='italic'>The Natives of +British Central Africa</hi> (London, 1906), +pp. 165, 166, 167.</note> When an Akikuyu woman has, +in accordance with custom, exposed her misshapen or prematurely +born infant in the wood for the hyaenas to devour, +she is shaved on her return by an old woman and given a +magic potion to drink; after which she is regarded as clean.<note place='foot'>J. M. Hildebrandt, <q>Ethnographische +Notizen über Wakamba und +ihre Nachbarn,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Zeitschrift für Ethnologie</hi>, +x. (1878) p. 395. Children who +are born in an unusual position, the +second born of twins, and children +whose upper teeth appear before the +lower, are similarly exposed by the +Akikuyu. The mother is regarded as +unclean, not so much because she has +exposed, as because she has given +birth to such a child.</note> +<pb n='287'/><anchor id='Pg287'/> +Similarly at some Hindoo places of pilgrimage on the +banks of rivers men who have committed great crimes or +are troubled by uneasy consciences have every hair shaved +off by professional barbers before they plunge into the sacred +stream, from which <q>they emerge new creatures, with all the +accumulated guilt of a long life effaced.</q><note place='foot'>Monier Williams, <hi rend='italic'>Religious +Thought and Life in India</hi>, p. 375.</note> The matricide +Orestes is said to have polled his hair after appeasing the +angry Furies of his murdered mother.<note place='foot'>Strabo, xii. 2. 3, p. 535; Pausanias, +viii. 34. 3. In two paintings on Greek +vases we see Apollo in his character +of the purifier preparing to cut +off the hair of Orestes. See <hi rend='italic'>Monumenti +inediti</hi>, 1847, pl. 48; <hi rend='italic'>Annali +dell' Instituto di Corrispondenza +Archeologica</hi>, 1847, pl. x.; <hi rend='italic'>Archaeologische +Zeitung</hi>, 1860, pll. cxxxvii. +cxxxviii.; L. Stephani, in <hi rend='italic'>Compte +rendu de la Commission archéologique</hi> +(St. Petersburg), 1863, pp. +271 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<index index='toc'/> +<index index='pdf' level1='9. Spittle tabooed.'/> +<head>§ 9. Spittle tabooed.</head> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>People +may be +bewitched +by means +of their +spittle. Hence +people take +care of +their spittle +to prevent +it from +falling +into the +hands of +sorcerers.</note> +The same fear of witchcraft which has led so many +people to hide or destroy their loose hair and nails has +induced other or the same people to treat their spittle in a +like fashion. For on the principles of sympathetic magic +the spittle is part of the man, and whatever is done to it will +have a corresponding effect on him. A Chilote Indian, who +has gathered up the spittle of an enemy, will put it in a +potato, and hang the potato in the smoke, uttering certain +spells as he does so in the belief that his foe will waste away +as the potato dries in the smoke. Or he will put the spittle +in a frog and throw the animal into an inaccessible, unnavigable +river, which will make the victim quake and shake +with ague.<note place='foot'>C. Martin, <q>Über die Eingeborenen +von Chiloe,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Zeitschrift für +Ethnologie</hi>, ix. (1877) pp. 177 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> When a Cherokee sorcerer desires to destroy a +man, he gathers up his victim's spittle on a stick and puts +it in a joint of wild parsnip, together with seven earthworms +beaten to a paste and several splinters from a tree which has +been struck by lightning. He then goes into the forest, +digs a hole at the foot of a tree which has been struck by +lightning, and deposits in the hole the joint of wild parsnip +<pb n='288'/><anchor id='Pg288'/> +with its contents. Further, he lays seven yellow stones +in the hole, then fills in the earth, and makes a fire over the +spot to destroy all traces of his work. If the ceremony has +been properly carried out, the man whose spittle has thus +been treated begins to feel ill at once; his soul shrivels up +and dwindles; and within seven days he is a dead man.<note place='foot'>J. Mooney, <q>Sacred Formulas of +the Cherokees,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Seventh Annual Report +of the Bureau of Ethnology</hi> +(Washington, 1891), pp. 392 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> +In the East Indian island of Siaoo or Siauw, one of the +Sangi group, there are witches who by means of hellish +charms compounded from the roots of plants can change +their shape and bring sickness and misfortune on other folk. +These hags also crawl under the houses, which are raised +above the ground on posts, and there gathering up the spittle +of the inmates cause them to fall ill.<note place='foot'>B. C. A. J. van Dinter, <q>Eenige +geographische en ethnographische +aanteekeningen betreffende het eiland +Siaoe,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Tijdschrift voor Indische Taal- +Land- en Volkenkunde</hi>, xii. (1899) p. +381.</note> If a Wotjobaluk +sorcerer cannot get the hair of his foe, a shred of his +rug, or something else that belongs to the man, he will +watch till he sees him spit, when he will carefully pick up +the spittle with a stick and use it for the destruction of +the careless spitter.<note place='foot'>A. W. Howitt, <q>On Australian +Medicine-men,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Journal of the Anthropological +Institute</hi>, xvi. (1887) p. 27; +<hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, <hi rend='italic'>Native Tribes of South-east Australia</hi>, +p. 365.</note> The natives of Urewera, a district in +the north island of New Zealand, enjoyed a high reputation +for their skill in magic. It was said that they made use of +people's spittle to bewitch them. Hence visitors were careful +to conceal their spittle, lest they should furnish these wizards +with a handle for working them harm.<note place='foot'>E. Dieffenbach, <hi rend='italic'>Travels in New +Zealand</hi> (London, 1843), ii. 59.</note> Similarly among some +tribes of South Africa no man will spit when an enemy is +near, lest his foe should find the spittle and give it to a wizard, +who would then mix it with magical ingredients so as to injure +the person from whom it fell. Even in a man's own house +his saliva is carefully swept away and obliterated for a similar +reason.<note place='foot'>Rev. J. Macdonald, <hi rend='italic'>Light in Africa</hi>, +p. 209; <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, in <hi rend='italic'>Journal of the Anthropological +Institute</hi>, xx. (1891) p. 131.</note> For a like reason, no doubt, the natives of the +Marianne Islands use great precautions in spitting and +take care never to expectorate near somebody else's house.<note place='foot'>C. le Gobin, <hi rend='italic'>Histoire des Isles +Marianes</hi> (Paris, 1700), p. 52. The +writer confesses his ignorance of the +reason of the custom.</note> +<pb n='289'/><anchor id='Pg289'/> +Negroes of Senegal, the Bissagos Archipelago, and some +of the West Indian Islands, such as Guadeloupe and +Martinique, are also careful to efface their spittle by pressing +it into the ground with their feet, lest a sorcerer should +use it to their hurt.<note place='foot'>C. de Mensignac, <hi rend='italic'>Recherches +ethnographiques sur la salive et le +crachat</hi> (Bordeaux, 1892), pp. 48 +<hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> Natives of Astrolabe Bay, in German +New Guinea, wipe out their spittle for the same reason;<note place='foot'>Vahness, reported by F. von +Luschan, in <hi rend='italic'>Verhandlungen der Berliner +Gesellschaft für Anthropologie, Ethnologie +und Urgeschichte</hi>, 1900, p. +(416).</note> and a +like dread of sorcery prevents some natives of German New +Guinea from spitting on the ground in presence of others.<note place='foot'>K. Vetter, <hi rend='italic'>Komm herüber und +hilf uns!</hi> iii. (Barmen, 1898) pp. +9 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> +The Telugus say that if a man, rinsing his teeth with charcoal +in the mornings, spits on the road and somebody else +treads on his spittle, the spitter will be laid up with a sharp +attack of fever for two or three days. Hence all who wish +to avoid the ailment should at once efface their spittle by +sprinkling water on it.<note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>Indian Antiquary</hi>, xxviii. (1899) +pp. 83 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Precautions +taken +by chiefs, +kings, and wizards +to guard +their spittle +from being +put to evil +uses by +magicians.</note> +If common folk are thus cautious, it is natural that +kings and chiefs should be doubly so. In the Sandwich +Islands chiefs were attended by a confidential servant +bearing a portable spittoon, and the deposit was carefully +buried every morning to put it out of the reach of +sorcerers.<note place='foot'>W. Ellis, <hi rend='italic'>Polynesian Researches</hi>,<hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi> +i. 365.</note> On the Slave Coast of Africa, for the same +reason, whenever a king or chief expectorates, the saliva is +scrupulously gathered up and hidden or buried.<note place='foot'>A. B. Ellis, <hi rend='italic'>The Ewe-speaking +Peoples of the Slave Coast</hi>, p. 99.</note> The same +precautions are taken for the same reason with the spittle +of the chief of Tabali in Southern Nigeria.<note place='foot'>C. Partridge, <hi rend='italic'>Cross River Natives</hi> +(London, 1905), p. 8.</note> At Bulebane, +in Senegambia, a French traveller observed a captive +engaged, with an air of great importance, in covering over +with sand all the spittle that fell from the lips of a native +dignitary; the man used a small stick for the purpose.<note place='foot'>A. Raffenel, <hi rend='italic'>Voyage dans l'Afrique +occidentale</hi> (Paris, 1846), p. 338.</note> +Page-boys, who carry tails of elephants, hasten to sweep up +or cover with sand the spittle of the king of Ashantee;<note place='foot'>C. de Mensignac, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> p. +48.</note> +an attendant used to perform a similar service for the king +<pb n='290'/><anchor id='Pg290'/> +of Congo;<note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>Mission Evangelica al reyno de +Congo por la serafica religion de los +Capuchinos</hi> (Madrid, 1649), p. 70 +verso.</note> and a custom of the same sort prevails or used +to prevail at the court of the Muata Jamwo in the interior +of Angola.<note place='foot'>R. Andree, <hi rend='italic'>Ethnographische Parallelen +und Vergleiche</hi>, Neue Folge +(Leipsic, 1889), p. 13.</note> In Yap, one of the Caroline Islands, there are +two great wizards, the head of all the magicians, whose +exalted dignity compels them to lead a very strict life. +They may eat fruit only from plants or trees which are +grown specially for them. When one of them goes abroad +the other must stay at home, for if they were to meet each +other on the road, some direful calamity would surely follow. +Though they may not smoke tobacco, they are allowed to +chew a quid of betel; but that which they expectorate is +carefully gathered up, carried away, and burned in a special +manner, lest any evil-disposed person should get possession +of the spittle and do their reverences a mischief by uttering +a curse over it.<note place='foot'>F. W. Christian, <hi rend='italic'>The Caroline +Islands</hi> (London, 1899), pp. 289 +<hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> Among the Guaycurus and Payaguas of +Brazil, when a chief spat, the persons about him received his +saliva on their hands,<note place='foot'>R. Southey, <hi rend='italic'>History of Brazil</hi>, i.<hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi> +(London, 1822) pp. 127, 138.</note> probably in order to prevent it from +being misused by magicians. +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Use of +spittle in +making a +covenant.</note> +The magical use to which spittle may be put marks it +out, like blood or nail-parings, as a suitable material basis +for a covenant, since by exchanging their saliva the +covenanting parties give each other a guarantee of good +faith. If either of them afterwards forswears himself, the +other can punish his perfidy by a magical treatment of the +perjurer's spittle which he has in his custody. Thus when +the Wajagga of East Africa desire to make a covenant, +the two parties will sometimes sit down with a bowl of +milk or beer between them, and after uttering an incantation +over the beverage they each take a mouthful of the milk or +beer and spit it into the other's mouth. In urgent cases, +when there is no time to stand on ceremony, the two will +simply spit into each other's mouth, which seals the covenant +just as well.<note place='foot'>J. Raum, <q>Blut und Speichelbünde +bei den Wadschagga,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Archiv +für Religionswissenschaft</hi>, x. (1907) +pp. 290 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> +</p> + +</div> + +<pb n='291'/><anchor id='Pg291'/> + +<div> +<index index='toc'/> +<index index='pdf' level1='10. Foods tabooed.'/> +<head>§ 10. Foods tabooed.</head> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Certain +foods are +tabooed to +sacred +persons, +such as +kings, chiefs, +priests, and other sacred persons.</note> +As might have been expected, the superstitions of the +savage cluster thick about the subject of food; and he +abstains from eating many animals and plants, wholesome +enough in themselves, which for one reason or another +he fancies would prove dangerous or fatal to the eater. +Examples of such abstinence are too familiar and far too +numerous to quote. But if the ordinary man is thus deterred +by superstitious fear from partaking of various foods, the +restraints of this kind which are laid upon sacred or tabooed +persons, such as kings and priests, are still more numerous +and stringent. We have already seen that the Flamen +Dialis was forbidden to eat or even name several plants +and animals, and that the flesh diet of Egyptian kings was +restricted to veal and goose.<note place='foot'>Above, pp. <ref target='Pg013'>13</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> In antiquity many priests +and many kings of barbarous peoples abstained wholly +from a flesh diet.<note place='foot'>Porphyry, <hi rend='italic'>De abstinentia</hi>, iii. 18.</note> The <foreign rend='italic'>Gangas</foreign> or fetish priests of the +Loango Coast are forbidden to eat or even see a variety +of animals and fish, in consequence of which their +flesh diet is extremely limited; often they live only on +herbs and roots, though they may drink fresh blood.<note place='foot'>A. Bastian, <hi rend='italic'>Die deutsche Expedition +an der Loango-Küste</hi>, ii. 170. The +blood may perhaps be drunk by them +as a medium of inspiration. See +<hi rend='italic'>The Magic Art and the Evolution of +Kings</hi>, vol. i. pp. 381 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></note> The +heir to the throne of Loango is forbidden from infancy to +eat pork; from early childhood he is interdicted the use of +the <foreign rend='italic'>cola</foreign> fruit in company; at puberty he is taught by a +priest not to partake of fowls except such as he has himself +killed and cooked; and so the number of taboos goes on +increasing with his years.<note place='foot'>O. Dapper, <hi rend='italic'>Description de l'Afrique</hi>, +p. 336.</note> In Fernando Po the king after +installation is forbidden to eat <foreign rend='italic'>cocco</foreign> (<foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>arum acaule</foreign>), deer, and +porcupine, which are the ordinary foods of the people.<note place='foot'>T. J. Hutchinson, <hi rend='italic'>Impressions of +Western Africa</hi> (London, 1858), p. 198.</note> +The head chief of the Masai may eat nothing but milk, +honey, and the roasted livers of goats; for if he partook of +any other food he would lose his power of soothsaying and +of compounding charms.<note place='foot'>M. Merker, <hi rend='italic'>Die Masai</hi> (Berlin, +1904), p. 21.</note> The diet of the king of Unyoro +<pb n='292'/><anchor id='Pg292'/> +in Central Africa was strictly regulated by immemorial +custom. He might never eat vegetables, but must live on +milk and beef. Mutton he might not touch. The beef he +ate must be that of young animals not more than one year +old, and it must be spitted and roasted before a wood fire. +But he might not drink milk and eat beef at the same meal. +He drank milk thrice a day in the dairy, and the milk +was always drawn from a sacred herd which was kept for +his exclusive use. Nine cows, neither more nor less, were +daily brought from pasture to the royal enclosure to be +milked for the king. The herding and the milking of the +sacred animals were performed according to certain rules +prescribed by ancient custom.<note place='foot'>J. G. Frazer, <hi rend='italic'>Totemism and +Exogamy</hi>, ii. 526 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>, from information +furnished by the Rev. J. Roscoe.</note> Amongst the Murrams of +Manipur (a district of eastern India, on the border of Burma) +<q>there are many prohibitions in regard to the food, both animal +and vegetable, which the chief should eat, and the Murrams +say the chief's post must be a very uncomfortable one.</q><note place='foot'>G. Watt (quoting Col. W. J. +M'Culloch), <q>The Aboriginal Tribes +of Manipur,</q> in <hi rend='italic'>Journal of the Anthropological +Institute</hi>, xvi. (1887) p. 360.</note> +Among the hill tribes of Manipur the scale of diet allowed +by custom to the <foreign rend='italic'>ghennabura</foreign> or religious head of a village +is always extremely limited. The savoury dog, the tomato, +the <foreign rend='italic'>murghi</foreign>, are forbidden to him. If a man in one of +these tribes is wealthy enough to feast his whole village and +to erect a memorial stone, he is entitled to become subject +to the same self-denying ordinances as the <foreign rend='italic'>ghennabura</foreign>. He +wears the same special clothes, and for the space of a year +at least he may not use a drinking horn, but must drink +from a bamboo cup.<note place='foot'>T. C. Hodson, <q>The Native Tribes +of Manipur,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Journal of the Anthropological +Institute</hi>, xxxi. (1901) p. 306.</note> Among the Karennis or Red Karens +of Burma a chief attains his position not by hereditary right +but in virtue of the observance of taboo. He must abstain +from rice and liquor. His mother too must have eschewed +these things and lived only on yams and potatoes while she +was with child. During that time she might neither eat +meat nor drink water from a common well; and in order to +be duly qualified for a chiefship her son must continue these +habits.<note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>Indian Antiquary</hi>, xxi. (1892) +pp. 317 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; (Sir) J. G. Scott and J. P. +Hardiman, <hi rend='italic'>Gazetteer of Upper Burma +and the Shan States</hi>, part ii. vol. i. +p. 308.</note> Among the Pshaws and Chewsurs of the Caucasus, +<pb n='293'/><anchor id='Pg293'/> +whose nominal Christianity has degenerated into superstition +and polytheism, there is an annual office which entails a +number of taboos on the holder or <foreign rend='italic'>dasturi</foreign>, as he is called. +He must live the whole year in the temple, without going to +his house or visiting his wife; indeed he may not speak to +any one, except the priests, for fear of defiling himself. Once +a week he must bathe in the river, whatever the weather +may be, using for the purpose a ladder on which no one else +may set foot. His only nourishment is bread and water. +In the temple he superintends the brewing of the beer for +the festivals.<note place='foot'><q>Die Pschawen und Chewsuren +im Kaukasus,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Zeitschrift für allgemeine +Erdkunde</hi>, ii. (1857) p. 76.</note> In the village of Tomil, in Yap, one of the +Caroline Islands, the year consists of twenty-four months, +and there are five men who for a hundred days of the year +may eat only fish and taro, may not chew betel, and must +observe strict continence. The reason assigned by them for +submitting to these restraints is that if they did not act thus +the immature girls would attain to puberty too soon.<note place='foot'>A. Senfft, <q>Ethnographische Beiträge +über die Karolineninsel Yap,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Petermanns Mitteilungen</hi>, xlix. (1903) +p. 54. In Gall, another village of +the same island, the people grow +bananas for sale, but will not eat them +themselves, fearing that if they did so +the women of the village would be +barren (<hi rend='italic'>ibid.</hi>).</note> +</p> + +<p> +To explain the ultimate reason why any particular food +is prohibited to a whole tribe or to certain of its members +would commonly require a far more intimate knowledge of +the history and beliefs of the tribe than we possess. The +general motive of such prohibitions is doubtless the same +which underlies the whole taboo system, namely, the +conservation of the tribe and the individual. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<index index='toc'/> +<index index='pdf' level1='11. Knots and Rings tabooed.'/> +<head>§ 11. Knots and Rings tabooed.</head> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Knots and +rings not +worn by +certain +sacred +persons. Knots +loosed and +locks unlocked +at +childbirth +to facilitate +delivery.</note> +We have seen that among the many taboos which the +Flamen Dialis at Rome had to observe, there was one that +forbade him to have a knot on any part of his garments, +and another that obliged him to wear no ring unless it were +broken.<note place='foot'>Aulus Gellius, x. 15. 6 and 9. See +above, p. 13.</note> In like manner Moslem pilgrims to Mecca are in +a state of sanctity or taboo and may wear on their persons +<pb n='294'/><anchor id='Pg294'/> +neither knots nor rings.<note place='foot'>E. Doutté, <hi rend='italic'>Magie et religion dans +l'Afrique du Nord</hi>, pp. 87 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> These rules are probably of kindred +significance, and may conveniently be considered together. +To begin with knots, many people in different parts of the +world entertain a strong objection to having any knot about +their person at certain critical seasons, particularly childbirth, +marriage, and death. Thus among the Saxons of Transylvania, +when a woman is in travail all knots on her garments +are untied, because it is believed that this will facilitate her +delivery, and with the same intention all the locks in the +house, whether on doors or boxes, are unlocked.<note place='foot'>J. Hillner, <hi rend='italic'>Volksthümlicher Brauch +und Glaube bei Geburt und Taufe im +Siebenbürger Sachsenlande</hi>, p. 15. This +tractate (of which I possess a copy) +appears to be a programme of the High +School (<foreign lang='de' rend='italic'>Gymnasium</foreign>) at Schässburg in +Transylvania for the school year 1876-1877.</note> The +Lapps think that a lying-in woman should have no knot on +her garments, because a knot would have the effect of +making the delivery difficult and painful.<note place='foot'>C. Leemius, <hi rend='italic'>De Lapponibus Finmarchiac +eorumque lingua, vita, et +religione pristina commentatio</hi> (Copenhagen, +1767), p. 494.</note> In ancient India +it was a rule to untie all knots in a house at the moment of +childbirth.<note place='foot'>W. Caland, <hi rend='italic'>Altindisches Zauberritual</hi> +(Amsterdam, 1900), p. 108.</note> Roman religion required that women who took +part in the rites of Juno Lucina, the goddess of childbirth, +should have no knot tied on their persons.<note place='foot'>Servius on Virgil, <hi rend='italic'>Aen.</hi> iii. 518.</note> In the East +Indies this superstition is extended to the whole time of +pregnancy; the people believe that if a pregnant woman +were to tie knots, or braid, or make anything fast, the child +would thereby be constricted or the woman would herself be +<q>tied up</q> when her time came.<note place='foot'>J. Kreemer, <q>Hoe de Javaan zijne +zieken verzorgt,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Mededeelingen van +wege het Nederlandsche Zendelinggenootschap</hi>, +xxxvi. (1892) p. 114; +C. M. Pleyte, <q>Plechtigheden en +gebruiken uit den cyclus van het +familienleven der volken van den Indischen +Archipel,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Bijdragen tot de +Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde van +Nederlandsch-Indië</hi>, xli. (1892) p. 586.</note> Nay, some of them enforce +the observance of the rule on the father as well as the mother +of the unborn child. Among the Sea Dyaks neither of the +parents may bind up anything with string or make anything +fast during the wife's pregnancy.<note place='foot'>H. Ling Roth, <hi rend='italic'>The Natives of +Sarawak and British North Borneo</hi>, +i. 98.</note> Among the Land Dyaks +the husband of the expectant mother is bound to refrain from +tying things together with rattans until after her delivery.<note place='foot'>Spenser St. John, <hi rend='italic'>Life in the +Forests of the Far East</hi>,<hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi> i. 170.</note> +<pb n='295'/><anchor id='Pg295'/> +In the Toumbuluh tribe of North Celebes a ceremony +is performed in the fourth or fifth month of a woman's +pregnancy, and after it her husband is forbidden, among +many other things, to tie any fast knots and to sit with +his legs crossed over each other.<note place='foot'>J. G. F. Riedel, <q>Alte Gebräuche +bei Heirathen, Geburt und Sterbefällen +bei dem Toumbuluh-Stamm in der +Minahasa (Nord Selebes),</q> <hi rend='italic'>Internationales +Archiv für Ethnographie</hi>, viii. +(1895) pp. 95 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> In the Kaitish tribe +of central Australia the father of a newborn child goes out +into the scrub for three days, away from his camp, leaving +his girdle and arm-bands behind him, so that he has nothing +tied tightly round any part of his body. This freedom from +constriction is supposed to benefit his wife.<note place='foot'>Spencer and Gillen, <hi rend='italic'>Northern +Tribes of Central Australia</hi>, pp. 606 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>On the +principles +of homoeopathic +magic +knots are +impediments +which tie +up the +mother and +prevent +her from +bringing +the child to +the birth. All locks, +doors, +drawers, +windows, +etc. opened +in order to +facilitate +childbirth.</note> +In all these cases the idea seems to be that the tying of +a knot would, as they say in the East Indies, <q>tie up</q> the +woman, in other words, impede and perhaps prevent her +delivery, or delay her convalescence after the birth. On the +principles of homoeopathic or imitative magic the physical +obstacle or impediment of a knot on a cord would +create a corresponding obstacle or impediment in the +body of the woman. That this is really the explanation +of the rule appears from a custom observed by the +Hos of Togoland in West Africa at a difficult birth. +When a woman is in hard labour and cannot bring forth, +they call in a magician to her aid. He looks at her and +says, <q>The child is bound in the womb, that is why she +cannot be delivered.</q> On the entreaties of her female +relations he then promises to loose the bond so that she +may bring forth. For that purpose he orders them to +fetch a tough creeper from the forest, and with it he binds +the hands and feet of the sufferer on her back. Then +he takes a knife and calls out the woman's name, and +when she answers he cuts through the creeper with a +knife, saying, <q>I cut through to-day thy bonds and thy +child's bonds.</q> After that he chops up the creeper small, +puts the bits in a vessel of water, and bathes the woman +with the water.<note place='foot'>J. Spieth, <hi rend='italic'>Die Ewe-Stämme</hi>, p. +692.</note> Here the cutting of the creeper with +which the woman's hands and feet are bound is a simple +piece of homoeopathic or imitative magic: by releasing her +<pb n='296'/><anchor id='Pg296'/> +limbs from their bonds the magician imagines that he +simultaneously releases the child in her womb from the +trammels which impede its birth. For a similar reason, no +doubt, among the same people a priest ties up the limbs +of a pregnant woman with grass and then unties the knots, +saying, <q>I will now open you.</q> After that the woman has +to partake of some maize-porridge in which a ring made +of a magic cord had been previously placed by the priest.<note place='foot'>J. Spieth, <hi rend='italic'>Die Ewe-Stämme</hi>, pp. +433 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> +The intention of this ceremony is probably, on the principles +of homoeopathic magic, to ensure for the woman an easy +delivery by releasing her from the bonds of grass. The +same train of thought underlies a practice observed by +some peoples of opening all locks, doors, and so on, +while a birth is taking place in the house. We have +seen that at such a time the Germans of Transylvania +open all the locks, and the same thing is done also in +Voigtland and Mecklenburg.<note place='foot'>J. A. E. Köhler, <hi rend='italic'>Volksbrauch, +Aberglauben, Sagen und andre alte +Überlieferungen im Voigtlande</hi>, pp. +435 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; A. Wuttke, <hi rend='italic'>Der deutsche +Volksaberglaube</hi>,<hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi> p. 355, § 574.</note> In north-western Argyllshire +superstitious people used to open every lock in +the house at childbirth.<note place='foot'>J. G. Campbell, <hi rend='italic'>Superstitions of +the Highlands and Islands of Scotland</hi>, +p. 37. note 1.</note> The old Roman custom of +presenting women with a key as a symbol of an easy +delivery<note place='foot'>Festus, p. 56, ed. C. O. Müller.</note> perhaps points to the observance of a similar +custom. In the island of Salsette near Bombay, when a +woman is in hard labour, all locks of doors or drawers are +opened with a key to facilitate her delivery.<note place='foot'>G. F. D'Penha, <q>Superstitions +and Customs in Salsette,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Indian +Antiquary</hi>, xxviii. (1899) p. 115.</note> Among the +Mandelings of Sumatra the lids of all chests, boxes, pans and +so forth are opened; and if this does not produce the desired +effect, the anxious husband has to strike the projecting ends +of some of the house-beams in order to loosen them; for +they think that <q>everything must be open and loose to +facilitate the delivery.</q><note place='foot'>H. Ris, <q>De onderafdeeling +Klein Mandailing Oeloe en Pahantan +en hare Bevolking,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Bijdragen tot de +Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde van +Nederlandsch-Indië</hi>, xlvi. (1896) p. +503. Compare A. L. van Hasselt, +<hi rend='italic'>Volksbeschrijving van Midden Sumatra</hi>, +p. 266.</note> At a difficult birth the Battas +of Sumatra make a search through the possessions of +husband and wife and untie everything that is tied up in a +<pb n='297'/><anchor id='Pg297'/> +bundle.<note place='foot'>J. H. Meerwaldt, <q>Gebruiken +der Bataks in het maatschappelijk +leven,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Mededeelingen van wege het +Nederlandsche Zendelinggenootschap</hi>, +xlix. (1905) p. 117.</note> In some parts of Java, when a woman is in travail, +everything in the house that was shut is opened, in order +that the birth may not be impeded; not only are doors +opened and the lids of chests, boxes, rice-pots, and water-buts +lifted up, but even swords are unsheathed and spears +drawn out of their cases.<note place='foot'>H. K[ern], <q>Bijgeloof onder de +inlanders in den Oosthoek van Java,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Tijdschrift voor Indische Taal- Land- +en Volkenkunde</hi>, xxvi. (1880) 310; J. +Kreemer, <q>Hoe de Javaan zijne zieken +verzorgt,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Mededeelingen van wege het +Nederlandsche Zendelinggenootschap</hi>, +xxxvi. (1892) pp. 120, 124; D. +Louwerier, <q>Bijgeloovige gebruiken, +die door de Javanen worden in acht +genomen bij de verzorging en opvoeding +hunner kinderen,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Mededeelingen +van wege het Nederlandsche Zendelinggenootschap</hi>, +xlix. (1905) p. 253.</note> Customs of the same sort +are practised with the same intention in other parts of +the East Indies.<note place='foot'>A. W. P. V. Pistorius, <hi rend='italic'>Studien +over de inlandsche huishouding in de +Padangsche Bovenlanden</hi> (Zalt-Bommel, +1871), pp. 55 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; A. L. van Hasselt, +<hi rend='italic'>Volksbeschrijving van Midden-Sumatra</hi> +(Leyden, 1882), p. 266; J. G. F. +Riedel, <hi rend='italic'>De sluik- en kroesharige rassen +tusschen Selebes en Papua</hi> (the Hague, +1886), pp. 135, 207, 325.</note> In Chittagong, when a woman cannot +bring her child to the birth, the midwife gives orders to +throw all doors and windows wide open, to uncork all bottles, +to remove the bungs from all casks, to unloose the cows in +the stall, the horses in the stable, the watchdog in his +kennel, to set free sheep, fowls, ducks, and so forth. This +universal liberty accorded to the animals and even to +inanimate things is, according to the people, an infallible +means of ensuring the woman's delivery and allowing the +babe to be born.<note place='foot'>Th. Bérengier, <q>Croyances superstitieuses +dans le pays de Chittagong,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Missions Catholiques</hi>, xiii. (1881) p. +515.</note> At the moment of childbirth the Chams +of Cochin-China hasten to open the stall of the buffaloes and +to unyoke the plough, doubtless with the intention of aiding +the woman in travail, though the writer who reports the +custom is unable to explain it.<note place='foot'>Damien Grangeon, <q>Les Chams +et leurs superstitions,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Missions Catholiques</hi>, +xxviii. (1896) p. 93.</note> Among the Singhalese, a +few hours before a birth is expected to take place, all the +cupboards in the house are unlocked with the express +purpose of facilitating the delivery.<note place='foot'>A. A. Perera, <q>Glimpses of Singhalese +Social Life,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Indian Antiquary</hi>, +xxxi. (1902) p. 378.</note> In the island of +Saghalien, when a woman is in labour, her husband undoes +everything that can be undone. He loosens the plaits of his +<pb n='298'/><anchor id='Pg298'/> +hair and the laces of his shoes. Then he unties whatever is +tied in the house or its vicinity. In the courtyard he takes +the axe out of the log in which it is stuck; he unfastens +the boat, if it is moored to a tree, he withdraws the +cartridges from his gun, and the arrows from his crossbow.<note place='foot'>B. Pilsudski, <q>Schwangerschaft, +Entbindung und Fehlgeburt bei den +Bewohnern der Insel Sachalin,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Anthropos</hi>, +v. (1910) p. 759.</note> +In Bilaspore a woman's hair is never allowed to remain +knotted while she is in the act of giving birth to a child.<note place='foot'>E. M. Gordon, <hi rend='italic'>Indian Folk Tales</hi> +(London, 1908), p. 39.</note> +Among some modern Jews of Roumania it is customary for +the unmarried girls of a household to unbraid their hair and +let it hang loose on their shoulders while a woman is in hard +labour in the house.<note place='foot'>R. Campbell Thompson, <hi rend='italic'>Semitic +Magic</hi> (London, 1908), p. 169.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>On the +principles +of homoeopathic +magic the +crossing of +the legs +is also +thought to +impede +childbirth +and other +things.</note> +Again, we have seen that a Toumbuluh man abstains +not only from tying knots, but also from sitting with +crossed legs during his wife's pregnancy. The train of +thought is the same in both cases. Whether you cross +threads in tying a knot, or only cross your legs in sitting +at your ease, you are equally, on the principles of homoeopathic +magic, crossing or thwarting the free course of +things, and your action cannot but check and impede +whatever may be going forward in your neighbourhood. +Of this important truth the Romans were fully aware. To +sit beside a pregnant woman or a patient under medical +treatment with clasped hands, says the grave Pliny, is +to cast a malignant spell over the person, and it is worse +still if you nurse your leg or legs with your clasped hands, +or lay one leg over the other. Such postures were regarded +by the old Romans as a let and hindrance to business of +every sort, and at a council of war or a meeting of magistrates, +at prayers and sacrifices, no man was suffered to +cross his legs or clasp his hands.<note place='foot'>Pliny, <hi rend='italic'>Nat. Hist.</hi> xxviii. 59. +Compare Hippocrates, <hi rend='italic'>De morbo sacro</hi>, +μηδὲ πόδα ἐπὶ ποδὶ ἔχειν, μηδὲ χεῖρα ἐπὶ +χειρί; ταῦτα γὰρ πάντα κωλύματα εἶναι +(vol. i. p. 589, ed. Kühn, Leipsic, +1825, quoted by E. Rohde, <hi rend='italic'>Psyche</hi>,<hi rend='vertical-align: super'>3</hi> +ii. 76 note <hi rend='vertical-align: super'>1</hi>).</note> The stock instance of +the dreadful consequences that might flow from doing one +or the other was that of Alcmena, who travailed with +Hercules for seven days and seven nights, because the +goddess Lucina sat in front of the house with clasped hands +<pb n='299'/><anchor id='Pg299'/> +and crossed legs, and the child could not be born until the +goddess had been beguiled into changing her attitude.<note place='foot'>Ovid, <hi rend='italic'>Metam.</hi> ix. 285 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi> Antoninus +Liberalis, quoting Nicander, +says it was the Fates and Ilithyia who +impeded the birth of Hercules, but +though he says they clasped their +hands, he does not say that they +crossed their legs (<hi rend='italic'>Transform.</hi> 29). +Compare Pausanias, ix. 11. 3.</note> It +is a Bulgarian superstition that if a pregnant woman is in +the habit of sitting with crossed legs, she will suffer much +in childbed.<note place='foot'>A. Strausz, <hi rend='italic'>Die Bulgaren</hi> (Leipsic, +1898), p. 293.</note> In some parts of Bavaria, when conversation +comes to a standstill and silence ensues, they say, <q>Surely +somebody has crossed his legs.</q><note place='foot'>F. Panzer, <hi rend='italic'>Beitrag zur deutschen +Mythologie</hi>, ii. 303.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Knots are +supposed +to prevent +the consummation +of +marriage. Knots +loosed +in the +costume +of bride +and bridegroom +in +order to +ensure the +consummation +of the +marriage. +Knots +tied by +enchanters +to render +the bridegroom +impotent.</note> +The magical effect of knots in trammelling and obstructing +human activity was believed to be manifested at +marriage not less than at birth. During the Middle Ages, +and down to the eighteenth century, it seems to have been +commonly held in Europe that the consummation of +marriage could be prevented by any one who, while the +wedding ceremony was taking place, either locked a lock or +tied a knot in a cord, and then threw the lock or the cord +away. The lock or the knotted cord had to be flung into +water; and until it had been found and unlocked, or untied, +no real union of the married pair was possible.<note place='foot'>J. Grimm, <hi rend='italic'>Deutsche Mythologie</hi>,<hi rend='vertical-align: super'>4</hi> +ii. 897, 983; J. Brand, <hi rend='italic'>Popular Antiquities</hi>, +iii. 299; J. G. Dalyell, <hi rend='italic'>Darker +Superstitions of Scotland</hi>, pp. 302, +306 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; B. Souché, <hi rend='italic'>Croyances, présages +et traditions diverses</hi>, p. 16; +J. G. Bourke, in <hi rend='italic'>Ninth Annual Report +of the Bureau of Ethnology</hi> (Washington, +1892), p. 567.</note> Hence it +was a grave offence, not only to cast such a spell, but also +to steal or make away with the material instrument of it, +whether lock or knotted cord. In the year 1718 the parliament +of Bordeaux sentenced some one to be burned alive +for having spread desolation through a whole family by means +of knotted cords; and in 1705 two persons were condemned +to death in Scotland for stealing certain charmed knots which +a woman had made, in order thereby to mar the wedded +happiness of Spalding of Ashintilly.<note place='foot'>J. G. Dalyell, <hi rend='italic'>ll.cc.</hi></note> The belief in the efficacy +of these charms appears to have lingered in the Highlands +of Perthshire down to the end of the eighteenth century, for +at that time it was still customary in the beautiful parish of +Logierait, between the river Tummel and the river Tay, to +unloose carefully every knot in the clothes of the bride and +<pb n='300'/><anchor id='Pg300'/> +bridegroom before the celebration of the marriage ceremony. +When the ceremony was over, and the bridal party had left +the church, the bridegroom immediately retired one way +with some young men to tie the knots that had been loosed +a little before; and the bride in like manner withdrew +somewhere else to adjust the disorder of her dress.<note place='foot'>Rev. Dr. Th. Bisset, in Sir John +Sinclair's <hi rend='italic'>Statistical Account of Scotland</hi>, +v. (Edinburgh, 1793) p. 83. In his account +of the second tour which he made +in Scotland in the summer of 1772, Pennant +says that <q>the precaution of loosening +every knot about the new-joined +pair is strictly observed</q> (Pinkerton's +<hi rend='italic'>Voyages and Travels</hi>, iii. 382). He +is here speaking particularly of the +Perthshire Highlands.</note> In +some parts of the Highlands it was deemed enough that +the bridegroom's left shoe should be without buckle or +latchet, <q>to prevent witches from depriving him, on the +nuptial night, of the power of loosening the virgin zone.</q><note place='foot'>Pennant, <q>Tour in Scotland,</q> +Pinkerton's <hi rend='italic'>Voyages and Travels</hi>, iii. +91. However, at a marriage in the +island of Skye, the same traveller observed +that <q>the bridegroom put all +the powers of magic to defiance, for +he was married with both shoes tied +with their latchet</q> (Pennant, <q>Second +Tour in Scotland,</q> Pinkerton's <hi rend='italic'>Voyages +and Travels</hi>, iii. 325). According to +another writer the shoe-tie of the bridegroom's +<emph>right</emph> foot was unloosed at the +church-door (Ch. Rogers, <hi rend='italic'>Social Life in +Scotland</hi>, iii. 232).</note> +We meet with the same superstition and the same custom +at the present day in Syria. The persons who help a +Syrian bridegroom to don his wedding garments take care +that no knot is tied on them and no button buttoned, for +they believe that a button buttoned or a knot tied would +put it within the power of his enemies to deprive him of his +nuptial rights by magical means.<note place='foot'>Eijüb Abela, <q>Beiträge zur +Kenntniss abergläubischer Gebräuche +in Syrien,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Zeitschrift des deutschen +Palaestina-Vereins</hi>, vii. (1884) pp. +91 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> In Lesbos the malignant +person who would thus injure a bridegroom on his wedding +day ties a thread to a bush, while he utters imprecations; +but the bridegroom can defeat the spell by wearing at +his girdle a piece of an old net or of an old mantilla +belonging to the bride in which knots have been tied.<note place='foot'>Georgeakis et Pineau, <hi rend='italic'>Folk-lore de +Lesbos</hi>, pp. 344 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> +The fear of such charms is diffused all over North Africa +at the present day. To render a bridegroom impotent the +enchanter has only to tie a knot in a handkerchief which he +had previously placed quietly on some part of the bridegroom's +body when he was mounted on horseback ready to +fetch his bride: so long as the knot in the handkerchief +<pb n='301'/><anchor id='Pg301'/> +remains tied, so long will the bridegroom remain powerless +to consummate the marriage. Another way of effecting the +same object is to stand behind the bridegroom when he is on +horseback, with an open clasp-knife or pair of scissors in +your hand and to call out his name; if he imprudently +answers, you at once shut the clasp-knife or the pair of +scissors with a snap, and that makes him impotent. To +guard against this malignant spell the bridegroom's mother +will sometimes buy a penknife on the eve of the marriage, +shut it up, and then open it just at the moment when her +son is about to enter the bridal chamber.<note place='foot'>E. Doutté, <hi rend='italic'>Magie et religion dans +l'Afrique du Nord</hi>, pp. 288-292.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Use of +knots at +marriage +in the +island of +Rotti.</note> +A curious use is made of knots at marriage in the little East +Indian island of Rotti. When a man has paid the price of his +bride, a cord is fastened round her waist, if she is a maid, but +not otherwise. Nine knots are tied in the cord, and in order +to make them harder to unloose, they are smeared with wax. +Bride and bridegroom are then secluded in a chamber, where +he has to untie the knots with the thumb and forefinger of +his left hand only. It may be from one to twelve months +before he succeeds in undoing them all. Until he has done +so he may not look on the woman as his wife. In no case +may the cord be broken, or the bridegroom would render +himself liable to any fine that the bride's father might choose +to impose. When all the knots are loosed, the woman is +his wife, and he shews the cord to her father, and generally +presents his wife with a golden or silver necklace instead +of the cord.<note place='foot'><q>Eenige mededeelingen betreffende +Rote door een inlandischen +Schoolmeester,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Tijdschrift voor Indische +Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde</hi>, xxvii. +(1882) p. 554; N. Graafland, <q>Eenige +aanteekeningen op ethnographisch +gebied ten aanzien van het eiland +Rote,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Mededeelingen van wege het +Nederlandsche Zendelinggenootschap</hi>, +xxxiii. (1889) pp. 373 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> The meaning of this custom is not clear, but +we may conjecture that the nine knots refer to the nine +months of pregnancy, and that miscarriage would be the +supposed result of leaving a single knot untied. +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Knots may +be used to +inflict +disease.</note> +The maleficent power of knots may also be manifested +in the infliction of sickness, disease, and all kinds of +misfortune. Thus among the Hos of Togoland a sorcerer +will sometimes curse his enemy and tie a knot in a stalk of +grass, saying, <q>I have tied up So-and-So in this knot. +<pb n='302'/><anchor id='Pg302'/> +May all evil light upon him! When he goes into the field, +may a snake sting him! When he goes to the chase, may +a ravening beast attack him! And when he steps into a +river, may the water sweep him away! When it rains, may +the lightning strike him! May evil nights be his!</q> +It is believed that in the knot the sorcerer has bound +up the life of his enemy.<note place='foot'>J. Spieth, <hi rend='italic'>Die Ewe-Stämme</hi>, p. +533.</note> Babylonian witches and wizards +of old used to strangle their victim, seal his mouth, +wrack his limbs, and tear his entrails by merely tying +knots in a cord, while at each knot they muttered a spell. +But happily the evil could be undone by simply undoing the +knots.<note place='foot'>M. Jastrow, <hi rend='italic'>The Religion of Babylonia +and Assyria</hi>, pp. 268, 270.</note> We hear of a man in one of the Orkney Islands +who was utterly ruined by nine knots cast on a blue thread; +and it would seem that sick people in Scotland sometimes +prayed to the devil to restore them to health by loosing the +secret knot that was doing all the mischief.<note place='foot'>J. G. Dalyell, <hi rend='italic'>Darker Superstitions +of Scotland</hi>, p. 307.</note> In the Koran +there is an allusion to the mischief of <q>those who puff into +the knots,</q> and an Arab commentator on the passage +explains that the words refer to women who practise magic +by tying knots in cords, and then blowing and spitting upon +them. He goes on to relate how, once upon a time, a wicked +Jew bewitched the prophet Mohammed himself by tying nine +knots on a string, which he then hid in a well. So the +prophet fell ill, and nobody knows what might have happened +if the archangel Gabriel had not opportunely revealed to the +holy man the place where the knotted cord was concealed. +The trusty Ali soon fetched the baleful thing from the well; +and the prophet recited over it certain charms, which were +specially revealed to him for the purpose. At every verse of +the charms a knot untied itself, and the prophet experienced +a certain relief.<note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>Al Baidawī's Commentary on the +Koran</hi>, chap. 113, verse 4. I have to +thank my friend Prof. A. A. Bevan +for indicating this passage to me, +and furnishing me with a translation +of it.</note> It will hardly be disputed that by tying +knots on the string the pestilent Hebrew contrived, if I may +say so, to constrict or astringe or, in short, to tie up some +vital organ or organs in the prophet's stomach. At least +we are informed that something of this sort is done by +<pb n='303'/><anchor id='Pg303'/> +Australian blackfellows at the present day, and if so, why +should it not have been done by Arabs in the time of +Mohammed? The Australian mode of operation is as +follows. When a blackfellow wishes to settle old scores +with another blackfellow, he ties a rope of fibre or bark +so tightly round the neck of his slumbering friend as +partially to choke him. Having done this he takes out the +man's caul-fat from under his short rib, ties up his inside +carefully with string, replaces the skin, and having effaced +all external marks of the wound, makes off with the stolen +fat. The victim on awakening feels no inconvenience, but +sooner or later, sometimes months afterwards, while he is +hunting or exerting himself violently in some other way, he +will feel the string snap in his inside. <q>Hallo,</q> says he, +<q>somebody has tied me up inside with string!</q> and he goes +home to the camp and dies on the spot.<note place='foot'>E. Palmer, <q>Notes on some Australian +Tribes,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Journal of the Anthropological +Institute</hi>, xiii. (1884) p. 293. +The Tahitians ascribed certain painful +illnesses to the twisting and knotting +of their insides by demons (W. Ellis, +<hi rend='italic'>Polynesian Researches</hi>,<hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi> i. 363).</note> Who can doubt +but that in this lucid diagnosis we have the true key to the +prophet's malady, and that he too might have succumbed to +the wiles of his insidious foe if it had not been for the timely +intervention of the archangel Gabriel? +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Knots may +be used +to cure +disease.</note> +If knots are supposed to kill, they are also supposed to +cure. This follows from the belief that to undo the knots +which are causing sickness will bring the sufferer relief. But +apart from this negative virtue of maleficent knots, there +are certain beneficent knots to which a positive power of +healing is ascribed. Pliny tells us that some folk cured +diseases of the groin by taking a thread from a web, tying +seven or nine knots on it, and then fastening it to the +patient's groin; but to make the cure effectual it was +necessary to name some widow as each knot was tied.<note place='foot'>Pliny, <hi rend='italic'>Nat. Hist.</hi> xxviii. 48.</note> +The ancient Assyrians seem to have made much use of +knotted cords as a remedy for ailments and disease. The +cord with its knots, which were sometimes twice seven in +number, was tied round the head, neck, or limbs of the +patient, and then after a time cut off and thrown away, +carrying with it, as was apparently supposed, the aches and +<pb n='304'/><anchor id='Pg304'/> +pains of the sufferer. Sometimes the magic cord which was +used for this beneficent purpose consisted of a double strand +of black and white wool; sometimes it was woven of the +hair of a virgin kid.<note place='foot'>C. Fossey, <hi rend='italic'>La Magie assyrienne</hi> +(Paris, 1902), pp. 83 sq.; R. Campbell +Thompson, <hi rend='italic'>Semitic Magic</hi> (London, +1908), pp. 164 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></note> A modern Arab cure for fever reported +from the ruins of Nineveh is to tie a cotton thread +with seven knots on it round the wrist of the patient, who +must wear it for seven or eight days or till such time as the +fever passes, after which he may throw it away.<note place='foot'>R. Campbell Thompson, <hi rend='italic'>Semitic +Magic</hi>, pp. 168 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> O'Donovan +describes a similar remedy for fever employed among the +Turcomans. The enchanter takes some camel hair and spins +it into a stout thread, droning a spell the while. Next he +ties seven knots on the thread, blowing on each knot before +he pulls it tight. This knotted thread is then worn as a +bracelet on his wrist by the patient. Every day one of the +knots is untied and blown upon, and when the seventh knot +is undone the whole thread is rolled up into a ball and +thrown into a river, bearing away (as they imagine) the +fever with it.<note place='foot'>E. O'Donovan, <hi rend='italic'>The Merv Oasis</hi> +(London, 1882), ii. 319.</note> The Hos of Togoland in like manner tie +strings round a sick man's neck, arms, or legs, according +to the nature of the malady; some of the strings are +intended to guard him against the influence of <q>the +evil mouth</q>; others are a protection against the ghosts +of the dead.<note place='foot'>J. Spieth, <hi rend='italic'>Die Ewe-Stämme</hi>, p. +531.</note> In Argyleshire, threads with three knots +on them are still used to cure the internal ailments +of man and beast. The witch rubs the sick person or +cow with the knotted thread, burns two of the knots in +the fire, saying, <q>I put the disease and the sickness on the +top of the fire,</q> and ties the rest of the thread with the single +knot round the neck of the person or the tail of the cow, +but always so that it may not be seen.<note place='foot'>R. C. Maclagan, M.D., <q>Notes +on Folklore Objects collected in Argyleshire,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Folk-lore</hi>, vi. (1895) pp. 154-156. +In the north-west of Ireland +divination by means of a knotted thread +is practised in order to discover whether +a sick beast will recover or die. See +E. B. Tylor, in <hi rend='italic'>International Folk-lore +Congress</hi>, 1891, <hi rend='italic'>Papers and Transactions</hi>, +pp. 391 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> A Scotch cure for a +sprained leg or arm is to cast nine knots in a black thread and +then tie the thread round the suffering limb, while you say: +</p> + +<pb n='305'/><anchor id='Pg305'/> + +<quote rend='display'> +<lg> +<l><q rend='pre'><hi rend='italic'>The Lord rade,</hi></q></l> +<l><hi rend='italic'>And the foal slade;</hi></l> +<l><hi rend='italic'>He lighted</hi></l> +<l><hi rend='italic'>And he righted,</hi></l> +<l><hi rend='italic'>Set joint to joint,</hi></l> +<l><hi rend='italic'>Bone to bone,</hi></l> +<l><hi rend='italic'>And sinew to sinew.</hi></l> +<l><q rend='post'><hi rend='italic'>Heal, in the Holy Ghost's name!</hi></q><note place='foot'>R. Chambers, <hi rend='italic'>Popular Rhymes of +Scotland</hi>, New Edition, p. 349. Grimm +has shewn that the words of this charm +are a very ancient spell for curing a +lame horse, a spell based on an incident +in the myth of the old Norse god +Balder, whose foal put its foot out of +joint and was healed by the great +master of spells, the god Woden. See +J. Grimm, <hi rend='italic'>Deutsche Mythologie</hi>,<hi rend='vertical-align: super'>4</hi> i. 185, +ii. 1030 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> Christ has been substituted +for Balder in the more modern forms +of the charm both in Scotland and +Germany.</note></l> +</lg> +</quote> + +<p> +In Gujarat, if a man takes seven cotton threads, goes to +a place where an owl is hooting, strips naked, ties a knot +at each hoot, and fastens the knotted thread round the +right arm of a man sick of the fever, the malady will +leave him.<note place='foot'>W. Crooke, <hi rend='italic'>Popular Religion and +Folk-lore of Northern India</hi> (Westminster, +1896), i. 279.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Knots may +be used to +win a lover +or capture +a runaway +slave.</note> +Again, knots may be used by an enchantress to win a +lover and attach him firmly to herself. Thus the love-sick +maid in Virgil seeks to draw Daphnis to her from the city +by spells and by tying three knots on each of three strings +of different colours.<note place='foot'>Virgil, <hi rend='italic'>Ecl.</hi> viii. 78-80. Highland +sorcerers also used three threads of +different colours with three knots tied +on each thread. See J. G. Dalyell, +<hi rend='italic'>Darker Superstitions of Scotland</hi>, p. +306.</note> So an Arab maiden, who had lost her +heart to a certain man, tried to gain his love and bind him +to herself by tying knots in his whip; but her jealous rival +undid the knots.<note place='foot'>J. Wellhausen, <hi rend='italic'>Reste arabischen +Heidentums</hi><hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi> (Berlin, 1897), p. 163.</note> On the same principle magic knots may +be employed to stop a runaway. In Swazieland you may +often see grass tied in knots at the side of the footpaths. +Every one of these knots tells of a domestic tragedy. A +wife has run away from her husband, and he and his friends +have gone in pursuit, binding up the paths, as they call it, in +this fashion to prevent the fugitive from doubling back over +them.<note place='foot'>Dudley Kidd, <hi rend='italic'>The Essential Kafir</hi>, +p. 263.</note> When a Swaheli wishes to capture a runaway slave +he will sometimes take a string of coco-nut fibre to a wise +man and get him to recite a passage of the Koran seven +<pb n='306'/><anchor id='Pg306'/> +times over it, while at each reading the wizard ties a knot in +the string. Then the slave-owner, armed with the knotted +string, takes his stand in the door of the house and calls on +his slave seven times by name, after which he hangs the +string over the door.<note place='foot'>C. Velten, <hi rend='italic'>Sitten und Gebräuche +der Suaheli</hi> (Göttingen, 1903), p. +317.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Knots tied +by hunters +and +travellers.</note> +The obstructive power of knots and locks as means of +barring out evil manifests itself in many ways. Thus on the +principle that prevention is better than cure, Zulu hunters +immediately tie a knot in the tail of any animal they have +killed, because they believe that this will hinder the meat +from giving them pains in their stomachs.<note place='foot'>David Leslie, <hi rend='italic'>Among the Zulus +and Amatongas</hi> (Edinburgh, 1875), +p. 147.</note> An ancient Hindoo +book recommends that travellers on a dangerous road should +tie knots in the skirts of their garments, for this will cause +their journey to prosper.<note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>Gríhya-Sûtras</hi>, translated by H. +Oldenberg, part i. p. 432, part ii. +p. 127 (Sacred Books of the East, +vols. xxix., xxx.).</note> Similarly among some Caffre +tribes, when a man is going on a doubtful journey, he knots +a few blades of grass together that the journey may turn out +well.<note place='foot'>J. Shooter, <hi rend='italic'>The Kafirs of Natal +and the Zulu Country</hi> (London, 1857), +pp. 217 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> In Laos hunters fancy that they can throw a spell +over a forest so as to prevent any one else from hunting +there successfully. Having killed game of any kind, they +utter certain magical words, while they knot together some +stalks of grass, adding, <q>As I knot this grass, so let no +hunter be lucky here.</q> The virtue of this spell will last, as +usually happens in such cases, so long as the stalks remain +knotted together.<note place='foot'>E. Aymonier, <hi rend='italic'>Notes sur le Laos</hi> +(Saigon, 1885), pp. 23 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> The Yabims of German New Guinea lay +a knot in a fishing-boat that is not ready for sea, in order +that a certain being called Balum may not embark in it; for +he has the power of taking away the fish and weighing down +the boat.<note place='foot'>Vetter, in <hi rend='italic'>Mitteilungen der geographischen +Gesellschaft zu Jena</hi>, xii. +(1893) p. 95.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Knots and locks +used as +protective +amulets in +Russia and +elsewhere.</note> +In Russia amulets often derive their protective virtue in +great measure from knots. Here, for example, is a spell +which will warrant its employer against all risk of being +shot: <q>I attach five knots to each hostile, infidel shooter, +over arquebuses, bows, and all manner of warlike weapons. +<pb n='307'/><anchor id='Pg307'/> +Do ye, O knots, bar the shooter from every road and way, +lock fast every arquebuse, entangle every bow, involve all +warlike weapons, so that the shooters may not reach me +with their arquebuses, nor may their arrows attain to me, +nor their warlike weapons do me hurt. In my knots lies +hid the mighty strength of snakes—from the twelve-headed +snake.</q> A net, from its affluence of knots, has always been +considered in Russia very efficacious against sorcerers; hence +in some places, when a bride is being dressed in her wedding +attire, a fishing-net is flung over her to keep her out of +harm's way. For a similar purpose the bridegroom and +his companions are often girt with pieces of net, or at least +with tight-drawn girdles, for before a wizard can begin +to injure them he must undo all the knots in the net, +or take off the girdles. But often a Russian amulet is +merely a knotted thread. A skein of red wool wound about +the arms and legs is thought to ward off agues and fevers; +and nine skeins, fastened round a child's neck, are deemed +a preservative against scarlatina. In the Tver Government +a bag of a special kind is tied to the neck of the cow which +walks before the rest of a herd, in order to keep off wolves; +its force binds the maw of the ravening beast. On the +same principle, a padlock is carried thrice round a herd of +horses before they go afield in the spring, and the bearer +locks and unlocks it as he goes, saying, <q>I lock from my +herd the mouths of the grey wolves with this steel lock.</q> +After the third round the padlock is finally locked, and then, +when the horses have gone off, it is hidden away somewhere +till late in the autumn, when the time comes for the drove to +return to winter quarters. In this case the <q>firm word</q> of +the spell is supposed to lock up the mouths of the wolves. +The Bulgarians have a similar mode of guarding their cattle +against wild beasts. A woman takes a needle and thread +after dark, and sews together the skirt of her dress. A child +asks her what she is doing, and she tells him that she is +sewing up the ears, eyes, and jaws of the wolves so that they +may not hear, see, or bite the sheep, goats, calves, and pigs.<note place='foot'>W. R. S. Ralston, <hi rend='italic'>Songs of the Russian People</hi>, pp. 388-390.</note> +Similarly in antiquity a witch fancied that she could shut +the mouths of her enemies by sewing up the mouth of a fish +<pb n='308'/><anchor id='Pg308'/> +with a bronze needle,<note place='foot'>Ovid, <hi rend='italic'>Fasti</hi>, ii. 577 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>; compare +W. Warde Fowler, <hi rend='italic'>Roman Festivals +of the Period of the Republic</hi>, +pp. 309 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> and farmers attempted to ward off +hail from their crops by tying keys to ropes all round the +fields.<note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>Geoponica</hi>, i. 14.</note> The Armenians essay to lock the jaws of wolves +by uttering a spell, tying seven knots in a shoe-lace, and +placing the string between the teeth of a wool-comber, which +are probably taken to represent the fangs of a wolf.<note place='foot'>M. Abeghian, <hi rend='italic'>Der armenische +Volksglaube</hi>, p. 115.</note> And +an Armenian bride and bridegroom will carry a locked lock +on their persons at and after marriage to guard them +against those evil influences to which at this crisis of life +they are especially exposed.<note place='foot'>M. Abeghian, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> p. 91.</note> The following mode of +keeping an epidemic from a village is known to have been +practised among the Balkan Slavs. Two old women +proceed to a spot outside the village, the one with a copper +kettle full of water, the other with a house-lock and key. +The old dame with the kettle asks the other, <q>Whither +away?</q> The one with the lock answers, <q>I came to lock +the village against mishap,</q> and suiting the action to the +words she locks the lock and throws it, together with the +key, into the kettle of water. Then she strides thrice round +the village, each time repeating the performance with the +lock and kettle.<note place='foot'>V. Titelbach, <q>Das heilige Feuer +bei den Balkanslaven,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Internationales +Archiv für Ethnographie</hi>, xiii. (1900) +p. 3.</note> To this day a Transylvanian sower thinks +he can keep birds from the corn by carrying a lock in the +seed-bag.<note place='foot'>A. Heinrich, <hi rend='italic'>Agrarische Sitten +und Gebräuche unter den Sachsen +Siebenbürgens</hi> (Hermannstadt, 1880), +p. 9.</note> Such magical uses of locks and keys are clearly +parallel to the magical use of knots, with which we are here +concerned. In Ceylon the Singhalese observe <q>a curious +custom of the threshing-floor called <q>Goigote</q>—the tying of +the cultivator's knot. When a sheaf of corn has been +threshed out, before it is removed the grain is heaped up +and the threshers, generally six in number, sit round it, and +taking a few stalks, with the ears of corn attached, jointly +tie a knot and bury it in the heap. It is left there until all +the sheaves have been threshed, and the corn winnowed +and measured. The object of this ceremony is to prevent +the devils from diminishing the quantity of corn in the +<pb n='309'/><anchor id='Pg309'/> +heap.</q><note place='foot'>C. J. R. Le Mesurier, <q>Customs +and Superstitions connected with the +Cultivation of Rice in the Southern +Province of Ceylon,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Journal of the +Royal Asiatic Society</hi>, N.S., xvii. +(1885) p. 371.</note> Knots and locks may serve to avert not only devils +but death itself. When they brought a woman to the stake +at St. Andrews in 1572 to burn her alive for a witch, they +found on her a white cloth like a collar, with strings and +many knots on the strings. They took it from her, sorely +against her will, for she seemed to think that she could not +die in the fire, if only the cloth with the knotted strings +was on her. When it was taken away, she said, <q>Now I +have no hope of myself.</q><note place='foot'>J. G. Dalyell, <hi rend='italic'>Darker Superstitions +of Scotland</hi>, p. 307.</note> In many parts of England it is +thought that a person cannot die so long as any locks are +locked or bolts shot in the house. It is therefore a very +common practice to undo all locks and bolts when the +sufferer is plainly near his end, in order that his agony +may not be unduly prolonged.<note place='foot'>J. Brand, <hi rend='italic'>Popular Antiquities</hi>, ii. +231 (Bohn's edition); R. Hunt, +<hi rend='italic'>Popular Romances of the West of +England</hi>, p. 379; T. F. Thiselton +Dyer, <hi rend='italic'>English Folk-lore</hi>, pp. 229 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> +On the other hand the Karaits, a +Jewish sect in the Crimea, lock all +cupboards when a person is in the last +agony, lest their contents should be +polluted by the contagion of death. +See S. Weissenberg, <q>Die Karäer +der Krim,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Globus</hi>, lxxxiv. (1903) p. +143.</note> For example, in the +year 1863, at Taunton, a child lay sick of scarlatina +and death seemed inevitable. <q>A jury of matrons was, +as it were, empanelled, and to prevent the child <q>dying +hard</q> all the doors in the house, all the drawers, all the +boxes, all the cupboards were thrown wide open, the keys +taken out, and the body of the child placed under a beam, +whereby a sure, certain, and easy passage into eternity could +be secured.</q> Strange to say, the child declined to avail +itself of the facilities for dying so obligingly placed at its +disposal by the sagacity and experience of the British matrons +of Taunton; it preferred to live rather than give up the +ghost just then.<note place='foot'>Extract from <hi rend='italic'>The Times</hi> of 4th +September 1863, quoted in <hi rend='italic'>Folk-lore</hi>, +xix. (1908) p. 336.</note> A Masai man whose sons have gone out to +war will take a hair and tie a knot in it for each of his absent +sons, praying God to keep their bodies and souls as firmly +fastened together as these knots.<note place='foot'>M. Merker, <hi rend='italic'>Die Masai</hi> (Berlin, +1904), p. 98.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The +magical +virtue of +a knot is +always +that of an +impediment +or +hindrance +whether +for good +or evil.</note> +The precise mode in which the virtue of the knot is +<pb n='310'/><anchor id='Pg310'/> +supposed to take effect in some of these instances does not +clearly appear. But in general we may say that in all +the cases we have been considering the leading characteristic +of the magic knot or lock is that, in strict accordance +with its physical nature, it always acts as an impediment, +hindrance, or obstacle, and that its influence is maleficent or +beneficent according as the thing which it impedes or hinders +is good or evil. The obstructive tendency attributed to the +knot in spiritual matters appears in a Swiss superstition +that if, in sewing a corpse into its shroud, you make a +knot on the thread, it will hinder the soul of the deceased +on its passage to eternity.<note place='foot'>H. Runge, <q>Volksglaube in der +Schweiz,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Zeitschrift für deutsche +Mythologie und Sittenkunde</hi>, iv. (1859) +p. 178, § 25. The belief is reported +from Zurich.</note> In coffining a corpse the +Highlanders of Scotland used to untie or cut every string in +the shroud; else the spirit could not rest.<note place='foot'>J. G. Campbell, <hi rend='italic'>Witchcraft and +Second Sight in the Highlands and +Islands of Scotland</hi>, p. 174; <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, <hi rend='italic'>Superstitions +of the Highlands and Islands of +Scotland</hi>, p. 241.</note> The Germans +of Transylvania place a little pillow with the dead in the +coffin; but in sewing it they take great care not to make +any knot on the thread, for they say that to do so would +hinder the dead man from resting in the grave and his +widow from marrying again.<note place='foot'>E. Gerard, <hi rend='italic'>The Land beyond the +Forest</hi>, i. 208.</note> Among the Pidhireanes, a +Ruthenian people on the hem of the Carpathians, when +a widow wishes to marry again soon, she unties the knots +on her dead husband's grave-clothes before the coffin is shut +down on him. This removes all impediments to her future +marriage.<note place='foot'>R. F. Kaindl, <q>Volksüberlieferungen +der Pidhireane,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Globus</hi>, lxxiii. +(1898) p. 251.</note> A Nandi who is starting on a journey will tie +a knot in grass by the wayside, as he believes that by so +doing he will prevent the people whom he is going to +visit from taking their meal till he arrives, or at all +events he will ensure that they leave enough food over +for him.<note place='foot'>A. C. Hollis, <hi rend='italic'>The Nandi</hi> (Oxford, +1909), pp. 89 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> The tying and untying +of magic knots was forbidden by +the Coptic church, but we are not told +the purposes for which the knots were +used. See <hi rend='italic'>Il Fetha Nagast o legislazione +dei re, codice ecclesiastico e +civile di Abissinia</hi>, tradotto e annotato +da Ignazio Guidi (Rome, 1899), p. 140.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The rule +that at +certain +magical +and +religious +rites the +hair should +be loose +and the +feet bare is +probably +based on a +fear of the +impediment +which +is thought +to be +caused by +any knot +or constriction. +Custom of +going on +certain +solemn +occasions +with one +shoe on +and one +shoe off.</note> +The rule which prescribes that at certain magical and +religious ceremonies the hair should hang loose and the feet +<pb n='311'/><anchor id='Pg311'/> +should be bare<note place='foot'>For examples see Horace, <hi rend='italic'>Sat.</hi> i. +8, 23 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; Virgil, <hi rend='italic'>Aen.</hi> iii. 370, iv. +509; Ovid, <hi rend='italic'>Metam.</hi> vii. 182 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; +Tibullus, i. 3. 29-32; Petronius, <hi rend='italic'>Sat.</hi> 44; +Aulus Gellius, iv. 3. 3; Columella, +<hi rend='italic'>De re rustica</hi>, x. 357-362; Athenaeus, +v. 28, p. 198 <hi rend='smallcaps'>e</hi>; Dittenberger, <hi rend='italic'>Sylloge +inscriptionum Graecarum</hi>,<hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi> Nos. 653 +(lines 23 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>) and 939; Ch. Michel, +<hi rend='italic'>Recueil d'inscriptions grecques</hi>, No. +694. Compare Servius on Virgil, <hi rend='italic'>Aen.</hi> +iv. 518, <q><foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>In sacris nihil solet esse +religatum.</foreign></q></note> is probably based on the same fear of +trammelling and impeding the action in hand, whatever it +may be, by the presence of any knot or constriction, +whether on the head or on the feet of the performer. This +connexion of ideas comes out clearly in a passage of Ovid, who +bids a pregnant woman loosen her hair before she prays to the +goddess of childbirth, in order that the goddess may gently +loose her teeming womb.<note place='foot'>Ovid, <hi rend='italic'>Fasti</hi>, iii. 257 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> It is less easy to say why on +certain solemn occasions it appears to have been customary +with some people to go with one shoe off and one shoe on. +The forlorn hope of two hundred men who, on a dark and +stormy night, stole out of Plataea, broke through the lines +of the besieging Spartans, and escaped from the doomed +city, were shod on the left foot only. The historian who +records the fact assumes that the intention was to prevent +their feet from slipping in the mud.<note place='foot'>Thucydides, iii. 22.</note> But if so, why were +not both feet unshod or shod? What is good for the one +foot is surely good for the other. The peculiar attire of the +Plataeans on this occasion had probably nothing to do with +the particular state of the ground and the weather at the time +when they made their desperate sally, but was an old custom, +a form of consecration or devotion, observed by men in any +great hazard or grave emergency. Certainly the costume +appears to have been regularly worn by some fighting +races in antiquity, at least when they went forth to battle. +Thus we are told that all the Aetolians were shod only on +one foot, <q>because they were so warlike,</q><note place='foot'>Schol. on Pindar, <hi rend='italic'>Pyth.</hi> iv. +133.</note> and Virgil +represents some of the rustic militia of ancient Latium as +marching to war, their right feet shod in boots of raw hide, +while their left feet were bare.<note place='foot'>Virgil, <hi rend='italic'>Aen.</hi> vii. 689 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> An oracle warned Pelias, +king of Iolcus, to beware of the man with one sandal, and +when Jason arrived with a sandal on his right foot but with +his left foot bare, the king recognised the hand of fate. The +<pb n='312'/><anchor id='Pg312'/> +common story that Jason had lost one of his sandals in +fording a river was probably invented when the real motive +of the costume was forgotten.<note place='foot'>Pindar, <hi rend='italic'>Pyth.</hi> iv. 129 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>: +Apollonius Rhodius, <hi rend='italic'>Argonaut.</hi> i. 5 +<hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>; Apollodorus, i. 9. 16.</note> Again, according to one +legend Perseus seems to have worn only one shoe when he +went on his perilous enterprise to cut off the Gorgon's head.<note place='foot'>Artemidorus, <hi rend='italic'>Onirocrit.</hi> iv. 63. +At Chemmis in Upper Egypt there was +a temple of Perseus, and the people +said that from time to time Perseus +appeared to them and they found his +great sandal, two cubits long, which +was a sign of prosperity for the whole +land of Egypt. See Herodotus, ii. +91.</note> +In certain forms of purification Greek ritual appears to have +required that the person to be cleansed should wear a +rough shoe on one foot, while the other was unshod. The +rule is not mentioned by ancient writers, but may be +inferred from a scene painted on a Greek vase, where a +man, naked except for a fillet round his head, is seen +crouching on the skin of a sacrificial victim, his bare right +foot resting on the skin, while his left foot, shod in a +rough boot, is planted on the ground in front of him. +Round about women with torches and vessels are engaged +in performing ceremonies of purification over him.<note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>Gazette archéologique</hi>, 1884, +plates 44, 45, 46 with the remarks of +De Witte and F. Lenormant, pp. 352 +<hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> The skin on which the man is +crouching is probably the so-called +<q>fleece of Zeus</q> (Διὸς κώδιον), as to +which see Hesychius and Suidas, <hi rend='italic'>s.v.</hi>; +Polemo, ed. Preller, pp. 140-142; C. +A. Lobeck, <hi rend='italic'>Aglaophamus</hi>, pp. 183 +<hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi> Compare my note on Pausanias, +ii. 31. 8.</note> When +Dido in Virgil, deserted by Aeneas, has resolved to die, she +feigns to perform certain magical rites which will either win +back her false lover or bring relief to her wounded heart. +In appealing to the gods and the stars, she stands by the +altar with her dress loosened and with one foot bare.<note place='foot'>Virgil, <hi rend='italic'>Aen.</hi> iv. 517 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></note> +Among the heathen Arabs the cursing of an enemy was a +public act. The maledictions were often couched in the +form of a satirical poem, which the poet himself recited with +certain solemn formalities. Thus when the young Lebid +appeared at the Court of Norman to denounce the Absites, +he anointed the hair of his head on one side only, let his +garment hang down loosely, and wore but one shoe. This, +we are told, was the costume regularly adopted by certain +poets on such occasions.<note place='foot'>I. Goldziher, <q>Der Dîwân des +Garwal b. Aus Al-Hutej' a,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Zeitschrift +der Deutschen Morgenländischen Gesellschaft</hi>, +xlvi. (1892) p. 5.</note> +</p> + +<pb n='313'/><anchor id='Pg313'/> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The +intention +of going +with one +shoe on +and one +shoe off +on such +occasions +seems to +be to free +the man +so attired +from +magical +constraint +and to lay +it on his +enemy.</note> +Thus various peoples seem to be of opinion that it stands +a man in good stead to go with one foot shod and one foot +bare on certain momentous occasions. But why? The +explanation must apparently be sought in the magical virtue +attributed to knots; for down to recent times, we may take +it, shoes have been universally tied to the feet by latchets. +Now the magical action of a knot, as we have seen, is +supposed to be to bind and restrain not merely the body +but the soul,<note place='foot'>See Servius, on Virgil, <hi rend='italic'>Aen.</hi> iii. +370: <q><foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>In ratione sacrorum par est et +animae et corporis causa: nam plerumque +quae non possunt circa animam +fieri fiunt circa corpus, ut solvere vel +ligare, quo possit anima, quod per se +non potest, ex cognatione sentire.</foreign></q></note> and this action is beneficial or harmful +according as the thing which is bound and restrained is evil +or good. It is a necessary corollary of this doctrine that to +be without knots is to be free and untrammelled, which, by +the way, may be the reason why the augur's staff at Rome +had to be made from a piece of wood in which there was no +knot;<note place='foot'>Livy, i. 18. 7.</note> it would never do for a divining rod to be spell-bound. +Hence we may suppose that the intention of going +with one shoe on and one shoe off is both to restrain and to +set at liberty, to bind and to unbind. But to bind or unbind +whom or what? Perhaps the notion is to rid the man +himself of magical restraint, but to lay it on his foe, or at +all events on his foe's magic; in short, to bind his enemy +by a spell while he himself goes free. This is substantially +the explanation which the acute and learned Servius gives +of Dido's costume. He says that she went with one shoe on +and one shoe off in order that Aeneas might be entangled +and herself released.<note place='foot'><q><foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>UNUM EXUTA PEDEM +quia id agitur, ut et ista solvatur et +implicetur Aeneas</foreign>,</q> Servius, on Virgil, +<hi rend='italic'>Aen.</hi> iv. 518.</note> An analogous explanation would +obviously apply to all the other cases we have considered, +for in all of them the man who wears this peculiar +costume is confronted with hostile powers, whether human +or supernatural, which it must be his object to lay under +a ban. +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Rings +also are +regarded +as magical +fetters +which prevent the +egress or +ingress of +spirits.</note> +A similar power to bind and hamper spiritual as well as +bodily activities is ascribed by some people to rings. Thus +in the Greek island of Carpathus, people never button the +clothes they put upon a dead body and they are careful to +<pb n='314'/><anchor id='Pg314'/> +remove all rings from it; <q>for the spirit, they say, can even +be detained in the little finger, and cannot rest.</q><note place='foot'><q>On a Far-off Island,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Blackwood's +Magazine</hi>, February 1886, +p. 238.</note> Here it +is plain that even if the soul is not definitely supposed to +issue at death from the finger-tips, yet the ring is conceived +to exercise a certain constrictive influence which detains and +imprisons the immortal spirit in spite of its efforts to escape +from the tabernacle of clay; in short the ring, like the knot, +acts as a spiritual fetter. This may have been the reason of +an ancient Greek maxim, attributed to Pythagoras, which +forbade people to wear rings.<note place='foot'>Clement of Alexandria, <hi rend='italic'>Strom.</hi> v. +5. 28, p. 662, ed. Potter; Jamblichus, +<hi rend='italic'>Adhortatio ad philosophiam</hi>, 23; +Plutarch, <hi rend='italic'>De educatione puerorum</hi>, 17. +According to others, all that Pythagoras +forbade was the wearing of a +ring on which the likeness of a god +was engraved (Diogenes Laertius, viii. +1. 17; Porphyry, <hi rend='italic'>Vit. Pythag.</hi> 42; +Suidas, <hi rend='italic'>s.v.</hi> Πυθαγόρας); according to +Julian a ring was only forbidden if it +bore the names of the gods (Julian, <hi rend='italic'>Or.</hi> +vii. p. 236 <hi rend='smallcaps'>d</hi>, p. 306 ed. Dindorf). I +have shewn elsewhere that the maxims +or symbols of Pythagoras, as they were +called, are in great measure merely +popular superstitions (<hi rend='italic'>Folk-lore</hi>, i. +(1890) pp. 147 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>).</note> Nobody might enter the +ancient Arcadian sanctuary of the Mistress at Lycosura with +a ring on his or her finger.<note place='foot'>This we learn from an inscription +found on the site. See Ἐφημερὶς ἀρχαιολογική, +Athens, 1898, col. 249; +Dittenberger, <hi rend='italic'>Sylloge inscriptionum +Graecarum</hi>,<hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi> No. 939.</note> Persons who consulted the +oracle of Faunus had to be chaste, to eat no flesh, and +to wear no rings.<note place='foot'>Ovid, <hi rend='italic'>Fasti</hi>, iv. 657 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Rings +worn as +amulets +against +demons, +witches, +and ghosts. Reason +why the +Flamen +Dialis +might not +wear knots +and rings.</note> +On the other hand, the same constriction which +hinders the egress of the soul may prevent the entrance of +evil spirits; hence we find rings used as amulets against +demons, witches, and ghosts. In the Tyrol it is said that +a woman in childbed should never take off her wedding-ring, +or spirits and witches will have power over her.<note place='foot'>I. V. Zingerle, <hi rend='italic'>Sitten, Bräuche +und Meinungen des Tiroler Volkes</hi>,<hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi> +p. 3.</note> +Among the Lapps, the person who is about to place a +corpse in the coffin receives from the husband, wife, or +children of the deceased a brass ring, which he must wear +fastened to his right arm until the corpse is safely deposited +in the grave. The ring is believed to serve the person as +an amulet against any harm which the ghost might do to +him.<note place='foot'>J. Scheffer, <hi rend='italic'>Lapponia</hi> (Frankfort, +1673), p. 313.</note> The Huzuls of the Carpathians sometimes milk a +cow through a wedding-ring to prevent witches from stealing +<pb n='315'/><anchor id='Pg315'/> +its milk.<note place='foot'>R. F. Kaindl, <hi rend='italic'>Die Huzulen</hi> +(Vienna, 1894), p. 89; <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, <q>Viehzucht +und Viehzauber in den Ostkarpaten,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Globus</hi>, lxix. (1896) p. 386.</note> In India iron rings are often worn as an amulet +against disease or to counteract the malignant influence of +the planet Saturn. A coral ring is used in Gujarat to ward +off the baleful influence of the sun, and in Bengal mourners +touch it as a form of purification.<note place='foot'>W. Crooke, <hi rend='italic'>Popular Religion and +Folk-lore of Northern India</hi> (Westminster, +1896), ii. 13, 16.</note> A Masai mother who +has lost one or more children at an early age will put a +copper ring on the second toe of her next infant's right foot +to guard it against sickness.<note place='foot'>M. Merker, <hi rend='italic'>Die Masai</hi> (Berlin, +1904), p. 143.</note> Masai men also wear on the +middle finger of the right hand a ring made out of the hide +of a sacrificial victim; it is supposed to protect the wearer +from witchcraft and disease of every kind.<note place='foot'>M. Merker, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> pp. 200 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, +202; compare, <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi> p. 250.</note> We have seen +that magic cords are fastened round the wrists of Siamese +children to keep off evil spirits;<note place='foot'>Above, p. <ref target='Pg267'>267</ref>.</note> that some people tie strings +round the wrists of women in childbed, of convalescents after +sickness, and of mourners after a funeral in order to prevent +the escape of their souls at these critical seasons;<note place='foot'>Above, pp. <ref target='Pg032'>32</ref>, <ref target='Pg051'>51</ref>.</note> and that +with the same intention the Bagobos put brass rings on +the wrists or ankles of the sick.<note place='foot'>Above, p. <ref target='Pg031'>31</ref>.</note> This use of wrist-bands, +bracelets, and anklets as amulets to keep the soul in the +body is exactly parallel to the use of finger-rings which we +are here considering. The placing of these spiritual fetters +on the wrists is especially appropriate, because some people +fancy that a soul resides wherever a pulse is felt beating.<note place='foot'>De la Borde, <q>Relation de l'origine, +etc., des Caraibes sauvages,</q> p. +15, in <hi rend='italic'>Recueil de divers voyages faits en +Afrique et en l'Amérique</hi> (Paris, 1684).</note> +How far the custom of wearing finger-rings, bracelets, and +anklets may have been influenced by, or even have sprung +from, a belief in their efficacy as amulets to keep the soul in +the body, or demons out of it, is a question which seems worth +considering.<note place='foot'>A considerable body of evidence +as to rings and the virtues attributed +to them has been collected by Mr. W. +Jones in his work <hi rend='italic'>Finger-ring Lore</hi> +(London, 1877). See also W. G. +Black, <hi rend='italic'>Folk-medicine</hi>, pp. 172-177.</note> Here we are only concerned with the belief +in so far as it seems to throw light on the rule that the +Flamen Dialis might not wear a ring unless it were broken. +Taken in conjunction with the rule which forbade him to +<pb n='316'/><anchor id='Pg316'/> +have a knot on his garments, it points to a fear that the +powerful spirit embodied in him might be trammelled and +hampered in its goings-out and comings-in by such corporeal +and spiritual fetters as rings and knots. The same fear +probably dictated the rule that if a man in bonds were taken +into the house of the Flamen Dialis, the captive was to be +unbound and the cords to be drawn up through a hole in the +roof and so let down into the street.<note place='foot'>Aulus Gellius, x. 15. 8. See +above, p. <ref target='Pg014'>14</ref>.</note> Further, we may +conjecture that the custom of releasing prisoners at a festival +may have originated in the same train of thought; it might +be imagined that their fetters would impede the flow of the +divine grace. The custom was observed at the Greek +festival of the Thesmophoria,<note place='foot'>Marcellinus on Hermogenes, in +<hi rend='italic'>Rhetores Graeci</hi>, ed. Walz, iv. 462; +Sopater, <hi rend='italic'>ibid.</hi> viii. 67.</note> and at the Athenian festival +of Dionysus in the city.<note place='foot'>Demosthenes, <hi rend='italic'>Contra Androt.</hi> 68, +p. 614; P. Foucart, <hi rend='italic'>Le Culte de +Dionysos en Attique</hi> (Paris, 1904), p. +168.</note> At the great festival of the Dassera, +celebrated in October by the Goorkhas of Nepaul, all the law +courts are closed, and all prisoners in gaol are removed from +the precincts of the city; but those who are imprisoned outside +the city do not have to change their place of confinement at +the time of the Dassera.<note place='foot'>H. A. Oldfield, <hi rend='italic'>Sketches from +Nipal</hi> (London, 1880), ii. 342 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> This Nepaulese custom appears +strongly to support the explanation here suggested of such +gaol-deliveries. For observe that the prisoners are not released, +but merely removed from the city. The intention is therefore +not to allow them to share the general happiness, but merely +to rid the city of their inopportune presence at the festival. +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The +Gordian +knot was +perhaps a +royal talisman.</note> +Before quitting the subject of knots I may be allowed +to hazard a conjecture as to the meaning of the famous +Gordian knot, which Alexander the Great, failing in his +efforts to untie it, cut through with his sword. In Gordium, +the ancient capital of the kings of Phrygia, there was preserved +a waggon of which the yoke was fastened to the pole +by a strip of cornel-bark or a vine-shoot twisted and tied in +an intricate knot. Tradition ran that the waggon had been +dedicated by Midas, the first king of the dynasty, and that +whoever untied the knot would be ruler of Asia.<note place='foot'>Arrian, <hi rend='italic'>Anabasis</hi>, ii. 3; Quintus +Curtius, iii. 1; Justin, xi. 7; Schol. +on Euripides, <hi rend='italic'>Hippolytus</hi>, 671.</note> Perhaps +<pb n='317'/><anchor id='Pg317'/> +the knot was a talisman with which the fate of the dynasty +was believed to be bound up in such a way that whenever +the knot was loosed the reign of the dynasty would come +to an end. We have seen that the magic virtue ascribed +to knots is naturally enough supposed to last only so long +as they remain untied. If the Gordian knot was the talisman +of the Phrygian kings, the local fame it enjoyed, as +guaranteeing to them the rule of Phrygia, might easily be +exaggerated by distant rumour into a report that the sceptre +of Asia itself would fall to him who should undo the wondrous +knot.<note place='foot'>Public talismans, on which the +safety of the state was supposed to +depend, were common in antiquity. +See C. A. Lobeck, <hi rend='italic'>Aglaophamus</hi>, pp. +278 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>, and my note on Pausanias, +viii. 47. 5.</note> +</p> + +</div> + +</div> + +<pb n='318'/><anchor id='Pg318'/> + +<div rend='page-break-before: always'> +<index index='toc'/> +<index index='pdf'/> +<head>Chapter VI. Tabooed Words.</head> + +<div> +<index index='toc'/> +<index index='pdf' level1='1. Personal Names tabooed.'/> +<head>§ 1. Personal Names tabooed.</head> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The savage +confuses +words and +things, and +hence +regards his +name as a +vital part +of himself, +and fancies +that he +can be +magically +injured +through it.</note> +Unable to discriminate clearly between words and things, +the savage commonly fancies that the link between a name +and the person or thing denominated by it is not a mere +arbitrary and ideal association, but a real and substantial +bond which unites the two in such a way that magic may +be wrought on a man just as easily through his name as +through his hair, his nails, or any other material part of +his person.<note place='foot'>On the primitive conception of the +relation of names to persons and things, +see E. B. Tylor, <hi rend='italic'>Early History of Mankind</hi>,<hi rend='vertical-align: super'>3</hi> +pp. 123 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>; R. Andree, <hi rend='italic'>Ethnographische +Parallelen und Vergleiche</hi> +(Stuttgart, 1878), pp. 165 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>; E. +Clodd, <hi rend='italic'>Tom-tit-tot</hi> (London, 1898), pp. +53 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>, 79 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi> In what follows I +have used with advantage the works of +all these writers.</note> In fact, primitive man regards his name as +a vital portion of himself and takes care of it accordingly. +Thus, for example, the North American Indian <q>regards his +name, not as a mere label, but as a distinct part of his personality, +just as much as are his eyes or his teeth, and believes +that injury will result as surely from the malicious handling of +his name as from a wound inflicted on any part of his physical +organism. This belief was found among the various tribes +from the Atlantic to the Pacific, and has occasioned a +number of curious regulations in regard to the concealment +and change of names. It may be on this account that both +Powhatan and Pocahontas are known in history under +assumed appellations, their true names having been concealed +from the whites until the pseudonyms were too +firmly established to be supplanted. Should his prayers +<pb n='319'/><anchor id='Pg319'/> +have no apparent effect when treating a patient for some +serious illness, the shaman sometimes concludes that the +name is affected, and accordingly goes to water, with +appropriate ceremonies, and christens the patient with a +new name, by which he is henceforth to be known. He +then begins afresh, repeating the formulas with the new +name selected for the patient, in the confident hope that his +efforts will be crowned with success.</q><note place='foot'>J. Mooney, <q>Sacred Formulas of +the Cherokees,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Seventh Annual Report +of the Bureau of Ethnology</hi> (Washington, +1891), p. 343.</note> Some Esquimaux +take new names when they are old, hoping thereby to get a +new lease of life.<note place='foot'>E. W. Nelson, <q>The Eskimo +about Bering Strait,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Eighteenth +Annual Report of the Bureau of +American Ethnology</hi>, part i. (Washington, +1899) p. 289.</note> The Tolampoos of central Celebes +believe that if you write a man's name down you can carry +off his soul along with it. On that account the headman of +a village appeared uneasy when Mr. A. C. Kruijt wrote +down his name. He entreated the missionary to erase it, +and was only reassured on being told that it was not his +real name but merely his second name that had been put on +paper. Again, when the same missionary took down the +names of villages from the lips of a woman, she asked him +anxiously if he would not thereby take away the soul of the +villages and so cause the inhabitants to fall sick.<note place='foot'>A. C. Kruijt, <q>Van Paloppo naar +Posso,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Mededeelingen van wege het +Nederlandsche Zendelinggenootschap</hi>, +xlii. (1898) pp. 61 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> If we +may judge from the evidence of language, this crude +conception of the relation of names to persons was widely +prevalent, if not universal, among the forefathers of the +Aryan race. For an analysis of the words for <q>name</q> in +the various languages of that great family of speech points +to the conclusion that <q>the Celts, and certain other widely +separated Aryans, unless we should rather say the whole +Aryan family, believed at one time not only that the name +was a part of the man, but that it was that part of him +which is termed the soul, the breath of life, or whatever you +may choose to define it as being.</q><note place='foot'>Professor (Sir) J. Rhys, <q>Welsh +Fairies,</q> <hi rend='italic'>The Nineteenth Century</hi>, xxx. +(July-December 1891) pp. 566 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> However this may +have been among the primitive Aryans, it is quite certain +that many savages at the present day regard their names as +vital parts of themselves, and therefore take great pains to +<pb n='320'/><anchor id='Pg320'/> +conceal their real names, lest these should give to evil-disposed +persons a handle by which to injure their owners. +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The Australian +savages +keep their +names +secret lest +sorcerers +should +injure +them by +means of +their +names.</note> +Thus, to begin with the savages who rank at the bottom +of the social scale, we are told that the secrecy with which +among the Australian aborigines personal names are often +kept from general knowledge <q>arises in great measure from +the belief that an enemy, who knows your name, has in it +something which he can use magically to your detriment.</q><note place='foot'>A. W. Howitt, <hi rend='italic'>Native Tribes of +South-East Australia</hi>, p. 377; compare +<hi rend='italic'>id.</hi> p. 440.</note> +<q>An Australian black,</q> says another writer, <q>is always very +unwilling to tell his real name, and there is no doubt that +this reluctance is due to the fear that through his name he +may be injured by sorcerers.</q><note place='foot'>R. Brough Smyth, <hi rend='italic'>Aborigines of +Victoria</hi>, i. 469, note.</note> On Herbert River in Queensland +the wizards, in order to practise their arts against some +one, <q>need only to know the name of the person in question, +and for this reason they rarely use their proper names in +addressing or speaking of each other, but simply their class +names.</q><note place='foot'>C. Lumholtz, <hi rend='italic'>Among Cannibals</hi> +(London, 1889), p. 280.</note> In the tribes of south-eastern Australia <q>when +the new name is given at initiation, the child's name +becomes secret, not to be revealed to strangers, or to be +mentioned by friends. The reason appears to be that a +name is part of a person, and therefore can be made use of +to that person's detriment by any who wish to <q>catch</q> him +by evil magic.</q><note place='foot'>A. W. Howitt, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> p. 736.</note> Thus among the Yuin of New South +Wales the totem name is said to have been something magical +rather than a mere name in our sense, and it was kept secret +lest an enemy should injure its bearer by sorcery. The name +was revealed to a youth by his father at initiation, but very +few other people knew it.<note place='foot'>A. W. Howitt, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> p. 133.</note> Another writer, who knew the +Australians well, observes that in many tribes the belief +prevails <q>that the life of an enemy may be taken by the +use of his name in incantations. The consequence of this +idea is, that in the tribes in which it obtains, the name +of the male is given up for ever at the time when he undergoes +the first of a series of ceremonies which end in conferring +the rights of manhood. In such tribes a man has no +name, and when a man desires to attract the attention of +<pb n='321'/><anchor id='Pg321'/> +any male of his tribe who is out of his boyhood, instead of +calling him by name, he addresses him as brother, nephew, +or cousin, as the case may be, or by the name of the class +to which he belongs. I used to notice, when I lived amongst +the Bangerang, that the names which the males bore in +infancy were soon almost forgotten by the tribe.</q><note place='foot'>E. M. Curr, <hi rend='italic'>The Australian Race</hi>, +i. 46.</note> It may +be questioned, however, whether the writer whom I have just +quoted was not deceived in thinking that among these tribes +men gave up their individual names on passing through the +ceremony of initiation into manhood. It is more in harmony +with savage beliefs and practices to suppose either that the +old names were retained but dropped out of use in daily life, +or that new names were given at initiation and sedulously +concealed from fear of sorcery. A missionary who resided +among the aborigines at Lake Tyers, in Victoria, informs us +that <q>the blacks have great objections to speak of a person +by name. In speaking to each other they address the +person spoken to as brother, cousin, friend, or whatever +relation the person spoken to bears. Sometimes a black +bears a name which we would term merely a nickname, as +the left-handed, or the bad-handed, or the little man. They +would speak of a person by this name while living, but they +would never mention the proper name. I found great difficulty +in collecting the native names of the blacks here. I +found afterwards that they had given me wrong names; and, +on asking the reason why, was informed they had two or +three names, but they never mentioned their right name for +fear any one got it, then they would die.</q><note place='foot'>J. Bulmer, in Brough Smyth's +<hi rend='italic'>Aborigines of Victoria</hi>, ii. 94. The +writer appears to mean that the natives +feared they would die if any one, or at +any rate, an enemy, learned their real +names.</note> Amongst the +tribes of central Australia every man, woman, and child has, +besides a personal name which is in common use, a secret or +sacred name which is bestowed by the older men upon him +or her soon after birth, and which is known to none but the +fully initiated members of the group. This secret name is +never mentioned except upon the most solemn occasions; to +utter it in the hearing of women or of men of another group +would be a most serious breach of tribal custom, as serious as +<pb n='322'/><anchor id='Pg322'/> +the most flagrant case of sacrilege among ourselves. When +mentioned at all, the name is spoken only in a whisper, and +not until the most elaborate precautions have been taken +that it shall be heard by no one but members of the group. +<q>The native thinks that a stranger knowing his secret +name would have special power to work him ill by means +of magic.</q><note place='foot'>Spencer and Gillen, <hi rend='italic'>Native Tribes +of Central Australia</hi>, p. 139; compare +<hi rend='italic'>ibid.</hi> p. 637; <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, <hi rend='italic'>Northern Tribes of +Central Australia</hi>, pp. 584 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The same +fear of +sorcery has +led people +to conceal +their names +in Egypt, +Africa, +Asia, and +the East +Indies.</note> +The same fear seems to have led to a custom of the same +sort amongst the ancient Egyptians, whose comparatively +high civilisation was strangely dashed and chequered with +relics of the lowest savagery. Every Egyptian received +two names, which were known respectively as the true +name and the good name, or the great name and the little +name; and while the good or little name was made public, +the true or great name appears to have been carefully +concealed.<note place='foot'>E. Lefébure, <q>La Vertu et la vie +du nom en Égypte,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Mélusine</hi>, viii. +(1897) coll. 226 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> Similarly in Abyssinia at the present day it is +customary to conceal the real name which a person receives +at baptism and to call him only by a sort of nickname which +his mother gives him on leaving the church. The reason +for this concealment is that a sorcerer cannot act upon a +person whose real name he does not know. But if he has +ascertained his victim's real name, the magician takes a particular +kind of straw, and muttering something over it bends +it into a circle and places it under a stone. The person +aimed at is taken ill at the very moment of the bending of +the straw; and if the straw snaps, he dies.<note place='foot'>Mansfield Parkyns, <hi rend='italic'>Life in Abyssinia</hi> +(London, 1868), pp. 301 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> A Brahman +child receives two names, one for common use, the other a +secret name which none but his father and mother should +know. The latter is only used at ceremonies such as +marriage. The custom is intended to protect the person +against magic, since a charm only becomes effectual in +combination with the real name.<note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>Grihya Sûtras</hi>, translated by H. +Oldenberg, part i. pp. 50, 183, 395, +part ii. pp. 55, 215, 281; A. Hillebrandt, +<hi rend='italic'>Vedische Opfer und Zauber</hi>, pp. +46, 170 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; W. Caland, <hi rend='italic'>Altindisches +Zauberritual</hi>, p. 162, note <hi rend='vertical-align: super'>20</hi>; D. C. J. +Ibbetson, <hi rend='italic'>Outlines of Punjáb Ethnography</hi> +(Calcutta, 1883), p. 118; W. +Crooke, <hi rend='italic'>Popular Religion and Folklore +of Northern India</hi> (Westminster, +1896), i. 24, ii. 5; <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, <hi rend='italic'>Natives of +Northern India</hi> (London, 1907), p. +199.</note> Amongst the Kru +<pb n='323'/><anchor id='Pg323'/> +negroes of West Africa a man's real name is always concealed +from all but his nearest relations; to other people +he is known only under an assumed name.<note place='foot'>A. B. Ellis, <hi rend='italic'>The Tshi-speaking +Peoples of the Gold Coast</hi>, p. 109.</note> The Ewe-speaking +people of the Slave Coast <q>believe that there is a +real and material connexion between a man and his name, +and that by means of the name injury may be done to the +man. An illustration of this has been given in the case of +the tree-stump that is beaten with a stone to compass the +death of an enemy; for the name of that enemy is not pronounced +solely with the object of informing the animating +principle of the stump who it is whose death is desired, but +through a belief that, by pronouncing the name, the personality +of the man who bears it is in some way brought to +the stump.</q><note place='foot'>A. B. Ellis, <hi rend='italic'>The Ewe-speaking +Peoples of the Slave Coast</hi>, p. 98.</note> The Wolofs of Senegambia are very much +annoyed if any one calls them in a loud voice, even by day; +for they say that their name will be remembered by an evil +spirit and made use of by him to do them a mischief at +night.<note place='foot'>L. J. B. Bérenger-Féraud, <hi rend='italic'>Les +Peuples de la Sénégambie</hi> (Paris, 1879), +p. 28.</note> Similarly, the natives of Nias believe that harm may +be done to a person by the demons who hear his name pronounced. +Hence the names of infants, who are especially +exposed to the assaults of evil spirits, are never spoken; +and often in haunted spots, such as the gloomy depths of +the forest, the banks of a river, or beside a bubbling spring, +men will abstain from calling each other by their names for +a like reason.<note place='foot'>E. Modigliani, <hi rend='italic'>Un Viaggio a Nías</hi> +(Milan, 1890), p. 465.</note> Among the hill tribes of Assam each individual +has a private name which may not be revealed. +Should any one imprudently allow his private name to be +known, the whole village is tabooed for two days and a +feast is provided at the expense of the culprit.<note place='foot'>T. C. Hodson, <q>The <foreign rend='italic'>genna</foreign> +amongst the Tribes of Assam,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Journal +of the Anthropological Institute</hi>, xxxvi. +(1906) p. 97.</note> A Manegre, +of the upper valley of the Amoor, will never mention his +own name nor that of one of his fellows. Only the names +of children are an exception to this rule.<note place='foot'>C. de Sabir, <q>Quelques notes sur +les Manègres,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Bulletin de la Société +de Géographie</hi> (Paris), Vme Série, i. +(1861) p. 51.</note> A Bagobo +man of Mindanao, one of the Philippine Islands, never +<pb n='324'/><anchor id='Pg324'/> +utters his own name from fear of being turned into a +raven, because the raven croaks out its own name.<note place='foot'>A. Schadenburg, <q>Die Bewohner +von Süd-Mindanao und der Insel +Samal,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Zeitschrift für Ethnologie</hi>, +xvii. (1885) p. 30.</note> +The natives of the East Indian island of Buru, and the +Manggarais of West Flores are forbidden by custom to +mention their own names.<note place='foot'>J. H. W. van der Miesen, <q>Een +en ander over Boeroe,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Mededeelingen +van wege het Nederlandsche Zendelinggenootschap</hi>, +xlvi. (1902) p. 455; J. +W. Meerburg, <q>Proeve einer beschrijving +van land en volk van Midden-Manggarai +(West-Flores), Afdeeling +Bima,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Tijdschrift voor Indische Taal- Land- +en Volkenkunde</hi>, xxxiv. (1891) +p. 465.</note> When Fafnir had received +his death-wound from Sigurd, he asked his slayer what his +name was; but the cunning Sigurd concealed his real name +and mentioned a false one, because he well knew how +potent are the words of a dying man when he curses his +enemy by name.<note place='foot'>F. Kauffmann, <hi rend='italic'>Balder</hi> (Strasburg, +1902), p. 198.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The +South and +Central +American +Indians +also keep +their names +secret +from fear +of sorcery.</note> +The Indians of Chiloe, a large island off the southern +coast of Chili, keep their names secret and do not like to +have them uttered aloud; for they say that there are fairies +or imps on the mainland or neighbouring islands who, if +they knew folk's names, would do them an injury; but so +long as they do not know the names, these mischievous +sprites are powerless.<note place='foot'>This I learned from my wife, who +spent some years in Chili and visited +the island of Chiloe.</note> The Araucanians, who inhabit the +mainland of Chili to the north of Chiloe, will hardly ever +tell a stranger their names because they fear that he would +thereby acquire some supernatural power over themselves. +Asked his name by a stranger, who is ignorant of their +superstitions, an Araucanian will answer, <q>I have none.</q><note place='foot'>E. R. Smith, <hi rend='italic'>The Araucanians</hi> +(London, 1855), p. 222.</note> +Names taken from plants, birds, or other natural objects are +bestowed on the Indians of Guiana at their birth by their +parents or the medicine-man, <q>but these names seem of +little use, in that owners have a very strong objection to +telling or using them, apparently on the ground that the +name is part of the man, and that he who knows the name +has part of the owner of that name in his power. To avoid +any danger of spreading knowledge of their names, one +Indian, therefore, generally addresses another only according +to the relationship of the caller and the called, as brother, +<pb n='325'/><anchor id='Pg325'/> +sister, father, mother, and so on; or, when there is no +relationship, as boy, girl, companion, and so on. These +terms, therefore, practically form the names actually used +by Indians amongst themselves.</q><note place='foot'>E. F. im Thurn, <hi rend='italic'>Among the Indians +of Guiana</hi> (London, 1883), p. 220.</note> Amongst the Indians of +the Goajira peninsula in Colombia it is a punishable offence +to mention a man's name; in aggravated cases heavy compensation +is demanded.<note place='foot'>F. A. Simons, <q>An Exploration +of the Goajira Peninsula, U.S. of +Colombia,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Proceedings of the Royal +Geographical Society</hi>, N.S., vii. (1885) +p. 790.</note> The Indians of Darien never tell +their names, and when one of them is asked, <q>What is your +name?</q> he answers, <q>I have none.</q><note place='foot'>Dr. Cullen, <q>The Darien Indians,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Transactions of the Ethnological Society +of London</hi>, N.S., iv. (1866) p. 265.</note> For example, the +Guami of Panama, <q>like the greater part of the American +Indians, has several names, but that under which he is +known to his relations and friends is never mentioned to a +stranger; according to their ideas a stranger who should learn +a man's name would obtain a secret power over him. As to +the girls, they generally have no name of their own up to the +age of puberty.</q><note place='foot'>A. Pinart, <q>Les Indiens de l'État +de Panama,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Revue d'Ethnographie</hi>, vi. +(1887) p. 44.</note> Among the Tepehuanes of Mexico a name +is a sacred thing, and they never tell their real native names.<note place='foot'>C. Lumholtz, <hi rend='italic'>Unknown Mexico</hi>, i. +462.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Similar +superstition +as to +personal +names +among the +Indians of +North +America.</note> +In North America superstitions of the same sort are +current. <q>Names bestowed with ceremony in childhood,</q> +says Schoolcraft, <q>are deemed sacred, and are seldom +pronounced, out of respect, it would seem, to the spirits +under whose favour they are supposed to have been selected. +Children are usually called in the family by some name +which can be familiarly used.</q><note place='foot'>H. R. Schoolcraft, <hi rend='italic'>The American +Indians, their History, Condition, and +Prospects</hi> (Buffalo, 1851), p. 213. +Compare <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, <hi rend='italic'>Oneóta, or Characteristics +of the Red Race of America</hi> (New +York and London, 1845), p. 456.</note> The Navajoes of New +Mexico are most unwilling to reveal their own Indian +names or those of their friends; they generally go by some +Mexican names which they have received from the whites.<note place='foot'>H. R. Schoolcraft, <hi rend='italic'>Indian Tribes</hi>, +iv. 217.</note> +<q>No Apache will give his name to a stranger, fearing some +hidden power may thus be placed in the stranger's hand to +his detriment.</q><note place='foot'>J. G. Bourke, <q>Notes upon the +Religion of the Apache Indians,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Folk-lore</hi> +ii. (1891) p. 423.</note> The Tonkawe Indians of Texas will give +<pb n='326'/><anchor id='Pg326'/> +their children Comanche and English names in addition to +their native names, which they are unwilling to communicate +to others; for they believe that when somebody calls a +person by his or her native name after death the spirit of +the deceased may hear it, and may be prompted to take +revenge on such as disturbed his rest; whereas if the spirit +be called by a name drawn from another language, it will +pay no heed.<note place='foot'>A. S. Galschet, <hi rend='italic'>The Karankawa +Indians, the Coast People of Texas</hi> (<hi rend='italic'>Archaeological +and Ethnological Papers of +the Peabody Museum, Harvard University</hi>, +vol. i. No. 2), p. 69.</note> Speaking of the Californian Indians, and +especially of the Nishinam tribe, a well-informed writer +observes: <q>One can very seldom learn an Indian's and +never a squaw's Indian name, though they will tell +their American titles readily enough.... No squaw will +reveal her own name, but she will tell all her neighbors' +that she can think of. For the reason above given +many people believe that half the squaws have no names at +all. So far is this from the truth that every one possesses +at least one and sometimes two or three.</q><note place='foot'>S. Powers, <hi rend='italic'>Tribes of California</hi> +(Washington, 1877), p. 315.</note> Blackfoot +Indians believe that they would be unfortunate in all their +undertakings if they were to speak their names.<note place='foot'>G. B. Grinnell, <hi rend='italic'>Blackfoot Lodge +Tales</hi>, p. 194.</note> When +the Canadian Indians were asked their names, they used +to hang their heads in silence or answer that they did not +know.<note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>Relations des Jésuites</hi>, 1633, p. 3 +(Canadian reprint, Quebec, 1858).</note> When an Ojebway is asked his name, he will look +at some bystander and ask him to answer. <q>This reluctance +arises from an impression they receive when young, that if +they repeat their own names it will prevent their growth, +and they will be small in stature. On account of this +unwillingness to tell their names, many strangers have +fancied that they either have no names or have forgotten +them.</q><note place='foot'>Peter Jones, <hi rend='italic'>History of the Ojebway +Indians</hi>, p. 162. Compare A. P. +Reid, <q>Religious Beliefs of the Ojibois +or Sauteux Indians,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Journal of the Anthropological +Institute</hi>, iii. (1874) p. 107.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Sometimes +savages, +though +they will +not utter +their own +names, +do not +object to +other +people's +doing so.</note> +In this last case no scruple seems to be felt about +communicating a man's name to strangers, and no ill effects +appear to be dreaded as a consequence of divulging it; harm +is only done when a name is spoken by its owner. Why is +this? and why in particular should a man be thought to +<pb n='327'/><anchor id='Pg327'/> +stunt his growth by uttering his own name? We may conjecture +that to savages who act and think thus a person's +name only seems to be a part of himself when it is uttered +with his own breath; uttered by the breath of others it has +no vital connexion with him, and no harm can come to him +through it. Whereas, so these primitive philosophers may +have argued, when a man lets his own name pass his lips, +he is parting with a living piece of himself, and if he persists +in so reckless a course he must certainly end by dissipating +his energy and shattering his constitution. Many a broken-down +debauchee, many a feeble frame wasted with disease, +may have been pointed out by these simple moralists to +their awe-struck disciples as a fearful example of the fate +that must sooner or later overtake the profligate who indulges +immoderately in the seductive habit of mentioning +his own name. +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Men who +will not +mention +their own +names will +yet invite +other +people to +do so for +them.</note> +However we may explain it, the fact is certain that +many a savage evinces the strongest reluctance to pronounce +his own name, while at the same time he makes no objection +at all to other people pronouncing it, and will even invite +them to do so for him in order to satisfy the curiosity of +an inquisitive stranger. Thus in some parts of Madagascar +it is <foreign rend='italic'>fàdy</foreign> or taboo for a person to tell his own name, but a +slave or attendant will answer for him.<note place='foot'>J. Sibree, <hi rend='italic'>The Great African +Island</hi> (London, 1880), p. 289.</note> <q>Chatting with an +old Sakalava while the men were packing up, we happened +to ask him his name; whereupon he politely requested us +to ask one of his servants standing by. On expressing our +astonishment that he should have forgotten this, he told us +that it was <foreign rend='italic'>fàdy</foreign> (tabooed) for one of his tribe to pronounce +his own name. We found this was perfectly true in that +district, but it is not the case with the Sakalava a few days +farther down the river.</q><note place='foot'>H. W. Grainge, <q>Journal of a +Visit to Mojanga on the North-West +Coast,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Antananarivo Annual and +Madagascar Magazine</hi>, No. i. p. 25 +(reprint of the first four numbers, +Antananarivo and London, 1885).</note> The same curious inconsistency, +as it may seem to us, is recorded of some tribes of American +Indians. Thus we are told that <q>the name of an American +Indian is a sacred thing, not to be divulged by the owner +himself without due consideration. One may ask a warrior +<pb n='328'/><anchor id='Pg328'/> +of any tribe to give his name, and the question will be met +with either a point-blank refusal or the more diplomatic +evasion that he cannot understand what is wanted of him. +The moment a friend approaches, the warrior first interrogated +will whisper what is wanted, and the friend can tell +the name, receiving a reciprocation of the courtesy from +the other.</q><note place='foot'>J. G. Bourke, <q>Medicine-men of +the Apaches,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Ninth Annual Report of +the Bureau of Ethnology</hi> (Washington, +1892), p. 461.</note> This general statement applies, for example, +to the Indian tribes of British Columbia, as to whom it is +said that <q>one of their strangest prejudices, which appears +to pervade all tribes alike, is a dislike to telling their names—thus +you never get a man's right name from himself; +but they will tell each other's names without hesitation.</q><note place='foot'>R. C. Mayne, <hi rend='italic'>Four Years in +British Columbia and Vancouver +Island</hi> (London, 1862), pp. 278 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> +Though it is considered very rude for a stranger to ask an +Apache his name, and the Apache will never mention it himself, +he will allow his friend at his side to mention it for him.<note place='foot'>J. G. Bourke, <hi rend='italic'>On the Border with +Crook</hi>, pp. 131 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> +The Abipones of South America thought it a sin in a man to +utter his own name, but they would tell each other's names +freely; when Father Dobrizhoffer asked a stranger Indian his +name, the man would nudge his neighbour with his elbow +as a sign that his companion should answer the question.<note place='foot'>M. Dobrizhoffer, <hi rend='italic'>Historia de Abiponibus</hi> +(Vienna, 1784), ii. 498.</note> +Some of the Malemut Esquimaux of Bering Strait dislike +very much to pronounce their own names; if a man be +asked his name he will appear confused and will generally +turn to a bystander, and request him to mention it for him.<note place='foot'>E. W. Nelson, <q>The Eskimo +about Bering Strait,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Eighteenth Annual +Report of the Bureau of American +Ethnology</hi>, part i. (Washington, 1899) +p. 289.</note> +In the whole of the East Indian Archipelago the etiquette +is the same. As a general rule no one will utter his own +name. To enquire, <q>What is your name?</q> is a very indelicate +question in native society. When in the course of +administrative or judicial business a native is asked his name, +instead of replying he will look at his comrade to indicate +that he is to answer for him, or he will say straight out, +<q>Ask him.</q> The superstition is current all over the East +Indies without exception,<note place='foot'>G. A. Wilken, <hi rend='italic'>Handleiding voor de +vergelijkende Volkenkunde van Nederlandsch-Indië</hi>, p. 221. Compare J. +H. F. Kohlbrugge, <q>Naamgeving in +Insulinde,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Bijdragen tot de Taal- +Land- en Volkenkunde van Nederlandsch-Indië</hi>, +lii. (1901) pp. 172 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> +The custom is reported for the British +settlements in the Straits of Malacca +by T. J. Newbold (<hi rend='italic'>Political and Statistical +Account of the British Settlements +in the Straits of Malacca</hi>, London, +1839, ii. 176); for Sumatra in general +by W. Marsden (<hi rend='italic'>History of Sumatra</hi>, +pp. 286 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>), and A. L. van Hasselt +(<hi rend='italic'>Volksbeschrijving van Midden-Sumatra</hi>, +p. 271); for the Battas by Baron +van Hoëvell (<q>Iets over 't oorlogvoeren +der Batta's,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Tijdschrift voor Nederlandsch +Indië</hi>, N.S., vii. (1878) p. +436, note); for the Dyaks by C. Hupe +(<q>Korte Verhandeling over de Godsdienst, +Zeden, enz. der Dajakkers,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Tijdschrift voor Neêrlands Indië</hi>, 1846, +dl. iii. p. 250), and W. H. Furness +(<hi rend='italic'>Home-life of Borneo Head-hunters</hi>, +Philadelphia, 1902, p. 16); for the +island of Sumba by S. Roos (<q>Bijdrage +tot de Kennis van Taal, Land en +Volk op het Eiland Soemba,</q> p. 70, +<hi rend='italic'>Verhandelingen van het Bataviaasch +Genootschap van Kunsten en Wetenschappen</hi>, +xxxvi.); and for Bolang Mongondo, +in the west of Celebes, by N. P. +Wilken and J. A. Schwarz (<q>Allerlei +over het land en volk van Bolaang +Mongondou,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Mededeelingen van wege +het Nederlandsche Zendelinggenootschap</hi>, +xi. (1867) p. 356).</note> and it is found also among the +<pb n='329'/><anchor id='Pg329'/> +Motu and Motumotu tribes of British New Guinea,<note place='foot'>J. Chalmers, <hi rend='italic'>Pioneering in New +Guinea</hi>, p. 187. If a Motumotu man +is hard pressed for his name and there +is nobody near to help him, he will at +last in a very stupid way mention it +himself.</note> the +Papuans of Finsch Haven in German New Guinea,<note place='foot'>O. Schellong, <q>Über Familienleben +und Gebräuche der Papuas der +Umgebung von Finschhafen,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Zeitschrift +für Ethnologie</hi>, xxi. (1889) p. +12. Compare M. Krieger, <hi rend='italic'>Neu Guinea</hi> +(Berlin, 1899), p. 172.</note> the +Nufoors of Dutch New Guinea,<note place='foot'>Th. J. F. van Hasselt, <q>Gebruik +van vermomde Taal door de Nufooren,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Tijdschrift voor Indische Taal- Land- +en Volkenkunde</hi>, xlv. (1902) p. 279. +The Nufoors are a Papuan tribe on +Doreh Bay, in Dutch New Guinea. +See <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, in <hi rend='italic'>Tijdschrift voor Indische +Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde</hi>, xlvi. +(1903) p. 287.</note> and the Melanesians of the +Bismarck Archipelago.<note place='foot'>J. Graf Pfeil, <hi rend='italic'>Studien und Beobachtungen +aus der Südsee</hi> (Brunswick, +1899), p. 78; P. A. Kleintitschen, +<hi rend='italic'>Die Küstenbewohner der Gazellehalbinsel</hi> +(Hiltrup bei Münster, preface +dated Christmas, 1906), pp. 237 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> Among many tribes of South +Africa men and women never mention their names if they +can get any one else to do it for them, but they do not +absolutely refuse when it cannot be avoided.<note place='foot'>J. Macdonald, <q>Manners, Customs, +Superstitions, and Religions of South +African Tribes,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Journal of the Anthropological +Institute</hi>, xx. (1891) p. 131.</note> No Warua +will tell his name, but he does not object to being addressed +by it.<note place='foot'>V. L. Cameron, <hi rend='italic'>Across Africa</hi> +(London, 1877), ii. 61.</note> Among the Masai, <q>when a man is called or spoken +to, he is addressed by his father's name, and his own name +is only used when speaking to his mother. It is considered +unlucky for a man to be addressed by name. The methods +employed in finding out what an individual is called seem +apt to lead to confusion. If a man is asked his name, he +replies by giving that of his father, and to arrive at his own +<pb n='330'/><anchor id='Pg330'/> +name it is necessary to ask a third person, or to ask him +what is the name of his mother. There is no objection to +another person mentioning his name even in his presence.</q><note place='foot'>S. L. Hinde and H. Hinde, <hi rend='italic'>The +Last of the Masai</hi> (London, 1901), +pp. 48 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> Compare Sir H. Johnston, +<hi rend='italic'>The Uganda Protectorate</hi> (London, +1902), ii. 826 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; M. Merker, <hi rend='italic'>Die +Masai</hi> (Berlin, 1904), p. 56.</note> +We are told that the Wanyamwesi almost always address +each other as <q>Mate</q> or <q>Friend,</q> and a man sometimes +quite forgets his own name and has to be reminded of it by +another.<note place='foot'>P. Reichard, <q>Die Wanjamuesi,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Zeitschrift der Gesellschaft für Erdkunde +zu Berlin</hi>, xxiv. (1889) p. 258.</note> The writer who makes this statement was probably +unaware of the reluctance of many savages to utter +their own names, and hence he mistook that reluctance for +forgetfulness. In Uganda no one will mention his totem. +If it is necessary that it should be known, he will ask a +bystander to mention it for him.<note place='foot'>J. Roscoe, <q>Further Notes on the +Manners and Customs of the Baganda,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Journal of the Anthropological Institute</hi>, +xxxii. (1902) p. 29.</note> The Ba-Lua in the +Congo region are unwilling to pronounce the name of +their tribe; if they are pressed on the subject, they will +call on some foreigner to give the required information.<note place='foot'>E. Torday and T. A. Joyce, +<q>Note on the Southern Ba-Mbala,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Man</hi>, vii. (1907) p. 81.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Sometimes +the prohibition +to +mention +personal +names +is not +permanent +but temporary +and +contingent.</note> +Sometimes the embargo laid on personal names is not +permanent; it is conditional on circumstances, and when +these change it ceases to operate. Thus when the Nandi +men are away on a foray, nobody at home may pronounce +the names of the absent warriors; they must be referred to +as birds. Should a child so far forget itself as to mention +one of the distant ones by name, the mother would rebuke +it, saying, <q>Don't talk of the birds who are in the heavens.</q><note place='foot'>A. C. Hollis, <hi rend='italic'>The Nandi</hi>, p. +43.</note> +Among the Bangala of the Upper Congo, while a man is +fishing and when he returns with his catch, his proper name +is in abeyance and nobody may mention it. Whatever the +fisherman's real name may be, he is called <foreign rend='italic'>mwele</foreign> without +distinction. The reason is that the river is full of spirits, +who, if they heard the fisherman's real name, might so work +against him that he would catch little or nothing. Even +when he has caught his fish and landed with them, the buyer +must still not address him by his proper name, but must +only call him <foreign rend='italic'>mwele</foreign>; for even then, if the spirits were to +<pb n='331'/><anchor id='Pg331'/> +hear his proper name, they would either bear it in mind and +serve him out another day, or they might so mar the fish he +had caught that he would get very little for them. Hence +the fisherman can extract heavy damages from anybody who +mentions his name, or can compel the thoughtless speaker to +relieve him of the fish at a good price so as to restore his +luck.<note place='foot'>Rev. J. H. Weeks, <q>Anthropological +Notes on the Bangala of the +Upper Congo River,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Journal of the +Anthropological Institute</hi>, xxxix. (1909) +pp. 128, 459.</note> When the Sulka of New Britain are near the territory +of their enemies the Gaktei, they take care not to mention +them by their proper name, believing that were they to do so, +their foes would attack and slay them. Hence in these +circumstances they speak of the Gaktei as <foreign rend='italic'>o lapsiek</foreign>, that is, +<q>the rotten tree-trunks,</q> and they imagine that by calling them +that they make the limbs of their dreaded enemies ponderous +and clumsy like logs.<note place='foot'>R. Parkinson, <hi rend='italic'>Dreissig Jahre in +der Südsee</hi>, p. 198.</note> This example illustrates the extremely +materialistic view which these savages take of the +nature of words; they suppose that the mere utterance of +an expression signifying clumsiness will homoeopathically +affect with clumsiness the limbs of their distant foemen. +Another illustration of this curious misconception is furnished +by a Caffre superstition that the character of a young thief +can be reformed by shouting his name over a boiling kettle +of medicated water, then clapping a lid on the kettle and +leaving the name to steep in the water for several days. +It is not in the least necessary that the thief should be +aware of the use that is being made of his name behind his +back; the moral reformation will be effected without his +knowledge.<note place='foot'>Dudley Kidd, <hi rend='italic'>Savage Childhood</hi>, +p. 73.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>In order to +avoid the +use of +people's +own +names, +parents are +sometimes +named +after their +children, +uncles and +aunts after +their +nephews +and nieces, +and so +forth. The +common +custom of +naming +parents +after their +children +seems to +arise from +a reluctance +to +mention +the real +names of +persons +addressed +or directly +referred to.</note> +When it is deemed necessary that a man's real name +should be kept secret, it is often customary, as we have seen, +to call him by a surname or nickname. As distinguished +from the real or primary names, these secondary names are +apparently held to be no part of the man himself, so that +they may be freely used and divulged to everybody without +endangering his safety thereby. Sometimes in order to +avoid the use of his own name a man will be called after +his child. Thus we are informed that <q>the Gippsland +<pb n='332'/><anchor id='Pg332'/> +blacks objected strongly to let any one outside the tribe +know their names, lest their enemies, learning them, should +make them vehicles of incantation, and so charm their lives +away. As children were not thought to have enemies, they +used to speak of a man as <q>the father, uncle, or cousin of +So-and-so,</q> naming a child; but on all occasions abstained from +mentioning the name of a grown-up person.</q><note place='foot'>E. M. Curr, <hi rend='italic'>The Australian Race</hi>, +iii. 545. Similarly among the Dacotas +<q>there is no secrecy in children's +names, but when they grow up there +is a secrecy in men's names</q> (H. R. +Schoolcraft, <hi rend='italic'>Indian Tribes</hi>, iii. 240).</note> Similarly +among the Nufoors of Dutch New Guinea, grown-up persons +who are related by marriage may not mention each other's +names, but it is lawful to mention the names of children; +hence in order to designate a person whose name they may +not pronounce they will speak of him or her as the father or +mother of So-and-so.<note place='foot'>Th. J. F. van Hasselt, <q>Gebruik +van vermomde Taal door de Nufooren,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Tijdschrift voor Indische Taal- Land- +en Volkenkunde</hi>, xlv. (1902) p. 278.</note> The Alfoors of Poso, in Celebes, +will not pronounce their own names. Among them, accordingly, +if you wish to ascertain a person's name, you ought +not to ask the man himself, but should enquire of others. +But if this is impossible, for example, when there is no one +else near, you should ask him his child's name, and then +address him as the <q>Father of So-and-so.</q> Nay, these Alfoors +are shy of uttering the names even of children; so when a +boy or girl has a nephew or niece, he or she is addressed +as <q>Uncle of So-and-so,</q> or <q>Aunt of So-and-so.</q><note place='foot'>A. C. Kruijt, <q>Een en ander aangaande +het geestelijk en maatschappelijk +leven van den Poso-Alfoer,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Mededeelingen +van wege het Nederlandsche Zendelinggenootschap</hi>, +xl. (1896) pp. 273 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></note> In pure +Malay society, we are told, a man is never asked his name, +and the custom of naming parents after their children is +adopted only as a means of avoiding the use of the parents' +own names. The writer who makes this statement adds +in confirmation of it that childless persons are named after +their younger brothers.<note place='foot'>G. Mansveld (Kontroleur van +Nias), <q>Iets over de namen en Galars +onder de Maleijers in de Padangsche +Bovenlanden, bepaaldelijk in noordelijk +Agam,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Tijdschrift voor Indische +Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde</hi>, xxiii. +(1876) pp. 443, 449.</note> Among the land Dyaks of +northern Borneo children as they grow up are called, +according to their sex, the father or mother of a child of +their father's or mother's younger brother, or sister,<note place='foot'>Spenser St. John, <hi rend='italic'>Life in the Forests +of the Far East</hi>,<hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi> i. 208.</note> that is, +<pb n='333'/><anchor id='Pg333'/> +they are called the father or mother of what we should +call their first cousin. The Caffres used to think it discourteous +to call a bride by her own name, so they would +call her <q>the Mother of So-and-so,</q> even when she was only +betrothed, far less a wife and a mother.<note place='foot'>Dudley Kidd, <hi rend='italic'>The Essential Kafir</hi>, +p. 202.</note> Among the Kukis +and Zemis or Kacha Nagas of Assam parents drop their +own names after the birth of a child and are named Father +and Mother of So-and-so. Childless couples go by the +names of <q>the childless father,</q> <q>the childless mother,</q> <q>the +father of no child,</q> <q>the mother of no child.</q><note place='foot'>L. A. Waddell, <q>The Tribes of +the Brahmapootra Valley,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Journal of +the Asiatic Society of Bengal</hi>, lxix. part +iii. (1901) pp. 52, 69, compare 46.</note> A Zulu +woman may not utter her husband's name; if she speaks to +or of him she says, <q>Father of So-and-so,</q> mentioning the +name of one of his children.<note place='foot'>H. Callaway, <hi rend='italic'>Religious System of +the Amazulu</hi>, part iii. p. 316, note.</note> A Hindoo woman will not +name her husband. If she has to refer to him she will +designate him as the father of her child or by some other +periphrasis.<note place='foot'>W. Crooke, <hi rend='italic'>Popular Religion and +Folk-lore of Northern India</hi> (Westminster, +1896), ii. 5 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> Compare <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, +<hi rend='italic'>Tribes and Castes of the North-Western +Provinces and Oudh</hi>, ii. 251.</note> The widespread custom of naming a father +after his child has sometimes been supposed to spring from +a desire on the father's part to assert his paternity, apparently +as a means of obtaining those rights over his children +which had previously, under a system of mother-kin, been +possessed by the mother.<note place='foot'>G. A. Wilken, <hi rend='italic'>Handleiding voor +de vergelijkende Volkenkunde van Nederlandsch-Indië</hi>, +pp. 216-219; E. B. +Tylor, <q>On a Method of Investigating +the Developement of Institutions,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Journal of the Anthropological Institute</hi>, +xviii. (1889) pp. 248-250 (who refers +to a series of papers by G. A. Wilken, +<q>Over de primitieve vormen van het +huwelijk,</q> published in <hi rend='italic'>Indische Gids</hi>, +1880, etc., which I have not seen). +Wilken's theory is rejected by Mr. +A. C. Kruijt (<hi rend='italic'>l.c.</hi>), who explains the +custom by the fear of attracting the +attention of evil spirits to the person +named. Other explanations are suggested +by Mr. J. H. F. Kohlbrugge +(<q>Naamgeving in Insulinde,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Bijdragen +tot de Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde +van Nederlandsch-Indië</hi>, lii. +(1901) pp. 160-170), and by Mr. E. +Crawley (<hi rend='italic'>The Mystic Rose</hi>, London, +1902, pp. 428-433).</note> But this explanation does not +account for the parallel custom of naming the mother after +her child, which seems commonly to co-exist with the +practice of naming the father after the child. Still less, if +possible, does it apply to the customs of calling childless +couples the father and mother of children which do not +exist, of naming people after their younger brothers, and of +<pb n='334'/><anchor id='Pg334'/> +designating children as the uncles and aunts of So-and-so, +or as the fathers and mothers of their first cousins. But +all these practices are explained in a simple and natural +way if we suppose that they originate in a reluctance +to utter the real names of persons addressed or directly +referred to. That reluctance is probably based partly on a +fear of attracting the notice of evil spirits, partly on a dread +of revealing the name to sorcerers, who would thereby obtain +a handle for injuring the owner of the name.<note place='foot'>For evidence of the custom of +naming parents after their children in +Australia, see E. J. Eyre, <hi rend='italic'>Journals of +Expeditions of Discovery into Central +Australia</hi> (London, 1845), ii. 325 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>: +in Sumatra, see W. Marsden, <hi rend='italic'>History +of Sumatra</hi>, p. 286; Baron van Hoëvell, +<q>Iets over 't oorlogvoeren der +Batta's,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Tijdschrift voor Nederlandsch-Indië</hi>, +N.S. vii. (1878) p. 436, note; +A. L. van Hasselt, <hi rend='italic'>Volksbeschrijving van +Midden-Sumatra</hi>, p. 274: in Nias, see +J. T. Nieuwenhuisen en H. C. B. von +Rosenberg, <hi rend='italic'>Verslag omtrent het eiland +Nias</hi>, p. 28 (<hi rend='italic'>Verhandelingen van het +Bataviaasch Genootschap van Kunsten +en Wetenschappen</hi>, xxx. Batavia, 1863): +in Java, see P. J. Veth, <hi rend='italic'>Java</hi>, i. (Haarlem, +1875) p. 642; J. H. F. Kohlbrugge, +<q>Die Tenggeresen, ein alter +Javanischen Volksstamm,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Bijdragen +tot de Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde van +Nederlandsch-Indië</hi>, liii. (1901) p. 121; +in Borneo, see C. Hupe, <q>Korte Verhandeling +over de Godsdienst, Zeden, +enz. der Dajakkers,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Tijdschrift voor +Neêrlands Indië</hi>, 1846, dl. iii. p. 249; +H. Low, <hi rend='italic'>Sarawak</hi>, p. 249; Spenser +St. John, <hi rend='italic'>Life in the Forests of the Far +East</hi>,<hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi> i. 208; M. T. H. Perelaer, +<hi rend='italic'>Ethnographische Beschrijving der Dajaks</hi>, +p. 42; C. Hose, <q>The Natives +of Borneo,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Journal of the Anthropological +Institute</hi>, xxiii. (1894) p. 170; +W. H. Furness, <hi rend='italic'>Folk-lore in Borneo</hi> +(Wallingford, Pennsylvania, 1899, +privately printed), p. 26; <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, <hi rend='italic'>Home-life +of Borneo Head-hunters</hi>, pp. 17 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, +55; A. W. Nieuwenhuis, <hi rend='italic'>Quer durch +Borneo</hi>, i. 75: among the Mantras of +Malacca, see W. W. Skeat and C. O. +Blagden, <hi rend='italic'>Pagan Races of the Malay +Peninsula</hi>, ii. 16 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>: among the +Negritos of Zambales in the Philippines, +see W. A. Reed, <hi rend='italic'>Negritos of +Zambales</hi> (Manilla, 1904), p. 55: +in the islands between Celebes and +New Guinea, see J. G. F. Riedel, <hi rend='italic'>De +sluik- en kroesharige rassen tusschen +Selebes en Papua</hi>, pp. 5, 137, 152 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, +238, 260, 353, 392, 418, 450; J. H. +W. van der Miesen, <q>Een en ander +over Boeroe,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Mededeelingen van wege +het Nederlandsche Zendelinggenootschap</hi>, +xlvi. (1902) p. 444; in Celebes and +other parts of the Indian Archipelago, +see J. H. F. Kohlbrugge, <q>Naamgeving +in Insulinde,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Bijdragen tot de +Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde van +Nederlandsch-Indië</hi>, lii. (1901) pp. +160-170; G. A. Wilken, <hi rend='italic'>Handleiding +voor de vergelijkende Volkenkunde +van Nederlandsch-Indië</hi>, pp. +216 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>: in New Guinea, see P. W. +Schmidt, <q>Ethnographisches von Berlinhafen, +Deutsch-Neu-Guinea,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Mittheilungen +der Anthropologischen +Gesellschaft in Wien</hi>, xxx. (1899) p. +28: among the Kasias of North-eastern +India, see Col. H. Yule, in <hi rend='italic'>Journal of +the Anthropological Institute</hi>, ix. (1880) +p. 298; L. A. Waddell, <q>The Tribes +of the Brahmaputra Valley,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Journal +of the Asiatic Society of Bengal</hi>, lxix. +part iii. (Calcutta, 1901) p. 46: among +some of the indigenous races of southern +China, see P. Vial, <q>Les Gni ou Gnipa, +tribu Lolote du Yun-Nan,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Missions +Catholiques</hi>, xxv. (1893) p. 270; <hi rend='italic'>La +Mission lyonnaise d'exploration commerciale +en Chine</hi> (Lyons, 1898), p. +369: in Corea, see Mrs. Bishop, <hi rend='italic'>Korea +and her Neighbours</hi> (London, 1898), i. +136: among the Yukagirs of north-eastern +Asia, see W. Jochelson, <q>Die +Jukagiren im äussersten Nordosten +Asiens,</q> xvii. <hi rend='italic'>Jahresbericht der Geographischen +Gesellschaft von Bern</hi> (Bern, +1900), pp. 26 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; P. von Stenin, +<q>Jochelson's Forschungen unter den +Jukagiren,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Globus</hi>, lxxvi. (1899) p. +169: among the Masai, see M. +Merker, <hi rend='italic'>Die Masai</hi> (Berlin, 1904), +pp. 59, 235: among the Bechuanas, +Basutos, and other Caffre tribes of +South Africa, see D. Livingston, <hi rend='italic'>Missionary +Travels and Researches in +South Africa</hi> (London, 1857), p. 126; +J. Shooter, <hi rend='italic'>The Kafirs of Natal</hi> (London, +1857), pp. 220 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; D. Leslie, +<hi rend='italic'>Among the Zulus and Amatongas</hi><hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi> +(Edinburgh, 1875), pp. 171 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; G. +M'Call Theal, <hi rend='italic'>Kaffir Folk-lore</hi><hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi> (London, +1886), p. 225; Father Porte, +<q>Les reminiscences d'un missionaire +du Basutoland,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Missions Catholiques</hi>, +xxviii. (1896) p. 300: among the +Hos of Togoland in West Africa, see +J. Spieth, <hi rend='italic'>Die Ewe-Stāmme</hi>, p. 217: +among the Patagonians, see G. C. +Musters, <hi rend='italic'>At Home with the Patagonians</hi> +(London, 1871), p. 177: among the +Lengua Indians of the Gran Chaco, see +G. Kurze, <q>Sitten und Gebräuche der +Lengua-Indianer,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Mittheilungen der +Geographischen Gesellschaft zu Jena</hi>, +xxiii. (1905) p. 28: among the Mayas +of Guatemala, see H. H. Bancroft, <hi rend='italic'>Native +Races of the Pacific States</hi>, ii. 680: +among the Haida Indians of Queen +Charlotte Islands, see J. R. Swanton, +<q>Contributions to the Ethnology of +the Haida,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Memoir of the American +Museum of Natural History, The Jesup +North Pacific Expedition</hi>, vol. v. part i. +(Leyden and New York, 1905) p. 118: +and among the Tinneh and occasionally +the Thlinkeet Indians of north-west +America, see E. Petitot, <hi rend='italic'>Monographie +des Dènè-Dindjié</hi> (Paris, 1876), +p. 61; H. J. Holmberg, <q>Ethnographische +Skizzen über die Völker des +russischen Amerika,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Acta Societatis +Scientiarum Fennicae</hi>, iv. (1856) p. 319.</note> +</p> + +</div> + +<pb n='335'/><anchor id='Pg335'/> + +<div> +<index index='toc'/> +<index index='pdf' level1='2. Names of Relations tabooed.'/> +<head>§ 2. Names of Relations tabooed.</head> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The names +of persons +related to +the speaker +by blood +and especially +by +marriage +may often +not be +mentioned. +Women's +speech +among the +Caffres.</note> +It might naturally be expected that the reserve so +commonly maintained with regard to personal names would +be dropped or at least relaxed among relations and friends. +But the reverse of this is often the case. It is precisely the +persons most intimately connected by blood and especially +by marriage to whom the rule applies with the greatest +stringency. Such people are often forbidden, not only to +pronounce each other's names, but even to utter ordinary +words which resemble or have a single syllable in common +with these names. The persons who are thus mutually +debarred from mentioning each other's names are especially +husbands and wives, a man and his wife's parents, and a +woman and her husband's father. For example, among the +Caffres of South Africa a woman may not publicly pronounce +the birth-name of her husband or of any of his brothers, nor +may she use the interdicted word in its ordinary sense. If +her husband, for instance, be called u-Mpaka, from <foreign rend='italic'>impaka</foreign>, +a small feline animal, she must speak of that beast by some +other name.<note place='foot'>J. Shooter, <hi rend='italic'>The Kafirs of Natal</hi> +(London, 1857), p. 221.</note> Further, a Caffre wife is forbidden to pronounce +<pb n='336'/><anchor id='Pg336'/> +even mentally the names of her father-in-law and of +all her husband's male relations in the ascending line; and +whenever the emphatic syllable of any of their names occurs +in another word, she must avoid it by substituting either an +entirely new word, or, at least, another syllable in its place. +Hence this custom has given rise to an almost distinct +language among the women, which the Caffres call <foreign rend='italic'>Ukuteta +Kwabafazi</foreign> or <q>women's speech.</q><note place='foot'>Maclean, <hi rend='italic'>Compendium of Kafir +Laws and Customs</hi> (Cape Town, 1866), +pp. 92 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; D. Leslie, <hi rend='italic'>Among the Zulus +and Amatongas</hi>,<hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi> pp. 141 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 172; +M. Kranz, <hi rend='italic'>Natur- und Kulturleben der +Zulus</hi> (Wiesbaden, 1880), pp. 114 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; +G. M'Call Theal, <hi rend='italic'>Kaffir Folk-lore</hi><hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi> +(London, 1886), p. 214; <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, <hi rend='italic'>Records +of South-Eastern Africa</hi>, vii. 435; +Dudley Kidd, <hi rend='italic'>The Essential Kafir</hi>, pp. +236-243; Father Porte, <q>Les reminiscences +d'un missionaire du Basutoland,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Missions Catholiques</hi>, xxviii. +(1896) p. 233.</note> The interpretation of +this <q>women's speech</q> is naturally very difficult, <q>for no +definite rules can be given for the formation of these substituted +words, nor is it possible to form a dictionary of them, +their number being so great—since there may be many +women, even in the same tribe, who would be no more at +liberty to use the substitutes employed by some others, than +they are to use the original words themselves.</q><note place='foot'>Rev. Francis Fleming, <hi rend='italic'>Kaffraria +and its Inhabitants</hi> (London, 1853), +p. 97; <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, <hi rend='italic'>Southern Africa</hi> (London, +1856), pp. 238 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> This writer states +that the women are forbidden to pronounce +<q>any word which may happen +to contain a sound similar to any one in +the names of their nearest male relatives.</q></note> A Caffre +man, on his side, may not mention the name of his mother-in-law, +nor may she pronounce his; but he is free to utter +words in which the emphatic syllable of her name occurs.<note place='foot'>Maclean, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> p. 93; D. +Leslie, <hi rend='italic'>Among the Zulus and Amatongas</hi>,<hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi> +pp. 46, 102, 172. The extensive +system of taboos on personal +names among the Caffres is known as +<foreign rend='italic'>Ukuhlonipa</foreign>, or simply <foreign rend='italic'>hlonipa</foreign>. The +fullest account of it with which I am +acquainted is given by Leslie, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> +pp. 141 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 172-180. See further +Miss A. Werner, <q>The Custom of +<foreign rend='italic'>Hlonipa</foreign> in its Influence on Language,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Journal of the African Society</hi>, No. 15 +(April, 1905), pp. 346-356.</note> +In Northern Nyassaland no woman will speak the name of +her husband or even use a word that may be synonymous +with it. If she were to call him by his proper name, she +believes it would be unlucky and would affect her powers of +conception. In like manner women abstain, for superstitious +reasons, from using the common names of articles of food, +which they designate by terms peculiar to themselves.<note place='foot'>Sir H. H. Johnston, <hi rend='italic'>British Central +Africa</hi> (London, 1897), p. 452.</note> +Among the Kondes, at the north-western end of Lake +<pb n='337'/><anchor id='Pg337'/> +Nyassa, a woman may not mention the name of her father-in-law; +indeed she may not even speak to him nor see him.<note place='foot'>A. Merensky, <q>Das Konde-volk +im deutschen Gebiet am Nyassa-See,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Verhandlungen der Berliner Gesellschaft +für Anthropologie, Ethnologie, und +Urgeschichte</hi>, 1893, p. (296).</note> +Among the Barea and Bogos of Eastern Africa a woman +never mentions her husband's name; a Bogo wife would +rather be unfaithful to him than commit the monstrous sin +of allowing his name to pass her lips.<note place='foot'>W. Munzinger, <hi rend='italic'>Ostafrikanische +Studien</hi> (Schaffhausen, 1864), p. 526; +<hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, <hi rend='italic'>Sitten und Recht der Bogos</hi> (Winterthur, +1859), p. 95.</note> Among the Haussas +<q>the first-born son is never called by his parents by his +name; indeed they will not even speak with him if other +people are present. The same rule holds good of the first +husband and the first wife.</q><note place='foot'>G. A. Krause, <q>Merkwürdige +Sitten der Haussa,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Globus</hi>, lxix. +(1896) p. 375.</note> In antiquity Ionian women +would not call their husbands by their names.<note place='foot'>Herodotus, i. 146.</note> While the +rites of Ceres were being performed in Rome, no one might +name a father or a daughter.<note place='foot'>Servius, on Virgil, <hi rend='italic'>Aen.</hi> iv. 58.</note> Among the South Slavs at +the present day husbands and wives will not mention each +other's names, and a young wife may not call any of her +housemates by their true names; she must invent or at least +adopt other names for them.<note place='foot'>K. Rhamm, <q>Der Verkehr der +Geschlecter unter den Slaven in +seinen gegensätzlichen Erscheinungen,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Globus</hi>, lxxxii. (1902) p. 192.</note> A Kirghiz woman dares not +pronounce the names of the older relations of her husband, +nor even use words which resemble them in sound. For +example, if one of these relations is called Shepherd, she +may not speak of sheep, but must call them <q>the bleating +ones</q>; if his name is Lamb, she must refer to lambs as +<q>the young of the bleating ones.</q><note place='foot'>W. Radloff, <hi rend='italic'>Proben der Volkslitteratur +der türkischen Stämme Süd-Sibiriens</hi>, +iii. (St. Petersburg, 1870) +p. 13, note 3.</note> After marriage an Aino +wife may not mention her husband's name; to do so would +be deemed equivalent to killing him.<note place='foot'>J. Batchelor, <hi rend='italic'>The Ainu and their +Folk-lore</hi> (London, 1901), pp. 226, +249 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 252.</note> Among the Sgaus, +a Karen tribe of Burma, children never mention their +parents' names.<note place='foot'>Bringaud, <q>Les Karins de la +Birmanie,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Missions Catholiques</hi>, xx. +(1888) p. 308.</note> A Toda man may not utter the names of +his mother's brother, his grandfather and grandmother, his +wife's mother, and of the man from whom he has received +<pb n='338'/><anchor id='Pg338'/> +his wife, who is usually the wife's father. All these names +are tabooed to him in the lifetime of the persons who bear +them, and after death the prohibitions are not only maintained +but extended.<note place='foot'>W. H. R. Rivers, <hi rend='italic'>The Todas</hi>, p. +626.</note> In southern India wives believe that +to tell their husband's name or to pronounce it even in a +dream would bring him to an untimely end. Further, they +may not mention the names of their parents, their parents-in-law, +and their brothers-in-law and sisters-in-law.<note place='foot'>E. Thurston, <hi rend='italic'>Ethnographic Notes +in Southern India</hi>, p. 533.</note> Among +the Ojebways husbands and wives never mention each other's +names;<note place='foot'>Peter Jones, <hi rend='italic'>History of the Ojebway +Indians</hi>, p. 162.</note> among the Omahas a man and his father-in-law +and mother-in-law will on no account utter each other's +names in company.<note place='foot'>E. James, <hi rend='italic'>Expedition from Pittsburgh +to the Rocky Mountains</hi> (London, +1823), i. 232.</note> A Dacota <q>is not allowed to address +or to look towards his wife's mother, especially, and the +woman is shut off from familiar intercourse with her +husband's father and others, and etiquette prohibits them +from speaking the names of their relatives by marriage.</q> +<q>None of their customs,</q> adds the same writer, <q>is more +tenacious of life than this; and no family law is more +binding.</q><note place='foot'>S. R. Riggs, <hi rend='italic'>Dakota Grammar, +Texts, and Ethnography</hi> (Washington, +1893), p. 204.</note> In the Nishinam tribe of California <q>a husband +never calls his wife by name on any account, and it is said +that divorces have been produced by no other provocation +than that.</q><note place='foot'>S. Powers, <hi rend='italic'>Tribes of California</hi>, +p. 315.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Names of +relations, +especially +of persons +related +to the +speaker by +marriage, +may not be +mentioned +in the East +Indies.</note> +The Battas or Bataks of Sumatra display a great aversion +to mentioning their own names and a still greater aversion +to mentioning the names of their parents, grandparents, or +elder blood-relations. Politeness forbids the putting of +direct questions on this subject, so that the investigation of +personal identity becomes difficult and laborious. When a +Batta expects to be questioned as to his relations, he will +usually provide himself with a friend to answer for him.<note place='foot'>Willer, <q>Verzameling der Battasche +Wetten en Instellingen in Mandheling +en Pertibie,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Tijdschrift voor Nederlandsch-Indië</hi>, +1846, dl. ii. 337 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> +A Batak man may never mention the names of his wife, his +daughter-in-law and of his son-in-law; a woman is most +particularly forbidden to mention the name of the man who +<pb n='339'/><anchor id='Pg339'/> +has married her daughter.<note place='foot'>J. H. Meerwaldt, <q>Gebruiken der +Bataks in het maatschappelijk leven,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Mededeelingen van wege het Nederlandsche +Zendelinggenootschap</hi>, xlix. +(1905) pp. 123, 125.</note> Among the Karo-Bataks the forbidden +names are those of parents, uncles, aunts, parents-in-law, +brothers and sisters, and especially grandparents.<note place='foot'>J. E. Neumann, <q>Kemali, Pantang +en Rĕboe bij de Karo-Bataks,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Tijdschrift voor Indische Taal- Land- +en Volkenkunde</hi>, xlviii. (1906) p. +510.</note> +Among the Dyaks a child never pronounces the names of +his parents, and is angry if any one else does so in his presence. +A husband never calls his wife by her name, and she never +calls him by his. If they have children, they name each other +after them, <q>Father of So-and-so</q> and <q>Mother of So-and-so</q>; +if they have no children they use the pronouns <q>he</q> and <q>she,</q> +or an expression such as <q>he or she whom I love</q>; and in +general, members of a Dyak family do not mention each other's +names.<note place='foot'>C. Hupe, <q>Korte Verhandeling +over de Godsdienst, Zeden, enz. der +Dajakkers,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Tijdschrift voor Neêrlands +Indie</hi>, 1846, dl. iii. pp. 249 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> Moreover, when the personal names happen also, as +they often do, to be names of common objects, the Dyak is +debarred from designating these objects by their ordinary +names. For instance, if a man or one of his family is called +Bintang, which means <q>star,</q> he must not call a star a star +(<foreign rend='italic'>bintang</foreign>); he must call it a <foreign rend='italic'>pariama</foreign>. If he or a member of +his domestic circle bears the name of Bulan, which means +<q>moon,</q> he may not speak of the moon as the moon +(<foreign rend='italic'>bulan</foreign>); he must call it <foreign rend='italic'>penala</foreign>. Hence it comes about that +in the Dyak language there are two sets of distinct names +for many objects.<note place='foot'><q>De Dajaks op Borneo,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Mededeelingen +van wege het Nederlandsche Zendelinggenootschap</hi>, +xiii. (1869) p. 78; +G. A. Wilken, <hi rend='italic'>Handleiding voor de +vergelijkende Volkenkunde van Nederlandsch-Indië</hi>, +p. 599.</note> Among the sea Dyaks of Sarawak a +man may not pronounce the name of his father-in-law or +mother-in-law without incurring the wrath of the spirits. +And since he reckons as his father-in-law and mother-in-law +not only the father and mother of his own wife, but also the +fathers and mothers of his brothers' wives and sisters' +husbands, and likewise the fathers and mothers of all his +cousins, the number of tabooed names may be very considerable +and the opportunities of error correspondingly numerous. +To make confusion worse confounded, the names of persons +are often the names of common things, such as moon, bridge, +<pb n='340'/><anchor id='Pg340'/> +barley, cobra, leopard; so that when any of a man's many +fathers-in-law and mothers-in-law are called by such names, +these common words may not pass his lips.<note place='foot'>R. Shelford, <q>Two Medicine-baskets +from Sarawak,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Journal of the +Anthropological Institute</hi>, xxxiii. (1903) +pp. 78 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> Among the +Dyaks of Landak and Tajan it is forbidden to mention the +names of parents and grandparents, sometimes also of great-grandparents, +whether they are alive or dead.<note place='foot'>M. C. Schadee, <q>Bijdrage tot de +kennis van den godsdienst der Dajaks +van Landak en Tajan,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Bijdragen tot de +Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde van Nederlandsche-Indië</hi>, +lvi. (1904) p. 536.</note> Among +the Alfoors or Toradjas of Poso, in central Celebes, you may +not pronounce the names of your father, mother, grandparents, +and other near relations. But the strictest taboo is +on the names of parents-in-law. A son-in-law and a +daughter-in-law may not only never mention the names of +their parents-in-law, but if the names happen to be ordinary +words of the language, they may never allow the words in +their common significance to pass their lips. For example, +if my father is called Njara (<q>horse</q>), I may not speak of +him by that name; but in speaking of the animal I am free +to use the word horse (<foreign rend='italic'>njara</foreign>). But if my father-in-law is +called Njara, the case is different, for then not only may I +not refer to him by his name, but I may not even call a +horse a horse; in speaking of the animal I must use some +other word. The missionary who reports the custom is +acquainted with a man whose mother-in-law rejoices in the +name of Ringgi (<q>rixdollar</q>). When this man has occasion +to refer to real rixdollars, he alludes to them delicately as +<q>large guilders</q> (<foreign rend='italic'>roepia bose</foreign>). Another man may not use +the ordinary word for water (<foreign rend='italic'>oewe</foreign>); in speaking of water he +employs a word (<foreign rend='italic'>owai</foreign>) taken from a different dialect. +Indeed, among these Alfoors it is the common practice in +such cases to replace the forbidden word by a kindred word +of the same significance borrowed from another dialect. In +this way many fresh terms or new forms of an old word pass +into general circulation.<note place='foot'>A. C. Kruijt, <q>Een en ander aangaande +het geestelijk en maatschappelijk +leven van den Poso-Alfoer,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Mededeelingen +van wege het Nederlandsche Zendelinggenootschap</hi>, +xl. (1896) pp. 273 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> +The word for taboo among these people +is <hi rend='italic'>kapali</hi>. See further A. C. Kruijt, +<q>Eenige ethnographische aanteekeningen +omtrent de Toboengkoe en +Tomori,</q> <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> xliv. (1900) pp. 219, +237.</note> Among the Alfoors of Minahassa, +<pb n='341'/><anchor id='Pg341'/> +in northern Celebes, the custom is carried still further so as +to forbid the use even of words which merely resemble the +personal names in sound. It is especially the name of a +father-in-law which is thus laid under an interdict. If he, +for example, is called Kalala, his son-in-law may not speak +of a horse by its common name <foreign rend='italic'>kawalo</foreign>; he must call it a +<q>riding-beast</q> (<foreign rend='italic'>sasakajan</foreign>).<note place='foot'>G. A. Wilken, <hi rend='italic'>Handleiding voor de +vergelijkende Volkenkunde van Nederlandsch-Indië</hi>, +pp. 599 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> So among the Alfoors of the +island of Buru it is taboo to mention the names of parents +and parents-in-law, or even to speak of common objects by +words which resemble these names in sound. Thus, if your +mother-in-law is called Dalu, which means <q>betel,</q> you may +not ask for betel by its ordinary name, you must ask for +<q>red mouth</q> (<foreign rend='italic'>mue miha</foreign>); if you want betel-leaf, you may +not say betel-leaf (<foreign rend='italic'>dalu 'mun</foreign>), you must say <foreign rend='italic'>karon fenna</foreign>. +In the same island it is also taboo to mention the name of +an elder brother in his presence.<note place='foot'>G. A. Wilken, <q>Bijdrage tot de +Kennis der Alfoeren van het Eiland +Boeroe,</q> p. 26 (<hi rend='italic'>Verhandelingen van +het Bataviaasch Genootschap van Kunsten +en Wetenschappen</hi>, xxxvi.). The +words for taboo among these Alfoors +are <foreign rend='italic'>poto</foreign> and <foreign rend='italic'>koin</foreign>; <foreign rend='italic'>poto</foreign> applies to +actions, <foreign rend='italic'>koin</foreign> to things and places. +The literal meaning of <foreign rend='italic'>poto</foreign> is <q>warm,</q> +<q>hot</q> (Wilken, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> p. 25).</note> Transgressions of these +rules are punished with fines.<note place='foot'>J. H. W. van der Miesen, <q>Een +en ander over Boeroe,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Mededeelingen +van wege het Nederlandsche Zendelinggenootschap</hi>, +xlvi. (1902) p. 455.</note> In Bolang Mongondo, a +district in the west of Celebes, the unmentionable names are +those of parents, parents-in-law, uncles and aunts.<note place='foot'>N. P. Wilken and J. A. Schwarz, +<q>Allerlei over het Land en Volk van +Bolaang Mongondou,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Mededeelingen +van wege het Nederlandsche Zendelinggenootschap</hi>, +xi. (1867) p. 356.</note> Among +the Alfoors of Halmahera a son-in-law may never use his +father-in-law's name in speaking to him; he must simply +address him as <q>Father-in-law.</q><note place='foot'>C. F. H. Campen, <q>De godsdienstbegrippen +der Halmaherasche +Alfoeren,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Tijdschrift voor Indische +Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde</hi>, xxvii. +(1882) p. 450.</note> In Sunda it is thought +that a particular crop would be spoilt if a man were to +mention the names of his father and mother.<note place='foot'>K. F. Holle, <q>Snippers van den +Regent van Galoeh,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Tijdschrift voor +Indische Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde</hi>, +xxvii. (1882) pp. 101 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> The precise +consequence supposed to follow is that +the <foreign rend='italic'>oebi</foreign> (?) plantations would have no +bulbs (<foreign rend='italic'>geen knollen</foreign>). The names of +several animals are also tabooed in +Sunda. See below, p. <ref target='Pg415'>415</ref>.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Names of +persons +related by +marriage +to the +speaker are +tabooed in +New +Guinea.</note> +Among the Nufoors, as we have seen,<note place='foot'>Above, p. <ref target='Pg332'>332</ref>.</note> persons who are +related to each other by marriage are forbidden to mention +<pb n='342'/><anchor id='Pg342'/> +each other's names. Among the connexions whose names +are thus tabooed are wife, mother-in-law, father-in-law, your +wife's uncles and aunts and also her grand-uncles and grand-aunts, +and the whole of your wife's or your husband's family +in the same generation as yourself, except that men may +mention the names of their brothers-in-law, though women +may not. The taboo comes into operation as soon as the +betrothal has taken place and before the marriage has been +celebrated. Families thus connected by the betrothal of two +of their members are not only forbidden to pronounce each +other's names; they may not even look at each other, and +the rule gives rise to the most comical scenes when they +happen to meet unexpectedly. And not merely the names +themselves, but any words that sound like them are scrupulously +avoided and other words used in their place. If it +should chance that a person has inadvertently uttered a +forbidden name, he must at once throw himself on the floor +and say, <q>I have mentioned a wrong name. I throw it +through the chinks of the floor in order that I may +eat well.</q><note place='foot'>Th. J. F. van Hasselt, <q>Gebruik +van vermomde Taal door de Nufooren,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Tijdschrift voor Indische Taal- Land- +en Volkenkunde</hi>, xlv. (1902) pp. 278 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> +The writer explains that <q>to eat well</q> +is a phrase used in the sense of <q>to be +decent, well-behaved,</q> <q>to know what +is customary.</q></note> In German New Guinea near relations by +marriage, particularly father-in-law and daughter-in-law, +mother-in-law and son-in-law, as well as brothers-in-law +and sisters-in-law, must see as little of each other as possible; +they may not converse together and they may not mention +each other's names, not even when these names have passed +to younger members of the family. Thus if a child is called +after its deceased paternal grandfather, the mother may not +call her child by its name but must employ another name +for the purpose.<note place='foot'>M. Krieger, <hi rend='italic'>Neu-Guinea</hi>, pp. +171 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> Among the Yabim, for example, on the +south-east coast of German New Guinea, parents-in-law may +neither be touched nor named. Even when their names are +borne by other people or are the ordinary names of common +objects, they may not pass the lips of their sons-in-law and +daughters-in-law.<note place='foot'>K. Vetter, in <hi rend='italic'>Nachrichten über +Kaiser Wilhelms-Land und den +Bismarck-Archipel</hi>, 1897, p. 92. For +more evidence of the observance of this +custom in German New Guinea see +O. Schellong, <q>Über Familienleben +und Gebräuche der Papuas der Umgebung +von Finschhafen,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Zeitschrift für +Ethnologie</hi>, xxi. (1889) p. 12; M. J. +Erdweg, <q>Die Bewohner der Insel +Tumleo, Berlinhafen, Deutsch-Neu-Guinea,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Mittheilungen der Anthropologischen +Gesellschaft in Wien</hi>, xxxii. +(1902) pp. 379 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> Among the western tribes of British New +<pb n='343'/><anchor id='Pg343'/> +Guinea the principal taboo or <foreign rend='italic'>sabi</foreign>, as it is there called, +concerns the names of relatives by marriage. A man may +not mention the name of his wife's father, mother, elder +sister, or elder brother, nor the name of any male or female +relative of her father or mother, so long as the relative in +question is a member of the same tribe as the speaker. The +names of his wife's younger brothers and sisters are not +tabooed to him. The same law applies to a woman with +reference to the names of her husband's relatives. As a +general rule, this taboo does not extend outside the tribal +boundaries. Hence when a man or woman marries out of +his or her tribe, the taboo is usually not applied. And when +members of one tribe, who may not pronounce each other's +names at home, are away from their own territory, they are +no longer strictly bound to observe the prohibition. A +breach of the taboo has to be atoned for by the offender +paying a fine to the person whose name he has taken in +vain. Until that has been done, neither of the parties +concerned, if they are males, may enter the men's club-house. +In the old times the offended party might recover +his social standing by cutting off somebody else's head.<note place='foot'>B. A. Hely, <q>Notes on Totemism, +etc., among the Western Tribes,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>British New Guinea, Annual Report +for 1894-95</hi>, pp. 54 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> Compare +M. Krieger, <hi rend='italic'>Neu-Guinea</hi>, pp. 313 +<hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Names of +persons +related by +marriage +to the +speaker are +tabooed in +Melanesia.</note> +In the western islands of Torres Straits a man never +mentioned the personal names of his father-in-law, mother-in-law, +brother-in-law, and sister-in-law; and a woman was +subject to the same restrictions. A brother-in-law might be +spoken of as the husband or brother of some one whose +name it was lawful to mention; and similarly a sister-in-law +might be called the wife of So-and-so. If a man by chance +used the personal name of his brother-in-law, he was +ashamed and hung his head. His shame was only relieved +when he had made a present as compensation to the man +whose name he had taken in vain. The same compensation +was made to a sister-in-law, a father-in-law, and a mother-in-law +for the accidental mention of their names. This +<pb n='344'/><anchor id='Pg344'/> +disability to use the personal names of relatives by marriage +was associated with the custom, so common throughout the +world, that a man or woman is not allowed to speak to these +relatives. If a man wished to communicate with his father-in-law +or mother-in-law, he spoke to his wife and she spoke +to her parent. When direct communication became absolutely +necessary, it was said that a man might talk to his father-in-law +or mother-in-law a very little in a low voice. The +behaviour towards a brother-in-law was the same.<note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>Reports of the Cambridge Anthropological +Expedition to Torres Straits</hi>, v. +142 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> Similar +taboos on the names of persons connected by marriage are +in force in New Britain and New Ireland.<note place='foot'>Dr. Hahl, <q>Über die Rechtsanschauungen +der Eingeborenen eines +Teiles der Blanchebucht und des +Innern der Gazelle Halbinsel,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Nachrichten +über Kaiser Wilhelms-Land +und den Bismarck-Archipel</hi>, 1897, +p. 80; O. Schellong, in <hi rend='italic'>Zeitschrift für +Ethnologie</hi>, xxi. (1889) p. 12.</note> Among the +natives who inhabit the coast of the Gazelle Peninsula in +New Britain to mention the name of a brother-in-law is the +grossest possible affront you can offer to him; it is a crime +punishable with death.<note place='foot'>P. A. Kleintitschen, <hi rend='italic'>Die Küstenbewohner +der Gazellehalbinsel</hi>, pp. 190, +238.</note> In the Santa Cruz and Reef +Islands a man is forbidden to pronounce the name of his +mother-in-law, and he may never see her face so long as he +lives. She on her side lies under similar restrictions in +regard to him. Further, a man is prohibited from mentioning +the name of his son-in-law, though he is allowed to +look at him. And if a husband has paid money for his wife +to several men, none of these men may ever utter his name +or look him in the face. If one of them did by chance +look at him, the offended husband would destroy some +of the offender's property.<note place='foot'>Rev. W. O'Ferrall, <q>Native Stories +from Santa Cruz and Reef Islands,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Journal of the Anthropological Institute</hi>, +xxxiv. (1904) pp. 223 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> In New Caledonia a brother +may not mention his sister's name, and she may not +mention his. The same rule is observed by male and +female cousins in regard to each other's names.<note place='foot'>Father Lambert, <q>Mœurs et superstitions +de la tribu Belep,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Missions +Catholiques</hi>, xii. (1880) pp. 30, 68; +<hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, <hi rend='italic'>Mœurs et superstitions des Néo-Calédoniens</hi> +(Nouméa, 1900), pp. +94 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> In the +Banks' Islands, Melanesia, the taboos laid on the names +of persons connected by marriage are very strict. A man +will not mention the name of his father-in-law, much less +<pb n='345'/><anchor id='Pg345'/> +the name of his mother-in-law, nor may he name his +wife's brother; but he may name his wife's sister—she is +nothing to him. A woman may not name her father-in-law, +nor on any account her son-in-law. Two people whose +children have intermarried are also debarred from mentioning +each other's names. And not only are all these persons +forbidden to utter each other's names; they may not even +pronounce ordinary words which chance to be either identical +with these names or to have any syllables in common with +them. <q>A man on one occasion spoke to me of his house as +a shed, and when that was not understood, went and touched +it with his hand to shew what he meant; a difficulty being +still made, he looked round to be sure that no one was near +and whispered, not the name of his son's wife, but the +respectful substitute for her name, <foreign rend='italic'>amen Mulegona</foreign>, she who +was with his son, and whose name was Tuwarina, Hind-house.</q> +Again, we hear of a native of these islands who +might not use the common words for <q>pig</q> and <q>to die,</q> +because these words occurred in the polysyllabic name of his +son-in-law; and we are told of another unfortunate who +might not pronounce the everyday words for <q>hand</q> and +<q>hot</q> on account of his wife's brother's name, and who was +even debarred from mentioning the number <q>one,</q> because +the word for <q>one</q> formed part of the name of his wife's +cousin.<note place='foot'>R. H. Codrington, <hi rend='italic'>The Melanesians</hi>, +pp. 43 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Names of +relations +tabooed in +Australia.</note> +It might be expected that similar taboos on the names +of relations and on words resembling them would commonly +occur among the aborigines of Australia, and that some light +might be thrown on their origin and meaning by the primitive +modes of thought and forms of society prevalent among +these savages. Yet this expectation can scarcely be said +to be fulfilled; for the evidence of the observance of such +customs in Australia is scanty and hardly of a nature to +explain their origin. We are told that there are instances +<q>in which the names of natives are never allowed to be +spoken, as those of a father or mother-in-law, of a son-in-law, +and some cases arising from a connection with each other's +wives.</q><note place='foot'>E. J. Eyre, <hi rend='italic'>Journals of Expeditions</hi>, +ii. 339.</note> Among some Victorian tribes, a man never at +<pb n='346'/><anchor id='Pg346'/> +any time mentioned the name of his mother-in-law, and +from the time of his betrothal to his death neither she nor +her sisters might ever look at or speak to him. He might +not go within fifty yards of their habitation, and when he +met them on a path they immediately left it, clapped +their hands, and covering up their heads with their rugs, +walked in a stooping posture and spoke in whispers until he +had gone by. They might not talk with him, and when he +and they spoke to other people in each other's presence, they +used a special form of speech which went by the name of +<q>turn tongue.</q> This was not done with any intention of +concealing their meaning, for <q>turn tongue</q> was understood +by everybody.<note place='foot'>J. Dawson, <hi rend='italic'>Australian Aborigines</hi>, +p. 29. Specimens of this peculiar +form of speech are given by Mr. Dawson. +For example, <q>It will be very +warm by and by</q> was expressed in +the ordinary language <foreign rend='italic'>Baawan kulluun</foreign>; +in <q>turn tongue</q> it was <foreign rend='italic'>Gnullewa +gnatnæn tirambuul</foreign>.</note> A writer, who enjoyed unusually favourable +opportunities of learning the language and customs of the +Victorian aborigines, informs us that <q>A stupid custom +existed among them, which they called <foreign rend='italic'>knal-oyne</foreign>. Whenever +a female child was promised in marriage to any man, from +that very hour neither he nor the child's mother were permitted +to look upon or hear each other speak nor hear their +names mentioned by others; for, if they did, they would +immediately grow prematurely old and die.</q><note place='foot'>Joseph Parker, in Brough Smyth's +<hi rend='italic'>Aborigines of Victoria</hi>, ii. 156.</note> Among the +Gudangs of Cape York, in Queensland, and the Kowraregas +of the Prince of Wales Islands, a man carefully avoids +speaking to or even mentioning the name of his mother-in-law, +and his wife acts similarly with regard to her father-in-law. +<q>Thus the mother of a person called Nuki—which +means water—is obliged to call water by another name.</q><note place='foot'>J. Macgillivray, <hi rend='italic'>Narrative of the +Voyage of H. M. S. Rattlesnake</hi> (London, +1852), ii. 10 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> It is obvious that +the example given by the writer does +not illustrate his general statement. +Apparently he means to say that Nuki +is the son-in-law, not the son, of the +woman in question, and that the prohibition +to mention the names of +persons standing in that relationship +is mutual.</note> +In the Booandik tribe of South Australia persons connected +by marriage, except husbands and wives, spoke to each +other in a low whining voice, and employed words different +from those in common use.<note place='foot'>Mrs. James Smith, <hi rend='italic'>The Booandik +Tribe</hi>, p. 5.</note> Another writer, speaking of +<pb n='347'/><anchor id='Pg347'/> +the same tribe, says: <q>Mothers-in-law and sons-in-law +studiously avoid each other. A father-in-law converses with +his son-in-law in a low tone of voice, and in a phraseology +differing somewhat from the ordinary one.</q><note place='foot'>D. Stewart, in E. M. Curr's +<hi rend='italic'>Australian Race</hi>, iii. 461.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>These +taboos can +hardly be +accounted +for by the +intermarriage +of tribes +speaking +different +languages. Differences +of language +between +husbands +and wives. Intermixture +of +races +speaking +different +languages +would +hardly +account for +the taboos +on the +names of +relations.</note> +It will perhaps occur to the reader that customs of this +latter sort may possibly have originated in the intermarriage +of tribes speaking different languages; and there are some +Australian facts which seem at first sight to favour this +supposition. Thus with regard to the natives of South +Australia we are told that <q>the principal mark of distinction +between the tribes is difference of language or dialect; +where the tribes intermix greatly no inconvenience is +experienced on this account, as every person understands, in +addition to his own dialect, that of the neighbouring tribe; +the consequence is that two persons commonly converse in +two languages, just as an Englishman and German would +hold a conversation, each person speaking his own language, +but understanding that of the other as well as his own. This +peculiarity will often occur in one family through intermarriages, +neither party ever thinking of changing his or her +dialect for that of the other. Children do not always adopt +the language of the mother, but that of the tribe among +whom they live.</q><note place='foot'>C. W. Schürmann, in <hi rend='italic'>Native +Tribes of South Australia</hi> (Adelaide, +1879), p. 249.</note> Among some tribes of western Victoria +a man was actually forbidden to marry a wife who spoke +the same dialect as himself; and during the preliminary +visit, which each paid to the tribe of the other, neither was +permitted to speak the language of the tribe which he or +she was visiting. The children spoke the language of their +father and might never mix it with any other. To her +children the mother spoke in their father's language, but to +her husband she spoke in her own, and he answered her in +his; <q>so that all conversation is carried on between husband +and wife in the same way as between an Englishman and +a Frenchwoman, each speaking his or her own language. +This very remarkable law explains the preservation of so +many distinct dialects within so limited a space, even where +there are no physical obstacles to ready and frequent +<pb n='348'/><anchor id='Pg348'/> +communication between the tribes.</q><note place='foot'>J. Dawson, <hi rend='italic'>Australian Aborigines</hi>, +pp. 27, 30 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 40. So among the +Gowmditch-mara tribe of western +Victoria the child spoke his father's +language, and not his mother's, when +she happened to be of another tribe +(Fison and Howitt, <hi rend='italic'>Kamilaroi and +Kurnai</hi>, p. 276). Compare A. W. +Howitt, <hi rend='italic'>Native Tribes of South-East +Australia</hi>, pp. 250 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> So amongst the +Sakais, an aboriginal race of the Malay Peninsula, a man goes +to a considerable distance for a wife, generally to a tribe +who speak quite a different dialect.<note place='foot'>A. Hale, <q>On the Sakais,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Journal +of the Anthropological Institute</hi>, xv. +(1886) p. 291.</note> The Indian tribes of +French Guiana have each their own dialect and would hardly +be able to understand each other, were it not that almost +every person marries a wife or a husband of a different tribe, +and thus the newcomers serve as interpreters between the +tribe in which they live and that in which they were born +and brought up.<note place='foot'>H. A. Coudreau, <hi rend='italic'>La France +équinoxiale</hi> (Paris, 1887), ii. 178.</note> It is well known that the Carib women +spoke a language which differed in some respects from that +of the men, and the explanation generally given of the +difference is that the women preserved the language of a +race of whom the men had been exterminated and the +women married by the Caribs. This explanation is not, as +some seem to suppose, a mere hypothesis of the learned, +devised to clear up a curious discrepancy; it was a tradition +current among the Caribs themselves in the seventeenth +century,<note place='foot'>De Rochefort, <hi rend='italic'>Histoire naturelle +et morale des Iles Antilles de l'Amerique</hi><hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi> +(Rotterdam, 1665), pp. 349 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; +De la Borde, <q>Relation de l'origine, +etc., des Caraibs sauvages des Isles +Antilles de l'Amerique,</q> pp. 4, 39 +(<hi rend='italic'>Recueil de divers voyages faits en +Afrique et en Amerique, qui n'ont point +esté encore publiez</hi>, Paris, 1684); +Lafitau, <hi rend='italic'>Mœurs des sauvages ameriquains</hi>, +i. 55. On the language of +the Carib women see also Jean Baptiste +du Tertre, <hi rend='italic'>Histoire generale des +Isles de S. Christophe, de la Guadeloupe, +de la Martinique et autres dans +l'Amerique</hi> (Paris, 1654), p. 462; +Labat, <hi rend='italic'>Nouveau Voyage aux isles de +l'Amerique</hi> (Paris, 1713), vi. 127 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; +J. N. Rat, <q>The Carib Language,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Journal of the Anthropological Institute</hi>, +xxvii. (1898) pp. 311 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> and as such it deserves serious attention. But +there are other facts which seem to point to a different +explanation.<note place='foot'>See C. Sapper, <q>Mittelamericanische +Caraiben,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Internationales Archiv +für Ethnographie</hi>, x. (1897) pp. 56 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>; +and my article, <q>A Suggestion as to the +Origin of Gender in Language,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Fortnightly +Review</hi>, January 1900, pp. +79-90; also <hi rend='italic'>Totemism and Exogamy</hi>, +iv. 237 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> Among the Carayahis, a tribe of Brazilian +Indians on the Rio Grande or Araguaya River, the dialect +of the women differs from that of the men. For the most +part the differences are limited to the form and sound of the +<pb n='349'/><anchor id='Pg349'/> +words; only a few words seem to be quite distinct in the +two dialects. The speech of the women appears to preserve +older and fuller forms than that of the men: for instance, +<q>girl</q> is <foreign rend='italic'>yadokoma</foreign> in the female speech but <foreign rend='italic'>yadôma</foreign> in the +male; <q>nail</q> is <foreign rend='italic'>desika</foreign> in the mouth of a woman but <foreign rend='italic'>desia</foreign> +in the mouth of a man.<note place='foot'>P. Ehrenreich, <q>Materialien zur +Sprachenkunde Brasiliens,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Zeitschrift +für Ethnologie</hi>, xxvi. (1894) pp. 23-35.</note> However such remarkable differences +are to be explained, a little reflection will probably +convince us that a mere intermixture of races speaking +different tongues could scarcely account for the phenomena +of language under consideration. For the reluctance to +mention the names or even syllables of the names of persons +connected with the speaker by marriage can hardly be +separated from the reluctance evinced by so many people +to utter their own names or the names of the dead or of +chiefs and kings; and if the reticence as to these latter +names springs mainly from superstition, we may infer that +the reticence as to the former has no better foundation. +That the savage's unwillingness to mention his own name is +based, at least in part, on a superstitious fear of the ill use +that might be made of it by his foes, whether human or +spiritual, has already been shewn. It remains to examine +the similar usage in regard to the names of the dead and of +royal personages. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<index index='toc'/> +<index index='pdf' level1='3. Names of the Dead tabooed.'/> +<head>§ 3. Names of the Dead tabooed.</head> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The names +of the +dead are in +general not +mentioned +by the +Australian +aborigines.</note> +The custom of abstaining from all mention of the names +of the dead was observed in antiquity by the Albanians of +the Caucasus,<note place='foot'>Strabo, xi. 4. 8, p. 503.</note> and at the present day it is in full force +among many savage tribes. Thus we are told that one of +the customs most rigidly observed and enforced amongst the +Australian aborigines is never to mention the name of a +deceased person, whether male or female; to name aloud +one who has departed this life would be a gross violation of +their most sacred prejudices, and they carefully abstain from +it.<note place='foot'>G. Grey, <hi rend='italic'>Journals of Two Expeditions +of Discovery in North-West and +Western Australia</hi> (London, 1841), ii. +232, 257. The writer is here speaking +especially of western Australia, but his +statement applies, with certain restrictions which will be mentioned presently, +to all parts of the continent. For evidence +see D. Collins, <hi rend='italic'>Account of the +English Colony in New South Wales</hi> +(London, 1804), p. 390; Hueber, +<q>À travers l'Australie,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Bulletin de +la Société de Géographie</hi> (Paris), Vme +Série, ix. (1865) p. 429; S. Gason, +in <hi rend='italic'>Native Tribes of South Australia</hi>, p. +275; K. Brough Smyth, <hi rend='italic'>Aborigines of +Victoria</hi>, i. 120, ii. 297; A. L. P. +Cameron, in <hi rend='italic'>Journal of the Anthropological +Institute</hi>, xiv. (1885) p. 363; +E. M. Curr, <hi rend='italic'>The Australian Race</hi>, i. +88, 338, ii. 195, iii. 22, 29, 139, 166, +596; J. D. Lang, <hi rend='italic'>Queensland</hi> (London, +1861), pp. 367, 387, 388; C. Lumholtz, +<hi rend='italic'>Among Cannibals</hi> (London, 1889), p. +279; <hi rend='italic'>Report on the Work of the Horn +Scientific Expedition to Central Australia</hi> +(London and Melbourne, 1896), +pp. 137, 168. More evidence is +adduced below.</note> The chief motive for this abstinence appears to be a +<pb n='350'/><anchor id='Pg350'/> +fear of evoking the ghost, although the natural unwillingness +to revive past sorrows undoubtedly operates also to draw the +veil of oblivion over the names of the dead.<note place='foot'>On this latter motive see especially +the remarks of A. W. Howitt, in +<hi rend='italic'>Kamilaroi and Kurnai</hi>, p. 249. Compare +also C. W. Schurmann, in <hi rend='italic'>Native +Tribes of South Australia</hi>, p. 247; +F. Bonney, in <hi rend='italic'>Journal of the Anthropological +Institute</hi>, xiii. (1884) p. +127.</note> Once Mr. +Oldfield so terrified a native by shouting out the name of a +deceased person, that the man fairly took to his heels and +did not venture to shew himself again for several days. At +their next meeting he bitterly reproached the rash white man +for his indiscretion; <q>nor could I,</q> adds Mr. Oldfield, <q>induce +him by any means to utter the awful sound of a dead man's +name, for by so doing he would have placed himself in the +power of the malign spirits.</q><note place='foot'>A. Oldfield, <q>The Aborigines of +Australia,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Transactions of the Ethnological +Society of London</hi>, N.S., iii. +(1865) p. 238.</note> On another occasion, a +Watchandie woman having mentioned the name of a certain +man, was informed that he had long been dead. At that she +became greatly excited and spat thrice to counteract the +evil effect of having taken a dead man's name into her lips. +This custom of spitting thrice, as Mr. Oldfield afterwards +learned, was the regular charm whereby the natives freed +themselves from the power of the dangerous spirits whom +they had provoked by such a rash act.<note place='foot'>A. Oldfield, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> p. 240.</note> Among the +aborigines of Victoria the dead were very rarely spoken of, +and then never by their names; they were referred to in a +subdued voice as <q>the lost one</q> or <q>the poor fellow that is +no more.</q> To speak of them by name would, it was supposed, +excite the malignity of Couit-gil, the spirit of the +departed, which hovers on earth for a time before it departs +for ever towards the setting sun.<note place='foot'>W. Stanbridge, <q>On the Aborigines +of Victoria,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Transactions of the +Ethnological Society of London</hi>, N.S., +i. (1861) p. 299.</note> Once when a Kurnai +<pb n='351'/><anchor id='Pg351'/> +man was spoken to about a dead friend, soon after the +decease, he looked round uneasily and said, <q>Do not do +that, he might hear you and kill me!</q><note place='foot'>A. W. Howitt, <q>On some Australian +Beliefs,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Journal of the Anthropological +Institute</hi>, xiii. (1884) p. 191; +<hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, <hi rend='italic'>Native Tribes of South-East Australia</hi>, +p. 440.</note> If a Kaiabara +black dies, his tribes-people never mention his name, but +call him <foreign rend='italic'>Wurponum</foreign>, <q>the dead,</q> and in order to explain +who it is that has died, they speak of his father, mother, +brothers, and so forth.<note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>Id.</hi>, <hi rend='italic'>Native Tribes of South-East +Australia</hi>, p. 469.</note> Of the tribes on the Lower Murray +River we are told that when a person dies <q>they carefully +avoid mentioning his name; but if compelled to do so, they +pronounce it in a very low whisper, so faint that they +imagine the spirit cannot hear their voice.</q><note place='foot'>G. F. Angas, <hi rend='italic'>Savage Life and +Scenes in Australia and New Zealand</hi> +(London, 1847), i. 94.</note> Amongst the +tribes of Central Australia no one may utter the name of +the deceased during the period of mourning, unless it is +absolutely necessary to do so, and then it is only done in a +whisper for fear of disturbing and annoying the man's spirit +which is walking about in ghostly form. If the ghost hears +his name mentioned he concludes that his kinsfolk are not +mourning for him properly; if their grief were genuine they +could not bear to bandy his name about. Touched to the +quick by their hard-hearted indifference, the indignant ghost +will come and trouble them in dreams.<note place='foot'>Spencer and Gillen, <hi rend='italic'>Native Tribes +of Central Australia</hi>, p. 498.</note> In these tribes no +woman may ever again mention the name of a dead person, +but the restriction on the male sex is not so absolute, for +the name may be mentioned by men of the two subclasses +to which the wife's father and wife's brother of the deceased +belong.<note place='foot'>Spencer and Gillen, <hi rend='italic'>Northern +Tribes of Central Australia</hi>, p. 526.</note> Among some tribes of north-western Australia a +dead man's name is never mentioned after his burial and he +is only spoken of as <q>that one</q>; otherwise they think that +he would return and frighten them at night in camp.<note place='foot'>E. Clement, <q>Ethnographical +Notes on the Western Australian +Aborigines,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Internationales Archiv +für Ethnographie</hi>, xvi. (1904) p. 9.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The names +of the dead +are not +uttered +by the +American +Indians.</note> +The same reluctance to utter the names of the dead +appears to prevail among all the Indian tribes of America +from Hudson's Bay Territory to Patagonia. Among the +<pb n='352'/><anchor id='Pg352'/> +Iroquois, for example, the name of the deceased was never +mentioned after the period of mourning had expired.<note place='foot'>L. H. Morgan, <hi rend='italic'>League of the Iroquois</hi> +(Rochester, U.S., 1851), p. 175.</note> The +same rule was rigidly observed by the Indians of California +and Oregon; its transgression might be punished with a heavy +fine or even with death.<note place='foot'>A. S. Gatschett, <hi rend='italic'>The Klamath +Indians of South-Western Oregon</hi> +(Washington, 1890) (<hi rend='italic'>Contributions to +North American Ethnology</hi>, vol. ii. pt. +1), p. xli; Chase, quoted by H. H. +Bancroft, <hi rend='italic'>Native Races of the Pacific +States</hi>, i. 357, note 76.</note> Thus among the Karok of California +we are told that <q>the highest crime one can commit +is the <foreign rend='italic'>pet-chi-é-ri</foreign>, the mere mention of the dead relative's +name. It is a deadly insult to the survivors, and can be +atoned for only by the same amount of blood-money paid +for wilful murder. In default of that they will have the +villain's blood.</q><note place='foot'>S. Powers, <hi rend='italic'>Tribes of California</hi>, +p. 33; compare p. 68.</note> Amongst the Wintun, also of California, +if some one in a group of merry talkers inadvertently mentions +the name of a deceased person, <q>straightway there falls +upon all an awful silence. No words can describe the +shuddering and heart-sickening terror which seizes upon them +at the utterance of that fearful word.</q><note place='foot'>S. Powers, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> p. 240.</note> Among the Goajiros +of Colombia to mention the dead before his kinsmen is a +dreadful offence, which is often punished with death; for if +it happen on the <foreign rend='italic'>rancho</foreign> of the deceased, in presence of his +nephew or uncle, they will assuredly kill the offender on the +spot if they can. But if he escapes, the penalty resolves +itself into a heavy fine, usually of two or more oxen.<note place='foot'>F. A. Simons, <q>An Exploration +of the Goajira Peninsula, U.S. of +Colombia,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Proceedings of the Royal +Geographical Society</hi>, vii. (1885) p. 791.</note> So +among the Abipones of Paraguay to mention the departed +by name was a serious crime, which often led to blows and +bloodshed. When it was needful to refer to such an one, +it was done by means of a general phrase such as <q>he who +is no more,</q> eked out with particulars which served to +identify the person meant.<note place='foot'>M. Dobrizhoffer, <hi rend='italic'>Historia de Abiponibus</hi>, +ii. 301, 498. For more +evidence of the observance of this +taboo among the American Indians +see A. Woldt, <hi rend='italic'>Captain Jacobsen's Reise +an der Nordwestküste Americas</hi> (Leipsic, +1884), p. 57 (as to the Indians of +the north-west coast); W. Colquhoun +Grant, <q>Description of Vancouver's +Island,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Journal of the Royal Geographical +Society</hi>, xxvii. (1857) p. 303 +(as to Vancouver Island); Capt. +Wilson, <q>Report on the Indian Tribes,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Transactions of the Ethnological Society +of London</hi>, N.S., iv. (1866) p. 286 (as +to Vancouver Island and neighbourhood); C. Hill Tout, in <hi rend='italic'>Journal of the +Anthropological Institute</hi>, xxxv. (1905) +p. 138; <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, <hi rend='italic'>The Far West, the Land +of the Salish and Déné</hi>, p. 201; A. +Ross, <hi rend='italic'>Adventures on the Oregon or +Columbia River</hi>, p. 322; H. R. +Schoolcraft, <hi rend='italic'>Indian Tribes</hi>, iv. 226 +(as to the Bonaks of California); +Ch. N. Bell, <q>The Mosquito Territory,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Journal of the Royal Geographical +Society</hi>, xxxii. (1862) p. 255; A. +Pinart, <q>Les Indiens de l'Etat de +Panama,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Revue d'Ethnographie</hi>, vi. +(1887) p. 56; G. C. Musters, in <hi rend='italic'>Journal +of the Royal Geographical Society</hi>, +xli. (1871) p. 68 (as to Patagonia). +More evidence is adduced below.</note> +</p> + +<pb n='353'/><anchor id='Pg353'/> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Many other +peoples are +reluctant to +mention +the names +of the +dead. +This +reluctance +seems to +be based +on a fear +of the +ghosts, +whose +attention +might be +attracted +by the +mention +of their +names.</note> +A similar reluctance to mention the names of the dead +is reported of peoples so widely separated from each other +as the Samoyeds of Siberia and the Todas of southern +India; the Mongols of Tartary and the Tuaregs of the Sahara; +the Ainos of Japan and the Akamba and Nandi of central +Africa; the Tinguianes of the Philippines and the inhabitants +of the Nicobar Islands, of Borneo, of Madagascar, and of Tasmania.<note place='foot'>See P. S. Pallas, <hi rend='italic'>Reise durch verschiedene +Provinzen des russischen +Reichs</hi>, iii. 76 (Samoyeds); J. W. +Breeks, <hi rend='italic'>Account of the Primitive Tribes +and Monuments of the Nīlagiris</hi> (London, +1873), p. 19; W. E. Marshall, +<hi rend='italic'>Travels amongst the Todas</hi>, p. 177; W. +H. R. Rivers, <hi rend='italic'>The Todas</hi>, pp. 462, 496, +626; Plan de Carpin (de Plano Carpini), +<hi rend='italic'>Relation des Mongols ou Tartares</hi>, ed. +D'Avezac, cap. iii. § iii.; H. Duveyrier, +<hi rend='italic'>Exploration du Sahara, les Touareg du +nord</hi> (Paris, 1864), p. 415; Lieut. +S. C. Holland, <q>The Ainos,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Journal +of the Anthropological Institute</hi>, iii. +(1874) p. 238; J. Batchelor, <hi rend='italic'>The Ainu +and their Folk-lore</hi> (London, 1901), +pp. 252, 564; J. M. Hildebrandt, +<q>Ethnographische Notizen über Wakamba +und ihre Nachbarn,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Zeitschrift +für Ethnologie</hi>, x. (1878) p. 405; +A. C. Hollis, <hi rend='italic'>The Nandi</hi>, p. 71; +F. Blumentritt, <hi rend='italic'>Versuch einer Ethnographie +der Philippinen</hi> (Gotha, 1882), +p. 38 (<hi rend='italic'>Petermann's Mittheilungen, +Ergänzungsheft</hi>, No. 67); N. Fontana, +<q>On the Nicobar Isles,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Asiatick Researches</hi>, +iii. (London, 1799) p. 154; +W. H. Furness, <hi rend='italic'>Folk-lore in Borneo</hi> +(Wallingford, Pennsylvania, 1899), p. +26; A. van Gennep, <hi rend='italic'>Tabou et totémisme +à Madagascar</hi>, pp. 70 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; +J. E. Calder, <q>Native Tribes of +Tasmania,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Journal of the Anthropological +Institute</hi>, iii. (1874) p. 23; J. +Bonwick, <hi rend='italic'>Daily Life of the Tasmanians</hi>, +pp. 97, 145, 183.</note> +In all cases, even where it is not expressly stated, the +fundamental reason for this avoidance is probably the fear +of the ghost. That this is the real motive with the Tuaregs +of the Sahara we are positively informed. They dread the +return of the dead man's spirit, and do all they can to avoid +it by shifting their camp after a death, ceasing for ever to +pronounce the name of the departed, and eschewing everything +that might be regarded as an evocation or recall of +his soul. Hence they do not, like the Arabs, designate +individuals by adding to their personal names the names of +their fathers; they never speak of So-and-so, son of So-and-so; +they give to every man a name which will live and die +with him.<note place='foot'>H. Duveyrier, <hi rend='italic'>Exploration du +Sahara, les Touareg du nord</hi>, p. 431.</note> So among some of the Victorian tribes in +<pb n='354'/><anchor id='Pg354'/> +Australia personal names were rarely perpetuated, because +the natives believed that any one who adopted the name of +a deceased person would not live long;<note place='foot'>J. Dawson, <hi rend='italic'>Australian Aborigines</hi>, +p. 42.</note> probably his +ghostly namesake was supposed to come and fetch him +away to the spirit-land. The Yabims of German New +Guinea, who believe that the spirits of the dead pass their +time in the forest eating unpalatable fruits, are unwilling to +mention the names of the deceased lest their ghosts should +suspend their habitual occupation to come and trouble the +living.<note place='foot'>K. Vetter, <hi rend='italic'>Komm herüber und +hilf uns!</hi> iii. (Barmen, 1898) p. 24; +<hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, in <hi rend='italic'>Nachrichten über Kaiser +Wilhelms-Land und den Bismarck-Archipel</hi>, +1897, p. 92.</note> In Logea, one of the Samarai Archipelago, off the +south-eastern end of New Guinea, no custom is observed so +strictly as the one which forbids the naming of the dead in +presence of their relations. To say to a person <q>Your +fathers are dead,</q> is considered a direct challenge to +fight; it is an insult which must be avenged either by +the death of the man who pronounced these awful words, +or by the death of one of his relatives or friends. The +uttering of the names of the dead is, along with homicide, +one of the chief causes of war in the island. When +it is necessary to refer to a dead man they designate him +by such a phrase as <q>the father of So-and-so,</q> or <q>the +brother of So-and-so.</q><note place='foot'>Dr. L. Loria, <q>Notes on the +ancient War Customs of the Natives of +Logea,</q> <hi rend='italic'>British New Guinea, Annual +Report for 1894-95</hi>, pp. 45, 46 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> +Compare M. Krieger, <hi rend='italic'>Neu-Guinea</hi>, +p. 322.</note> Thus the fear of mentioning the +names of the dead gives rise to circumlocutions of precisely +the same sort as those which originate in a reluctance to +name living people. Among the Klallam Indians of +Washington State no person may bear the name of his +deceased father, grandfather, or any other direct ancestor in +the paternal line.<note place='foot'>Myron Eels, <q>The Twana, +Chemakum, and Klallam Indians of +Washington Territory,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Annual Report +of the Smithsonian Institute for 1887</hi>, +part i. p. 656.</note> The Masai of eastern Africa are said to +resort to a simple device which enables them to speak of the +dead freely without risk of the inopportune appearance of +the ghost. As soon as a man or woman dies, they change +his or her name, and henceforth always speak of him or her +by the new name, while the old name falls into oblivion, and +<pb n='355'/><anchor id='Pg355'/> +to utter it in the presence of a kinsman of the deceased is +an insult which calls for vengeance. They assume that the +dead man will not know his new name, and so will not +answer to it when he hears it pronounced.<note place='foot'>Baron C. C. von der Decken, +<hi rend='italic'>Reisen in Ost-Afrika</hi> (Leipsic, 1869-1871), +ii. 25; R. Andree, <hi rend='italic'>Ethnographische +Parallelen und Vergleiche</hi>, +pp. 182 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> Ghosts are +notoriously dull-witted; nothing is easier than to dupe +them. However, according to another and more probable +account, the name of a Masai is not changed after his +death; it is merely suppressed, and he or she is referred to +by a descriptive phrase, such as <q>my brother,</q> <q>my uncle,</q> +<q>my sister.</q> To call a dead man by his name is deemed +most unlucky, and is never done except with the intention +of doing harm to his surviving family, who make great +lamentations on such an occasion.<note place='foot'>S. L. Hinde and H. Hinde, <hi rend='italic'>The +last of the Masai</hi> (London, 1901), p. +50; Sir H. Johnston, <hi rend='italic'>The Uganda +Protectorate</hi>, ii. 826.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The like +fear leads +people who +bear the +same name +as the dead +to change +it for +another.</note> +The same fear of the ghost, which moves people to +suppress his old name, naturally leads all persons who bear +a similar name to exchange it for another, lest its utterance +should attract the attention of the ghost, who cannot +reasonably be expected to discriminate between all the +different applications of the same name. Thus we are told +that in the Adelaide and Encounter Bay tribes of South +Australia the repugnance to mentioning the names of +those who have died lately is carried so far, that persons +who bear the same name as the deceased abandon it, and +either adopt temporary names or are known by any others +that happen to belong to them.<note place='foot'>W. Wyatt, in <hi rend='italic'>Native Tribes of +South Australia</hi>, p. 165.</note> The same practice was +observed by the aborigines of New South Wales,<note place='foot'>D. Collins, <hi rend='italic'>Account of the English +Colony in New South Wales</hi> (London, +1804), p. 392.</note> and is +said to be observed by the tribes of the Lower Murray +River,<note place='foot'>P. Beveridge, <q>Notes on the +Dialects, Habits, and Mythology of the +Lower Murray Aborigines,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Transactions +of the Royal Society of Victoria</hi>, +vi. 20 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> and of King George's Sound in western Australia.<note place='foot'><q>Description of the Natives of +King George's Sound (Swan River) and +adjoining Country,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Journal of the R. +Geographical Society</hi>, i. (1832) pp. 46 +<hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> +A similar custom prevails among some of the Queensland +tribes; but the prohibition to use the names of the dead is +not permanent, though it may last for many years. On the +<pb n='356'/><anchor id='Pg356'/> +Bloomfield River, when a namesake dies, the survivor is +called Tanyu, a word whose meaning is unknown; or else +he or she receives a name which refers to the corpse, with +the syllable Wau prefixed to it. For example, he may be +called Wau-batcha, with reference to the place where the +man was buried; or Wau-wotchinyu (<q>burnt</q>), with reference +to the cremation of the body. And if there should be +several people in camp all bearing one of these allusive +designations, they are distinguished from each other by the +mention of the names of their mothers or other relatives, +even though these last have long been dead and gone. +Whenever Mr. W. E. Roth, to whom we owe this information, +could obtain an explanation of the custom, the reason +invariably assigned was a fear that the ghost, hearing himself +called by name, might return and cause mischief.<note place='foot'>W. E. Roth, <hi rend='italic'>North Queensland +Ethnography, Bulletin No. 5</hi> (Brisbane, +1903), § 72, p. 20.</note> In some +Australian tribes the change of name thus brought about is +permanent; the old name is laid aside for ever, and the +man is known by his new name for the rest of his life, or at +least until he is obliged to change it again for a like reason.<note place='foot'>G. F. Angas, <hi rend='italic'>Savage Life and +Scenes in Australia and New Zealand</hi> +(London, 1847), ii. 228.</note> +Among the North American Indians all persons, whether +men or women, who bore the name of one who had just died +were obliged to abandon it and to adopt other names, which +was formally done at the first ceremony of mourning for +the dead.<note place='foot'>J. F. Lafitau, <hi rend='italic'>Mœurs des sauvages +ameriquains</hi>, ii. 434; R. Southey, +<hi rend='italic'>History of Brazil</hi>, iii. 894 (referring +to Roger Williams).</note> In some tribes to the east of the Rocky +Mountains this change of name lasted only during the +season of mourning,<note place='foot'>Charlevoix, <hi rend='italic'>Histoire de la Nouvelle +France</hi>, vi. 109.</note> but in other tribes on the Pacific +Coast of North America it seems to have been permanent.<note place='foot'>S. Powers, <hi rend='italic'>Tribes of California</hi>, +p. 349; Myron Eels, <q>The Twana, +Chemakum, and Klallam Indians of +Washington Territory,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Annual Report +of the Smithsonian Institute for 1887</hi>, +p. 656.</note> +Amongst the Masai also, when two men of the same tribe +bear the same name, and one of them dies, the survivor +changes his name.<note place='foot'>S. L. Hinde and H. Hinde, <hi rend='italic'>The +Last of the Masai</hi>, p. 50.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Sometimes +all the near +relations +of the +deceased +change +their +names.</note> +Sometimes by an extension of the same reasoning all +the near relations of the deceased change their names, whatever +<pb n='357'/><anchor id='Pg357'/> +they may happen to be, doubtless from a fear that the +sound of the familiar names might lure back the vagrant +spirit to its old home. Thus in some Victorian tribes the +ordinary names of all the next of kin were disused during +the period of mourning, and certain general terms, prescribed +by custom, were substituted for them. To call a mourner +by his own name was considered an insult to the departed, +and often led to fighting and bloodshed.<note place='foot'>J. Dawson, <hi rend='italic'>Australian Aborigines</hi>, +p. 42.</note> Among Indian +tribes of north-western America near relations of the deceased +often change their names <q>under an impression that spirits +will be attracted back to earth if they hear familiar names +often repeated.</q><note place='foot'>H. H. Bancroft, <hi rend='italic'>Native Races of +the Pacific States</hi>, i. 248. Compare +K. F. v. Baer und Gr. v. Helmersen, +<hi rend='italic'>Beiträge zur Kenntniss des russischen +Reiches und der angränzenden Länder +Asiens</hi>, i. (St. Petersburg, 1839), p. +108 (as to the Kenayens of Cook's +Inlet and the neighbourhood).</note> Among the Kiowa Indians the name of +the dead is never spoken in the presence of the relatives, and +on the death of any member of a family all the others take +new names. This custom was noted by Raleigh's colonists +on Roanoke Island more than three centuries ago.<note place='foot'>J. Mooney, <q>Calendar History of +the Kiowa Indians,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Seventeenth Annual +Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology</hi>, +part i. (Washington, 1898) p. +231.</note> Among +the Lengua Indians of the Gran Chaco in South America not +only is a dead man's name never mentioned, but all the +survivors change their names also. They say that Death has +been among them and has carried off a list of the living, and +that he will soon come back for more victims; hence in order +to defeat his fell purpose they change their names, believing +that on his return Death, though he has got them all on his +list, will not be able to identify them under their new names, +and will depart to pursue the search elsewhere.<note place='foot'>F. de Azara, <hi rend='italic'>Voyages dans +l'Amérique Méridionale</hi> (Paris, 1808), +ii. 153 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> So among +the Guaycurus of the Gran Chaco, when a death had taken +place, the chief used to change the names of every person in +the tribe, man and woman, young and old, and it is said to +have been wonderful to observe how from that moment +everybody remembered his new name just as if he had borne +it all his life.<note place='foot'>P. Lozano, <hi rend='italic'>Descripcion chorographica</hi>, +etc., <hi rend='italic'>del Gran Chaco</hi> (Cordova, +1733), p. 70.</note> Nicobarese mourners take new names in +order to escape the unwelcome attentions of the ghost; and +<pb n='358'/><anchor id='Pg358'/> +for the same purpose they disguise themselves by shaving +their heads so that the ghost is unable to recognise them.<note place='foot'>E. H. Man, <q>Notes on the +Nicobarese,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Indian Antiquary</hi>, xxviii. +(1899) p. 261. Elsewhere I have +suggested that mourning costume in +general may have been adopted with +this intention. See <hi rend='italic'>Journal of the +Anthropological Institute</hi>, xv. (1886) +pp. 73, 98 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></note> +The Chukchees of Bering Strait believe that the souls of the +dead turn into malignant spirits who seek to harm the living. +Hence when a mother dies the name of her youngest and +dearest child is changed, in order that her ghost may not +know the child.<note place='foot'>J. Enderli, <q>Zwei Jahre bei den +Tchuktschen und Korjaken,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Petermanns +Mitteilungen</hi>, xlix. (1903) p. +257.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>When the +name of the +deceased +is that of a +common +object, the +word is +often +dropped in +ordinary +speech and +another +substituted +for it.</note> +Further, when the name of the deceased happens to be +that of some common object, such as an animal, or plant, or +fire, or water, it is sometimes considered necessary to drop +that word in ordinary speech and replace it by another. A +custom of this sort, it is plain, may easily be a potent agent +of change in language; for where it prevails to any considerable +extent many words must constantly become obsolete +and new ones spring up. And this tendency has been +remarked by observers who have recorded the custom in +Australia, America, and elsewhere. For example, with +regard to the Australian aborigines it has been noted that +<q>the dialects change with almost every tribe. Some tribes +name their children after natural objects; and when the +person so named dies, the word is never again mentioned; +another word has therefore to be invented for the object +after which the child was called.</q> The writer gives as an +instance the case of a man whose name Karla signified +<q>fire</q>; when Karla died, a new word for fire had to be +introduced. <q>Hence,</q> adds the writer, <q>the language is +always changing.</q><note place='foot'>R. Brough Smyth, <hi rend='italic'>Aborigines of +Victoria</hi>, ii. 266.</note> In the Moorunde tribe the name for +<q>teal</q> used to be <foreign rend='italic'>torpool</foreign>; but when a boy called Torpool +died, a new name (<foreign rend='italic'>tilquaitch</foreign>) was given to the bird, and the +old name dropped out altogether from the language of the +tribe.<note place='foot'>E. J. Eyre, <hi rend='italic'>Journals of Expeditions +of Discovery</hi>, ii. 354 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> Sometimes, however, such substitutes for common +words were only in vogue for a limited time after the death, +and were then discarded in favour of the old words. Thus +among the Kowraregas of the Prince of Wales' Islands and +<pb n='359'/><anchor id='Pg359'/> +the Gudangs of Cape York in Queensland, the names of the +dead are never mentioned without great reluctance, so that, +for example, when a man named Us, or quartz, died, the +name of the stone was changed to <foreign rend='italic'>nattam ure</foreign>, <q>the thing +which is a namesake,</q> but the original word would gradually +return to common use.<note place='foot'>J. Macgillivray, <hi rend='italic'>Narrative of the +Voyage of H.M.S. Rattlesnake</hi> (London, +1852), ii. 10 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> Again, a missionary, who lived +among the Victorian aborigines, remarks that <q>it is +customary among these blacks to disuse a word when a +person has died whose name was the same, or even of the +same sound. I find great difficulty in getting blacks to +repeat such words. I believe this custom is common to all +the Victorian tribes, though in course of time the word is +resumed again. I have seen among the Murray blacks the +dead freely spoken of when they have been dead some +time.</q><note place='foot'>J. Bulmer, in Brough Smyth's +<hi rend='italic'>Aborigines of Victoria</hi>, ii. 94.</note> Again, in the Encounter Bay tribe of South +Australia, if a man of the name of Ngnke, which means +<q>water,</q> were to die, the whole tribe would be obliged to +use some other word to express water for a considerable +time after his decease. The writer who records this custom +surmises that it may explain the presence of a number of +synonyms in the language of the tribe.<note place='foot'>H. E. A. Meyer, in <hi rend='italic'>Native Tribes +of South Australia</hi>, p. 199, compare +p. xxix.</note> This conjecture is +confirmed by what we know of some Victorian tribes whose +speech comprised a regular set of synonyms to be used +instead of the common terms by all members of a tribe in +times of mourning. For instance, if a man called Waa +(<q>crow</q>) departed this life, during the period of mourning +for him nobody might call a crow a <foreign rend='italic'>waa</foreign>; everybody had to +speak of the bird as a <foreign rend='italic'>narrapart</foreign>. When a person who +rejoiced in the title of Ringtail Opossum (<foreign rend='italic'>weearn</foreign>) had +gone the way of all flesh, his sorrowing relations and the +tribe at large were bound for a time to refer to ringtail +opossums by the more sonorous name of <foreign rend='italic'>manuungkuurt</foreign>. +If the community were plunged in grief for the loss of a +respected female who bore the honourable name of Turkey +Bustard, the proper name for turkey bustards, which was +<foreign rend='italic'>barrim barrim</foreign>, went out, and <foreign rend='italic'>tillit tilliitsh</foreign> came in. And so +<pb n='360'/><anchor id='Pg360'/> +<foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>mutatis mutandis</foreign> with the names of Black Cockatoo, Grey +Duck, Gigantic Crane, Kangaroo, Eagle, Dingo, and the +rest.<note place='foot'>J. Dawson, <hi rend='italic'>Australian Aborigines</hi>, +p. 43. Mr. Howitt mentions the case +of a native who arbitrarily substituted +the name <foreign rend='italic'>nobler</foreign> (<q>spirituous liquor</q>) +for <foreign rend='italic'>yan</foreign> (<q>water</q>) because Yan was +the name of a man who had recently +died (<hi rend='italic'>Kamilaroi and Kurnai</hi>, p. 249).</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>This +custom +has transformed +some of the +languages +of the +American +Indians.</note> +A similar custom used to be constantly transforming the +language of the Abipones of Paraguay, amongst whom, +however, a word once abolished seems never to have been +revived. New words, says the missionary Dobrizhoffer, +sprang up every year like mushrooms in a night, because +all words that resembled the names of the dead were +abolished by proclamation and others coined in their place. +The mint of words was in the hands of the old women of +the tribe, and whatever term they stamped with their +approval and put in circulation was immediately accepted +without a murmur by high and low alike, and spread like +wildfire through every camp and settlement of the tribe. +You would be astonished, says the same missionary, to see +how meekly the whole nation acquiesces in the decision of a +withered old hag, and how completely the old familiar words +fall instantly out of use and are never repeated either +through force of habit or forgetfulness. In the seven years +that Dobrizhoffer spent among these Indians the native word +for jaguar was changed thrice, and the words for crocodile, +thorn, and the slaughter of cattle underwent similar though +less varied vicissitudes. As a result of this habit, the +vocabularies of the missionaries teemed with erasures, old +words having constantly to be struck out as obsolete and +new ones inserted in their place.<note place='foot'>M. Dobrizhoffer, <hi rend='italic'>Historia de +Abiponibus</hi> (Vienna, 1784), ii. 199, +301.</note> Similarly, a peculiar +feature of the Comanche language is that a portion of the +vocabulary is continually changing. If, for example, a +person called Eagle or Bison dies, a new name is invented +for the bird or beast, because it is forbidden to mention the +name of any one who is dead.<note place='foot'>H. Ten Kate, <q>Notes ethnographiques +sur les Comanches,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Revue +d'Ethnographie</hi>, iv. (1885) p. 131.</note> So amongst the Kiowa +Indians all words that suggest the name of a deceased +person are dropped for a term of years and other words +<pb n='361'/><anchor id='Pg361'/> +are substituted for them. The old word may after the +lapse of years be restored, but it often happens that the +new one keeps its place and the original word is entirely +forgotten. Old men sometimes remember as many as three +different names which have been successively used for the +same thing. The new word is commonly a novel combination +of existing roots, or a novel use of a current word, +rather than a deliberately invented term.<note place='foot'>J. Mooney, <q>Calendar History +of the Kiowa Indians,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Seventeenth +Annual Report of the Bureau of American +Ethnology</hi>, part i. (Washington, +1898) p. 231.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>A similar +custom has +modified +languages +in Africa, +Buru, New +Guinea, +the +Caroline +Islands, and +the Nicobarese.</note> +The Basagala, a cattle-breeding people to the west of +Uganda, cease to use a word if it was the name of an +influential person who has died. For example, after the +death of a chief named Mwenda, which means <q>nine,</q> the +name for the numeral was changed.<note place='foot'>Rev. J. Roscoe in a letter to me +dated Mengo, Uganda, 17th February +1904.</note> <q>On the death +of a child, or a warrior, or a woman amongst the Masai, +the body is thrown away, and the person's name is buried, +<hi rend='italic'>i.e.</hi> it is never again mentioned by the family. Should +there be anything which is called by that name, it is +given another name which is not like that of the deceased, +For instance, if an unimportant person called Ol-onana (he +who is soft, or weak, or gentle) were to die, gentleness would +not be called <foreign rend='italic'>enanai</foreign> in that kraal, but it would be called by +another name, such as <foreign rend='italic'>epolpol</foreign> (it is smooth).... If an elder +dies leaving children, his name is not buried for his descendants +are named after him.</q><note place='foot'>A. C. Hollis, <hi rend='italic'>The Masai</hi> (Oxford, +1905), pp. 304 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> As to the Masai +customs in this respect see also above, +pp. <ref target='Pg354'>354</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg356'>356</ref>.</note> From this statement, which is +translated from a native account in the Masai language, we +may perhaps infer that among the Masai it is as a rule only +the childless dead whose names are avoided. In the island of +Buru it is unlawful to mention the names of the dead or +any words that resemble them in sound.<note place='foot'>J. H. W. van der Miesen, <q>Een +en ander over Boeroe,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Mededeelingen +van wege het Nederlandsche Zendelinggenootschap</hi>, +xlvi. (1902) p. 455.</note> In many tribes +of British New Guinea the names of persons are also the +names of common things. The people believe that if the +name of a deceased person is pronounced, his spirit will +return, and as they have no wish to see it back among +them the mention of his name is tabooed and a new word +<pb n='362'/><anchor id='Pg362'/> +is created to take its place, whenever the name happens to +be a common term of the language.<note place='foot'>Sir William Macgregor, <hi rend='italic'>British +New Guinea</hi> (London, 1897), p. +79.</note> Thus at Waga-waga, +near the south-eastern extremity of New Guinea, +the names of the dead become taboo immediately after +death, and if they are, as generally happens, the names +of common objects, new words must be adopted for +these things and the old words are dropped from the +language, so long at least as the memory of the dead survives. +For example, when a man died whose name Binama +meant <q>hornbill,</q> a new name <foreign rend='italic'>ambadina</foreign>, literally <q>the +plasterer,</q> was adopted for the bird. Consequently many +words are permanently lost or revived with modified or new +meanings. The frequent changes of vocabulary caused by +this custom are very inconvenient, and nowadays the practice +of using foreign words as substitutes is coming more and +more into vogue. English profanity now contributes its +share to the language of these savages.<note place='foot'>C. G. Seligmann, <hi rend='italic'>The Melanesians +of British New Guinea</hi> (Cambridge, +1910), pp. 629-631.</note> In the Caroline +Islands the ordinary name for pig is <foreign rend='italic'>puik</foreign>, but in the Paliker +district of Ponape the pig is called not <foreign rend='italic'>puik</foreign> but <foreign rend='italic'>man-teitei</foreign>, +or <q>the animal that grubs in the soil,</q> for the word <foreign rend='italic'>puik</foreign> +was there tabooed after the death of a man named Puik. +<q>This is a living instance showing how under our very eyes +old words are dropping out of use in these isolated dialects +and new ones are taking their place.</q><note place='foot'>F. W. Christian, <hi rend='italic'>The Caroline +Islands</hi> (London, 1899), p. 366.</note> In the Nicobar +Islands a similar practice has similarly affected the speech +of the natives. <q>A most singular custom,</q> says Mr. de +Roepstorff, <q>prevails among them which one would suppose +must most effectually hinder the <q>making of history,</q> or, at +any rate, the transmission of historical narrative. By a +strict rule, which has all the sanction of Nicobar superstition, +no man's name may be mentioned after his death! To such +a length is this carried that when, as very frequently happens, +the man rejoiced in the name of <q>Fowl,</q> <q>Hat,</q> <q>Fire,</q> <q>Road,</q> +etc., in its Nicobarese equivalent, the use of these words is +carefully eschewed for the future, not only as being the +personal designation of the deceased, but even as the names +<pb n='363'/><anchor id='Pg363'/> +of the common things they represent; the words die out of +the language, and either new vocables are coined to express +the thing intended, or a substitute for the disused word is +found in other Nicobarese dialects or in some foreign tongue. +This extraordinary custom not only adds an element of +instability to the language, but destroys the continuity of +political life, and renders the record of past events precarious +and vague, if not impossible.</q><note place='foot'>F. A. de Roepstorff, <q>Tiomberombi, +a Nicobar Tale,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Journal of +the Asiatic Society of Bengal</hi>, liii. (1884) +pt. i. pp. 24 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> In some tribes +apparently the names of the dead are +only tabooed in the presence of their +relations. See C. Hill-Tout, in <q>Report +of the Committee on the Ethnological +Survey of Canada,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Report of +the British Association for the Advancement +of Science</hi>, Bradford, 1900, +p. 484; G. Brown, <hi rend='italic'>Melanesians and +Polynesians</hi> (London, 1910), p. 399. +But in the great majority of the +accounts which I have consulted no +such limitation of the taboo is mentioned.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The suppression +of +the names +of the dead +cuts at the +root of +historical +tradition.</note> +That a superstition which suppresses the names of the +dead must cut at the very root of historical tradition has +been remarked by other workers in this field. <q>The +Klamath people,</q> observes Mr. A. S. Gatschet, <q>possess no +historic traditions going further back in time than a +century, for the simple reason that there was a strict +law prohibiting the mention of the person or acts of a +deceased individual by <emph>using his name</emph>. This law was +rigidly observed among the Californians no less than among +the Oregonians, and on its transgression the death penalty +could be inflicted. This is certainly enough to suppress all +historical knowledge within a people. How can history be +written without names?</q><note place='foot'>A. S. Gatschet, <hi rend='italic'>The Klamath +Indians of South-Western Oregon</hi> +(Washington, 1890), p. xli. (<hi rend='italic'>Contributions +to North American Ethnology</hi>, +vol. ii. pt. I).</note> Among some of the tribes of +New South Wales the simple ditties, never more than two +lines long, to which the natives dance, are never transmitted +from one generation to another, because, when the rude poet +dies, <q>all the songs of which he was author are, as it were, +buried with him, inasmuch as they, in common with his very +name, are studiously ignored from thenceforward, consequently +they are quite forgotten in a very short space of +time indeed. This custom of endeavouring persistently to +forget everything which had been in any way connected +with the dead entirely precludes the possibility of anything +of an historical nature having existence amongst them; in +<pb n='364'/><anchor id='Pg364'/> +fact the most vital occurrence, if only dating a single generation +back, is quite forgotten, that is to say, if the recounting +thereof should necessitate the mention of a defunct +aboriginal's name.</q><note place='foot'>P. Beveridge, <q>Of the Aborigines +inhabiting the great Lacustrine and +Riverine Depression of the Lower +Murray,</q> etc., <hi rend='italic'>Journal and Proceedings +of the Royal Society of New South +Wales for 1883</hi>, vol. xvii. p. 65. The +custom of changing common words on +the death of persons who bore them as +their names seems also to have been +observed by the Tasmanians. See J. +Bonwick, <hi rend='italic'>Daily Life of the Tasmanians</hi>, +p. 145.</note> Thus among these simple savages +even a sacred bard could not avail to rescue an Australian +Agamemnon from the long night of oblivion. +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Sometimes +the names +of the dead +are revived +after a +certain +time. The +American +Indians +used to +bring the +dead to +life again by +solemnly +bestowing +their names +on living +persons, +who were +thereafter +regarded +as reincarnations +of +the dead.</note> +In many tribes, however, the power of this superstition to +blot out the memory of the past is to some extent weakened +and impaired by a natural tendency of the human mind. +Time, which wears out the deepest impressions, inevitably +dulls, if it does not wholly efface, the print left on the savage +mind by the mystery and horror of death. Sooner or later, +as the memory of his loved ones fades slowly away, he +becomes more willing to speak of them, and thus their rude +names may sometimes be rescued by the philosophic enquirer +before they have vanished, like autumn leaves or winter +snows, into the vast undistinguished limbo of the past. +This was Sir George Grey's experience when he attempted +to trace the intricate system of kinship prevalent among the +natives of western Australia. He says: <q>It is impossible +for any person, not well acquainted with the language of the +natives, and who does not possess great personal influence +over them, to pursue an inquiry of this nature; for one of +the customs most rigidly observed and enforced amongst +them is, never to mention the name of a deceased person, +male or female. In an inquiry, therefore, which principally +turns upon the names of their ancestors, this prejudice must +be every moment violated, and a very great difficulty +encountered in the outset. The only circumstance which at +all enabled me to overcome this was, that the longer a +person has been dead the less repugnance do they evince in +uttering his name. I, therefore, in the first instance, +endeavoured to ascertain only the oldest names on record; +and on subsequent occasions, when I found a native alone, +and in a loquacious humour, I succeeded in filling up some +<pb n='365'/><anchor id='Pg365'/> +of the blanks. Occasionally, round their fires at night, I +managed to involve them in disputes regarding their +ancestors, and, on these occasions, gleaned much of the +information of which I was in want.</q><note place='foot'>G. Grey, <hi rend='italic'>Journals of two Expeditions +of Discovery in North-West and +Western Australia</hi>, ii. 231 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> In some of the +Victorian tribes the prohibition to mention the names of the +dead remained in force only during the period of mourning;<note place='foot'>J. Dawson, <hi rend='italic'>Australian Aborigines</hi>, +p. 42.</note> +in the Port Lincoln tribe of South Australia it +lasted many years.<note place='foot'>C. W. Schürmann, in <hi rend='italic'>Native +Tribes of South Australia</hi>, p. 247.</note> Among the Chinook Indians of North +America <q>custom forbids the mention of a dead man's +name, at least till many years have elapsed after the +bereavement.</q><note place='foot'>H. H. Bancroft, <hi rend='italic'>Native Races of +the Pacific States</hi>, iii. 156.</note> In the Twana, Chemakum, and Klallam +tribes of Washington State the names of deceased +members may be mentioned two or three years after their +death.<note place='foot'>Myron Eels, <q>The Twana, Chemakum, +and Klallam Indians of Washington +Territory,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Annual Report of the +Smithsonian Institution for 1887</hi>, p. +656.</note> Among the Puyallup Indians the observance of the +taboo is relaxed after several years, when the mourners have +forgotten their grief; and if the deceased was a famous +warrior, one of his descendants, for instance a great-grandson, +may be named after him. In this tribe the +taboo is not much observed at any time except by the +relations of the dead.<note place='foot'>S. R. M'Caw, <q>Mortuary Customs +of the Puyallups,</q> <hi rend='italic'>The American +Antiquarian and Oriental Journal</hi>, +viii. (1886) p. 235.</note> Similarly the Jesuit missionary +Lafitau tells us that the name of the departed and the +similar names of the survivors were, so to say, buried with +the corpse until, the poignancy of their grief being abated, +it pleased the relations to <q>lift up the tree and raise the +dead.</q> By raising the dead they meant bestowing the +name of the departed upon some one else, who thus became +to all intents and purposes a reincarnation of the deceased, +since on the principles of savage philosophy the name is a +vital part, if not the soul, of the man. When Father +Lafitau arrived at St. Louis to begin work among the +Iroquois, his colleagues decided that in order to make a +favourable impression on his flock the new shepherd should +assume the native name of his deceased predecessor, Father +<pb n='366'/><anchor id='Pg366'/> +Brüyas, <q>the celebrated missionary,</q> who had lived many +years among the Indians and enjoyed their high esteem. +But Father Brüyas had been called from his earthly labours +to his heavenly rest only four short months before, and it +was too soon, in the phraseology of the Iroquois, to <q>raise +up the tree.</q> However, raised up it was in spite of them; +and though some bolder spirits protested that their new +pastor had wronged them by taking the name of his +predecessor, <q>nevertheless,</q> says Father Lafitau, <q>they did +not fail to regard me as himself in another form (<foreign lang='fr' rend='italic'>un autre +lui-même</foreign>), since I had entered into all his rights.</q> <note place='foot'>J. F. Lafitau, <hi rend='italic'>Mœurs des sauvages +ameriquains</hi> (Paris, 1724), ii. 434. +Charlevoix merely says that the taboo on +the names of the dead lasted <q>a certain +time</q> (<hi rend='italic'>Histoire de la Nouvelle France</hi>, +vi. 109). <q>A good long while</q> is the +phrase used by Captain J. G. Bourke +in speaking of the same custom among +the Apaches (<hi rend='italic'>On the Border with Crook</hi>, +p. 132).</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Mode of +reviving +the dead +in the +persons +of their +namesakes +among the +North +American +Indians.</note> +The same mode of bringing a dead man to life again by +bestowing his name upon a living person was practised by +the Hurons and other Indian tribes of Canada. An early +French traveller in Canada has described the ceremony +of resurrection as it was observed by a tribe whom he +calls the Attiuoindarons. He says: <q>The Attiuoindarons +practise resurrections of the dead, principally of persons who +have deserved well of their country by their remarkable +services, so that the memory of illustrious and valiant men +revives in a certain way in others. Accordingly they call +assemblies for this purpose and hold councils, at which they +choose one of them who has the same virtues and qualities, +if possible, as he had whom they wish to resuscitate; or at +least he must be of irreproachable life, judged by the standard +of a savage people. Wishing, then, to proceed to the +resurrection they all stand up, except him who is to be +resuscitated, to whom they give the name of the deceased, +and all letting their hands down very low they pretend to +lift him up from the earth, intending by that to signify that +they draw the great personage deceased from the grave and +restore him to life in the person of this other, who stands up +and, after great acclamations of the people, receives the +presents which the bystanders offer him. They further +hold several feasts in his honour and regard him thenceforth +as the deceased whom he represents; and by this +<pb n='367'/><anchor id='Pg367'/> +means the memory of virtuous men and of good and +valiant captains never dies among them.</q><note place='foot'>Gabriel Sagard, <hi rend='italic'>Le Grand Voyage +du pays des Hurons</hi>, Nouvelle Édition +(Paris, 1865), p. 202. The original +edition of Sagard's book was published +at Paris in 1632.</note> Among the +Hurons the ceremony took place between the death and the +great Festival of the Dead, which was usually celebrated +at intervals of twelve years. When it was resolved to resuscitate +a departed warrior, the members of his family met +and decided which of them was to be regarded as an incarnation +of the deceased. If the dead man had been a +famous chief and leader in war, his living representative and +namesake succeeded to his functions. Presents were made +to him, and he entertained the whole tribe at a magnificent +banquet. His old robes were taken from him, and he was +clad in richer raiment. Thereupon a herald proclaimed +aloud the mystery of the incarnation. <q>Let all the people,</q> +he said, <q>remain silent. Open your ears and shut your +mouths. That which I am about to say is of importance. +Our business is to resuscitate a dead man and to bring a great +captain to life again.</q> With that he named the dead man +and all his posterity, and reminded his hearers of the place +and manner of his death. Then turning to him who was to +succeed the departed, he lifted up his voice: <q>Behold him,</q> +he cried, <q>clad in this beautiful robe. It is not he whom you +saw these past days, who was called Nehap. He has given +his name to another, and he himself is now called Etouait</q> +(the name of the defunct). <q>Look on him as the true +captain of this nation. It is he whom you are bound to +obey; it is he whom you are bound to listen to; it is he +whom you are bound to honour.</q> The new incarnation +meanwhile maintained a dignified silence, and afterwards led +the young braves out to war in order to prove that he had +inherited the courage and virtues as well as the name of +the dead chief.<note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>Relations des Jésuites</hi>, 1636, p. +131; <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, 1642, pp. 53, 85; <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, +1644, pp. 66 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> (Canadian reprint, +Quebec, 1858).</note> The Carrier Indians of British Columbia +firmly believe <q>that a departed soul can, if it pleases, come +back to the earth, in a human shape or body, in order to see +his friends, who are still alive. Therefore, as they are about +to set fire to the pile of wood on which a corpse is laid, a +<pb n='368'/><anchor id='Pg368'/> +relation of the deceased person stands at his feet, and asks +him if he will ever come back among them. Then the +priest or magician, with a grave countenance, stands at the +head of the corpse, and looks through both his hands on its +naked breast, and then raises them toward heaven, and +blows through them, as they say, the soul of the deceased, +that it may go and find, and enter into a relative. Or, if +any relative is present, the priest will hold both his hands +on the head of this person, and blow through them, that the +spirit of the deceased may enter into him or her; and +then, as they affirm, the first child which this person has +will possess the soul of the deceased person.</q><note place='foot'>Daniel W. Harmon, quoted by +Rev. Jedidiah Morse, <hi rend='italic'>Report to the +Secretary of War of the United States +on Indian Affairs</hi> (New-Haven, 1822), +Appendix, p. 345. The custom seems +now to be extinct. It is not mentioned +by Father A. G. Morice in his accounts +of the tribe (in <hi rend='italic'>Proceedings of the +Canadian Institute</hi>, Third Series, vol. +vii. 1888-89; <hi rend='italic'>Transactions of the +Canadian Institute</hi>, vol. iv. 1892-93; +<hi rend='italic'>Annual Archaeological Report</hi>, Toronto, +1905).</note> The writer +does not say that the infant took the name of the deceased +who was born again in it; but probably it did. For sometimes +the priest would transfer the soul from a dead to a +living person, who in that case took the name of the departed +in addition to his own.<note place='foot'>Ch. Wilkes, <hi rend='italic'>Narrative of the +United States Exploring Expedition</hi> +(New York, 1851), iv. 453.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The dead +revived +in their +namesakes +among the +Lapps, +Khonds, +Yorubas, +Baganda, +and +Makalaka.</note> +Among the Lapps, when a woman was with child and +near the time of her delivery, a deceased ancestor or relation +(known as a <foreign rend='italic'>Jabmek</foreign>) used to appear to her in a dream and +inform her what dead person was to be born again in her +infant, and whose name the child was therefore to bear. If +the woman had no such dream, it fell to the father or the +relatives to determine the name by divination or by consulting +a wizard.<note place='foot'>E. J. Jessen, <hi rend='italic'>De Finnorum Lapponumque +Norwegicorum religione pagana</hi>, +pp. 33 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> (bound up with C. Leemius, +<hi rend='italic'>De Lapponibus Finmarchiae eorumque +lingua, vita, et religione pristina commentatio</hi>, +Copenhagen, 1767).</note> Among the Khonds a birth is celebrated on +the seventh day after the event by a feast given to the priest +and to the whole village. To determine the child's name the +priest drops grains of rice into a cup of water, naming with +each grain a deceased ancestor. From the movements of +the seed in the water, and from observations made on the +person of the infant, he pronounces which of his progenitors +has reappeared in him, and the child generally, at least +<pb n='369'/><anchor id='Pg369'/> +among the northern tribes, receives the name of that +ancestor.<note place='foot'>Major S. C. Macpherson, <hi rend='italic'>Memorials +of Service in India</hi> (London, 1865), +pp. 72 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> Among the Ewe-speaking peoples of Togo, in +West Africa, when a woman is in hard labour, a fetish +priest or priestess is called in to disclose the name of the +deceased relative who has just been born again into the +world in the person of the infant. The name of that +relative is bestowed on the child.<note place='foot'>C. Spiess, <q>Einiges über die +Bedeutung der Personennamen der +Evheer in Togo-Gebiete,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Mittheilungen +des Seminars für orientalische +Sprachen zu Berlin</hi>, vi. (1903) Dritte +Abtheilung, pp. 56 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> Among the Yorubas, +soon after a child has been born, a priest of Ifa, the god +of divination, appears on the scene to ascertain what ancestral +soul has been reborn in the infant. As soon as this has +been decided, the parents are told that the child must conform +in all respects to the manner of life of the ancestor who +now animates him or her, and if, as often happens, they +profess ignorance, the priest supplies the necessary information. +The child usually receives the name of the ancestor +who has been born again in him.<note place='foot'>A. B. Ellis, <hi rend='italic'>The Yoruba-speaking +Peoples of the Slave Coast</hi>, p. 152; <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, +<hi rend='italic'>The Ewe-speaking Peoples of the Slave +Coast</hi>, pp. 153 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> In the former +passage the writer says nothing about +the child's name. In the latter he +merely says that an ancestor is supposed +to have sent the child, who accordingly +commonly takes the name of that +ancestor. But the analogy of other +peoples makes it highly probable that, +as Col. Ellis himself states in his later +work (<hi rend='italic'>The Yoruba-speaking Peoples</hi>), +the ancestor is believed to be incarnate +in the child. That the Yoruba child +takes the name of the ancestor who +has come to life again in him is +definitely stated by A. Dieterich in +<hi rend='italic'>Archiv für Religionswissenschaft</hi>, viii. +(1904) p. 20, referring to <hi rend='italic'>Zeitschrift +für Missionskunde und Religionswissenschaft</hi>, +xv. (1900) p. 17, a work +to which I have not access. Dieterich's +account of the subject of rebirth (<hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> +pp. 18-21) deserves to be consulted.</note> In Uganda a child is +named with much ceremony by its grandfather, who bestows +on it the name of one of its ancestors, but never the name of +its father. The spirit of the deceased namesake then enters +the child and assists him through life.<note place='foot'>J. Roscoe, <q>Further Notes on the +Manners and Customs of the Baganda,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Journal of the Anthropological Institute</hi>, +xxxii. (1902) p. 32.</note> Here the reincarnation +of the ancestor appears to be effected by giving his +name, and with it his soul, to his descendant. The same +idea seems to explain a curious ceremony observed by the +Makalaka of South Africa at the naming of a child. The +spirit of the ancestor (<foreign rend='italic'>motsimo</foreign>), whose name the child is to +bear, is represented by an elderly kinsman or kinswoman, +<pb n='370'/><anchor id='Pg370'/> +according as the little one is a boy or a girl. A pretence +is made of catching the representative of the spirit, and +dragging him or her to the hut of the child's parents. Outside +the hut the pretended spirit takes his seat and the skin +of an animal is thrown over him. He then washes his +hands in a vessel of water, eats some millet-porridge, and +washes it down with beer. Meantime the women and girls +dance gleefully round him, screaming or singing, and throw +copper rings, beads, and so forth as presents into the vessel +of water. The men do the same, but without dancing; after +that they enter the hut to partake of a feast. The representative +of the ancestral spirit now vanishes, and the child +thenceforth bears his or her name.<note place='foot'>C. Mauch, <hi rend='italic'>Reisen im Inneren von +Süd-Afrika</hi> (Gotha, 1874), p. 43 +(<hi rend='italic'>Petermann's Mittheilungen, Ergänsungsheft</hi>, +No. 37).</note> This ceremony may be +intended to represent the reincarnation of the ancestral spirit +in the child. +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Revival of +the names +of the dead +among the +Nicobarese +and +Gilyaks.</note> +In the Nicobar Islands the names of dead relatives are +tabooed for a generation; but when both their parents are +dead, men and women are bound to assume the names of +their deceased grandfathers or grandmothers respectively.<note place='foot'>Sir R. C. Temple, in <hi rend='italic'>Census of +India, 1901</hi>, vol. iii. 207, 212.</note> +Perhaps with the names they may be thought to inherit +the spirits of their ancestors. Among the Tartars in the +Middle Ages the names of the dead might not be uttered till +the third generation.<note place='foot'>Plan de Carpin (de Plano Carpini), +<hi rend='italic'>Relation des Mongols ou Tartares</hi>, ed. +D'Avezac, cap. iii. § iii. The writer's +statement (<q><foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>nec nomen proprium ejus +usque ad tertiam generationem audet +aliquis nominare</foreign></q>) is not very clear.</note> Among the Gilyaks of Saghalien no +two persons in the same tribe may bear the same name at +the same time; for they think that if a child were to receive +the name of a living man, either the child or the man would +die within the year. When a man dies, his name may not +be uttered until after the celebration of the festival at which +they sacrifice a bear for the purpose of procuring plenty of +game and fish. At that festival they call out the name of +the deceased while they beat the skin of the bear. Thenceforth +the name may be pronounced by every one, and it will +be bestowed on a child who shall afterwards be born.<note place='foot'>P. Labbé, <hi rend='italic'>Un Bagne russe, l'île +de Sakhaline</hi> (Paris, 1903), p. 166.</note> These +customs suggest that the Gilyaks, like other peoples, suppose +<pb n='371'/><anchor id='Pg371'/> +the namesake of a deceased person to be his or her reincarnation; +for their objection to let two living persons bear the +same name seems to imply a belief that the soul goes with +the name, and therefore cannot be shared by two people at +the same time. +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Namesakes +of the dead +treated as +the dead +in person +among the +Esquimaux +of Bering +Strait.</note> +Among the Esquimaux of Bering Strait the first child +born in a village after some one has died receives the dead +person's name, and must represent him in subsequent +festivals which are given in his honour. The day before the +great feast of the dead the nearest male relative of the +deceased goes to the grave and plants before it a stake +bearing the crest or badge of the departed. This is the +notice served to the ghost to attend the festival. Accordingly +he returns from the spirit-land to the grave. Afterwards +a song is sung at the grave inviting the ghost to repair to the +assembly-house, where the people are gathered to celebrate +the festival. The shade accepts the invitation and takes +his place, with the other ghosts, in the fire-pit under the +floor of the assembly-house. All the time of the festival, +which lasts for several days, lamps filled with seal-oil are +kept burning day and night in the assembly-house in order +to light up the path to the spirit-land and enable the ghosts +to find their way back to their old haunts on earth. When +the spirits of the dead are gathered in the pit, and the +proper moment has come, they all rise up through the floor +and enter the bodies of their living namesakes. Offerings of +food, drink, and clothes are now made to these namesakes, who +eat and drink and wear the clothes on behalf of the ghosts. +Finally, the shades, refreshed and strengthened by the +banquet, are sent away back to their graves thinly clad in +the spiritual essence of the clothes, while the gross material +substance of the garments is retained by their namesakes.<note place='foot'>E. W. Nelson, <q>The Eskimo +about Bering Strait,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Eighteenth +Annual Report of the Bureau of +American Ethnology</hi>, part i. (Washington, +1899), pp. 363 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 365, 368, +371, 377, 379, 424 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> +Here the reincarnation of the dead in the living is not +permanent, but merely occasional and temporary. Still a +special connexion may well be thought to subsist at all times +between the deceased and the living person who bears his or +her name. +</p> + +<pb n='372'/><anchor id='Pg372'/> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Ceremonies +at the +naming of +children are +probably +often +associated +with the +idea of +rebirth.</note> +The foregoing facts seem to render it probable that +even where a belief in the reincarnation of ancestors either is +not expressly attested or has long ceased to form part of +the popular creed, many of the solemnities which attend +the naming of children may have sprung originally from +the widespread notion that the souls of the dead come to +life again in their namesakes.<note place='foot'>On the doctrine of the reincarnation +of ancestors in their descendants see +E. B. Tylor, <hi rend='italic'>Primitive Culture</hi>,<hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi> ii. 3-5, +who observes with great probability +that <q>among the lower races generally +the renewal of old family names by +giving them to new-born children may +always be suspected of involving some +such thought.</q> See further <hi rend='italic'>Totemism +and Exogamy</hi>, iii. 297-299.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Sometimes +the names +of the dead +may be pronounced +after their +bodies have +decayed. Arunta +practice of +chasing the +ghost into +the grave +at the end +of the +period of +mourning.</note> +In some cases the period during which the name of the +deceased may not be pronounced seems to bear a close +relation to the time during which his mortal remains may +be supposed still to hold together. Thus, of some Indian +tribes on the north-west coast of America it is said that +they may not speak the name of a dead person <q>until the +bones are finally disposed of.</q><note place='foot'>H. H. Bancroft, <hi rend='italic'>Native Races of +the Pacific States</hi>, i. 248.</note> Among the Narrinyeri of +South Australia the name might not be uttered until the +corpse had decayed.<note place='foot'>G. Taplin, in <hi rend='italic'>Native Tribes of +South Australia</hi>, p. 19.</note> In the Encounter Bay tribe of the +same country the dead body is dried over a fire, packed up +in mats, and carried about for several months among the +scenes which had been familiar to the deceased in his life. +Next it is placed on a platform of sticks and left there till it +has completely decayed, whereupon the next of kin takes the +skull and uses it as a drinking-cup. After that the name of +the departed may be uttered without offence. Were it pronounced +sooner his kinsmen would be deeply offended, and +a war might be the result.<note place='foot'>H. E. A. Meyer, in <hi rend='italic'>Native Tribes +of South Australia</hi>, p. 199.</note> The rule that the name of the +dead may not be spoken until his body has mouldered +away seems to point to a belief that the spirit continues to +exist only so long as the body does so, and that, when the +material frame is dissolved, the spiritual part of the man +perishes with it, or goes away, or at least becomes so feeble +and incapable of mischief that his name may be bandied +about with impunity.<note place='foot'>Some of the Indians of Guiana +bring food and drink to their dead so +long as the flesh remains on the bones; +when it has mouldered away, they conclude that the man himself has departed. +See A. Biet, <hi rend='italic'>Voyage de la France équinoxiale +en l'Isle de Cayenne</hi> (Paris, 1664), +p. 392. The Alfoors or Toradjas of +central Celebes believe that the souls of +the dead cannot enter the spirit-land +until all the flesh has been removed +from their bones; till that has been +done, the gods (<foreign rend='italic'>lamoa</foreign>) in the other +world could not bear the stench of the +corpse. Accordingly at a great festival +the bodies of all who have died within +a certain time are dug up and the +decaying flesh scraped from the bones. +See A. C. Kruijt, <q>Een en ander +aangaande het geestelijk en maatschappelijk +leven van den Poso-Alfoer,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Mededeelingen van wege het +Nederlandsche Zendelinggenootschap</hi>, +xxxix. (1895) pp. 26, 32 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>; <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, +<q>Het wezen van het Heidendom te +Posso,</q> <hi rend='italic'>ibid.</hi> xlvii. (1903) p. 32. The +Matacos Indians of the Gran Chaco +believe that the soul of a dead man +does not pass down into the nether +world until his body is decomposed or +burnt. See J. Pelleschi, <hi rend='italic'>Los Indios +Matacos</hi> (Buenos Ayres, 1897), p. 102. +These ideas perhaps explain the widespread +custom of disinterring the dead +after a certain time and disposing of +their bones otherwise.</note> This view is to some extent confirmed +<pb n='373'/><anchor id='Pg373'/> +by the practice of the Arunta tribe in central +Australia. We have seen that among them no one may +mention the name of the deceased during the period of +mourning for fear of disturbing and annoying the ghost, who +is believed to be walking about at large. Some of the relations +of the dead man, it is true, such as his parents, elder brothers +and sisters, paternal aunts, mother-in-law, and all his sons-in-law, +whether actual or possible, are debarred all their lives +from taking his name into their lips; but other people, +including his wife, children, grandchildren, grandparents, +younger brothers and sisters, and father-in-law, are free to +name him so soon as he has ceased to walk the earth and +hence to be dangerous. Some twelve or eighteen months +after his death the people seem to think that the dead man +has enjoyed his liberty long enough, and that it is time to +confine his restless spirit within narrower bounds. Accordingly +a grand battue or ghost-hunt brings the days of +mourning to an end. The favourite haunt of the deceased +is believed to be the burnt and deserted camp where he died. +Here therefore on a certain day a band of men and women, +the men armed with shields and spear-throwers, assemble +and begin dancing round the charred and blackened remains +of the camp, shouting and beating the air with their weapons +and hands in order to drive away the lingering spirit from +the spot he loves too well. When the dancing is over, the +whole party proceed to the grave at a run, chasing the ghost +before them. It is in vain that the unhappy ghost makes a +last bid for freedom, and, breaking away from the beaters, +<pb n='374'/><anchor id='Pg374'/> +doubles back towards the camp; the leader of the party is +prepared for this manœuvre, and by making a long circuit +adroitly cuts off the retreat of the fugitive. Finally, having +run him to earth, they trample him down into the grave, +dancing and stamping on the heaped-up soil, while with +downward thrusts through the air they beat and force him +under ground. There, lying in his narrow house, flattened +and prostrate under a load of earth, the poor ghost sees his +widow wearing the gay feathers of the ring-neck parrot in +her hair, and he knows that the time of her mourning for +him is over. The loud shouts of the men and women shew +him that they are not to be frightened and bullied by him +any more, and that he had better lie quiet. But he may +still watch over his friends, and guard them from harm, and +visit them in dreams.<note place='foot'>Spencer and Gillen, <hi rend='italic'>Native Tribes +of Central Australia</hi>, pp. 498-508.</note> +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<index index='toc'/> +<index index='pdf' level1='4. Names of Kings and other Sacred Persons tabooed.'/> +<head>§ 4. Names of Kings and other Sacred Persons tabooed.</head> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The birth-names +of +kings kept +secret or +not pronounced.</note> +When we see that in primitive society the names of +mere commoners, whether alive or dead, are matters of such +anxious care, we need not be surprised that great precautions +should be taken to guard from harm the names of +sacred kings and priests. Thus the name of the king of +Dahomey is always kept secret, lest the knowledge of it +should enable some evil-minded person to do him a mischief. +The appellations by which the different kings of +Dahomey have been known to Europeans are not their true +names, but mere titles, or what the natives call <q>strong +names</q> (<foreign rend='italic'>nyi-sese</foreign>). As a rule, these <q>strong names</q> are the +first words of sentences descriptive of certain qualities. Thus +Agaja, the name by which the fourth king of the dynasty +was known, was part of a sentence meaning, <q>A spreading +tree must be lopped before it can be cast into the fire</q>; and +Tegbwesun, the name of the fifth king, formed the first word +of a sentence which signified, <q>No one can take the cloth off +the neck of a wild bull.</q> The natives seem to think that no +harm comes of such titles being known, since they are not, +like the birth-names, vitally connected with their owners.<note place='foot'>A. B. Ellis, <hi rend='italic'>The Ewe-speaking +Peoples of the Slave Coast</hi>, pp. 98 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> +<pb n='375'/><anchor id='Pg375'/> +In the Galla kingdom of Ghera the birth-name of the +sovereign may not be pronounced by a subject under pain +of death, and common words which resemble it in sound are +changed for others. Thus when a queen named Carre reigned +over the kingdom, the word <foreign rend='italic'>hara</foreign>, which means smoke, was +exchanged for <foreign rend='italic'>unno</foreign>; further, <foreign rend='italic'>arre</foreign>, <q>ass,</q> was replaced by +<foreign rend='italic'>culula</foreign>; and <foreign rend='italic'>gudare</foreign>, <q>potato,</q> was dropped and <foreign rend='italic'>loccio</foreign> substituted +for it.<note place='foot'>A. Cecchi, <hi rend='italic'>Da Zeila alle frontiere +del Caffa</hi>, ii. (Rome, 1885) p. 551.</note> Among the Bahima of central Africa, when the +king dies, his name is abolished from the language, and if his +name was that of an animal, a new appellation must be +found for the creature at once. For example, the king is +often called a lion; hence at the death of a king named +Lion a new name for lions in general has to be coined.<note place='foot'>Rev. J. Roscoe, <q>The Bahima,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Journal of the Royal Anthropological +Institute</hi>, xxxvii. (1907) p. 96.</note> +Thus in the language of the Bahima the word for <q>lion</q> +some years ago was <foreign rend='italic'>mpologoma</foreign>. But when a prominent +chief of that name died, the word for lion was changed to +<foreign rend='italic'>kichunchu</foreign>. Again, in the Bahima language the word for +<q>nine</q> used to be <foreign rend='italic'>mwenda</foreign>, a word which occurs with the +same meaning but dialectical variations in the languages of +other tribes of central and eastern Africa. But when a chief +who bore the name Mwenda died, the old name for <q>nine</q> +had to be changed, and accordingly the word <foreign rend='italic'>isaga</foreign> has been +substituted for it.<note place='foot'>J. F. Cunningham, <hi rend='italic'>Uganda and its +Peoples</hi> (London, 1905), pp. 14, 16.</note> In Siam it used to be difficult to ascertain +the king's real name, since it was carefully kept secret from fear +of sorcery; any one who mentioned it was clapped into gaol. +The king might only be referred to under certain high-sounding +titles, such as <q>the august,</q> <q>the perfect,</q> <q>the supreme,</q> +<q>the great emperor,</q> <q>descendant of the angels,</q> and so on.<note place='foot'>De la Loubere, <hi rend='italic'>Du royaume de +Siam</hi> (Amsterdam, 1691), i. 306; +Pallegoix, <hi rend='italic'>Royaume Thai ou Siam</hi>, i. +260.</note> +In Burma it was accounted an impiety of the deepest dye to +mention the name of the reigning sovereign; Burmese subjects, +even when they were far from their country, could not be +prevailed upon to do so;<note place='foot'>J. S. Polack, <hi rend='italic'>Manners and Customs +of the New Zealanders</hi> (London, +1840), ii. 127, note 43.</note> after his accession to the throne +the king was known by his royal titles only.<note place='foot'>A. Fytche, <hi rend='italic'>Burma Past and +Present</hi> (London, 1878), i. 238.</note> The proper +name of the Emperor of China may neither be pronounced +<pb n='376'/><anchor id='Pg376'/> +nor written by any of his subjects.<note place='foot'>J. Edkins, <hi rend='italic'>Religion in China</hi><hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi> +(London, 1878), p. 35.</note> Coreans were formerly +forbidden, under severe penalties, to utter the king's name, +which, indeed, was seldom known.<note place='foot'>Ch. Dallet, <hi rend='italic'>Histoire de l'Église +de Corée</hi>, i. p. xxiv.; Mrs. Bishop, +<hi rend='italic'>Korea and her Neighbours</hi> (London, +1898), i. 48. The custom is now +obsolete (G. N. Curzon, <hi rend='italic'>Problems of +the Far East</hi>, Westminster, 1896, p. +155 note).</note> When a prince ascends +the throne of Cambodia he ceases to be designated by his +real name; and if that name happens to be a common word +in the language, the word is often changed. Thus, for +example, since the reign of King Ang Duong the word +<foreign rend='italic'>duong</foreign>, which meant a small coin, has been replaced by <foreign rend='italic'>dom</foreign>.<note place='foot'>E. Aymonier, <hi rend='italic'>Notice sur le Cambodge</hi> +(Paris, 1875), p. 22; <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, <hi rend='italic'>Le +Cambodge</hi>, i. (Paris, 1900) p. 58.</note> +In the island of Sunda it is taboo to utter any word which +coincides with the name of a prince or chief.<note place='foot'>K. F. Holle, <q>Snippers van den +Regent van Galoeh,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Tijdschrift voor +Indische Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde</hi>, +xxvii. (1882) p. 101.</note> The name of +the rajah of Bolang Mongondo, a district in the west of +Celebes, is never mentioned except in case of urgent +necessity, and even then his pardon must be asked repeatedly +before the liberty is taken.<note place='foot'>N. P. Wilken en J. A. Schwarz, +<q>Allerlei over het land en volk van +Bolaang Mongondou,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Mededeelingen +van wege het Nederlandsche Zendelinggenootschap</hi>, +xi. (1867) p. 356.</note> In the island of Sumba +people do not mention the real name of a prince, but refer to +him by the name of the first slave whom in his youth he +became master of. This slave is regarded by the chief as +his second self, and he enjoys practical impunity for any +misdeeds he may commit.<note place='foot'>S. Roos, <q>Bijdrage tot de Kennis +van Taal, Land, en Volk op het eiland +Soemba,</q> p. 70, <hi rend='italic'>Verhandelingen van +het Bataviaasch Genootschap van Kunsten +en Wetenschappen</hi>, xxxvi. Compare +J. H. F. Kohlbrugge, <q>Naamgeving +in Insulinde,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Bijdragen tot de Taal- +Land- en Volkenkunde van Nederlandsche-Indië</hi>, +ii. (1900) p. 173.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The names +of Zulu +kings and +chiefs may +not be pronounced.</note> +Among the Zulus no man will mention the name of the +chief of his tribe or the names of the progenitors of the chief, +so far as he can remember them; nor will he utter common +words which coincide with or merely resemble in sound +tabooed names. <q>As, for instance, the Zungu tribe say <foreign rend='italic'>mata</foreign> +for <foreign rend='italic'>manzi</foreign> (water), and <foreign rend='italic'>inkosta</foreign> for <foreign rend='italic'>tshanti</foreign> (grass), and <foreign rend='italic'>embigatdu</foreign> +for <foreign rend='italic'>umkondo</foreign> (assegai), and <foreign rend='italic'>inyatugo</foreign> for <foreign rend='italic'>enhlela</foreign> (path), +because their present chief is Umfan-o inhlela, his father was +Manzini, his grandfather Imkondo, and one before him +Tshani.</q> In the tribe of the Dwandwes there was a chief +<pb n='377'/><anchor id='Pg377'/> +called Langa, which means the sun; hence the name of the +sun was changed from <foreign rend='italic'>langa</foreign> to <foreign rend='italic'>gala</foreign>, and so remains to this +day, though Langa died more than a hundred years ago. +Once more, in the Xnumayo tribe the word meaning <q>to +herd cattle</q> was changed from <foreign rend='italic'>alusa</foreign> or <foreign rend='italic'>ayusa</foreign> to <foreign rend='italic'>kagesa</foreign>, +because u-Mayusi was the name of the chief. Besides these +taboos, which were observed by each tribe separately, all the +Zulu tribes united in tabooing the name of the king who +reigned over the whole nation. Hence, for example, when +Panda was king of Zululand, the word for <q>a root of a tree,</q> +which is <foreign rend='italic'>impando</foreign>, was changed to <foreign rend='italic'>nxabo</foreign>. Again, the word +for <q>lies</q> or <q>slander</q> was altered from <foreign rend='italic'>amacebo</foreign> to <foreign rend='italic'>amakwata</foreign>, +because <foreign rend='italic'>amacebo</foreign> contains a syllable of the name of the +famous King Cetchwayo. These substitutions are not, however, +carried so far by the men as by the women, who omit +every sound even remotely resembling one that occurs in a +tabooed name. At the king's kraal, indeed, it is sometimes +difficult to understand the speech of the royal wives, as they +treat in this fashion the names not only of the king and his +forefathers, but even of his and their brothers back for generations. +When to these tribal and national taboos we add +those family taboos on the names of connexions by marriage +which have been already described,<note place='foot'>Above, pp. <ref target='Pg335'>335</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> we can easily understand +how it comes about that in Zululand every tribe has +words peculiar to itself, and that the women have a considerable +vocabulary of their own. Members, too, of one +family may be debarred from using words employed by +those of another. The women of one kraal, for instance, +may call a hyaena by its ordinary name; those of the next +may use the common substitute; while in a third the substitute +may also be unlawful and another term may have to be +invented to supply its place. Hence the Zulu language at +the present day almost presents the appearance of being a +double one; indeed, for multitudes of things it possesses +three or four synonyms, which through the blending of tribes +are known all over Zululand.<note place='foot'>J. Shooter, <hi rend='italic'>The Kafirs of Natal +and the Zulu Country</hi>, pp. 221 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; +David Leslie, <hi rend='italic'>Among the Zulus and +Amatongas</hi><hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi> (Edinburgh, 1875), pp. +172-179; J. Macdonald, <q>Manners, +Customs, Superstitions, and Religions of +South African Tribes,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Journal of the +Anthropological Institute</hi>, xx. (1891) +p. 131. The account in the text is based +mainly on Leslie's description, which is +by far the fullest.</note> +</p> + +<pb n='378'/><anchor id='Pg378'/> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The names +of living +kings and +chiefs may +not be pronounced +in Madagascar.</note> +In Madagascar a similar custom everywhere prevails and +has resulted, as among the Zulus, in producing certain +dialectic differences in the speech of the various tribes. +There are no family names in Madagascar, and almost every +personal name is drawn from the language of daily life and +signifies some common object or action or quality, such as +a bird, a beast, a tree, a plant, a colour, and so on. Now, +whenever one of these common words forms the name or +part of the name of the chief of the tribe, it becomes sacred +and may no longer be used in its ordinary signification as +the name of a tree, an insect, or what not. Hence a new +name for the object must be invented to replace the one +which has been discarded. Often the new name consists of +a descriptive epithet or a periphrasis. Thus when the princess +Rabodo became queen in 1863 she took the name of +Rasoherina. Now <foreign rend='italic'>soherina</foreign> was the word for the silkworm +moth, but having been assumed as the name of the sovereign +it could no longer be applied to the insect, which ever since +has been called <foreign rend='italic'>zany-dandy</foreign>, <q>offspring of silk.</q> So, again, +if a chief had or took the name of an animal, say of the dog +(<foreign rend='italic'>amboa</foreign>), and was known as Ramboa, the animal would henceforth +be called by another name, probably a descriptive one, +such as <q>the barker</q> (<foreign rend='italic'>famovo</foreign>) or <q>the driver away</q> (<foreign rend='italic'>fandroaka</foreign>), +etc. In the western part of Imerina there was a +chief called Andria-mamba; but <foreign rend='italic'>mamba</foreign> was one of the +names of the crocodile, so the chiefs subjects might not call +the reptile by that name and were always scrupulous to use +another. It is easy to conceive what confusion and uncertainty +may thus be introduced into a language when it is +spoken by many little local tribes each ruled by a petty chief +with his own sacred name. Yet there are tribes and people +who submit to this tyranny of words as their fathers did +before them from time immemorial. The inconvenient results +of the custom are especially marked on the western +coast of the island, where, on account of the large number of +independent chieftains, the names of things, places, and +rivers have suffered so many changes that confusion often +arises, for when once common words have been banned by +<pb n='379'/><anchor id='Pg379'/> +the chiefs the natives will not acknowledge to have ever +known them in their old sense.<note place='foot'>D. Tyerman and G. Bennet, +<hi rend='italic'>Journal of Voyages and Travels</hi> +(London, 1831), ii. 525 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; J. +Sibree, <hi rend='italic'>The Great African Island</hi> +(London, 1880), pp. 150 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, +<q>Curiosities of Words connected with +Royalty and Chieftainship,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Antananarivo +Annual and Madagascar +Magazine</hi>, No. xi. (Christmas, 1887) +pp. 308 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, in <hi rend='italic'>Journal of the +Anthropological Institute</hi>, xxi. (1887) +pp. 226 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi> On the custom of +tabooing royal or chiefly names in +Madagascar, see A. van Gennep, <hi rend='italic'>Tabou +et totémisme à Madagascar</hi> (Paris, +1904), pp. 104 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The names +of dead +kings and +chiefs are +also +tabooed +in Madagascar.</note> +But it is not merely the names of living kings and chiefs +which are tabooed in Madagascar; the names of dead +sovereigns are equally under a ban, at least in some parts of +the island. Thus among the Sakalavas, when a king has +died, the nobles and people meet in council round the dead +body and solemnly choose a new name by which the +deceased monarch shall be henceforth known. The new +name always begins with <foreign rend='italic'>andrian</foreign>, <q>lord,</q> and ends with +<foreign rend='italic'>arrivou</foreign>, <q>thousand,</q> to signify that the late king ruled over +a numerous nation. The body of the name is composed of +an epithet or phrase descriptive of the deceased or of his +reign. After the new name has been adopted, the old name +by which the king was known during his life becomes sacred +and may not be pronounced under pain of death. Further, +words in the common language which bear any resemblance +to the forbidden name also become sacred and have to be +replaced by others. For example, after the death of King +Makka the word <foreign rend='italic'>laka</foreign>, which meant a canoe, was abandoned +and the word <foreign rend='italic'>fiounrâma</foreign> substituted for it. When Taoussi +died, the word <foreign rend='italic'>taoussi</foreign>, signifying <q>beautiful,</q> was replaced +by <foreign rend='italic'>senga</foreign>. For similar reasons the word <foreign rend='italic'>ântétsi</foreign>, <q>old,</q> was +changed for <foreign rend='italic'>matoué</foreign>, which properly means <q>ripe</q>; the word +<foreign rend='italic'>voûssi</foreign>, <q>castrated,</q> was dropped and <foreign rend='italic'>manapaka</foreign>, <q>cut,</q> +adopted in its place; and the word for island (<foreign rend='italic'>nossi</foreign>) was +changed into <foreign rend='italic'>varioû</foreign>, which signifies strictly <q>a place where +there is rice.</q> Again, when a Sakalava king named +Marentoetsa died, two words fell into disuse, namely, the +word <foreign rend='italic'>màry</foreign> or <foreign rend='italic'>màre</foreign> meaning <q>true,</q> and the word <foreign rend='italic'>toetsa</foreign> +meaning <q>condition.</q> Persons who uttered these forbidden +words were looked on not only as grossly rude, but even +as felons; they had committed a capital crime. However, +these changes of vocabulary are confined to the +<pb n='380'/><anchor id='Pg380'/> +district over which the deceased king reigned; in the +neighbouring districts the old words continue to be employed +in the old sense.<note place='foot'>V. Noel, <q>Île de Madagascar, +recherches sur les Sakkalava,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Bulletin +de la Société de Géographie</hi> (Paris), IIme +Série, xx. (1843) pp. 303-306. Compare +A. Grandidier, <q>Les Rites funéraires +chez les Malgaches,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Revue +d'Ethnographie</hi>, v. (1886) p. 224; +A. Walen, <q>The Sakalava,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Antananarivo +Annual and Madagascar Magazine</hi>, +vol. ii., Reprint of the Second +Four Numbers (Antananarivo, 1896), +p. 242; A. van Gennep, <hi rend='italic'>Tabou +et totémisme à Madagascar</hi>, pp. 110 +<hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> Amongst the Sakalavas it is +forbidden to mention the name of +any dead person. See A. Voeltzkow, +<q>Vom Morondava zum Mangoky, +Reiseskizzen aus West-Madagascar,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Zeitschrift der Gesellschaft für Erdkunde +zu Berlin</hi>, xxxi. (1896) p. 118.</note> Again, among the Bara, another +tribe of Madagascar, <q>the memory of their deceased kings +is held in the very highest respect; the name of such +kings is considered sacred—too sacred indeed for utterance, +and no one is allowed to pronounce it. To such a length +is this absurdity carried that the name of any person or +thing whatsoever, if it bear a resemblance to the name of +the deceased king, is no longer used, but some other +designation is given. For instance, there was a king named +Andriamasoandro. After his decease the word <foreign rend='italic'>masoandro</foreign> +was no longer employed as the name of the sun, but +<foreign rend='italic'>mahenika</foreign> was substituted for it.</q><note place='foot'>R. Baron, <q>The Bara,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Antananarivo +Annual and Madagascar Magazine</hi>, +vol. ii., Reprint of the Second Four +Numbers (Antananarivo, 1896), p. 83.</note> An eminent authority on +Madagascar has observed: <q>A curious fact, which has had +a very marked influence on the Malagasy language, is the +custom of no longer pronouncing the name of a dead person +nor even the words which resemble it in their conclusions. +The name is replaced by another. King Ramitra, since his +decease, has been called Mahatenatenarivou, 'the prince who +has conquered a thousand foes,' and a Malagasy who should +utter his old name would be regarded as the murderer of the +prince, and would therefore be liable to the confiscation of +his property, or even to the penalty of death. It is easy +accordingly to understand how the Malagasy language, one +in its origin, has been corrupted, and how it comes about that +at the present day there are discrepancies between the +various dialects. In Menabe, since the death of King +Vinany, the word <foreign rend='italic'>vilany</foreign>, meaning a pot, has been replaced +by <foreign rend='italic'>fiketrehane</foreign>, <q>cooking vessel,</q> whereas the old word continues +in use in the rest of Madagascar. These changes, it +<pb n='381'/><anchor id='Pg381'/> +is true, hardly take place except for kings and great +chiefs.</q><note place='foot'>A. Grandidier, <q>Madagascar,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Bulletin de la Société de Géographie</hi> +(Paris), Vme Série, xvii. (1869) pp. +401 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> The writer is here speaking +specially of the Sakalavas, though his +remarks appear to be of general +application.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The names +of chiefs +may not +be pronounced +in +Polynesia.</note> +The sanctity attributed to the persons of chiefs in Polynesia +naturally extended also to their names, which on the +primitive view are hardly separable from the personality of +their owners. Hence in Polynesia we find the same systematic +prohibition to utter the names of chiefs or of common +words resembling them which we have already met with in +Zululand and Madagascar. Thus in New Zealand the name +of a chief is held so sacred that, when it happens to be a +common word, it may not be used in the language, and +another has to be found to replace it. For example, a chief +to the southward of East Cape bore the name of Maripi, +which signified a knife, hence a new word (<foreign rend='italic'>nekra</foreign>) for knife +was introduced, and the old one became obsolete. Elsewhere +the word for water (<foreign rend='italic'>wai</foreign>) had to be changed, because +it chanced to be the name of the chief, and would have been +desecrated by being applied to the vulgar fluid as well as to +his sacred person. This taboo naturally produced a plentiful +crop of synonyms in the Maori language, and travellers +newly arrived in the country were sometimes puzzled at finding +the same things called by quite different names in neighbouring +tribes.<note place='foot'>J. S. Polack, <hi rend='italic'>Manners and Customs +of the New Zealanders</hi>, i. 37 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, +ii. 126 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> Compare E. Tregear, +<q>The Maoris of New Zealand,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Journal +of the Anthropological Institute</hi>, +xix. (1890) p. 123.</note> When a king comes to the throne in +Tahiti, any words in the language that resemble his name in +sound must be changed for others. In former times, if any +man were so rash as to disregard this custom and to use the +forbidden words, not only he but all his relations were +immediately put to death.<note place='foot'>Captain J. Cook, <hi rend='italic'>Voyages</hi> (London, +1809), vi. 155 (Third Voyage). Compare +Captain James Wilson, <hi rend='italic'>Missionary +Voyage to the Southern Pacific Ocean</hi> +(London, 1799), p. 366; W. Ellis, +<hi rend='italic'>Polynesian Researches</hi>,<hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi> iii. 101.</note> On the accession of King Otoo, +which happened before Vancouver's visit to Tahiti, the +proper names of all the chiefs were changed, as well as forty +or fifty of the commonest words in the language, and every +native was obliged to adopt the new terms, for any neglect +<pb n='382'/><anchor id='Pg382'/> +to do so was punished with the greatest severity.<note place='foot'>Vancouver, <hi rend='italic'>Voyage of Discovery to +the North Pacific Ocean and round the +World</hi> (London, 1798), i. 135.</note> When +a certain king named Tu came to the throne of Tahiti the +word <foreign rend='italic'>tu</foreign>, which means <q>to stand,</q> was changed to <foreign rend='italic'>tia</foreign>; <foreign rend='italic'>fetu</foreign>, +<q>a star,</q> became <foreign rend='italic'>fetia</foreign>; <foreign rend='italic'>tui</foreign>, <q>to strike,</q> was turned into <foreign rend='italic'>tiai</foreign>, +and so on. Sometimes, as in these instances, the new names +were formed by merely changing or dropping some letter or +letters of the original words; in other cases the substituted +terms were entirely different words, whether chosen for their +similarity of meaning though not of sound, or adopted from +another dialect, or arbitrarily invented. But the changes +thus introduced were only temporary; on the death of the +king the new words fell into disuse, and the original ones +were revived.<note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>United States Exploring Expedition, +Ethnography and Philology</hi>, by +Horatio Hale (Philadelphia, 1846), pp. +288 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> Similarly in Samoa, when the name of a +sacred chief was that of an animal or bird, the name of the +animal or bird was at once changed for another, and the old +one might never again be uttered in that chief's district. +For example, a sacred Samoan chief was named Pe'a, which +means <q>flying-fox.</q> Hence in his district a flying-fox was +no longer called a flying-fox but a <q>bird of heaven</q> +(<foreign rend='italic'>manu langi</foreign>).<note place='foot'>G. Brown, D.D., <hi rend='italic'>Melanesians and +Polynesians</hi> (London, 1910), p. 280.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The names +of the +Eleusinian +priests +might not +be uttered.</note> +In ancient Greece the names of the priests and other +high officials who had to do with the performances of the +Eleusinian mysteries might not be uttered in their lifetime. +To pronounce them was a legal offence. The pedant in +Lucian tells how he fell in with these august personages +hailing along to the police court a ribald fellow who had +dared to name them, though well he knew that ever since +their consecration it was unlawful to do so, because they had +become anonymous, having lost their old names and acquired +new and sacred titles.<note place='foot'>Lucian, <hi rend='italic'>Lexiphanes</hi>, 10. The inscriptional +and other evidence of this +Greek superstition was first brought to +the notice of anthropologists by Mr. +W. R. Paton in an interesting article, +<q>The Holy Names of the Eleusinian +Priests,</q> <hi rend='italic'>International Folk-lore Congress, +1891, Papers and Transactions</hi>, +pp. 202-214. Compare E. Maass, +<hi rend='italic'>Orpheus</hi> (Munich, 1895), p. 70; Aug. +Mommsen, <hi rend='italic'>Feste der Stadt Athen im Altertum</hi> +(Leipsic, 1898), pp. 253-255; P. +Foucart, <hi rend='italic'>Les Grands Mystères d'Eleusis</hi> +(Paris, 1900), pp. 28-31. The two last +writers shew that, contrary to what +we might have expected, the custom +appears not to have been very ancient.</note> From two inscriptions found at +<pb n='383'/><anchor id='Pg383'/> +Eleusis it appears that the names of the priests were +committed to the depths of the sea;<note place='foot'>G. Kaibel, <hi rend='italic'>Epigrammata Graeca ex +lapidibus conlecta</hi>, No. 863; Ἐφημερὶς ἀρχαιολογική, +1883, col. 79 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> From +the latter of these inscriptions we learn +that the name might be made public +after the priest's death. Further, a +reference of Eunapius (<hi rend='italic'>Vitae sophistarum</hi>, +p. 475 of the Didot edition) +shews that the name was revealed to +the initiated. In the essay cited in the +preceding note Mr. W. R. Paton assumes +that it was the new and sacred +name which was kept secret and committed +to the sea. The case is not +clear, but both the evidence and the +probability seem to me in favour of the +view that it was rather the old everyday +name of the priest or priestess which +was put away at his or her consecration. +If, as is not improbable, these sacred +personages had to act the parts of gods +and goddesses at the mysteries, it might +well be deemed indecorous and even +blasphemous to recall the vulgar names +by which they had been known in the +familiar intercourse of daily life. If +our clergy, to suppose an analogous +case, had to personate the most exalted +beings of sacred history, it would surely +be grossly irreverent to address them +by their ordinary names during the +performance of their solemn functions.</note> probably they were +engraved on tablets of bronze or lead, which were then +thrown into deep water in the Gulf of Salamis. The intention +doubtless was to keep the names a profound secret; +and how could that be done more surely than by sinking +them in the sea? what human vision could spy them +glimmering far down in the dim depths of the green +water? A clearer illustration of the confusion between the +incorporeal and the corporeal, between the name and its +material embodiment, could hardly be found than in this +practice of civilised Greece. +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The old +names of +members of +the Yewe +order in +Togo may +not be +uttered.</note> +In Togo, a district of West Africa, a secret religious +society flourishes under the name of the Yewe order. Both +men and women are admitted to it. The teaching and +practice of the order are lewd and licentious. Murderers +and debtors join it for the sake of escaping from justice, for +the members are not amenable to the laws. On being +initiated every one receives a new name, and thenceforth his +or her old name may never be mentioned by anybody under +penalty of a heavy fine. Should the old name be uttered in +a quarrel by an uninitiated person, the aggrieved party, who +seems to be oftener a woman than a man, pretends to fall +into a frenzy, and in this state rushes into the house of the +offender, smashes his pots, destroys the grass roof, and tears +down the fence. Then she runs away into the forest, where +the simple people believe that she is changed into a leopard. +In truth she slinks by night into the conventual buildings of +<pb n='384'/><anchor id='Pg384'/> +the order, and is there secretly kept in comfort till the +business is settled. At last she is publicly brought back by +the society with great pomp, her body smeared with red +earth and adorned with an artificial tail in order to make +the ignorant think that she has really been turned into a +leopard.<note place='foot'>H. Seidel, <q>Der Yew'e Dienst im +Togolande,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Zeitschrift für afrikanische +und oceanische Sprachen</hi>, iii. +(1897) pp. 161-173; H. Klose, <hi rend='italic'>Togo +unter deutscher Flagge</hi> (Berlin, 1899), +pp. 197-205. Compare Lieut. Herold, +<q>Bericht betreffend religiöse Anschauungen +und Gebräuche der deutschen +Ewe-Neger,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Mittheilungen aus den +deutschen Schutzgebieten</hi>, v. (1892) p. +146; J. Spieth, <q>Der Jehve Dienst +der Evhe-Neger,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Mittheilungen der +Geographischen Gesellschaft zu Jena</hi>, +xii. (1893) pp. 83-88; C. Spiess, +<q>Religionsbegriffe der Evheer in Westafrika,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Mittheilungen des Seminars +für orientalische Sprachen zu Berlin</hi>, +vi. (1903) Dritte Abtheilung, p. 126.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The utterance +of the +names of +gods and +spirits is +supposed +to disturb +the course +of nature.</note> +When the name is held to be a vital part of the person, +it is natural to suppose that the mightier the person the +more potent must be his name. Hence the names of supernatural +beings, such as gods and spirits, are commonly +believed to be endowed with marvellous virtues, and the +mere utterance of them may work wonders and disturb the +course of nature. The Warramunga of central Australia +believe in a formidable but mythical snake called the +Wollunqua, which lives in a pool. When they speak of it +amongst themselves they designate it by another name, +because they say that, were they to call the snake too often +by its real name, they would lose control over the creature, +and it would come out of the water and eat them all up.<note place='foot'>Spencer and Gillen, <hi rend='italic'>Northern +Tribes of Central Australia</hi>, p. 227.</note> +For this reason, too, the sacred books of the Mongols, +which narrate the miraculous deeds of the divinities, are +allowed to be read only in spring or summer; because at +other seasons the reading of them would bring on tempests +or snow.<note place='foot'>G. Timkowski, <hi rend='italic'>Travels of the +Russian Mission through Mongolia to +China</hi> (London, 1827), ii. 348.</note> When Mr. Campbell was travelling with some +Bechuanas, he asked them one morning after breakfast to +tell him some of their stories, but they informed him that +were they to do so before sunset, the clouds would fall from +the heavens upon their heads.<note place='foot'>J. Campbell, <hi rend='italic'>Travels in South +Africa, Second Journey</hi> (London, 1822), +ii. 204 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> The Sulka of New Britain +believe in a certain hostile spirit named Kot, to whose wrath +they attribute earthquakes, thunder, and lightning. Among +<pb n='385'/><anchor id='Pg385'/> +the things which provoke his vengeance is the telling of +tales and legends by day; stories should be told only at +evening or night.<note place='foot'>P. Rascher, <q>Die Sulka, ein Beitrag +zur Ethnographie Neu-Pommern,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Archiv für Anthropologie</hi>, xxix. (1904) +p. 216. Compare R. Parkinson, +<hi rend='italic'>Dreissig Jahre in der Südsee</hi>, p. 198.</note> Most of the rites of the Navajo +Indians may be celebrated only in winter, when the thunder +is silent and the rattlesnakes are hibernating. Were they +to tell of their chief gods or narrate the myths of the +days of old at any other time, the Indians believe that they +would soon be killed by lightning or snake-bites. When Dr. +Washington Matthews was in New Mexico, he often employed +as his guide and informant a liberal-minded member +of the tribe who had lived with Americans and Mexicans +and seemed to be free from the superstitions of his fellows. +<q>On one occasion,</q> says Dr. Matthews, <q>during the month +of August, in the height of the rainy season, I had him in my +study conversing with him. In an unguarded moment, on +his part, I led him into a discussion about the gods of his +people, and neither of us had noticed a heavy storm coming +over the crest of the Zuñi mountains, close by. We were just +talking of Estsanatlehi, the goddess of the west, when the +house was shaken by a terrific peal of thunder. He rose at +once, pale and evidently agitated, and, whispering hoarsely, +<q>Wait till Christmas; they are angry,</q> he hurried away. I +have seen many such evidences of the deep influence of this +superstition on them.</q><note place='foot'>Washington Matthews, <q>The +Mountain Chant, a Navajo Ceremony,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Fifth Annual Report of the Bureau +of Ethnology</hi> (Washington, 1887), pp. +386 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> Among the Iroquois the rehearsal +of tales of wonder formed the chief entertainment at the +fireside in winter. But all the summer long, from the +time when the trees began to bud in spring till the +red leaves of autumn began to fall, these marvellous +stories were hushed and historical traditions took their +place.<note place='foot'>L. H. Morgan, <hi rend='italic'>League of the Iroquois</hi> +(Rochester, U.S., 1851), pp. +167 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> The writer derives the prohibition +to tell tales of wonder in +summer <q>from a vague and indefinable +dread.</q></note> Other Indian tribes also will only tell their +mythic tales in winter, when the snow lies like a pall on +the ground, and lakes and rivers are covered with sheets of +ice; for then the spirits underground cannot hear the stories +in which their names are made free with by merry groups +<pb n='386'/><anchor id='Pg386'/> +gathered round the fire.<note place='foot'>H. R. Schoolcraft, <hi rend='italic'>Indian Tribes</hi>, +iii. 314, 492.</note> The Yabims of German New +Guinea tell their magical tales especially at the time when +the yams have been gathered and are stored in the houses. +Such tales are told at evening by the light of the fire to a +circle of eager listeners, the narrative being broken from +time to time with a song in which the hearers join. The +telling of these stories is believed to promote the growth of +the crops. Hence each tale ends with a wish that there may +be many yams, that the taro may be big, the sugar-cane +thick, and the bananas long.<note place='foot'>K. Vetter, in <hi rend='italic'>Mittheilungen der +Geographischen Gesellschaft zu Jena</hi>, +xii. (1893) p. 95; <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, <hi rend='italic'>Komm herüber +und hilf uns!</hi> ii. (Barmen, 1898) p. +26; B. Hagen, <hi rend='italic'>Unter den Papuas</hi> +(Wiesbaden, 1898), p. 270. On myths +or magical tales told as spells to produce +the effects which they describe, +compare F. Kauffmann, <hi rend='italic'>Balder</hi> (Strasburg, +1902), pp. 299 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>; C. Fossey, +<hi rend='italic'>La Magie assyrienne</hi> (Paris, 1902), +pp. 95-97.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Winter and +summer +names of +the Kwakiutl +Indians.</note> +Among the Kwakiutl Indians of British Columbia the +superstition about names has affected in a very curious way +the social structure of the tribe. The nobles have two +different sets of names, one for use in winter and the other +in summer. Their winter names are those which were given +them at initiation by their guardian spirits, and as these +spirits appear to their devotees only in winter, the names +which they bestowed on the Indians may not be pronounced +in summer. Conversely the summer names may not be +used in winter. The change from summer to winter names +takes place from the moment when the spirits are supposed +to be present, and it involves a complete transformation of +the social system; for whereas during summer the people +are grouped in clans, in winter they are grouped in societies, +each society consisting of all persons who have been initiated +by the same spirit and have received from him the same +magical powers. Thus among these Indians the fundamental +constitution of society changes with the seasons: in +summer it is organised on a basis of kin, in winter on a basis +of spiritual affinity: for one half the year it is civil, for the +other half religious.<note place='foot'>Fr. Boas, <q>The Social Organization +and the Secret Societies of the Kwakiutl +Indians,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Report of the U.S. National +Museum for 1895</hi>, pp. 396, 418 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, +503, 504. Compare <hi rend='italic'>Totemism and +Exogamy</hi>, iii. 333 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 517 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> +</p> + +</div> + +<pb n='387'/><anchor id='Pg387'/> + +<div> +<index index='toc'/> +<index index='pdf' level1='5. Names of Gods tabooed.'/> +<head>§ 5. Names of Gods tabooed.</head> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Names of +gods kept +secret. +How Isis +discovered +the name +of Ra, the +sun-god.</note> +Primitive man creates his gods in his own image. +Xenophanes remarked long ago that the complexion of negro +gods was black and their noses flat; that Thracian gods +were ruddy and blue-eyed; and that if horses, oxen, and +lions only believed in gods and had hands wherewith to +portray them, they would doubtless fashion their deities in +the form of horses, and oxen, and lions.<note place='foot'>Xenophanes, quoted by Eusebius, +<hi rend='italic'>Praeparatio Evangelii</hi>, xiii. 13, pp. 269 +<hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, ed. Heinichen, and by Clement +of Alexandria, <hi rend='italic'>Strom.</hi> vii. 4, pp. 840 +<hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, ed. Potter; H. Diels, <hi rend='italic'>Die Fragmente +der Vorsokratiker</hi><hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi> (Berlin, 1906-1910), +i. 49.</note> Hence just as the +furtive savage conceals his real name because he fears that +sorcerers might make an evil use of it, so he fancies that his +gods must likewise keep their true names secret, lest other +gods or even men should learn the mystic sounds and thus +be able to conjure with them. Nowhere was this crude +conception of the secrecy and magical virtue of the divine +name more firmly held or more fully developed than in +ancient Egypt, where the superstitions of a dateless past were +embalmed in the hearts of the people hardly less effectually +than the bodies of cats and crocodiles and the rest of the +divine menagerie in their rock-cut tombs. The conception +is well illustrated by a story which tells how the subtle Isis +wormed his secret name from Ra, the great Egyptian god of +the sun. Isis, so runs the tale, was a woman mighty in +words, and she was weary of the world of men, and yearned +after the world of the gods. And she meditated in her +heart, saying, <q>Cannot I by virtue of the great name of Ra +make myself a goddess and reign like him in heaven and +earth?</q> For Ra had many names, but the great name which +gave him all power over gods and men was known to none but +himself. Now the god was by this time grown old; he +slobbered at the mouth and his spittle fell upon the ground. +So Isis gathered up the spittle and the earth with it, and +kneaded thereof a serpent and laid it in the path where the +great god passed every day to his double kingdom after his +heart's desire. And when he came forth according to his +wont, attended by all his company of gods, the sacred serpent +<pb n='388'/><anchor id='Pg388'/> +stung him, and the god opened his mouth and cried, and +his cry went up to heaven. And the company of gods cried, +<q>What aileth thee?</q> and the gods shouted, <q>Lo and behold!</q> +But he could not answer; his jaws rattled, his limbs shook, +the poison ran through his flesh as the Nile floweth over the +land. When the great god had stilled his heart, he cried to +his followers, <q>Come to me, O my children, offspring of my +body. I am a prince, the son of a prince, the divine seed of +a god. My father devised my name; my father and my +mother gave me my name, and it remained hidden in my +body since my birth, that no magician might have magic +power over me. I went out to behold that which I have +made, I walked in the two lands which I have created, and +lo! something stung me. What it was, I know not. Was +it fire? was it water? My heart is on fire, my flesh +trembleth, all my limbs do quake. Bring me the children +of the gods with healing words and understanding lips, whose +power reacheth to heaven.</q> Then came to him the children +of the gods, and they were very sorrowful. And Isis came +with her craft, whose mouth is full of the breath of life, +whose spells chase pain away, whose word maketh the dead +to live. She said, <q>What is it, divine Father? what is it?</q> +The holy god opened his mouth, he spake and said, <q>I went +upon my way, I walked after my heart's desire in the two +regions which I have made to behold that which I have +created, and lo! a serpent that I saw not stung me. Is it +fire? is it water? I am colder than water, I am hotter than +fire, all my limbs sweat, I tremble, mine eye is not steadfast, +I behold not the sky, the moisture bedeweth my face as in +summer-time.</q> Then spake Isis, <q>Tell me thy name, divine +Father, for the man shall live who is called by his name.</q> +Then answered Ra, <q>I created the heavens and the earth, I +ordered the mountains, I made the great and wide sea, I +stretched out the two horizons like a curtain. I am he who +openeth his eyes and it is light, and who shutteth them and +it is dark. At his command the Nile riseth, but the gods +know not his name. I am Khepera in the morning, I am +Ra at noon, I am Tum at eve.</q> But the poison was not +taken away from him; it pierced deeper, and the great god +could no longer walk. Then said Isis to him, <q>That was +<pb n='389'/><anchor id='Pg389'/> +not thy name that thou spakest unto me. Oh tell it me, that +the poison may depart; for he shall live whose name is +named.</q> Now the poison burned like fire, it was hotter +than the flame of fire. The god said, <q>I consent that Isis +shall search into me, and that my name shall pass from my +breast into hers.</q> Then the god hid himself from the gods, +and his place in the ship of eternity was empty. Thus was the +name of the great god taken from him, and Isis, the witch, +spake, <q>Flow away poison, depart from Ra. It is I, even I, +who overcome the poison and cast it to the earth; for the +name of the great god hath been taken away from him. Let +Ra live and let the poison die.</q> Thus spake great Isis, the +queen of the gods, she who knows Ra and his true name.<note place='foot'>A. Erman, <hi rend='italic'>Ägypten und ägyptisches +Leben im Altertum</hi>, pp. 359-362; +A. Wiedemann, <hi rend='italic'>Die Religion +der alten Ägypter</hi>, pp. 29-32; G. +Maspero, <hi rend='italic'>Histoire ancienne des peuples +de l'Orient classique: les origines</hi>, pp. +162-164; R. V. Lanzone, <hi rend='italic'>Dizionario +di mitologia egizia</hi> (Turin, 1881-1884), +pp. 818-822; E. A. Wallis Budge, <hi rend='italic'>The +Book of the Dead</hi> (London, 1895), pp. +lxxxix.-xci.; <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, <hi rend='italic'>Egyptian Magic</hi>, pp. +136 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>; <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, <hi rend='italic'>The Gods of the Egyptians</hi> +(London, 1904), i. 360 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> The +abridged form of the story given in the +text is based on a comparison of these +various versions, of which Erman's is +slightly, and Maspero's much curtailed. +Mr. Budge's version is reproduced by Mr. +E. Clodd (<hi rend='italic'>Tom Tit Tot</hi>, pp. 180 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>).</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Egyptian +wizards +have +worked +enchantments +by +the names +of the gods +both in +ancient and +modern +times. Magical +constraint +exercised +over +demons +by means +of their +names in +North +Africa and +China.</note> +Thus we see that the real name of the god, with which +his power was inextricably bound up, was supposed to be +lodged, in an almost physical sense, somewhere in his breast, +from which it could be extracted by a sort of surgical operation +and transferred with all its supernatural powers to the +breast of another. In Egypt attempts like that of Isis to +appropriate the power of a high god by possessing herself +of his name were not mere legends told of the mythical +beings of a remote past; every Egyptian magician aspired +to wield like powers by similar means. For it was believed +that he who possessed the true name possessed the very +being of god or man, and could force even a deity to obey +him as a slave obeys his master. Thus the art of the +magician consisted in obtaining from the gods a revelation +of their sacred names, and he left no stone unturned to +accomplish his end. When once a god in a moment of +weakness or forgetfulness had imparted to the wizard the +wondrous lore, the deity had no choice but to submit +humbly to the man or pay the penalty of his contumacy.<note place='foot'>G. Maspero, <hi rend='italic'>Études de mythologie +et d'archéologie égyptienne</hi> (Paris, 1893), +ii. 297 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> +<pb n='390'/><anchor id='Pg390'/> +In one papyrus we find the god Typhon thus adjured: <q>I +invoke thee by thy true names, in virtue of which thou canst +not refuse to hear me</q>; and in another the magician threatens +Osiris that if the god does not do his bidding he will name +him aloud in the port of Busiris.<note place='foot'>E. Lefébure, <q>La Vertu et la vie +du nom en Égypte,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Mélusine</hi>, viii. +(1897) coll. 227 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> Compare A. +Erman, <hi rend='italic'>Ägypten und ägyptisches +Leben im Altertum</hi>, pp. 472 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; E. A. +Wallis Budge, <hi rend='italic'>Egyptian Magic</hi>, pp. +157 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></note> So in the Lucan the +Thessalian witch whom Sextus Pompeius consulted before +the battle of Pharsalia threatens to call up the Furies by +their real names if they will not do her bidding.<note place='foot'>Lucan, <hi rend='italic'>Pharsalia</hi>, vi. 730 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></note> In modern +Egypt the magician still works his old enchantments by the +same ancient means; only the name of the god by which he +conjures is different. The man who knows <q>the most great +name</q> of God can, we are told, by the mere utterance of it +kill the living, raise the dead, transport himself instantly +wherever he pleases, and perform any other miracle.<note place='foot'>E. W. Lane, <hi rend='italic'>Manners and Customs +of the Ancient Egyptians</hi> (Paisley and +London, 1895), ch. xii. p. 273.</note> +Similarly among the Arabs of North Africa at the present +day <q>the power of the name is such that when one knows +the proper names the jinn can scarcely help answering the +call and obeying; they are the servants of the magical +names; in this case the incantation has a constraining +quality which is for the most part very strongly marked. +When Ibn el Hâdjdj et-Tlemsânî relates how the jinn +yielded up their secrets to him, he says, <q>I once met the +seven kings of the jinn in a cave and I asked them to teach +me the way in which they attack men and women, causing +them to fall sick, smiting them, paralysing them, and the +like. They all answered me: <q>If it were anybody but you +we would teach that to nobody, but you have discovered the +bonds, the spells, and the names which compel us; were it +not for the names by which you have constrained us, we +would not have answered to your call.</q></q></q><note place='foot'>E. Doutté, <hi rend='italic'>Magie et religion dans +l'Afrique du nord</hi>, p. 130.</note> So, too, <q>the +Chinese of ancient times were dominated by the notion that +beings are intimately associated with their names, so that a +man's knowledge of the name of a spectre might enable him +to exert power over the latter and to bend it to his will.</q><note place='foot'>J. J. M. de Groot, <hi rend='italic'>The Religious +System of China</hi>, vi. (Leyden, 1910) +p. 1126.</note> +</p> + +<pb n='391'/><anchor id='Pg391'/> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Divine +names used +by the +Romans to +conjure +with.</note> +The belief in the magic virtue of divine names was +shared by the Romans. When they sat down before a city, +the priests addressed the guardian deity of the place in a +set form of prayer or incantation, inviting him to abandon +the beleaguered city and come over to the Romans, who +would treat him as well as or better than he had ever +been treated in his old home. Hence the name of the +guardian deity of Rome was kept a profound secret, lest the +enemies of the republic might lure him away, even as the +Romans themselves had induced many gods to desert, like +rats, the falling fortunes of cities that had sheltered them in +happier days.<note place='foot'>Pliny, <hi rend='italic'>Nat. Hist.</hi> xxviii. 18; +Macrobius, <hi rend='italic'>Saturn.</hi> iii. 9; Servius on +Virgil, <hi rend='italic'>Aen.</hi> ii. 351; Plutarch, <hi rend='italic'>Quaest. +Rom.</hi> 61. According to Servius (<hi rend='italic'>l.c.</hi>) +it was forbidden by the pontifical law +to mention any Roman god by his +proper name, lest it should be profaned. +Compare Festus, p. 106, ed. +C. O. Müller: <q><foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Indigetes dii quorum +nomina vulgari non licet</foreign>.</q> On the +other hand the Romans were careful, +for the sake of good omen, to choose +men with lucky names, like Valerius, +Salvius, Statorius, to open any enterprise +of moment, such as to lead the sacrificial +victims in a religious procession or to +be the first to answer to their names in +a levy or a census. See Cicero, <hi rend='italic'>De +divinatione</hi>, i. 45. 102 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; Festus, +<hi rend='italic'>s.v.</hi> <q>Lacus Lucrinus,</q> p. 121, ed. +C. O. Müller; Pliny, <hi rend='italic'>Nat. Hist.</hi> +xxviii. 22; Tacitus, <hi rend='italic'>Histor.</hi> iv. 53.</note> Nay, the real name, not merely of its +guardian deity, but of the city itself, was wrapt in mystery +and might never be uttered, not even in the sacred rites. A +certain Valerius Soranus, who dared to divulge the priceless +secret, was put to death or came to a bad end.<note place='foot'>Pliny, <hi rend='italic'>Nat. Hist.</hi> iii. 65; Solinus, +i. 4 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; Macrobius, <hi rend='italic'>Sat.</hi> iii. 9, 3, and +5; Servius, on Virgil, <hi rend='italic'>Aen.</hi> i. 277; +Joannes Lydus, <hi rend='italic'>De mensibus</hi>, iv. 50.</note> In like manner, +it seems, the ancient Assyrians were forbidden to mention +the mystic names of their cities;<note place='foot'>F. Fossey, <hi rend='italic'>La Magie assyrienne</hi> +(Paris, 1902), pp. 58, 95.</note> and down to modern +times the Cheremiss of the Caucasus keep the names of their +communal villages secret from motives of superstition.<note place='foot'>T. de Pauly, <hi rend='italic'>Description ethnographique +des peuples de la Russie</hi> (St. +Petersburg, 1862), <hi rend='italic'>Peuples ouralo-altaïques</hi>, +p. 24.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The taboos +on names +of kings +and commoners +are +alike in +origin.</note> +If the reader has had the patience to follow this long +and perhaps tedious examination of the superstitions attaching +to personal names, he will probably agree that the mystery +in which the names of royal personages are so often shrouded +is no isolated phenomenon, no arbitrary expression of courtly +servility and adulation, but merely the particular application +of a general law of primitive thought, which includes within +its scope common folk and gods as well as kings and priests. +</p> + +</div> + +<pb n='392'/><anchor id='Pg392'/> + +<div> +<index index='toc'/> +<index index='pdf' level1='6. Common words tabooed.'/> +<head>§ 6. Common Words tabooed.</head> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Common +words as +well as +personal +names +are often +tabooed +from superstitious +motives.</note> +But personal names are not the only words which +superstitious fears have banished from everyday use. In +many cases similar motives forbid certain persons at certain +times to call common things by common names, thus obliging +them either to refrain from mentioning these things altogether +or to designate them by special terms or phrases reserved +for such occasions. A consideration of these cases follows +naturally on an examination of the taboos imposed upon +personal names; for personal names are themselves very +often ordinary terms of the language, so that an embargo +laid on them necessarily extends to many expressions current +in the commerce of daily life. And though a survey of +some of the interdicts on common words is not strictly +necessary for our immediate purpose, it may serve usefully +to complete our view of the transforming influence which +superstition has exercised on language. I shall make no +attempt to subject the examples to a searching analysis or +a rigid classification, but will set them down as they come +in a rough geographical order. And since my native land +furnishes as apt instances of the superstition as any other, +we may start on our round from Scotland. +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Common +words +tabooed by +Highland +fowlers +and +fishermen.</note> +In the Atlantic Ocean, about six leagues to the west of +Gallon Head in the Lewis, lies a small group of rocky islets +known as the Flannan Islands. Sheep and wild fowl are +now their only inhabitants, but remains of what are described +as Druidical temples and the title of the Sacred Isles given +them by Buchanan suggest that in days gone by piety or +superstition may have found a safe retreat from the turmoil +of the world in these remote solitudes, where the dashing of +the waves and the strident scream of the sea-birds are almost +the only sounds that break the silence. Once a year, in +summer-time, the inhabitants of the adjacent lands of the +Lewis, who have a right to these islands, cross over to them +to fleece their sheep and kill the wild fowl for the sake both +of their flesh and their feathers. They regard the islands as +invested with a certain sanctity, and have been heard to say +that none ever yet landed in them but found himself more +<pb n='393'/><anchor id='Pg393'/> +disposed to devotion there than anywhere else. Accordingly +the fowlers who go thither are bound, during the whole of +the time that they ply their business, to observe very punctiliously +certain quaint customs, the transgression of which +would be sure, in their opinion, to entail some serious inconvenience. +When they have landed and fastened their boat +to the side of a rock, they clamber up into the island by a +wooden ladder, and no sooner are they got to the top, than +they all uncover their heads and make a turn sun-ways round +about, thanking God for their safety. On the biggest of the +islands are the ruins of a chapel dedicated to St. Flannan. +When the men come within about twenty paces of the altar, +they all strip themselves of their upper garments at once and +betake themselves to their devotions, praying thrice before +they begin fowling. On the first day the first prayer is +offered as they advance towards the chapel on their knees; +the second is said as they go round the chapel; and the +third is said in or hard by the ruins. They also pray thrice +every evening, and account it unlawful to kill a fowl after +evening prayers, as also to kill a fowl at any time with a +stone. Another ancient custom forbids the crew to carry +home in the boat any suet of the sheep they slaughter in +the islands, however many they may kill. But what here +chiefly concerns us is that so long as they stay on the islands +they are strictly forbidden to use certain common words, and +are obliged to substitute others for them. Thus it is absolutely +unlawful to call the island of St. Kilda, which lies +thirty leagues to the southward, by its proper Gaelic name +of Hirt; they must call it only <q>the high country.</q> They +may not so much as once name the islands in which they +are fowling by the ordinary name of Flannan; they must +speak only of <q>the country.</q> <q>There are several other +things that must not be called by their common names: <hi rend='italic'>e.g.</hi> +<foreign rend='italic'>visk</foreign>, which in the language of the natives signifies water, +they call burn; a rock, which in their language is <foreign rend='italic'>creg</foreign>, must +here be called <foreign rend='italic'>cruey</foreign>, <hi rend='italic'>i.e.</hi> hard; shore in their language +expressed by <foreign rend='italic'>claddach</foreign>, must here be called <foreign rend='italic'>vah</foreign>, <hi rend='italic'>i.e.</hi> a cave; +sour in their language is expressed <foreign rend='italic'>gort</foreign>, but must here be +called <foreign rend='italic'>gaire</foreign>, <hi rend='italic'>i.e.</hi> sharp; slippery, which is expressed <foreign rend='italic'>bog</foreign>, +must be called soft; and several other things to this +<pb n='394'/><anchor id='Pg394'/> +purpose.</q><note place='foot'>M. Martin, <q>Description of the +Western Islands of Scotland,</q> in +Pinkerton's <hi rend='italic'>Voyages and Travels</hi>, iii. +579 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> As to the Flannan Islands +see also Sir J. Sinclair's <hi rend='italic'>Statistical +Account of Scotland</hi>, xix. (Edinburgh, +1797), p. 283.</note> When Highlanders were in a boat at sea, whether +sailing or fishing, they were forbidden to call things by the +names by which they were known on land. Thus the boat-hook +should not be called a <foreign rend='italic'>croman</foreign>, but a <foreign rend='italic'>chliob</foreign>; a knife not <foreign rend='italic'>sgian</foreign>, +but <q>the sharp one</q> (<foreign rend='italic'>a ghiar</foreign>); a seal not <foreign rend='italic'>ròn</foreign>, but <q>the bald +beast</q> (<foreign rend='italic'>béisd mhaol</foreign>); a fox not <foreign rend='italic'>sionnach</foreign>, but <q>the red dog</q> +(<foreign rend='italic'>madadh ruadh</foreign>); the stone for anchoring the boat not <foreign rend='italic'>clach</foreign>, +but <q>hardness</q> (<foreign rend='italic'>cruaidh</foreign>). This practice now prevails much +more on the east coast than on the west, where it may be +said to be generally extinct. It is reported to be carefully +observed by the fishermen about the Cromarty Firth.<note place='foot'>J. G. Campbell, <hi rend='italic'>Superstitions of +the Highlands and Islands of Scotland</hi> +(Glasgow, 1900), p. 239.</note> +Among the words tabooed by fishermen in the north of +Scotland when they are at sea are minister, salmon, hare, +rabbit, rat, pig, and porpoise. At the present day if some +of the boats that come to the herring-fishing at Wick should +meet a salmon-boat from Reay in Caithness, the herring-men +will not speak to, nor even look at, the salmon-fishers.<note place='foot'>Miss Morag Cameron, <q>Highland +Fisher-folk and their Superstitions,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Folk-lore</hi>, xiv. (1903) p. 304.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Common +words +tabooed by +Scotch +fishermen +and others.</note> +When Shetland fishermen are at sea, they employ a +nomenclature peculiar to the occasion, and hardly anything +may be mentioned by its usual name. The substituted +terms are mostly of Norwegian origin, for the Norway +men were reported to be good fishers.<note place='foot'>A. Edmonston, <hi rend='italic'>Zetland Islands</hi> +(Edinburgh, 1809), ii. 74.</note> In setting their +lines the Shetland fishermen are bound to refer to certain +objects only by some special words or phrases. Thus a +knife is then called a <foreign rend='italic'>skunie</foreign> or <foreign rend='italic'>tullie</foreign>; a church becomes +<foreign rend='italic'>buanhoos</foreign> or <foreign rend='italic'>banehoos</foreign>; a minister is <foreign rend='italic'>upstanda</foreign> or <foreign rend='italic'>haydeen</foreign> or +<foreign rend='italic'>prestingolva</foreign>; the devil is <foreign rend='italic'>da auld chield</foreign>, <foreign rend='italic'>da sorrow</foreign>, <foreign rend='italic'>da ill-healt</foreign> +(health), or <foreign rend='italic'>da black tief</foreign>; a cat is <foreign rend='italic'>kirser</foreign>, <foreign rend='italic'>fitting</foreign>, <foreign rend='italic'>vengla</foreign>, or +<foreign rend='italic'>foodin</foreign>.<note place='foot'>Ch. Rogers, <hi rend='italic'>Social Life in Scotland</hi> +(Edinburgh, 1884-1886), iii. +218.</note> On the north-east coast of Scotland there are some +villages, of which the inhabitants never pronounce certain +words and family names when they are at sea; each village +has its peculiar aversion to one or more of these words, +among which are <q>minister,</q> <q>kirk,</q> <q>swine,</q> <q>salmon,</q> +<pb n='395'/><anchor id='Pg395'/> +<q>trout,</q> and <q>dog.</q> When a church has to be referred to, +as often happens, since some of the churches serve as land-marks +to the fishermen at sea, it is spoken of as the <q>bell-hoose</q> +instead of the <q>kirk.</q> A minister is called <q>the +man wi' the black quyte.</q> It is particularly unlucky to +utter the word <q>sow</q> or <q>swine</q> or <q>pig</q> while the line is +being baited; if any one is foolish enough to do so, the line +is sure to be lost. In some villages on the coast of Fife a +fisherman who hears the ill-omened word spoken will cry out +<q>Cold iron.</q> In the village of Buckie there are some family +names, especially Ross, and in a less degree Coull, which no +fisherman will pronounce. If one of these names be mentioned +in the hearing of a fisherman, he spits or, as he calls +it, <q>chiffs.</q> Any one who bears the dreaded name is called +a <q>chiffer-oot,</q> and is referred to only by a circumlocution +such as <q>The man it diz so in so,</q> or <q>the laad it lives at +such and such a place.</q> During the herring-season men +who are unlucky enough to inherit the tabooed names have +little chance of being hired in the fishing-boats; and sometimes, +if they have been hired before their names were +known, they have been refused their wages at the end of the +season, because the boat in which they sailed had not been +successful, and the bad luck was set down to their presence +in it.<note place='foot'>W. Gregor, <hi rend='italic'>Folk-lore of the North-East +of Scotland</hi>, pp. 199-201.</note> Although in Scotland superstitions of this kind +appear to be specially incident to the callings of fishermen +and fowlers, other occupations are not exempt from them. +Thus in the Outer Hebrides the fire of a kiln is not called +fire (<foreign rend='italic'>teine</foreign>) but <foreign rend='italic'>aingeal</foreign>. Such a fire, it is said, is a dangerous +thing, and ought not to be referred to except by a euphemism. +<q>Evil be to him who called it fire or who named fire in the +kiln. It was considered the next thing to setting it on fire.</q><note place='foot'><q>Traditions, Customs, and Superstitions +of the Lewis,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Folk-lore</hi>, vi. +(1895) p. 170; Miss A. Goodrich-Freer, +<q>The Powers of Evil in the Outer +Hebrides,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Folk-lore</hi>, x. (1899) p. 265.</note> +Again, in some districts of Scotland a brewer would have +resented the use of the word <q>water</q> in reference to the +work in which he was engaged. <q>Water be your part of it,</q> +was the common retort. It was supposed that the use of +the word would spoil the brewing.<note place='foot'>J. Mackenzie, <hi rend='italic'>Ten Years north of +the Orange River</hi> (Edinburgh, 1871), +p. 151, note 1.</note> The Highlanders say +<pb n='396'/><anchor id='Pg396'/> +that when you meet a hobgoblin, and the fiend asks what is +the name of your dirk, you should not call it a dirk (<foreign rend='italic'>biodag</foreign>), +but <q>my father's sister</q> (<foreign rend='italic'>piuthar m'athar</foreign>) or <q>my grandmother's +sister</q> (<foreign rend='italic'>piuthar mo sheanamhair</foreign>) or by some similar +title. If you do not observe this precaution, the goblin will +lay such an enchantment on the blade that you will be unable +to stab him with it; the dirk will merely make a tinkling +noise against the soft impalpable body of the fiend.<note place='foot'>J. G. Campbell, <hi rend='italic'>Witchcraft and +Second Sight in the Highlands and +Islands of Scotland</hi> (Glasgow, 1902), +pp. 184 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Common +words, +especially +the names +of dangerous +animals, +tabooed in +various +parts of +Europe.</note> +Manx fishermen think it unlucky to mention a horse or +a mouse on board a fishing-boat.<note place='foot'>J. Rhys, <q>Manx Folk-lore and +Superstitions,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Folk-lore</hi>, iii. (1892) +p. 84.</note> The fishermen of Dieppe +on board their boats will not speak of several things, for +instance priests and cats.<note place='foot'>A. Bosquet, <hi rend='italic'>La Normandie romanesque +et merveilleuse</hi> (Paris and Rouen, +1845), p. 308.</note> German huntsmen, from motives +of superstition, call everything by names different from those +in common use.<note place='foot'>J. G. Gmelin, <hi rend='italic'>Reise durch Sibirien</hi>, +ii. (Göttingen, 1752), p. 277</note> In some parts of Bavaria the farmer will +not mention a fox by its proper name, lest his poultry-yard +should suffer from the ravages of the animal. So instead +of <foreign rend='italic'>Fuchs</foreign> he calls the beast <foreign rend='italic'>Loinl</foreign>, <foreign rend='italic'>Henoloinl</foreign>, <foreign rend='italic'>Henading</foreign>, or +<foreign rend='italic'>Henabou</foreign>.<note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>Bavaria, Landes- und Volkskunde +des Königreichs Bayern</hi>, ii. (Munich, +1863), p. 304.</note> In Prussia and Lithuania they say that in the +month of December you should not call a wolf a wolf but +<q>the vermin</q> (<foreign rend='italic'>das Gewürm</foreign>), otherwise you will be torn in +pieces by the werewolves.<note place='foot'>Tettau und Temme, <hi rend='italic'>Die Volkssagen +Ostpreussens, Litthauens und +Westpreussens</hi> (Berlin, 1837), p. 281.</note> In various parts of Germany it +is a rule that certain animals may not be mentioned by their +proper names in the mystic season between Christmas and +Twelfth Night. Thus in Thüringen they say that if you +would be spared by the wolves you must not mention their +name at this time.<note place='foot'>W. Witzschel, <hi rend='italic'>Sagen, Sitten, und +Gebräuche aus Thüringen</hi>, p. 175, § 30.</note> In Mecklenburg people think that +were they to name a wolf on one of these days the animal +would appear. A shepherd would rather mention the devil +than the wolf at this season; and we read of a farmer who +had a bailiff named Wolf, but did not dare to call the +man by his name between Christmas and Twelfth Night, +referring to him instead as Herr Undeert (Mr. Monster). +<pb n='397'/><anchor id='Pg397'/> +In Quatzow, a village of Mecklenburg, there are many +animals whose common names are disused at this season +and replaced by others: thus a fox is called <q>long-tail,</q> +and a mouse <q>leg-runner</q> (<foreign rend='italic'>Boenlöper</foreign>). Any person who +disregards the custom has to pay a fine.<note place='foot'>K. Bartsch, <hi rend='italic'>Sagen, Märchen, und +Gebräuche aus Meklenburg</hi>, ii. p. 246, +§§ 1273, 1274.</note> In the Mark of +Brandenburg they say that between Christmas and Twelfth +Night you should not speak of mice as mice but as +<foreign rend='italic'>dinger</foreign>; otherwise the field-mice would multiply excessively.<note place='foot'>A. Kuhn, <hi rend='italic'>Märkische Sagen und +Märchen</hi>, p. 378, § 14.</note> +According to the Swedish popular belief, there are certain +animals which should never be spoken of by their proper +names, but must always be signified by euphemisms and +kind allusions to their character. Thus, if you speak slightingly +of the cat or beat her, you must be sure not to mention +her name; for she belongs to the hellish crew, and is a friend +of the mountain troll, whom she often visits. Great caution is +also needed in talking of the cuckoo, the owl, and the magpie, +for they are birds of witchery. The fox must be called +<q>blue-foot,</q> or <q>he that goes in the forest</q>; and rats are +<q>the long-bodied,</q> mice <q>the small grey,</q> and the seal +<q>brother Lars.</q> Swedish herd-girls, again, believe that if +the wolf and the bear be called by other than their proper +and legitimate names, they will not attack the herd. Hence +they give these brutes names which they fancy will not hurt +their feelings. The number of endearing appellations +lavished by them on the wolf is legion; they call him +<q>golden tooth,</q> <q>the silent one,</q> <q>grey legs,</q> and so on; +while the bear is referred to by the respectful titles of <q>the +old man,</q> <q>grandfather,</q> <q>twelve men's strength,</q> <q>golden +feet,</q> and more of the same sort. Even inanimate things +are not always to be called by their usual names. For +instance, fire is sometimes to be called <q>heat</q> (<foreign rend='italic'>hetta</foreign>) not +<foreign rend='italic'>eld</foreign> or <foreign rend='italic'>ell</foreign>; water for brewing must be called <foreign rend='italic'>lag</foreign> or <foreign rend='italic'>löu</foreign>, not +<foreign rend='italic'>vatn</foreign>, else the beer would not turn out so well.<note place='foot'>B. Thorpe, <hi rend='italic'>Northern Mythology</hi>, +ii. 83 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; L. Lloyd, <hi rend='italic'>Peasant Life in +Sweden</hi> (London, 1870), p. 251.</note> The Huzuls +of the Carpathians, a pastoral people, who dread the ravages +of wild beasts on their flocks and herds, are unwilling to +mention the bear by his proper name, so they call him +<pb n='398'/><anchor id='Pg398'/> +respectfully <q>the little uncle</q> or <q>the big one.</q> In like +manner and for similar reasons they name the wolf <q>the +little one</q> and the serpent <q>the long one.</q><note place='foot'>R. F. Kaindl, <hi rend='italic'>Die Huzulen</hi> +(Vienna, 1894), p. 103; <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, <q>Viehzucht +und Viehzauber in den Ostkarpaten,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Globus</hi>, lxix. (1896) p. 387.</note> They may not +say that wool is scalded, or in the heat of summer the sheep +would rub themselves till their sides were raw; so they +merely say that the wool is warmed.<note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>Id.</hi>, <q>Neue Beiträge zur Ethnologie +und Volkskunde der Huzulen,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Globus</hi>, lxix. (1896) p. 73.</note> The Lapps fear to +call the bear by his true name, lest he should ravage their +herds; so they speak of him as <q>the old man with the coat +of skin,</q> and in cooking his flesh to furnish a meal they may +not refer to the work they are engaged in as <q>cooking,</q> but +must designate it by a special term.<note place='foot'>C. Leemius, <hi rend='italic'>De Lapponibus Finmarchiae +eorumque lingua, vita, et +religione pristina commentatio</hi> (Copenhagen, +1767), pp. 502 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> The Finns speak of +the bear as <q>the apple of the wood,</q> <q>beautiful honey-paw,</q> +<q>the pride of the thicket,</q> <q>the old man,</q> and so on.<note place='foot'>M. A. Castren, <hi rend='italic'>Vorlesungen über die +finnische Mythologie</hi> (St. Petersburg, +1853), p. 201.</note> And +in general a Finnish hunter thinks that he will have poor +sport if he calls animals by their real names; the beasts +resent it. The fox and the hare are only spoken of as +<q>game,</q> and the lynx is termed <q>the forest cat,</q> lest it +should devour the sheep.<note place='foot'>Varonen, reported by Hon. J. +Abercromby in <hi rend='italic'>Folk-lore</hi>, ii. (1891) +pp. 245 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> Esthonian peasants are very loth +to mention wild beasts by their proper names, for they +believe that the creatures will not do so much harm if only +they are called by other names than their own. Hence they +speak of the bear as <q>broad foot</q> and the wolf as <q>grey +coat.</q><note place='foot'>Boecler-Kreutzwald, <hi rend='italic'>Der Ehsten +abergläubische Gebräuche, Weisen und +Gewohnheiten</hi>, p. 120.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The names +of various +animals +tabooed in +Siberia, +Kamtchatka, +and +America.</note> +The natives of Siberia are unwilling to call a bear a +bear; they speak of him as <q>the little old man,</q> <q>the master +of the forest,</q> <q>the sage,</q> <q>the respected one.</q> Some who +are more familiar style him <q>my cousin.</q><note place='foot'>P. Labbé, <hi rend='italic'>Un Bagne russe, l'île de +Sakhaline</hi> (Paris, 1903), p. 231.</note> The Kamtchatkans +reverence the whale, the bear, and the wolf from fear, +and never mention their names when they meet them, believing +that they understand human speech.<note place='foot'>G. W. Steller, <hi rend='italic'>Beschreibung von +dem Lande Kamtschatka</hi> (Frankfort and +Leipsic, 1774), p. 276.</note> Further, they +<pb n='399'/><anchor id='Pg399'/> +think that mice also understand the Kamtchatkan language; +so in autumn, when they rob the field-mice of the bulbs which +these little creatures have laid up in their burrows as a store +against winter, they call everything by names different from +the ordinary ones, lest the mice should know what they were +saying. Moreover, they leave odds and ends, such as old +rags, broken needles, cedar-nuts, and so forth, in the burrows, +to make the mice think that the transaction has been not a +robbery but a fair exchange. If they did not do that, they +fancy that the mice would go and drown or hang themselves +out of pure vexation; and then what would the Kamtchatkans +do without the mice to gather the bulbs for them? +They also speak kindly to the animals, and beg them not to +take it ill, explaining that what they do is done out of pure +friendship.<note place='foot'>G. W. Steller, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> p. 91; +compare <hi rend='italic'>ib.</hi> pp. 129, 130.</note> The Cherokee Indians regard the rattlesnake +as a superior being and take great pains not to offend him. +They never say that a man has been bitten by a snake but +that he has been <q>scratched by a briar.</q> In like manner, +when an eagle has been shot for a ceremonial dance, it is +announced that <q>a snowbird has been killed.</q> The purpose +is to deceive the spirits of rattlesnakes or eagles which might +be listening.<note place='foot'>J. Mooney, <q>Sacred Formulas of +the Cherokees,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Seventh Annual Report +of the Bureau of Ethnology</hi> (Washington, +1892), p. 352. Compare <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, +<q>Myths of the Cherokee,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Nineteenth +Annual Report of the Bureau of +American Ethnology</hi>, Part i. (Washington, +1900) p. 295.</note> The Esquimaux of Bering Strait think that +some animals can hear and understand what is said of them +at a distance. Hence, when a hunter is going out to kill +bears he will speak of them with the greatest respect and +give out that he is going to hunt some other beast. Thus +the bears will be deceived and taken unawares.<note place='foot'>E. W. Nelson, <q>The Eskimo +about Bering Strait,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Eighteenth +Annual Report of the Bureau of +American Ethnology</hi>, Part i. (Washington, +1899) p. 438.</note> Among +the Esquimaux of Baffin Land, women in mourning may +not mention the names of any animals.<note place='foot'>F. Boas, <q>The Eskimo of Baffin +Land and Hudson Bay,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Bulletin of +the American Museum of Natural +History</hi>, xv. (1901) p. 148.</note> Among the +Thompson Indians of British Columbia, children may not +name the coyote or prairie wolf in winter, lest he should +turn on his back and so bring cold weather.<note place='foot'>J. Teit, <q>The Thompson Indians +of British Columbia,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Memoir of the +American Museum of Natural History, +The Jesup North Pacific Expedition</hi>, +vol. i. part iv. (April 1900) p. +374.</note> +</p> + +<pb n='400'/><anchor id='Pg400'/> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Names of +animals +and things +tabooed by +the Arabs, +Africans, +and +Malagasy.</note> +The Arabs call a man who has been bitten by a snake +<q>the sound one</q>; leprosy or the scab they designate <q>the +blessed disease</q>; the left side they name <q>the lucky side</q>; +they will not speak of a lion by his right name, but refer to +him as for example <q>the fox.</q><note place='foot'>J. Wellhausen, <hi rend='italic'>Reste arabischen +Heidentums</hi><hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi> (Berlin, 1897), p. 199.</note> In Africa the lion is +alluded to with the same ceremonious respect as the wolf +and the bear in northern Europe and Asia. The Arabs of +Algeria, who hunt the lion, speak of him as Mr. John Johnson +(Johan-ben-el-Johan), because he has the noblest qualities of +man and understands all languages. Hence, too, the first +huntsman to catch sight of the beast points at him with his +finger and says, <q>He is not there</q>; for if he were to say +<q>He is there,</q> the lion would eat him up.<note place='foot'>A. Certeux et E. H. Carnoy, +<hi rend='italic'>L'Algérie traditionnelle</hi> (Paris and +Algiers, 1884), pp. 172, 175.</note> Except under +dire necessity the Waziguas of eastern Africa never mention +the name of the lion from fear of attracting him. They call +him <q>the owner of the land</q> or <q>the great beast.</q><note place='foot'>Father Picarda, <q>Autour de Mandéra,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Missions Catholiques</hi>, xviii. +(1886) p. 227.</note> The +negroes of Angola always use the word <foreign rend='italic'>ngana</foreign> (<q>sir</q>) in +speaking of the same noble animal, because they think that +he is <q>fetish</q> and would not fail to punish them for disrespect +if they omitted to do so.<note place='foot'>J. J. Monteiro, <hi rend='italic'>Angola and the +River Congo</hi> (London, 1875), ii. 116.</note> Bushmen and Bechuanas +both deem it unlucky to speak of the lion by his proper +name; the Bechuanas call him <q>the boy with the beard.</q><note place='foot'>J. Mackenzie, <hi rend='italic'>Ten Years north of +the Orange River</hi> (Edinburgh, 1871), +p. 151; C. R. Conder, in <hi rend='italic'>Journal of +the Anthropological Institute</hi>, xvi. +(1887) p. 84.</note> +During an epidemic of smallpox in Mombasa, British East +Africa, it was noticed that the people were unwilling to +mention the native name (<foreign rend='italic'>ndui</foreign>) of the disease. They +referred to it either as <q>grains of corn</q> (<foreign rend='italic'>tete</foreign>) or simply as +<q>the bad disease.</q><note place='foot'>H. B. Johnstone, <q>Notes on the +Customs of the Tribes occupying Mombasa +Sub-district, British East Africa,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Journal of the Anthropological Institute</hi>, +xxxii. (1902) p. 268.</note> So the Chinese of Amoy are averse to +speak of fever by its proper name; they prefer to call it +<q>beggar's disease,</q> hoping thereby to make the demons of +fever imagine that they despise it and that therefore it would +be useless to attack them.<note place='foot'>J. J. M. de Groot, <hi rend='italic'>The Religious +System of China</hi>, v. (Leyden, 1907) +p. 691.</note> Some of the natives of Nigeria +<pb n='401'/><anchor id='Pg401'/> +dread the owl as a bird of ill omen and are loth to mention +its name, preferring to speak of it by means of a circumlocution +such as <q>the bird that makes one afraid.</q><note place='foot'>A. F. Mockler-Ferryman, <hi rend='italic'>British +Nigeria</hi> (London, 1902), p. 285.</note> +The Herero think that if they see a snake and call it by +its name, the reptile will sting them, but that if they call it a +strap (<foreign rend='italic'>omuvia</foreign>) it will lie still.<note place='foot'>J. Irle, <hi rend='italic'>Die Herero</hi> (Gütersloh, +1906), p. 133.</note> When Nandi warriors are +out on an expedition, they may not call a knife a knife +(<foreign rend='italic'>chepkeswet</foreign>); they must call it <q>an arrow for bleeding cattle</q> +(<foreign rend='italic'>loñget</foreign>); and none of the party may utter the usual word +employed in greeting males.<note place='foot'>A. C. Hollis, <hi rend='italic'>The Nandi</hi> (Oxford, +1909), p. 43.</note> In Madagascar there seems +to be an aversion to pronouncing the word for lightning +(<foreign rend='italic'>vàratra</foreign>); the word for mud (<foreign rend='italic'>fòtaka</foreign>) is sometimes substituted +for it.<note place='foot'>H. F. Standing, <q>Malagasy <foreign rend='italic'>fady</foreign>,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Antananarivo Annual and Madagascar +Magazine</hi>, vol. ii., <hi rend='italic'>Reprint of the +Second Four Numbers</hi> (Antananarivo, +1896), p. 258.</note> Again, it is strictly forbidden to mention the +word for crocodile (<foreign rend='italic'>màmba</foreign>) near some rivers of Madagascar; +and if clothes should be wetted in certain other rivers of +the island, you may not say that they are wet (<foreign rend='italic'>lèna</foreign>); +you must say that they are on fire (<foreign rend='italic'>may</foreign>) or that +they are drinking water (<foreign rend='italic'>misòtro ràno</foreign>).<note place='foot'>H. F. Standing, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> p. 263.</note> A certain spirit, +who used to inhabit a lake in Madagascar, entertained a +rooted aversion to salt, so that whenever the thing was +carried past the lake in which he resided it had to be called +by another name, or it would all have been dissolved and +lost. The persons whom he inspired had to veil their +references to the obnoxious article under the disguise of +<q>sweet peppers.</q><note place='foot'>J. Sibree, <hi rend='italic'>The Great African +Island</hi>, pp. 307 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> In a West African story we read of a +man who was told that he would die if ever the word for +salt was pronounced in his hearing. The fatal word was +pronounced, and die he did sure enough, but he soon came +to life again with the help of a magical wooden pestle of +which he was the lucky possessor.<note place='foot'>R. H. Nassau, <hi rend='italic'>Fetichism in West +Africa</hi> (London, 1904), pp. 381 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Names of +animals, +especially +the snake +and the +tiger, +tabooed +in India.</note> +In India the animals whose names are most commonly +tabooed are the snake and the tiger, but the same tribute of +respect is paid to other beasts also. Sayids and Mussulmans +<pb n='402'/><anchor id='Pg402'/> +of high rank in northern India say that you should +never call a snake by its proper name, but always describe +it either as a tiger (<foreign rend='italic'>sher</foreign>) or a string (<foreign rend='italic'>rassi</foreign>).<note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>Panjab Notes and Queries</hi>, i. p. 15, +§ 122.</note> In Telingana +the euphemistic name for a snake, which should always be +employed, is worm or insect (<foreign rend='italic'>purugu</foreign>); if you call a cobra by +its proper name, the creature will haunt you for seven years +and bite you at the first opportunity.<note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>North Indian Notes and Queries</hi>, +i. p. 104, § 690.</note> Ignorant Bengalee +women will not mention a snake or a thief by their proper +names at night, for fear that one or other might appear. +When they have to allude to a serpent, they call it <q>the +creeping thing</q>; when they speak of a thief, they say <q>the +unwelcome visitor.</q><note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>Id.</hi> v. p. 133, § 372.</note> Other euphemisms for the snake in +northern India are <q>maternal uncle</q> and <q>rope.</q> They +say that if a snake bites you, you should not mention its +name, but merely observe <q>A rope has touched me.</q><note place='foot'>W. Crooke, <hi rend='italic'>Popular Religion +and Folk-lore of Northern India</hi> +(Westminster, 1896), ii. 142 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> +Natives of Travancore are careful not to speak disrespectfully +of serpents. A cobra is called <q>the good lord</q> (<foreign rend='italic'>nalla +tambiran</foreign>) or <q>the good snake</q> (<foreign rend='italic'>nalla pambu</foreign>). While the +Malayalies of the Shervaray Hills are hunting the tiger, they +speak of the beast only as <q>the dog.</q><note place='foot'>S. Mateer, <hi rend='italic'>Native Life in Travancore</hi>, +pp. 320 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> The Canarese of +southern India call the tiger either <q>the dog</q> or <q>the +jackal</q>; they think that if they called him by his proper +name, he would be sure to carry off one of them.<note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>North Indian Notes and Queries</hi>, +v. p. 133, § 372.</note> The +jungle people of northern India, who meet the tiger in his +native haunts, will not pronounce his name, but speak of him +as <q>the jackal</q> (<foreign rend='italic'>gídar</foreign>), or <q>the beast</q> (<foreign rend='italic'>janwar</foreign>), or use +some other euphemistic term. In some places they treat +the wolf and the bear in the same fashion.<note place='foot'>W. Crooke, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> ii. 212.</note> The Pankas of +South Mirzapur will not name the tiger, bear, camel, or +donkey by their proper names; the camel they call <q>long +neck.</q> Other tribes of the same district only scruple to +mention certain animals in the morning. Thus, the Kharwars, +a Dravidian tribe, will not name a pig, squirrel, hare, +jackal, bear, monkey, or donkey in the morning hours; if +<pb n='403'/><anchor id='Pg403'/> +they have to allude to these animals at that time, they call +them by special names. For instance, they call the hare +<q>the four-footed one</q> or <q>he that hides in the rocks</q>; +while they speak of the bear as <foreign rend='italic'>jigariya</foreign>, which being interpreted +means <q>he with the liver of compassion.</q> If the +Bhuiyars are absolutely obliged to refer to a monkey or a +bear in the morning, they speak of the monkey as <q>the tree-climber</q> +and the bear as <q>the eater of white ants.</q> They +would not mention a crocodile. Among the Pataris the +matutinal title of the bear is <q>the hairy creature.</q><note place='foot'>W. Crooke in <hi rend='italic'>North Indian Notes +and Queries</hi>, i. p. 70, § 579; <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, +<hi rend='italic'>Tribes and Castes of the North-Western +Provinces and Oudh</hi>, iii. 249; <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, +<hi rend='italic'>Popular Religion and Folk-lore of +Northern India</hi> (Westminster, 1896), +ii. 54.</note> The +Kols, a Dravidian race of northern India, will not speak of +death or beasts of prey by their proper names in the morning. +Their name for the tiger at that time of day is <q>he +with the claws,</q> and for the elephant <q>he with the teeth.</q><note place='foot'>W. Crooke, <hi rend='italic'>Tribes and Castes of +the North-Western Provinces and +Oudh</hi>, iii. 314.</note> +The forests of the Sundarbans, the district at the mouth of +the Ganges, are full of man-eating tigers and the annual +loss of life among the woodcutters is heavy. Here accordingly +the ferocious animal is not called a tiger but a jackal +(<foreign rend='italic'>çial</foreign>).<note place='foot'>D. Sunder, <q>Exorcism of Wild +Animals in the Sundarbans,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Journal +of the Asiatic Society of Bengal</hi>, lxxii. +part iii. (Calcutta, 1904) pp. 45 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>, 51.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Names of +animals +and things +tabooed in +Indo-China.</note> +In Annam the fear inspired by tigers, elephants, and +other wild animals induces the people to address these +creatures with the greatest respect as <q>lord</q> or <q>grandfather,</q> +lest the beasts should take umbrage and attack them.<note place='foot'>H. Mouhot, <hi rend='italic'>Travels in the Central +Parts of Indo-China</hi> (London, 1864), +i. 263 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> +The tiger reigns supreme in the forests of Tonquin and +Cochin-China, and the peasants honour him as a maleficent +deity. In talking of him they always call him <foreign rend='italic'>ong</foreign>, which +means monsieur or grandfather. They are convinced that +if they dared to speak of him disrespectfully, he would +avenge the insult.<note place='foot'>Mgr Masson, in <hi rend='italic'>Annales de la +Propagation de la Foi</hi>, xxiv. (1852) p. +323. Compare Le R. P. Cadière, +<q>Croyances et dictons populaires de +la vallée du Nguôn-son,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Bulletin de +l'École Française d'Extrême-Orient</hi>, i. +(1901) p. 134.</note> In Siam there are many people who +would never venture to utter the words tiger or crocodile in +a spot where these terrible creatures might be in hiding, lest +<pb n='404'/><anchor id='Pg404'/> +the sound of their names should attract the attention of the +beasts towards the speakers.<note place='foot'>E. Young, <hi rend='italic'>The Kingdom of the +Yellow Robe</hi> (Westminster, 1898), p. +61.</note> When the Malays of Patani +Bay in Siam are in the jungle and think there is a tiger near, +they will either speak of him in complimentary terms as the +<q>grandfather of the woods</q> or only mention him in a +whisper.<note place='foot'>N. Annandale, <q>Primitive Beliefs +and Customs of the Patani Fishermen,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Fasciculi Malayenses, Anthropology</hi>, +part i. (April 1903) p. 104.</note> In Laos, while a man is out hunting elephants he +is obliged to give conventional names to all common objects, +which creates a sort of special language for elephant-hunters.<note place='foot'>E. Aymonier, <hi rend='italic'>Notes sur le Laos</hi>, +p. 113; <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, <hi rend='italic'>Voyage dans le Laos</hi>, i. +(Paris, 1895) p. 311. In the latter +passage the writer observes that the +custom of giving conventional names +to common objects is very generally +observed in Indo-China during the +prosecution of long and perilous +journeys undertaken periodically.</note> +So when the Chams and Orang-Glaï of Indo-China are +searching for the precious eagle-wood in the forest, they +must employ an artificial jargon to designate most objects of +everyday life; thus, for example, fire is called <q>the red,</q> a +she-goat becomes <q>a spider,</q> and so on. Some of the terms +which compose the jargon are borrowed from the dialects of +neighbouring tribes.<note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>Id.</hi>, <q>Les Tchames et leurs +religions,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Revue de l'Histoire des +Religions</hi>, xxiv. (1891) p. 278. Compare +A. Cabaton, <hi rend='italic'>Nouvelles Recherches +sur les Chams</hi> (Paris, 1901), p. 53.</note> When the Mentras or aborigines of +Malacca are searching for what they call <foreign rend='italic'>gaharu</foreign> (<foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>lignum +aloes</foreign>) they are obliged to use a special language, avoiding +the words in ordinary use. At such times they call <foreign rend='italic'>gaharu</foreign> +by the name of <foreign rend='italic'>tabak</foreign>, and they speak of a snake as <q>the +long animal</q> and of the elephant as <q>the great animal.</q> +They have also to observe a number of other taboos, particularly +in the matter of diet. If a man has found a promising +<foreign rend='italic'>gaharu</foreign> tree, and on going home dreams that the guardian +spirit of the tree (<foreign rend='italic'>hantu gaharu</foreign>) demands a human victim as +the price of his property, the dreamer will try next day to +catch somebody asleep and to smear his forehead with lime. +This is a sign to the guardian spirit of the tree, who +accordingly carries away the soul of the sleeper to the +land of the dead by means of a fever or other ailment, +whereas the original dreamer gets a good supply of aloes +wood.<note place='foot'>D. F. A. Hervey, in <hi rend='italic'>Indian Notes +and Queries</hi> (December 1886), p. 45, +§ 154.</note> +</p> + +<pb n='405'/><anchor id='Pg405'/> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Special +language +used by +East Indian +searchers +for +camphor.</note> +At certain seasons of the year parties of Jakuns and +Binuas go out to seek for camphor in the luxuriant forests +of their native country, which is the narrow southern +extremity of the Malay Peninsula, the Land's End of Asia. +They are absent for three or four months together, and +during the whole of this time the use of the ordinary Malay +language is forbidden to them, and they have to speak a +special language called by them the <foreign rend='italic'>bassa kapor</foreign> (camphor +language) or <foreign rend='italic'>pantang<note place='foot'><foreign rend='italic'>Pantang</foreign> is equivalent to taboo. +In this sense it is used also by the +Dyaks. See S. W. Tromp, <q>Een +Dajaksch Feest,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Bijdragen tot de +Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde van Nederlandsch-Indië</hi>, +xxxix. (1890) pp. 31 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> kapur</foreign>. Indeed not only have the +searchers to employ this peculiar language, but even the +men and women who stay at home in the villages are +obliged to speak it while the others are away looking for +the camphor. They believe that a spirit presides over the +camphor trees, and that without propitiating him they could +not obtain the precious gum; the shrill cry of a species of +cicada, heard at night, is supposed to be the voice of the +spirit. If they failed to employ the camphor language, they +think that they would have great difficulty in finding the +camphor trees, and that even when they did find them the +camphor would not yield itself up to the collector. The +camphor language consists in great part of words which are +either Malayan or of Malay origin; but it also contains +many words which are not Malayan but are presumed to be +remains of the original Jakun dialects now almost extinct in +these districts. The words derived from Malayan are formed +in many cases by merely substituting a descriptive phrase +for the common term. Thus instead of rice they say <q>grass +fruit</q>; instead of gun they say <q>far sounding</q>; the epithet +<q>short-legged</q> is substituted for hog; hair is referred to as +<q>leaves,</q> and so on.<note place='foot'>J. R. Logan, <q>The Orang Binua +of Johore,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Journal of the Eastern +Archipelago and Eastern Asia</hi>, i. +(1847) pp. 249, 263-265; A. Bastian, +<hi rend='italic'>Die Völker des östlichen Asien</hi>, v. +37; H. Lake and H. J. Kelsall, <q>The +Camphor Tree and Camphor Language +of Johore,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Journal of the Straits Branch +of the Royal Asiatic Society</hi>, No. 26 +(January 1894), pp. 39 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; W. W. +Skeat, <hi rend='italic'>Malay Magic</hi>, pp. 212-214; +W. W. Skeat and C. O. Blagden, +<hi rend='italic'>Pagan Races of the Malay Peninsula</hi> +(London, 1906), ii. 414-431.</note> So when the Battas or Bataks of Sumatra +have gone out to search for camphor, they must abandon the +speech of daily life as soon as they reach the camphor +<pb n='406'/><anchor id='Pg406'/> +forest. For example, if they wish to speak of the forest they +may not use the ordinary word for it (<foreign rend='italic'>hoetan</foreign>), but must call +it <foreign rend='italic'>kerrengettetdoeng</foreign>. When they have fixed on a spot in +which to try their luck, they set up a booth and clear a +space in front of it to serve as a place of sacrifice. Here, +after summoning the camphor spirit (<foreign rend='italic'>berroe ni kapoer</foreign>) by +playing on a flute, they offer sacrifice to him repeatedly. +Then they lie down to dream of the place where camphor is +to be found. If this succeeds, the leader goes and chooses +the tree. When it has been cut down to the accompaniment +of certain spells or incantations, one of the men runs and +wraps the top of the fallen tree in a garment to prevent the +camphor from escaping from the trunk before they have +secured it. Then the tree is cleft and split up in the search +for the camphor crystals, which are to be found in the fibres +of the wood.<note place='foot'>C. M. Pleyte, <q>Herinneringen uit +Oost-Indië,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Tijdschrift van het koninklijk +Nederlandsch Aardrijkskundig +Genootschap</hi>, II Serie, xvii. (1900) pp. +27 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> Similarly, when the Kayans of Borneo are +searching for camphor, they talk a language invented solely +for their use at this time. The camphor itself is never mentioned +by its proper name, but is always referred to as <q>the +thing that smells</q>; and all the tools employed in collecting +the drug receive fanciful names. Unless they conform to +this rule they suppose that the camphor crystals, which are +found only in the crevices of the wood, will elude them.<note place='foot'>W. H. Furness, <hi rend='italic'>Folk-lore in Borneo</hi> +(Wallingford, Pennsylvania, 1899; +privately printed), p. 27; <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, <hi rend='italic'>Home-life +of Borneo Head-hunters</hi> (Philadelphia, +1902), p. 17. A special +language is also used in the search for +camphor by some of the natives of +Sumatra. See Th. A. L. Heyting, +<q>Beschrijving der onder-afdeeling +Groot-Mandeling en Batang-Natal,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Tijdschrift van het Nederlandsch +Aardrijkskundig Genootschap</hi>, Tweede +Serie, xiv. (1897) p. 276.</note> +The Malanau tribes of Borneo observe the same custom very +strictly, believing that the crystals would immediately dissolve +if they spoke anything but the camphor language. For +example, the common Malanau word for <q>return</q> is <foreign rend='italic'>muli</foreign>, +but in presence of a camphor tree they say <foreign rend='italic'>beteku</foreign>. Again, +<q>to hide</q> is <foreign rend='italic'>palim</foreign> in the Malanau language, but when they +are looking for camphor they say <foreign rend='italic'>krian</foreign>. In like manner, +all common names for implements and food are exchanged +for others. In some tribes the camphor-seekers may +never mention the names of chiefs and influential men; +<pb n='407'/><anchor id='Pg407'/> +if they broke this rule, they would find no camphor in +the trees.<note place='foot'>W. H. Furness, <hi rend='italic'>Home-life of +Borneo Head-hunters</hi>, pp. 168 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Special +languages +used by +Malay +miners, fowlers, and fishermen.</note> +In the western states of the Malay Peninsula the chief +industry is tin-mining, and odd ideas prevail among the +natives as to the nature and properties of the ore. They +regard it as alive and growing, sometimes in the shape of a +buffalo, which makes its way from place to place underground. +Ore of inferior quality is excused on the score of +its tender years; it will no doubt improve as it grows older. +Not only is the tin believed to be under the protection and +command of certain spirits who must be propitiated, but it +is even supposed to have its own special likes and dislikes +for certain persons and things. Hence the Malays deem it +advisable to treat tin ore with respect, to consult its convenience, +nay, to conduct the business of mining in such a +way that the ore may, as it were, be extracted without its +own knowledge. When such are their ideas about the +mineral it is no wonder that the miners scruple to employ +certain words in the mines, and replace them by others +which are less likely to give offence to the ore or its guardian +spirits. Thus, for example, the elephant must not be called +an elephant but <q>the tall one who turns himself about</q>; +and in like manner special words, different from those in +common use, are employed by the miners to designate the +cat, the buffalo, the snake, the centipede, tin sand, metallic +tin, and lemons. Lemons are particularly distasteful to the +spirits; they may not be brought into the mines.<note place='foot'>W. W. Skeat, <hi rend='italic'>Malay Magic</hi>, pp. +250, 253-260. In like manner the +people of Sikhim intensely dread all +mining operations, believing that the +ores and veins of metals are the stored +treasures of the earth-spirits, who are +enraged by the removal of these +treasures and visit the robbers with +sickness, failure of crops, and other +calamities. Hence the Sikhimese leave +the copper mines to be worked by +Nepaulese. See L. A. Waddell, +<hi rend='italic'>Among the Himalayas</hi> (Westminster, +1899), p. 101.</note> Again, +the Malay wizard, who is engaged in snaring pigeons with +the help of a decoy-bird and a calling-tube, must on no +account call things by their common names. The tiny +conical hut, in which he sits waiting for the wild pigeons to +come fluttering about him, goes by the high-sounding name +of the Magic Prince, perhaps with a delicate allusion to +its noble inmate. The calling-tube is known as Prince +<pb n='408'/><anchor id='Pg408'/> +Distraction, doubtless on account of the extraordinary +fascination it exercises on the birds. The decoy-pigeon +receives the name of the Squatting Princess, and the rod with +a noose at the end of it, which serves to catch the unwary +birds, is disguised under the title of Prince Invitation. +Everything, in fact, is on a princely scale, so far at least as +words can make it so. The very nooses destined to be +slipped over the necks or legs of the little struggling prisoners +are dignified by the title of King Solomon's necklaces and +armlets; and the trap into which the birds are invited to +walk is variously described as King Solomon's Audience +Chamber, or a Palace Tower, or an Ivory Hall carpeted +with silver and railed with amalgam. What pigeon could +resist these manifold attractions, especially when it is +addressed by the respectful title of Princess Kapor or +Princess Sarap or Princess Puding?<note place='foot'>W. W. Skeat, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> pp. 139 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> Again, the fisher-folk +on the east coast of the Malay Peninsula, like their +brethren in Scotland, are reluctant to mention the names of +birds or beasts while they are at sea. All animals then go +by the name of <foreign rend='italic'>cheweh</foreign>, a meaningless word which is believed +not to be understood by the creatures to whom it refers. +Particular kinds of animals are distinguished by appropriate +epithets; the pig is <q>the grunting <foreign rend='italic'>cheweh</foreign>,</q> the buffalo is <q>the +<foreign rend='italic'>cheweh</foreign> that says <foreign rend='italic'>uak</foreign>,</q> the snipe is <q>the <foreign rend='italic'>cheweh</foreign> that cries <foreign rend='italic'>kek-kek</foreign>,</q> +and so on.<note place='foot'>W. W. Skeat, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> pp. 192 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> In this respect the fishermen of Patani Bay +class together sea spirits, Buddhist monks, beasts, and +reptiles; these are all <foreign rend='italic'>cheweh</foreign> and their common names may +not be mentioned at sea. But, curiously enough, they lay no +such embargo on the names of fish and birds, except the +vulture and domestic fowls and ducks. At sea the vulture +is named <q>bald head,</q> the tiger <q>striped,</q> the snake +<q>weaver's sword,</q> the horse <q>fast,</q> and a species of monkey +<q>long tail.</q> The human foot is called <q>tortoise,</q> and +a Buddhist monk <q>yellow</q> on account of the colour of +his robe. These Malay fishermen are at least as unwilling +to speak of a Buddhist monk at sea as Scotch fishermen +are to mention a minister in similar circumstances. If +one of them mentions a monk, his mates will fall on him +and beat him; whereas for other slips of the tongue they +<pb n='409'/><anchor id='Pg409'/> +think it enough to throw a little bilge-water over the back of +the transgressor and to say, <q>May the ill-luck be dismissed!</q> +The use of this special language is even more obligatory by +night than by day. On shore the fishermen make very +merry over those lubberly landsmen who cannot talk correctly +at sea.<note place='foot'>N. Annandale, <q>Primitive Beliefs +and Customs of the Patani Fishermen,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Fasciculi Malayenses, Anthropology</hi>, +part i. (April 1903) pp. 84-86.</note> In like manner Achinese fishermen, in northern +Sumatra, employ a special vocabulary when they are at sea. +Thus they may not call a mountain a mountain, or mountain-high +billows would swamp the boat; they refer to it as <q>high +ground.</q> They may not speak of an elephant by its proper +name of <foreign rend='italic'>gadjah</foreign>, but must call it <foreign rend='italic'>pò meurah</foreign>. If a man wishes +to say that something is clear, he must not use the ordinary +word for clear (<foreign rend='italic'>lheuëh</foreign>) because it bears the meaning also of +<q>free,</q> <q>loose</q>; and the utterance of such a word might +enable the fish to get free from the net and escape. Instead +of <foreign rend='italic'>lheuëh</foreign> he must therefore employ the less dangerous +synonym <foreign rend='italic'>leungka</foreign>. In like manner, we are told, among the +fishermen of the north coast of Java whole lists of words +might be compiled which are tabooed at sea and must be +replaced by others.<note place='foot'>C. Snouck Hurgronje, <hi rend='italic'>De Atjèhers</hi> +(Batavia and Leyden, 1893-1894), i. +303.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Names of +things and +animals +tabooed in +Sumatra, +Nias, and +Java.</note> +In Sumatra the spirits of the gold mines are treated with +as much deference as the spirits of the tin-mines in the +Malay Peninsula. Tin, ivory, and the like may not be +brought by the miners to the scene of their operations, for at +the scent of such things the spirits of the mine would cause +the gold to vanish. For the same reason it is forbidden to +refer to certain things by their proper names, and in speaking +of them the miners must use other words. In some +cases, for example in removing the grains of the gold, a deep +silence must be observed; no commands may be given or +questions asked,<note place='foot'>J. L. van der Toorn, <q>Het animisme +bij den Minangkabauer der +Padangsche Bovenlanden,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Bijdragen +tot de Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde van +Nederlandsch-Indië</hi>, xxxix. (1890) p. +100. As to the superstitions of gold-washers +among the Gayos of Sumatra, +see C. Snouck Hurgronje, <hi rend='italic'>Het Gajoland +en zijne Bewoners</hi> (Batavia, 1903), pp. +361 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> probably because the removal of the +precious metal is regarded as a theft which the spirits would +punish if they caught the thieves in the act. Certainly the +<pb n='410'/><anchor id='Pg410'/> +Dyaks believe that gold has a soul which seeks to avenge +itself on men who dig the precious metal. But the angry +spirit is powerless to harm miners who observe certain +precautions, such as never to bathe in a river with their faces +turned up stream, never to sit with their legs dangling, and +never to tie up their hair.<note place='foot'>M. T. H. Perelaer, <hi rend='italic'>Ethnographische +Beschrijving der Dajaks</hi> (Zalt-Bommel, +1870), p. 215.</note> Again, a Sumatran who fancies +that there is a tiger or a crocodile in his neighbourhood, will +speak of the animal by the honourable title of <q>grandfather</q> +for the purpose of propitiating the creature.<note place='foot'>J. T. Nieuwenhuisen en H. C. B. +von Rosenberg, <q>Verslag omtrent het +eiland Nias,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Verhandelingen van het +Bataviaasch Genootschap van Kunsten +en Wetenschappen</hi>, xxx. (1863) p. 115. +Compare W. Marsden, <hi rend='italic'>History of +Sumatra</hi>, p. 292; T. J. Newbold, +<hi rend='italic'>Account of the British Settlements in +the Straits of Malacca</hi>, ii. 192 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> In the +forest a Karo-Batak refers to a tiger as <q>Grandfather +to whom the wood belongs,</q> <q>he with the striped coat,</q> +or <q>the roving trap.</q><note place='foot'>J. E. Neumann, <q><foreign rend='italic'>Kemali</foreign>, <foreign rend='italic'>Pantang</foreign> +en <foreign rend='italic'>Rèboe</foreign> bij de Karo-Bataks,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Tijdschrift +voor Indische Taal- Land- en +Volkenkunde</hi>, xlviii. (1906) pp. 511 +<hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> Among the Gayos of Sumatra +it is forbidden to mention the name of small-pox in the +house of a man who is suffering from the disease; and +the words for ugly, red, stinking, unlucky, and so forth +are forbidden under the same circumstances. The disease +is referred to under the title of <q>prince of the averters of +misfortune.</q><note place='foot'>C. Snouck Hurgronje, <hi rend='italic'>Het Gajoland +en zijne Bewoners</hi> (Batavia, 1903), +pp. 311 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> So long as the hunting season lasts, the +natives of Nias may not name the eye, the hammer, stones, +and in some places the sun by their true names; no smith +may ply his trade in the village, and no person may go from +one village to another to have smith's work done for him. +All this, with the exception of the rule about not naming +the eye and the sun, is done to prevent the dogs from growing +stiff, and so losing the power of running down the game.<note place='foot'>J. W. Thomas, <q>De jacht op het +eiland Nias,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Tijdschrift voor Indische +Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde</hi>, xxvi. +(1880) p. 275.</note> +During the rice-harvest in Nias the reapers seldom speak to +each other, and when they do so, it is only in whispers. +Outside the field they must speak of everything by names +different from those in common use, which gives rise to a +special dialect or jargon known as <q>field speech.</q> It +has been observed that some of the words in this jargon +<pb n='411'/><anchor id='Pg411'/> +resemble words in the language of the Battas of Sumatra.<note place='foot'>L. N. H. A. Chatelin, <q>Godsdienst +en bijgeloof der Niassers,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Tijdschrift +voor Indische Taal- Land- en +Volkenkunde</hi>, xxvi. (1880) p. 165; H. +Sundermann, <q>Die Insel Nias und +die Mission daselbst,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Allgemeine Missions-Zeitschrift</hi>, +xi. (1884) p. 349; E. +Modigliani, <hi rend='italic'>Un Viaggio a Nias</hi> (Milan, +1890), p. 593.</note> +While these rice-reapers of Nias are at work they may not +address each other by their names; they must use only such +general terms as <q>man,</q> <q>woman,</q> <q>girl,</q> <q>old man,</q> and +<q>old woman.</q> The word for <q>fire</q> may not pass their lips; +instead of it they must use the word for <q>cold.</q> Other +words tabooed to them during the harvest are the words for +<q>smoke</q> and <q>stone.</q> If a reaper wishes to ask another +for his whetstone to sharpen his knife, he must speak of it +as a <q>fowl's egg.</q><note place='foot'>A. L. van Hasselt, <q>Nota, betreffende +de rijstcultuur in de Residentie +Tapanoeli,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Tijdschrift voor Indische +Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde</hi>, xxxvi. +(1893) pp. 525 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> The Singhalese +also call things by strange names when +they are in the rice-fields. See A. A. +Perera, <q>Glimpses of Singhalese Social +Life,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Indian Antiquary</hi>, xxxii. (1903) +p. 437.</note> In Java when people suspect that a +tiger or crocodile is near, they avoid the use of the proper +name of the beast and refer to him as <q>the old lord</q> or +<q>grandfather.</q> Similarly, men who are watching a plantation +to protect it from wild boars speak of these animals as +<q>handsome men</q> (<foreign rend='italic'>wong bagus</foreign>). When after harvest the +unhusked rice is to be brought into the barn, the barn is +not called a barn but <q>the dark store-house.</q> Serious +epidemics may not be mentioned by their true names; thus +smallpox is called the <q>pretty girl</q> (<foreign rend='italic'>lara bagus</foreign>). The +Javanese are particularly careful to eschew certain common +words at evening or night. Thus the snake is then called a +<q>tree-root</q>; the venomous centipede is referred to as the +<q>red ant</q>; oil is spoken of as <q>water</q>; and so forth. And +when leaves and herbs are being gathered for use in medicine +they are regularly designated by other than their ordinary +names.<note place='foot'>G. A. J. Hazeu, <q>Kleine Bijdragen +tot de Ethnografie en de Folk-lore +van Java,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Tijdschrift voor Indische +Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde</hi>, xlvii. +(1903) pp. 291 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Names of +things and +animals +tabooed in +Celebes.</note> +The Alfoors or Toradjas of Poso, in Celebes, are forbidden +by custom to speak the ordinary language when they +are at work in the harvest-field. At such times they employ +a secret language which is said to agree with the ordinary +one only in this, that in it some things are designated by +<pb n='412'/><anchor id='Pg412'/> +words usually applied in a different sense, or by descriptive +phrases or circumlocutions. Thus instead of <q>run</q> they say +<q>limp</q>; instead of <q>hand</q> they say <q>that with which one +reaches</q>; instead of <q>foot</q> they say <q>that with which one +limps</q>; and instead of <q>ear</q> they say <q>that with which +one hears.</q> Again, in the field-speech <q>to drink</q> becomes +<q>to thrust forward the mouth</q>; <q>to pass by</q> is expressed +by <q>to nod with the head</q>; a gun is <q>a fire-producer</q>; +and wood is <q>that which is carried on the shoulder.</q> The +writer who reports the custom was formerly of opinion that +this secret language was designed to avoid attracting the +attention of evil spirits to the ripe rice; but further enquiry +has satisfied him that the real reason for adopting it is a +wish not to frighten the soul of the rice by revealing to it +the alarming truth that it is about to be cut, carried home, +boiled, and eaten. It is just the words referring to these +actions, he tells us, which are especially tabooed and replaced +by others. Beginning with a rule of avoiding a certain +number of common words, the custom has grown among +people of the Malay stock till it has produced a complete +language for use in the fields. In Minahassa also this secret +field-speech consists in part of phrases or circumlocutions, of +which many are said to be very poetical.<note place='foot'>A. C. Kruijt, <q>Een en ander +aangaande het geestelijk en maatschappelijk +leven van den Poso-Alfoer,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Mededeelingen van wege het Nederlandsche +Zendelinggenootschap</hi>, xxxix. +(1895) pp. 146-148; <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, <q>Eenige +ethnografische aanteekeningen omtrent +de Toboengkoe en de Tomori,</q> <hi rend='italic'>ibid.</hi> +xliv. (1900) pp. 228 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> But it is not only +on the harvest field that the Toradja resorts to the use of a +secret language from superstitious motives. In the great +primaeval forest he feels ill at ease, for well he knows the +choleric temper of the spirits who inhabit the giant trees of +the wood, and that were he to excite their wrath they would +assuredly pay him out in one way or other, it might be by +carrying off his soul and so making him ill, it might be by +crushing him flat under a falling tree. These touchy beings +particularly dislike to hear certain words pronounced, and +accordingly on his way through the forest the Toradja takes +care to avoid the offensive terms and to substitute others for +them. Thus he will not call a dog a dog, but refers to it as +<q>the hairy one</q>; a buffalo is spoken of as <q>thick hide</q>; a +<pb n='413'/><anchor id='Pg413'/> +cooking pot becomes <q>that which is set down</q>; the hair of +the head is alluded to as <q>betel</q>; goats and pigs are <q>the +folk under the house</q>; a horse is <q>long nose</q>; and deer +are <q>denizens of the fell.</q> If he is rash or careless enough +to utter a forbidden word in the forest, a short-tempered +tree-spirit will fetch him such a bang on the head that the +blood will spout from his nose and mouth.<note place='foot'>N. Adriani und A. C. Kruijt, <q>Van +Posso naar Mori,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Mededeelingen van +wege het Nederlandsche Zendelinggenootschap</hi>, +xliv. (1900) pp. 145 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> Again, when +the weather is fine and the Toradja wishes it to continue so, +he is careful not to utter the word <q>rain,</q> for if he did so +the rain would fancy he was called for and would obligingly +present himself. Indeed, in the district of Pakambia, +which is frequently visited by heavy storms, the word <q>rain</q> +may not be mentioned throughout the year lest it should +provoke a tempest; the unmentionable thing is there +delicately alluded to as <q>tree-blossoms.</q><note place='foot'>A. C. Kruijt, <q>Regen lokken en +regen verdrijven bij de Toradja's van +Midden Celebes,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Tijdschrift voor +Indische Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde</hi>, +xliv. (1901) p. 8; <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, <q>Het rijk +Mori,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Tijdschrift van het Koniklijk +Nederlandsch Aardrijkskundig Genootschap</hi>, +II. Serie, xvii. (1900) p. 464, +note.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Common +words +tabooed +by East +Indian +mariners +at sea.</note> +When a Bugineese or Macassar man is at sea and sailing +past a place which he believes to be haunted by evil +spirits, he keeps as quiet as he can; but if he is obliged to +speak he designates common things and actions, such as +water, wind, fire, cooking, eating, the rice-pot, and so forth, +by peculiar terms which are neither Bugineese nor Macassar, +and therefore cannot be understood by the evil spirits, whose +knowledge of languages is limited to these two tongues. +However, according to another and later account given by +the same authority, it appears that many of the substituted +terms are merely figurative expressions or descriptive phrases +borrowed from the ordinary language. Thus the word for +water is replaced by a rare word meaning <q>rain</q>; a rice-pot +is called a <q>black man</q>; boiled rice is <q>one who is +eaten</q>; a fish is a <q>tree-leaf</q>; a fowl is <q>one who lives in +a poultry hatch</q>; and an ape is a <q>tree-dweller.</q><note place='foot'>B. F. Matthes, <hi rend='italic'>Bijdragen tot de +Ethnologie van Zuid-Celebes</hi> (The +Hague, 1875), p. 107; <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, <q>Over de +<hi rend='italic'>âdá's</hi> of gewoonten der Makassaren en +Boegineezen,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Verslagen en Mededeelingen +der Koninklijke Akademie van +Wetenschappen</hi>, Afdeeling Letterkunde, +III. Reeks, ii. (Amsterdam, 1885) pp. +164 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> Natives +of the island of Saleyer, which lies off the south coast of +<pb n='414'/><anchor id='Pg414'/> +Celebes, will not mention the name of their island when they +are making a certain sea-passage; and in sailing they will +never speak of a fair wind by its proper name. The reason +in both cases is a fear of disturbing the evil spirits.<note place='foot'>H. E. D. Engelhard, <q>Mededeelingen +over het eiland Saleijer,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Bijdragen +tot de Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde +van Neêrlandsch-Indië</hi>, Vierde +Volgreeks, viii. (1884) p. 369.</note> When +natives of the Sapoodi Archipelago, to the north-east of +Java, are at sea they will never say that they are near the +island of Sapoodi, for if they did so they would be carried +away from it by a head wind or by some other mishap.<note place='foot'>E. F. Jochim, <q>Beschrijving van +den Sapoedi Archipel,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Tijdschrift +voor Indische Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde</hi>, +xxxvi. (1893) p. 361.</note> +When Galelareese sailors are crossing over to a land that is +some way off, say one or two days' sail, they do not remark +on any vessels that may heave in sight or any birds that +may fly past; for they believe that were they to do so they +would be driven out of their course and not reach the land +they are making for. Moreover, they may not mention their +own ship, or any part of it. If they have to speak of +the bow, for example, they say <q>the beak of the bird</q>; +starboard is named <q>sword,</q> and larboard <q>shield.</q><note place='foot'>M. J. van Baarda, <q>Fabelen, Verhalen +en Overleveringen der Galelareezen,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Bijdragen tot de Taal- Land- en +Volkenkunde van Nederlandsch-Indië</hi>, +xlv. (1895) p. 508.</note> The +inhabitants of Ternate and of the Sangi Islands deem it very +dangerous to point at distant objects or to name them while +they are at sea. Once while sailing with a crew of Ternate +men a European asked one of them the name of certain +small islands which they had passed. The man had been +talkative before, but the question reduced him to silence. +<q>Sir,</q> he said, <q>that is a great taboo; if I told you we +should at once have wind and tide against us, and perhaps +suffer a great calamity. As soon as we come to anchor I +will tell you the name of the islands.</q> The Sangi Islanders +have, besides the ordinary language, an ancient one which is +only partly understood by some of the people. This old +language is often used by them at sea, as well as in popular +songs and certain heathen rites.<note place='foot'>S. D. van de Velde van Cappellan, +<q>Verslag eener Bezoekreis naar de +Sangi-eilanden,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Mededeelingen van +wege het Nederlandsche Zendelinggenootschap</hi>, +i. (1857) pp. 33, 35.</note> The reason for resorting to +it on shipboard is to hinder the evil spirits from overhearing +<pb n='415'/><anchor id='Pg415'/> +and so frustrating the plans of the voyagers.<note place='foot'>A. C. Kruijt, <q>Een en ander +aangaande het geestelijk en maatschappelijk +leven van den Poso-Alfoer,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Mededeelingen van wege het Nederlandsche +Zendelinggenootschap</hi>, xxxix. +(1895) p. 148.</note> The Nufoors +of Dutch New Guinea believe that if they were to mention +the name of an island to which the bow of their vessel was +pointing, they would be met by storm, rain, or mist which +would drive them from their course.<note place='foot'>Th. J. F. van Hasselt, <q>Gebruik +van vermomde Taal door de Nufooren,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Tijdschrift voor Indische Taal- Land- +en Volkenkunde</hi>, xlv. (1902) pp. 279 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Common +words +tabooed +in Sunda, +Borneo, +and the +Philippines.</note> +In some parts of Sunda it is taboo or forbidden to call +a goat a goat; it must be called a <q>deer under the house.</q> +A tiger may not be spoken of as a tiger; he must be referred +to as <q>the supple one,</q> <q>the one there,</q> <q>the honourable,</q> +<q>the whiskered one,</q> and so on. Neither a wild boar nor a +mouse may be mentioned by its proper name; a boar must +be called <q>the beautiful one</q> (masculine) and the mouse +<q>the beautiful one</q> (feminine). When the people are asked +what would be the consequence of breaking a taboo, they +generally say that the person or thing would suffer for it, +either by meeting with a mishap or by falling ill. But some +say they do not so much fear a misfortune as experience +an indefinite feeling, half fear, half reverence, towards an +institution of their forefathers. Others can assign no reason +for observing the taboos, and cut enquiry short by saying +that <q>It is so because it is so.</q><note place='foot'>K. F. Holle, <q>Snippers van den +Regent van Galoeh,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Tijdschrift voor +Indische Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde</hi>, +xxvii. (1882) pp. 101 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> When the Kenyahs of +Borneo are about to poison the fish of a section of the river +with the <foreign rend='italic'>tuba</foreign> root, they always speak of the matter as little +as possible and use the most indirect and fanciful modes of +expression. Thus they will say, <q>There are many leaves +fallen here,</q> meaning that there are many fish in the river. +And they will not breathe the name of the <foreign rend='italic'>tuba</foreign> root; if they +must refer to it, they call it <foreign rend='italic'>pakat abong</foreign>, where <foreign rend='italic'>abong</foreign> is the +name of a strong-smelling root something like <foreign rend='italic'>tuba</foreign>, and +<foreign rend='italic'>pakat</foreign> means <q>to agree upon</q>; so that <foreign rend='italic'>pakat abong</foreign> signifies +<q>what we have agreed to call <foreign rend='italic'>abong</foreign>.</q> This concealment of +the truth deceives all the bats, birds, and insects, which might +otherwise overhear the talk of the men and inform the fish of +the deep-laid plot against them.<note place='foot'>Ch. Hose and W. McDougall, +<q>The Relations between Men and +Animals in Sarawak,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Journal of the +Anthropological Institute</hi>, xxxi. (1902) +p. 205; W. H. Furness, <hi rend='italic'>Home-life of +Borneo Head-hunters</hi> (Philadelphia, +1902), pp. 17, 186 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> These Kenyahs also fear +<pb n='416'/><anchor id='Pg416'/> +the crocodile and do not like to mention it by name, especially +if one be in sight; they refer to the beast as <q>the old +grandfather.</q><note place='foot'>Ch. Hose and W. McDougall, <hi rend='italic'>op. +cit.</hi> p. 186.</note> When small-pox invades a village of the +Sakarang Dyaks in Borneo, the people desert the place and +take refuge in the jungle. In the daytime they do not dare +to stir or to speak above a whisper, lest the spirits should see +or hear them. They do not call the small-pox by its proper +name, but speak of it as <q>jungle leaves</q> or <q>fruit</q> or <q>the +chief,</q> and ask the sufferer, <q>Has he left you?</q> and the +question is put in a whisper lest the spirit should hear.<note place='foot'>Ch. Brooke, <hi rend='italic'>Ten Years in Sarawak</hi> +(London, 1866), i. 208; Spenser St. +John, <hi rend='italic'>Life in the Forests of the Far +East</hi>,<hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi> i. 71 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> +Natives of the Philippines were formerly prohibited from +speaking of the chase in the house of a fisherman and from +speaking of fishing in the house of a hunter; journeying by +land they might not talk of marine matters, and sailing on +the sea they might not talk of terrestrial matters.<note place='foot'>Juan de la Concepcion, <hi rend='italic'>Historia +general de Philipinas</hi>, i. (Manilla, +1788), p. 20. Compare J. Mallat, <hi rend='italic'>Les +Philippines</hi> (Paris, 1846), i. 64.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The avoidance +of +common +words +seems to +be based +on a fear +of spirits +and a wish +to deceive +them or +elude their +notice. Common +words +avoided by +hunters +and fowlers +in order to +deceive the +beasts and +birds.</note> +When we survey the instances of this superstition which +have now been enumerated, we can hardly fail to be struck +by the number of cases in which a fear of spirits, or of other +beings regarded as spiritual and intelligent, is assigned as the +reason for abstaining in certain circumstances from the use +of certain words.<note place='foot'>On this subject Mr. R. J. Wilkinson's +account of the Malay's attitude to +nature (<hi rend='italic'>Malay Beliefs</hi>, London and +Leyden, 1906, pp. 67 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>) deserves to +be quoted: <q>The practice of magic +arts enters into every department of +Malay life. If (as the people of the +Peninsula believe) all nature is teeming +with spiritual life, some spiritual +weapon is necessary to protect man +against possible ghostly foes. Now the +chief and most characteristic weapon +of the Malay in his fight against the +invisible world is courtesy. The peasant +will speak no evil of a tiger in the +jungle or of an evil spirit within the +limits of that spirit's authority.... +The tiger is the symbol of kingly oppression; +still, he is royal and must +not be insulted; he is the <q>shaggy-haired +father</q> or <q>grandfather</q> of the +traveller in the woods. Even the +birds, the fish and the fruits that serve +as human food are entitled to a certain +consideration: the deer is addressed as +a <q>prince,</q> the coco-nut tree as a +<q>princess,</q> the chevrotin as <q>emperor +of the jungle</q> (<foreign rend='italic'>shah alam di-rimba</foreign>). +In all this respect paid to unseen +powers—for it is the soul of the animal +or plant that is feared—there is no +contemptible adulation or cringeing; +the Malay believes that courtesy honours +the speaker more than the person +addressed.</q></note> The speaker imagines himself to be overheard +and understood by spirits, or animals, or other beings +<pb n='417'/><anchor id='Pg417'/> +whom his fancy endows with human intelligence; and hence +he avoids certain words and substitutes others in their stead, +either from a desire to soothe and propitiate these beings by +speaking well of them, or from a dread that they may understand +his speech and know what he is about, when he happens +to be engaged in that which, if they knew of it, would excite +their anger or their fear. Hence the substituted terms fall into +two classes according as they are complimentary or enigmatic; +and these expressions are employed, according to circumstances, +for different and even opposite reasons, the complimentary +because they will be understood and appreciated, +and the enigmatic because they will not. We can now see +why persons engaged in occupations like fishing, fowling, +hunting, mining, reaping, and sailing the sea, should abstain +from the use of the common language and veil their meaning +in strange words and dark phrases. For they have this +in common that all of them are encroaching on the domain +of the elemental beings, the creatures who, whether visible +or invisible, whether clothed in fur or scales or feathers, +whether manifesting themselves in tree or stone or running +stream or breaking wave, or hovering unseen in the air, may +be thought to have the first right to those regions of earth +and sea and sky into which man intrudes only to plunder +and destroy. Thus deeply imbued with a sense of the all-pervading +life and intelligence of nature, man at a certain +stage of his intellectual development cannot but be visited +with fear or compunction, whether he is killing wild fowl +among the stormy Hebrides, or snaring doves in the sultry +thickets of the Malay Peninsula; whether he is hunting the +bear in Lapland snows, or the tiger in Indian jungles, or +hauling in the dripping net, laden with silvery herring, on +the coast of Scotland; whether he is searching for the +camphor crystals in the shade of the tropical forest, or +extracting the red gold from the darksome mine, or laying +low with a sweep of his sickle the yellow ears on the harvest +field. In all these his depredations on nature, man's first +endeavour apparently is by quietness and silence to escape +the notice of the beings whom he dreads; but if that cannot +be, he puts the best face he can on the matter by dissembling +his foul designs under a fair exterior, by flattering the +<pb n='418'/><anchor id='Pg418'/> +creatures whom he proposes to betray, and by so guarding +his lips, that, though his dark ambiguous words are understood +well enough by his fellows, they are wholly unintelligible +to his victims. He pretends to be what he is not, and to be +doing something quite different from the real business in +hand. He is not, for example, a fowler catching pigeons in +the forest; he is a Magic Prince or King Solomon himself<note place='foot'><p>The character of King Solomon +appears to be a favourite one with the +Malay sorcerer when he desires to ingratiate +himself with or lord it over the +powers of nature. Thus, for example, +in addressing silver ore the sage observes:— +</p> +<p> +<q><hi rend='italic'>If you do not come hither at this very moment<lb/> +You shall be a rebel unto God,<lb/> +And a rebel unto God's Prophet Solomon,<lb/> +For I am God's Prophet Solomon.</hi></q>— +</p> +<p> +See W. W. Skeat, <hi rend='italic'>Malay Magic</hi>, p. 273. +No doubt the fame of his wisdom has +earned for the Hebrew monarch this +distinction among the dusky wizards +of the East.</p></note> +inviting fair princesses into his palace tower or ivory hall. +Such childish pretences suffice to cheat the guileless creatures +whom the savage intends to rob or kill, perhaps they even +impose to some extent upon himself; for we can hardly dissever +them wholly from those forms of sympathetic magic in +which primitive man seeks to effect his purpose by imitating +the thing he desires to produce, or even by assimilating himself +to it. It is hard indeed for us to realise the mental +state of a Malay wizard masquerading before wild pigeons in +the character of King Solomon; yet perhaps the make-believe +of children and of the stage, where we see the players +daily forgetting their real selves in their passionate impersonation +of the shadowy realm of fancy, may afford us +some glimpse into the workings of that instinct of imitation +or mimicry which is deeply implanted in the constitution of +the human mind. +</p> + +</div> + +</div> + +<pb n='419'/><anchor id='Pg419'/> + +<div rend='page-break-before: always'> +<index index='toc'/> +<index index='pdf'/> +<head>Chapter VII. Our Debt To The Savage.</head> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>General +conclusion. +Human +gods, on +whom the +welfare of +the community +is +believed to +depend, +are obliged +to observe +many rules +to ensure +their own +safety and +that of +their +people.</note> +It would be easy to extend the list of royal and priestly +taboos, but the instances collected in the preceding pages +may suffice as specimens. To conclude this part of our +subject it only remains to state summarily the general +conclusions to which our enquiries have thus far conducted +us. We have seen that in savage or barbarous +society there are often found men to whom the superstition +of their fellows ascribes a controlling influence over the +general course of nature. Such men are accordingly adored +and treated as gods. Whether these human divinities +also hold temporal sway over the lives and fortunes of +their adorers, or whether their functions are purely spiritual +and supernatural, in other words, whether they are kings as +well as gods or only the latter, is a distinction which hardly +concerns us here. Their supposed divinity is the essential +fact with which we have to deal. In virtue of it they are a +pledge and guarantee to their worshippers of the continuance +and orderly succession of those physical phenomena upon +which mankind depends for subsistence. Naturally, therefore, +the life and health of such a god-man are matters of +anxious concern to the people whose welfare and even +existence are bound up with his; naturally he is constrained +by them to conform to such rules as the wit of early man +has devised for averting the ills to which flesh is heir, including +the last ill, death. These rules, as an examination of +them has shewn, are nothing but the maxims with which, on +the primitive view, every man of common prudence must +comply if he would live long in the land. But while in the +<pb n='420'/><anchor id='Pg420'/> +case of ordinary men the observance of the rules is left to +the choice of the individual, in the case of the god-man it +is enforced under penalty of dismissal from his high station, +or even of death. For his worshippers have far too great +a stake in his life to allow him to play fast and loose with +it. Therefore all the quaint superstitions, the old-world +maxims, the venerable saws which the ingenuity of savage +philosophers elaborated long ago, and which old women at +chimney corners still impart as treasures of great price to +their descendants gathered round the cottage fire on winter +evenings—all these antique fancies clustered, all these cobwebs +of the brain were spun about the path of the old king, +the human god, who, immeshed in them like a fly in the +toils of a spider, could hardly stir a limb for the threads of +custom, <q>light as air but strong as links of iron,</q> that +crossing and recrossing each other in an endless maze bound +him fast within a network of observances from which death +or deposition alone could release him. +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>A study of +these rules +affords us +an insight +into the +philosophy +of the +savage. Our debt +to our +savage +forefathers.</note> +Thus to students of the past the life of the old kings +and priests teems with instruction. In it was summed up +all that passed for wisdom when the world was young. It +was the perfect pattern after which every man strove to +shape his life; a faultless model constructed with rigorous +accuracy upon the lines laid down by a barbarous philosophy. +Crude and false as that philosophy may seem to us, it would +be unjust to deny it the merit of logical consistency. Starting +from a conception of the vital principle as a tiny being +or soul existing in, but distinct and separable from, the +living being, it deduces for the practical guidance of life a +system of rules which in general hangs well together and +forms a fairly complete and harmonious whole.<note place='foot'><q>The mind of the savage is not a +blank; and when one becomes familiar +with his beliefs and superstitions, and +the complicated nature of his laws and +customs, preconceived notions of his +simplicity of thought go to the winds. +I have yet to find that most apocryphal +of beings described as the <q>unsophisticated +African.</q> We laugh at and +ridicule his fetishes and superstitions, +but we fail to follow the succession of +ideas and effort of mind which have +created these things. After most careful +observations extending over nineteen +years, I have come to the conclusion that +there is nothing in the customs and +fetishes of the African which does not +represent a definite course of reasoning</q> +(Rev. Thomas Lewis, <q>The Ancient +Kingdom of Kongo,</q> <hi rend='italic'>The Geographical +Journal</hi>, xix. (1902) p. 554). <q>The +study of primitive peoples is extremely +curious and full of surprises. It is +twenty years since I undertook it +among the Thonga and Pedi tribes of +South Africa, and the further I advance, +the more I am astonished at the great +number, the complexity, and the profundity +of the rites of these so-called +savages. Only a superficial observer +could accuse their individual or tribal +life of superficiality. If we take the +trouble to seek the reason of these +strange customs, we perceive that at +their base there are secret, obscure +reasons, principles hard to grasp, even +though the most fervent adepts of the +rite can give no account of it. To +discover these principles, and so to give +a true explanation of the rites, is the +supreme task of the ethnographer,—a +task in the highest degree delicate, for +it is impossible to perform it if we do +not lay aside our personal ideas to +saturate ourselves with those of primitive +peoples</q> (Rev. H. A. Junod, +<q>Les Conceptions physiologiques des +Bantou sud-africains et leurs tabous,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Revue d'Ethnographie et de Sociologie</hi>, +i. (1910) p. 126). These weighty +words, the fruit of ripe experience, +deserve to be pondered by those +who fancy that the elaborate system of +savage custom can have grown up +instinctively without a correspondingly +elaborate process of reasoning in the +minds of its founders. We may not, +indeed, always be able to discover the +reason for which a particular custom or +rite was instituted, for we are only +beginning to understand the mind of +uncivilised man; but all that we know +of him tends to shew that his practice, +however absurd it may seem to us, +originated in a definite train of thought +and for a definite and very practical +purpose.</note> The flaw—and +<pb n='421'/><anchor id='Pg421'/> +it is a fatal one—of the system lies not in its reasoning, +but in its premises; in its conception of the nature of life, +not in any irrelevancy of the conclusions which it draws +from that conception. But to stigmatise these premises as +ridiculous because we can easily detect their falseness, would +be ungrateful as well as unphilosophical. We stand upon +the foundation reared by the generations that have gone +before, and we can but dimly realise the painful and prolonged +efforts which it has cost humanity to struggle up to +the point, no very exalted one after all, which we have +reached. Our gratitude is due to the nameless and forgotten +toilers, whose patient thought and active exertions have +largely made us what we are. The amount of new knowledge +which one age, certainly which one man, can add to +the common store is small, and it argues stupidity or dishonesty, +besides ingratitude, to ignore the heap while vaunting +the few grains which it may have been our privilege to +add to it. There is indeed little danger at present of +undervaluing the contributions which modern times and +even classical antiquity have made to the general advancement +of our race. But when we pass these limits, the case +is different. Contempt and ridicule or abhorrence and +denunciation are too often the only recognition vouchsafed +to the savage and his ways. Yet of the benefactors whom +<pb n='422'/><anchor id='Pg422'/> +we are bound thankfully to commemorate, many, perhaps +most, were savages. For when all is said and done our +resemblances to the savage are still far more numerous than +our differences from him; and what we have in common +with him, and deliberately retain as true and useful, we owe +to our savage forefathers who slowly acquired by experience +and transmitted to us by inheritance those seemingly fundamental +ideas which we are apt to regard as original and +intuitive. We are like heirs to a fortune which has been +handed down for so many ages that the memory of those +who built it up is lost, and its possessors for the time being +regard it as having been an original and unalterable possession +of their race since the beginning of the world. But +reflection and enquiry should satisfy us that to our predecessors +we are indebted for much of what we thought +most our own, and that their errors were not wilful extravagances +or the ravings of insanity, but simply hypotheses, +justifiable as such at the time when they were propounded, +but which a fuller experience has proved to be inadequate. +It is only by the successive testing of hypotheses and +rejection of the false that truth is at last elicited. After all, +what we call truth is only the hypothesis which is found to +work best. Therefore in reviewing the opinions and practices +of ruder ages and races we shall do well to look with +leniency upon their errors as inevitable slips made in the +search for truth, and to give them the benefit of that indulgence +which we ourselves may one day stand in need of; +<foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>cum excusatione itaque veteres audiendi sunt</foreign>. +</p> + +<pb n='423'/><anchor id='Pg423'/> + +<div rend='page-break-before: always'> +<index index='toc'/> +<index index='pdf'/> +<head>Note. Not To Step Over Persons And Things.<note place='foot'>See above, pp. <ref target='Pg159'>159</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note></head> + +<p> +The superstition that harm is done to a person or thing by stepping +over him or it is very widely spread. Thus the Galelareese think +that if a man steps over your fishing-rod or your arrow, the fish will +not bite when you fish with that rod, and the game will not be hit +by that arrow when you shoot it. They say it is as if the implements +merely skimmed past the fish or the game.<note place='foot'>M. J. van Baarda, <q>Fabelen, Verhalen +en Overleveringen der Galelareezen,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Bijdragen tot de Taal- Land- en +Volkenkunde van Nederlandsch-Indië</hi>, +xlv. (1895) p. 513.</note> Similarly, if a +Highland sportsman saw a person stepping over his gun or fishing-rod, +he presumed but little on that day's diversion.<note place='foot'>John Ramsay, <hi rend='italic'>Scotland and Scotsmen +in the Eighteenth Century</hi> (Edinburgh, +1888), ii. 456.</note> When a Dacota +had bad luck in hunting, he would say that a woman had been +stepping over some part of the animal which he revered.<note place='foot'>H. R. Schoolcraft, <hi rend='italic'>Indian Tribes</hi>, +ii. 175.</note> Amongst +many South African tribes it is considered highly improper to step +over a sleeper; if a wife steps over her husband he cannot hit his +enemy in war; if she steps over his assegais, they are from that time +useless, and are given to boys to play with.<note place='foot'>J. Macdonald, <hi rend='italic'>Light in Africa</hi> +(London, 1890), p. 209.</note> The Baganda think +that if a woman steps over a man's weapons, they will not aim straight +and will not kill, unless they have been first purified.<note place='foot'>Rev. J. Roscoe, in <hi rend='italic'>Journal of the +Anthropological Institute</hi>, xxxii. (1902) +p. 59.</note> The Nandi +of British East Africa hold that to step over a snare or trap is to +court death and must be avoided at all risks; further, they are +of opinion that if a man were to step over a pot, he would fall to +pieces whenever the pot were broken.<note place='foot'>A. C. Hollis, <hi rend='italic'>The Nandi</hi>, pp. 24 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, +36. In these cases the harm is thought +to fall on the person who steps over, not +on the thing which is stepped over.</note> The people of the Lower +Congo deem that to step over a person's body or legs will cause ill-luck +to that person and they are careful not to do so, especially +<pb n='424'/><anchor id='Pg424'/> +in passing men who are holding a palaver. At such times a passer-by +will shuffle his feet along the ground without lifting them in order +that he may not be charged with bringing bad luck on any one.<note place='foot'>Rev. J. H. Weeks, <q>Customs of +the Lower Congo People,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Folk-lore</hi>, +xx. (1909) p. 474.</note> On +the other hand among the Wajagga of East Africa grandchildren +leap over the corpse of their grandfather, when it is laid out, +expressing a wish that they may live to be as old as he.<note place='foot'>B. Gutmann, <q>Trauer und Begräbnissitten +der Wadschagga,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Globus</hi>, +lxxxix. (1906) p. 199.</note> In Laos +hunters are careful never to step over their weapons.<note place='foot'>E. Aymonier, <hi rend='italic'>Voyage dans le Laos</hi>, +i. (Paris, 1895) p. 144.</note> The Tepehuanes +of Mexico believe that if anybody steps over them, they +will not be able to kill another deer in their lives.<note place='foot'>C. Lumholtz, <hi rend='italic'>Unknown Mexico</hi> +(London, 1903), i. 435.</note> Some of the +Australian aborigines are seriously alarmed if a woman steps over +them as they lie asleep on the ground.<note place='foot'>E. M. Curr, <hi rend='italic'>The Australian Race</hi>, +i. 50.</note> In the tribes about +Maryborough in Queensland, if a woman steps over anything that +belongs to a man he will throw it away.<note place='foot'>A. W. Howitt, <hi rend='italic'>Native Tribes of +South-East Australia</hi>, p. 402.</note> In New Caledonia it is +thought to endanger a canoe if a woman steps over the cable.<note place='foot'>Father Lambert, <hi rend='italic'>Mœurs et superstitions +des Néo-Calédoniens</hi>, pp. 192 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> +Everything that a Samoyed woman steps over becomes unclean and +must be fumigated.<note place='foot'>P. von Stenin, <q>Das Gewohnheitsrecht +der Samojeden,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Globus</hi>, lx. +(1891) p. 173.</note> Malagasy porters believe that if a woman +strides over their poles, the skin will certainly peel off the shoulders +of the bearers when next they take up the burden.<note place='foot'>J. Richardson, in <hi rend='italic'>Antananarivo +Annual and Madagascar Magazine</hi>, +<hi rend='italic'>Reprint of the First Four Numbers</hi> +(Antananarivo, 1885), p. 529; <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, <hi rend='italic'>Reprint +of the Second Four Numbers</hi> (Antananarivo, +1896), p. 296; J. Sibree, +<hi rend='italic'>The Great African Island</hi>, p. 288; compare +De Flacourt, <hi rend='italic'>Histoire de la grande +isle Madagascar</hi> (Paris, 1658), p. 99.</note> The Cherokees +fancy that to step over a vine causes it to wither and bear no fruit.<note place='foot'>J. Mooney, <q>Myths of the Cherokee,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Nineteenth Annual Report of the +Bureau of American Ethnology</hi>, pt. i. +(Washington, 1900) p. 424.</note> +The Ba-Pendi and Ba-thonga of South Africa think that if a woman +steps over a man's legs, they will swell and he will not be able to +run.<note place='foot'>H. A. Junod, <q>Les Conceptions +physiologiques des Bantou sud-africains,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Revue d'Ethnographie et de +Sociologie</hi>, i. (1910) p. 138, note <hi rend='vertical-align: super'>3</hi>.</note> According to the South Slavonians, the most serious maladies +may be communicated to a person by stepping over him, but they +can afterwards be cured by stepping over him in the reverse +direction.<note place='foot'>F. S. Krauss, <hi rend='italic'>Volksglaube und +religiöser Brauch der Südslaven</hi>, p. 52.</note> The belief that to step over a child hinders it from +growing is found in France, Belgium, Germany, Austria, and Syria; +in Syria, Germany, and Bohemia the mischief can be remedied by +stepping over the child in the opposite direction.<note place='foot'>See L. F. Sauvé, <hi rend='italic'>Folk-lore des +Hautes-Vosges</hi>, p. 226, compare pp. +219 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; E. Monseur, <hi rend='italic'>Le Folk-lore +Wallon</hi>, p. 39; A. Wuttke, <hi rend='italic'>Der +deutsche Volksaberglaube</hi>,<hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi> § 603; J. +W. Wolf, <hi rend='italic'>Beiträge zur deutschen Mythologie</hi>, +i. p. 208, § 42; J. A. E. +Köhler, <hi rend='italic'>Volksbrauch</hi>, etc., <hi rend='italic'>im Voigtlande</hi>, +p. 423; A. Kuhn und W. +Schwartz, <hi rend='italic'>Norddeutsche Sagen, Märchen +und Gebräuche</hi>, p. 462, § 461; +E. Krause, <q>Abergläubische Kuren +und sonstiger Aberglaube in Berlin,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Zeitschrift für Ethnologie</hi>, xv. (1883) +p. 85; R. H. Kaindl, <hi rend='italic'>Die Huzulen</hi>, +p. 5; J. V. Grohmann, <hi rend='italic'>Aberglauben +und Gebräuche aus Böhmen und Mähren</hi>, +p. 109, §§ 798, 799; Eijüb Abêla, +<q>Beiträge zur Kenntniss abergläubischer +Gebräuche in Syrien,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Zeitschrift +des deutschen Palästina-Vereins</hi>, +vii. (1884) p. 81; compare B. +Chemali, <q>Naissance et premier âge au +Liban,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Anthropos</hi>, v. (1910) p. 741.</note> +</p> + +</div> + +</div> + +<pb n='427'/><anchor id='Pg427'/> + +<div rend='page-break-before: always'> +<index index='toc'/> +<index index='pdf'/> +<head>Index.</head> + +<lg> +<l>Abdication of kings in favour of their infant children, <ref target='Pg019'>19</ref>, <ref target='Pg020'>20</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Abduction of souls by demons, <ref target='Pg058'>58</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Abipones, the, <ref target='Pg328'>328</ref>, <ref target='Pg350'>350</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>changes in their language, <ref target='Pg360'>360</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Abnormal mental states accounted inspiration, <ref target='Pg248'>248</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Abortion, superstition as to woman who has procured, <ref target='Pg153'>153</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Absence and recall of the soul, <ref target='Pg030'>30</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Achilles, <ref target='Pg261'>261</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Acts, tabooed, <ref target='Pg101'>101</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Adivi or forest Gollas, the, <ref target='Pg149'>149</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Aetolians, the, <ref target='Pg311'>311</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Africa, fetish kings in West, <ref target='Pg022'>22</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>names of animals and things tabooed in, <ref target='Pg400'>400</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Agutainos, the, <ref target='Pg144'>144</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Air, prohibition to be uncovered in the open, <ref target='Pg003'>3</ref>, <ref target='Pg014'>14</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Akamba, the, <ref target='Pg204'>204</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Akikuyu, the, <ref target='Pg175'>175</ref>, <ref target='Pg204'>204</ref>, <ref target='Pg286'>286</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>auricular confession among the, <ref target='Pg214'>214</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Albanians of the Caucasus, <ref target='Pg349'>349</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Alberti, L., <ref target='Pg220'>220</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Alcmena and Hercules, <ref target='Pg298'>298</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Alfoors of Celebes, <ref target='Pg033'>33</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of Minahassa, <ref target='Pg063'>63</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Amboyna, <ref target='Pg087'>87</ref>, <ref target='Pg105'>105</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Amenophis III., his birth represented on the monuments, <ref target='Pg028'>28</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>American Indians, their fear of naming the dead, <ref target='Pg351'>351</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ammon, Hanun, King of, <ref target='Pg273'>273</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Amoy, <ref target='Pg059'>59</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Amulets, knots used as, <ref target='Pg306'>306</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>rings as, <ref target='Pg314'>314</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ancestors, names of, bestowed on their reincarnations, <ref target='Pg368'>368</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>reborn in their descendants, <ref target='Pg368'>368</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ancestral spirits, cause sickness, <ref target='Pg053'>53</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>sacrifices to, <ref target='Pg104'>104</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Andaman Islanders, <ref target='Pg183'>183</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Andania, mysteries of, <ref target='Pg227'>227</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><hi rend='italic'>Angakok</hi>, Esquimaux wizard or sorcerer, <ref target='Pg211'>211</ref>, <ref target='Pg212'>212</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Angoni, the, <ref target='Pg174'>174</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Animals injured through their shadows, <ref target='Pg081'>81</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>propitiation of spirits of slain, <ref target='Pg190'>190</ref>, <ref target='Pg204'>204</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>atonement for slain, <ref target='Pg207'>207</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>dangerous, not called by their proper names, <ref target='Pg396'>396</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>thought to understand human speech, <ref target='Pg398'>398</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg400'>400</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Animism passing into religion, <ref target='Pg213'>213</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Anklets as amulets, <ref target='Pg315'>315</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Annamites, the, <ref target='Pg235'>235</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Anointment of priests at installation, <ref target='Pg014'>14</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Antambahoaka, the, <ref target='Pg216'>216</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ants, bites of, used in purificatory ceremony, <ref target='Pg105'>105</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Apaches, the, <ref target='Pg182'>182</ref>, <ref target='Pg184'>184</ref>, <ref target='Pg325'>325</ref>, <ref target='Pg328'>328</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Apollo, purification of, <ref target='Pg223'>223</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi><hi rend='vertical-align: super'>1</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Apuleius, <ref target='Pg270'>270</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Arab mode of cursing an enemy, <ref target='Pg312'>312</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Arabs of Moab, <ref target='Pg273'>273</ref>, <ref target='Pg280'>280</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Araucanians, the, <ref target='Pg097'>97</ref>, <ref target='Pg324'>324</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ares, men sacred to, <ref target='Pg111'>111</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Arikaras, the, <ref target='Pg161'>161</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Aristeas of Proconnesus, <ref target='Pg034'>34</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Army under arms, prohibition to see, <ref target='Pg013'>13</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Arrows to keep off death, <ref target='Pg031'>31</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Aru Islands, <ref target='Pg037'>37</ref>, <ref target='Pg276'>276</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Arunta, their belief as to the ghosts of the slain, <ref target='Pg177'>177</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>ceremonies at the end of mourning among the, <ref target='Pg373'>373</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Arval Brothers, <ref target='Pg226'>226</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Aryans, the primitive, their theory of personal names, <ref target='Pg319'>319</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ashes strewn on the head, <ref target='Pg112'>112</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ash-tree, parings of nails buried under an, <ref target='Pg276'>276</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Assam, taboos observed by headmen in, <ref target='Pg011'>11</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>hill tribes of, <ref target='Pg323'>323</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Astarte at Hierapolis, <ref target='Pg286'>286</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Aston, W. G., <ref target='Pg002'>2</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi><hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Astrolabe Bay, <ref target='Pg289'>289</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Athens, kings at, <ref target='Pg021'>21</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>ritual of cursing at, <ref target='Pg075'>75</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Atonement for slain animals, <ref target='Pg207'>207</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Attiuoindarons, the, <ref target='Pg366'>366</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign rend='italic'>Atua</foreign>, ancestral spirit, <ref target='Pg134'>134</ref>, <ref target='Pg265'>265</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Augur's staff at Rome, <ref target='Pg313'>313</ref></l> +</lg> + +<pb n='428'/><anchor id='Pg428'/> + +<lg> +<l>Auricular confession, <ref target='Pg214'>214</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Aurohuaca Indians, <ref target='Pg215'>215</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Australian aborigines;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>their conception of the soul, <ref target='Pg027'>27</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>personal names kept secret among the, <ref target='Pg320'>320</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>their fear of naming the dead, <ref target='Pg349'>349</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Aversion of spirits and fairies to iron, <ref target='Pg229'>229</ref>, <ref target='Pg232'>232</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Avoidance of common words to deceive spirits or other beings, <ref target='Pg416'>416</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Aymara Indians, the, <ref target='Pg097'>97</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Aztecs, the, <ref target='Pg249'>249</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>their priests, <ref target='Pg259'>259</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Babylonian witches and wizards, <ref target='Pg302'>302</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bad Country, the, <ref target='Pg109'>109</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Badham, Dr., <ref target='Pg156'>156</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Baduwis, the, of Java, <ref target='Pg115'>115</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg232'>232</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bag, souls collected in a, <ref target='Pg063'>63</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id='Index-Baganda'/> +<l>Baganda, the, <ref target='Pg078'>78</ref>, <ref target='Pg087'>87</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— fishermen, taboos observed by, <ref target='Pg194'>194</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> <hi rend='italic'>See also</hi> <ref target='Index-Uganda'>Uganda</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bagba, a fetish, <ref target='Pg005'>5</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bageshu, the, <ref target='Pg174'>174</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bagobos, the, <ref target='Pg031'>31</ref>, <ref target='Pg315'>315</ref>, <ref target='Pg323'>323</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bahima, the, <ref target='Pg183'>183</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>names of their dead kings not mentioned, <ref target='Pg375'>375</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bahnars of Cochin-China, <ref target='Pg052'>52</ref>, <ref target='Pg058'>58</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Baking, continence observed at, <ref target='Pg201'>201</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Balder, Norse god, <ref target='Pg305'>305</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi><hi rend='vertical-align: super'>1</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ba-Lua, the, <ref target='Pg330'>330</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Banana-trees, fruit-bearing, hair deposited under, <ref target='Pg286'>286</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bandages to prevent the escape of the soul, <ref target='Pg032'>32</ref>, <ref target='Pg071'>71</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bangala, the, <ref target='Pg195'>195</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg330'>330</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bangkok, <ref target='Pg090'>90</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Baoules, the, <ref target='Pg070'>70</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ba-Pedi, the, <ref target='Pg141'>141</ref>, <ref target='Pg153'>153</ref>, <ref target='Pg163'>163</ref>, <ref target='Pg202'>202</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Baron, R., <ref target='Pg380'>380</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Baronga, the, <ref target='Pg272'>272</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Basagala, the, <ref target='Pg361'>361</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Basket, souls gathered into a, <ref target='Pg072'>72</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bastian, A., <ref target='Pg252'>252</ref>, <ref target='Pg253'>253</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Basutos, burial custom of the, <ref target='Pg107'>107</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>purification of warriors among the, <ref target='Pg172'>172</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id='Index-Bathing'/> +<l>Bathing (washing) as a ceremonial purification, <ref target='Pg141'>141</ref>, <ref target='Pg142'>142</ref>, <ref target='Pg150'>150</ref>, <ref target='Pg153'>153</ref>, <ref target='Pg168'>168</ref>, <ref target='Pg169'>169</ref>, <ref target='Pg172'>172</ref>, <ref target='Pg173'>173</ref>, <ref target='Pg175'>175</ref>, <ref target='Pg179'>179</ref>, <ref target='Pg183'>183</ref>, <ref target='Pg192'>192</ref>, <ref target='Pg198'>198</ref>, <ref target='Pg219'>219</ref>, <ref target='Pg220'>220</ref>, <ref target='Pg222'>222</ref>, <ref target='Pg285'>285</ref>, <ref target='Pg286'>286</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ba-Thonga, the, <ref target='Pg141'>141</ref>, <ref target='Pg154'>154</ref>, <ref target='Pg163'>163</ref>, <ref target='Pg202'>202</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id='Index-Battas'/> +<l>Battas or Bataks of Sumatra, <ref target='Pg034'>34</ref>, <ref target='Pg045'>45</ref>, <ref target='Pg046'>46</ref>, <ref target='Pg065'>65</ref>, <ref target='Pg116'>116</ref>, <ref target='Pg296'>296</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bavili, the, <ref target='Pg078'>78</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bawenda, the, <ref target='Pg243'>243</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bayazid, the Sultan, and his soul, <ref target='Pg050'>50</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Beans, prohibition to touch or name, <ref target='Pg013'>13</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bear, the polar, taboos concerning, <ref target='Pg209'>209</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>customs observed by Lapps after killing a, <ref target='Pg221'>221</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bears not to be called by their proper names, <ref target='Pg397'>397</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg399'>399</ref>, <ref target='Pg402'>402</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bechuanas, purification of manslayers among the, <ref target='Pg172'>172</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg174'>174</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bed, feet of, smeared with mud, <ref target='Pg014'>14</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>prohibition to sleep in a, <ref target='Pg194'>194</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Beef and milk not to be eaten at the same meal, <ref target='Pg292'>292</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Beer, continence observed at brewing, <ref target='Pg200'>200</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bells as talismans, <ref target='Pg235'>235</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Benin, kings of, <ref target='Pg123'>123</ref>, <ref target='Pg243'>243</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bentley, R., <ref target='Pg033'>33</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi><hi rend='vertical-align: super'>3</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Besisis, the, <ref target='Pg087'>87</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Beveridge, P., <ref target='Pg363'>363</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bird, soul conceived as a, <ref target='Pg033'>33</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Birds, ghosts of slain as, <ref target='Pg177'>177</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>cause headache through clipped hair, <ref target='Pg270'>270</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg282'>282</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Birth from a golden image, pretence of, <ref target='Pg113'>113</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>premature, <ref target='Pg213'>213</ref>. <hi rend='italic'>See</hi> <ref target='Index-Miscarriage'>Miscarriage</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bismarck Archipelago, <ref target='Pg128'>128</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bites of ants used as purificatory ceremony, <ref target='Pg105'>105</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Blackening faces of warriors, <ref target='Pg163'>163</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of manslayers, <ref target='Pg169'>169</ref>, <ref target='Pg178'>178</ref>, <ref target='Pg181'>181</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Blackfoot Indians, <ref target='Pg159'>159</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Black Mountain of southern France, <ref target='Pg042'>42</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— ox or black ram in magic, <ref target='Pg154'>154</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bladders, annual festival of, among the Esquimaux, <ref target='Pg206'>206</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg228'>228</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><q>Blessers</q> or sacred kings, <ref target='Pg125'>125</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Blood put on doorposts, <ref target='Pg015'>15</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of slain, supposed effect of it on the slayer, <ref target='Pg169'>169</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>smeared on person as a purification, <ref target='Pg104'>104</ref>, <ref target='Pg115'>115</ref>, <ref target='Pg219'>219</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>drawn from bodies of manslayers, <ref target='Pg176'>176</ref>, <ref target='Pg180'>180</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>tabooed, <ref target='Pg239'>239</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>not eaten, <ref target='Pg240'>240</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>soul in the, <ref target='Pg240'>240</ref>, <ref target='Pg241'>241</ref>, <ref target='Pg247'>247</ref>, <ref target='Pg250'>250</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of game poured out, <ref target='Pg241'>241</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>royal, not to be shed on the ground, <ref target='Pg241'>241</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>unwillingness to shed, <ref target='Pg243'>243</ref>, <ref target='Pg246'>246</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>received on bodies of kinsfolk, <ref target='Pg244'>244</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>drops of, effaced, <ref target='Pg245'>245</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>horror of, <ref target='Pg245'>245</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of chief sacred, <ref target='Pg248'>248</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of women, dread of, <ref target='Pg250'>250</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— of childbirth, supposed dangerous infection of, <ref target='Pg152'>152</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>received on heads of friends or slaves, <ref target='Pg245'>245</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— -lickers, <ref target='Pg246'>246</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Blowing upon knots, as a charm, <ref target='Pg302'>302</ref>, <ref target='Pg304'>304</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Boa-constrictor, purification of man who has killed a, <ref target='Pg221'>221</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Boars, wild, not to be called by their proper names, <ref target='Pg411'>411</ref>, <ref target='Pg415'>415</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Boas, Dr. Franz, <ref target='Pg210'>210</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg214'>214</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bodia or Bodio, a West African pontiff or fetish king, <ref target='Pg014'>14</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg023'>23</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bodies, souls transferred to other, <ref target='Pg049'>49</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bodos, the, of Assam, <ref target='Pg285'>285</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Boiled flesh tabooed, <ref target='Pg185'>185</ref></l> +</lg> + +<pb n='429'/><anchor id='Pg429'/> + +<lg> +<l>Bolang Mongondo, a district in Celebes, <ref target='Pg053'>53</ref>, <ref target='Pg279'>279</ref>, <ref target='Pg341'>341</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bonds, no man in bonds allowed in priest's house, <ref target='Pg014'>14</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bones of human bodies which have been eaten, special treatment of, <ref target='Pg189'>189</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of the dead, their treatment after the decay of the flesh, <ref target='Pg372'>372</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi><hi rend='vertical-align: super'>5</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of dead disinterred and scraped, <ref target='Pg373'>373</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Boobies, the, <ref target='Pg008'>8</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Born again, pretence of being, <ref target='Pg113'>113</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bornu, Sultan of, <ref target='Pg120'>120</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bororos, the, <ref target='Pg034'>34</ref>, <ref target='Pg036'>36</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bourke, Captain J. G., <ref target='Pg184'>184</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Box, strayed soul caught in, <ref target='Pg045'>45</ref>, <ref target='Pg070'>70</ref>, <ref target='Pg076'>76</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bracelets as amulets, <ref target='Pg315'>315</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Brahman student, his cut hair and nails, <ref target='Pg277'>277</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Brahmans, their common and secret names, <ref target='Pg322'>322</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Branches used in exorcism, <ref target='Pg109'>109</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Breath of chief sacred, <ref target='Pg136'>136</ref>, <ref target='Pg256'>256</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Breathing on a person as a mode of purification, <ref target='Pg149'>149</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Brewing, continence observed at, <ref target='Pg200'>200</ref>, <ref target='Pg201'>201</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bribri Indians, their ideas as to the uncleanness of women, <ref target='Pg147'>147</ref>, <ref target='Pg149'>149</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bride and bridegrooms, all knots on their garments unloosed, <ref target='Pg299'>299</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bronze employed in expiatory rites, <ref target='Pg226'>226</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi><hi rend='vertical-align: super'>6</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>priests to be shaved with, <ref target='Pg226'>226</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— knife to cut priest's hair, <ref target='Pg014'>14</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Brother and sister not allowed to mention each other's names, <ref target='Pg344'>344</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Brothers-in-law, their names not to be pronounced, <ref target='Pg338'>338</ref>, <ref target='Pg342'>342</ref>, <ref target='Pg343'>343</ref>, <ref target='Pg344'>344</ref>, <ref target='Pg345'>345</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Buddha, Footprint of, <ref target='Pg275'>275</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Building shadows into foundations, <ref target='Pg089'>89</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign rend='italic'>Bukuru</foreign>, unclean, <ref target='Pg147'>147</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bulgarian building custom, <ref target='Pg089'>89</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Burghead, <ref target='Pg230'>230</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id='Index-Burial'/> +<l>Burial under a running stream, <ref target='Pg015'>15</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— customs to prevent the escape of the soul, <ref target='Pg051'>51</ref>, <ref target='Pg052'>52</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id='Index-Burials'/> +<l>Burials, customs as to shadows at, <ref target='Pg080'>80</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Burma, kings of, <ref target='Pg375'>375</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Burmese conception of the soul as a butterfly, <ref target='Pg051'>51</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Burning cut hair and nails to prevent them being used in sorcery, <ref target='Pg281'>281</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Buryat shaman, his mode of recovering lost souls, <ref target='Pg056'>56</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Butterfly, the soul as a, <ref target='Pg029'>29</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi><hi rend='vertical-align: super'>1</hi>, <ref target='Pg051'>51</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cacongo, King of, <ref target='Pg115'>115</ref>, <ref target='Pg118'>118</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Caffre customs at circumcision, <ref target='Pg156'>156</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Caffres, <q>women's speech</q> among the, <ref target='Pg335'>335</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Calabar, fetish king at, <ref target='Pg022'>22</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Calabashes, souls shut up in, <ref target='Pg072'>72</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Calchaquis Indians, <ref target='Pg031'>31</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Californian Indians, <ref target='Pg352'>352</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cambodia, kings of, <ref target='Pg376'>376</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Camden, W., <ref target='Pg068'>68</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Campbell, J., <ref target='Pg384'>384</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Camphor, special language employed by searchers for, <ref target='Pg405'>405</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Canelos Indians, <ref target='Pg097'>97</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cannibalism at hair-cutting, <ref target='Pg264'>264</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cannibals, taboos imposed on, among the Kwakiutl, <ref target='Pg188'>188</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Canoe, fish offered to, <ref target='Pg195'>195</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Canoes, continence observed at building, <ref target='Pg202'>202</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Captives killed and eaten, <ref target='Pg179'>179</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Carayahis, the, <ref target='Pg348'>348</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Caribou, taboos concerning, <ref target='Pg208'>208</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Caribs, difference of language between men and women among the, <ref target='Pg348'>348</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Caroline Islands, <ref target='Pg025'>25</ref>, <ref target='Pg193'>193</ref>, <ref target='Pg290'>290</ref>, <ref target='Pg293'>293</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Caron's <hi rend='italic'>Account of Japan</hi>, <ref target='Pg004'>4</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi><hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Carrier Indians, <ref target='Pg215'>215</ref>, <ref target='Pg367'>367</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Catat, Dr., <ref target='Pg098'>98</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Catlin, G., <ref target='Pg182'>182</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cats with stumpy tails, reason of, <ref target='Pg128'>128</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cattle, continence observed for sake of, <ref target='Pg204'>204</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>protected against wolves by charms, <ref target='Pg307'>307</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Caul-fat extracted by Australian enemies, <ref target='Pg303'>303</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><q>Cauld airn,</q> <ref target='Pg233'>233</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cazembes, the, <ref target='Pg132'>132</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Celebes, <ref target='Pg032'>32</ref>, <ref target='Pg033'>33</ref>, <ref target='Pg035'>35</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>hooking souls in, <ref target='Pg030'>30</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Celibacy of holy milkmen, <ref target='Pg015'>15</ref>, <ref target='Pg016'>16</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ceremonial purity observed in war, <ref target='Pg157'>157</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ceremonies at the reception of strangers, <ref target='Pg102'>102</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>at entering a strange land, <ref target='Pg109'>109</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>purificatory, on return from a journey, <ref target='Pg111'>111</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>observed after slaughter of panthers, lions, bears, serpents, etc., <ref target='Pg219'>219</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>at hair-cutting, <ref target='Pg264'>264</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cetchwayo, King, <ref target='Pg377'>377</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Chams, the, <ref target='Pg202'>202</ref>, <ref target='Pg297'>297</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Change of language caused by taboo on the names of the dead, <ref target='Pg358'>358</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg375'>375</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>caused by taboo on names of chiefs and kings, <ref target='Pg375'>375</ref>, <ref target='Pg376'>376</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— of names to deceive ghosts, <ref target='Pg354'>354</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Charms to facilitate childbirth, <ref target='Pg295'>295</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Chastity. <hi rend='italic'>See</hi> <ref target='Index-Continence'>Continence</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign rend='italic'>Chegilla</foreign>, taboo, <ref target='Pg137'>137</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cheremiss, the, <ref target='Pg391'>391</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cherokee sorcery with spittle, <ref target='Pg287'>287</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Chiefs, foods tabooed to, <ref target='Pg291'>291</ref>, <ref target='Pg292'>292</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>names of, tabooed, <ref target='Pg376'>376</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg378'>378</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg381'>381</ref>, <ref target='Pg382'>382</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— and kings tabooed, <ref target='Pg131'>131</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— sacred, not allowed to leave their +<pb n='430'/><anchor id='Pg430'/> +enclosures, <ref target='Pg124'>124</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>regarded as dangerous, <ref target='Pg138'>138</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Child and father, supposed danger of resemblance between, <ref target='Pg088'>88</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Child's nails bitten off, <ref target='Pg262'>262</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Childbed, taboos imposed on women in, <ref target='Pg147'>147</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id='Index-Childbirth'/> +<l>Childbirth, precautions taken with mother at, <ref target='Pg032'>32</ref>, <ref target='Pg033'>33</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>women tabooed at, <ref target='Pg147'>147</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>confession of sins as a means of expediting, <ref target='Pg216'>216</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>women after, their hair shaved and burnt, <ref target='Pg284'>284</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>homoeopathic magic to facilitate, <ref target='Pg295'>295</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>knots untied at, <ref target='Pg294'>294</ref>, <ref target='Pg296'>296</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg297'>297</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Children, young, tabooed, <ref target='Pg262'>262</ref>, <ref target='Pg283'>283</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>parents named after their, <ref target='Pg331'>331</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Chiloe, Indians of, <ref target='Pg287'>287</ref>, <ref target='Pg324'>324</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>China, custom at funerals in, <ref target='Pg080'>80</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Emperor of, <ref target='Pg125'>125</ref>, <ref target='Pg375'>375</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Chitomé or Chitombé, a pontiff of Congo, <ref target='Pg005'>5</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg007'>7</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Chittagong, <ref target='Pg297'>297</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Choctaws, the, <ref target='Pg181'>181</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Chuckchees, the, <ref target='Pg358'>358</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Circumcision customs among the Caffres, <ref target='Pg156'>156</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>performed with flints, not iron, <ref target='Pg227'>227</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Australia, <ref target='Pg244'>244</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Circumlocutions adopted to avoid naming the dead, <ref target='Pg350'>350</ref>, <ref target='Pg351'>351</ref>, <ref target='Pg354'>354</ref>, <ref target='Pg355'>355</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>employed by reapers, <ref target='Pg412'>412</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cities, guardian deities of, evoked by enemies, <ref target='Pg391'>391</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Clasping of hands forbidden, <ref target='Pg298'>298</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign rend='italic'>Clavie</foreign>, the, at Burghead, <ref target='Pg229'>229</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cleanliness fostered by superstition, <ref target='Pg130'>130</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>personal, observed in war, <ref target='Pg157'>157</ref>, <ref target='Pg158'>158</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi><hi rend='vertical-align: super'>1</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Clippings of hair, magic wrought through, <ref target='Pg268'>268</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg275'>275</ref>, <ref target='Pg277'>277</ref>, <ref target='Pg278'>278</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Clotaire, <ref target='Pg259'>259</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Clothes of sacred persons tabooed, <ref target='Pg131'>131</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cloths used to catch souls, <ref target='Pg046'>46</ref>, <ref target='Pg047'>47</ref>, <ref target='Pg048'>48</ref>, <ref target='Pg052'>52</ref>, <ref target='Pg053'>53</ref>, <ref target='Pg064'>64</ref>, <ref target='Pg067'>67</ref>, <ref target='Pg075'>75</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Clotilde, Queen, <ref target='Pg259'>259</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cobra, ceremonies after killing a, <ref target='Pg222'>222</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Coco-nut oil made by chaste women, <ref target='Pg201'>201</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign rend='italic'>Codjour</foreign>, a priestly king, <ref target='Pg132'>132</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi><hi rend='vertical-align: super'>1</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Coins, portraits of kings not stamped on, <ref target='Pg098'>98</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Comanches, the, <ref target='Pg360'>360</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Combing the hair forbidden, <ref target='Pg187'>187</ref>, <ref target='Pg203'>203</ref>, <ref target='Pg208'>208</ref>, <ref target='Pg264'>264</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>thought to cause storms, <ref target='Pg271'>271</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Combs of sacred persons, <ref target='Pg256'>256</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Common objects, names of, changed when they are the names of the dead, <ref target='Pg358'>358</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg375'>375</ref>, or the names of chiefs and kings, <ref target='Pg375'>375</ref>, <ref target='Pg376'>376</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— words tabooed, <ref target='Pg392'>392</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Concealment of miscarriage in childbed, supposed effects of, <ref target='Pg152'>152</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Concealment of personal names from fear of magic, <ref target='Pg320'>320</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Conciliating the spirits of the land, <ref target='Pg110'>110</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Conduct, standard of, shifted from natural to supernatural basis, <ref target='Pg213'>213</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Confession of sins, <ref target='Pg114'>114</ref>, <ref target='Pg191'>191</ref>, <ref target='Pg195'>195</ref>, <ref target='Pg211'>211</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg214'>214</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>originally a magical ceremony, <ref target='Pg217'>217</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Connaught, kings of, <ref target='Pg011'>11</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Consummation of marriage prevented by knots and locks, <ref target='Pg299'>299</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Contagious magic, <ref target='Pg246'>246</ref>, <ref target='Pg268'>268</ref>, <ref target='Pg272'>272</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id='Index-Continence'/> +<l>Continence enjoined on people during the rounds of sacred pontiff, <ref target='Pg005'>5</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of Zapotec priests, <ref target='Pg006'>6</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of priests, <ref target='Pg159'>159</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— observed on eve of period of taboo, <ref target='Pg011'>11</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>by those who have handled the dead, <ref target='Pg142'>142</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>during war, <ref target='Pg157'>157</ref>, <ref target='Pg158'>158</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi><hi rend='vertical-align: super'>1</hi>, <ref target='Pg161'>161</ref>, <ref target='Pg163'>163</ref>, <ref target='Pg164'>164</ref>, <ref target='Pg165'>165</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>after victory, <ref target='Pg166'>166</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg175'>175</ref>, <ref target='Pg178'>178</ref>, <ref target='Pg179'>179</ref>, <ref target='Pg181'>181</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>by cannibals, <ref target='Pg188'>188</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>by fishers and hunters, <ref target='Pg191'>191</ref>, <ref target='Pg192'>192</ref>, <ref target='Pg193'>193</ref>, <ref target='Pg194'>194</ref>, <ref target='Pg195'>195</ref>, <ref target='Pg196'>196</ref>, <ref target='Pg197'>197</ref>, <ref target='Pg198'>198</ref>, <ref target='Pg207'>207</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>by workers in salt-pans, <ref target='Pg200'>200</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>at brewing beer, wine, and poison, <ref target='Pg200'>200</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg201'>201</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>at baking, <ref target='Pg201'>201</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>at making coco-nut oil, <ref target='Pg201'>201</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>at building canoes, <ref target='Pg202'>202</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>at house-building, <ref target='Pg202'>202</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>at making or repairing dams, <ref target='Pg202'>202</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on trading voyages, <ref target='Pg203'>203</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>after festivals, <ref target='Pg204'>204</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on journeys, <ref target='Pg204'>204</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>while cattle are at pasture, <ref target='Pg204'>204</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>by lion-killers and bear-killers, <ref target='Pg220'>220</ref>, <ref target='Pg221'>221</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>before handling holy relics, <ref target='Pg272'>272</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>by tabooed men, <ref target='Pg293'>293</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cooking, taboos as to, <ref target='Pg147'>147</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg156'>156</ref>, <ref target='Pg165'>165</ref>, <ref target='Pg169'>169</ref>, <ref target='Pg178'>178</ref>, <ref target='Pg185'>185</ref>, <ref target='Pg193'>193</ref>, <ref target='Pg194'>194</ref>, <ref target='Pg198'>198</ref>, <ref target='Pg209'>209</ref>, <ref target='Pg221'>221</ref>, <ref target='Pg256'>256</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Coptic church, <ref target='Pg235'>235</ref>, <ref target='Pg310'>310</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi><hi rend='vertical-align: super'>5</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id='Index-Cords'/> +<l>Cords, knotted, in magic, <ref target='Pg302'>302</ref>, <ref target='Pg303'>303</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Corea, clipped hair burned in, <ref target='Pg283'>283</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— kings of, <ref target='Pg125'>125</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>not to be touched with iron, <ref target='Pg226'>226</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Corpses, knots not allowed about, <ref target='Pg310'>310</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cousins, male and female, not allowed to mention each other's names, <ref target='Pg344'>344</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Covenant, spittle used in making a, <ref target='Pg290'>290</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Covering up mirrors at a death, <ref target='Pg094'>94</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cow bewitched, <ref target='Pg093'>93</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cowboy of the king of Unyoro, <ref target='Pg159'>159</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Creek Indians, the, <ref target='Pg156'>156</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>their war customs, <ref target='Pg161'>161</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Crevaux, J., <ref target='Pg105'>105</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Criminals shaved as a mode of purification, <ref target='Pg287'>287</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Crocodiles not called by their proper names, <ref target='Pg403'>403</ref>, <ref target='Pg410'>410</ref>, <ref target='Pg411'>411</ref>, <ref target='Pg415'>415</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Crossing of legs forbidden, <ref target='Pg295'>295</ref>, <ref target='Pg298'>298</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Crown, imperial, as palladium, <ref target='Pg004'>4</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Crystals used in divination, <ref target='Pg056'>56</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Curr, E. M., <ref target='Pg320'>320</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cursing at Athens, ritual of, <ref target='Pg075'>75</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— an enemy, Arab mode of, <ref target='Pg312'>312</ref></l> +</lg> + +<pb n='431'/><anchor id='Pg431'/> + +<lg> +<l>Curtains to conceal kings, <ref target='Pg120'>120</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cut hair and nails, disposal of, <ref target='Pg267'>267</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id='Index-Cuts'/> +<l>Cuts made in the body as a mode of expelling demons or ghosts, <ref target='Pg106'>106</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in bodies of manslayers, <ref target='Pg174'>174</ref>, <ref target='Pg176'>176</ref>, <ref target='Pg180'>180</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in bodies of slain, <ref target='Pg176'>176</ref>. <hi rend='italic'>See also</hi> <ref target='Index-Incisions'>Incisions</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cutting the hair a purificatory ceremony, <ref target='Pg283'>283</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cynaetha, people of, <ref target='Pg188'>188</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cyzicus, council chamber at, <ref target='Pg230'>230</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Dacotas, the, <ref target='Pg181'>181</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Dahomey, the King of, <ref target='Pg009'>9</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>royal family of, <ref target='Pg243'>243</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>kings of, their <q>strong names,</q> <ref target='Pg374'>374</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Dairi, the, or Mikado of Japan, <ref target='Pg002'>2</ref>, <ref target='Pg004'>4</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Dairies, sacred, of the Todas, <ref target='Pg015'>15</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Dairymen, sacred, of the Todas, <ref target='Pg015'>15</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Damaras, the, <ref target='Pg247'>247</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Dams, continence at making or repairing, <ref target='Pg202'>202</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Dance of king, <ref target='Pg123'>123</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of successful head-hunters, <ref target='Pg166'>166</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Dances of victory, <ref target='Pg169'>169</ref>, <ref target='Pg170'>170</ref>, <ref target='Pg178'>178</ref>, <ref target='Pg182'>182</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Danger of being overshadowed by certain birds or people, <ref target='Pg082'>82</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>supposed, of portraits and photographs, <ref target='Pg096'>96</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>supposed to attend contact with divine or sacred persons, such as chiefs and kings, <ref target='Pg132'>132</ref>, <ref target='Pg138'>138</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Darfur, <ref target='Pg081'>81</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Sultan of, <ref target='Pg120'>120</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Dassera, festival of the, <ref target='Pg316'>316</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Daughter-in-law, her name not to be pronounced, <ref target='Pg338'>338</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>David and the King of Moab, <ref target='Pg273'>273</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Dawson, J., <ref target='Pg347'>347</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Dead, sacrifices to the, <ref target='Pg015'>15</ref>, <ref target='Pg088'>88</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>taboos on persons who have handled the, <ref target='Pg138'>138</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>souls of the dead all malignant, <ref target='Pg145'>145</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>names of the dead tabooed, <ref target='Pg349'>349</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>to name the dead a serious crime, <ref target='Pg352'>352</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>names of the dead not borne by the living, <ref target='Pg354'>354</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>reincarnation or resurrection of the dead in their namesakes, <ref target='Pg365'>365</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>festivals of the, <ref target='Pg367'>367</ref>, <ref target='Pg371'>371</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— body, prohibition to touch, <ref target='Pg014'>14</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Death, natural, of sacred king or priest, supposed fatal consequences of, <ref target='Pg006'>6</ref>, <ref target='Pg007'>7</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>kept off by arrows, <ref target='Pg031'>31</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>mourners forbidden to sleep in house after a death, <ref target='Pg037'>37</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>custom of covering up mirrors at a, <ref target='Pg094'>94</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>from imagination, <ref target='Pg135'>135</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Debt of civilisation to savagery, <ref target='Pg421'>421</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Defiled hands, <ref target='Pg174'>174</ref>. <hi rend='italic'>See</hi> <ref target='Index-Hands'>Hands</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>De Groot, J. J. M., <ref target='Pg390'>390</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Demons, abduction of souls by, <ref target='Pg058'>58</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of disease expelled by pungent spices, pricks, and cuts, <ref target='Pg105'>105</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>and ghosts averse to iron, <ref target='Pg232'>232</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Devils, abduction of souls by, <ref target='Pg058'>58</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Dido, her magical rites, <ref target='Pg312'>312</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Diet of kings and priests regulated, <ref target='Pg291'>291</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Dieterich, A., <ref target='Pg369'>369</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi><hi rend='vertical-align: super'>3</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Difference of language between husbands and wives, <ref target='Pg347'>347</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>between men and women, <ref target='Pg348'>348</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Diminution of shadow regarded with apprehension, <ref target='Pg086'>86</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Dio Chrysostom, on fame as a shadow, <ref target='Pg086'>86</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Diodorus Siculus, <ref target='Pg012'>12</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Dionysus in the city, festival of, <ref target='Pg316'>316</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Disease, demons of, expelled by pungent spices, pricks, and cuts, <ref target='Pg105'>105</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Disenchanting strangers, various modes of, <ref target='Pg102'>102</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Dishes, effect of eating out of sacred, <ref target='Pg004'>4</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of sacred persons tabooed, <ref target='Pg131'>131</ref>. <hi rend='italic'>See</hi> <ref target='Index-Vessels'>Vessels</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Disposal of cut hair and nails, <ref target='Pg267'>267</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Divination by shoulder-blades of sheep, <ref target='Pg229'>229</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Divinities, human, bound by many rules, <ref target='Pg419'>419</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Divorce of spiritual from temporal power, <ref target='Pg017'>17</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Dobrizhoffer, Father M., <ref target='Pg328'>328</ref>, <ref target='Pg360'>360</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Dog, prohibition to touch or name, <ref target='Pg013'>13</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Dogs, bones of game kept from, <ref target='Pg206'>206</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>unclean, <ref target='Pg206'>206</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>tigers called, <ref target='Pg402'>402</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Dolls or puppets employed for the restoration of souls to their bodies, <ref target='Pg053'>53</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg062'>62</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Doorposts, blood put on, <ref target='Pg015'>15</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Doors opened to facilitate childbirth, <ref target='Pg296'>296</ref>, <ref target='Pg297'>297</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>to facilitate death, <ref target='Pg309'>309</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Doubles, spiritual, of men and animals, <ref target='Pg028'>28</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Doutté, E., <ref target='Pg390'>390</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Dreams, absence of soul in, <ref target='Pg036'>36</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>belief of savages in the reality of, <ref target='Pg036'>36</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>omens drawn from, <ref target='Pg161'>161</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Drinking and eating, taboos on, <ref target='Pg116'>116</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>modes of drinking for tabooed persons, <ref target='Pg117'>117</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg120'>120</ref>, <ref target='Pg143'>143</ref>, <ref target='Pg146'>146</ref>, <ref target='Pg147'>147</ref>, <ref target='Pg148'>148</ref>, <ref target='Pg160'>160</ref>, <ref target='Pg182'>182</ref>, <ref target='Pg183'>183</ref>, <ref target='Pg185'>185</ref>, <ref target='Pg189'>189</ref>, <ref target='Pg197'>197</ref>, <ref target='Pg198'>198</ref>, <ref target='Pg256'>256</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Drought supposed to be caused by a concealed miscarriage, <ref target='Pg153'>153</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Dugong fishing, taboos in connexion with, <ref target='Pg192'>192</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Dyaks, the Sea, <ref target='Pg030'>30</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>their modes of recalling the soul, <ref target='Pg047'>47</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg052'>52</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg055'>55</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg060'>60</ref>, <ref target='Pg067'>67</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>taboos observed by head-hunters among the, <ref target='Pg166'>166</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Eagle, soul in form of, <ref target='Pg034'>34</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— -hunters, taboos observed by, <ref target='Pg198'>198</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<pb n='432'/><anchor id='Pg432'/> + +<lg> +<l>Eagle-wood, special language employed by searchers for, <ref target='Pg404'>404</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Eating out of sacred vessels, supposed effect of, <ref target='Pg004'>4</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— and drinking, taboos on, <ref target='Pg116'>116</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>fear of being seen in the act of, <ref target='Pg117'>117</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Eggs offered to demons, <ref target='Pg110'>110</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>reason for breaking shells of, <ref target='Pg129'>129</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Egypt, rules of life observed by ancient kings of, <ref target='Pg012'>12</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Egyptian magicians, their power of compelling the deities, <ref target='Pg389'>389</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Egyptians, the ancient, their conception of the soul, <ref target='Pg028'>28</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>their practice as to souls of the dead, <ref target='Pg068'>68</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>personal names among, <ref target='Pg322'>322</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Elder brother, his name not to be pronounced, <ref target='Pg341'>341</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Elder-tree, cut hair and nails inserted in an, <ref target='Pg275'>275</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Elephant-hunters, special language employed by, <ref target='Pg404'>404</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Eleusinian priests, their names sacred, <ref target='Pg382'>382</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Elfin race averse to iron, <ref target='Pg232'>232</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Emetic as mode of purification, <ref target='Pg175'>175</ref>, <ref target='Pg245'>245</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>pretended, in auricular confession, <ref target='Pg214'>214</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Emin Pasha, <ref target='Pg108'>108</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Epidemics attributed to evil spirits, <ref target='Pg030'>30</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Epimenides, the Cretan seer, <ref target='Pg050'>50</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi><hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id='Index-Esquimaux'/> +<l>Esquimaux, their conception of the soul, <ref target='Pg027'>27</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>their dread of being photographed, <ref target='Pg096'>96</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>or Inuit, taboos observed by hunters among the, <ref target='Pg205'>205</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>namesakes of the dead among the, <ref target='Pg371'>371</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Esthonians, the, <ref target='Pg041'>41</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg240'>240</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ethical evolution, <ref target='Pg218'>218</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— precepts developed out of savage taboos, <ref target='Pg214'>214</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ethiopia, kings of, <ref target='Pg124'>124</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Euphemisms employed for certain animals, <ref target='Pg397'>397</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>for smallpox, <ref target='Pg400'>400</ref>, <ref target='Pg410'>410</ref>, <ref target='Pg411'>411</ref>, <ref target='Pg416'>416</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Europe, south-eastern, superstitions as to shadows in, <ref target='Pg089'>89</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Evil eye, the, <ref target='Pg116'>116</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ewe-speaking peoples of the Slave Coast, <ref target='Pg009'>9</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>rebirth of ancestors among the, <ref target='Pg369'>369</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Execution, peculiar modes of, for members of royal families, <ref target='Pg241'>241</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Executioners, customs observed by, <ref target='Pg171'>171</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg180'>180</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Exorcising harmful influence of strangers, <ref target='Pg102'>102</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Eye, the evil, <ref target='Pg116'>116</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Eyeos, the, <ref target='Pg009'>9</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Faces veiled to avert evil influences, <ref target='Pg120'>120</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of warriors blackened, <ref target='Pg163'>163</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of manslayers blackened, <ref target='Pg169'>169</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign rend='italic'>Fàdy</foreign>, taboo, <ref target='Pg327'>327</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Fafnir and Sigurd, <ref target='Pg324'>324</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Fairies averse to iron, <ref target='Pg229'>229</ref>, <ref target='Pg232'>232</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Fasting, custom of, <ref target='Pg157'>157</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi><hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi>, <ref target='Pg159'>159</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi>, <ref target='Pg161'>161</ref>, <ref target='Pg162'>162</ref>, <ref target='Pg163'>163</ref>, <ref target='Pg182'>182</ref>, <ref target='Pg183'>183</ref>, <ref target='Pg189'>189</ref>, <ref target='Pg198'>198</ref>, <ref target='Pg199'>199</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Father and child, supposed danger of resemblance between, <ref target='Pg088'>88</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— and mother, their names not to be mentioned, <ref target='Pg337'>337</ref>, <ref target='Pg341'>341</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— in-law, his name not to be pronounced by his daughter-in-law, <ref target='Pg335'>335</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg343'>343</ref>, <ref target='Pg345'>345</ref>, <ref target='Pg346'>346</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>by his son-in-law, <ref target='Pg338'>338</ref>, <ref target='Pg339'>339</ref>, <ref target='Pg340'>340</ref>, <ref target='Pg341'>341</ref>, <ref target='Pg342'>342</ref>, <ref target='Pg343'>343</ref>, <ref target='Pg344'>344</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Fathers named after their children, <ref target='Pg331'>331</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Faunus, consultation of, <ref target='Pg314'>314</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Feast of Yams, <ref target='Pg123'>123</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Feathers worn by manslayers, <ref target='Pg180'>180</ref>, <ref target='Pg186'>186</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi><hi rend='vertical-align: super'>1</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id='Index-Feet'/> +<l>Feet, not to wet the, <ref target='Pg159'>159</ref>. <hi rend='italic'>See also</hi> <ref target='Index-Foot'>Foot</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Fernando Po, taboos observed by the kings of, <ref target='Pg008'>8</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg115'>115</ref>, <ref target='Pg123'>123</ref>, <ref target='Pg291'>291</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Festival of the Dead among the Hurons, <ref target='Pg367'>367</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Fetish or taboo rajah, <ref target='Pg024'>24</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— kings in West Africa, <ref target='Pg022'>22</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Fever, euphemism for, <ref target='Pg400'>400</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><q>Field speech,</q> a special jargon employed by reapers, <ref target='Pg410'>410</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg411'>411</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Fiji, catching away souls in, <ref target='Pg069'>69</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>War King and Sacred King in, <ref target='Pg021'>21</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>custom as to remains of food in, <ref target='Pg117'>117</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Fijian chief, supposed effect of using his dishes or clothes, <ref target='Pg131'>131</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— conception of the soul, <ref target='Pg029'>29</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg092'>92</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— custom of frightening away ghosts, <ref target='Pg170'>170</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— notion of absence of the soul in dreams, <ref target='Pg039'>39</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Fingers cut off as a sacrifice, <ref target='Pg161'>161</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Finnish hunters, <ref target='Pg398'>398</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Fire, rule as to removing fire from priest's house, <ref target='Pg013'>13</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>prohibition to blow the fire with the breath, <ref target='Pg136'>136</ref>, <ref target='Pg256'>256</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in purificatory rites, <ref target='Pg108'>108</ref>, <ref target='Pg109'>109</ref>, <ref target='Pg111'>111</ref>, <ref target='Pg114'>114</ref>, <ref target='Pg197'>197</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>tabooed, <ref target='Pg178'>178</ref>, <ref target='Pg182'>182</ref>, <ref target='Pg256'>256</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>new, made by friction, <ref target='Pg286'>286</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— and Water, kingships of, <ref target='Pg017'>17</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Firefly, soul in form of, <ref target='Pg067'>67</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>First-fruits, offering of, <ref target='Pg005'>5</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Fish-traps, continence observed at making, <ref target='Pg202'>202</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Fishermen, words tabooed by, <ref target='Pg394'>394</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg396'>396</ref>, <ref target='Pg408'>408</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg415'>415</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Fishers and hunters tabooed, <ref target='Pg190'>190</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Fison, Rev. Lorimer, <ref target='Pg030'>30</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi><hi rend='vertical-align: super'>1</hi>, <ref target='Pg040'>40</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi><hi rend='vertical-align: super'>1</hi>, <ref target='Pg092'>92</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi><hi rend='vertical-align: super'>3</hi>, <ref target='Pg131'>131</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi><hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Fits and convulsions set down to demons, <ref target='Pg059'>59</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Flamen Dialis, taboos observed by the, <ref target='Pg013'>13</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg239'>239</ref>, <ref target='Pg248'>248</ref>, <ref target='Pg257'>257</ref>, <ref target='Pg275'>275</ref>, <ref target='Pg291'>291</ref>, <ref target='Pg293'>293</ref>, <ref target='Pg315'>315</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<pb n='433'/><anchor id='Pg433'/> + +<lg> +<l>Flaminica, rules observed by the, <ref target='Pg014'>14</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Flannan Islands, <ref target='Pg392'>392</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Flesh, boiled, not to be eaten by tabooed persons, <ref target='Pg185'>185</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>diet restricted or forbidden, <ref target='Pg291'>291</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Flints, not iron, cuts to be made with, <ref target='Pg176'>176</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>use of, prescribed in ritual, <ref target='Pg176'>176</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>sharp, circumcision performed with, <ref target='Pg227'>227</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Fly, soul in form of, <ref target='Pg039'>39</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Food, remnants of, buried as a precaution against sorcery, <ref target='Pg118'>118</ref>, <ref target='Pg119'>119</ref>, <ref target='Pg127'>127</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg129'>129</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>magic wrought by means of refuse of, <ref target='Pg126'>126</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>taboos on leaving food over, <ref target='Pg127'>127</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>not to be touched with hands, <ref target='Pg138'>138</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg146'>146</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg166'>166</ref>, <ref target='Pg167'>167</ref>, <ref target='Pg168'>168</ref>, <ref target='Pg169'>169</ref>, <ref target='Pg174'>174</ref>, <ref target='Pg203'>203</ref>, <ref target='Pg265'>265</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>objection to have food over head, <ref target='Pg256'>256</ref>, <ref target='Pg257'>257</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Foods tabooed, <ref target='Pg291'>291</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id='Index-Foot'/> +<l>Foot, custom of going with only one foot shod, <ref target='Pg311'>311</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi> <hi rend='italic'>See also</hi> <ref target='Index-Feet'>Feet</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Footprint in magic, <ref target='Pg074'>74</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of Buddha, <ref target='Pg275'>275</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Forgetfulness, pretence of, <ref target='Pg189'>189</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Forks used in eating by tabooed persons, <ref target='Pg148'>148</ref>, <ref target='Pg168'>168</ref>, <ref target='Pg169'>169</ref>, <ref target='Pg203'>203</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Fors, the, of Central Africa, <ref target='Pg281'>281</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Foundation sacrifices, <ref target='Pg089'>89</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Fowl used in exorcism, <ref target='Pg106'>106</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Fowlers, words tabooed by, <ref target='Pg393'>393</ref>, <ref target='Pg407'>407</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Foxes not to be mentioned by their proper names, <ref target='Pg396'>396</ref>, <ref target='Pg397'>397</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Frankish kings, their unshorn hair, <ref target='Pg258'>258</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Fresh meat tabooed, <ref target='Pg143'>143</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Fumigation as a mode of ceremonial purification, <ref target='Pg155'>155</ref>, <ref target='Pg177'>177</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Funerals in China, custom as to shadows at, <ref target='Pg080'>80</ref>. <hi rend='italic'>See also</hi> <ref target='Index-Burial'>Burial</ref>, <ref target='Index-Burials'>Burials</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Furfo, <ref target='Pg230'>230</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Gabriel, the archangel, <ref target='Pg302'>302</ref>, <ref target='Pg303'>303</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign rend='italic'>Gangas</foreign>, fetish priests, <ref target='Pg291'>291</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Garments, effect of wearing sacred, <ref target='Pg004'>4</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Gates, sacrifice of human beings at foundations of, <ref target='Pg090'>90</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Gatschet, A. S., <ref target='Pg363'>363</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Gauntlet, running the, <ref target='Pg222'>222</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Genitals of murdered people eaten, <ref target='Pg190'>190</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi><hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Getae, priestly kings of the, <ref target='Pg021'>21</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ghost of husband kept from his widow, <ref target='Pg143'>143</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>fear of evoking the ghost by mentioning his name, <ref target='Pg349'>349</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>chased into the grave at the end of mourning, <ref target='Pg373'>373</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ghosts, sacrifices to, <ref target='Pg056'>56</ref>, <ref target='Pg247'>247</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>draw away the souls of their kinsfolk, <ref target='Pg051'>51</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>draw out men's shadows, <ref target='Pg080'>80</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>as guardians of gates, <ref target='Pg090'>90</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>kept off by thorns, <ref target='Pg142'>142</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>and demons averse to iron, <ref target='Pg232'>232</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>fear of wounding, <ref target='Pg237'>237</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>swept out of house, <ref target='Pg238'>238</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>names changed in order to deceive ghosts or to avoid attracting their attention, <ref target='Pg354'>354</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ghosts of animals, dread of, <ref target='Pg223'>223</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— of the slain haunt their slayers, <ref target='Pg165'>165</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>fear of the, <ref target='Pg165'>165</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>sacrifices to, <ref target='Pg166'>166</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>scaring away the, <ref target='Pg168'>168</ref>, <ref target='Pg170'>170</ref>, <ref target='Pg171'>171</ref>, <ref target='Pg172'>172</ref>, <ref target='Pg174'>174</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>as birds, <ref target='Pg177'>177</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Gilyaks, the, <ref target='Pg370'>370</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ginger in purificatory rites, <ref target='Pg105'>105</ref>, <ref target='Pg151'>151</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Gingiro, kingdom of, <ref target='Pg018'>18</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Girls at puberty obliged to touch everything in house, <ref target='Pg225'>225</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>their hair torn out, <ref target='Pg284'>284</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Goajiro Indians, <ref target='Pg030'>30</ref>, <ref target='Pg350'>350</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Goat, prohibition to touch or name, <ref target='Pg013'>13</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>transference of guilt to, <ref target='Pg214'>214</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— -sucker, shadow of the, <ref target='Pg082'>82</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>God, <q>the most great name</q> of, <ref target='Pg390'>390</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— -man a source of danger, <ref target='Pg132'>132</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>bound by many rules, <ref target='Pg419'>419</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Gods, their names tabooed, <ref target='Pg387'>387</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Xenophanes on the, <ref target='Pg387'>387</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>human, bound by many rules, <ref target='Pg419'>419</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> <hi rend='italic'>See also</hi> Myths</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Gold excluded from some temples, <ref target='Pg226'>226</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi><hi rend='vertical-align: super'>8</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— and silver as totems, <ref target='Pg227'>227</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— mines, spirits of the, treated with deference, <ref target='Pg409'>409</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Goldie, H., <ref target='Pg022'>22</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Gollas, the, <ref target='Pg149'>149</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Good Friday, <ref target='Pg229'>229</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Goorkhas, the, <ref target='Pg316'>316</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Gordian knot, <ref target='Pg316'>316</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Gran Chaco, Indians of the, <ref target='Pg037'>37</ref>, <ref target='Pg038'>38</ref>, <ref target='Pg357'>357</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Grandfathers, grandsons named after their deceased, <ref target='Pg370'>370</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Grandidier, A., <ref target='Pg380'>380</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Grandmothers, granddaughters named after their deceased, <ref target='Pg370'>370</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Grass knotted as a charm, <ref target='Pg305'>305</ref>, <ref target='Pg310'>310</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Grave, soul fetched from, <ref target='Pg054'>54</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— -clothes, no knots in, <ref target='Pg310'>310</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— -diggers, taboos observed by, <ref target='Pg141'>141</ref>, <ref target='Pg142'>142</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Graves, food offered on, <ref target='Pg053'>53</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>water poured on, as a rain-charm, <ref target='Pg154'>154</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Great Spirit, sacrifice of fingers to the, <ref target='Pg161'>161</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Grebo people of Sierra Leone, <ref target='Pg014'>14</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Greek conception of the soul, <ref target='Pg029'>29</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi><hi rend='vertical-align: super'>1</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— customs as to manslayers, <ref target='Pg188'>188</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Grey, Sir George, <ref target='Pg364'>364</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign rend='italic'>Grihya-Sûtras</foreign>, <ref target='Pg277'>277</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Grimm, J., <ref target='Pg305'>305</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi><hi rend='vertical-align: super'>1</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ground, prohibition to touch the, <ref target='Pg003'>3</ref>, <ref target='Pg004'>4</ref>, <ref target='Pg006'>6</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>not to sit on the, <ref target='Pg159'>159</ref>, <ref target='Pg162'>162</ref>, <ref target='Pg163'>163</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>not to set foot on, <ref target='Pg180'>180</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>royal blood not to be shed on the, <ref target='Pg241'>241</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Guardian deities of cities, <ref target='Pg391'>391</ref></l> +</lg> + +<pb n='434'/><anchor id='Pg434'/> + +<lg> +<l>Guaycurus, the, <ref target='Pg357'>357</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Guiana, Indians of, <ref target='Pg324'>324</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Gypsy superstition about portraits, <ref target='Pg100'>100</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Haida medicine-men, <ref target='Pg031'>31</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hair, mode of cutting the Mikado's, <ref target='Pg003'>3</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>cut with bronze knife, <ref target='Pg014'>14</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of manslayers shaved, <ref target='Pg175'>175</ref>, <ref target='Pg176'>176</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of slain enemy, fetish made from, <ref target='Pg183'>183</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>not to be combed, <ref target='Pg187'>187</ref>, <ref target='Pg203'>203</ref>, <ref target='Pg208'>208</ref>, <ref target='Pg264'>264</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>tabooed, <ref target='Pg258'>258</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of kings, priests, and wizards unshorn, <ref target='Pg258'>258</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>regarded as the seat of a god or spirit, <ref target='Pg258'>258</ref>, <ref target='Pg259'>259</ref>, <ref target='Pg263'>263</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>kept unshorn at certain times, <ref target='Pg260'>260</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>offered to rivers, <ref target='Pg261'>261</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of children unshorn, <ref target='Pg263'>263</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>magic wrought through clippings of, <ref target='Pg268'>268</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg275'>275</ref>, <ref target='Pg277'>277</ref>, <ref target='Pg278'>278</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>cut or combed out may cause rain and thunderstorms, <ref target='Pg271'>271</ref>, <ref target='Pg272'>272</ref>, <ref target='Pg282'>282</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>clippings of, used as hostages, <ref target='Pg272'>272</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>infected by virus of taboo, <ref target='Pg283'>283</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>cut as a purificatory ceremony, <ref target='Pg283'>283</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of women after childbirth shaved and burnt, <ref target='Pg284'>284</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>loosened at childbirth, <ref target='Pg297'>297</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>loosened in magical and religious ceremonies, <ref target='Pg310'>310</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— and nails of sacred persons not cut, <ref target='Pg003'>3</ref>, <ref target='Pg004'>4</ref>, <ref target='Pg016'>16</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— and nails, cut, disposal of, <ref target='Pg267'>267</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>deposited on or under trees, <ref target='Pg014'>14</ref>, <ref target='Pg275'>275</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg286'>286</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>deposited in sacred places, <ref target='Pg274'>274</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>stowed away in any secret place, <ref target='Pg276'>276</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>kept for use at the resurrection, <ref target='Pg279'>279</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>burnt to prevent them from falling into the hands of sorcerers, <ref target='Pg281'>281</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— -cutting, ceremonies at, <ref target='Pg264'>264</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id='Index-Hands'/> +<l>Hands tabooed, <ref target='Pg138'>138</ref>, <ref target='Pg140'>140</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg146'>146</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg158'>158</ref>, <ref target='Pg159'>159</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi>, <ref target='Pg265'>265</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>food not to be touched with, <ref target='Pg138'>138</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg146'>146</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg166'>166</ref>, <ref target='Pg167'>167</ref>, <ref target='Pg168'>168</ref>, <ref target='Pg169'>169</ref>, <ref target='Pg174'>174</ref>, <ref target='Pg265'>265</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>defiled, <ref target='Pg174'>174</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>not to be clasped, <ref target='Pg298'>298</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hanun, King of Moab, <ref target='Pg273'>273</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hawaii, <ref target='Pg072'>72</ref>, <ref target='Pg106'>106</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>customs as to chiefs and shadows in, <ref target='Pg255'>255</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Head, stray souls restored to, <ref target='Pg047'>47</ref>, <ref target='Pg048'>48</ref>, <ref target='Pg052'>52</ref>, <ref target='Pg053'>53</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg064'>64</ref>, <ref target='Pg067'>67</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>prohibition to touch the, <ref target='Pg142'>142</ref>, <ref target='Pg183'>183</ref>, <ref target='Pg189'>189</ref>, <ref target='Pg252'>252</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg254'>254</ref>, <ref target='Pg255'>255</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>plastered with mud, <ref target='Pg182'>182</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the human, regarded as sacred, <ref target='Pg252'>252</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>tabooed, <ref target='Pg252'>252</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>supposed to be the residence of spirits, <ref target='Pg252'>252</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>objection to have any one overhead, <ref target='Pg253'>253</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>washing the, <ref target='Pg253'>253</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— -hunters, customs of, <ref target='Pg030'>30</ref>, <ref target='Pg036'>36</ref>, <ref target='Pg071'>71</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg111'>111</ref>, <ref target='Pg166'>166</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg169'>169</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Headache caused by clipped hair, <ref target='Pg270'>270</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg282'>282</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Heads of manslayers shaved, <ref target='Pg177'>177</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hearne, S., quoted, <ref target='Pg184'>184</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hebesio, god of thunder, <ref target='Pg257'>257</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hercules and Alcmena, <ref target='Pg298'>298</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Herero, the, <ref target='Pg151'>151</ref>, <ref target='Pg177'>177</ref>, <ref target='Pg225'>225</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hermotimus of Clazomenae, <ref target='Pg050'>50</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hidatsa Indians, taboos observed by eagle-hunters among the, <ref target='Pg198'>198</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hierapolis, temple of Astarte at, <ref target='Pg286'>286</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hiro, thief-god, <ref target='Pg069'>69</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Historical tradition hampered by the taboo on the names of the dead, <ref target='Pg363'>363</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Holiness and pollution not differentiated by savages, <ref target='Pg224'>224</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hollis, A. C., <ref target='Pg200'>200</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi><hi rend='vertical-align: super'>3</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Holy water, sprinkling with, <ref target='Pg285'>285</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Homicides. See <ref target='Index-Manslayers'>Manslayers</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Homoeopathic magic, <ref target='Pg151'>151</ref>, <ref target='Pg152'>152</ref>, <ref target='Pg207'>207</ref>, <ref target='Pg295'>295</ref>, <ref target='Pg298'>298</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Honey-wine, continence observed at brewing, <ref target='Pg200'>200</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hooks to catch souls, <ref target='Pg030'>30</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg051'>51</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Horse, prohibition to see a, <ref target='Pg009'>9</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>prohibition to ride, <ref target='Pg013'>13</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hos of Togoland, the, <ref target='Pg295'>295</ref>, <ref target='Pg301'>301</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hostages, clipped hair used as, <ref target='Pg272'>272</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hottentots, the, <ref target='Pg220'>220</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>House, ceremony at entering a new, <ref target='Pg063'>63</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>taboos on quitting the, <ref target='Pg122'>122</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— building, custom as to shadows at, <ref target='Pg081'>81</ref>, <ref target='Pg089'>89</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>continence observed at, <ref target='Pg202'>202</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Howitt, A. W., <ref target='Pg269'>269</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Huichol Indians, <ref target='Pg197'>197</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Human gods bound by many rules, <ref target='Pg419'>419</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— sacrifices at foundation of buildings, <ref target='Pg090'>90</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Humbe, a kingdom of Angola, <ref target='Pg006'>6</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hunters use knots as charms, <ref target='Pg306'>306</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>words tabooed by, <ref target='Pg396'>396</ref>, <ref target='Pg398'>398</ref>, <ref target='Pg399'>399</ref>, <ref target='Pg400'>400</ref>, <ref target='Pg402'>402</ref>, <ref target='Pg404'>404</ref>, <ref target='Pg410'>410</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— and fishers tabooed, <ref target='Pg190'>190</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hurons, the, <ref target='Pg366'>366</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>their conception of the soul, <ref target='Pg027'>27</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>their Festival of the Dead, <ref target='Pg367'>367</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Husband's ghost kept from his widow, <ref target='Pg143'>143</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— name not to be pronounced by his wife, <ref target='Pg335'>335</ref>, <ref target='Pg336'>336</ref>, <ref target='Pg337'>337</ref>, <ref target='Pg338'>338</ref>, <ref target='Pg339'>339</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Husbands and wives, difference of language between, <ref target='Pg347'>347</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Huzuls, the, <ref target='Pg270'>270</ref>, <ref target='Pg314'>314</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ilocanes of Luzon, <ref target='Pg044'>44</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Imagination, death from, <ref target='Pg135'>135</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Imitative or homoeopathic magic, <ref target='Pg295'>295</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Impurity of manslayers, <ref target='Pg167'>167</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Incas of Peru, <ref target='Pg279'>279</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id='Index-Incisions'/> +<l>Incisions made in bodies of warriors as a preparation for war, <ref target='Pg161'>161</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in bodies of slain, <ref target='Pg176'>176</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in bodies of manslayers, <ref target='Pg174'>174</ref>, <ref target='Pg176'>176</ref>, <ref target='Pg180'>180</ref>.</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'><hi rend='italic'>See also</hi> <ref target='Index-Cuts'>Cuts</ref></l> +</lg> + +<pb n='435'/><anchor id='Pg435'/> + +<lg> +<l>Incontinence of young people supposed to be fatal to the king, <ref target='Pg006'>6</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>India, names of animals tabooed in, <ref target='Pg401'>401</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Indians of North America, their customs on the war-path, <ref target='Pg158'>158</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>their fear of naming the dead, <ref target='Pg351'>351</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Infants tabooed, <ref target='Pg255'>255</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Infection, supposed, of lying-in women, <ref target='Pg150'>150</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Infidelity of wife supposed to be fatal to hunter, <ref target='Pg197'>197</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Initiation, custom of covering the mouth after, <ref target='Pg122'>122</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>taboos observed by novices at, <ref target='Pg141'>141</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg156'>156</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>new names given at, <ref target='Pg320'>320</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Injury to a man's shadow conceived as an injury to the man, <ref target='Pg078'>78</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Inspiration, primitive theory of, <ref target='Pg248'>248</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Intercourse with wives enjoined before war, <ref target='Pg164'>164</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi><hi rend='vertical-align: super'>1</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>enjoined on manslayers, <ref target='Pg176'>176</ref>. <hi rend='italic'>See also</hi> <ref target='Index-Continence'>Continence</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Intoxication accounted inspiration, <ref target='Pg248'>248</ref>, <ref target='Pg249'>249</ref>, <ref target='Pg250'>250</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Inuit. <hi rend='italic'>See</hi> <ref target='Index-Esquimaux'>Esquimaux</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ireland, taboos observed by the ancient kings of, <ref target='Pg011'>11</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Irish custom as to a fall, <ref target='Pg068'>68</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>as to friends' blood, <ref target='Pg244'>244</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Iron not to be touched, <ref target='Pg167'>167</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>tabooed, <ref target='Pg176'>176</ref>, <ref target='Pg225'>225</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>used as a charm against spirits, <ref target='Pg232'>232</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— instruments, use of, tabooed, <ref target='Pg205'>205</ref>, <ref target='Pg206'>206</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— rings as talismans, <ref target='Pg235'>235</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Iroquois, the, <ref target='Pg352'>352</ref>, <ref target='Pg385'>385</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Isis and Ra, <ref target='Pg387'>387</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Israelites, rules of ceremonial purity observed by the Israelites in war, <ref target='Pg157'>157</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg177'>177</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Issini, the, <ref target='Pg171'>171</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Itonamas, the, <ref target='Pg031'>31</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ivy, prohibition to touch or name, <ref target='Pg013'>13</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ja-Luo, the, <ref target='Pg079'>79</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Jackals, tigers called, <ref target='Pg402'>402</ref>, <ref target='Pg403'>403</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Jackson, Professor Henry, <ref target='Pg021'>21</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi><hi rend='vertical-align: super'>3</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Japan, the Mikado of, <ref target='Pg002'>2</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Kaempfer's history of, <ref target='Pg003'>3</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi><hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Caron's account of, <ref target='Pg004'>4</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi><hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Jars, souls conjured into, <ref target='Pg070'>70</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Jason and Pelias, <ref target='Pg311'>311</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Java, <ref target='Pg034'>34</ref>, <ref target='Pg035'>35</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Jebu, the king of, <ref target='Pg121'>121</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Jewish hunters, their customs as to blood of game, <ref target='Pg241'>241</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Jinn, the servants of their magical names, <ref target='Pg390'>390</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Journey, purificatory ceremonies on return from a, <ref target='Pg111'>111</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>continence observed on a, <ref target='Pg204'>204</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>hair kept unshorn on a, <ref target='Pg261'>261</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id='Index-Jumping'/> +<l>Jumping over wife or children as a ceremony, <ref target='Pg112'>112</ref>, <ref target='Pg164'>164</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi><hi rend='vertical-align: super'>1</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Juno Lucina, <ref target='Pg294'>294</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Junod, H. A., <ref target='Pg152'>152</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg420'>420</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi><hi rend='vertical-align: super'>1</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Jupiter Liber, temple of, at Furfo, <ref target='Pg230'>230</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign rend='italic'>Ka</foreign>, the ancient Egyptian, <ref target='Pg028'>28</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Kachins of Burma, <ref target='Pg200'>200</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Kaempfer's <hi rend='italic'>History of Japan</hi>, <ref target='Pg003'>3</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Kafirs of the Hindoo Koosh, <ref target='Pg013'>13</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi><hi rend='vertical-align: super'>6</hi>, <ref target='Pg014'>14</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi><hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Kaitish, the, <ref target='Pg082'>82</ref>, <ref target='Pg295'>295</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Kalamba, the, a chief in the Congo region, <ref target='Pg114'>114</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign rend='italic'>Kami</foreign>, the Japanese word for god, <ref target='Pg002'>2</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi><hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Kamtchatkans, their attempts to deceive mice, <ref target='Pg399'>399</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Karaits, the, <ref target='Pg095'>95</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Karen-nis of Burma, the, <ref target='Pg013'>13</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Karens, the Red, of Burma, <ref target='Pg292'>292</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>their recall of the soul, <ref target='Pg043'>43</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>their customs at funerals, <ref target='Pg051'>51</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Karo-Bataks, <ref target='Pg052'>52</ref>. <hi rend='italic'>See also</hi> <ref target='Index-Battas'>Battas</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign rend='italic'>Katikiro</foreign>, the, of Uganda, <ref target='Pg145'>145</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi><hi rend='vertical-align: super'>4</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Kavirondo, <ref target='Pg176'>176</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Kayans of Borneo, <ref target='Pg032'>32</ref>, <ref target='Pg047'>47</ref>, <ref target='Pg110'>110</ref>, <ref target='Pg164'>164</ref>, <ref target='Pg239'>239</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Kei Islanders, <ref target='Pg053'>53</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Kenyahs of Borneo, <ref target='Pg043'>43</ref>, <ref target='Pg415'>415</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Key as symbol of delivery in childbed, <ref target='Pg296'>296</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id='Index-Keys'/> +<l>Keys as charms against devils and ghosts, <ref target='Pg234'>234</ref>, <ref target='Pg235'>235</ref>, <ref target='Pg236'>236</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>as amulets, <ref target='Pg308'>308</ref>. <hi rend='italic'>See also</hi> <ref target='Index-Locks'>Locks</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Khonds, rebirth of ancestors among the, <ref target='Pg368'>368</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Kickapoos, the, <ref target='Pg171'>171</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Kidd, Dudley, <ref target='Pg088'>88</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>King not to be overshadowed, <ref target='Pg083'>83</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— of the Night, <ref target='Pg023'>23</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>King's Evil, the, <ref target='Pg134'>134</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Kings, supernatural powers attributed to, <ref target='Pg001'>1</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>beaten before their coronation, <ref target='Pg018'>18</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>forbidden to see their mothers, <ref target='Pg086'>86</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>portraits of, not stamped on coins, <ref target='Pg098'>98</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>guarded against the magic of strangers, <ref target='Pg114'>114</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>forbidden to use foreign goods, <ref target='Pg115'>115</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>not to be seen eating and drinking, <ref target='Pg117'>117</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>concealed by curtains, <ref target='Pg120'>120</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>forbidden to leave their palaces, <ref target='Pg122'>122</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>compelled to dance, <ref target='Pg123'>123</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>punished or put to death, <ref target='Pg124'>124</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>not to be touched, <ref target='Pg132'>132</ref>, <ref target='Pg225'>225</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>their hair unshorn, <ref target='Pg258'>258</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>foods tabooed to, <ref target='Pg291'>291</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>names of, tabooed, <ref target='Pg374'>374</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>taboos observed by, identical with those observed by commoners, <ref target='Pg419'>419</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Kings and chiefs tabooed, <ref target='Pg131'>131</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>their spittle guarded against sorcerers, <ref target='Pg289'>289</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— fetish or religious, in West Africa, <ref target='Pg022'>22</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<pb n='436'/><anchor id='Pg436'/> + +<lg> +<l>Kingsley, Miss Mary H., <ref target='Pg022'>22</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi><hi rend='vertical-align: super'>3</hi>, <ref target='Pg071'>71</ref>, <ref target='Pg123'>123</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi><hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi>, <ref target='Pg251'>251</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Kiowa Indians, <ref target='Pg357'>357</ref>, <ref target='Pg360'>360</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Klallam Indians, the, <ref target='Pg354'>354</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Knife as charm against spirits, <ref target='Pg232'>232</ref>, <ref target='Pg233'>233</ref>, <ref target='Pg234'>234</ref>, <ref target='Pg235'>235</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Knives not to be left edge upwards, <ref target='Pg238'>238</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>not used at funeral banquets, <ref target='Pg238'>238</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Knot, the Gordian, <ref target='Pg316'>316</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Knots, prohibition to wear, <ref target='Pg013'>13</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>untied at childbirth, <ref target='Pg294'>294</ref>, <ref target='Pg296'>296</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg297'>297</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>thought to prevent the consummation of marriage, <ref target='Pg299'>299</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>thought to cause sickness, disease, and all kinds of misfortune, <ref target='Pg301'>301</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>used to cure disease, <ref target='Pg303'>303</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>used to win a lover or capture a runaway slave, <ref target='Pg305'>305</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq</hi>.;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>used as protective amulets, <ref target='Pg306'>306</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>used as charms by hunters and travellers, <ref target='Pg306'>306</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>as a charm to protect corn from devils, <ref target='Pg308'>308</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on corpses untied, <ref target='Pg310'>310</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— and locks, magical virtue of, <ref target='Pg310'>310</ref>, <ref target='Pg313'>313</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— and rings tabooed, <ref target='Pg293'>293</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Koita, the, <ref target='Pg168'>168</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Koryak, the, <ref target='Pg032'>32</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Kruijt, A. C., <ref target='Pg319'>319</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Kublai Khan, <ref target='Pg242'>242</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Kukulu, a priestly king, <ref target='Pg005'>5</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Kwakiutl, the, <ref target='Pg053'>53</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>customs observed by cannibals among the, <ref target='Pg188'>188</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>change of names in summer and winter among the, <ref target='Pg386'>386</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign rend='italic'>Kwun</foreign>, the spirit of the head, <ref target='Pg252'>252</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>supposed to reside in the hair, <ref target='Pg266'>266</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Lafitau, J. F., <ref target='Pg365'>365</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Lampong in Sumatra, <ref target='Pg010'>10</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Lamps to light the ghosts to their old homes, <ref target='Pg371'>371</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Language of husbands and wives, difference between, <ref target='Pg347'>347</ref> sq.;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of men and women, difference between, <ref target='Pg348'>348</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— change of, caused by taboo on the names of the dead, <ref target='Pg358'>358</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg375'>375</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>caused by taboo on the names of chiefs and kings, <ref target='Pg375'>375</ref>, <ref target='Pg376'>376</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— special, employed by hunters, <ref target='Pg396'>396</ref>, <ref target='Pg398'>398</ref>, <ref target='Pg399'>399</ref>, <ref target='Pg400'>400</ref>, <ref target='Pg402'>402</ref>, <ref target='Pg404'>404</ref>, <ref target='Pg410'>410</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>employed by searchers for eagle-wood and <hi rend='italic'>lignum aloes</hi>, <ref target='Pg404'>404</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>employed by searchers for camphor, <ref target='Pg405'>405</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>employed by miners, <ref target='Pg407'>407</ref>, <ref target='Pg409'>409</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>employed by reapers at harvest, <ref target='Pg410'>410</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg411'>411</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>employed by sailors at sea, <ref target='Pg413'>413</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Laos, <ref target='Pg306'>306</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Lapps, the, <ref target='Pg294'>294</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>their customs after killing a bear, <ref target='Pg221'>221</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>rebirth of ancestors among the, <ref target='Pg368'>368</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Latuka, the, <ref target='Pg245'>245</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Leaning against a tree prohibited to warriors, <ref target='Pg162'>162</ref>, <ref target='Pg163'>163</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Leavened bread, prohibition to touch, <ref target='Pg013'>13</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Leaving food over, taboos on, <ref target='Pg126'>126</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Leavings of food, magic wrought by means of, <ref target='Pg118'>118</ref>, <ref target='Pg119'>119</ref>, <ref target='Pg126'>126</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Legs not to be crossed, <ref target='Pg295'>295</ref>, <ref target='Pg298'>298</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Leinster, kings of, <ref target='Pg011'>11</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign rend='italic'>Leleen</foreign>, the, <ref target='Pg129'>129</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Lengua Indians of the Gran Chaco, <ref target='Pg038'>38</ref>, <ref target='Pg357'>357</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Leonard, A. G., Major, <ref target='Pg136'>136</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Lesbos, building custom in, <ref target='Pg089'>89</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Lewis, Rev. Thomas, <ref target='Pg420'>420</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi><hi rend='vertical-align: super'>1</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Life in the blood, <ref target='Pg241'>241</ref>, <ref target='Pg250'>250</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Limbs, amputated, kept by the owners against the resurrection, <ref target='Pg281'>281</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Lion-killer, purification of, <ref target='Pg176'>176</ref>, <ref target='Pg220'>220</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Lions not called by their proper names, <ref target='Pg400'>400</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Lithuanians, the old, their funeral banquets, <ref target='Pg238'>238</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Liver, induration of the, attributed to touching sacred chief, <ref target='Pg133'>133</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Lizard, soul in form of, <ref target='Pg038'>38</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Loango, taboos observed by kings of, <ref target='Pg008'>8</ref>, <ref target='Pg009'>9</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>taboos observed by heir to throne of, <ref target='Pg291'>291</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— king of, forbidden to see a white man's house, <ref target='Pg115'>115</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>not to be seen eating or drinking, <ref target='Pg117'>117</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>confined to his palace, <ref target='Pg123'>123</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>refuse of his food buried, <ref target='Pg129'>129</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id='Index-Locks'/> +<l>Locks unlocked at childbirth, <ref target='Pg294'>294</ref>, <ref target='Pg296'>296</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>thought to prevent the consummation of marriage, <ref target='Pg299'>299</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>as amulets, <ref target='Pg308'>308</ref>, <ref target='Pg309'>309</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>unlocked to facilitate death, <ref target='Pg309'>309</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— and knots, magical virtue of, <ref target='Pg309'>309</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> <hi rend='italic'>See also</hi> <ref target='Index-Keys'>Keys</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Lolos, the, <ref target='Pg043'>43</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Look back, not to, <ref target='Pg157'>157</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Loom, men not allowed to touch a, <ref target='Pg164'>164</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Loss of the shadow regarded as ominous, <ref target='Pg088'>88</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Lovers won by knots, <ref target='Pg305'>305</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Lucan, <ref target='Pg390'>390</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Lucian, <ref target='Pg270'>270</ref>, <ref target='Pg382'>382</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Lucina, <ref target='Pg294'>294</ref>, <ref target='Pg398'>398</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Lucky names, <ref target='Pg391'>391</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi><hi rend='vertical-align: super'>1</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Lycaeus, sanctuary of Zeus on Mount, <ref target='Pg088'>88</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Lycosura, sanctuary of the Mistress at, <ref target='Pg227'>227</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi>, <ref target='Pg314'>314</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Lying-in women, dread of, <ref target='Pg150'>150</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>sacred, <ref target='Pg151'>151</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Mack, an adventurer, <ref target='Pg019'>19</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Macusi Indians, <ref target='Pg036'>36</ref>, <ref target='Pg159'>159</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Madagascar, names of chiefs and kings tabooed in, <ref target='Pg378'>378</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id='Index-Magic'/> +<l>Magic wrought by means of refuse of food, <ref target='Pg126'>126</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>sympathetic, <ref target='Pg126'>126</ref>, <ref target='Pg130'>130</ref>, <ref target='Pg164'>164</ref>, <ref target='Pg201'>201</ref>, <ref target='Pg204'>204</ref>, <ref target='Pg258'>258</ref>, <ref target='Pg268'>268</ref>, <ref target='Pg287'>287</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>homoeopathic, +<pb n='437'/><anchor id='Pg437'/> +<ref target='Pg151'>151</ref>, <ref target='Pg152'>152</ref>, <ref target='Pg207'>207</ref>, <ref target='Pg295'>295</ref>, <ref target='Pg298'>298</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>contagious, <ref target='Pg246'>246</ref>, <ref target='Pg268'>268</ref>, <ref target='Pg272'>272</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>wrought through clippings of hair, <ref target='Pg268'>268</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg275'>275</ref>, <ref target='Pg277'>277</ref>, <ref target='Pg278'>278</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>wrought on a man through his name, <ref target='Pg318'>318</ref>, <ref target='Pg320'>320</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Magicians, Egyptian, their power of compelling the deities, <ref target='Pg389'>389</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Mahafalys of Madagascar, the, <ref target='Pg010'>10</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Makalaka, the, <ref target='Pg369'>369</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Makololo, the, <ref target='Pg281'>281</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Malagasy language, dialectical variations of, <ref target='Pg378'>378</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg380'>380</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Malanau tribes of Borneo, <ref target='Pg406'>406</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Malay conception of the soul as a bird, <ref target='Pg034'>34</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>—— miners, fowlers, and fishermen, special forms of speech employed by, <ref target='Pg407'>407</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>—— Peninsula, art of abducting human souls in the, <ref target='Pg073'>73</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Maldives, the, <ref target='Pg274'>274</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Mandalay, <ref target='Pg090'>90</ref>, <ref target='Pg125'>125</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Mandan Indians, <ref target='Pg097'>97</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Mandelings of Sumatra, <ref target='Pg296'>296</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Mangaia, separation of religious and civil authority in, <ref target='Pg020'>20</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Mangaians, the, <ref target='Pg087'>87</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Manipur, hill tribes of, <ref target='Pg292'>292</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Mannikin, the soul conceived as a, <ref target='Pg026'>26</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id='Index-Manslayers'/> +<l>Manslayers, purification of, <ref target='Pg165'>165</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>secluded, <ref target='Pg165'>165</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>tabooed, <ref target='Pg165'>165</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>haunted by ghosts of slain, <ref target='Pg165'>165</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>their faces blackened, <ref target='Pg169'>169</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>their bodies painted, <ref target='Pg175'>175</ref>, <ref target='Pg178'>178</ref>, <ref target='Pg179'>179</ref>, <ref target='Pg180'>180</ref>, <ref target='Pg186'>186</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi><hi rend='vertical-align: super'>1</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>their hair shaved, <ref target='Pg175'>175</ref>, <ref target='Pg177'>177</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Maori chiefs, their sanctity or taboo, <ref target='Pg134'>134</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>their heads sacred, <ref target='Pg256'>256</ref></l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>—— language, synonyms in the, <ref target='Pg381'>381</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Maoris, persons who have handled the dead tabooed among the, <ref target='Pg138'>138</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>tabooed on the war-path, <ref target='Pg157'>157</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Marco Polo, <ref target='Pg242'>242</ref>, <ref target='Pg243'>243</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Marianne Islands, <ref target='Pg288'>288</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Mariner, W., quoted, <ref target='Pg140'>140</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Mariners at sea, special language employed by, <ref target='Pg413'>413</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Marquesans, the, <ref target='Pg031'>31</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>their regard for the sanctity of the head, <ref target='Pg254'>254</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>their customs as to the hair, <ref target='Pg261'>261</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>their dread of sorcery, <ref target='Pg268'>268</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Marquesas Islands, <ref target='Pg178'>178</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Marriage, the consummation of, prevented by knots and locks, <ref target='Pg299'>299</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Masai, the, <ref target='Pg200'>200</ref>, <ref target='Pg309'>309</ref>, <ref target='Pg329'>329</ref>, <ref target='Pg354'>354</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg356'>356</ref>, <ref target='Pg361'>361</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Matthews, Dr. Washington, <ref target='Pg385'>385</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Meal sprinkled to keep off evil spirits, <ref target='Pg112'>112</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Measuring shadows, <ref target='Pg089'>89</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>—— -tape deified, <ref target='Pg091'>91</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Mecca, pilgrims to, not allowed to wear knots and rings, <ref target='Pg293'>293</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Medes, law of the, <ref target='Pg121'>121</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Mekeo district of New Guinea, <ref target='Pg024'>24</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Men injured through their shadows, <ref target='Pg078'>78</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>—— and women, difference of language between, <ref target='Pg348'>348</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Menedemus, <ref target='Pg227'>227</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Menstruation, women tabooed at, <ref target='Pg145'>145</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Menstruous women, dread of, <ref target='Pg145'>145</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg206'>206</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>avoidance of, by hunters, <ref target='Pg211'>211</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Mentras, the, <ref target='Pg404'>404</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Merolla da Sorrento, <ref target='Pg137'>137</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Mice thought to understand human speech, <ref target='Pg399'>399</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>not to be called by their proper names, <ref target='Pg399'>399</ref>, <ref target='Pg415'>415</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Midas and his ass's ears, <ref target='Pg258'>258</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi><hi rend='vertical-align: super'>1</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>king of Gordium, <ref target='Pg316'>316</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Mikado, rules of life of the, <ref target='Pg002'>2</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>supposed effect of using his dishes or clothes, <ref target='Pg131'>131</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the cutting of his hair and nails, <ref target='Pg265'>265</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Mikados, their relations to the Tycoons, <ref target='Pg019'>19</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Miklucho-Maclay, Baron N. von, <ref target='Pg109'>109</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Milk, custom as to drinking, <ref target='Pg119'>119</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>prohibition to drink, <ref target='Pg141'>141</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>not to be drunk by wounded men, <ref target='Pg174'>174</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>wine called, <ref target='Pg249'>249</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi><hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>and beef not to be eaten at the same meal, <ref target='Pg292'>292</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Milkmen of the Todas, taboos observed by the holy, <ref target='Pg015'>15</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Miller, Hugh, <ref target='Pg040'>40</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Minahassa, a district of Celebes, <ref target='Pg099'>99</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the Alfoors of, <ref target='Pg063'>63</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Minangkabauers of Sumatra, <ref target='Pg032'>32</ref>, <ref target='Pg036'>36</ref>, <ref target='Pg041'>41</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Miners, special language employed by, <ref target='Pg407'>407</ref>, <ref target='Pg409'>409</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Mirrors, superstitions as to, <ref target='Pg093'>93</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>covered after a death, <ref target='Pg094'>94</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id='Index-Miscarriage'/> +<l>Miscarriage in childbed, dread of, <ref target='Pg149'>149</ref>, <ref target='Pg152'>152</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>supposed danger of concealing a, <ref target='Pg211'>211</ref>, <ref target='Pg213'>213</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Moab, Arabs of, <ref target='Pg280'>280</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>their custom of shaving prisoners, <ref target='Pg273'>273</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Moabites, King David's treatment of the, <ref target='Pg273'>273</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Mohammed bewitched by a Jew, <ref target='Pg302'>302</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Mongols, their recall of the soul, <ref target='Pg044'>44</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>sacred books of the, <ref target='Pg384'>384</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Montezuma, <ref target='Pg121'>121</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Monumbos, the, <ref target='Pg169'>169</ref>, <ref target='Pg238'>238</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Mooney, J., <ref target='Pg318'>318</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Moquis, the, <ref target='Pg228'>228</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Moral guilt regarded as a corporeal pollution, <ref target='Pg217'>217</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Morality developed out of taboo, <ref target='Pg213'>213</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>shifted from a natural to a supernatural basis, <ref target='Pg213'>213</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>survival of savage taboos in civilised, <ref target='Pg218'>218</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Morice, A. G., <ref target='Pg146'>146</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Mosyni or Mosynoeci, the, <ref target='Pg124'>124</ref></l> +</lg> + +<pb n='438'/><anchor id='Pg438'/> + +<lg> +<l>Mother-in-law, the savage's dread of his, <ref target='Pg083'>83</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>her name not to be mentioned by her son-in-law, <ref target='Pg338'>338</ref>, <ref target='Pg339'>339</ref>, <ref target='Pg340'>340</ref>, <ref target='Pg341'>341</ref>, <ref target='Pg342'>342</ref>, <ref target='Pg343'>343</ref>, <ref target='Pg344'>344</ref>, <ref target='Pg345'>345</ref>, <ref target='Pg346'>346</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Mothers, African kings forbidden to see their, <ref target='Pg086'>86</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>named after their children, <ref target='Pg332'>332</ref>, <ref target='Pg333'>333</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Mourners, customs observed by, <ref target='Pg031'>31</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg159'>159</ref> n.;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>tabooed, <ref target='Pg138'>138</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>bodies of, smeared with mud or clay, <ref target='Pg182'>182</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi><hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>hair and nails of, cut at end of mourning, <ref target='Pg285'>285</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Mourning of slayers for the slain, <ref target='Pg181'>181</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Mouse, soul in form of, <ref target='Pg037'>37</ref>, <ref target='Pg039'>39</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi><hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Mouth closed to prevent escape of soul, <ref target='Pg031'>31</ref>, <ref target='Pg033'>33</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>soul in the, <ref target='Pg033'>33</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>covered to prevent entrance of demons, etc., <ref target='Pg122'>122</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Muata Jamwo, the, <ref target='Pg118'>118</ref>, <ref target='Pg290'>290</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Mud smeared on feet of bed, <ref target='Pg014'>14</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>plastered on head, <ref target='Pg182'>182</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Munster, kings of, <ref target='Pg011'>11</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Murderers, taboos imposed on, <ref target='Pg187'>187</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Murrams, the, of Manipur, <ref target='Pg292'>292</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Muysca Indians, <ref target='Pg121'>121</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Myths of gods and spirits to be told only in spring and summer, <ref target='Pg384'>384</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>to be told only in winter, <ref target='Pg385'>385</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>not to be told by day, <ref target='Pg384'>384</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Nails, prohibition to cut finger-nails, <ref target='Pg194'>194</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of children not pared, <ref target='Pg262'>262</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— and hair, cut, disposal of, <ref target='Pg267'>267</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>deposited in sacred places, <ref target='Pg274'>274</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>stowed away in any secret place, <ref target='Pg276'>276</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>kept for use at the resurrection, <ref target='Pg279'>279</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>burnt to prevent them from falling into the hands of sorcerers, <ref target='Pg281'>281</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Nails, iron, used as charms against fairies, demons, and ghosts, <ref target='Pg233'>233</ref>, <ref target='Pg234'>234</ref>, <ref target='Pg236'>236</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— parings of, used in rain-charms, <ref target='Pg271'>271</ref>, <ref target='Pg272'>272</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>swallowed by treaty-makers, <ref target='Pg246'>246</ref>, <ref target='Pg274'>274</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Name, the personal, regarded as a vital part of the man, <ref target='Pg318'>318</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>identified with the soul, <ref target='Pg319'>319</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the same, not to be borne by two living persons, <ref target='Pg370'>370</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Names of relations tabooed, <ref target='Pg335'>335</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>changed to deceive ghosts, <ref target='Pg354'>354</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of common objects changed when they are the names of the dead, <ref target='Pg358'>358</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg375'>375</ref>, or the names of chiefs and kings, <ref target='Pg375'>375</ref>, <ref target='Pg376'>376</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of ancestors bestowed on their reincarnations, <ref target='Pg368'>368</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of kings and chiefs tabooed, <ref target='Pg374'>374</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of supernatural beings tabooed, <ref target='Pg384'>384</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of gods tabooed, <ref target='Pg387'>387</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of spirits and gods, magical virtue of, <ref target='Pg389'>389</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of Roman gods not to be mentioned, <ref target='Pg391'>391</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi><hi rend='vertical-align: super'>1</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>lucky, <ref target='Pg391'>391</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi><hi rend='vertical-align: super'>1</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of dangerous animals not to be mentioned, <ref target='Pg396'>396</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Names, new, given to the sick and old, <ref target='Pg319'>319</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>new, at initiation, <ref target='Pg320'>320</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— of the dead tabooed, <ref target='Pg349'>349</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>not borne by the living, <ref target='Pg354'>354</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>revived after a time, <ref target='Pg365'>365</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— personal, tabooed, <ref target='Pg318'>318</ref> sqq.;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>kept secret from fear of magic, <ref target='Pg320'>320</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>different in summer and winter, <ref target='Pg386'>386</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Namesakes of the dead change their names to avoid attracting the attention of the ghost, <ref target='Pg355'>355</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of deceased persons regarded as their reincarnations, <ref target='Pg365'>365</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Naming the dead a serious crime, <ref target='Pg352'>352</ref>, <ref target='Pg354'>354</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of children, solemnities at the, connected with belief in the reincarnation of ancestors in their namesakes, <ref target='Pg372'>372</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Namosi, in Fiji, <ref target='Pg264'>264</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Nandi, the, <ref target='Pg175'>175</ref>, <ref target='Pg273'>273</ref>, <ref target='Pg310'>310</ref>, <ref target='Pg330'>330</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Nanumea, island of, <ref target='Pg102'>102</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Narbrooi, a spirit or god, <ref target='Pg060'>60</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Narcissus and his reflection, <ref target='Pg094'>94</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Narrinyeri, the, <ref target='Pg126'>126</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Natchez, customs of manslayers among the, <ref target='Pg181'>181</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><hi rend='italic'>Nats</hi>, demons, <ref target='Pg090'>90</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Natural death of sacred king or priest, supposed fatal consequences of, <ref target='Pg006'>6</ref>, <ref target='Pg007'>7</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Navajo Indians, <ref target='Pg112'>112</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg325'>325</ref>, <ref target='Pg385'>385</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Navel-string used to recall the soul, <ref target='Pg048'>48</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Nazarite, vow of the, <ref target='Pg262'>262</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Nelson, E. W., <ref target='Pg228'>228</ref>, <ref target='Pg237'>237</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Nets to catch souls, <ref target='Pg069'>69</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>as amulets, <ref target='Pg300'>300</ref>, <ref target='Pg307'>307</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>New Britain, <ref target='Pg085'>85</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— Caledonia, <ref target='Pg092'>92</ref>, <ref target='Pg141'>141</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— everything, excites awe of savages, <ref target='Pg230'>230</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— fire made by friction, <ref target='Pg286'>286</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— Hebrides, the, <ref target='Pg056'>56</ref>, <ref target='Pg127'>127</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— names given to the sick and old, <ref target='Pg319'>319</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>at initiation, <ref target='Pg320'>320</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— Zealand, sanctity of chiefs in, <ref target='Pg134'>134</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Nias, island of, conception of the soul in, <ref target='Pg029'>29</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>custom of the people of, <ref target='Pg107'>107</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>special language of hunters in, <ref target='Pg410'>410</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>special language employed by reapers in, <ref target='Pg410'>410</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Nicknames used in order to avoid the use of the real names, <ref target='Pg321'>321</ref>, <ref target='Pg331'>331</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Nicobar Islands, customs as to shadows at burials in the, <ref target='Pg080'>80</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Nicobarese, the, <ref target='Pg357'>357</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>changes in their language, <ref target='Pg362'>362</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Nieuwenhuis, Dr. A. W., <ref target='Pg099'>99</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Night, King of the, <ref target='Pg023'>23</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Nine knots in magic, <ref target='Pg302'>302</ref>, <ref target='Pg303'>303</ref>, <ref target='Pg304'>304</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Noon, sacrifices to the dead at, <ref target='Pg088'>88</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>superstitious dread of, <ref target='Pg088'>88</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Nootka Indians, their idea of the soul, +<pb n='439'/><anchor id='Pg439'/> +<ref target='Pg027'>27</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>customs of girls at puberty among the, <ref target='Pg146'>146</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi><hi rend='vertical-align: super'>1</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>their preparation for war, <ref target='Pg160'>160</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>North American Indians, their dread of menstruous women, <ref target='Pg145'>145</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>their theory of names, <ref target='Pg318'>318</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Norway, superstition as to parings of nails in, <ref target='Pg283'>283</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Nose stopped to prevent the escape of the soul, <ref target='Pg031'>31</ref>, <ref target='Pg071'>71</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Nostrils, soul supposed to escape by the, <ref target='Pg030'>30</ref>, <ref target='Pg032'>32</ref>, <ref target='Pg033'>33</ref>, <ref target='Pg122'>122</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Novelties excite the awe of savages, <ref target='Pg230'>230</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Novices at initiation, taboos observed by, <ref target='Pg141'>141</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg156'>156</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Nubas, the, <ref target='Pg132'>132</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Nufoors of New Guinea, <ref target='Pg332'>332</ref>, <ref target='Pg341'>341</ref>, <ref target='Pg415'>415</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Obscene language in ritual, <ref target='Pg154'>154</ref>, <ref target='Pg155'>155</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>O'Donovan, E., <ref target='Pg304'>304</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Oesel, island of, <ref target='Pg042'>42</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ojebways, the, <ref target='Pg160'>160</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Oldfield, A., <ref target='Pg350'>350</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Omahas, customs as to murderers among the, <ref target='Pg187'>187</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Omens, reliance on, <ref target='Pg110'>110</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>One shoe on and one shoe off, <ref target='Pg311'>311</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ongtong Java Islands, <ref target='Pg107'>107</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Onitsha, the king of, <ref target='Pg123'>123</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Opening everything in house to facilitate childbirth, <ref target='Pg296'>296</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Orestes, the matricide, <ref target='Pg188'>188</ref>, <ref target='Pg287'>287</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Oro, war god, <ref target='Pg069'>69</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Orotchis, the, <ref target='Pg232'>232</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ot Danoms, the, <ref target='Pg103'>103</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ottawa Indians, the, <ref target='Pg078'>78</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ovambo, the, <ref target='Pg227'>227</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Overshadowed, danger of being, <ref target='Pg082'>82</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ovid, on loosening the hair, <ref target='Pg311'>311</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ox, purification by passing through the body of an, <ref target='Pg173'>173</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Padlocks as amulets, <ref target='Pg307'>307</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Painting bodies of manslayers, <ref target='Pg175'>175</ref>, <ref target='Pg178'>178</ref>, <ref target='Pg179'>179</ref>, <ref target='Pg180'>180</ref>, <ref target='Pg186'>186</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi><hi rend='vertical-align: super'>1</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Palaces, kings not allowed to leave their, <ref target='Pg122'>122</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><hi rend='italic'>Pantang</hi>, taboo, <ref target='Pg405'>405</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Panther, ceremonies at the slaughter of a, <ref target='Pg219'>219</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Parents named after their children, <ref target='Pg331'>331</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— -in-law, their names not to be pronounced, <ref target='Pg338'>338</ref>, <ref target='Pg339'>339</ref>, <ref target='Pg340'>340</ref>, <ref target='Pg341'>341</ref>, <ref target='Pg342'>342</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Partition of spiritual and temporal power between religious and civil kings, <ref target='Pg017'>17</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Patagonians, the, <ref target='Pg281'>281</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Paton, W. R., <ref target='Pg382'>382</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi><hi rend='vertical-align: super'>4</hi>, <ref target='Pg383'>383</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi><hi rend='vertical-align: super'>1</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Pawnees, the, <ref target='Pg228'>228</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Peace, ceremony at making, <ref target='Pg274'>274</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Pelias and Jason, <ref target='Pg311'>311</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Pentateuch, the, <ref target='Pg219'>219</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Pepper in purificatory rites, <ref target='Pg106'>106</ref>, <ref target='Pg114'>114</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Perils of the soul, <ref target='Pg026'>26</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Perseus and the Gorgon, <ref target='Pg312'>312</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Persian kings, their custom at meals, <ref target='Pg119'>119</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Persons, tabooed, <ref target='Pg131'>131</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Philosophy, primitive, <ref target='Pg420'>420</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><hi rend='italic'>Phong long</hi>, ill luck caused by women in childbed, <ref target='Pg155'>155</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Photographed or painted, supposed danger of being, <ref target='Pg096'>96</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Pictures, supposed danger of, <ref target='Pg096'>96</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Pig, the word unlucky, <ref target='Pg233'>233</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Pigeons, special language employed by Malays in snaring, <ref target='Pg407'>407</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Pilgrims to Mecca not allowed to wear knots and rings, <ref target='Pg293'>293</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Pimas, the purification of manslayers among the, <ref target='Pg182'>182</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Plataea, Archon of, forbidden to touch iron, <ref target='Pg227'>227</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>escape of besieged from, <ref target='Pg311'>311</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Pliny on crossed legs and clasped hands, <ref target='Pg298'>298</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on knotted threads, <ref target='Pg303'>303</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Plutarch, <ref target='Pg249'>249</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Poison, continence observed at brewing, <ref target='Pg200'>200</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— ordeal, <ref target='Pg015'>15</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Polar bear, taboos concerning the, <ref target='Pg209'>209</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Polemarch, the, at Athens, <ref target='Pg022'>22</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Pollution or sanctity, their equivalence in primitive religion, <ref target='Pg145'>145</ref>, <ref target='Pg158'>158</ref>, <ref target='Pg224'>224</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— and holiness not differentiated by savages, <ref target='Pg224'>224</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Polynesia, names of chiefs tabooed in, <ref target='Pg381'>381</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Polynesian chiefs sacred, <ref target='Pg136'>136</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign rend='italic'>Pons Sublicius</foreign>, <ref target='Pg230'>230</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Port Moresby, <ref target='Pg203'>203</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Porto Novo, <ref target='Pg023'>23</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Portraits, souls in, <ref target='Pg096'>96</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>supposed dangers of, <ref target='Pg096'>96</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Powers, S., <ref target='Pg326'>326</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Pregnancy, husband's hair kept unshorn during wife's, <ref target='Pg261'>261</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>conduct of husband during wife's, <ref target='Pg294'>294</ref>, <ref target='Pg295'>295</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>superstitions as to knots during wife's, <ref target='Pg294'>294</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Pregnant women, their superstitions about shadows, <ref target='Pg082'>82</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Premature birth, <ref target='Pg213'>213</ref>. <hi rend='italic'>See</hi> Miscarriage</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Pricking patient with needles to expel demons of disease, <ref target='Pg106'>106</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Priests to be shaved with bronze, <ref target='Pg226'>226</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>their hair unshorn, <ref target='Pg259'>259</ref>, <ref target='Pg260'>260</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>foods tabooed to, <ref target='Pg291'>291</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Prisoners shaved, <ref target='Pg273'>273</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>released at festivals, <ref target='Pg316'>316</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Propitiation of the souls of the slain, <ref target='Pg166'>166</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of spirits of slain animals, <ref target='Pg190'>190</ref>, <ref target='Pg204'>204</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of ancestors, <ref target='Pg197'>197</ref></l> +</lg> + +<pb n='440'/><anchor id='Pg440'/> + +<lg> +<l>Prussians, the old, their funeral feasts, <ref target='Pg238'>238</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><hi rend='italic'>Pulque</hi>, <ref target='Pg201'>201</ref>, <ref target='Pg249'>249</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Puppets or dolls employed for the restoration of souls to their bodies, <ref target='Pg053'>53</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Purge as mode of ceremonial purification, <ref target='Pg175'>175</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Purification of city, <ref target='Pg188'>188</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of Pimas after slaying Apaches, <ref target='Pg182'>182</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of hunters and fishers, <ref target='Pg190'>190</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of moral guilt by physical agencies, <ref target='Pg217'>217</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>by cutting the hair, <ref target='Pg283'>283</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— of manslayers, <ref target='Pg165'>165</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>intended to rid them of the ghosts of the slain, <ref target='Pg186'>186</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Purificatory ceremonies at reception of strangers, <ref target='Pg102'>102</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on return from a journey, <ref target='Pg111'>111</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Purity, ceremonial, observed in war, <ref target='Pg157'>157</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Pygmies, the African, <ref target='Pg282'>282</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Pythagoras, maxims of, <ref target='Pg314'>314</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi><hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Python, punishment for killing a, <ref target='Pg222'>222</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Quartz used at circumcision instead of iron, <ref target='Pg227'>227</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Queensland, aborigines of, <ref target='Pg159'>159</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ra and Isis, <ref target='Pg387'>387</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Rabbah, siege of, <ref target='Pg273'>273</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Rain caused by cut or combed out hair, <ref target='Pg271'>271</ref>, <ref target='Pg272'>272</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>word for, not to be mentioned, <ref target='Pg413'>413</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— -charm by pouring water, <ref target='Pg154'>154</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— -makers, their hair unshorn, <ref target='Pg259'>259</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Rainbow, the, a net for souls, <ref target='Pg079'>79</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><hi rend='italic'>Ramanga</hi>, <ref target='Pg246'>246</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Raven, soul as a, <ref target='Pg034'>34</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Raw flesh not to be looked on, <ref target='Pg239'>239</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— meat, prohibition to touch or name, <ref target='Pg013'>13</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Reapers, special language employed by, <ref target='Pg410'>410</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg411'>411</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Reasoning, definite, at the base of savage custom, <ref target='Pg420'>420</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi><hi rend='vertical-align: super'>1</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Rebirth of ancestors in their descendants, <ref target='Pg368'>368</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Recall of the soul, <ref target='Pg030'>30</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Red, bodies of manslayers painted, <ref target='Pg175'>175</ref>, <ref target='Pg179'>179</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>faces of manslayers painted, <ref target='Pg185'>185</ref>, <ref target='Pg186'>186</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi><hi rend='vertical-align: super'>1</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Reflection, the soul identified with the, <ref target='Pg092'>92</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Reflections in water or mirrors, supposed dangers of, <ref target='Pg093'>93</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Refuse of food, magic wrought by means of, <ref target='Pg126'>126</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Regeneration, pretence of, <ref target='Pg113'>113</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Reincarnation of the dead in their namesakes, <ref target='Pg365'>365</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of ancestors in their descendants, <ref target='Pg368'>368</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Reindeer, taboos concerning, <ref target='Pg208'>208</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Relations, names of, tabooed, <ref target='Pg335'>335</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Relationship, terms of, used as terms of address, <ref target='Pg324'>324</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Release of prisoners at festivals, <ref target='Pg316'>316</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Religion, passage of animism into, <ref target='Pg213'>213</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Reluctance to accept sovereignty on account of taboos attached to it, <ref target='Pg017'>17</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Remnants of food buried as a precaution against sorcery, <ref target='Pg118'>118</ref>, <ref target='Pg119'>119</ref>, <ref target='Pg127'>127</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg129'>129</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Resemblance of child to father, supposed danger of, <ref target='Pg088'>88</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Resurrection, cut hair and nails kept for use at the, <ref target='Pg279'>279</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— of the dead effected by giving their names to living persons, <ref target='Pg365'>365</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Rhys, Professor Sir John, <ref target='Pg012'>12</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi><hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on personal names, <ref target='Pg319'>319</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Rice used to attract the soul conceived as a bird, <ref target='Pg034'>34</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg045'>45</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>soul of, not to be frightened, <ref target='Pg412'>412</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— -harvest, special language employed by reapers at, <ref target='Pg410'>410</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg411'>411</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ring, broken, <ref target='Pg013'>13</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on ankle as badge of office, <ref target='Pg015'>15</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Rings used to prevent the escape of the soul, <ref target='Pg031'>31</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>as spiritual fetters, <ref target='Pg313'>313</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>as amulets, <ref target='Pg314'>314</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>not to be worn, <ref target='Pg314'>314</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— and knots tabooed, <ref target='Pg293'>293</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Rivers, Dr. W. H. R., <ref target='Pg017'>17</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Rivers, prohibition to cross, <ref target='Pg009'>9</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Robertson, Sir George Scott, <ref target='Pg014'>14</ref> <hi rend='italic'>notes</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Roepstorff, F. A. de, <ref target='Pg362'>362</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Roman gods, their names not to be mentioned, <ref target='Pg391'>391</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi><hi rend='vertical-align: super'>1</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— superstition about crossed legs, <ref target='Pg298'>298</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Romans, their evocation of gods of besieged cities, <ref target='Pg391'>391</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Rome, name of guardian deity of Rome kept secret, <ref target='Pg391'>391</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Roscoe, Rev. J., <ref target='Pg085'>85</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi><hi rend='vertical-align: super'>1</hi>, <ref target='Pg145'>145</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi><hi rend='vertical-align: super'>4</hi>, <ref target='Pg195'>195</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi><hi rend='vertical-align: super'>1</hi>, <ref target='Pg254'>254</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi><hi rend='vertical-align: super'>5</hi>, <ref target='Pg277'>277</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi><hi rend='vertical-align: super'>10</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Roth, W. E., <ref target='Pg356'>356</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Rotti, custom as to cutting child's hair in the island of, <ref target='Pg276'>276</ref>, <ref target='Pg283'>283</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>custom as to knots at marriage in the island of, <ref target='Pg301'>301</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Roumanian building superstition, <ref target='Pg089'>89</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Royal blood not to be shed on the ground, <ref target='Pg241'>241</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Royalty, the burden of, <ref target='Pg001'>1</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Rules of life observed by sacred kings and priests, <ref target='Pg001'>1</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Runaways, knots as charm to stop, <ref target='Pg305'>305</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Russell, F., <ref target='Pg183'>183</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sabaea or Sheba, kings of, <ref target='Pg124'>124</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sacred chiefs and kings regarded as dangerous, <ref target='Pg131'>131</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg138'>138</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>their analogy +<pb n='441'/><anchor id='Pg441'/> +to mourners, homicides, and women at menstruation and childbirth, <ref target='Pg138'>138</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sacred and unclean, correspondence of rules regarding the, <ref target='Pg145'>145</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sacrifices to ghosts, <ref target='Pg056'>56</ref>, <ref target='Pg166'>166</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>to the dead, <ref target='Pg088'>88</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>at foundation of buildings, <ref target='Pg089'>89</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>to ancestral spirits, <ref target='Pg104'>104</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sagard, Gabriel, <ref target='Pg366'>366</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sahagun, B. de, <ref target='Pg249'>249</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sailors at sea, special language employed by, <ref target='Pg413'>413</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sakais, the, <ref target='Pg348'>348</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sakalavas of Madagascar, the, <ref target='Pg010'>10</ref>, <ref target='Pg327'>327</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>customs as to names of dead kings among the, <ref target='Pg379'>379</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Salish Indians, <ref target='Pg066'>66</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Salmon, taboos concerning, <ref target='Pg209'>209</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Salt not to be eaten, <ref target='Pg167'>167</ref>, <ref target='Pg182'>182</ref>, <ref target='Pg184'>184</ref>, <ref target='Pg194'>194</ref>, <ref target='Pg195'>195</ref>, <ref target='Pg196'>196</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>name of, tabooed, <ref target='Pg401'>401</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— -pans, continence observed by workers in, <ref target='Pg200'>200</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Samoyeds, <ref target='Pg353'>353</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sanctity of the head, <ref target='Pg252'>252</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— or pollution, their equivalence in primitive religion, <ref target='Pg145'>145</ref>, <ref target='Pg158'>158</ref>, <ref target='Pg224'>224</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sankara and the Grand Lama, <ref target='Pg078'>78</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Saragacos Indians, <ref target='Pg152'>152</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><hi rend='italic'>Satapatha Brahmana</hi>, <ref target='Pg217'>217</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Saturday, persons born on a, <ref target='Pg089'>89</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Saturn, the planet, <ref target='Pg315'>315</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Savage, our debt to the, <ref target='Pg419'>419</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— custom the product of definite reasoning, <ref target='Pg420'>420</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi><hi rend='vertical-align: super'>1</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— philosophy, <ref target='Pg420'>420</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Saxons of Transylvania, <ref target='Pg294'>294</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Scapegoat, <ref target='Pg214'>214</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Scarification of warriors, <ref target='Pg160'>160</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of bodies of whalers, <ref target='Pg191'>191</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Scaring away the ghosts of the slain, <ref target='Pg168'>168</ref>, <ref target='Pg170'>170</ref>, <ref target='Pg171'>171</ref>, <ref target='Pg172'>172</ref>, <ref target='Pg174'>174</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Schoolcraft, H. R., <ref target='Pg325'>325</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Scotch fowlers and fishermen, words tabooed by, <ref target='Pg393'>393</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Scotland, common words tabooed in, <ref target='Pg392'>392</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Scratching the person or head, rules as to, <ref target='Pg146'>146</ref>, <ref target='Pg156'>156</ref>, <ref target='Pg158'>158</ref>, <ref target='Pg159'>159</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi>, <ref target='Pg160'>160</ref>, <ref target='Pg181'>181</ref>, <ref target='Pg183'>183</ref>, <ref target='Pg189'>189</ref>, <ref target='Pg196'>196</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Scrofula thought to be caused and cured by touching a sacred chief or king, <ref target='Pg133'>133</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sea, horror of the, <ref target='Pg010'>10</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>offerings made to the, <ref target='Pg010'>10</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>prohibition to look on the, <ref target='Pg010'>10</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>special language employed by sailors at, <ref target='Pg413'>413</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— -mammals, atonement for killing, <ref target='Pg207'>207</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>myth of their origin, <ref target='Pg207'>207</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Seals, supposed influence of lying-in women on, <ref target='Pg152'>152</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>taboos observed after the killing of, <ref target='Pg207'>207</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg209'>209</ref>, <ref target='Pg213'>213</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Seclusion of those who have handled the dead, <ref target='Pg138'>138</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of women at menstruation and childbirth, <ref target='Pg145'>145</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg147'>147</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of tabooed persons, <ref target='Pg165'>165</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of manslayers, <ref target='Pg166'>166</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of cannibals, <ref target='Pg188'>188</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of men who have killed large game, <ref target='Pg220'>220</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Secret names among the Central Australian aborigines, <ref target='Pg321'>321</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sedna, an Esquimau goddess, <ref target='Pg152'>152</ref>, <ref target='Pg207'>207</ref>, <ref target='Pg208'>208</ref>, <ref target='Pg209'>209</ref>, <ref target='Pg210'>210</ref>, <ref target='Pg211'>211</ref>, <ref target='Pg213'>213</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Semangat, Malay word for the soul, <ref target='Pg028'>28</ref>, <ref target='Pg035'>35</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Semites, moral evolution of the, <ref target='Pg219'>219</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Seoul, capital of Corea, <ref target='Pg283'>283</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Serpents, purificatory ceremonies observed after killing, <ref target='Pg221'>221</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Servius, on Dido's costume, <ref target='Pg313'>313</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Seven knots in magic, <ref target='Pg303'>303</ref>, <ref target='Pg304'>304</ref>, <ref target='Pg308'>308</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sewing as a charm, <ref target='Pg307'>307</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Shades of dead animals, fear of offending, <ref target='Pg205'>205</ref>, <ref target='Pg206'>206</ref>, <ref target='Pg207'>207</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Shadow, the soul identified with the, <ref target='Pg077'>77</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>injury done to a man through his, <ref target='Pg078'>78</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>diminution of shadow regarded with apprehension, <ref target='Pg086'>86</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>loss of the, regarded as ominous, <ref target='Pg088'>88</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>not to fall on a chief, <ref target='Pg255'>255</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Shadows drawn out by ghosts, <ref target='Pg080'>80</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>animals injured through their, <ref target='Pg081'>81</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of trees sensitive, <ref target='Pg082'>82</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of certain birds and people viewed as dangerous, <ref target='Pg082'>82</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>built into the foundations of edifices, <ref target='Pg089'>89</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of mourners dangerous, <ref target='Pg142'>142</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of certain persons dangerous, <ref target='Pg173'>173</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Shamans among the Thompson Indians, <ref target='Pg057'>57</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— Buryat, their mode of recovering lost souls, <ref target='Pg056'>56</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— Yakut, <ref target='Pg063'>63</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Shark Point, priestly king at, <ref target='Pg005'>5</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sharp instruments, use of, tabooed, <ref target='Pg205'>205</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— weapons tabooed, <ref target='Pg237'>237</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Shaving prisoners, reason of, <ref target='Pg273'>273</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sheep used in purificatory ceremony, <ref target='Pg174'>174</ref>, <ref target='Pg175'>175</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>shoulder-blades of, used in divination, <ref target='Pg229'>229</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Shetland fishermen, their tabooed words, <ref target='Pg394'>394</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Shoe untied at marriage, <ref target='Pg300'>300</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>custom of going with one shoe on and one shoe off, <ref target='Pg311'>311</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Shoulder-blades, divination by, <ref target='Pg229'>229</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Shuswap Indians, the, <ref target='Pg083'>83</ref>, <ref target='Pg142'>142</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Siam, kings of, <ref target='Pg226'>226</ref>, <ref target='Pg241'>241</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>names of kings of, concealed from fear of sorcery, <ref target='Pg375'>375</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Siamese children, ceremony at cutting their hair, <ref target='Pg265'>265</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— view of the sanctity of the head, <ref target='Pg252'>252</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sick man, attempts to prevent the escape of the soul of, <ref target='Pg030'>30</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<pb n='442'/><anchor id='Pg442'/> + +<lg> +<l>Sick people not allowed to sleep, <ref target='Pg095'>95</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>sprinkled with pungent spices, <ref target='Pg105'>105</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— -room, mirrors covered up in, <ref target='Pg095'>95</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sickness explained by the absence of the soul, <ref target='Pg042'>42</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>caused by ancestral spirits, <ref target='Pg053'>53</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sierra Leone, priests and kings of, <ref target='Pg014'>14</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg018'>18</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— Nevada of Colombia, <ref target='Pg215'>215</ref>, <ref target='Pg216'>216</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sigurd and Fafnir, <ref target='Pg324'>324</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sikhim, kings of, <ref target='Pg020'>20</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Silkworms, taboos observed by breeders of, <ref target='Pg194'>194</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Simpson, W., <ref target='Pg125'>125</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi><hi rend='vertical-align: super'>3</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sin regarded as something material, <ref target='Pg214'>214</ref>, <ref target='Pg216'>216</ref>, <ref target='Pg217'>217</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Singhalese, <ref target='Pg297'>297</ref>; their fear of demons, <ref target='Pg233'>233</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id='Index-Sins'/> +<l>Sins, confession of, <ref target='Pg114'>114</ref>, <ref target='Pg191'>191</ref>, <ref target='Pg195'>195</ref>, <ref target='Pg211'>211</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg214'>214</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>originally a magical ceremony, <ref target='Pg217'>217</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sisters-in-law, their names not to be pronounced, <ref target='Pg338'>338</ref>, <ref target='Pg342'>342</ref>, <ref target='Pg343'>343</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sit, Egyptian god, <ref target='Pg068'>68</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sitting on the ground prohibited to warriors, <ref target='Pg159'>159</ref>, <ref target='Pg162'>162</ref>, <ref target='Pg163'>163</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Skull-cap worn by girls at their first menstruation, <ref target='Pg146'>146</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>worn by Australian widows, <ref target='Pg182'>182</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi><hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Skulls of ancestors rubbed as a propitiation, <ref target='Pg197'>197</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of dead used as drinking-cups, <ref target='Pg372'>372</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Slain, ghosts of the, fear of the, <ref target='Pg165'>165</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Slave Coast, the, <ref target='Pg009'>9</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Slaves, runaway, charm for recovering, <ref target='Pg305'>305</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sleep, absence of soul in, <ref target='Pg036'>36</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>sick people not allowed to, <ref target='Pg095'>95</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>forbidden in house after a death, <ref target='Pg037'>37</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>forbidden to unsuccessful eagle-hunter, <ref target='Pg199'>199</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sleeper not to be wakened suddenly, <ref target='Pg039'>39</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>not to be moved nor his appearance altered, <ref target='Pg041'>41</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Smallpox not mentioned by its proper name, <ref target='Pg400'>400</ref>, <ref target='Pg410'>410</ref>, <ref target='Pg411'>411</ref>, <ref target='Pg416'>416</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Smearing blood on the person as a purification, <ref target='Pg104'>104</ref>, <ref target='Pg115'>115</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on persons, dogs, and weapons as a mode of pacifying their souls, <ref target='Pg219'>219</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— bodies of manslayers with porridge, <ref target='Pg176'>176</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— porridge or fat on the person as a purification, <ref target='Pg112'>112</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— sheep's entrails on body as mode of purification, <ref target='Pg174'>174</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Smith, W, Robertson, <ref target='Pg077'>77</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi><hi rend='vertical-align: super'>1</hi>, <ref target='Pg096'>96</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi><hi rend='vertical-align: super'>1</hi>, <ref target='Pg243'>243</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi><hi rend='vertical-align: super'>7</hi>, <ref target='Pg247'>247</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi><hi rend='vertical-align: super'>5</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Smith's craft regarded us uncanny, <ref target='Pg236'>236</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi><hi rend='vertical-align: super'>5</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Snakes not called by their proper names, <ref target='Pg399'>399</ref>, <ref target='Pg400'>400</ref>, <ref target='Pg401'>401</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg411'>411</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Snapping the thumbs to prevent the departure of the soul, <ref target='Pg031'>31</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Snares set for souls, <ref target='Pg069'>69</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Son-in-law, his name not to be pronounced, <ref target='Pg338'>338</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg344'>344</ref>, <ref target='Pg345'>345</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sorcerers, souls extracted or detained by, <ref target='Pg069'>69</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>make use of cut hair and other bodily refuse, <ref target='Pg268'>268</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg274'>274</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'><ref target='Pg278'>278</ref>, <ref target='Pg281'>281</ref> sq. <hi rend='italic'>See also</hi> <ref target='Index-Magic'>Magic</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Soul conceived as a mannikin, <ref target='Pg026'>26</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the perils of the, <ref target='Pg026'>26</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>ancient Egyptian conception of the, <ref target='Pg028'>28</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>representations of the soul in Greek art, <ref target='Pg029'>29</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi><hi rend='vertical-align: super'>1</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>as a butterfly, <ref target='Pg029'>29</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi><hi rend='vertical-align: super'>1</hi>, <ref target='Pg041'>41</ref>, <ref target='Pg051'>51</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>absence and recall of the, <ref target='Pg030'>30</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>attempts to prevent the soul from escaping from the body, <ref target='Pg030'>30</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>sickness attributed to the absence of the, <ref target='Pg032'>32</ref>, <ref target='Pg042'>42</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>tied by thread or string to the body, <ref target='Pg032'>32</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg043'>43</ref>, <ref target='Pg051'>51</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>conceived as a bird, <ref target='Pg033'>33</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>absent in sleep, <ref target='Pg036'>36</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in form of mouse, <ref target='Pg037'>37</ref>, <ref target='Pg039'>39</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi><hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in form of lizard, <ref target='Pg038'>38</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in form of fly, <ref target='Pg039'>39</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>caught in a cloth, <ref target='Pg046'>46</ref>, <ref target='Pg047'>47</ref>, <ref target='Pg048'>48</ref>, <ref target='Pg052'>52</ref>, <ref target='Pg053'>53</ref>, <ref target='Pg064'>64</ref>, <ref target='Pg067'>67</ref>, <ref target='Pg075'>75</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>identified with the shadow, <ref target='Pg077'>77</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>identified with the reflection in water or a mirror, <ref target='Pg092'>92</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>supposed to escape at eating and drinking, <ref target='Pg116'>116</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in the blood, <ref target='Pg240'>240</ref>, <ref target='Pg241'>241</ref>, <ref target='Pg247'>247</ref>, <ref target='Pg250'>250</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>identified with the personal name, <ref target='Pg319'>319</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of rice not to be frightened, <ref target='Pg412'>412</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Souls, every man thought to have four, <ref target='Pg027'>27</ref>, <ref target='Pg080'>80</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>light and heavy, thin and fat, <ref target='Pg029'>29</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>transferred to other bodies, <ref target='Pg049'>49</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>impounded in magic fence, <ref target='Pg056'>56</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>abducted by demons, <ref target='Pg058'>58</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq</hi>.;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>transmigrate into animals, <ref target='Pg065'>65</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>brought back in a visible form, <ref target='Pg065'>65</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>caught in snares or nets, <ref target='Pg069'>69</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>extracted or detained by sorcerers, <ref target='Pg069'>69</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in tusks of ivory, <ref target='Pg070'>70</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>conjured into jars, <ref target='Pg070'>70</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in boxes, <ref target='Pg070'>70</ref>, <ref target='Pg076'>76</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>shut up in calabashes, <ref target='Pg072'>72</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>transferred from the living to the dead, <ref target='Pg073'>73</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>gathered into a basket, <ref target='Pg072'>72</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>wounded and bleeding, <ref target='Pg073'>73</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>supposed to be in portraits, <ref target='Pg096'>96</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— of beasts respected, <ref target='Pg223'>223</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— of the dead all malignant, <ref target='Pg145'>145</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>cannot go to the spirit-land till the flesh has decayed from their bones, <ref target='Pg372'>372</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi><hi rend='vertical-align: super'>5</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— of the slain, propitiation of, <ref target='Pg166'>166</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sovereignty, reluctance to accept the, on account of its burdens, <ref target='Pg017'>17</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Spells cast by strangers, <ref target='Pg112'>112</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>at hair-cutting, <ref target='Pg264'>264</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Spenser, Edmund, <ref target='Pg244'>244</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Spices used in exorcism of demons, <ref target='Pg105'>105</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Spirit of dead apparently supposed to decay with the body, <ref target='Pg372'>372</ref></l> +</lg> + +<pb n='443'/><anchor id='Pg443'/> + +<lg> +<l>Spirits averse to iron, <ref target='Pg232'>232</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— of land, conciliation of the, <ref target='Pg110'>110</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Spiritual power, its divorce from temporal power, <ref target='Pg017'>17</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Spitting forbidden, <ref target='Pg196'>196</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>as a protective charm, <ref target='Pg279'>279</ref>, <ref target='Pg286'>286</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>upon knots as a charm, <ref target='Pg302'>302</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Spittle effaced or concealed, <ref target='Pg288'>288</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>tabooed, <ref target='Pg287'>287</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>used in magic, <ref target='Pg268'>268</ref>, <ref target='Pg269'>269</ref>, <ref target='Pg287'>287</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>used in making a covenant, <ref target='Pg290'>290</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Spoil taken from enemy purified, <ref target='Pg177'>177</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Spoons used in eating by tabooed persons, <ref target='Pg141'>141</ref>, <ref target='Pg148'>148</ref>, <ref target='Pg189'>189</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sprained leg, cure for, <ref target='Pg304'>304</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Spring and summer, myths of divinities and spirits to be told only in, <ref target='Pg384'>384</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sprinkling with holy water, <ref target='Pg285'>285</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>St. Sylvester's Day, <ref target='Pg088'>88</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Stabbing reflections in water to injure the persons reflected, <ref target='Pg093'>93</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Stade, Hans, captive among Brazilian Indians, <ref target='Pg231'>231</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Standard of conduct shifted from natural to supernatural basis, <ref target='Pg213'>213</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Stepping over persons or things forbidden, <ref target='Pg159'>159</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg194'>194</ref>, <ref target='Pg423'>423</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>over dead panther, <ref target='Pg219'>219</ref>.</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'><hi rend='italic'>See also</hi> <ref target='Index-Jumping'>Jumping</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Stone knives and arrow-heads used in religious ritual, <ref target='Pg228'>228</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Stones on which a man's shadow should not fall, <ref target='Pg080'>80</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Storms caused by cutting or combing the hair, <ref target='Pg271'>271</ref>, <ref target='Pg282'>282</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Strange land, ceremonies at entering a, <ref target='Pg109'>109</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Strangers, taboos on intercourse with, <ref target='Pg101'>101</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>suspected of practising magical arts, <ref target='Pg102'>102</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>ceremonies at the reception of, <ref target='Pg102'>102</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>dread of, <ref target='Pg102'>102</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>spells cast by, <ref target='Pg112'>112</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>killed, <ref target='Pg113'>113</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>String or thread used to tie soul to body, <ref target='Pg032'>32</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg043'>43</ref>, <ref target='Pg051'>51</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Strings, knotted, as amulets, <ref target='Pg309'>309</ref>.</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'><hi rend='italic'>See also</hi> <ref target='Index-Cords'>Cords</ref>, <ref target='Index-Threads'>Threads</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><q>Strong names</q> of kings of Dahomey, <ref target='Pg374'>374</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sulka, the, <ref target='Pg151'>151</ref>, <ref target='Pg331'>331</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sultan Bayazid and his soul, <ref target='Pg050'>50</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sultans veiled, <ref target='Pg120'>120</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sumba, custom as to the names of princes in the island of, <ref target='Pg376'>376</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Summer, myths of gods and spirits not to be told in, <ref target='Pg385'>385</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— and winter, personal names different in, <ref target='Pg386'>386</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sun not allowed to shine on sacred persons, <ref target='Pg003'>3</ref>, <ref target='Pg004'>4</ref>, <ref target='Pg006'>6</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— -god draws away souls, <ref target='Pg064'>64</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sunda, tabooed words in, <ref target='Pg341'>341</ref>, <ref target='Pg415'>415</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Supernatural basis of morality, <ref target='Pg213'>213</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Supernatural beings, their names tabooed, <ref target='Pg384'>384</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Superstition a crutch to morality, <ref target='Pg219'>219</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Swaheli charm, <ref target='Pg305'>305</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sweating as a purification, <ref target='Pg142'>142</ref>, <ref target='Pg184'>184</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Swelling and inflammation thought to be caused by eating out of sacred vessels or by wearing sacred garments, <ref target='Pg004'>4</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sympathetic connexion between a person and the severed parts of his body, <ref target='Pg267'>267</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg283'>283</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— magic, <ref target='Pg164'>164</ref>, <ref target='Pg201'>201</ref>, <ref target='Pg204'>204</ref>, <ref target='Pg258'>258</ref>, <ref target='Pg268'>268</ref>, <ref target='Pg287'>287</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Synonyms adopted in order to avoid naming the dead, <ref target='Pg359'>359</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in the Zulu language, <ref target='Pg377'>377</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in the Maori language, <ref target='Pg381'>381</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Taboo of chiefs and kings in Tonga, <ref target='Pg133'>133</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of chiefs in New Zealand, <ref target='Pg134'>134</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Esquimaux theory of, <ref target='Pg210'>210</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the meaning of, <ref target='Pg224'>224</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— rajah and chief, <ref target='Pg024'>24</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tabooed acts, <ref target='Pg101'>101</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— hands, <ref target='Pg138'>138</ref>, <ref target='Pg140'>140</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg146'>146</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg158'>158</ref>, <ref target='Pg159'>159</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— persons, <ref target='Pg131'>131</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>secluded, <ref target='Pg165'>165</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— things, <ref target='Pg224'>224</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— words, <ref target='Pg318'>318</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Taboos, royal and priestly, <ref target='Pg001'>1</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on intercourse with strangers, <ref target='Pg101'>101</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on eating and drinking, <ref target='Pg116'>116</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on shewing the face, <ref target='Pg120'>120</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on quitting the house, <ref target='Pg122'>122</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on leaving food over, <ref target='Pg126'>126</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on persons who have handled the dead, <ref target='Pg138'>138</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on warriors, <ref target='Pg157'>157</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on manslayers, <ref target='Pg165'>165</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>imposed on murderers, <ref target='Pg187'>187</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>imposed on hunters and fishers, <ref target='Pg190'>190</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>transformed into ethical precepts, <ref target='Pg214'>214</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>survivals of, in morality, <ref target='Pg218'>218</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>as spiritual insulators, <ref target='Pg224'>224</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on sharp weapons, <ref target='Pg237'>237</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on blood, <ref target='Pg239'>239</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>relating to the head, <ref target='Pg252'>252</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on hair, <ref target='Pg258'>258</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on spittle, <ref target='Pg287'>287</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on foods, <ref target='Pg291'>291</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on knots and rings, <ref target='Pg293'>293</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on words, <ref target='Pg318'>318</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg392'>392</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on personal names, <ref target='Pg318'>318</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on names of relations, <ref target='Pg335'>335</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on the names of the dead, <ref target='Pg349'>349</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on names of kings and chiefs, <ref target='Pg374'>374</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on names of supernatural beings, <ref target='Pg384'>384</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on names of gods, <ref target='Pg387'>387</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— observed by the Mikado, <ref target='Pg003'>3</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>by headmen in Assam, <ref target='Pg011'>11</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>by ancient kings of Ireland, <ref target='Pg011'>11</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>by the Flamen Dialis, <ref target='Pg013'>13</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>by the Bodia or Bodio, <ref target='Pg015'>15</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>by sacred milkmen among the Todas, <ref target='Pg016'>16</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tahiti, <ref target='Pg255'>255</ref></l> +</lg> + +<pb n='444'/><anchor id='Pg444'/> + +<lg> +<l>Tahiti, kings of, <ref target='Pg226'>226</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>abdicate on birth of a son, <ref target='Pg020'>20</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>their names not to be pronounced, <ref target='Pg381'>381</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tails of cats docked as a magical precaution, <ref target='Pg128'>128</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tales, wandering souls in popular, <ref target='Pg049'>49</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tara, the old capital of Ireland, <ref target='Pg011'>11</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tartar Khan, ceremony at visiting a, <ref target='Pg114'>114</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id='Index-Teeth'/> +<l>Teeth, loss of, supposed effect of breaking a taboo, <ref target='Pg140'>140</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>loosened by angry ghosts, <ref target='Pg186'>186</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi><hi rend='vertical-align: super'>1</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>as a rain-charm, <ref target='Pg271'>271</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>extracted, kept against the resurrection, <ref target='Pg280'>280</ref>.</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'><hi rend='italic'>See also</hi> <ref target='Index-Tooth'>Tooth</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Temple at Jerusalem, the, <ref target='Pg230'>230</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Temporary reincarnation of the dead in their living namesakes, <ref target='Pg371'>371</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id='Index-Tendi'/> +<l><foreign rend='italic'>Tendi</foreign>, Batta word for soul, <ref target='Pg045'>45</ref>.</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'><hi rend='italic'>See also</hi> <ref target='Index-Tondi'>Tondi</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tepehuanes, the, <ref target='Pg097'>97</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Terms of relationship used as terms of address, <ref target='Pg324'>324</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Thakambau, <ref target='Pg131'>131</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Thebes in Egypt, priestly kings of, <ref target='Pg013'>13</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Theocracies in America, <ref target='Pg006'>6</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Thesmophoria, release of prisoners at, <ref target='Pg316'>316</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Thessalian witch, <ref target='Pg390'>390</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Things tabooed, <ref target='Pg224'>224</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Thompson Indians of British Columbia, <ref target='Pg037'>37</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>customs of mourners among the, <ref target='Pg142'>142</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Thomson, Joseph, <ref target='Pg098'>98</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Thorn bushes to keep off ghosts, <ref target='Pg142'>142</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Thread or string used to tie soul to body, <ref target='Pg032'>32</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg043'>43</ref>, <ref target='Pg051'>51</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id='Index-Threads'/> +<l>Threads, knotted, in magic, <ref target='Pg303'>303</ref>, <ref target='Pg304'>304</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg307'>307</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Three knots in magic, <ref target='Pg304'>304</ref>, <ref target='Pg305'>305</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Thumbs snapped to prevent the departure of the soul, <ref target='Pg031'>31</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Thunderstorms caused by cut hair, <ref target='Pg271'>271</ref>, <ref target='Pg282'>282</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Thurn, E. F. im, <ref target='Pg324'>324</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tigers not called by their proper names, <ref target='Pg401'>401</ref>, <ref target='Pg402'>402</ref>, <ref target='Pg403'>403</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg410'>410</ref>, <ref target='Pg415'>415</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>called dogs, <ref target='Pg402'>402</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>called jackals, <ref target='Pg402'>402</ref>, <ref target='Pg403'>403</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Timines of Sierra Leone, <ref target='Pg018'>18</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Timor, fetish or taboo rajah in, <ref target='Pg024'>24</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>customs as to war in, <ref target='Pg165'>165</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tin ore, Malay superstitions as to, <ref target='Pg407'>407</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tinneh or Déné Indians, <ref target='Pg145'>145</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Toboongkoos of Celebes, <ref target='Pg048'>48</ref>, <ref target='Pg078'>78</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Todas, holy milkmen of the, <ref target='Pg015'>15</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Togoland, <ref target='Pg247'>247</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tolampoos, the, <ref target='Pg319'>319</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tolindoos, the, <ref target='Pg078'>78</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id='Index-Tondi'/> +<l><foreign rend='italic'>Tondi</foreign>, Batta word for soul, <ref target='Pg035'>35</ref>.</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'><hi rend='italic'>See also</hi> <ref target='Index-Tendi'>Tendi</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tonga, divine chiefs in, <ref target='Pg021'>21</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the taboo of chiefs and kings in, <ref target='Pg133'>133</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>taboos connected with the dead in, <ref target='Pg140'>140</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tonquin, division of monarchy in, <ref target='Pg019'>19</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>kings of, <ref target='Pg125'>125</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign rend='italic'>Tooitonga</foreign>, divine chief of Tonga, <ref target='Pg021'>21</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id='Index-Tooth'/> +<l>Tooth knocked out as initiatory rite, <ref target='Pg244'>244</ref>.</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'><hi rend='italic'>See also</hi> <ref target='Index-Teeth'>Teeth</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Toradjas, tabooed names among the, <ref target='Pg340'>340</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>their field-speech, <ref target='Pg411'>411</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Touching sacred king or chief, supposed effects of, <ref target='Pg132'>132</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Trading voyages, continence observed on, <ref target='Pg203'>203</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tradition, historical, hampered by the taboo on the names of the dead, <ref target='Pg363'>363</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Transference of souls from the living to the dead, <ref target='Pg073'>73</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of souls to other bodies, <ref target='Pg049'>49</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of sins, <ref target='Pg214'>214</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Transgressions, need of confessing, <ref target='Pg211'>211</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'><hi rend='italic'>See also</hi> <ref target='Index-Sins'>Sins</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Transmigration of souls into animals, <ref target='Pg065'>65</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Transylvania, the Germans of, <ref target='Pg296'>296</ref>, <ref target='Pg310'>310</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Traps set for souls, <ref target='Pg070'>70</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Travail, women in, knots on their garments untied, <ref target='Pg294'>294</ref>.</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'><hi rend='italic'>See also</hi> <ref target='Index-Childbirth'>Childbirth</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Travellers, knots used as charms by, <ref target='Pg306'>306</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tree-spirits, fear of, <ref target='Pg412'>412</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Trees, the shadows of trees sensitive, <ref target='Pg082'>82</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>cut hair deposited on or under, <ref target='Pg014'>14</ref>, <ref target='Pg275'>275</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg286'>286</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tuaregs, the, <ref target='Pg117'>117</ref>, <ref target='Pg122'>122</ref>; their fear of ghosts, <ref target='Pg353'>353</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tumleo, island of, <ref target='Pg150'>150</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tupi Indians, their customs as to eating captives, <ref target='Pg179'>179</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Turtle catching, taboos in connexion with, <ref target='Pg192'>192</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tusks of ivory, souls in, <ref target='Pg070'>70</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Twelfth Night, <ref target='Pg396'>396</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Twins, water poured on graves of, <ref target='Pg154'>154</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— father of, taboos observed by the, <ref target='Pg239'>239</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>his hair shaved and nails cut, <ref target='Pg284'>284</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tycoons, the, <ref target='Pg019'>19</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tying the soul to the body, <ref target='Pg032'>32</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg043'>43</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tylor, E. B., on reincarnation of ancestors, <ref target='Pg372'>372</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi><hi rend='vertical-align: super'>1</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id='Index-Uganda'/> +<l>Uganda, <ref target='Pg084'>84</ref>, <ref target='Pg086'>86</ref>, <ref target='Pg112'>112</ref>, <ref target='Pg145'>145</ref>, <ref target='Pg164'>164</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi><hi rend='vertical-align: super'>1</hi>, <ref target='Pg239'>239</ref>, <ref target='Pg243'>243</ref>, <ref target='Pg254'>254</ref>, <ref target='Pg263'>263</ref>, <ref target='Pg277'>277</ref>, <ref target='Pg330'>330</ref>, <ref target='Pg369'>369</ref>.</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'><hi rend='italic'>See also</hi> <ref target='Index-Baganda'>Baganda</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ulster, kings of, <ref target='Pg012'>12</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Unclean and sacred, correspondence of the rules regarding the, <ref target='Pg145'>145</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Uncleanness regarded as a vapour, <ref target='Pg152'>152</ref>, <ref target='Pg206'>206</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of manslayers, of menstruous and lying-in women, and of persons who have handled the dead, <ref target='Pg169'>169</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of whalers, <ref target='Pg191'>191</ref>, <ref target='Pg207'>207</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of lion-killer, <ref target='Pg220'>220</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of bear-killers, <ref target='Pg221'>221</ref></l> +</lg> + +<pb n='445'/><anchor id='Pg445'/> + +<lg> +<l>Uncovered in the open air, prohibition to be, <ref target='Pg003'>3</ref>, <ref target='Pg014'>14</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Unyoro, king of, his custom of drinking milk, <ref target='Pg119'>119</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>cowboy of the king of, <ref target='Pg159'>159</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>diet of the king of, <ref target='Pg291'>291</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Vapour thought to be exhaled by lying-in women and hunters, <ref target='Pg152'>152</ref>, <ref target='Pg206'>206</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>supposed, of blood and corpses, <ref target='Pg210'>210</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>supposed to be produced by the violation of a taboo, <ref target='Pg212'>212</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Varuna, festival of, <ref target='Pg217'>217</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Veiling faces to avert evil influences, <ref target='Pg120'>120</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Venison, taboos concerning, <ref target='Pg208'>208</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Vermin from hair returned to their owner, <ref target='Pg278'>278</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id='Index-Vessels'/> +<l>Vessels used by tabooed persons destroyed, <ref target='Pg004'>4</ref>, <ref target='Pg131'>131</ref>, <ref target='Pg139'>139</ref>, <ref target='Pg145'>145</ref>, <ref target='Pg156'>156</ref>, <ref target='Pg284'>284</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— special, employed by tabooed persons, <ref target='Pg138'>138</ref>, <ref target='Pg139'>139</ref>, <ref target='Pg142'>142</ref>, <ref target='Pg143'>143</ref>, <ref target='Pg144'>144</ref>, <ref target='Pg145'>145</ref>, <ref target='Pg146'>146</ref>, <ref target='Pg147'>147</ref>, <ref target='Pg148'>148</ref>, <ref target='Pg160'>160</ref>, <ref target='Pg167'>167</ref>, <ref target='Pg185'>185</ref>, <ref target='Pg189'>189</ref>, <ref target='Pg197'>197</ref>, <ref target='Pg198'>198</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Victims, sacrificial, carried round city, <ref target='Pg188'>188</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Vine, prohibition to walk under a, <ref target='Pg014'>14</ref>, <ref target='Pg248'>248</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Virgil, the enchantress in, <ref target='Pg305'>305</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on rustic militia of Latium, <ref target='Pg311'>311</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Vow, hair kept unshorn during a, <ref target='Pg261'>261</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg285'>285</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Wabondei, the, <ref target='Pg272'>272</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Wadai, Sultan of, <ref target='Pg120'>120</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign rend='italic'>Wakan</foreign>, mysterious, sacred, taboo, <ref target='Pg225'>225</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Wakelbura, the, <ref target='Pg031'>31</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Wallis Island, <ref target='Pg140'>140</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Walrus, taboos concerning, <ref target='Pg208'>208</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Wanigela River, <ref target='Pg192'>192</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Wanika, the, <ref target='Pg247'>247</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Wanyamwesi, the, <ref target='Pg112'>112</ref>, <ref target='Pg330'>330</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Wanyoro (Banyoro), the, <ref target='Pg278'>278</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>War, continence in, <ref target='Pg157'>157</ref>, <ref target='Pg158'>158</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi><hi rend='vertical-align: super'>1</hi>, <ref target='Pg161'>161</ref>, <ref target='Pg163'>163</ref>, <ref target='Pg164'>164</ref>, <ref target='Pg165'>165</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>rules of ceremonial purity observed in, <ref target='Pg157'>157</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>hair kept unshorn in, <ref target='Pg261'>261</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— chief, or war king, <ref target='Pg020'>20</ref>, <ref target='Pg021'>21</ref>, <ref target='Pg024'>24</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— -dances, <ref target='Pg169'>169</ref>, <ref target='Pg170'>170</ref>, <ref target='Pg178'>178</ref>, <ref target='Pg182'>182</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Warm food tabooed, <ref target='Pg189'>189</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Warramunga, the, <ref target='Pg384'>384</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Warriors tabooed, <ref target='Pg157'>157</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Washing the head, <ref target='Pg253'>253</ref>. <hi rend='italic'>See</hi> <ref target='Index-Bathing'>Bathing</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Water poured as a rain-charm, <ref target='Pg154'>154</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>holy, sprinkling with, <ref target='Pg285'>285</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— -spirits, danger of, <ref target='Pg094'>94</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Wax figure in magic, <ref target='Pg074'>74</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Weapons of manslayers, purification of, <ref target='Pg172'>172</ref>, <ref target='Pg182'>182</ref>, <ref target='Pg219'>219</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Wedding ring, an amulet against witchcraft, <ref target='Pg314'>314</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Were-wolf, <ref target='Pg042'>42</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Whale, solemn burial of dead, <ref target='Pg223'>223</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Whalers, taboos observed by, <ref target='Pg191'>191</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg205'>205</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Wheaten flour, prohibition to touch, <ref target='Pg013'>13</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>White, faces and bodies of manslayers painted, <ref target='Pg175'>175</ref>, <ref target='Pg186'>186</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi><hi rend='vertical-align: super'>1</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>lion-killer painted, <ref target='Pg220'>220</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— clay, Caffre boys at circumcision smeared with, <ref target='Pg156'>156</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Whydah, king of, <ref target='Pg129'>129</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Widows and widowers, customs observed by, <ref target='Pg142'>142</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg144'>144</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg182'>182</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi><hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Wied, Prince of, <ref target='Pg096'>96</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Wife's mother, the savage's dread of his, <ref target='Pg083'>83</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>her name not to be pronounced by her son-in-law, <ref target='Pg337'>337</ref>, <ref target='Pg338'>338</ref>, <ref target='Pg343'>343</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— name not to be pronounced by her husband, <ref target='Pg337'>337</ref>, <ref target='Pg338'>338</ref>, <ref target='Pg339'>339</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Wild beasts not called by their proper names, <ref target='Pg396'>396</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Wilkinson, R. J., <ref target='Pg416'>416</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi><hi rend='vertical-align: super'>4</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Willow wands as disinfectants, <ref target='Pg143'>143</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Windessi, in New Guinea, <ref target='Pg169'>169</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Winds kept in jars, <ref target='Pg005'>5</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Wine, the blood of the vine, <ref target='Pg248'>248</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>called milk, <ref target='Pg249'>249</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi><hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Wing-bone of eagle used to drink through, <ref target='Pg189'>189</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Winter, myths of gods and spirits to be told only in, <ref target='Pg385'>385</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Wirajuri, the, <ref target='Pg269'>269</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Witch's soul departs from her in sleep, <ref target='Pg039'>39</ref>, <ref target='Pg041'>41</ref>, <ref target='Pg042'>42</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Witches make use of cut hair, <ref target='Pg270'>270</ref>, <ref target='Pg271'>271</ref>, <ref target='Pg279'>279</ref>, <ref target='Pg282'>282</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Wollunqua, a mythical serpent, <ref target='Pg384'>384</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Wolofs of Senegambia, <ref target='Pg323'>323</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Wolves, charms to protect cattle from, <ref target='Pg307'>307</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>not to be called by their proper names, <ref target='Pg396'>396</ref>, <ref target='Pg397'>397</ref>, <ref target='Pg398'>398</ref>, <ref target='Pg402'>402</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Women tabooed at menstruation and childbirth, <ref target='Pg145'>145</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>abstinence from, during war, <ref target='Pg157'>157</ref>, <ref target='Pg158'>158</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi><hi rend='vertical-align: super'>1</hi>, <ref target='Pg161'>161</ref>, <ref target='Pg163'>163</ref>, <ref target='Pg164'>164</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in childbed holy, <ref target='Pg225'>225</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>blood of, dreaded, <ref target='Pg250'>250</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Women's clothes, supposed effects of touching, <ref target='Pg164'>164</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><q>Women's speech</q> among the Caffres, <ref target='Pg335'>335</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Words tabooed, <ref target='Pg318'>318</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>savages take a materialistic view of words, <ref target='Pg331'>331</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— common, changed because they are the names of the dead, <ref target='Pg358'>358</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg375'>375</ref>,</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>or the names of chiefs and kings, <ref target='Pg375'>375</ref>, <ref target='Pg376'>376</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>tabooed, <ref target='Pg392'>392</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Wounded men not allowed to drink milk, <ref target='Pg174'>174</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Wrist tied to prevent escape of soul, <ref target='Pg032'>32</ref>, <ref target='Pg043'>43</ref>, <ref target='Pg051'>51</ref></l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>—— bands as amulets, <ref target='Pg315'>315</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Wurunjeri tribe, <ref target='Pg042'>42</ref></l> +</lg> + +<pb n='446'/><anchor id='Pg446'/> + +<lg> +<l>Xenophanes, on the gods, <ref target='Pg387'>387</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Yabim, the, <ref target='Pg151'>151</ref>, <ref target='Pg306'>306</ref>, <ref target='Pg354'>354</ref>, <ref target='Pg386'>386</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Yakut shaman, <ref target='Pg063'>63</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Yams, Feast of, <ref target='Pg123'>123</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Yaos, the, <ref target='Pg097'>97</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Yawning, soul supposed to depart in, <ref target='Pg031'>31</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Yewe order, secret society in Togo, <ref target='Pg383'>383</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Yorubas, rebirth of ancestors among the, <ref target='Pg369'>369</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Zapotecs of Mexico, the pontiff of the, <ref target='Pg006'>6</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Zend-Avesta, the, on cut hair and nails, <ref target='Pg277'>277</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Zeus on Mount Lycaeus, sanctuary of, <ref target='Pg088'>88</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Zulu language, its diversity, <ref target='Pg377'>377</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Zulus, names of chiefs and kings tabooed among the, <ref target='Pg376'>376</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>their superstition as to reflections in water, <ref target='Pg091'>91</ref></l> +</lg> + +</div> + +</body> +<back rend="page-break-before: right"> + <div id="footnotes"> + <index index="toc" /> + <index index="pdf" /> + <head>Footnotes</head> + <divGen type="footnotes"/> + </div> + <div rend="page-break-before: right"> + <divGen type="pgfooter" /> + </div> +</back> +</text> +</TEI.2> diff --git a/41832-tei/images/cover.jpg b/41832-tei/images/cover.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..8ff2c75 --- /dev/null +++ b/41832-tei/images/cover.jpg |
