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diff --git a/41830-0.txt b/41830-0.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..82c0bf8 --- /dev/null +++ b/41830-0.txt @@ -0,0 +1,12442 @@ +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 41830 *** + +Note: Project Gutenberg also has an HTML version of this + file which includes the original illustrations. + See 41830-h.htm or 41830-h.zip: + (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41830/41830-h/41830-h.htm) + or + (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41830/41830-h.zip) + + + Images of the original pages are available through + Internet Archive/American Libraries. See + http://archive.org/details/spellofflanderso00vose + + + + + +THE SPELL OF FLANDERS + + * * * * * + + THE SPELL SERIES + + + _Each volume with one or more colored plates and many + illustrations from original drawings or special photographs. + Octavo, with decorative cover, gilt top, boxed._ + + _Per volume $2.50 net, carriage paid $2.70_ + + THE SPELL OF ITALY + + By Caroline Atwater Mason + + THE SPELL OF FRANCE + + By Caroline Atwater Mason + + THE SPELL OF SOUTHERN SHORES + + By Caroline Atwater Mason + + THE SPELL OF ENGLAND + + By Julia de W. Addison + + THE SPELL OF HOLLAND + + By Burton E. Stevenson + + THE SPELL OF SWITZERLAND + + By Nathan Haskell Dole + + THE SPELL OF THE ITALIAN LAKES + + By William D. McCrackan + + THE SPELL OF TYROL + + By William D. McCrackan + + THE SPELL OF JAPAN + + By Isabel Anderson + + THE SPELL OF SPAIN + + By Keith Clark + + THE SPELL OF FLANDERS + + By Edward Neville Vose + + THE SPELL OF THE HOLY LAND + + By Archie Bell + + + THE PAGE COMPANY + + 53 BEACON STREET, BOSTON, MASS. + + * * * * * + +[Illustration: _Cathedral of St. Sauveur, Bruges_ + +(_See page 47_)] + + +THE SPELL OF FLANDERS + +An Outline of the History, Legends and Art of Belgium's +Famous Northern Provinces + +Being the story of a Twentieth Century Pilgrimage in a +Sixteenth Century Land just before the Outbreak of the Great War + +by + +EDWARD NEVILLE VOSE + +Illustrated + + + + + + + +Boston +The Page Company +MDCCCCXV + +Copyright, 1915, +by the Page Company + +All rights reserved + +First Impression, April, 1915 + +The Colonial Press + +C. H. Simonds Company, Boston, U. S. A. + + + + + To + + ALBERT I., + + King of the Belgians, the guiding star of a brave nation and + the hero of the Battle of Flanders in the Great War, this book + is dedicated + + + + +PUBLISHERS' NOTE + + +Lord Beaconsfield once said: "Flanders has been trodden by the feet +and watered by the blood of countless generations of British +soldiers." This famous passage--which has received a new confirmation +to-day--is typical of many references among English writers and +statesmen to Flanders as a general term covering all of what is now +known as Belgium. Among the citizens of that brave little Kingdom, +however, and among most Continental writers, Flanders is recognised as +being the name of only the northern part of Belgium. Small as that +country is, it has for centuries been bi-lingual, the northern portion +speaking Flemish, the southern French; and for centuries the history +of the Flemish provinces was as distinct from that of the Walloon +province to the southward as the early history of California or Texas +was from that of New England. + +Although eventually united under one Government with the Walloons and +with what is now Holland, it was during the long period of their +semi-independence that the Flemings achieved many of the artistic and +architectural monuments that have made Flanders for all time one of +the most interesting regions in the world. + +While this book, therefore, does not attempt to describe the whole of +Belgium, it does present a pen picture of the northern part of the +country as it existed almost at the moment when the devastating +scourge of the Great War swept across it. + + + + +FOREWORD + + +This book is the record of a vacation tour in the beautiful old +Flemish towns of Northern Belgium beginning in May and ending in July +of the Summer of 1914. The assassination of the Austrian Archduke +Ferdinand and his wife at Sarajevo took place while our little party +was viewing the mediæval houses and churches of Ghent and Audenaerde, +but in the many discussions of that event to which we listened there +was no whisper of the awful fate which the march of events was so soon +to bring upon one of the most charming, peaceful and happy countries +in the world. + +Many of the descriptions in the following pages were written in or +near the towns described, and within a day or so after the visit +narrated. Then each old Flemish "monument" was in as perfect a state +of preservation as the reverent pride and care of the Belgian populace +and the learned and skilful restorations of the Belgian government +could together accomplish. The fact that since these accounts were +written many of these very towns have been swept by shot and shell, +have been taken and retaken by hostile armies, have formed the stage +upon which some of the direst tragedies of the world's greatest and +most terrible war have been enacted, will--it is hoped--give them a +permanent interest and value. As a painting of some famous city as it +appeared many years or centuries ago is of the utmost historical +interest, even though by an inferior artist, so these halting word +pictures of towns that have since been wholly or partially destroyed +may help the reader to recall the glories that have passed away. + +In accordance with the plan described in the first chapter, the tour +of Flanders followed a decidedly zigzag itinerary, frequently visiting +some town more than once. The purpose of this was to follow, in a +fairly chronological sequence, as far as possible, the development of +Flemish history, architecture and art. The outline of the intensely +fascinating history of the old Flemish communes that has been thus +presented may prove of interest to many readers who have been thrilled +by the superb bravery of the little Belgian army in its defence of +Flanders against overwhelming odds. As these glimpses into the past +clearly show, the men of Belgium have engaged in a battle against +foreign domination from the earliest ages. That it was at times a +losing struggle never for a moment diminished the ardour of their +resistance, or the depth of their devotion to liberty and the right to +rule themselves. And when we consider how, during these centuries of +conflict, and in defiance of obstacles that would have daunted a less +strong-hearted people, the men of Flanders found the inspiration, the +patience and the skill to erect some of the noblest examples of +mediæval architecture, to create a school of painting that ranks as +one of the most priceless heritages of the ages, and to excel in a +half a score of other lines of artistic endeavour, we surely must all +agree that here is a people we would not willingly see perish from the +earth. + +If to be neutral is to stand by and silently acquiesce in the +destruction of Belgium as an independent nation, then the author of +this book is not neutral. In every fibre of his being he protests +against such a course as a crime against liberty, against humanity. +Happily, from every corner of the United States come unmistakable +evidences that the American people as a whole are not, at heart, +neutral on this subject. The embattled farmers who stood on the +bridge at Concord and fired "the shot heard round the world" have +thrilled the imagination and stimulated the patriotism of every +American schoolboy, but no less heroic is the spectacle of the little +Belgian army under the personal leadership of its noble King standing +like a rock on the last tiny strip of Belgian soil and stopping the +onrush of the most powerful fighting organisation in the world. At +Nieuport and Dixmude and along the bloodstained Yser Canal, the men of +Belgium fought for the same cause of liberty for which our forefathers +fought at Bunker Hill. Whatever our sympathies may be with respect to +the larger aspects of the great world war--and as to these we may most +properly remain neutral--our national history and traditions, the very +principles of government to which we owe "all that we have and are," +cannot but confirm us in the profound conviction that no conclusion to +this war can be just and right, or permanent, that does not once more +restore the Belgian nation and guarantee that it shall remain +completely and forever free. + +On the other hand, while news of the damage done to some famous +Flemish church or Hotel de Ville causes the author sensations akin to +those that he would experience on learning of the wounding of a +friend, this book will contain no complaint regarding German +destruction of these monuments of architecture. At Ypres and Malines, +where the havoc wrought cannot fail to have been fearful, the damage +was done in the course of battles in which the most powerful engines +of destruction ever invented by man were used on both sides. Much as +we may deplore the results, we cannot blame the individual commanders. +At Antwerp, Ghent, Bruges and many other famous Flemish cities the +Germans appear to have made every effort to avoid wanton destruction +and preserve the most notable historic edifices. After the war is over +and we have learned exactly what structures have been destroyed, and +under what circumstances, we can justly place whatever blame may +attach to such a catastrophe where it belongs--but not until then. For +the present we can only hope that the damage may be less than has been +reported, and that in many instances it will be possible for the +Belgians--so skilful in the work of restoration--to reconstruct the +sections of famous buildings that have been damaged. + +When the war is over many thousands of Americans and English will be +eager to visit the battle-fields of Flanders and see for themselves +the scenes of conflicts that will forever hold a great place in human +history. The author ventures to hope that this little book may be +found serviceable to such tourists as it contains much information not +to be found in any guide book. If it aids any of them--or any of the +far larger host of travellers whose journeys in far-off lands must be +made by their home firesides--to understand Flanders better it will +have achieved its purpose. It is one of the many ironies of the war +that towns like Ypres and Malines, which were rarely visited by +American tourists when they were in their perfection, will, no doubt, +be visited by thousands now that the clash of arms has brought them at +the same moment destruction and immortal fame. + + EDWARD NEVILLE VOSE. + + + + + CONTENTS + + + CHAPTER PAGE + + PUBLISHERS' NOTE vii + + FOREWORD ix + + I. INTRODUCING FLANDERS AND THE FOUR PILGRIMS 1 + + II. VIEUX BRUGES AND COUNT BALDWIN OF THE IRON ARM 15 + + III. BRUGES IN THE DAYS OF CHARLES THE GOOD 30 + + IV. HOW BRUGES BECAME "THE VENICE OF THE NORTH" 54 + + V. DIXMUDE AND FURNES 78 + + VI. NIEUPORT AND THE YSER CANAL 94 + + VII. WHEN YPRES WAS A GREATER CITY THAN LONDON 116 + + VIII. COURTRAI AND THE BATTLE OF THE SPURS 146 + + IX. GHENT IN THE DAYS OF THE FLEMISH COUNTS 169 + + X. THE AGE WHEN GHENT WAS GOVERNED BY ITS GUILDS 192 + + XI. PHILIP THE GOOD AND THE VAN EYCKS 218 + + XII. TOURNAI, THE OLDEST CITY IN BELGIUM 242 + + XIII. THREE CENTURIES OF TOURNAISIAN ART 268 + + XIV. THE FALL OF CHARLES THE BOLD--MEMLING AT BRUGES 285 + + XV. MALINES IN THE TIME OF MARGARET OF AUSTRIA 311 + + XVI. GHENT UNDER CHARLES THE FIFTH--AND SINCE 344 + + XVII. AUDENAERDE AND MARGARET OF PARMA 367 + + XVIII. OLD ANTWERP--ITS HISTORY AND LEGENDS 393 + + XIX. THREE CENTURIES OF ANTWERP PRINTERS 411 + + XX. ANTWERP FROM THE TIME OF RUBENS TILL TO-DAY 438 + + XXI. WHERE MODERN FLANDERS SHINES--OSTENDE AND "LA PLAGE" 464 + + XXII. THE SPELL OF FLANDERS 480 + + BIBLIOGRAPHY 485 + + INDEX 489 + + + + + LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS + + + PAGE + CATHEDRAL OF ST. SAUVEUR, BRUGES (_in full colour_) + (_See page 47_) _Frontispiece_ + + MAP OF BELGIUM AND THE NETHERLANDS, + SHOWING THE OLD FLEMISH PRINCIPALITY _facing_ 1 + + BÉGUINAGE BRIDGE, BRUGES 35 + + TOMB OF MARIE OF BURGUNDY, CHURCH OF NOTRE DAME, BRUGES 51 + + PALAIS DU FRANC, BRUGES (_in full colour_) 59 + + THE BELFRY, BRUGES 63 + + THE MINNEWATER, BRUGES 71 + + SHRIMP FISHERMEN, COXYDE 93 + + TOWER OF THE TEMPLARS, NIEUPORT 99 + + AN ANCIENT PAINTING OF THE FLEMISH KERMESSE BY TENIERS 115 + + CLOTH HALL, YPRES 119 + + HOTEL MERGHELYNCK, YPRES 139 + + CHURCH OF ST. PETER, YPRES 141 + + STATUE OF PETER DE CONINCK AND JOHN BREIDEL, BRUGES 154 + + CASTLE OF THE COUNTS, GHENT 170 + + RUINS OF THE ABBEY OF ST. BAVON, GHENT 184 + + POST OFFICE, CHURCH OF ST. NICHOLAS, BELFRY AND + CATHEDRAL, GHENT 195 + + DE DULLE GRIETE, GHENT 208 + + WORKROOM, PETIT BÉGUINAGE DE NOTRE DAME, GHENT 210 + + "SINGING ANGELS," FROM "THE ADORATION OF THE + LAMB"--JEAN VAN EYCK 236 + + "GEORGE VAN DER PAELE, CANON OF ST. DONATIAN, + WORSHIPPING THE MADONNA"--JEAN VAN EYCK (_in full colour_) 239 + + GENERAL VIEW OF TOURNAI AND THE FIVE-TOWERED CATHEDRAL 256 + + THE BELFRY, TOURNAI 262 + + A TRIPTYCH OF THE SEVEN SACRAMENTS BY ROGIER VAN DER WEYDEN 272 + + SHRINE OF ST. URSULA, HOSPITAL OF ST. JEAN, BRUGES 296 + + AN ILLUMINATION BY GHEERHARDT DAVID OF BRUGES, + 1498; ST. BARBARA (_in full colour_) 300 + + "THE LAST SUPPER"--THIERRY BOUTS 307 + + QUAI VERT, BRUGES 310 + + CATHEDRAL OF ST. ROMBAUT, MALINES 312 + + TOWER OF THE CATHEDRAL OF ST. ROMBAUT, FROM + THE RUELLE SANS FIN 318 + + _IN HET PARADIJS AND MAISON DES DIABLES_; TWO FIFTEENTH + CENTURY HOUSES, MALINES 333 + + PORTRAIT OF JEAN ARNOLFINI AND HIS WIFE BY JEAN + VAN EYCK 340 + + MAISON DE LA KEURE, HOTEL DE VILLE, GHENT 347 + + PORTRAIT OF THE DUKE OF ALVA BY A. MORO 352 + + "THE ADORATION OF THE SHEPHERDS"--HUGO VAN DER GOES 362 + + OLD GUILD HOUSES, QUAI AUX HERBES, GHENT 365 + + HOTEL DE VILLE, AUDENAERDE 370 + + WOODEN DOORWAY, CARVED BY VAN DER SCHELDEN, + HOTEL DE VILLE, AUDENAERDE 375 + + CHURCH OF STE. WALBURGE, AUDENAERDE 383 + + A FLEMISH TAPESTRY OF THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY 386 + + THE _VIELLE BOUCHERIE_, ANTWERP 399 + + "THE BANKER AND HIS WIFE"--MATSYS 403 + + "WINTER"--PETER BREUGHEL 405 + + "DRAGGING THE STATUE OF THE DUKE OF ALVA THROUGH + THE STREETS OF ANTWERP"--C. VERLAT 418 + + COURTYARD OF THE PLANTIN MUSEUM, ANTWERP 428 + + ANCIENT PRINTING PRESSES AND COMPOSING CASES, + PLANTIN MUSEUM, ANTWERP 436 + + "THE DESCENT FROM THE CROSS"--RUBENS 439 + + "COUP DE LANCE"--RUBENS 442 + + "_LA VIERGE AU PERROQUET_"--RUBENS 445 + + PETER PAUL RUBENS 448 + + "AS THE OLD BIRDS SING THE YOUNG BIRDS PIPE"--JACOB + JORDAENS 453 + + HOTEL DE VILLE, ANTWERP 456 + + THE "SALLE DES JEUX," IN THE KURSAAL OSTENDE 476 + + +[Illustration: MAP OF BELGIUM AND THE NETHERLANDS, SHOWING THE OLD +FLEMISH PRINCIPALITY] + + + + +THE SPELL OF FLANDERS + + + + +CHAPTER I + +INTRODUCING FLANDERS AND THE FOUR PILGRIMS + + +"Flanders! Why, where is Flanders?" + +"There! I told you she'd ask that question. You'll have to start right +at the beginning with her, and explain everything as you go along." + +We were planning our next vacation tour in Europe, which we had long +before agreed to "do" together this year. That meant a party of +four--the "Professor," as I always called him, and his charming young +wife, my wife, and myself. Like the plays in which the characters +appear on the stage in the order that their names are printed on the +programme, the arrangement I have just given is significant. The +Professor is always first, a born leader-of-the-way. And I am usually +last, carrying the heavy bundles. + +Not that I am complaining. No doubt I was born to do it. Moreover, the +Professor and I have been chums since boyhood. We worked our way +through "prep" school and college together, came to New York together, +and--in a modest way--have prospered together. At least, we felt +prosperous enough to think of going to Europe. For some years he has +been the head of the department of history in an important educational +institution within the boundaries of the greater city, while I have +devoted myself to journalism--and am therefore dubbed "the Editor," +whenever he wishes to refer to me as a personage instead of a human +being, which, happily, is not very often. Of the two ladies in the +proposed party I do not need to speak--not because there is nothing to +say, but because they can speak for themselves. In fact, one of them +has just spoken, has asked a question, and it has not yet been +answered. + +"Flanders, my dear," said the Professor, speaking in his most +sententious manner--as if delivering a lecture in his classroom--"is +the most interesting and the least visited corner of Europe. It has +more battle-fields and more Gothic churches per square mile than can +be found anywhere else. In other parts of Europe you can see mediæval +houses, here and there--usually in charge of a smirking caretaker, +with his little guidebook for sale, and hungrily anticipating his +little fee. In Flanders there are whole streets of them, whole towns +that date from the sixteenth century or earlier--but for the costumes +of the people, you could easily imagine yourself transported by some +enchantment back to the days of Charles the Bold, or even to the time +of the Crusaders." + +"Yes," I added, "and there is no region in the world where the history +of the past seems more real, more instinct with the emotions that +govern human conduct to-day, than these quaint old Flemish towns. You +stand in front of a marble skyscraper on Fifth Avenue and read a +bronze tablet that tells you that here the Revolutionary forces under +old Colonel Putnam, or whoever it was, delayed the advancing British +and covered General Washington's retreat. Now, does that tablet help +you to reconstruct your history? No, you are quite aware that the +fight took place when Fifth Avenue was open country, but your +imagination will not work when you try to make it picture that scene +for you right there on Fifth Avenue where the tablet says it happened. + +"Now, it's different in Flanders. You read in the history about how +the burghers of Bruges, when the Duke of Burgundy, Philip the Good, +tried to overawe the city by placing an army of archers in the +market-place, swarmed out of their houses and down the narrow, crooked +streets like so many angry bees. There are the same old houses, the +identical narrow, crooked streets--a bit of an effort and you can +picture it all--and how the Duke and his archers were driven back and +back, while the burghers swarmed in ever increasing numbers, and the +great tocsin in the belfry shrieked and clanged to tell the valiant +weavers that their liberties were in danger. + +"And take that other famous event, when they flung the murderers of +Count Charles the Good--who lived and died five hundred years before +the other Prince who, like him, was surnamed "the Good"--from the +tower of the very cathedral in which they had murdered him. Why, you +can climb the tower and look off across the same sea of red-roofed +houses and down upon the same square, paved with cruelly jagged +stones, as did the condemned men when, one by one, they were led to +the edge of the parapet and sent hurtling down." + +"The point is well taken," interrupted the Professor, "only that +particular church is no longer standing--it was destroyed during the +French Revolution. But really that makes little difference--there are +plenty of other towers in Bruges that have witnessed stirring scenes. +And all over Flanders it is the same way--nothing is easier than to +make your history live again, for everywhere you have the original +setting practically unchanged." + +"It's all very well for you men," observed Mrs. Professor, when her +husband and I paused to get our breath, "who admire, or pretend to +admire, battles and executions and that sort of thing, but if there is +nothing else to see except places with such dreadfully unpleasant +associations I, for one, don't want to go there." + +"On the contrary," I hastened to reply, seeing that the Professor was +much disturbed at this unexpected result of all our eloquence, +"Flanders has a lot of things to interest the ladies. Think of its +famous laces and lacemakers--we can still find the latter at work in +places like Bruges, Malines and Turnhout--of its rare old tapestries +from Audenaerde and Tournai, and the fine linens of Courtrai. Then +there are wood carvings the like of which you will travel far to see, +and old Flemish furniture everywhere." + +"To say nothing of the pleasure of learning a little more about the +great Flemish school of art in the very home towns of its most +celebrated artists," added the Professor, who was much elated to see +that the frowns were leaving the fair face of his better half. + +"That's much better," she announced. "I've always thought fine +hand-made lace the most wonderful product of feminine patience and +skill, and I should certainly love to watch them make it." + +"For my part," remarked the fourth member of the party, who had been +strangely silent during all this discussion, "while I like to learn a +little about the history of the old towns I visit, and see the fine +things--whether paintings, or town-halls, or lace or tapestry--for +which they are famous, what I like the best is to study the people +themselves. I mean the live ones, not those who are dead and gone that +our husbands are talking about. I love to sit on the sidewalk on +pleasant evenings and have dinner and black coffee while watching the +people of the town go by. It's better than a play. And on rainy days +there is always some quaint old-fashioned inn or café where the whole +scene looks like a painting by Jordaens or Teniers. The beamed ceiling +and the pictures on the walls are grimy with the smoke and steam of +countless dinners, the buxom landlady sits in state behind an array of +bottles of all sizes and colours and labelled at all prices, her +equally plump daughters wait on the tables, the very guests--including +ourselves--form a part of the picture. Why, it makes me want to be +back there again, just to think of it!" + +"The Madame is right!" exclaimed the Professor heartily--all of our +friends call my wife "the Madame" because she speaks French as +fluently as English. "Our first object on this trip will be pleasure. +A little knowledge of the history of Flanders, of tapestry and +lacemaking, of architecture and art, may enhance our enjoyment of what +we see, because we will thereby understand it better and appreciate +its interest or beauty more keenly. But we are not going over as +historical savants, or as authorities on art--or pretend that we know +any more about such subjects than we really do--" + +"Which is just enough to enable us to derive sincere pleasure from +seeing them, and having them explained to us, without troubling our +heads about this, that or the other element of technique," I +interrupted, completing the Professor's sentence for him. + +"And the best part of the day will be, just as Madame says," added +Mrs. Professor gaily, "the dinners on the sidewalks, where we can +watch the people as they go about and tell each other of what we have +seen since morning. And, hurray! for the Flemish inns!" + +"Well, as to Flemish inns," observed the Madame, "what I said related +to eating a dinner in one. When it comes to sleeping in them there are +other things to think of besides beamed ceilings and picturesque +interiors. + +"A few years ago we had an experience at Antwerp that taught us the +folly of arriving at a great continental city late at night without +having hotel accommodations secured in advance. We had started at +eight in the morning from Hamburg, intending to stop at Antwerp just +long enough to transfer our belongings to a train for Brussels that, +according to the time-table, would leave fifteen minutes after our +train arrived. Now, from Hamburg to Antwerp is quite a long +ride--short as the distance looks on the map--and when we finally +arrived at our destination, half an hour late, it was long after +midnight and our train for Brussels had gone. + +"We were both tired out, and hastily decided that we would put up at +Antwerp for the night and go on to Brussels in the morning. As we +emerged from the great Gare Centrale we found despite the lateness of +the hour, about a dozen red-capped hotel runners, each of whom +clamoured for our patronage. They all looked very much alike, the +names on their caps meant nothing to us as we were not familiar with +the Antwerp hotels, and we selected one at random. To our dismay we +discovered, when it was too late, that, whereas most of them had hotel +busses in waiting--into which they leaped and were driven off--our +cicerone was not so provided. He attempted to reassure us by saying +that the Grand Hotel de ---- was close by--a fact that produced the +opposite effect from that intended, as we knew that the immediate +vicinity of a large railroad station is seldom a desirable +neighbourhood. + +"However, the other porters were now gone and, unless we were disposed +to sleep in the station, there was nothing to do but follow along. To +our further alarm our guide presently turned into a most +unprepossessing street on which several drinking places were still +open, or were only on the point of closing. Into one of these he led +us. After a short conference with the proprietress, who was sitting +behind the bar counting the day's receipts, he took a candle and a +huge key and led us out into the court, then up a flight of stairs +placed on the outside of the house, and through several narrow +passageways. But for the flickering candle everything was completely +dark, and when he finally ushered us into an immense room with a +mediæval four-post bed in its darkest corner we involuntarily looked +for the trap-door down which the murderous inn-keepers of the stories +were wont to cast their victims. + +"Lighting a pair of candles on the mantelpiece from his, and wishing +us a civil '_Bon soir_,' our red-capped guide now left us--to our +great relief. Although we tried to dismiss our fears as childish, we +both felt more insecure and helpless than we cared to admit, even to +each other. None of our friends knew that we were in Antwerp. If we +disappeared they would hardly think to look for us there--and still +less on this shabby street, the very name of which we did not know. + +"We barricaded the door against a sudden surprise, inspected the walls +with a candle for signs of the secret door (at the head of the +winding stairway up which the wicked innkeeper so often creeps upon +his prey, according to the chronicles) and at last, the fatigue of the +day overcoming our fears, we slept. It was broad daylight when we +awoke, and the street was alive with people--mostly cartmen and +peasants it seemed. With some difficulty we found our way down to the +room where we had seen the landlady the night before. She greeted us +warmly, our fears of the night had fled--and we sat down and ordered, +and enjoyed, a most excellent breakfast. The hotel was quite a popular +one, we learned, much frequented by people from near-by towns, and we +had never been safer in our lives. Yet, just the same, we both vowed +firmly that 'Never Again' would we take similar chances--and we never +have." + +"I have thought of that incident more than once while talking over our +Flemish tour with the Professor," I observed, "and have decided upon +this plan. When we find a hotel that suits us all, as regards +cleanliness, cuisine and safety--or rather the sense of security, for +I daresay we would be safe enough in many that we would hardly care to +patronise--we will stay overnight in whatever town we may chance to be +visiting. If, on the other hand, we have not had time to find such a +place, we'll take a train back to Antwerp or Brussels, where there are +hotels that we know all about. We'll get second-class _billets +d'abonnement_ every two weeks anyway, so the rail trip will only cost +us our time." + +"And are Antwerp and Brussels both in Flanders?" inquired Mrs. +Professor. "Between you, you have given me an idea that I should like +to visit Flanders, but you have none of you answered my question as to +where it is." + +"I think I can answer you, my dear," replied her husband. "There are, +as you probably know, two little provinces in the northern part of +Belgium called East and West Flanders. The boundaries of the Flanders +of history and of art, however, cover a considerable wider area than +these two provinces. Over in France a considerable part of the +Department du Nord was for centuries subject to the Counts of +Flanders. On the other side, to the eastward, the cities of Antwerp +and Malines were for many centuries independent of the Counts of +Flanders, but their people spoke Flemish, their houses, churches and +town-halls were built in the best style of Flemish architecture, and +they became famous centres of Flemish art and learning. To my mind, +therefore, they both belong to Flanders. Brussels, however, while its +Hotel de Ville and Grande Place are splendid examples of Flemish +architecture, is more French than Flemish, and belongs to the Walloon +or French part of Belgium. + +"Now, as the Editor here has proposed a plan which seems to me a good +one as regards our hotels, I will venture to suggest one as regards +our itinerary. It will make comparatively little difference which +towns we visit first, and as some are more closely identified with the +early history of Flanders than the others I propose that we visit +these older towns first. At the time of the Crusades Ypres, for +example, had two hundred thousand inhabitants when the population of +London was less than thirty-five thousand and Antwerp was an obscure +little town. Nieuport and Furnes were, at that time, the chief +seaports of Flanders. Now they are miles from the sea. Dixmude, near +by, was another important city of those olden days. Now all these +places are country villages--'the dead cities of Flanders,' they are +called, and scarcely a tourist from America ever visits them, although +they are fairly familiar to our English cousins. + +"If we start our pilgrimage in Flanders with Bruges, which was the +first capital of the County of Flanders, and with these old +towns--all of which are hard by--we can plan our journeys +chronologically, so to speak, visiting first the monuments that date +from the twelfth to the fourteenth centuries, then those of the +fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, and so on. In that way we not only +can keep the little history we know straight, but we can trace with +our own eyes the gradual development of Flemish architecture and art." + +This plan was unanimously voted to be a capital one--in theory, at any +rate--and thus it was that in our subsequent wanderings about +Flanders, under the guidance of the indefatigable Professor, we often +crossed our trail, and now and then visited the same place more than +once. In practice it did not accomplish quite all that was expected of +it by its learned originator--but what plan ever does, or ever will? +That it enhanced the interest of the trip manyfold we all agreed; it +often sustained our flagging zeal, and it helped us to know +Flanders--the Flanders of the past especially--far better than we +would have done in any other way. + + + + +CHAPTER II + +VIEUX BRUGES AND COUNT BALDWIN OF THE IRON ARM + + +It is not the purpose of this veracious chronicle to recount the +doings and sayings, the incidents or lack of incident, on the voyage +across. Suffice it to say that in due season the good ship _Lapland_ +turned its prow away from the white cliffs of Dover and straight +toward the low-lying shores of Flanders. As she crossed the North Sea +scores of fishing boats with brown sails hovered around her, while +throngs of seagulls soared overhead, or now and then dashed madly into +her foaming wake to grasp some morsel flung from deck or porthole, or +fight fiercely with each other for its possession. Presently, in the +haze ahead, a faint outline of land could be distinguished, and soon +we could see through our glasses the heaped up dunes that mark the +battle line between the North Sea and the fertile Flemish polders +behind them. Here and there the shore was strengthened by rows of +pilings to keep the waves of Winter from washing it away. As a +"sight," however, it was dreary and uninviting enough--not at all like +the picturesque headlands of Merrie England we had been looking at +only a few hours before. + +Now, for a time, the ship kept its course parallel to the shore, but +at a distance of a mile or more. Gradually the coast became more +inhabited, and soon we could see a row of stone and brick buildings +facing directly on the beach which some one said was Blankenberghe. No +doubt there were other rows of houses behind the first, but either +they were lower, or in the haze our glasses could not distinguish +them. Then the panorama of the Flemish coast unrolled a little further +and we saw the long curved breakwater of Zee-Brugge, with its white +lighthouse. This is an artificial port connected with the ancient +capital of Flanders by a ship canal. Entrance to the canal from the +sea is effected by a large lock which was faintly visible. Another +beach city, Heyst, next appeared--the ship seeming to stand still +while the shoreline marched slowly past. Then came a smaller place, +which from our maps we concluded must be Knocke. Here the coastline of +the present Kingdom of Belgium ends, the little River Zwyn--once +famous as the channel up which one hundred and fifty ships a day made +their way to Bruges in the days of its greatness--forming the +boundary. + +The Dutch are apparently not interested in sea bathing, for there were +no more watering places. In fact the whole coast seemed to be dead and +deserted, and we were glad when the _Lapland_ began to turn her prow +inland. We were now in the broad estuary of the Scheldt, and soon the +tiny city of Flushing appeared. It was over on the other side of the +ship and we all scampered across to take our first "near look," as +Mrs. Professor expressed it, of the land we had come to see--for +Flushing belonged for centuries to the great overlords of Flanders, +the Dukes of Burgundy and their successors. It looked very small and +compact from the towering deck of the big liner, but also very quaint +and interesting, and we all agreed that as a sample of what we had +come so far to see it was the reverse of disappointing. + +Soon the propellers of the _Lapland_ began to revolve again and the +little Dutch city slowly slipped out of sight in the fast gathering +gloom of a coming shower. As night came on the engines presently came +to rest once more and we anchored to await daylight and flood tide +which, the officers said, would come together. At four o'clock the +following morning the Professor and I were on deck in order to miss as +little as possible of the voyage up the "greyest of grey rivers," as +the Scheldt has been called. The _Lapland_ had started while we were +asleep, and we were already in Belgium. This circumstance disappointed +the Professor not a little as he had set his heart on seeing the +remains of the Dutch forts at the boundary line that for nearly one +hundred and fifty years--from the Treaty of Munster in 1648 to the +French occupation in 1794--closed the river to ocean commerce. +Meanwhile, grass grew in the streets of the all but deserted city of +Antwerp. The French tore down the hated forts and for nearly forty +years the ships from oversea went up the river unmolested. Then came +the Revolution of 1830 and the establishment of the Kingdom of +Belgium, whereupon the Dutch proceeded to impose heavy navigation +duties upon all ships passing through the lower part of the river. +While this did not stifle the trade of Antwerp, it seriously crippled +it, since the duties formed a handicap in the keen competition for +traffic between the Belgian port and those of Holland and Germany +farther to the eastward. It was not until 1863 that the Belgian +Government was able to arrange a treaty whereby all river dues were +abolished in return for the payment of a lump sum of 36,000,000 +francs--of which only one-third was paid by Belgium, as other powers +were interested in obtaining freedom of navigation on this important +river and gladly contributed the remainder. The imposing monument by +Winders on the Place Marnix at Antwerp, which was erected in 1883, +commemorates this important event, to which the port owes its present +prosperity. + +As the _Lapland_ slowly steamed up the river we could look down from +her lofty decks upon the broad and intensely cultivated plain, +stretching as far as eye could penetrate in the misty distance. Here +and there we could see compact little groups of farm buildings, +usually arranged around a central courtyard and with their outer walls +well-nigh windowless, as if the peasant proprietors still counted on +the possibility of a siege such as their ancestors no doubt often had +to sustain against the wandering marauders and freebooters who for +centuries infested the country. Along every road and canal, and beside +nearly every cross-country path, we could see long lines of trees set +out at regular intervals and cutting the landscape into sections of +varying sizes and shapes. Now and then a little hamlet could be seen, +with its red-tiled roofs nestling close together and a tiny church +steeple rising from the centre. Often the roofs of the houses nearest +to the river were below the top of the high dykes which here enclose +the Scheldt on either side. Close to the banks an occasional fort +commanded the river--outlying links in the great chain of +fortifications that was thought to be impregnable until the huge +German siege guns so quickly battered it to pieces. + +Presently some one with a keener vision than the rest cries that the +spire of the Cathedral of Antwerp is in sight and we all crowd forward +and peer eagerly through the mist until at last we make out vaguely +the shape of that marvel of Flemish architecture rising above the flat +plain. At each turn of the river it draws nearer and we can see more +clearly its delicate tracery of lace-work carved in stone, while one +by one other spires loom up through the grey dawn. + +The traffic in the river becomes more dense as we proceed slowly +onward--huge red-bottomed tramp steamers with their propellers half +out of the water and churning furiously in a smother of foam, clumsy +canal boats with Flemish or German names lying at anchor close to the +banks, barges with dingy brownish sails and all manner of strange +cargoes. Then, suddenly, we swing around the last turn and the entire +city lies before us, its houses with their high peaks and dormer +windows rising tier above tier, while at the left we catch glimpses +through the lock gates of the vast inner docks with their hundreds of +masts and funnels. Curiously enough the view to the right is entirely +different--the green fields and farmsteads stretching in this +direction from the very edge of the river as far as the eye can see. + +But now we are warping up against the Red Star Line pier and all eyes +are gazing down upon the motley crowd that has assembled thus early in +the morning--it is not yet seven o'clock--to welcome the new arrivals +from America. The customs inspection proves to be a mere formality, +half of our trunks and bags are chalk-marked by the obliging inspector +without lifting a tray or disturbing any of their contents. A +commissionaire is waiting to bear them away to the cabs and, after +generously bestowing five cents on this worthy for his trouble, we are +off for the Gare Centrale--for the Madame has decreed that we must all +proceed forthwith to the home of a certain Tante (Aunt) Rosa, not far +from Brussels, where we can get our land legs safely on before +starting on our tour under the guidance of the Professor. + +Throughout the morning it has rained heavily at intervals, and as the +_rapide_ for Brussels steams out of the station the grey clouds are +pouring down their contents in torrents. This circumstance disturbs us +not at all, for we have agreed to pursue our course regardless of the +weather and are prepared for anything short of a flood or blizzard. +And right here it may be as well to state that any one who proposes to +travel in Flanders must make up his or her mind to ignore the vagaries +of the weather altogether. At Brussels the weather records show that +it rains more or less during three hundred days in each year, and +while there are many days when the showers are brief, and some periods +when it is clear for several days, it is better to come prepared for +anything. Somewhere in the direction of the English Channel there +seems to exist a vast cloud factory, for day after day one sees the +huge cloud masses rolling slowly eastward or southward across the +country. Usually they are high overhead, with frequent intervals of +brilliant sunshine, and the showers few and far between. At other +times the clouds hang low and dark and the rain falls steadily, not in +furious driving showers such as occur frequently during the summer +time at New York, but with a monotonous continuity that is the +despair of travellers who are equipped only for fair weather. It is no +exaggeration to state that one may look out of his hotel window upon a +cloudless sky and find that by the time he has descended to the street +it is raining. Happily the reverse is equally possible, and frequently +we looked out of the window while at breakfast at pouring rain and +dripping roofs, only to find by the time we were ready to go out of +doors that the shower was over, the sky clear and the sidewalks nearly +dry. It is this rapid alternation of showers and sunshine that makes +Flanders the land of flowers and vegetables, giving the former their +brilliant colouring and the latter their indescribable succulence and +freshness. + +Another tip for the would-be traveller in Flanders is to come well +prepared for cold weather even in June, July or August. The nights are +always cool, and the prevailing winds are from the north or the +northwest--the former cold, the latter wet. Many Americans contract +serious colds because they come clad only for hot weather. Warm +underwear, on the other hand, is best for the Flemish summer climate, +with overcoats and wraps for evening wear. Raincoats, it is needless +to say, should be in every suitcase--even for a day's outing, while a +very handy article indeed is a _parapluie-canne_, or umbrella cane, +such as can be purchased in Brussels for ten francs and upwards. + +In less than three-quarters of an hour our fleet train was rolling +into the Gare du Nord at Brussels; but Madame was in a hurry, so we +became for the time birds of passage only and in another hour were +already entrained again and speeding toward the steaming dinner that +she assured us la Tante Bosa had awaiting us. Of the reception that we +found when we arrived at last, and of the dinner which was presently +spread before us, there is no need to say more than that the latter +proved to be all that we had been led to anticipate. Served in the +true Belgian style--customary alike in Flanders and in the Walloon +provinces--it occupied our attention for the greater part of the +afternoon, the courses following one another leisurely, with intervals +between during which the men folk strolled about the garden and +smoked. Two days later we started on the Professor's itinerary, +completely refreshed after the fatigue of our voyage; and after a bit +of shopping at Brussels, our pilgrimage into the heart of Flanders +began. + +It was a little after noon when we reached the old city of Bruges, +and while we were eating our luncheon the Professor explained +briefly the origin of the city and of the County of Flanders. In +order to understand the kaleidoscopic history of Flanders it is +necessary to forget entirely the Europe of to-day. Throughout the +Middle Ages Europe was sub-divided into hundreds of separate +sovereignties--duchies, counties, principalities large and small, +whose rulers bore a score of titles. These, as a rule, acknowledged +allegiance to some higher prince, while the most powerful yielded +deference only to some King or Emperor. But this allegiance was +usually a very shadowy affair, and the actual government rested +absolutely in the hands of the local Count, or Duke, or whatever else +his title may have been. The history of Flanders is, therefore, in a +sense, the history of its Counts, for as their power waxed or waned +the country itself grew powerful or weak. Gradually, however, the +great cities of Flanders acquired from the earlier and better Counts +rights and privileges that made them, in many respects, sovereign +powers, and the most fascinating and instructive part of the history +of Flanders is the record of the brave struggle made by its burghers +to maintain their liberties in the face of a steadily advancing tide +of tyranny and oppression. + +The first Count of Flanders, who won his title and his domains during +the period of storm and stress that followed the breaking up of the +great empire of Charlemagne, was a Flemish chief, called Baldwin of +the Iron Arm. He chanced one day to see Judith, the beautiful daughter +of Charles the Bald, the son of Charlemagne, fell in love with her, +and carried her off for his bride. Judith had been previously married +to Ethelwolf, King of Wessex in England, when he was a very old man; +and had taught her stepson, who afterward became Alfred the Great, +much of his learning. The old King Charles, her father, for a time +opposed the marriage with Baldwin, but finally it was celebrated with +much splendour at Auxerre in 863, and Baldwin was thereupon given the +title of Count of Flanders. On his return, Baldwin built a great +fortress on an island formed by the intersection of the River Roya +with its little tributary, the Boterbeke. This was called the Bourg, +and soon contained within its strong walls the nucleus of the future +city of Bruges. + +Mrs. Professor interrupted at this point to ask if the name Bruges was +derived from Bourg, to which our learned friend replied that it was +not, but that most historians ascribed the name to the bridge (in +Flemish, brigge) from the island to the mainland; while some take it +from the purple heather (brugge) which grows plentifully hereabout, +and in August can be seen alongside the railway tracks and in great +clusters by the country roadsides. + +The first afternoon's programme was to discover as much as we could of +the old Bourg of Baldwin of the Iron Arm. Not much of it is left in +the Bruges of Albert the First. The Roya still runs where it did in +the days of the first Counts of Flanders, but only along the Dyver, a +terrace of middle-class residences, can it be seen by the tourist. +Since the eighteenth century it has been vaulted over for much of its +course through the city, and the Boterbeke runs through subterranean +channels for the entire distance from where it enters the city limits +to its junction with the Roya at the corner of the rue Breidel. It +flows close to the Cathedral, or possibly beneath it, and directly +under the Belfry, which is built on piles. For part of its course it +runs, like a subway, under the rue du Vieux Bourg. The only building +in modern Bruges that dates from the first Baldwin's time is the crypt +of St. Basil, under the Chapel of the Holy Blood. Here, or assuredly +hard by, the founder of the long line of Flemish Counts, and his +beautiful and talented Countess, no doubt worshipped; and, in the +main, the little chapel probably looks today very much as it did a +thousand years ago. In one corner, apparently outside of the original +outer walls of the structure, the concierge showed us a miniature +model of the ancient castle of the first Counts of Flanders as +archeologists have reconstructed it, with the little Chapel of St. +Basil adjoining it. On the opposite side, and near the entrance, is a +smaller chapel which some authorities state was the one built by old +Iron-Arm, the main structure dating from the middle of the twelfth +century. Be this as it may, here is unquestionably the very oldest +relic of the ancient Bourg and one of the oldest places of worship in +all Flanders. + +After our inspection of St. Basil we decided to devote the rest of the +afternoon to tramping around the streets of the Vieux Bourg, or, in +other words, the section of the city within the circle of picturesque +old quays that mark the approximate boundaries of the island-fortress +where the first Counts of Flanders laid the foundations of their +power. To be sure, none of the houses now standing date from a much +earlier period than the fifteenth century, but all were so quaint and +charming that we cared little for the archeologists with their dates, +and felt ourselves transported without an effort to the days when +might made right and the whole world was governed by the simple law +that "he may take who has the power, and he may keep who can." We +little dreamed, as we journeyed about amid these peaceful +surroundings, that within a single month the world was to revert to +the rule of might once more; that, to quote from Kipling's noble poem, +stricken Belgium, and, indeed, all civilisation could say: + + "Our world has passed away, + In wantonness o'erthrown. + There's nothing left to-day + But steel and fire and stone. + + "Once more we hear the word + That sickened earth of old-- + 'No law except the sword, + Unsheathed and uncontrolled.'" + + + + +CHAPTER III + +BRUGES IN THE DAYS OF CHARLES THE GOOD + + +To those for whom the past possesses elements of romance, of mystery +and of fascination that our more prosaic and orderly modern world +lacks, Bruges offers endless opportunities for enjoyment. To be sure, +the streets are a bit more crowded than they were twenty years ago, +and one sees more frequent groups of people, carrying little +red-backed Baedekers and evidently intent on seeing all the "sights," +than formerly. But these are evils of which all old travellers +complain, as one compares notes with them at the hotel after the day +is over. One caretaker told us, with evident pride, that thirty +thousand tourists visited Bruges in 1913. If one divides this total by +three hundred and sixty-five, and the result again by the score or +more of places that every tourist wants to see, it will be perceived +that the number in any one place at the same time is not likely to be +excessive. In point of fact our little party was almost invariably +alone, save when we encountered a party of "personally conducted" +travellers rushing at break-neck speed from place to place. + +If, after seeing all the "points of interest" enumerated by the +faithful red-coated guide, philosopher and companion above mentioned, +one should stray down one or another of the narrow, crooked streets in +the older parts of the town he is certain to find bits of mediæval +Bruges here and there so well preserved and perfect that if the few +passers-by only wore the picturesque costumes of the olden days the +illusion would be complete. Take, for example, the rue de l'Ane +Aveugle, the Street of the Blind Donkey, with its attenuated sidewalks +along which a tight-rope walker could hardly advance without stepping +off, its roadway too narrow for two blind donkeys to pass abreast, and +its charming archway from the Hotel de Ville to the Maison de l'ancien +Greffe Flamand; or the rue du Poivre, with its tiny one-story houses, +many of them with one room down-stairs and one overhead--the latter +lighted by the quaintest of gable windows--surely we have stepped +backward half a dozen centuries, for nothing like this could have +continued to exist until the prosaic present! + +In fact these queer little one-story houses abound in all parts of the +city, and the Madame was constantly darting across the roadway to peer +within whenever she saw a door ajar. She generally returned highly +indignant that any one could think of existing in such narrow +quarters. "I'd as soon live in a tomb!" she exclaimed, nodding in the +direction of one little house which consisted of one room and only +one, being devoid even of the attic room with its customary dormer +window. Inside sat an old lady, gazing tranquilly out of doors and +doing nothing whatever. Indeed, as the Madame pointed out, there was +little enough to do as far as housework was concerned. In the morning +everybody in Flanders washes the stone floors of their living-rooms, +and frequently the sidewalk and out to the middle of the street as +well. This done, the housework for the day is over, except for +preparing the meals. We had hoped to see old ladies by the score +sitting at the doorways making lace, but on only one street--the rue +du Rouleau--did we catch a glimpse of any, and they went indoors as we +approached them. It was only the estaminets that we could inspect +within. Whenever we found what appeared to be an exceptionally old +house that bore the legend "Hier Verkoopt men drank" the Professor +and I often used to go in and order a glass of _Vieux système_, simply +to get a look at the interior. If, as sometimes happened, mijnheer and +his vroue were very accommodating and kind, we summoned the +ladies--despite the fact that the sign without appeared to mean "for +men only"--and together we explored the old house from garret to +cellar. + +More than once, as we journeyed about among these delightfully old and +quaint surroundings, the longing to see some one whose costume would, +in a measure, suggest the period when these structures were built came +back to us. "Oh!" exclaimed Mrs. Professor, as we sat one afternoon in +a particularly cosy corner of one of the oldest interiors we had yet +seen, "if two or three knights in armour--or in their lovely costumes +of velvet, silk and old lace--would stalk in and sit down at that +table over there it would make the picture complete." We found, +however, one spot in Bruges, dating from the twelfth century, in which +even the costumes were unchanged. This was the Béguinage, close to the +Minnewater and the ancient city ramparts--a city of the past where, +shut off by high brick walls from the noise and bustle of the outer +world, peaceful figures clad in sombre grey and white move noiselessly +about as if the big figures on the calendar read 1114 instead of 1914. + +Except for two institutions of the kind in Holland, Belgium is the +only country in Europe in which these Béguinages have survived--all of +them in Flanders. No institution of the present day recalls so vividly +the conditions that existed at the time when Flanders was the name of +a wild marsh country peopled by yet wilder men. In 877 the Emperor +made the title of Count of Flanders hereditary--the oldest title of +the kind in Europe. Baldwin II, son of Baldwin of the Iron Arm and the +beautiful Judith, married Alfrida, the daughter of Alfred the Great. +The second Baldwin was renowned chiefly for his work in fortifying the +towns of Bruges, Ghent, Ypres and Courtrai as a means of protection +against the robber chiefs who still--despite the energetic warfare of +his father--infested this entire region. The necessity for protection +against robbers, and occasional incursions of savage Danes from the +North Sea, caused population to flock speedily into these walled +towns, and thus laid the foundation for the wonderful civic +development of the next four centuries. The son of Baldwin II, +Arnulph--often called Arnulph the Great--continued the policy of +strengthening the cities, and also established or restored nearly a +score of monasteries and convents for the protection of men and women +against the many dangers of that lawless age. The famous chapter of +St. Donatian's at Bruges was one of these, and while the Béguinage +dates from a somewhat later epoch in the town's history, it admirably +exemplifies many of the principles that made these early religious +orders the strongholds, not only of piety in a period of +semi-barbarism, but of learning and civilisation. + +[Illustration: BÉGUINAGE BRIDGE, BRUGES.] + +The Béguinage at Bruges is much smaller than the famous Grand +Béguinage at Ghent, which so many tourists visit, but is far more +ancient--its arched gateway dating from the thirteenth century and its +gloomy and barn-like chapel from 1605. How old the houses are no one +seemed to know, but probably many of them are older than the chapel. +The little bridge by which one enters its quiet precincts was first +built in 1297, of wood, according to the records, but its present +picturesque stone arches date from 1570--a respectable antiquity, even +for Bruges. We found several of the little houses untenanted for some +reason, but even the empty ones were spotlessly clean. The Béguines +live in small communities or "convents," under the superintendence of +a Lady Superior called "de Juffer"; or in "houses" where two or three +live together. In the convents there are usually about twenty inmates. +Each has her little cell, but these we were not permitted to see. We +did, however, inspect the kitchen and dining-room of one of the +convents--and the large sunny workroom, in which the Béguines were +assembled. Each was chatting aloud as she worked, but whether in +Flemish or Latin we could not tell. On every face there rested the +same expression of absolute peace and quietness, nor did a single one +betray the slightest interest or curiosity at our presence. + +In the early annals of Bruges no story is more dramatic than that of +the murder of Charles the Good. It is, in fact, the theme of the great +Flemish novelist Hendrick Conscience's most famous book, _De Kerels +van Vlaanderen_, and has been told by several contemporary +chroniclers. When Charles became Count of Flanders the feudal system +was slowly displacing the anarchy that had resulted from the breakdown +of all centralised government as the Norsemen swept over northern +Europe. Charles was an ardent believer in the new order, but was +opposed in his policy of building up a strong feudal state by the +Karls, a class of free landholders of Saxon descent, who stubbornly +refused to swear allegiance to any feudal over-lord. The greatest of +these was the house of Erembald. Desiderious Hacket, the head of the +family, was Châtelain of Bruges, ranking next to the Count himself; +while his brother Bertulph was Provost of St. Donatian, the principal +ecclesiastical position in the County, and chancellor of the Count. +The head of the feudal lords was Tancmar, Lord of Straten. Between the +powerful houses of Erembald and Straten there was a deadly feud, which +culminated in a challenge to mortal combat delivered to Walter, a +nephew of Tancmar, by Richard de Raeske, a baron allied by marriage to +the house of Erembald. + +To the amazement of all Flanders the challenge, delivered in the +presence of Count Charles and all his court, was refused. Walter, whom +the historians call "the Winged Lie," proclaimed that he would fight +only with a free man, and that the Lord of Raeske, by wedding a serf, +had become a serf himself. This was in accordance with a law recently +promulgated by Charles, but the house of Erembald, perceiving that +its very existence was threatened by the charge, fiercely repelled the +accusation and was supported not only by all of the Karls, but by most +of the feudal nobility as well--the latter no doubt fearing lest one +of their own houses might be attainted in a similar manner at any +moment. + +The country was plunged into what was virtually civil war, when +Charles was suddenly summoned by his feudal over-lord, the King of +France, to come to his aid at Clermont. On his return, assured of the +King's powerful support, Charles undoubtedly meditated the complete +overthrow of the Erembalds, whom he had steadfastly claimed as his +vassals since "the Winged Lie" had denounced them as serfs. He arrived +at Bruges late in the evening, and early the following day, March 1, +1127, repaired to St. Donatian to hear mass. It was a foggy morning +and the Count went almost unattended. Hardly had he knelt before the +altar when a party of followers of the attainted house of Erembald +swarmed into the church and he was struck down before he had time to +rise, much less to defend himself. + +If, in his lifetime, the Count was a dangerous foe to the Erembalds, +in his death he proved to be far more deadly. As his body lay on the +stone floor of the great church, clad in the crimson robe the +chroniclers so often allude to, and surrounded with flaming torches, +the heads of the house hastily consulted as to what was to be done +with it. To inter the body at Bruges would be to risk an outbreak of +popular passion at the murder, and it was decided to secretly convey +it away. This plan was rudely frustrated by a mob of citizens who +forcibly prevented the removal of the body, which was therefore laid +to rest with imposing ceremonies in the very church where the Count +had been assassinated. + +Meanwhile the story of the murder spread far and wide, and, in a few +days, a huge host was marching on Bruges from every part of Flanders. +For a time the burghers stood by the Châtelain and the Provost, but +when the city was entered by stratagem and the Erembalds driven back +into the Bourg the mass of the citizens went over to the side of the +avengers. After a short defence the Bourg in turn was captured--its +defenders failing to guard one small gate by which their enemies +entered unopposed--and the remnant of the Erembalds fled into the very +church that had been defiled by their kinsmen's crime, St. Donatian. +Here, for a time, they were left in peace while the victors pillaged +the rich palaces in the ancient Bourg. + +The day before the capture of the Bourg Bertulph, the Provost managed +to escape and fled to a little village near Ypres. Here, after +remaining in hiding for some three weeks, he was captured. The next +morning he was brought to Ypres, walking on foot all the way, although +a horse was offered him. That he was going to his death he well knew, +and asked for a priest to whom he confessed. The old man--who had been +"a soft, luxurious prelate," proud and haughty in his days of +power--made his last journey like a martyr. As the prisoner and his +captors neared the gates of the city a great throng came forth to meet +them, beating the Provost with their staves and fists and pelting him +with the heads of fish. Arrived in the market-place he stood amid the +huge jeering throng, not one of whom looked with pity on him, and +there, for his greater shame, he was fastened naked to a cross like a +common thief. On his refusing in a steadfast voice to reveal the names +of any of those implicated in the Count's murder, "those who were +assembled in the market-place to sell fish tore his flesh with their +iron hooks, and beat him with rods, and thus they put an end to his +days." + +The news of this tragedy was brought to the little band still being +besieged at St. Donatian and caused great grief and terror. Of the +very considerable army of Erembalds and their partisans who had taken +refuge in the Bourg only thirty now remained, most having been killed, +while some no doubt had escaped. King Louis, with a host of French +knights, had joined the men of Flanders in the attack and it was seen +that further resistance was hopeless. The only terms were instant +surrender or instant death, and as they looked across the country from +the church tower they could see no hope of succour and surrendered. +After keeping them prisoners for a fortnight, Louis directed that all +save one, who was of somewhat nobler lineage than the rest, should be +flung from the tower of the now thrice historic St. Donatian. This +sentence was duly carried out. The cruel soldiers told the condemned +that they were about to receive a proof of the King's mercy and they +remained ignorant of their terrible fate until, one after another, +they stood on the lofty tower overlooking the city for a brief moment +and were then dashed down headlong to the jagged pavement below. The +bodies were denied Christian burial and thrown into a marsh outside of +the city, and it is related that for many years thereafter "no man +after nightfall would willingly pass that way." + +The house of Erembald was well-nigh annihilated during this short, but +sanguinary, war. The sole survivor of the band captured in the church +was beheaded by King Louis as soon as he crossed the French frontier, +while most of the great names in the family were heard of in Flanders +no more--some having perished in battle, others in exile. Only one, +Hacket the Châtelain, returned after the cry for vengeance had died +down, was placed on trial for the murder, proved his innocence, and +eventually recovered much of his former power and wealth. The charge +of serfdom was never raised again, and his descendants for many +generations stood high in the rolls of the Flemish nobility. + +The church of St. Donatian no longer stands, having been destroyed +during the French Revolution. In the small museum of antiquities in +the Halles adjacent to the Belfry we were shown some stone railings, +carved in imitation of rustic woodwork, that the concierge assured us +had come from the ruins of the famous church. From a painting made in +1710 the student can obtain a fair idea of the appearance of the +structure, which can hardly be said to have been imposing externally. +It stood opposite the Hotel de Ville, and the statue of Van Eyck in +the centre of the little shaded square is said to mark the spot where +Charles the Good fell at the hands of his assassins. The stones with +which the Cathedral was built were carried away, and some of them were +used to build a château a short distance outside of the city. +According to the peasants in the neighbourhood, ill-luck has always +followed those who lived there. If so, the spirit of the murdered +Count would seem to have been as dangerous in the nineteenth century +as it was in the twelfth. + +Every morning here at Bruges, and elsewhere throughout our pilgrimage, +the Professor and I sallied forth between five and six o'clock to +explore as many of the by-ways and quaint out-of-the-way corners as we +could before breakfast. The sun rises in Belgium long before five, in +fact it is light as early as three in the summer time, but we found +very few people astir, and those who were up were usually engaged in +the morning scrubbing of floors and sidewalks--a fact that made us +keep pretty much to the middle of the road on these expeditions. +Cleanliness is certainly honoured next to godliness in Belgium, for +this morning ablution of the premises is universal--the big department +stores at Brussels observing the custom as faithfully as the tiniest +_estaminet_ in the remotest hamlet. Every one, rich and poor, performs +this rite, and the tourist could safely eat his breakfast off the +doorstep of any house when it is over. Nor is the rest of the interior +neglected, for every pot and pan that we could see within the little +houses as we passed their doors shone with a lustre that bespoke +perpetual polishing. On the other hand, the good vroue herself, or her +maidservant, was not so clean, and it is in this respect that the +people of Holland are superior, for they somehow manage to keep +themselves as immaculate as their little houses. + +It was at Bruges that the Professor had his first experience with the +Belgian species of barber. Instead of the massive reclining chair, +with which all Americans are familiar, one finds in all parts of +Belgium, save the big tourist hotels and resorts, stiff little +arm-chairs with immovable head rests that look as if they could never +serve the purpose for which they are intended. In point of fact they +do fairly well, once one becomes accustomed to them. Razors in +Belgium, however, are almost invariably dull--especially with the lady +barbers who abound in the smaller villages. Avoid these sirens if you +value your skin, for they certainly will slice off a bit of it. On +Sundays and holidays, it appears, their husbands officiate, but week +days the better half does her best to accommodate the public--but her +best is none too good, and the experience is usually a painful one for +the unwary tourist. + +The shave over, the barber says, "S'il vous plaît, monsieur," or its +equivalent in Flemish, motioning meanwhile toward a small wash basin +that is placed in front of the chair. To the uninitiated this is +somewhat bewildering, but the professor desires that monsieur will +kindly wash his own face. The ablution performed, he proceeds to rub a +piece of alum over the face, after which he sprays it with perfumed +water, then dries and powders it much in the manner of the American +barber. When one becomes accustomed to this performance--which costs +two to three cents in the villages and five to ten cents in the large +towns--he is apt to prefer it to the American method. Certainly it is +vastly superior to the hot towel torture so deservedly caricatured +some years ago by Weber and Fields. In the smaller villages of the +industrial provinces we found that the first and second class +distinction that one encounters everywhere in Belgium extends even to +the barber's chair. The rough clad workman is simply shaved--a few +fierce scrapes with the razor and it is all over--and is left to wipe +off the remnants of lather as best he can, usually with a red bandanna +handkerchief. For this the charge is only two cents--the alum, the +spraying and the powder being reserved for first-class patrons only. + +On our way back to the hotel from these early morning promenades the +Professor and I kept on the look-out for some _patisserie_ where +_brioches_ or _cuches au beurre_ could be had with a pot of coffee. +This formed our usual breakfast for, it may as well be admitted right +now, we did not feel that we could afford the extravagance of a +three-franc breakfast at the hotel. The ladies were ready to join us +by eight o'clock--before that hour it would be useless to look for a +place open for business--and we conducted them to the _patisserie_ we +had discovered. The _brioche_, it may be remarked, is a light spongy +preparation--half cake and half biscuit--while the _cuche au beurre_ +is apparently made from a kind of light pie-crust, rolled thin and +built up in several layers with butter between. When served fresh and +hot from the oven the latter is most delicious, but when cold it is as +tough and soggy as a day-old griddle-cake. The usual charge for these +delicacies was five centimes (one cent) each, and as three made a very +substantial meal, and the coffee cost three or five cents per cup, our +total expenditure for four people was less than two francs. If, as +often happened--in addition to getting everything hot and +delicious--we were served on little tables out of doors with a view of +a cathedral or Hotel de Ville thrown in, we felt that we were getting +a very good bargain indeed. + +Of the Bruges of Charles the Good the most important existing monument +is the great Cathedral of St. Sauveur, which was rebuilt by him after +having been partially destroyed by fire in 1116, the work being +completed in 1127. Probably very little of the structure as we see it +to-day dates from this period, as the edifice has been enlarged and +restored many times, much of it dating from the fourteenth and part +from the sixteenth century--the era when architecture in Flanders +flourished as never before or since. The tower was begun in 1116, +continued in 1358, and its upper portions added during the last +century, so that nearly eight hundred years elapsed before it was +finally completed in its present form. Many writers speak of this +tower as clumsy and unsightly, but to me it is one of the most +majestic and stately structures in Flanders. At any rate, there is no +other tower like it, and the way in which it lifts its castle-like +mass of tawny brick high above the tiny houses that surround it is +profoundly impressive. The lower part of the tower is Romanesque, +being, no doubt, the portion erected under the supervision of Charles +the Good. The rest is Gothic, if so unecclesiastical a style can be so +denominated. + +The interior of St. Sauveur dates in the main from a much later period +than Charles the Good, and as we visited this interesting edifice +several times an account of its later constructions and paintings will +be found in a chapter devoted more particularly to the art treasures +of Bruges. It is not the purpose of this book to weary the reader with +detailed descriptions of this and every other "monument" in Flanders. +For those who are interested in architectural details there are +numerous works written by experts and discussing exhaustively--if not +exhaustingly--every feature of technical importance. Our little party +was not learned and these random jottings will therefore record only +such facts as seemed interesting to the average American visitor. Nor +would it be possible to attempt a detailed account of the pictures and +sculptures, either at St. Sauveur or elsewhere. Many of the great +Flemish churches are literally museums of early Flemish art and a mere +catalogue of their contents would fill many pages. For the most part +the works are of mediocre merit, but nearly every church possesses one +or more masterpieces--which the uninformed visitor can generally +distinguish by the fact that a charge is made to uncover them. At +times this practice becomes a bit annoying, particularly when--in +addition to paying the fee--one has to hunt around for half an hour to +find the sacristan, who may live two or three blocks away; but, after +all, it is the tourist who is under obligation for the privilege of +visiting the churches when they are closed to the general public, and +all the fees in Flanders add only a trifle to the expense account of +one's tour. + +In St. Sauveur on the occasion of our first visit we were especially +interested in a curious painting of the Crucifixion located in the +Baptistry and said to be the earliest picture of the famous Bruges +school in existence. The savants assign a date prior to 1400 to this +work, the author of which is unknown. + +The name of Charles the Good is also associated with the Church of +Notre Dame, part of the present structure dating from his reign. The +bulk of the edifice was erected during the fourteenth and fifteenth +centuries. The spire was begun in 1440, torn down and rebuilt, being +finally completed nearly a century later. There is a legend that the +architect, in despair over the fact that it leans considerably to the +east, threw himself from its summit. At present it is one hundred and +twenty-two metres in height, which is said to be the greatest +elevation ever attained by a structure of this kind built of brick. It +can hardly be described as beautiful, the dark red of the top portion +being out of harmony with the rich tawny grey of the lower part, but +it forms a splendid feature in the sky-line of the city. Perhaps the +most charming view of it is that obtained from the opposite side of +the Lac d'Amour. Another excellent point of view is from the Dyver +with the outline of the tower, reflected in the still waters of the +Roya. + +The interior of this church is, like the tower, built of brick, only +the great supporting pillars being of stone. The general effect of +the interior is greatly marred by a wooden rood-loft that separates +the nave from the choir. In this church there is an interesting +"Adoration of the Magi" by Daniel Seghers, a painter of the later +Antwerp school, who became a Jesuit but continued to practise his art +and was especially renowned for the flowers and butterflies with which +he adorned his pictures. This work, which was finished in 1630, is +thought by many to be the artist's masterpiece. Another notable +treasure is the statue of the Virgin and Child by Michael Angelo, +executed in 1503. + +[Illustration: TOMB OF MARIE OF BURGUNDY, CHURCH OF NOTRE DAME, +BRUGES.] + +The most famous of the possessions of Notre Dame, however, are the +superb tombs of Charles the Bold and his daughter Marie of Burgundy, +to be seen only by paying a small fee to enter the chapel in which +they are placed. That of Marie is the older, and by far the finer of +the two, and consists of a sarcophagus of black marble upon which +rests a life-sized recumbent figure of the famous princess--"the +greatest heiress in Europe"--who died at the age of twenty-five as a +result of an injury received when hunting in 1482, less than five +years after her marriage to Maximilian who later became Emperor. At +the command of her son, Philip the Handsome, this masterpiece of +stone and bronze was begun by Pierre de Beckère in 1495 and completed +in 1502. Around the altar-tomb are exquisitely carved statues of +saints and angels, with twining plants and scrolls and the heraldic +shields of all the provinces and not a few of the cities within +Marie's wide domains. The figure of the princess lies above all this +with her hands folded as if in prayer, a crown upon her head and two +hounds lying at her feet. The bronze has been cunningly carved to +represent the finest lace and richly gilded until it seems to be pure +gold. The body of Charles the Bold was brought from Nancy in 1550 at +the command of Charles the Fifth, his grandson, and eight years later +the funeral monument was begun by order of Philip II. It was completed +in 1562, and is designed in imitation of that of Marie. The figure of +"the terrible Duke" is shown clad in armour, with his helmet at one +side and a lion crouching at his feet. + +"Here, in this little chapel," said the Professor, "one can see the +beginning and the end of the most interesting period in the long +history of Bruges, the alpha and omega of her greatness. At the time +of Charles the Good the little Bourg on the Roya was slowly emerging +from obscurity and beginning to assume the aspect of a great capital. +For three hundred and fifty years its power and fame grew until 'the +Venice of the North' was everywhere recognised as one of the most +beautiful and brilliant cities in the world. Then suddenly, almost +within the span of a single generation, the fickle sea abandoned it +and it became the quiet inland city that it is to-day, living largely +upon the memories of its splendid past. When the beautiful Marie was +brought home to the Princenhof, dying from her fall at Wynandael, the +decline had already begun, and when the remains of her father were +placed beside her here in Notre Dame the end had already come and the +city's merchants and prosperity had departed." + + + + +CHAPTER IV + +HOW BRUGES BECAME "THE VENICE OF THE NORTH" + + +After the murder of Charles the Good had been so thoroughly avenged, +the King of France sought to foist one of his own underlings upon the +people of Flanders, but they would have none of him, and he fell +fighting before the gates of one of the Flemish cities. Dierick of +Alsace was the popular hero and became Count on the death of this +rival. The King of France sought once more to interpose, but the +burghers of Bruges retorted proudly: "Be it known to the King and to +all princes and peoples, and to their posterity throughout all time, +that the King of France hath no part in the election of a Count of +Flanders." + +Of all the Counts of Flemish blood Dierick proved to be the greatest +and the wisest who ever ruled over the land. During his long reign of +forty years (from 1128 to 1168) and that of his son, Philip of Alsace, +who ruled until 1191, the country prospered and grew rich. Both +princes encouraged commerce, industry and the arts, and were liberal +in their policy toward the cities. It was during this Golden Age of +Flemish history--the longest period of happiness the country ever +knew--that municipal charters were granted to the cities of Bruges, +Ghent, Ypres, Furnes, Gravelines, Nieuport, Dunkerque and Damme. + +While the memory of Dierick of Alsace deserves to be fondly cherished +by the people of Flanders as that of a wise and liberal ruler, his +most famous exploit was bringing back the relic of the Precious Blood +from Jerusalem. Like most princes of his time, Dierick joined in the +Crusades, but, unlike many of them, he left his government so strong +and secure that no harm came to the country during his absence. It was +the second Crusade, and Dierick departed in 1147, and returned in +1150, bringing with him this relic, a portion of the most precious +possession of the Holy Church of Palestine, consisting of a small +crystal vial filled with what was alleged to be the blood of Christ, +preserved by Joseph of Aramathea who prepared the body for burial. +Deeming himself unworthy to bear so holy a relic, the Count entrusted +it to his chaplain, who never parted with it until the returning +crusaders delivered it to the chaplains of the court who placed it in +the chapel built by Baldwin of the Iron Arm, where it still remains in +its original receptacle. + +On the 2nd of May every year from 1303 until now--save for a brief +interruption during the stormy times of the French Revolution--the +city of Bruges has celebrated its possession of this holy relic by the +great Procession of the Holy Blood. At first simply a religious +ceremony, the procession gradually took on spectacular features such +as the Flemings love, including representations of the Apostles, the +Nativity, King Herod, and so on. At present _La Noble Confrerie du +Precieux Sang_, or Honourable Society of the Holy Blood, is a very +wealthy and aristocratic organisation, even its affiliated members--of +whom there are several thousands, of every nationality--esteeming +their connection with it a great honour. + +During the French Revolution mobs stripped the chapel of everything +that could be torn down or broken, leaving it such a wreck that the +municipal authorities were considering tearing it down, but were +happily prevented from doing so by Napoleon. The lower chapel was, +however, used as a jail for drunken and disorderly persons--and even +as a pound for stray dogs--until 1818. The upper chapel meanwhile was +roofless and windowless, a sad wreck of so ancient and famous a +structure. Both have since been restored, the lower--or Chapel of St. +Basil--being now just as it was in 1150, and, in the opinion of many +critics, "the most beautiful and perfect specimen of Romanesque +architecture in Europe." We had already inspected the lower chapel +while exploring the Vieux Bourg of Baldwin of the Iron Arm our first +day at Bruges, but had not spent much time in the upper one. Here the +most interesting object was naturally the chasse, or casket, +containing the holy relic after which the chapel is named. This is on +one side of the little museum of the chapel and is of silver-gilt, +standing four feet, three inches high. It was made in 1617 by a +silversmith of Bruges and, while not regarded as a masterpiece of its +kind, is very graceful and elegant. The chapel itself is richly +decorated and has some excellent stained glass windows, all of this +work dating from the middle of the last century. + +Adjoining the Chapelle du Saint-Sang is the Hotel de Ville. This +structure is a very fine example of Flemish municipal architecture, +dating from the last quarter of the fourteenth century. Here the +Counts of Flanders formerly took the oath to respect the rights and +privileges of the city, this formality taking place in the last window +to the right. Originally there were statues of former princes on the +façade and six of these were coloured by Jean Van Eyck in 1435. All +were destroyed during the Revolution. Part of the interior is still +used by various government officials, while up-stairs the tourists +usually visit the ancient Salle Echinivale, or Council Chamber. This +was restored in 1895 and decorated with a series of twelve mural +paintings representing notable scenes in the history of the city. Of +these eleven are by Albrecht de Vriendt, and the last by his brother, +Julian, the first artist dying just before his work was completed. As +these pictures form an interesting epitome of the history of the city, +the subjects are given herewith: + + 1.--Return of the Brugeois from the Battle of the Golden + Spurs at Courtrai in 1302. + + 2.--Foundation of the Order of the Golden Fleece by + Philip of Burgundy at Bruges in 1430. + + 3.--Dierick of Alsace bringing the Holy Blood to the + chapel of St. Basil in 1150. + + 4.--The interior of the ancient Hospital of St. Jean. + + 5.--Magistrates of Bruges renewing the privileges of the + Hanseatic League. + + 6.--Count Philip of Alsace granting a charter to Bruges + (1190). + + 7.--Magistrates visiting the Studio of Jean Van Eyck + (1433). + + 8.--The printing by movable type in Bruges by Jean + Britto in 1446. + + 9.--Count Louis of Maele laying the foundation of the + Town-hall (1376). + + 10.--Jacob Van Maerlant, father of Flemish poetry, born + at Damme. + + 11.--The Free-fair. + + 12.--Opening of the new Zwyn canal in 1404. + +[Illustration: _Palais du Franc, Bruges_] + +One of the most interesting of the almost innumerable mediæval +buildings in Bruges is the Palais du Franc which, with its many quaint +turrets and gables, overlooks the fish market on the Quai Vert. The +associations and history of this sumptuous bit of sixteenth century +architecture date from the twelfth century--1190 to be exact--when +Philip of Alsace granted a charter to the region stretching to the +northward from the city to the sea, and from Aardenburg (now just +across the Dutch frontier) to Dixmude. This wide tract of territory +was called the Franc or Liberty of Bruges, and comprised ninety-one +parishes and the towns of Ostende, Blankenburghe, Eccloo, Lissweghe, +Aardenburg, Sluys and Dixmude. Of these only the first two are known +to the tourists of the present day, while one must needs search the +map very closely to find one or two of the others at all, but in the +time of Philip all were busy centres of trade and industry. This was +the hereditary land of the Karls, whose revolt against the attempt of +Charles the Good to force them under the feudal yoke cost that monarch +his life. + +The charter was called the _Keurbrief_ and laid the foundation for the +administration of a code of justice that, rude as it was, meant +liberty for those who otherwise would have been utterly at the mercy +of any feudal lord or wandering knight. It was the _Magna Carta_ of a +large part of the Count's dominions and even its stern eye-for-eye and +life-for-life doctrine was tempered by equivalents in cash that might +be paid. The life of a Karl was worth twice as much as that of a monk +or priest, while for each injury there was an appropriate fine. He who +broke a dyke must lose the hand that did the damage, besides +forfeiting all his goods; for false weights the penalty was a fine of +three livres for each offence. Fencing one's property against game +entailed branding with a red hot iron, or trial by the Count--who +might confiscate the goods of the guilty party, but his life and +liberty were to be safe. This cruel game law was not repealed for +nearly three centuries, and must have entailed much hardship. On the +whole, however, the charter was liberal for its day, and the country +under it flourished exceedingly--a sure evidence of wise laws. + +The Keurbrief was administered by the Magistrates of the Franc in the +Palais du Franc, which was therefore a sort of special court. The +present edifice is not the one erected by Philip, or used by him for +the purpose, but dates from the early part of the fifteenth century. +Part of it is still used as the Palais de Justice, but that part of +the present structure is for the most part modern. The most +interesting portion of the edifice, and the only one shown to +tourists, is the Court Room containing the magnificent Cheminée du +Franc, or chimney-piece, erected in honour of the Ladies' Peace +negotiated by Margaret of Austria while Regent of the Netherlands in +1529. The work was executed from designs by Lancelot Blondeel, a +painter of Bruges, and was completed in 1530. The fireplace itself is +of black marble, surmounted by a frieze in white marble containing +four bas-reliefs representing the history of the chaste Suzanne. One +cannot but wonder what was the connection of thought that suggested +this story in conjunction with the commemoration of the Treaty of +Cambrai, but at all events here it is. The reliefs are of varying +excellence, the one showing Suzanne about to be seized by her aged +admirers being very sharp and clear, while the fourth which shows the +culprits being stoned to death is rather indistinct. + +The upper part of the monumental chimney is of oak and occupies almost +the entire side of the room. In the centre stands Charles V, +represented as a Count of Flanders, nearly life size and finely +carved. At his right are statues of Maximilian and Marie of Burgundy, +and at the left Ferdinand of Aragon and Isabella of Castile--these +being the Emperor's ancestors on his father's and mother's sides +respectively. On the throne behind the Emperor are the busts of Philip +the Handsome and Joanna of Spain, his father and mother, and below +these are the portraits in small medallions of Charles de Lannoy, who +won the victory of Pavia where Francis I, the King of France, was +captured, and Margaret of Austria, who negotiated the treaty. As the +last mentioned portrait is almost invisible in the shadow of the +Emperor it hardly seems as though the chimney-piece does justice to +the loyal and talented woman whose successful diplomacy the entire +work is intended to commemorate. As an example of sixteenth-century +wood-carving, however, and as a most important historical monument, +this chimney-piece is by no means the least interesting of the many +things to be seen at Bruges. + +[Illustration: THE BELFRY, BRUGES.] + +Unlike most tourists, the Professor seemed to be in no hurry to +inspect the famous Belfry, although we had passed it a score of times +during our stay. Facing the Grande Place, and towering three hundred +and fifty-three feet into the air, it could not be overlooked, while +its loud chimes--which rang every quarter of an hour, and can be heard +for many blocks around--insured that it could not be forgotten. +Moreover, we more than once took our evening meal at a little +restaurant just across the Place from it and saw its graceful +octagonal parapet on one occasion outlined against the fast-flying +grey clouds of a summer storm and the next day against the blue sky of +one of the few perfect June days it was our fortune to enjoy. "Too +soon," he said, in answer to our inquiring glances--"the Belfry +belongs to the period of Bruges' splendour, while the buildings we +have seen thus far date from the formative period when she was still +little more than a fortress on a marsh." + +The original structure dates from the very early Counts of +Flanders--possibly from the time of the first Baldwin--but was +practically destroyed by a fire in the year 1280. It was then that the +present edifice was begun, at a period when the commercial and +industrial importance of the city was already very great. The city's +seal and archives were stored in a strong room within the belfry +walls, where four wrought iron doors secured by ten locks and ten keys +guarded them against abstraction by the emissaries of some Count who +might desire to curtail the privileges of the city. Eight of these +keys were kept by the deans of the eight leading guilds--the butchers, +bakers, shoemakers, tailors, weavers, brokers, carpenters and +blacksmiths--who thus virtually controlled the government. This room +the Professor desired to see above all else in the old structure. We +found the four wrought iron doors, but the archive chamber no longer +contains archives or the city's seal. It was a most interesting old +room, nevertheless, and one that ought to particularly interest the +builders of the elaborate burglar-proof and earthquake-proof vaults +that extend below so many great banking houses in America. Alas! +neither the four doors nor the ten locks rendered this ancient +strong-room for the protection of the city's liberties proof against +the cunning and power of tyrants, and the precious charters it once +held were gradually taken away, despite the stout handiwork of one +Erembald, blacksmith, who received eighty-one pounds for forging the +doors in the year 1290. + +To reach the bells one mounts a steep, dark staircase which is said to +contain four hundred and two steps, although we did not count them. +The chimes are claimed to be the finest in Europe, and comprise +forty-nine bells weighing in the aggregate fifty-six thousand, one +hundred and sixty-six pounds. They were cast by George Dumery in 1743 +and are noted for their soft tone. The _tambour_ which operates the +chimes that ring every quarter of an hour weighs nineteen thousand, +nine hundred and sixty-six pounds and is pierced by thirty thousand, +five hundred square holes in which are fixed the pegs that pull the +strings commanding the hammers hanging outside the bells. By altering +the position of these pegs the tunes can be varied, but the programme +played while we were in the city was as follows: + +At the hour: "Rondo, 15th sonata," by Mozart; at the quarter past: "Le +Carillon de Dunkerque," a popular air; at the half: "The Day of +Happiness," by Mozart; at the three-quarters past: "The Three +Drummers," a Flemish popular air. The official bell-ringer is M. Toon +Nauwelaerts, a native of Lierre, where his ancestors have been +bell-ringers for more than a hundred years. Although a young man, M. +Nauwelaerts won an international competition of bell-ringers organised +by the city of Bruges in 1911. + +The view from the summit of the Belfry is one of the most superb in +Flanders, especially if the visitor is so fortunate as to have fallen +on one of those days when the clouds roll in great fleecy masses of +dazzling white that form a wondrous background for the grim grey tower +of St. Sauveur and the tapering red spire of the cathedral. As one +looks down upon the sea of tiny red-roofed houses far below he is +transported in fancy to the time, centuries ago, when watchmen peered +off across these very parapets day and night to sound the alarm of an +approaching foe, or announce the approach of their mighty Count or +some noble visitor. In so doing he can realise what the old Belfry has +meant to the city on the Roya. "For six hundred years," wrote M. +Gilliodts, one of the city's learned archivists, "this belfry has +watched over the city of Bruges. It has beheld her triumphs and her +failures, her glory and her shame, her prosperity and her gradual +decay, and, in spite of so many vicissitudes, it is still standing to +bear witness to the genius of our forefathers, to awaken alike +memories of old times and admiration for one of the most splendid +monuments of civic architecture which the Middle Ages have produced." + +The best time of all in which to study and admire the external aspect +of this noble structure is when the sun is sinking to rest and its +rays fall slantingly across the sombre pile of tawny brick, touching +up its projections here and there with high lights that contrast +sharply with the deep shadows behind them, and listen--as did so often +our poet Longfellow--to the wonderfully sweet chimes as they ring the +quarter hours: + + "Low and loud and sweetly blended, + Low at times and loud at times, + And changing like a poet's rhymes + Ring the beautiful wild chimes + From the Belfry in the market + Of the ancient town of Bruges." + +The Halles themselves, of which the Belfry is the chief ornament, are +notable for their considerable size, forming a rectangle one hundred +and forty-three feet broad and two hundred and seventy-six feet deep. +The archeological museum in one wing--which is in course of removal +to the Gruuthuise Palace--enabled us to see the interior of the +structure, the extent of which indicates the volume of business that +was transacted there when Bruges was known as "the Venice of the +North." The great commercial activity of Bruges during the period of +its prosperity, from the twelfth to the fifteenth centuries, was due +primarily to the fact that the Counts of Flanders decreed that it +should be the sole port of entry for the entire country. The burghers +quickly perceived the priceless value of this privilege, and by their +enterprise and liberality made the city the foremost metropolis in +Europe in the volume and variety of its international trade. With +London its relations were especially intimate and cordial, each city +granting to the merchants of the other privileges that in those days +were almost unheard of. For example, the merchants of Bruges in time +of war were granted forty days of grace in which to dispose of their +property and provide for their personal safety. On one occasion, while +a war was actually going on, they were given a special truce of ninety +days in which to traffic freely with the subjects of the King of +England. The reason for these unusual favours was that Bruges was the +great market where the wool of England, on which the prosperity of +the country depended, was disposed of. Not infrequently the archives +record instances where the Kings of England treated with the chief +magistrates of Bruges on terms of complete equality, as if with a +sovereign power. + +Nor was England the only country represented in the market places of +Bruges during this period. The Doges of Venice often treated directly +with the Burgomasters of the Italian city's Flemish rival, while the +powerful Hanseatic League established here their chief establishment +for the Netherlands. The list of the "Nations," as the groups of +foreign merchants were called, makes curious reading at the present +day. There were English, Scotch, French, Lusitanians, Castilians, +Venetians, Genoans, Florentines; merchants from Aragon, Biscay, Lucca, +Milan, Lombardy and Navarre. The German merchants from the Hanseatic +towns of Lubeck, Hamburg, Cologne, Dantzig and Bremen numbered no less +than forty houses in the year 1362, while the Italian and Spanish +firms resident in the city were still more numerous. Many of these +concerns were among the foremost trading and banking houses of the +Middle Ages, with mercantile transactions extending into every part of +the known world and strong enough financially to loan money to +princes. When the Duke of Pembroke was captured by Du Guesclin in the +Hundred Years' War between England and France it was in Bruges that +his countrymen borrowed the seventy thousand pounds demanded as +ransom. + +As befitted the first mercantile city in the world, business methods +were more advanced at Bruges than anywhere else. It is claimed that +the first insurance policies ever drawn up were devised and signed in +Bruges about the year 1300. A form of registration of land titles was +in use there as early as the fifteenth century. Its Bourse, or central +exchange for merchandise of all kinds, is claimed to have been the +first ever established. + +In a single day in the year 1456 no less than 150 foreign vessels +arrived at Bruges through its canals and the River Zwyn, and while +these were, of course, small craft as compared to those of the present +day there was then no port in the world that could boast of an equal +quantity of shipping. Industrially, the town was no less important, +having some fifty thousand artisans belonging to fifty-two different +guilds. + +The silting up of the Zwyn, rendering the approach and departure of +shipping difficult and uncertain, started a downward movement that +in less than a century destroyed all of this great activity and +prosperity. Had it come alone it is probable that the sturdy merchants +of Bruges would have found a way to overcome this adverse factor to +their continued success, either by digging a new channel to the sea or +by dredging, but misfortunes--as is their proverbial wont--did not +come singly. In 1488, as a result of a conflict between the city and +Maximilian, the stores and exchanges were closed for three months and +all business came to a standstill. Seven years later it was said that +nearly five thousand houses stood vacant and abandoned, no one caring +either to buy or rent them. One by one the great merchants of the city +closed their counting-rooms and went away; one by one the artisans +departed. The last of the "Nations" to desert the declining city was +the Hanseatic League, which stood by it loyally until 1516, when it +removed its offices to Antwerp, by that time the acknowledged +metropolis of the North. + +[Illustration: THE MINNEWATER, BRUGES.] + +The Minnewater, or Lac d'Amour, is--apart from its exquisite +beauty--of interest as another memento of the city's former commerce. +This was the chief harbour for shipping, and, no doubt, was thronged +with sailing craft, while its banks must have swarmed with merchants +checking their arriving or departing cargoes, stevedores carrying +bales and boxes to and fro, clumsy wagons and carts for transporting +merchandise to the warehouses of the city and all the varied noise and +bustle of a great seaport. It is strangely silent and deserted now, +and the grass grows tall around the round tower built in 1398 by Jan +van Oudenaarde, and the white swans float slowly and majestically +beneath the black arches of the adjoining bridge which is eight years +older than the tower. It is said that he, or she, who stands on the +central arch of this bridge at midnight and expresses a desire will +have the wish fulfilled, but we did not try it. Before leaving this +charming spot, however, we went along the banks of the little lake to +a point where, looking back, we had the round tower and the bridge in +the middle distance, the lake in the foreground, and the towers of the +city on the horizon. This view is, without doubt, the finest the old +town affords. + +The visitor to Bruges who is interested in the past should devote at +least half a day to a pilgrimage to Damme, distant about an hour's +walk along the canal that leads from the new port of Bruges to the +sea. In 1180 this now all but forgotten town was made an independent +commune with two burgomasters, and for two centuries thereafter it +enjoyed a great and increasing prosperity. It became the chief +entrepôt for the great commercial city of Bruges during its period of +splendour, and most of the leading merchants maintained offices there. +Its warehouses were crowded with merchandise from every corner of +Europe--wines from France and Spain, beer from England, wool from +Scotland, silk from Italy, all manner of cloths and stuffs, spices of +all kinds, metals of every variety known to the metal workers of those +days, rare and precious goods of every description. + +To-day the very scene of all this mercantile activity has vanished. +Gone are the busy warehouses, the docks and wharves, even the very +harbour in which--according to ancient chroniclers--a score of ships +of the largest size then built could anchor easily. All that remains +is a diminutive Grande Place surrounded by several ancient edifices, +and the ruins of a huge church. In the centre of the Place is a modern +statue of Jacob van Maerlant, called "the Father of Flemish Poets." +Fame has surely never played any more astounding trick than that out +of the great host who lived in this busy commercial town in the days +of its prosperity--portly burgomasters, skilled in winning the +plaudits of the populace; shrewd, far-sighted merchants grown rich +from the commerce with distant lands; skilled artisans and craftsmen +in a hundred guilds--all, all are forgotten, while an obscure poet, +whom very likely many of those who knew him derided as a fool, is +alone remembered as the one great man of Damme. + +Facing the Grande Place is the ancient Hotel de Ville, which, in +addition to being the most notable monument of the dead town, is also +an estaminet where the living can get a little refreshment. The main +floor of this edifice is divided into three large rooms. The first one +is the estaminet, with its array of bottles and its beer pump +contrasting most incongruously with the remaining vestiges of its +ancient grandeur. + +Adjoining this is a large, irregular and unfurnished room, bare of +ornamentation save for two corbels, or Gothic brackets, which support +the main rafters of the ceiling. These are of wood, elaborately +carved. One represents Van Maerlant in his study, seated at a desk, +with what M. Havard calls a "chaste Suzanne" bathing in a tub over his +head. The other shows King David with his harp, and is embellished +with sundry other figures. + +The remaining room is by far the most interesting, for it was here +that Charles the Bold publicly betrothed Margaret of York. The room, +which is officially termed the _Salle des Délibérations_, or Council +Hall, has a fine old fireplace said to have been restored during the +seventeenth century. It is decorated with two female figures in hoop +skirts and bears the motto "_Parcere subjectis et debellare +superbos_." This quotation from Vergil (Æneid 6:853) sounds rather +pompous and out of place in the council chamber of this now completely +vanquished and ruined city, and must have seemed so even in the +seventeenth century, but it may have been a survival of an inscription +placed over the original fireplace in the days when Damme dared to +close its gates even against the men from Bruges itself, and the +puissant Counts of Flanders had to use force to compel it to open +them. + +It was in the year 1468 that this room in which we are now standing +had its one great day and became, for a brief space, the setting of +one of those splendid mediæval scenes that bards and novelists so +fondly recall, and that--in our age of up-to-date inventions--the +moving-picture men are so busily reconstructing and re-enacting. The +Princess had landed at Sluys, near the mouth of the River Zwyn, where +the Duke of Burgundy paid her a brief visit in secret--possibly to see +what she looked like, for this was a marriage of state and intended to +further his far-reaching ambitions. Probably if she had been as homely +as a witch the wedding would have taken place just the same, but as +the reverse was the case the preliminary inspection must have been +very gratifying. The following day the royal lady and her company rode +to Damme in a fleet of barges gorgeously decorated with gold, rich +velvets and rare silks. Here she was lodged in this very Council +Chamber of the Hotel de Ville, and here the Duke came in great state +to perform the public ceremony of betrothal. The wedding ring was +given in the presence of the English Bishop who had accompanied the +Princess, and Charles announced that he would await her presence on +the morrow at Bruges, where the wedding itself was to be celebrated in +the Cathedral. + +The wedding procession as it departed for Bruges the next day must +have been another brave sight for the proud citizens of Damme. The +bride, reclining in a litter borne by four white horses, wore a +magnificent gown of cloth of gold, a crown on her forehead, a jewelled +necklace, and a mantle clasped with precious stones. Around her +pranced her ladies of honour, mounted on white horses gaily bedecked +with crimson satin. Immediately behind this picturesque group came +five decorated chariots bearing a score of beautiful ladies from the +English court, and following these came the guard of honour, or +escort, provided by the Duke--a squadron of counts, barons and +knights, with their faithful squires, their horses covered with gold +and silver, the riders resplendent in bright coloured velvet and rich +lace. The good people of the Middle Ages dearly loved a pageant, and +this surely was one to rejoice the heart of every citizen of Damme, +for here was the pride of the chivalry of all Europe--fair ladies and +brave men from oversea and from every corner of the great Duke's wide +dominions--thronging the Grande Place as the procession formed, and +then falling into their respective places as the long line passed out +through the city gate and proceeded on the straight, tree-lined +_grande route_ that led to Bruges. + + + + +CHAPTER V + +DIXMUDE AND FURNES + + +The tourist who desires to get away from the main thoroughfare of +European travel, to explore out-of-the-way corners, and discover for +himself wonders and beauties that the learned Mr. Baedeker never heard +of, cannot do better than to turn away to the westward from the great +Ostende-Brussels express route and visit the all but forgotten cities +of Dixmude, Furnes and Nieuport. All but forgotten, that is, in June, +1914. The world has heard of them since, and it will be many hundreds +of years before it forgets them again! These little places, which when +we visited them were nothing but sleepy and quiet country towns, were +great and prosperous cities in the period when Bruges was slowly +rising toward its zenith, and the Professor therefore decreed that +they must come next on our itinerary. We accordingly spent an evening +studying the _correspondences_, or connections, of the State Railway +and the _chemin de fer vicinal_, or local steam tramway, and started +at daybreak the next morning. + +Right here it may be said that the Belgian State Railway did its best +to compensate us for whatever shortcomings we found in the weather or +in the country generally. Perfect its service can hardly be said to +have been, but it was excellent and amazingly cheap. Our party +purchased every two weeks _billets d'abonnement_ that cost us just +forty-one francs each, or about $8.00, and entitled us to ride on any +State-owned railway line in the country day or night for fifteen days. +These were second-class, the third costing twenty-three francs, and +first sixty francs. The last, by the way, is a useless luxury, as on +the local lines the first-class compartments are identical with the +second-class except for a white tidy placed at the back of the +cushions. Frequently there was not even the tidy, but the sign, +"_Reservé_--_Voorbehouden_," converted an ordinary second-class +compartment into first-class--a distinction that gave the traveller +very little for his money, save the privilege of riding alone. + +On the main express routes that radiate outward from Brussels in every +direction there were a number of _rapides_, or fast express trains, +that made very good time indeed--a speed of a kilometre per minute +being about the average. On the international express trains, some of +which are first-class only, the speed was somewhat higher, but these +we never had occasion to use. After the _rapides_ came the express +trains, generally marked "_direct_" or "_semi-direct_," according to +whether or not they made any intermediate stops before reaching their +final destination. These were only moderately fast, and, if they did +stop anywhere, lingered so long that the time gained by their previous +speed was largely lost. Then came the type of local train called +_omnibus_ or _ordinaire_, that stopped at every station. To the +American these trains would seem astoundingly slow, even for a land +that is never in a hurry. Each stop is dragged out, minute after +minute, until it seems certain that either a terrible accident must +have occurred ahead, or the train crew has gone on strike. Actually, +more than once, we did see part of the crew returning from an +estaminet hard by whither they had gone to have a friendly glass. +Finally, however, the red-capped station master blows his whistle and +the train reluctantly pulls away. To make a trip of sixty kilometres +(forty miles) by one of these trains took, on more than one occasion, +two hours and a quarter, and the train arrived on time! + +This last point is a feature of the Belgian railway trains. They are +almost invariably on time, and lateness is a matter for strict +examination on the part of the officials and severe penalties for +those responsible. However, there does not seem to be much credit +attached to being on time when the schedule allows for a stop of from +two to fifteen minutes at each station. The man primarily responsible +for the movement of the trains is not the conductor or engineer but +the _chef de gare_, or station-master. He, or his deputy if the +station is a large one with many trains, must be on hand when each +train pulls in, and give the signal for its departure. His dark-red +cap, embroidered with gold braid, is therefore in evidence at every +station, and until this high functionary gives the word no train +moves. As it is, each leaves exactly on time--but not a second before, +no matter if every passenger has been in place and the doors slammed +and fastened for the last five minutes! + +The foregoing description of the Belgian State Railway refers, of +course, to the service as it existed down to the end of July. Since +then the destruction of tracks, bridges and tunnels by one army or +another has put most of the system out of operation. One of the +saddest phases of the war is that every one of the thousands of +employés of the Belgian State Railway--from the highest supervising +official to the humblest track walker--was working faithfully and +efficiently, and planning the future of his frugal life, upon the +assurance that promotion and an old-age pension would reward his zeal. +This obligation toward its employés the Belgian Government has ever +faithfully observed, and in the course of our travels we met many +middle-aged men who told us that they were looking forward to the day +when their terms of duty would end and they would be pensioned on half +pay to enjoy a few years of well-earned repose. Probably not one of +these men ever seriously dreamed that an event could occur that would, +in the course of a few swift weeks, blot out the record of his life +work, and deprive him of all opportunity for promotion, for pension, +and even for employment. No doubt the death toll of the battles on the +plains of Flanders has been heavy among these courteous, capable and +industrious men--many of whom were liable for military service in time +of war--but let us hope that peace, when it comes, will bring to each +survivor his old post again, with the old good service record +unforgotten, and that he will receive the pension he rightfully +expects and that his country would gladly give--at last. + +To those who enjoy rambling through the byways of history there is no +town richer in associations, yet less spoiled by the visits of the all +but ubiquitous tourist, than Dixmude. At present this little city is +situated fifteen miles from the sea, yet all the ancient chroniclers +aver that prior to the thirteenth century it was a seaport with a +commerce overseas and a not inconsiderable fishing fleet. As one looks +across the miles and miles of pleasant fields, interspersed with +waving windmills and tiny villages, this part of the ancient city's +history seems utterly incredible, but it is too well authenticated to +be disputed. Ten times, so the histories tell us, Dixmude was besieged +and bravely defended by its citizens. More than once it was destroyed +by fire and rebuilt, but at last the blight that destroyed the +prosperity of its larger and more powerful neighbours, Ypres, Bruges +and Ghent, struck at the heart of its industries as well and it sank +by imperceptible degrees into its long sleep. + +Like the abode of the Sleeping Princess, of whom Tennyson wrote, one +might almost fancy that all life had stopped centuries ago at the +wave of some magic wand. The summer's sun and winter's rain and snow +of half a thousand years have left but the faintest traces on its old +houses and its great parish church of St. Nicholas. The pride and joy +of this church is its altar screen, or _jubé_, said to have been +designed by Urban Taillebert, the architect of the Church of St. +Martin at Ypres and many other celebrated works of around the year +1600. There is also an "Adoration of the Magi" by Jordaens, and the +usual collection of minor works of art. To us, however, this old +church was far more interesting externally than within, its huge clock +tower resembling nothing else that we had seen in Flanders or +elsewhere. The Grande Place, from which one can obtain a fine view of +the old church with a row of Lilliputian houses nestling below it, is +big enough to accommodate all the present inhabitants of the town in +one corner. In its prime Dixmude is said to have had thirty thousand +inhabitants, and all the room on the Place was, no doubt, needed on +market days, but it does not have a fifteenth of that number now, and +the wide, grass-grown expanse of cobble-stones is entirely deserted. + +The _jubé_, or altar screen, already mentioned, is the one great +"sight" of the little town, and every one asks without fail whether +you have yet seen it. It is assuredly well worth seeing, being +wonderfully graceful and dainty, and, perhaps, the finest thing of its +kind in Northern Europe. The other famous _chef d'oeuvre_ of Dixmude +is culinary instead of artistic. This is a kind of brioche called +_zieltjenskoeken_, or _gateaux d'ames_--a sort of "soul cooky," as it +were. Twice a year, on certain religious occasions, the inhabitants of +Dixmude consume vast quantities of these confections, which are +claimed to possess the property--if eaten on the prescribed days--of +delivering one's soul from purgatory and sending it straight to +Paradise. We were unfortunately unable to verify this, as our visit +did not come on the right day, but we found the butter of +Dixmude--which has enjoyed a great reputation for centuries--to be all +that was claimed for it, although the Professor insisted on putting a +shake of salt on his, to the great horror of the maid who served our +dinner. + +Had some Madame Thebes told us what the near future had in store for +this sleepy and quaint old city we would have spent days instead of +hours in it, but last June its importance did not seem to justify +giving it a chapter so we planned to visit Furnes the same day. +To-day the name of Dixmude has been heard to the farthest ends of the +world, its great square echoes to the tramp of armed men, its old +church--after standing for so many centuries--is said to have fallen +before the withering storm of shrapnel and shells that for days rained +down upon its defenders. It has been taken and retaken by each side in +the gigantic combat more than once. It is asleep no longer, forgotten +no longer; and, in years to come, reverent visitors from many nations +will visit what may remain of the ancient town. For these the chief +interest will not lie in the walls of the ruined church or the relics +of the departed _jubé_, if any there be, but out in the open, pleasant +fields where, in trenches that the kindly hand of nature will +gradually obliterate, the brave men of four nations met in one of the +fiercest and bloodiest death grapples of the great war. + +But last July both Madame Thebes and the cannon were silent, so again +taking our faithful _omnibus_ after the dinner--which we obtained at +one of the little restaurants overlooking the Grande Place--we next +journeyed northward to Furnes, which is only a few miles distant +across the flat Flemish plain. Furnes, according to the antiquarians, +dates from as early as the year 800, and its day of greatness had +come and gone centuries ago. Its crooked streets, quaint gabled +houses, and picturesque corners seemed more mediæval than any place we +had visited--surpassing even Dixmude in this respect. It was here, by +the way, that Leopold I was welcomed to the country when he arrived +after being chosen to be the first King of the Belgians in 1831. The +Hotel of the Nobele Rose, near the Grande Place, is said to have been +the Palace of the Countess Gertrude of Flanders in 1093, and if so, +must be one of the oldest houses in Flanders. The widow of Count +Philip of Alsace is also said to have resided here in 1218. More +celebrated, in years to come, than any of these incidents, will be the +fact that Furnes was for many months of the Great War the headquarters +of the brave Belgian army, and the place of residence of Belgium's +heroic King. + +The great annual event at Furnes is the famous Procession, which takes +place the third Sunday in July. It dates from 1100 or thereabouts, +when, according to the legend, Count Robert of Flanders was on his way +back from the Holy Land, bringing with him a piece of the true cross. +His voyage across the Mediterranean, through the Straits of Gibraltar +and past the stormy Bay of Biscay, was without incident, but as he +was nearing home a fearful storm in the English Channel threatened to +send his frail bark to the bottom. The waves were running mountain +high and all the party expected each moment to be their last when the +Count suddenly bethought himself of his holy relic and vowed that, if +his life were spared, he would present it to the first church of which +he might see the spire. + +Immediately the storm ceased, the wind died down, the sea became as +smooth as a mill-pond, and as the happy mariners looked toward the +shore of their dear Flanders a ray of sunlight fell upon the tower of +Ste. Walburge in Furnes. To this church, therefore, in fulfilment of +his vow, Count Robert presented the relic, now doubly precious by +reason of this miracle. To commemorate this event the canons of the +church organised a procession which took place every year and was +marked by various historical representations of the return of Count +Robert. About 1650 an act of sacrilege committed by a soldier, who was +publicly executed for his crime, led to the procession taking on +certain penitential features by way of expiation on the part of the +city for this sin. From that time on the procession has included +representations, for the most part by peasants dressed up for the +parts, of Abraham and the Prophets, the Flight into Egypt, the Visit +of the Three Wise Men to the Cradle at Bethlehem, so often painted by +the artists of the Flemish school, the Stable and the Birth of Christ, +the Court of Herod, Jesus in the Midst of the Doctors, the Penitent +Magdalen, the Entry of Christ into Jerusalem, the Feast at Cana, the +Garden of Olives, the Betrayal of Judas, and a series of scenes +representing the crucifixion, burial and resurrection. Following these +tableaux come the penitents, walking masked and barefooted, clad for +the most part in brown Capuchin robes, and singing or chanting certain +lines in Flemish. Many of the leading actors in the tableaux have +"speaking parts," all of them in Flemish and delivered with varying +degrees of histrionic skill to the crowd that lines the streets. The +whole performance, apart from its great antiquity, is of interest as +being a local and original representation of the Biblical story--a +sort of Flemish passion play, less refined and artistic than that of +the Swiss peasants of Oberammergau, but none the less conscientious, +earnest and sincere. + +At one time Furnes ranked next to Ghent and Bruges among the cities of +Flanders in official importance, if not in population and industry, +its _châtellenie_ comprising fifty-two villages. In 1297 it was +besieged by Robert, the Count of Artois, who fell five years later at +the great battle of Courtrai. At Furnes the French arms were +successful and the city was captured and sacked, "more than two +thousand houses being burned in two days," according to the +contemporary chronicles. Philip the Bold, the first of the Burgundian +Dukes to rule over Flanders, rebuilt its fortifications, and the city +was deemed worthy under Philip the Good to be designated as the place +of residence of the French Dauphin, who subsequently became Louis XI, +when that remarkable young man was in exile through his father's +displeasure. It may well have been here that the wiliest and most +unscrupulous of all the Kings of France planned that tortuous and +secretive policy that--steadily pursued year after year--brought the +powerful House of Burgundy low at last and made France one nation +instead of two or three. + +The quaint old Grande Place of Furnes, while smaller than that of +Dixmude, is equally picturesque. On one side is the old Meat Market, +dating from the first quarter of the seventeenth century; and hard by +is the _Maison des Espagnols_, or House of the Spaniards, formerly +used as a town-hall and erected in the thirteenth century. The +present Hotel de Ville also faces the Place and is well worth a visit, +although none of its rooms are sufficiently notable to merit a +detailed description. The ancient _Châtellenie_, now used as Court +House, was begun in 1612--the year the Hotel de Ville was +finished--and is chiefly memorable as the meeting-place of the Spanish +Inquisition. This body held its sessions in the antechamber on the +first floor and not in the main hall, which is decorated by a mural +painting by de Vriendt representing Philip the Fair swearing to +observe the rights and privileges of the city. The establishment of +the Inquisition by his namesake and grandson, Philip II, affords a +ghastly commentary on the manner in which that monarch kept the +similar pledges with which he began his reign. Another fine old +edifice on the Grande Place is the Belfry, square for half its height, +then octagonal, and finally surmounted by a bulbous spire, heavy and +clumsy, but none the less exceedingly quaint and picturesque. Not a +few of the ancient houses around the Place and in the adjacent streets +were sufficiently mediæval to have merited a visit had our stay in +this fine old Flemish town been longer; but, so far as we could +learn, none possessed any particular historical interest. + +Besides Ste. Walburge, already mentioned--which was evidently planned +to be a cathedral, but of which only the choir was ever +completed--Furnes possesses the church of St. Nicholas, which has a +noble square tower, also unfinished. Both churches are disappointing +within, although the former is, no doubt, of great interest to +architects as an example of the ogival style, while the latter is +Gothic and dates from the fourteenth century. The choir stalls in St. +Walburge are notable examples of the Flemish woodcarvers' art, +although far less ancient than the church itself. + +If the time of your stay is midsummer, as it will be if you come to +Furnes to see the Procession, do not go away without a day on the +dunes at Coxyde. This beach is less well known, as yet, than those at +Ostende, Heyst and Blankenburghe farther to the east but it is +increasing in popularity very rapidly. A land company, with head +offices at Brussels, is engaged in erecting summer houses among the +dunes which look too American in architecture and manner of +construction for this country where houses are generally built as if +intended to last a thousand years. A little _chemin de fer_ +_vicinal_ runs from Furnes to Coxyde. In addition to the splendid +beach and the dunes, which have a dreary grandeur that is always +fascinating, the shrimp fishermen, or _pecheurs de crevettes_, will +make the short trip well worth while. + +[Illustration: SHRIMP FISHERMEN, COXYDE.] + +These weather-beaten men, with their rough oilskin hats and suits, are +the modern representatives of an ancient Flemish industry--shrimp +fishing having been carried on along these coasts literally from time +immemorial. They are very picturesque, both while at work on horseback +dragging in their nets, and while lounging along the shore, pipe in +mouth. Jean Delvin has a fine painting representing them in the Museum +at Ghent, while one of the most powerful of Meunier's statues is +devoted to the same subject. + + + + +CHAPTER VI + +NIEUPORT AND THE YSER CANAL + + +When the war is over, and the era of commemoration begins, Belgium, if +she is free, should erect at Nieuport, close to the great locks that +mark the outlet of the Yser Canal--or at some point along the canal +where the fighting was the fiercest--a monument higher than that at +Leipzig where the Germans recall their victory over Napoleon, higher +than the great lion that guards the field of Waterloo. At its summit +should stand a heroic-sized figure in imperishable bronze of a Belgian +infantryman, one of the round-capped "demons" whose indomitable will +and unwavering courage held this last bit of Belgian soil against +overpowering numbers for days. It was here that Germany's magnificent +rush from Antwerp to the Channel ports was stopped, and it was the +last remnant of the little Belgian army that, turning on its foe like +a lion at bay, hurled back every assault until the little Yser Canal +ran red and until, at last, the great reinforcing hosts of the allies +came. + +The little straggling town of Nieuport, peaceful and sleepy as it +looked last summer, is not a stranger to battles and sieges. In the +time of William the Conqueror Lombartzyde, now a little hamlet on the +_chemin de fer vicinal_ behind the dunes from Nieuport to Ostende, was +the shipping port of this region, but great storms filled the harbour +with sand and the citizens established a "New Port" on another branch +of the Yser in 1160. It was fortified three years later, and for +several centuries was one of the strong towns defending the Low +Countries on the French frontier. Its strategic importance made it the +scene of many battles and sieges. It was destroyed by the English and +their allies, the men of Ghent, in 1383. The lonely tower or Donjon of +the Templars, standing on the edge of the town, is all that remains of +a monastery of that order which was ruined at that time. + +The city itself, however, was quickly rebuilt, and among other +memorable sieges beat off a great French force in the year 1489. In +1568 the Spanish, under Condé, beat a French army commanded by Turenne +not far from the city. Another famous fight before the walls of the +old town took place in the year 1600 during the long war between Spain +and her revolted Provinces. Count Maurice of Nassau, at the head of +twelve thousand men from the United Provinces, had invaded Flanders, +which still remained under the power of Spain, and marching rapidly +from the Scheldt past Ostende, proceeded to besiege Nieuport. The +Archduke Albert, hastily raising an army of fifteen thousand +Spaniards, advanced unexpectedly on the Dutch, who were taken +completely by surprise. Perceiving that he was caught in a trap, Count +Maurice--in order to give his men the courage of despair--ordered the +Dutch fleet to withdraw, and told his soldiers that they must either +conquer or "be prepared to drink all the water behind them." + +Meanwhile an advance guard of the Dutch army was driven back by the +advancing Spaniards who, thinking they had met the whole army, sent +couriers to Bruges and Ghent announcing the victory. Bells were rung +to celebrate the Archduke's supposed success which, as the event +proved, was a strategic victory for Nassau as it delayed the enemy +several hours. It was three o'clock in the afternoon when the +advancing Spaniards found themselves face to face with the main army +of the republic, drawn up on the very beach outside the city walls. +Perceiving their sturdy ranks and unyielding front the Archduke +hesitated, but the Spaniards urged him not to let them lose their +prey, whom they regarded as hateful rebels and heretics. + +Thus encouraged, the Archduke gave the order to advance and the battle +soon became general. The fate of the day was decided by the artillery +of the Dutch which, by a fortunate order of their far-sighted +commander, had been lifted off from the sand and mounted on platforms +made from boughs, brush and such timber as was handy. That of the +Archduke, mounted in haste directly on the beach, embedded itself in +the sand at each discharge until it became useless, while that of the +republicans became more accurate and deadly. At the same time the rays +of the setting sun falling directly in the eyes of the Spanish +soldiers, who were facing westward, blinded them and caused them to +fire wildly. The Archduke performed prodigies of valour, having two +horses killed under him and being himself slightly wounded, but as +darkness began to fall on the bloody beach Count Maurice ordered a +charge by a force of cavalry he had held in reserve. This fresh force +proved irresistible, the Spanish lines began to give way on all sides, +and the retreat quickly turned into a rout. Even the proud Archduke +had to seek safety in flight, and the day, which had begun so +auspiciously, ended in one of the greatest disasters of the disastrous +war. + +Nieuport and its sister cities in this, until lately, half-forgotten +corner of Flanders were, in former times, renowned for other contests +happily less bloody than these famous battles. Here, during the Middle +Ages, flourished a group of societies devoted to rhetoric. In place of +the still more ancient tourneys, where armed knights fought with lance +and sword, these "Chambers of Rhetoric" held annual contests of +oratory. From one end of Flanders to the other the movement spread; +and these debating societies did much to cultivate a regard for +learning and dialectic skill among the mass of the population. Sternly +suppressed by Alva, implacable foe of every form of free thought, +these societies were revived after the Spanish scourge was withdrawn, +and some of them continue to the present day. + +The visitor who wandered around the long, slightly hilly streets of +the Nieuport of last July would have had little trouble in locating +plenty of the "monuments" of its famous past, although the beach has +now receded two or three miles to the northward and pleasant fields +extend along the edge of the wide marshes which then were probably +part of the sea. A curious old lighthouse with a pointed tower stands +about midway between the present town and Nieuport _Bains_, as the +beach town is called, showing where the coastline lay some three +hundred and fifty years ago. Even this spot is now too far inland for +the light to be seen at sea and a new lighthouse has been built on the +rampart of dunes that runs, like a miniature mountain range, almost to +Ostende toward the east, and westward to Coxyde and beyond. + +[Illustration: TOWER OF THE TEMPLARS, NIEUPORT.] + +Our first visit at Nieuport was to the Tower of the Templars, a huge +square pile of brick standing in the midst of a potato patch. This +prosaic environment detracted not a little from the sentimental +interest of the edifice, and we were unable to get into the structure, +although one of the gens d'armes of the village was said to have a key +to the low wooden door at its base. Equally disappointing was a visit +to the ancient _Halle aux Draps_, or Cloth Hall, now used on certain +days as a local butter market. Here again, the door was locked and no +one seemed to know who had the key. Curiously enough, although +situated very close to the French frontier, we found in this little +town and its neighbours, Dixmude and Furnes, very few people who +understood French. Flemish is the universal language hereabouts +apparently, but it was only on this little trip that we were at all +inconvenienced by our inability to speak it. Elsewhere in +Flanders--even at Ypres and Audenaerde, where our friends said we +would have trouble--we were able to make our French universally +understood. + +On the Grande Place, close to the Cloth Hall, we found a little inn, +called the Hotel du Pelican, where the Professor proposed that we +should get some liquid refreshment. We failed, however, to obtain any +response to our raps and thumps on the door, and concluding that the +establishment must be run for pelicans only we took ourselves and our +patronage elsewhere. The Church of Notre Dame, which stands just off +the Grande Place, we found to be a most quaint and interesting old +structure dating, it is said, from the thirteenth century. While less +imposing externally than St. Nicholas at Furnes its massive square +baroque tower was very striking, and formed a fine picture in +conjunction with the more slender tower of the Cloth Hall hard by. The +approach to the main entrance of the church was beneath some lofty +trees and we did not see a solitary human being either outside of the +edifice or within it. This church has an interesting _jubé_ or rood +loft, a fine wooden pulpit, and we also noticed a curious winding +stairway that seemed to lead upward within one of the pillars at the +intersection of the transept and the choir. As the tower is not built +at this point, but at one end of the edifice, it was quite a mystery +where this stairway went and what its purpose might be, but as it +seemed exceedingly narrow and dark we did not explore it, nor did we +find any one to whom we could apply for information about it. + +It was in this church, by the way, or possibly in one of those at +Dixmude or Furnes, that the Madame developed a violent antipathy to a +certain painting that seems to be one of the most cherished +possessions of nearly every church in Flanders. As old Cotton and +Increase Mather delighted in scaring and harrowing their audiences +with word pictures of the tortures of the burning fiery pit, so nearly +every old Flemish artist seems to have delighted in portraying most +vividly the sufferings and martyrdoms of the saints, and one subject +in particular appears to have caught the fancy of every one of them. +This was the beheading of John the Baptist. At times the head is shown +rolling in the dust or mire of the street, at times it is represented +as being served on a platter--but to one and all of these works of art +the Madame objected. This circumstance added not a little to the +happiness of Mr. and Mrs. Professor, who were continually contriving +to lead her artfully around to inspect some new wonder, which proved +to be another representation of this agreeable scene. As works of art +they were nearly all atrocities, but as jokes on the Madame they were +one and all great successes, and it was really surprising how many of +them there were. + +The Hotel de Ville, a somewhat commonplace looking structure, is said +to contain a small collection of paintings, but we were unable to make +any of the phlegmatic gens d'armes whom we found lounging close by +take enough interest in our questions to inform us where admission +might be obtained. In fact the whole town seemed singularly +uninterested in tourists, apparently caring not a bit whether they +came or stayed away. While the war will undoubtedly change this, still +any one desiring to visit it will do well to make the trip from +Ostende or Furnes, returning for the night to some point where hotel +accommodations are more adequate. In our case we went over to Ostende, +where there are many good hotels. No doubt a pleasant week or month +could be spent in this corner of Flanders, but for such a stay the +best plan would be to go to one of the many little seaside resorts +between Coxyde and Ostende for one's hotel or pension, and explore the +hinterland from there. + +The ride by the little _chemin de fer vicinal_ from Nieuport to +Ostende is a very interesting one. At the outset the line crosses the +huge locks that join the canals to Ostende and Furnes with the tidal +river Yser. There are seven or eight bridges in all, the different +canals and channels being separated by tiny islands. Had Madame Thebes +only suggested that we explore the Yser Canals while we were there +last July how much more interesting this part of the book would be! +Unfortunately they looked then much as hundreds of other Belgian +canals had looked and we gave them only a passing glance. While the +newspapers in their accounts of the great battle of Flanders usually +spoke of the Yser Canal as though there was but a single canal, in +reality there are three canals that flow into the tiny Yser River at +this point. One of these runs parallel with the coast to Ostende, and +then onward to Bruges and beyond; the second runs behind the range of +dunes westward to Furnes, where it divides and crosses the French +frontier in two branches, one going to Bergues and the other to +Dunkerque. It is the third branch that achieved immortality in the +Battle of Flanders. This runs straight inland, at right angles to the +other two, following the tortuous channel of the old river much of the +way to Dixmude. A short distance beyond Dixmude the canal ceases to +follow the River Yser, which here flows eastward from a source well +across the French boundary, and ascends the Yser's smaller tributary, +the Yperlée, to Ypres. It did not seem like very much of an obstacle +from a military standpoint, but brave hearts can make the most of a +small advantage. Below the big locks the little river runs in its own +bed to the sea. Here the tide was out the day of our visit and a few +small fishing boats were lying tipped over sideways in the mud, while +two or three English ladies were busily sketching the not +over-picturesque scene. There will be a great many people sketching in +this vicinity by and by! + +About two miles from Nieuport the train passes the church of +Lombartzyde, within which is a statue of the Virgin known among +mariners far and wide as the _Bonne Mére de Lombartzyde_, and who is +devoutly believed able to protect the faithful seaman from perils by +sea, to aid the farmer in his harvest, to cure the sick and succour +the distressed. Many are the little ships, patiently carved by fingers +hardened by toil and exposure, that have been reverently hung before +the good Virgin's shrine. There are perhaps fewer now than formerly, +but faith in her protection and power is still strong and will +probably always continue to be so, for the Flemings are intensely +loyal to the church. + +Not a few of those who visit these little towns, rich in mementoes of +the past, but otherwise apparently very sleepy and dull, wonder what +the inhabitants do for amusement. No one who has ever spent a Sunday +in a Belgian country village need ask this question. From one end of +the country to the other, in the Borinage or mining provinces of the +southwest as well as in the Flemish counties of the north, the male +population devotes the greater part of the day to what may +unhesitatingly be termed the Belgian national sport--archery. In the +early part of the Middle Ages Flemish archers were as famous as the +longbowmen of Merrie England, and on many a hard fought field they +gave a good account of themselves. Curiously enough, the archery +societies into which they formed themselves for practice have survived +all the wars and changes of the centuries, have continued in spite of +the invention of gunpowder and the perfection of firearms--an industry +in which Liége, in southern Belgium, has led all other cities--and +seem to be as vital a part of the national life of the country as ever +they were. The fact that the bow and arrow is an anachronism troubles +your Belgian peasant not at all; he shoulders his long bow as +cheerfully on a Sunday morning as if he were carrying the latest model +of smokeless powder repeater, with Maxim silencer and all modern +improvements, instead of a weapon that was out of date and useless +five hundred years ago. + +As practised in Belgium, archery contests are carried on in two ways. +There is first what is known as the _Tir á l'oiseau_ or _Perche_. In +the centre of the village green of the smaller towns, and in some open +space in the suburbs of the larger places, the traveller cannot fail +to notice what looks like a flag pole, the top of which, however, +tapers to a slender point, from just beneath which four short arms +point upward diagonally, while three cross arms are placed +horizontally below them. On these are fixed the _oiseaux_, or +birds--blocks of cork covered with tinsel or gaily-coloured paper, +each with a tuft of feathers stuck at the top. The archers gather +below the pole and shoot upward, aiming at the "birds" and +endeavouring to knock them off cleanly. Each shoots in turn, and the +prizes--which have been duly announced by posters for days +beforehand--go to those capturing one of the "birds," the value +varying according to its position. In the contests entitled "_Tir du +Roi_," the archer bringing down the last bird wins the largest prize +and is called the "_Roi_," or King, and as by that time the archers +have one and all consumed a goodly portion of their favourite +beverages there is general hilarity--especially if the victor is a +popular favourite. Immemorial custom decrees that the King should deal +liberally with his subjects and dispense in libations whatever sum he +may have gained as a prize, after which he is usually escorted, or if +necessary carried, home in great state with a band in advance and all +the members of the contest following in a disorderly, but jolly, +crowd. + +The second form of contest is known as the "_Tir au berceau_," and +consists of shooting at a target. The birds, in this case, are +fastened about the bull's eye. The archers stand at a distance of one +hundred metres from the target, which is usually placed at the rear of +a walled court or garden. Generally a series of wooden arches placed +at intervals along the line of fire serve to arrest any arrows that go +wild, while the back of the target is reinforced strongly with straws +about a foot long laid lengthwise with the line of the shooting and +packed under great pressure. There is invariably a public café or +estaminet attached to the places where archery contests _au berceau_ +are conducted, while such places are always found close by the spot +where a _Tir á l'oiseau_ takes place. Between shots the men consume +liberal quantities of lambic, faro, or the beer of some neighbouring +brewer, and discuss politics or the news of the day. A circumstance +that renders disorders comparatively rare is that each archery society +consists of men of a single party. The Catholics have their favourite +places that are patronised exclusively by Catholics, while the +Socialists in the southern provinces, where that party is strong, have +their own societies and places of rendezvous. The clergy are heartily +interested in the Catholic contests, giving liberal prizes and +attending in considerable numbers to cheer the victors and console the +vanquished. + +During the early part of the war numerous references were made in the +despatches to the marvellous accuracy of the Belgian riflemen. To one +who has attended scores of these archery contests it is not surprising +that the Belgians are good shots. Out of date though the bow and arrow +is, yet the sport cannot fail to train the eye and hand, and constant +rivalry in such a pastime has made the Belgians literally a nation of +sharpshooters. On one occasion the writer and a friend took a couple +of shots with a carbine in one of the little shooting galleries that +accompanied a village kermesse. We both missed. A young man standing +by, who worked in the village sugar mill, politely asked which of the +various pipes and other objects we were aiming at. We indicated one of +them and, zip! his bullet had shattered it. Half a dozen shots in +quick succession at different objects we pointed out proved equally +accurate. It was an exhibition of marksmanship such as one frequently +sees on the stage in the United States, but being made by a casual +bystander in a village street it was most impressive. Nor was the lad, +as I took pains to inquire, noted particularly for his skill in this +direction--having seldom won prizes in the official contests. + +All ages join in this sport, the small boys erecting diminutive poles +in the fields around the villages, where they imitate their elders +with toy bows and arrows, while men of seventy or eighty take their +turn with beardless youths in the prize competitions. While I was +visiting in the Borinage two years ago the uncle of my hostess +shouldered his two-metre bow and started off to a "meet" despite his +eighty-seven years. What is more, his hand had lost none of its +strength and firmness, and his eyes none of their keenness, for twice +while I was present he brought down one of the "birds," and I later +learned that he had won one of the principal prizes. Only the year +before he had been crowned "King" at one such contest, and the first +time he ever won that coveted honour was when he was sixteen--or +seventy-one years before. I doubt whether there is any athletic game +in the world of which the devotees can point to a longer record of +success. + +This fine old athlete had two brothers older than himself alive at the +time, the combined ages of the three aggregating two hundred and +eighty years. One of them, aged ninety-four, recently expressed some +anxiety as to what would become of him in the event of the death of +the daughter with whom he was living. + +"What will I do if Amèlie should die?" he asked of one of his other +daughters. + +"Why, papa, then you would come and live with me," she replied, +adding with a flash of characteristic Belgian humour, "and when I am +dead you'll go to live with Fèlicienne" (a grand-daughter still in her +'teens). As this provided safely for his future for at least another +fifty years, the old gentleman was greatly relieved, feeling perhaps +that if he survived Fèlicienne her children would by that time be old +enough to take care of him. + +While archery is everywhere the dominating pastime of the working +class it is by no means the only form of popular amusement. The +bicycle has not yet gone out of vogue in Belgium, and societies exist +in hundreds of cities and communes for the encouragement of bicycle +racing. The day of our arrival in the village where Tante Rosa spread +for us the banquet mentioned in the second chapter, we were so +fortunate as to witness the final sprint of a twenty-five kilometre +race. A score of contestants had pedalled ten times over a course +consisting for the most part of roadways paved with ragged +cobble-stones, the rest being dirt roads filled with mud puddles owing +to a recent rain. The riders, as they rushed by, were literally +covered with mud and had evidently struggled hard to gain one of the +five prizes which aggregated, as we afterwards learned, the +munificent sum of eighty francs, sixteen dollars, of which the winner +received thirty--six dollars! + +Another favourite form of recreation is the racing of pigeons, and +societies for the promotion of this sport exist in every part of the +Kingdom. Frequently the birds fly from one end of the country to the +other and many examples of remarkable speed have been reported, the +winners bringing comparatively high prices: + +No better idea of the variety of popular amusements can be given than +to take the programme of one little commune that I had an opportunity +of copying, entitled "_Fêtes Communales de 1914_"--this announcement +being printed in French and Flemish. While many of the events were +evidently organised by various societies the officials of the commune +assumed responsibility for the proper conduct of the contests, and +either provided the prizes or contributed a substantial sum toward +them, the rest being raised by a fee exacted from each contestant +which varied from one franc, thirty centimes for the smaller events to +five francs for the more important ones. With one hundred contestants +this would yield one hundred and thirty francs, to which the commune +usually added fifty, making one hundred and eighty francs available +in all. For the chief events the prizes aggregate 1,000 to 2,000 +francs--quite a respectable sum for a commune of six thousand +inhabitants. The difference between archery contests _au berceau_ and +_à la perche_ has already been explained. The programme, much +abbreviated, follows: + + Sun., Apr. 19.--Archery contests, both au berceau and + perche. + + Sun., Apr. 26.--Archery contest, au berceau, and rifle + contest (carbines). + + Fri., May 1.--Fête du Travail (Labor Day) Archery + contest and popular ball on a public + square in the evening--dancing in + the street, rain or shine. + + Sun., May 10.--Rifle contest. + + Thurs., May + 21.--Archery contest. + + Sun., May. 24.--Annual Fair with archery contests of + both kinds, rifle contest and grand + concert in evening with two bands. + + Sun., May 31.--Kermesse, with archery contests of both + kinds and a popular out-door ball in + the evening. + + Sun., June 7.--Bicycle Race--outdoor course around + the village ten times, 25 kilometres. + + Sun., June 14.--Archery contest au berceau and Tir du + Roi (perche). + + Sun., June 21.--Kermesse in another quarter of the commune, + with rifle contest and concert in + evening, followed by popular ball. + + Sun. to Tues., + July 5, 6, 7,--Annual Kermesse in the centre of the + commune, with archery contest (perche) + on Sunday, au berceau on Monday, and + Tir du Roi with public games and + sports on Tuesday. Itinerant amusement + enterprises of all kinds make + these annual kermesses a miniature + Coney Island while they last. + + Sun., July 26.--Tir du Roi and Grand Fête Gymnastique, + followed by concert, Fête de Nuit and + a ball. + + Sun., Aug. 9.--Fête d'Enfance, distribution of prizes to + school children with public exhibition + of school gymnastics, etc. + + Sat. and Sun., + Aug. 15 and + 16.--Kermesse in a third quarter, with archery + contests and concert. + + Sun. Mon. and + Tues., Aug. + 30 to Sept. 1.--Annual Kermesse, with archery contests + of both kinds, concert and sports and + games. + + Sun., Sept. 20.--Archery au berceau and rifle contest. + + Sun., Oct. 25.--Same. + + Sun., Nov. 21.--Archery, perche. + + Sun., Dec. 13.--Rifle contest. + +It must be confessed that this programme is somewhat monotonous, but +in the larger towns it is considerably amplified and varied. Still to +one who was brought up in a small country village in New Hampshire it +seems very good, both as an evidence of the popular desire for +healthy and rational out-door enjoyment, and of the disposition of the +Government to promote and foster legitimate amusements of all kinds. +The kermesse is an European rather than a Belgian institution and +requires no description further than that it is a jolly good time for +everybody. It has existed in Flanders and throughout the Walloon +provinces from time immemorial, as ancient paintings and still more +ancient historical references conclusively show. Its most interesting +feature to the American visitor is the night dancing out of doors on +the rough cobble-stones of the town square or on the soft grass of the +village green. Lighted by flaring gas torches, or sometimes only by +the moon and such stray beams as fall on the dancers from the open +doors and windows of adjacent cafés, the spectacle of the gaily +dancing couples carries the observer back to the days when the world +was young, and love and laughter and happiness reigned supreme. + +[Illustration: AN ANCIENT PAINTING OF THE FLEMISH KERMESSE, BY +TENIERS.] + + + + +CHAPTER VII + +WHEN YPRES WAS A GREATER CITY THAN LONDON + + +As we returned from our trip to Dixmude, Furnes and Nieuport, the +Professor announced that our next destination would be Ypres. If he +had said that it would he Chingwangtao, or the Comoro Archipelago, the +ladies could hardly have stared at him more blankly. They had never +heard of it. Since October the whole world has heard of it, and the +name of the all but forgotten old town is familiar to every +schoolboy--and will continue so for generations to come. The record of +our visit that follows was written amid the pleasant and peaceful +scenes that it describes. When we were there the swans were swimming +majestically in the waters of the moat that still surrounded the +remnants of the old city walls, but we were told that for military +purposes all this was obsolete. No doubt it was, but the brave old +town was none the less able--with the help of its stubborn English +defenders--to withstand the most furious, determined and bloody +assaults in all history. To the German host the mediæval term _la +morte d'Ypres_ was revived in those awful weeks of October and +November, 1914, for the grim, low-lying ramparts of the town meant +death to countless thousands. + +Whether anything whatever is still standing of the old structures +described in this chapter it is at present impossible to say. The +British trenches were under a well-nigh continuous storm of shells for +many weeks, and the town itself must undoubtedly have suffered +severely. Late in November it was reported that the old Cloth Hall had +been destroyed by the furious German bombardment, or, at least, +severely injured. The account of the various points of interest in the +famous old town as they appeared in peaceful June--together with some +brief sketches of its former greatness--may be all the more +interesting now that its ruins lie in the lime-light of the world's +attention. As compared with the half-dozen tourists that averaged to +visit Ypres each day before the war the return of peace will see it +become the Mecca for daily thousands. To these the remains of the town +itself should vie in interest with the trenches of the famous +battle-fields of the Great War, for during a period two or three +times as long as the entire duration of the nation known as the United +States of America, Ypres was one of the greatest and richest cities in +the world. + +It was hard to believe it, however, as we rumbled into the railroad +station and, stepping out upon the almost deserted platform, took our +first look at the place. As is usually the case in Flanders, the train +deposits the visitor some distance from the centre of the town. The +very first view was full of delight and promise of better things in +store, however, for as we emerged from the station we found ourselves +facing a pretty little park or square on the opposite side of which we +could see a bit of the ancient city walls which stretched away toward +the right most invitingly. + +Postponing the pleasure of inspecting these renowned ramparts till a +later occasion, we made our way through narrow winding streets direct +to the Grande Place, pausing now and then to admire the quaint gabled +houses on the rue au Beurre (Butter Street). At the Grande Place the +Professor led us directly to the huge Cloth Hall, which completely +fills one side of it, for here--he said--we would find the best +introduction to the history and romance of the city. The concierge +proved hard to find, and we wandered up-stairs and through a +deserted corridor, trying several doors that proved all to be locked, +before we located the familiar sign. Our fees being duly paid--fifty +centimes each, which was little enough for the privilege of inspecting +the finest monument of its kind in Flanders, or for that matter in all +Europe--one of the doors was obligingly unlocked and we found +ourselves immediately in the great Guild Hall. + +[Illustration: CLOTH HALL, YPRES.] + +The _Halle aux Draps_, or Cloth Hall, is the largest civil edifice in +Belgium, and without doubt one of the largest in the world. It is four +hundred and thirty-three feet long by more than two hundred in +width--or larger than Madison Square Garden. Its huge bulk, and that +of the former cathedral hard by, contrast strangely with the present +dimensions of the little city. Yet when they were built Ypres was the +powerful rival of Bruges and Ghent, then at the apex of their glory, +and one of the foremost cities in the world. The Cloth Hall was begun +in 1200 and completed in 1304, or two years after the Battle of the +Spurs, a victory won by the guildsmen of Ypres and Bruges against the +chivalry of France. During that period the city had two hundred +thousand inhabitants, its woollen weavers operated four thousand +looms, and more than four hundred guilds responded to the calls to +arms that sounded, at frequent intervals, from the belfry. + +The greatest wonder of the edifice is the immense gallery, or hall, +which occupies the side next to the Grande Place. This extends for the +entire length of the building, broken only by the belfry in the centre +which forms a sort of transept across it. In height it reaches clear +to the roof, the huge roof beams forming its ceiling. There is a +veritable forest of these, massive, sturdy, and as perfect as the day +they were hewed from the fair oaks of the countryside roundabout. The +concierge will not fail to tell you, if you pause to admire this +majestic timber-work of six hundred years ago, that from that day to +this no spider has ever spun its web there--nor is any spider ever +seen. Like the story of the snakes in Ireland, it would be a big pity +to spoil this by finding one and pointing it out--one must needs be a +good runner to do it, and be very sure which road leads to the railway +station, for it might go hard with him--but we could not see any the +day we were there. In fact, the legend has been repeated by many +writers since the sixteenth century and is now such a matter of local +pride that no doubt the concierge who permitted one to get in and set +up housekeeping in this spiderless Eden--for it certainly must look +like the Promised Land to a spider--would not only lose his or her +job, but be severely punished by the indignant city fathers into the +bargain. + +Looking at the Cloth Hall from across the Grande Place it has the +aspect of being a low building, but within this gallery one gains +precisely an opposite impression--of unusual loftiness. Just how high +the vast room is can best be estimated by noting the wooden façade of +an ancient house that has been taken down and erected against one wall +in its entirety. With its three stories and high peaked top this +structure appears to be literally lost, looking like an undersized pea +in an extra big pod. The great inner walls of the main gallery, facing +the windows that look out upon the Grande Place, have been decorated +by modern frescoes of great historical and artistic interest painted +by two artists of widely different methods and ideals. The portion +into which one first enters, extending to the break formed by the +tower, was decorated by Ferdinand Pauwels, Director of the Royal +Academy of Dresden. Both the art critics, and those who make no +pretence to superior knowledge in such matters, agree that this work +has been magnificently done. The vastness of the wall spaces made it +possible to paint the pictures on a scale of size and with a wealth of +detail surpassing the fine frescoes of the Hotel de Ville at Bruges +and the general effect upon the beholder is impressive in the extreme. +The pictures represent notable events in the town's history down to +the fourteenth century, and were begun in 1872 and completed in 1881. +The subjects selected by the artist are as follows: + + 1.--Visit of Count Philip of Alsace to the Hospital of + Our Lady in 1187. + + 2.--Count Ferdinand of Portugal orders the Magistrates + to fortify the town in 1214. + + 3.--Countess Jeanne of Constantinople setting prisoners + free on Good Friday, 1206. + + 4.--5.--The Magistrates give the Countess Margaret the + ransom of her son William, who was made prisoner + during the 7th Crusade. + + 6.--Building the West wing of the Guild Hall in the time + of Guy of Dampierre, 1285. + + 7.--8.--Return of the armed forces of Ypres in 1302 + after the Battle of the Spurs. + + 9.--The Plague, known as la Morte d'Ypres, in 1347. + + 10.--11.--Banquet offered in this very hall to Mahaut, + Countess of Flanders, and Matthew, Duke of Lorraine + on their marriage in 1314. + + 12.--An episode of the siege of Ypres by the English + and the men of Ghent in 1383. + +As will be noted, the pictures are not arranged in exact chronological +order, but, taken together, they form a wonderful pictorial summary +of the city's history--down to the Fall of 1914, which merits a +separate gallery by itself. To us the most impressive of the series +was the vast picture in two sections showing the triumphant return +from the Battle of Courtrai and the tragic representation of the Black +Death, which swept through all the densely populated Flemish towns; +but was more destructive at Ypres than elsewhere. The visitation here +represented was by no means the only one in the city's history, and +for centuries _la morte d'Ypres_ was a name of terror throughout the +countryside. + +In the section of the Great Hall beyond the belfry the mural paintings +are the work of Louis Delbeke, a painter of Ypres. His pictures were +the subject of violent criticism when they were first exhibited, and +are entirely unlike those in the other portion of the chamber. The +artist endeavoured to give his work an archaic appearance, in keeping +with the antiquity of its surroundings, and it was his intention to +symbolise the various manifestations of the public life of the +city--Civic Freedom, Commerce, Industry, Charities, Literature and so +on. The work was interrupted by his death and has never been +completed. + +Another room of great interest is the _Salle Echevinale_, where for +five centuries the magistrates of Ypres held their sessions. Between +1322 and 1468 local artists painted on the wall above the three Gothic +arches in this room a frieze comprising portraits of the early Counts +and Countesses of Flanders, beginning with Louis of Nevers and ending +with Charles the Bold. When the French occupied the town in 1794 they +covered these "emblems of superstition and portraits of tyrants" with +a thick coat of whitewash which was only accidentally knocked off in +1844, exposing a bit of the ancient and still brilliantly coloured +painting. The discovery created quite a sensation, as the very +existence of this work had been forgotten, and a native artist was +commissioned to remove the whitewash and restore the paintings, which +he did in a manner that is not entirely satisfactory, but none the +less gives us an opportunity to view once more this interesting +work--one of the earliest pieces of mural painting in Flanders. On the +north wall of this room is a modern fresco by Godefroid Guffens, +representing "The State Entry of Philip the Bold" in 1384, while on +the other side of the room is a monumental Flemish chimney-piece +carved by Malfait of Brussels, with mural paintings on each side by +Jean Swerts--like Guffens, a painter of the modern Antwerp school. +These represent the Magistrates of Ypres issuing an order regarding +the maintenance of the poor, in 1515; and the visit of the Magistrates +to one of the Free Schools founded in 1253--thus illustrating the +early interest taken by the commune in free education and public +charities. + +Leaving this interesting building we went across a small roughly paved +square to the Church of St. Martin, which dates from the thirteenth +century, and was for many centuries a cathedral. The unfinished square +tower was erected in 1433. The choir is Romano-ogival, while the nave +and aisles are early Gothic, and the edifice has many other peculiar +features of interest to students of architecture. It contains the +usual paintings, of which none are of remarkable interest, and some +excellent choir stalls. The most famous of the Bishops of St. Martin, +while it was a Cathedral Church, was Jansenius, one of the leading +figures in the Reformation, who died of the Plague in 1638. His great +work on St. Augustine occupied twenty-two years of his life while at +Ypres and caused a tremendous discussion. It was finally declared to +be heretical, but its teachings had already given rise to an ardent +group of followers of the learned Flemish churchman, who were called +Jansenists. The archives of the city and church contain much +interesting material regarding this celebrated mediæval theologian. +His tomb, which still stands in the church of which he was once the +head, formerly contained a long and highly eulogistic inscription, +which, by an order from the Pope in 1655, was cut down to the bare +remnant that still remains. + +The Grande Place of Ypres is another of the surprises that this tiny +city has to offer to those unacquainted with its history, for it is +one of the largest in all Flanders--a veritable Sahara of a Place on a +hot summer day, albeit a Sahara bordered with many pleasant oases +where cooling drinks, if they do not bubble up from the ground, can at +least be had without much difficulty. During most of the week the vast +paved space is almost deserted, save for an occasional peasant's cart +that rumbles slowly and clumsily across it, but on market-days it is +full of picturesque and swarming life. Then the peasants come in from +the countryside by the thousand, while the itinerant hucksters and +pedlars who, in Belgium travel from one fair or market-place to +another, set up their canvas-covered booths in long streets from one +side of the Grande Place to the other. The country people press along +between these rows of tiny shops and haggle energetically with the +proprietors for whatever takes their fancy. An astounding variety of +wares are offered for sale on these market days--dress goods of every +description in the great Cloth Hall, which for a brief moment reflects +a feeble glimmer of its ancient glory; ready-made garments for man, +woman and child; footwear, headwear, and every conceivable kind of +hardware, of tinware, of crockery. In short, the display is a +veritable department store, for the most part cheap stuff, it is true, +but now and then one runs across laces for which the prices asked are +quite high. Then, of course, there is the inevitable array of +everything possible to eat--from the butchers' stalls in the basement +of the Cloth Hall to the huckster selling live chickens from a bag on +the corner, and the scores of stands selling fruits and vegetables of +every seasonable variety. + +At last, however, the market comes to an end, the hucksters and market +gardeners take down their booths and drive away in their heavy Flemish +carts; the country people, after a more or less protracted visit to +the places of refreshment around the Place and in the adjacent +streets, go homeward, and the Grande Place settles down again into its +sleep of centuries. While we were there the moon was at its full, and +as its white light fell upon the grass-grown Place and the huge grey +mass of the Cloth Hall it was not hard to picture the old days come +back again and review, in fancy, some of the stirring times that the +old houses around it have looked down upon. The great bell in the +Cloth Hall tower rings and from far and wide come hurrying throngs of +sturdy artisans, with their lances, pikes and clubs. The _Serments_, +or oath-bound corporations, take their positions gravely and in good +order--men of substance these, portly, well-fed, and prosperous. Then +the _Métiers_, or lesser craftsmen, assemble--no doubt more noisily +and boisterously, as would be expected from their rougher class and +lower breeding. Each of the four hundred guilds assembles around its +respective banner, the Count and others of the nobility come riding +up; and with them, on terms of full equality, the commanders of the +citizen soldiery confer. Then, as the trumpets sound, or mayhap the +great bell peals again, the hosts march off in serried ranks to the +city gates, or to take their positions along the walls. The old +streets echo to the sound of their tramping feet, the noise of their +shouts and cries dies away, and once more the still moonlight falls +upon the deserted old Place. + +As we sat in one of the cafés facing the Cloth Hall, our minds filled +with these and other fancies of the olden days--the moonlight, the old +houses all around us, and the many quaint and ancient things we had +seen during the day all contributing to the dreamy sense of +enchantment--the Professor told us something of the legend and history +of that far-off thirteenth century when much of the Ypres we had seen +that day was built. It was an age when men firmly believed in magic +and fairies and delighted in tales of mystery and enchantment. Some of +the most famous stories told by the old Flemish chroniclers relate to +the career of Baldwin IX, who came to be known as Baldwin of +Constantinople. After the long and wise reigns of Dierick of Alsace +and his son Philip, Flanders had become one of the richest and most +prosperous countries in Europe. The French, who looked upon its +fertile plains and fair cities with covetous eyes, composed these +lines, which no doubt expressed their sincere conviction: + + "La plus belle Comté est La Flandre, + La plus belle Duché est La Bourgogne, + La plus belle Royaume est France." + +Baldwin was not only Count of Flanders, but also Count of Hainaut, of +which Mons was the capital--his dominions therefore extending from the +North Sea to the River Meuse and including much of the Ardennes. It +was in this region--the true fairy-land of Belgium--that the Count met +with an adventure, according to certain of the chroniclers, which gave +his reign a most sinister beginning. It happened in this wise. The +Count was very fond of hunting, and very neglectful of the duty his +loyal subjects felt that he owed to them--of getting married and +securing children to insure the succession. For nothing was more +disastrous to a country than to have its line of princes die out, +leaving their title to be fought for by all who felt themselves strong +enough to seize it. The Count was to have married Beatrice of France, +the most beautiful princess in Christendom, but to the neglect of this +important matter he went hunting in the Ardennes, where from time +immemorial the wild boars have been very large and fierce. + +Here, after a day of poor sport, the Count came upon a black boar of +enormous strength which killed several of his dogs and even wounded +one of his companions. Pursuing the savage beast eagerly the Count +lost sight of his followers and when he finally brought it to bay he +was alone. With a blow from his javelin he finally killed it, and then +cut off its monstrous head. As he paused to get his breath he heard a +slight rustle in the bushes and there was the most beautiful lady he +had ever seen, seated on a palfrey. Upon his inquiring who she was, +and why she was there in the forest alone, she replied that she was an +Eastern princess and had come to find and wed the richest Count in +Christendom, adding that she had learned that the Count of Flanders +was the noblest lord in all the West, and it was therefore that Count +for whom she was seeking. + +To this the Count, who had already fallen deeply in love with the +beautiful stranger, whose dark eyes flashed upon him with a glance at +once mysterious and entrancing, replied that he was the Count of +Flanders and the richest Count under Heaven. He then and there +proposed to the damsel, offering to marry her at once, nor did he +perceive that the wild boar he had lately slain had disappeared, and +even the blood of the battle was gone, while as for the huge head that +he had cut off with his own hands the palfrey upon which the Eastern +princess was seated stood on the very spot. He then blew so loud a +recall upon his horn that it was heard for miles through the great +forest, and presently the lesser counts and knights who formed his +train came riding up. To these he introduced the strange princess and, +despite the prudent counsels of some that it might be well to learn +more about the lady, he forthwith repaired to Cambrai where they were +married in great splendour. The Countess, beautiful as she was, did +not become popular, the people attributing to her the heavy taxes they +had to pay. It was also whispered that she never attended the +elevation of the Host at mass, always leaving before the bell was +rung. + +Notwithstanding her unpopularity, and the gossip of the busybodies, +the Count still loved his bride who bore him two children, Jeanne and +Margaret, and ever remained as wonderfully beautiful as the day they +first met in the forest. As they were celebrating Easter one year at +Wynandael with a great feast a pilgrim arrived from the East with news +that the Saracens were besieging Constantinople. He was forthwith +invited into the great hall of the castle and food placed before him, +which he ate eagerly. Just then the Countess entered, with a train of +ladies. At sight of her the pilgrim stopped eating and trembled, while +the Countess turned deadly pale and whispered to her lord to send +that stranger away as he was wicked and meant only evil by coming +there. But the Count bade the pilgrim say whereat he was alarmed, +whereupon the stranger rose and in a loud voice bade the devil who +filled the body of the Countess to depart from it. At this the +Countess rose and confessed she was indeed one of the devils cast out +of Paradise who had inhabited the body of the most beautiful maiden of +the East, the soul having departed from it. With this confession, at +which all present were naturally appalled, she rose in all her beauty +before them and vanished through a window of the hall, nor was she +ever seen or heard of again. + +Other chroniclers and historians deny this story, pointing out that +the Count was, in fact, happily married to Marie of Champagne and that +it was the beautiful French Countess and no princess of satanic origin +who bore his two daughters, Jeanne and Margaret. This, in truth, was +the case, but many of the superstitious Flemings believed the tale +about the devil none the less, and the Count's brilliant but tragic +later career caused the story to be repeated and handed down for many +generations. + +Only five years after coming to the throne Count Baldwin announced his +intention of going on a crusade, and in the presence of a vast throng +both he and Marie took the cross in the church of St. Donatian at +Bruges. This was in 1199, but the Count was not able to leave his +dominions at once and in the following year he and Marie came to Ypres +to dedicate the foundation stone of the great Cloth Hall. He finally +set out in 1203, but the Venetians compelled the crusaders, in payment +for their passage, to make a campaign which resulted in the capture of +Constantinople, the founding of the Latin Empire, and the election of +Count Baldwin as the first Emperor. Marie, meanwhile, had gone to +Syria by another route and there she died of the plague, only learning +in her last hour that her husband had become an Emperor and that she +was an Empress. Her death was the first of the reverses of fortune in +Baldwin's meteoric career. A year later, in 1205, he fell wounded in a +battle before the walls of Adrianople--or, perhaps, slain. Certain it +is that he disappeared from the world of men and for a space of twenty +years was heard of no more. + +Then, in the heart of the great forest that in those days stretched +from Tournai to Valenciennes, some wood-cutters found a long bearded, +white-haired old man, his face covered with scars, living the life of +a hermit in a hut none of them remembered ever having seen before. +Gradually this wonder attracted more and more of the people thereabout +to see the stranger, and men began to say that he resembled the good +Count Baldwin. Some of the nobles who had known the Count heard of it, +visited the hut in the forest, and declared that this was indeed Count +Baldwin and the Emperor. + +If he was the Count his country needed him sorely, for the King of +France, Philip Augustus, had during his twenty years' absence all but +made Flanders a French province. When it became clear that Baldwin was +either dead or a prisoner of the pagans Philip had seized his two +daughters--Jeanne being then a girl of fourteen, and Margaret still in +her cradle--claiming their wardship as the dead Count's suzerain. Five +years he kept them, nor did he permit them to return till he had +married Jeanne to a kinsman of his own, Ferdinand of Portugal, who he +thought would be a mere puppet in his hands. Ferdinand, however, +proved to be a man of determination and resisted Philip's seizure of +St. Omer and Aire, two Flemish towns. Philip invaded Flanders with a +great army, capturing Cassel and destroying Damme and all the +merchandise stored there, Lille, Courtrai and many smaller towns. +Ferdinand, unable to resist the superior forces of Philip +single-handed, brought about an alliance with King John of England. +The battle of Bouvines shattered this alliance, and for twelve years +Ferdinand languished in a French prison, while King John was forced to +grant the Magna Carta to his English subjects. Thus a victory for +tyranny in Flanders resulted indirectly in a greater victory for the +cause of freedom in England. Jeanne, while her husband was in prison, +was the titular Countess of Flanders, but Philip kept her completely +under the influence of his counsellors. Margaret, meanwhile, had been +married, but her husband was unable to make head against the +far-reaching power of the King of France. + +It was under these circumstances that the hermit who men thought +resembled Count Baldwin came on the stage. If he was an impostor his +_coup_ was shrewdly planned, for Jeanne was as hated by the Flemings +as her father had been loved. If he was really the good Count and the +Emperor his arrival in Flanders seemed to that distracted country like +a direct interposition of Providence. A great delegation from +Valenciennes went out to the forest and hailed him as their Count +and then he at last admitted that he was indeed Baldwin of +Constantinople. + +His tale was a strange one, but more easily believed in those wild +days than it would be now. He had, he asserted, been wounded before +Adrianople and made a prisoner by the Bulgarians. While a captive a +Bulgarian princess saw him, fell in love, and contrived to effect his +escape after he had promised to marry her. Once free, however, he +repented of his pledge to marry an infidel, and murdered his +benefactress. This wicked deed was quickly followed by his recapture +by the barbarians, who made him a slave and even a beast of burden. +Escaping at last, after many years, he had become a hermit in penance +for his great sin. + +The men of Valenciennes believed this story, and pardoning his +self-confessed crime as of little moment, since it affected only an +infidel, proclaimed him their Count. The great towns of Flanders flung +open their gates to him wherever he went, and finally he held his +court in Bruges. His neighbours, the Dukes of Brabant and Limbourg, +and his former ally, the King of England, acknowledged his claims, +while his daughter Jeanne fled to France for protection. + +The chief reason for believing that Baldwin was an impostor is the +fact that at this crisis of his career he failed signally to show any +of the decision and judgment that twenty years before had made the +true Baldwin Emperor. To be sure, twenty years of slavery, and the +haunting memory of the beautiful Marie of Champagne who had followed +him to her death, and of the Bulgarian princess whom he had so basely +slain, may have enfeebled his intellect. He was now an old man. At all +events, after a period of indecision he did the very thing he never +should have done--he appealed to Philip for aid against his daughter. +Summoned to Péronne, where the King of France was then holding court, +he was subjected to a trial by the royal Council, which clearly showed +its determination to convict him as an impostor. Perceiving that he +had blundered into a trap, the old man fled from the castle and +escaped to Flanders. Here, however, the appeal to Philip and its +result, together with much French gold judiciously expended in behalf +of Jeanne, caused the nobility to turn cold. He determined to lay his +cause before the Pope, but while on his way to Rome was captured and +sold to Jeanne who ordered him to be hanged in chains in the +market-place at Lille between two hounds. If he was the true +Baldwin, after all, few careers in history offer wider contrasts of +glory and shame. + +[Illustration: HOTEL MERGHELYNCK, YPRES.] + +Whether one stays at Ypres a day or a week he will not lack for +objects of interest, for the Cloth Hall and the Cathedral are but the +beginning of the list. A day is hardly too much to devote to the rue +de Lille alone, for here are the Hospice Belle, with a number of +valuable old paintings, and the Hotel-Musée Merghelynck. The latter is +an institution as unique as it is admirable. Built in 1774 by François +Merghelynck, a Treasurer and Grand Bailiff of Ypres, this fine mansion +is filled with furniture and objets d'art of the eighteenth century +coming from Flanders, Holland and France and collected with rare taste +and judgment. In its entirety it represents the residence of a +nobleman of the period, complete down to the smallest detail, with +every article in its proper place, as if the owner had just stepped +out and might be expected back at any moment. The seven principal +rooms are panelled with carved wood. The dining-room is decorated with +bas-reliefs representing all of the principal implements of husbandry. +These were carved by Antony Deledicque of Lille and have been compared +with the work in some of the smaller rooms in the Palace of +Versailles. The music-room is similarly embellished with +representations of musical instruments, and all have fine panel +friezes and gilded carvings. In each room the proprietor of the +mansion, Arthur Merghelynck, the great-grandson of the original owner, +has collected a complete equipment of eighteenth-century furniture. +The dining-room has rare porcelain from Tournai, with the precious +gilt marks of the choicest make, the music-room has an old-time +harpsichord, the kitchen possesses an array of old-time pewter, copper +and brassware. In the chambers the same plan has been faithfully +carried out, even to placing the owner's uniforms and gala raiment in +the wardrobes. Permission to visit these delightful rooms is freely +granted to all visitors to Ypres without charge, other than an +optional fee to the attendant. We were told that natives of the city +are not admitted, but forgot to ask the caretaker if this was true. + +A little farther down this same rue de Lille is an old edifice that +for many years has been called the House of the Templars. It has been +restored and is now used as the Post Office--it was for a long time a +brewery--but it is not now believed that this was ever the House of +the famous mediæval order. The Templars, however, did erect at +Ypres their first house in Europe, and it may well be that this +structure was copied from it. Beyond this interesting edifice we +encountered a grim-looking old church, that of St. Peter, within the +doorway of which is a most curious mediæval Calvary. This church is +one of the oldest in Flanders, having been built in 1073 by Robert the +Frisian, one of the early Counts. On this street also stands the +Hospice St. Jean which was founded in 1277. It contains one fine +timbered ceiling room, with panelled walls, called the nuns' workroom, +and some paintings by Kerel van Yper, an obscure local artist of the +sixteenth century. + +[Illustration: CHURCH OF ST. PETER, YPRES.] + +In this section we were so fortunate as to see the lace workers, of +whom there are still several hundred, making _point de Valenciennes_ +outside the doors of their tiny houses. Mrs. Professor never tired of +watching these women,--who are for the most part middle-aged, while +some of them are very old--as their nimble fingers dexterously shifted +the innumerable little bobbins to and fro, while the delicate fabric +slowly took the design upon which they were working. It is said that +more Valenciennes lace is made here at Ypres, and at Courtrai and +among the little Flemish towns between these two cities, than in the +French city from which this fine point derives its name. + +It is along the rue de Lille that the visitor will (let us hope!) find +the wooden house that is the last, or nearly the last, survival of a +type of architecture that was once very common in Ypres. It is +inferior to the one in the Cloth Hall, which also came from this +street, but is still in use--although it seemed to be closed when we +passed it. A few steps further on we came to the Porte de Lille with +its three semi-circular towers, erected in 1395. The Porte is +connected with the open country beyond by a bridge across the wide +moat, in which a stately white swan was swimming. The ancient walls, +built by the famous military engineer Vauban, extend here for a long +distance in both directions and are in a fairly good state of +preservation. At the Porte de Thourout, where the fortifications end +on the northeastern side of the town, there is an open-air swimming +pool which, according to the local guidebook is free during certain +hours for men Saturday and Sunday, for women Wednesday, for soldiers +Thursday and Friday, and for ladies Tuesday. The distinction between +the women who can come on Wednesday and the ladies who are admitted +Tuesday is not stated. + +From the Porte de Lille we walked along the top of the ramparts toward +the railway station--a promenade full of interest and charm. The broad +moat in which a dozen snow white swans were swimming, the huge trees +arching overhead, the quaint little houses to our right, with now and +then a narrow street bending back into the town as if inviting us to +follow and explore it--everything seemed to combine to make this one +of our pleasantest experiences in Flanders, and we regretted that we +did not have weeks instead of days in which to study this rare old +town and visit some of the charming old Flemish villages by which it +is surrounded. + +The causes for the decline of the city from the proud position it +occupied in the Middle Ages to its comparative insignificance to-day +can be sketched in a very few words. Like the rest of Flanders, it had +flourished exceedingly in consequence of the Hundred Years' War +between France and England. As commerce and industry in these +two great neighbouring countries declined, that of the Low +Countries--which were then enjoying a prolonged period of comparative +peace--augmented with abnormal rapidity. It was inevitable that when +peace across the frontier was restored much of the trade that France +had temporarily lost should return to it. A series of great sieges cut +off the wool traffic with England that formed the foundation of the +city's industry and prosperity. The first of these was in 1383 when +the guildsmen of Ypres successfully beat off a powerful army from +Ghent, aided by a large contingent from England. The plague, that +terror of every overcrowded industrial town in those days, swept off +thousands of people in 1347 and in 1490, and a third of the +inhabitants in 1552. These disasters still further crippled the cloth +industry. In 1583 and 1584 an eight months' siege and the plague +together reduced the population so fearfully that when the town at +last surrendered to the Prince of Parma barely five thousand remained. +After the religious wars were over it recovered some of its ancient +prosperity, but between 1648 and 1678 it was besieged no less than +four times, being a border town and one of the first to be attacked as +the fortunes of war swayed, first one way and then the other. Roused +by the ravages of the plague the magistrates cleaned the city, passed +stringent sanitary regulations, paved the streets and built a costly +system of sewers--Ypres being one of the first cities in Europe to +have these modern improvements. Wise as these steps were, they came +too late to arrest the decline of the town's industries and commerce. +One by one the artisans gave up the battle against the forces that +were sapping the foundations of their prosperity and moved away--some +to Ghent and Bruges, both of which were already beginning to decline; +others to far-off England, where they remained to lay the foundations +of the vast textile industry that has since grown up across the +Channel, but which traces its origin back to the artisans of Ypres in +the days when the fame of that until lately all but forgotten town was +known from one end of the world to the other. + + + + +CHAPTER VIII + +COURTRAI AND THE BATTLE OF THE SPURS + + +Our next expedition, after the delightful visit at Ypres, was to +Courtrai, which is only twenty-two miles distant, although the two +plodding little _omnibus_ trains that we took, one after the other, +were more than an hour getting us there. It was an hour most +pleasantly spent, however, for we were constantly on the lookout for +the fields of flax that we had read covered the valley of the River +Lys as far as eye could see. If this was ever so it certainly was not +the case in the summer of 1914, for there were more and larger fields +of barley and other small grains than of flax. Still, we saw a great +many plantings of the latter, and as the plant was in full bloom the +sight was a very pretty one--the delicate green of each field being +faintly tinged with the blue of the tiny flowers. It did not seem to +be very tall, but it was still early June and a very backward summer. +We also passed many fields in which the flax of the previous season +was stacked to bleach, evidently the crop from several fields being +concentrated into one for this purpose. The water of the River Lys, +from which some authorities say the French Fleur de Lys derives its +name, is said to be superior to that of all other rivers for the +retting of flax, and at all events the raising and preparation of this +important staple has been the leading industry in this region for +centuries, although Ghent is more important as a flax manufacturing +centre. + +Presently our destination, of which the Flemish name is Kortrijk, came +in sight, and we started--with the Professor leading the way, as +usual--for the Grande Place. Here we found a market going on, with +numerous booths and stalls arranged in crooked little streets, and +crowds of thick-set peasant women with big baskets examining the wares +displayed gingerly as if afraid that too great a display of interest +would cause the merchants to enhance their prices. Amid this bustle +and confusion we worked our way slowly to the centre of the Place +where stood the small ivy-covered Belfry, which dates from early in +the fourteenth century, and is one of the prettiest in Flanders. When +the city was sacked in 1382, after one of its many sieges, the Belfry +was one of the few edifices to escape injury. Repaired or restored in +1423, in 1519, and again in 1717, this little monument of the Middle +Ages has come down to us in an admirable state of preservation. +Originally connected with a small public market, _les petites halles_, +it gradually came to be surrounded with private houses until only its +spire was visible, but in 1899 these were torn down and the Belfry +left isolated as it is now. The clock originally placed on this tower +is said by the historian Froissart to have been "_l'un des plus biaux +que on seuist trouver decha ne dela la mer_"--one of the most +beautiful here or abroad--but was removed by Philip the Bold, the +first of the Burgundian Dukes to rule over Flanders, to Dijon, the +capital of Burgundy. This was in 1382, but in 1395 the people of +Courtrai had replaced it by another equally ingenious. We tried to +enter the old tower, but found one entrance guarded by the alarming +sign, "_Haute tension--danger de la mort_," indicating that the +electric light company used the lower part of the edifice as a +transforming station. There was another small doorway, but it did not +appear to have been opened for a long time, and we could find no one +who knew who had the key. + +When we first announced our intention to spend a Summer in Flanders +many friends protested, "But you do not speak Flemish--how do you +expect to get along?" Right here it may be stated that this bugbear +proved without foundation. Even in Ypres, where our Belgian +acquaintances said we surely would have trouble, we found only two or +three of those with whom we had occasion to converse who did not +understand French at least well enough to give us the information we +required. On a few occasions, when touring the poorer quarters of some +old Flemish town, we were non-plussed for a moment, but the children +helped us out in these emergencies by running off eagerly to find some +one who spoke French. Everywhere we found the people accommodating and +courteous, never surly as one author says those he met in these very +same towns were when he visited them half a dozen years ago. To be +sure, our visits seldom took us into the very little towns, where, no +doubt, Flemish is often spoken exclusively--as our experience in +Nieuport showed. + +The most curious fact about the little Kingdom of Belgium is that it +is sharply bi-lingual, the line of demarcation between the French and +the Flemish speaking provinces running across the country from +southwest to northeast a little to the south of Brussels; that city, +however, being far more French than Flemish. Most of the towns have +two names, which usually mean the same but are often so different in +form that it is a wonder the people themselves do not get mixed up now +and then. For example, the French name for the capital of the province +of Hainaut is Mons, meaning mountain, while the Flemish name is +Bergen, which means the same thing but looks very different. The +important railroad junction of Braine-le-Comte between Mons and +Brussels bears the queer Flemish name of 's Graven-Brakel. Even the +postage stamps and the paper money are printed in the two languages, +while the silver money is apparently minted in equal quantities of +each. All public employés are required by law to know both languages, +so that the public has no trouble either at the railway stations or +post-offices. According to official statistics published while we were +there, 38.17 per cent. of the population of the country speak only +French; 43.38 per cent. speak only Flemish; while 18.13 per cent. +speak more than one language and a few speak German only. Of the +bi-linguals over 60 per cent. declared that they ordinarily spoke +Flemish. + +Facing the Grande Place, and only a few steps from the Belfry, is the +Hotel de Ville, an unprepossessing structure externally, although the +historians say that it was once much better looking. It has, at all +events, been restored, and the statues of the Counts of Flanders that +were destroyed during the Revolution replaced by modern ones carved by +a local sculptor. After finding the concierge we were shown a small +collection of modern paintings by Belgian artists bequeathed to the +city by one of its wealthy sons. This, however, was merely _en route_, +as it were, to the great show-place of this--as of all other Flemish +hotels de ville--the Salle du Conseil. Here the _pièce de résistance_ +is the great chimney-piece, carved in 1525 by unknown sculptors, who +probably were natives of the city as there were several of good renown +residing and working there at that period. The elaborate carvings with +which this masterpiece is decorated comprise three tiers. At the top +the figures represent the virtues: Faith, Humility, Charity, Chastity, +Generosity, Temperance, Patience and Vigilance. In the middle section +a series of pictures carved in stone typify the vices: Idolatry, +Pride, Avarice, Sensuality, Jealousy, Gluttony, Anger and Idleness. +The lowest tier contains reliefs that are supposed to show the +punishment for these vices, although the idea is not always quite +easy to follow. In niches projecting from the middle section are fine +statues, carved from wood, of Charles V in the centre, with Justice +and Peace on the opposite sides. At the right and left sides of the +chimney-piece are two more tiers of carvings, but of inferior interest +to those on the front. The beamed ceiling of this fine room is worthy +of at least a glance, for on the corbels supporting it are some of the +most curious carvings to be seen in Flanders, representing the +conquests of woman over man--beginning with Adam and Eve and Samson +and Delilah, and including several examples from pagan mythology. + +We were next conducted down-stairs to the Salle Echevinale, where +there is another fine chimney-piece which, however, was much less +interesting than the one we had just seen. This room is further +embellished with several frescoes by Guffens and Swerts, examples of +whose work we had already seen at Ypres. The former artist painted the +large composition entitled the "Departure of Baldwin IX for +Constantinople," and the latter the more interesting picture of the +Consultation of the Flemish leaders in this very room the day before +the Battle of Courtrai. Smaller frescoes depict other notable scenes +in the old town's history, while small carvings near the ceiling +represent the chief virtues of an upright judge. + +On a hot July day, in the year 1302, there took place, just outside +the ancient walls of the city, the most famous event in the history of +Courtrai. This was the great "Battle of the Spurs." In order to +understand the significance of this conflict--which justly ranks as +one of the decisive battles of the world--it is necessary to go back +three-quarters of a century to the Baldwin of Constantinople, or the +impostor who assumed his name and came to an ignominious end on the +gibbet at Lille. This was in the year 1225. The following year Philip +Augustus forced or persuaded Margaret, Baldwin's younger daughter, to +leave the loyal Fleming to whom she had been married almost since +childhood and wed one of his retainers, William of Dampierre. Then, +during a period of more than fifty years, the Kings of France were +able to exert a steadily increasing influence in Flanders and reduce +the country more and more completely to a French province. Finally, in +1296, the exactions of the French monarch--who, at that time, was +Philip the Fair--became so humiliating that Margaret's son, Guy of +Dampierre, then the reigning Count, rebelled. A brief war followed, +ending in Guy's utter defeat and imprisonment, and in 1300 all +Flanders was formally annexed to the French crown. + +Instead of submitting tamely to this act of aggression, the Flemish +burghers were roused to fight more furiously for their fatherland than +they had ever done for their Count. At Bruges a true leader of the +people appeared in the person of Peter de Coninck, the dean of the +then all-powerful Guild of the Weavers, and one of the most +picturesque figures in mediæval history. Small and ill-favoured in +face and figure, with only one eye, and speaking no language but +Flemish, he was able to arouse the citizens to the wildest pitch of +fury against their aggressors. Another popular hero of the hour was +John Breidel, Dean of the Butchers' Guild, and reputed to be one of +the richest men in Bruges; while a third was William of Juliers, +Provost of Maestricht--a Churchman turned soldier for the cause of +liberty. These three raised the standard of the Lion of Flanders to +which rallied the Clauwaerts, as the Nationalist partisans were +called; while the friends of France were named--after the Lily of +France--the Liliaerts. The latter naturally included the magistrates +and office-holders of the leading towns, and in 1301, when Philip +made a triumphal progress through the chief cities of his new +dominions, he was everywhere received with much outward pomp. + +[Illustration: STATUE OF PETER DE CONINCK AND JOHN BREIDEL, BRUGES.] + +At Bruges the official reception was the most gorgeous of all, the +rich gowns of the wives and daughters of the burghers causing Queen +Isabella to exclaim, "I thought I was alone Queen, but here I see six +hundred!" The mass of the people, however, were cold and sullen, and +when the King proclaimed some public games no one would take part in +them. Hardly had the royal party left the city before an insurrection +broke out. De Coninck was arrested, but his followers burst into the +prison, and, for a time, the leaders of the Liliaerts were behind the +bars. A French force soon entered the city and set them free, and De +Coninck fled to Damme, where the Lion of Flanders waved unmolested +over a rapidly increasing host of Clauwaerts. + +On the 17th of May, 1302, a still stronger army of French entered the +city, and it was rumoured that a general massacre of the Clauwaerts +was planned for the morrow. Without waiting for the blow to be struck, +the men from Damme and the surrounding towns, under the leadership of +De Coninck and John Breidel, poured into the city before daybreak and +roaring "_Schilt end vriendt_"--a battle-cry and password that no +Frenchman could pronounce--they overwhelmed the partisans of the Lily. +So sudden and unexpected was the attack, in the darkness and among +narrow streets with which they were not acquainted, that the two +thousand French knights who had entered the city so gaily on the +previous day could offer no resistance and were slaughtered almost to +a man. Barely forty escaped to tell King Philip of the massacre, while +no record was made of the number of Liliaerts among the Flemings +themselves who were in the heaps of dead that for three days +thereafter were being buried in the fields outside of the city. This +was the famous Matin de Bruges, hardly a glorious day's work +considered as a feat of arms, but bold enough when regarded as a +defiance by the artisans of a single industrial town of the most +powerful monarch of the age. + +Philip, as was to be expected, was furious, and at once gathered an +army the like of which had never before been seen in France; while all +Flanders, with the exception of Ghent which the French still held, +rallied to the support of De Coninck and his comrades. Scores of +Flemish nobles were at that time languishing in French prisons, but +those who were free to come enlisted under the Lion of Flanders. The +army of defence consisted for the most part, however, of +workingmen--members of the great guilds of Bruges, Ypres, Audenaerde +and the other Flemish towns, with seven hundred even from Ghent. Each +guild marched under its gorgeous banner, the men armed with long +pikes, iron lances, short swords, and a sort of club which they +derisively called "_goedendag_," or "good morning." On the eve of the +battle a conference was held by the leaders of the army of defence, +this being the scene depicted in the fine fresco in the Hotel de +Ville. + +About nine or ten in the morning of the following day the French army, +some forty thousand strong, was seen approaching, led by the youthful +Count of Artois. After a reconnoitre two experienced officers advised +the young Prince not to attack the Flemings at once, but to worry them +with his archers and separate them from the town where their baggage +and provisions were. "These people have to eat three, or four times a +day--when they start to retreat, fall on them, you will quickly win," +they counselled him. + +This sage advice did not appeal to the impetuous young Count, or to +his valiant knights, who were burning with eagerness to avenge the +Matin de Bruges. They confidently expected that at the very sight of +their host, for the most part mounted knights, the cowardly townsmen +would turn and run. Nor did they pay much heed to the shrewdness and +skill with which the Flemish leaders had chosen their position. In the +marshy ground in front of the Flemish army were many streams and +canals, the water concealed by brushwood, while the River Lys and the +fortifications of the town protected them against an attack on either +flank or in the rear. + +As the French knights rode forward the first ranks plunged into the +hidden canals and streams with which the marsh--since known as the +Bloed Meersch, or Bloody Marsh--was intersected. Then, as five +centuries later at Waterloo, each succeeding rank pushed in the one +before it, the canals became choked with drowning men and struggling +horses, and it was not until these obstacles were literally filled +with dead bodies that any part of the great French host could approach +the Flemish lines. Then the Flemish guildsmen were for a moment hard +pressed, but they quickly rallied and the proud French nobles were +beaten down beneath their cruel pikes and clubs by hundreds. The Count +of Artois himself led the reserves into the mêlée when the day was all +but lost and fought his way clear to the great standard of the Lion of +Flanders, at the foot of which he fell. Their leader killed, the +French sought to flee, but the rout and slaughter lasted through the +long summer twilight and far into the night. + +According to an ancient chronicle, twenty thousand Frenchmen went down +to death that day, including seven thousand knights, eleven hundred +nobles, seven hundred lords, and sixty-three counts, dukes or princes. +As to these statistics they differ in every history, but certain it is +that the flower of French chivalry perished in unheard of numbers +before the onslaught of the Flemish townsmen, and it is said that in +all France there was no great house that did not mourn a father, a +brother or a son. + +To the men of Flanders, on the other hand, the victory was complete +beyond their wildest dreams. They piously gave thanks to Notre Dame de +Groeninghe, the Abbey overlooking the Bloody Marsh, and hung up seven +hundred golden spurs taken from the battlefield in the Church of Notre +Dame. For a time Philip the Fair sought to prolong the conflict, but +his losses had been too terrible in this battle for him to risk +another one against the now thoroughly aroused guildsmen, and a few +years later a treaty was signed that completely rescinded the act of +annexation and recognised the independence of Flanders once more. + +In the little Museum of Paintings we found a most interesting picture +of the famous battle by the great Belgian artist, Nicaise de Keyser. +It is said that the historian Voisin suggested this subject to the +painter, then a young man of twenty-three, and he devoted eight months +to its execution. Exhibited at the Salon at Brussels in 1836, it made +a sensation through its merit, the historical importance of the +subject and the youth of the artist, and was purchased by the city of +Courtrai by means of a popular subscription. It represents the +decisive moment of the battle when the Count of Artois, unhorsed and +disarmed, is about to be killed by the leader of the butchers' guild, +John Breidel. The museum contains a number of other interesting works +by Belgian painters, chiefly modern, including one by Constantin +Meunier, and a number by natives of Courtrai. This last feature is +characteristic of all these little museums and is a most happy idea. +In France the museums of fine arts in the provincial towns often form +in themselves admirable memorials of the famous artists who were born +or worked there, the names of the most important being carved about +the frieze or brought to mind in some equally prominent way. In years +to come it is to be hoped that these little Flemish towns can follow +this example and erect suitable structures to house their art +treasures--of which such a collection as this one at Courtrai forms a +fine nucleus--and in so doing strive to commemorate all of those to +whom the town is indebted for its artistic fame. In the case of +Courtrai the roster would be a long one, for local authorities have +recorded the names of more than two hundred painters, sculptors, +architects, engravers, metal-workers, miniaturists and master-makers +of tapestries. + +Unlike many Flemish towns, Courtrai is less renowned for its churches +than for its civic monuments. The great church of St. Martin, whose +picturesque Gothic tower rises high above the Grande Place, although +the edifice itself is some hundred yards distant from the Place +itself, dates from 1382, when an older church on the same site was +burned by the victorious troops of Charles VI when they sacked the +city after the Battle of Rosbecque. It was completed in 1439 and +contains a number of interesting paintings and carvings, several of +them by local artists and sculptors. The more important Church of +Notre Dame, with its square unfinished tower, dates from 1211 and was +founded by Baldwin of Constantinople. At that time the Counts of +Flanders had a castle at Courtrai and it was at the side of this that +Count Baldwin and his fair wife Marie located their great church, of +which the foundation stone was laid before the Count departed on the +crusade from which he was destined never to return. In the Chapel of +the Counts, which was built in the fourteenth century, are mural +paintings of the Counts and Countesses of Flanders, the earlier ones +dating from the century during which the chapel itself was +constructed. + +The artistic masterpiece of this church is the "Raising of the Cross," +by Van Dyck. This fine picture was painted for this very church and +was delivered by the artist in 1631, the church still possessing his +receipt for the one hundred livres de gros (about two hundred and +twenty dollars) paid for it. In 1794 the picture was carried to Paris +and placed in the Louvre, and on its restoration to the Netherlands +was several years in the museum at Brussels, being returned to its +proper place in Notre Dame in 1817. During the night of December +6th-7th, 1907, it was mysteriously stolen, its disappearance causing a +great commotion, but January 23rd it was discovered in a field at +Pitthem, where it had lain exposed to the rain and sunshine since its +removal from the church. Apparently the robbers had become frightened +and abandoned it, or possibly were prevented from returning to get it +by the hue and cry that had been raised. At any rate, it did not seem +to be much the worse for its little outing, and was duly hung up again +where any tourist who has a franc to spare can see it. + +It was in Notre Dame that the victors after the battle of Courtrai +hung up seven hundred golden spurs, more or less, picked up from the +battle-field. These were hung in a little side chapel at present +decorated by two black lions, but the original spurs were taken away +when the French sacked the city after the disastrous battle of +Rosbecque. + +A little beyond this interesting old church the rue Guido +Gezelle--named after the poet who for many years was a _vicaire_ at +Notre Dame and whose bust stands in a little _bosquet_, or wooded +parklet, hard by--conducts us to the famous old Broel towers which +guard an ancient bridge across the Lys. These fine specimens of +mediæval military architecture are in an admirable state of +preservation. The Spuytorre, or Southern tower, was first built by +Philip of Alsace in the twelfth century, was pillaged, and perhaps +wholly destroyed, by Charles VI and restored or rebuilt by Philip the +Bold, Duke of Burgundy, in 1386. There was not much to see in this +tower, save some dungeons below. The Inghelbrugtorre, or South tower, +was built at the same time as the bridge, in 1411-1413. There was +formerly an archeological museum in this tower, but we were told that +it had been removed to the Grandes Halles, near the railroad station, +which have recently been restored. We subsequently visited the +collections there, which were very interesting but too miscellaneous +to be described. Returning from the towers by the rue de Groeninghe we +paid a brief visit to the fine monument of the Battle of Groeninghe, +which is the Flemish name for the Battle of the Spurs. At the summit a +bronze Pucelle of Flanders brandishes a _goedendag_, one of the +celebrated war-clubs that did such deadly work on that famous day. +This monument, by Godefroid Devreese, a native of Courtrai, was +erected by popular subscription in 1905. + +It is in these smaller Flemish towns that the visitor who takes the +time to journey a little away from the closely built houses and rough +paved streets of the city will find himself after a few minutes of +brisk walking out in the green fields and winding lanes of the open +country. The trip is well worth the small exertion, for nowhere in the +world can one see such marvellous wild flowers--_fleurs des +champs_--as in Belgium. Every wheat field is sprinkled with the most +wonderful poppies, of a rich deep red that even the choicest +artificial flowers in America cannot equal; with blue corn-flowers +growing tall and big and of an indescribably deep blue that at times +shades into purple; and along the edges is a thin fringe of small +purple flowers, shaped like morning glories but much smaller, the +English name of which I do not know. In the grass of the pasture lands +are innumerable tiny white marguerites, with here and there a tuft of +daisies. Along the country lanes one can pick a score of other +varieties of wild flowers which here bloom all summer long, not to +mention the exquisite purple heather that makes every hillside glow +with colour in August and throughout the fall. To us, however, the +wheat fields with the poppies and corn-flowers were by far the most +charming as we wandered up and down West Flanders in the month of +June. Often one or the other grew so profusely as to give the whole +field a rich mass of colour, at times all red, in other places a solid +blue. + +As we strolled along through these flower gardens of the fields we +enjoyed still another treat, for everywhere in Belgium the skylarks +abound in myriads. To one who has never heard them there are few +enjoyments more exquisite than to watch and listen as these tiny +minstrels of the sky go through their little performance. Suddenly, +almost before the eye can locate it, one shoots upward from the waving +wheat in front of us, his rich trills fairly making the air vibrate +with melody. Higher and yet higher he goes, his little wings +struggling wildly, as if the effort of flying and singing at the same +time was too much for him. Never, for an instant, however, does the +music stop, and as his tiny form rises farther and farther into the +air he gradually begins to drive forward in a wide curve--but still +rising and still fluttering madly--until he becomes a mere speck +against the sky. Then, all at once, the fluttering wings spread +outward and are still, and he begins to volplane slowly downward in a +long slow sweep, while his notes become if possible more shrill and +vibrating than ever. Then, like a flash, as he nears the ground, he +darts sharply out of sight and the song is over. + +All day long the pleasant, flower-bedecked fields ring with this +music--at times a dozen are singing in the air at once. When the sun +is high the birds often rise until completely out of sight, only their +falling music telling the listener that they are still there. Toward +evening the flights are shorter, but as the calm of approaching night +settles over the broad and peaceful fields it seems as if the songs +are sweeter than at any other time. + +Two of the greatest English poets have given us wonderful word +pictures of this marvellous little bird, which surely sings as sweetly +in Belgium as in England. Shelley in his famous Ode, describes the +song itself; his metre imitating the breathless rush of the aerial +notes: + + "Hail to thee, blithe spirit! + Bird thou never wert, + That from Heaven, or near it, + Pourest thy full heart + In profuse strains of unpremeditated art. + + "Higher still and higher + From the earth thou springest, + Like a cloud of fire; + The deep blue thou wingest, + And singing still dost soar, and soaring ever singest." + +In Wordsworth's noble lines the thought is less upon the song, but +dwells upon the mother bird and her hidden nest: + + "Ethereal minstrel! pilgrim of the sky! + Dost thou despise the earth where cares abound? + Or, while the wings aspire, are heart and eye + Both with thy nest upon the dewy ground? + Thy nest, which thou canst drop into at will, + Those quivering wings composed, that music still!" + + + + +CHAPTER IX + +GHENT IN THE DAYS OF THE FLEMISH COUNTS + + +During the Middle Ages Ghent was, for nearly five centuries, one of +the greatest cities in the Occidental world. "If you have ever been in +Flanders," wrote Jean Froissart, near the close of the fourteenth +century, "you are aware that Ghent is the sovereign city of Flanders +in power, in wisdom, in government, in the number of its houses, in +position and in all else that goes to make a great and noble city, and +that three great rivers serve to bring to it ships from every part of +the world." After further eulogising the three rivers referred to, +which were the Scheldt, the Lys and the Lieve, the chronicler of +Valenciennes added that the city could put eighty thousand men in the +field, and that it would require a host of two hundred thousand +warriors to capture it. These statements, though no doubt +exaggerations, do not seem to the tourist so impossible of belief as +corresponding figures regarding the former greatness of the other +cities in Flanders, for Ghent is still "a great and noble city," while +some of its once puissant rivals are now little more than country +villages. In fact, to the visitor who approaches the centre of the +town from either of its two principal railway stations--it has five in +all--the city seems to be essentially a modern one, with fine streets +similar in every way to those to be found in Antwerp or Brussels, and +it is therefore with a shock of surprise that he suddenly finds +himself riding past one hoary old structure after another whose +frowning grey walls and massive architecture bespeak an antiquity +strangely at variance with their surroundings. + +To the Professor, and to all students of the thrilling history of this +famous old Flemish town, the most interesting of these reminders of +the Ghent of five hundred or one thousand years ago is the imposing +Château des Comtes, or Castle of the Counts, the ruins of which stand +in the very heart of the town with the busy life and bustle of the +Ghent of to-day surging about them. Hither, as soon as our belongings +were safely deposited in the hotel, we came--almost as a matter of +course. In part this magnificent relic of the feudal ages dates from +the ninth century, when it was called the new castle, _Novum +Castellum_, to distinguish it from a still older castle situated hard +by that was destroyed about the year 1010. Two of the three stories +composing this original structure are still intact and can be seen by +the visitor when he inspects the cellar of the keep. Here the columns +and arches are of later construction, but the walls--which are over +five and a half feet thick--are the work of builders who put these +stones in place more than a thousand years ago. It was in 1180, +according to the Latin inscription that can still be read just inside +of the main entrance from the Place Ste. Pharaïlde, that Philip of +Alsace--son of the Dierick of Alsace who brought the Holy Blood to the +chapel of St. Basil at Bruges--erected the present structure. Its +purpose was "to check the unbounded arrogance of the inhabitants of +Ghent, who had become too proud of their riches and of their fortified +houses, which looked like towers." The Count had been in Palestine two +years before and had greatly admired some of the strong castles +erected there by the crusaders and instructed his builders to imitate +these models, which he no doubt described to them. + +[Illustration: Photograph by E. Sacré. CASTLE OF THE COUNTS, GHENT.] + +After inspecting the remains of the earlier castle we mounted the +staircase at the left of the entrance tower. This leads to the top of +the outer castle wall and can be followed entirely around the great +ellipse formed by the complete structure. From every side fine views +can be had of the surrounding city and the moat and River Lieve which +guard the castle on the opposite side from the Place. Coming to the +square tower behind the entrance gateway we were shown a room on the +first story formerly used as a prison and torture chamber. From the +top of this tower the banner of the Count was hoisted when the men of +Ghent were called upon to follow their over-lord to war. The gateway +below, at the corner of the Place Ste. Pharaïlde and the rue de la +Monnaie, has a tragic interest from the fact that here were placed the +two railings, called _les bailles_, between which those sentenced to +death by the Council of Flanders were executed. Executions also often +took place in the outer courtyard between the exterior wall and the +Keep, or inner structure. In this yard, in 1445, the procession of the +Order of the Golden Fleece formed for its march to the church of St. +Bavon, and one can imagine how gay with banners and fair ladies the +old castle must have been on that occasion. + +The inner castle, usually styled the Palace, was the actual residence +of the Counts of Flanders whenever they chanced to be stopping in the +city. Thanks to the skilful restoration of the government, the various +parts of this edifice can be seen in approximately their original +condition, save for the rich tapestries and the scant but solid +furniture with which the rooms were formerly made habitable. The +chambers of the Count and Countess are particularly fine specimens of +the living quarters of the mediæval nobility, quite apart from their +many historic associations. Below the former is the entrance to the +underground prison built by Philip of Alsace. It is eighteen feet +deep, and extends ten and one-half feet below the level of the +courtyard, while one of the walls is seven and the others six feet +thick. A little air filters in from a zig-zag opening in one wall, but +no light. The prisoners were let down into this horrible cavern by +means of a ladder, or a basket attached to a rope, after which even +the opening by which they entered was closed and they were left alone +in the dark. For more than six centuries this cell was in constant +use, and one cannot but wonder whether milady the Countess in her +sweet chamber overhead ever had her dreams troubled by visions of the +despairing victims in their beds of slime who were here awaiting the +Count's decision as to their final fate. It seems that this prison, +fearful though it must have been to those incarcerated there, was not +one of those _oubliettes_ of which the Bastille and many another +mediæval castle had so many. So far as known, it was only used for +prisoners awaiting trial, or as a species of solitary confinement for +serious crimes. In 1657 a school-teacher accused of teaching heretical +doctrines to his pupils was confined here thirteen months, but there +is no record of any one being flung down into this pit to be +"forgotten." Still, it must be said that such proceedings would not be +likely to become a matter of record, and very little is known about +what went on behind these grim walls when the Counts of Flanders and +Dukes of Burgundy held absolute and undisputed sway. Any one who asked +inconvenient questions would very probably have come here himself! + +The Great Hall, which is about one hundred and twenty-five feet long +by from fifty to sixty feet in width, is a chapter in the history of +Flanders by itself. Here the Counts, and their successors, the Dukes +of Burgundy, held many of their great banquets and state functions of +various kinds. Louis of Maele in 1346 and Philip the Good in 1445 gave +state banquets in this hall of which long accounts have been preserved +in the contemporary chronicles. The latter, which was held on the +occasion of the seventh meeting of the Knights of the Golden Fleece +already mentioned, must have been quite a tremendous affair. At one +end of this Hall the Council of the Vieux-Bourg used to pronounce +sentence upon prisoners, and half a dozen famous treaties and many of +minor importance were proclaimed in this room. No doubt, also, the +Great Hall was used as the chief living-room of the castle on less +formal occasions, when the Count and Countess perhaps dined on a +raised dais at one end, while the throng of courtiers and retainers +feasted noisily farther down the hall. On such occasions one can +imagine how the great stone fireplace, a dozen feet wide and seven or +eight feet high, must have roared, while the torches and candles used +to supplement the feeble light from the narrow windows flared and sent +their smoke up to the grimy rafters overhead. The great room, now so +empty and silent, was then gay with the variegated costumes of the +olden time, while its walls echoed to the songs and laughter of the +boisterous throng. + +There are half a score of other rooms to be seen: the kitchen with its +fireplace big enough to roast an ox whole; the residence of the +Castellane or keeper of the castle; the small audience chamber near +the bedrooms of their highnesses--which was used on ordinary occasions +instead of the great hall--and several others. Of them all the most +interesting is the ancient stable, which is entered from the castle +yard. It seems hard to believe that this vast vaulted room, with its +splendid columns and Romanesque arches was ever designed or used as a +stable, but such the historians all aver was the case. In appearance +it resembles an early church or chapel. In a glass case at one side is +a gruesome collection of skeletons that were uncovered here in 1904, +presumably those of prisoners who were secretly executed no one knows +how many years ago. After the fourteenth century the castle ceased to +be occupied by the sovereigns as a residence, and the stable, no +longer needed for horses, became a torture chamber and continued to be +used for this purpose until the close of the eighteenth century. It is +here that the beautiful and unfortunate Jacqueline, Countess of +Hainaut and Holland, is said to have been confined by Philip the Good +when that amiable monarch was trying to persuade her to part with her +patrimony. She resisted bravely and was finally released, but her +powerful and wily antagonist subjugated her at last. The Professor +read, or was told, that there is another prison cell below the waters +of the moat, and also a passage, miles in length, leading out to the +open country and intended for escape in case a foe besieging the +castle seemed likely to take it, but these we were not able to +discover nor did the official guide to the castle appear to know +anything about them. + +Speaking of sieges, the castle has witnessed more than one. The _Novum +Castellum_, which preceded the present edifice, was besieged in 1128 +by Dierick of Alsace. In 1302, a few months before the Battle of the +Spurs, the citizens of Ghent rose en masse against the sheriffs of +King Philip of France, who took refuge here. The infuriated crowd, +armed with pikes, axes and swords, beat upon the gates and finally set +fire to the castle. At this the besieged gave up, and all within were +forced to run a fearful gauntlet. Without the castle gates the people +formed a dense mass, bristling with pikes and spears, through which a +narrow lane was kept open. As the late defenders of the castle emerged +they had to pass down this avenue of steel, and whoever had committed +any crime against the burghers never reached the farther end alive, +whether he was one of the lord high sheriffs or a page. In 1338 the +Count himself, Louis of Maele, was here besieged by Jacques Van +Artevelde, and forced to make terms with the great tribune. + +The later history of the structure itself is interesting and curious. +Already in 1302 hovels had been built against the castle walls on the +land side. In 1350 a mint was installed within the castle, where it +remained until suppressed in the sixteenth century, and from the same +year the Court of the Count held sessions here. It was used less and +less as a residence after this, but from 1407 to 1778 was the seat of +the Council of Flanders, which succeeded the Court of the Counts. In +1779 the buildings used by the court were sold and in 1797 and 1798 +those of the Assembly of the Vieux Bourg also passed into private +hands. The Castellany of the Vieux Bourg was for many years a public +inn, and in 1807 a factory was established in the Keep, the Great Hall +being used as a machine-room. The Castellany then became a cotton +spinning mill, was partly burned in 1829, but rebuilt and continued in +use as a mill until 1884. Meanwhile other small buildings were +erected around the old walls until they were entirely concealed, and a +guidebook of this period states that of the old castle "nothing now +remains but the entrance." In 1887 some archeologists stirred the +municipal and national governments to action with a view to saving and +restoring this splendid monument of the Middle Ages, the Gateway +having already been acquired by the nation in 1872. The work of +demolishing the buildings that had clustered about the old walls and +of restoration lasted from 1889 till 1913, when at last the structure +was brought into the condition that the visitor beholds to-day. In its +present form it is unquestionably one of the most interesting and +important examples of feudal architecture in Europe. Within its sombre +walls the student has, in records of stone, an epitome of the history +of ten centuries. + +The Professor informed us that, in the course of his researches, he +had run across a reference to some legend or popular tradition +concerning a siege of Ghent in the year 930, or thereabouts, by the +Kings of England, Scotland and Ireland. The city, according to this +tale, was bravely defended by Dierick, Lord of Dixmude, and all the +attacks of the besiegers were repelled for many months. Their +majesties from across the Channel were naturally much incensed at this +unexpected resistance, and warned the burghers and their valiant chief +that if they did not surrender within twenty-four hours, they would +raze the city to the ground and sow corn on its ruins. Notwithstanding +this threat, to the fulfilment of which the kings aforesaid took a +mighty oath, the men of Ghent fought stubbornly on, and finally the +besiegers were forced to give up their enterprise. The English +monarch, however, in order to fulfil his vow and thereby ease his +conscience, humbly begged permission of the victors to allow him to +throw a grain of corn in the market-place. This modest request was +granted, but to prevent any such stratagem as the one that proved so +successful in the famous siege of Troy, a tiny hole was made in the +city wall and the monarch required to crawl through alone, returning +the same way after the corn-throwing performance was over. From this +circumstance the name of Engelande-gat was derisively given to the +little street leading from the Bestroom-Porte to St. Michel--a name +which Pryse L. Gordon in his book on Holland and Belgium, written in +1834, stated was still retained at that time. We were unable to find +it, however, in one of our early morning tramps, although we found a +rue d'Angleterre which runs into the Place St. Michel directly in +front of the church, and may have derived its name from that of the +earlier street which, quite possibly, it may have replaced. The great +plan of the city drawn by Hondius shows a vast number of streets and +lanes that to-day have entirely disappeared. The legend, however, may +have had some basis in fact, although the three kings were no doubt a +fanciful embellishment added by the peasants as they repeated the +story of some early attack. There were plenty of small potentates in +those days prowling about to seize whatever was not well defended, or +gave promise of rich booty, without going across the Channel to look +for them. + +It was at about this period, in fact a little earlier, that another of +the famous "monuments" of Ghent was erected. This is the Abbey of St. +Bavon, which alone would justify a visit to the city if there were +nothing else to see. A primitive abbey on this site is said to have +been founded about the year 631 by St. Amand, an early missionary, who +dedicated it to St. Peter. One of this prelate's converts was a rich +nobleman named Allowin, who took the name of Bavon on his conversion +and retired into a monastery. A second abbey took the name of St. +Bavon, the deceased monk having been canonized, and around these two +religious institutions a little settlement grew up that was destined +to expand into the mighty city of Ghent. At St. Bavon, therefore, the +visitor beholds not merely the ruins of an ancient and famous abbey +but the birthplace of the city that has played so great a part in the +history of Flanders and of Europe. When Baldwin II died his widow, the +daughter of Alfred the Great, had him buried at the monastery of St. +Peter, to which she made liberal donations. Successive Counts and +Countesses followed this example, the two abbeys becoming rich and +powerful, and the town soon became the home of numerous merchants who +took advantage of the protection afforded by these religious +institutions, and also of the strategic location of the town at the +junction of three rivers. The Quai au Blé and the Quai aux Herbes date +from this epoch, the merchants speedily establishing a market for the +sale of grain and other products. The Fish Market and the famous +Marché du Vendredi, or Friday Market, soon followed and Ghent had +begun the development that was destined to make it, for three +centuries, one of the greatest trading centres in the world. + +The present buildings of the Abbey date from the eleventh and twelfth +centuries, the original structures having been destroyed during the +tenth century. It was during the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries +that the Abbey attained the zenith of its power. Here, in 1369, was +solemnised the marriage of Philip the Bold, Duke of Burgundy, with +Margaret, the daughter of Louis of Maele, the last of the Counts of +Flanders to be known by that title only. This event virtually ended +the long line of Flemish Counts, for the title thereafter became one +of many similarly held by the powerful Dukes of Burgundy and their +successors and was only used on state occasions, or when it served +their purpose. The unfortunate Michelle, the first wife of Philip the +Good, was interred here. By a strange irony of fate it was Charles the +Fifth of all men, the valiant Protector of the Faith, head and front +of the monarchs who remained steadfastly loyal to the Catholic Church, +who began the work of destroying this splendid and ancient monastery. +To build the great fortress by which he held in awe the turbulent +citizens of Ghent he ordered the demolishment of a considerable part +of its buildings and the erection on its site of his citadel, the +_Château des Espagnols_. The Calvinists continued the work of +destruction in 1581, the French wrecking the buildings still further, +and the revolt of 1830 completing the ruin of what was in its day of +prosperity one of the finest monastic institutions in Europe. + +Since 1834 the ruins have been carefully protected against further +injury; and, as they stand, give the observer a most imposing +realisation of their former grandeur. The Refectory, or dining-hall, +is still fairly intact, and is used as a museum of sculptures saved +from the wreck of the other buildings, and including some found in +other parts of the city. One of these is a tombstone thought to be +that of Hubert Van Eyck, while another is the _Homme du Beffroi_, one +of the four stone statues erected in 1338 on the corners of the +Belfry. A baptismal font found in the ruins of the Abbey contains a +curious bas-relief representing Adam and Eve being expelled from +Paradise. It is not, however, in these detached items that the visitor +will find the chief interest and inspiration of the ancient Abbey, but +in the general views that in every direction give a conception of the +former vast extent and richness of the buildings. In their present +condition the ruins form a series of pictures of wonderful beauty, +not only in the remains of their architectural and artistic splendour, +but because Nature, kinder than man, has covered the scars made by the +despoilers with her choicest tapestries of trailing vines and glowing +flowers and spread her softest carpets of verdure along the silent and +deserted cloisters. + +[Illustration: RUINS OF THE ABBEY OF ST. BAVON, GHENT.] + +Returning to the heart of the city, another memento of the earliest +period of the city's growth attracted our attention. This was the +Château of Girard le Diable (Girard the Devil) the first of the +"monuments" to be encountered if one arrives by the Southern railway +station. This edifice, now completely restored and used as the +depository of the provincial archives, dates from 1216. Apart from the +exterior, however, which reproduces the original appearance of the +castle, the only portion of interest to the visitor is the crypt which +is over one hundred feet long and nearly forty-five feet in width, +making it one of the largest in Flanders. The vaulted roof is +supported by massive round columns and forms a notable example of the +ogival style of architecture. We sought in vain to find what the noble +Sir Girard did or did not do to receive his satanic appellation. From +the records he appears to have been a tolerably worthy citizen, +holding, as did his father before him, the position of Châtelain of +Ghent. A fortunate marriage, apparently, gave him the means to erect +this exceptionally fine castle, which has--like many of the old +buildings in the city--had a most varied history. For two or three +centuries it remained the residence of the Châtelains of Ghent, then, +for a time, was used by the city as an arsenal, was occupied by the +Hiéronimites, and then became in succession a school, a mad-house, an +orphan asylum, a house of correction, and a fire house. Its spacious +halls now contain the precious charters of the Counts of Flanders and +innumerable historic documents of Ghent and the other cities of the +province. + +The most ancient church in Ghent is that of St. Nicholas in the Marché +aux Grains. It was founded in 912, or slightly more than a thousand +years ago. The original edifice was burned in 1120, so that the +present structure dates from that century. A picturesque feature of +the exterior is the row of tiny one-story houses snuggling up against +the side of the great church on the rue Petite Turquis. The west +window is an extremely lofty lancet of great beauty. The doorway on +this side was for many years crowded between commonplace three-story +houses, the church builders of Flanders apparently caring very little +how the imposing majesty of their noble churches might be marred by +adjacent buildings, but these have now been removed and this front of +the structure cleared. + +Among the treasures of this church are the relics of St. Anne, said to +have been brought from Jerusalem by Godfrey of Bouillon. In the +sacristy is some oil from the tomb of St. Nicholas of Myra and Bari, +after whom the church was named. This saint died in 342 and is the +subject of many picturesque mediæval legends. Even in infancy he is +alleged to have observed the fasts, refusing the breast of his nurse. +He used to look particularly after children, young women, sailors and +travellers. On one occasion he came to an inn where the wicked +inn-keeper fed his guests with the flesh of young children. St. +Nicholas immediately went to the tub where the bodies of the innocents +lay in brine and, reviving them, restored them all alive and whole +again to their parents. This incident is frequently depicted by +Flemish painters. After his death the bones of the Saint were buried +at Myra, but were stolen some centuries later--according to certain +monkish chronicles--and, after many adventures in which the spirit of +the deceased prelate participated, the oil which was found in his +sarcophagus was brought here. Jean Lyon, Dean of the guild of boatmen, +and one of the heroes of the White Hoods in their resistance to the +cruel Louis de Maele, was buried in this church. + +One of the other churches of Ghent, the Cathedral of St. Bavon, dates +in part from the same early period as the other monuments described in +this chapter. Originally dedicated to St. John, the name was changed +to St. Bavon in 1540 and it became a cathedral nine years later. It is +not, however, the cathedral--of which the nave and transepts were not +completed until 1533 to 1559--but the earlier church of St. Jean that +figures in the history of Ghent under Counts of Flanders. Of this +church the crypt, which dates from the eleventh or twelfth century, +and the choir, dating from the thirteenth century, still remain. Our +exploration of the cold and gloomy crypt served to bring back the +earlier period of the history of Ghent in two ways--not only is its +present appearance undoubtedly much the same as it was eight or nine +centuries ago, when the city of the weavers was just beginning to +make its power and fame known in the land, but the historian sees here +the tombs of many of the great men of the city. For the most part +there were merchant princes, aristocrats, the leaders of the Liliaert +faction--those who sided with the King of France and took his lilies +as their emblem. + +Under its early Flemish Counts, the history of Ghent was, on the +whole, one of rapid and almost uninterrupted expansion. The merchants +who flocked to the little town around the Abbeys of St. Peter and St. +Bavon were followed by similar throngs of artisans, and as the +commerce of the city grew apace so its industrial importance expanded. +On the death of Philip of Alsace, who had erected the Château on the +Place Ste. Pharaïlde to hold the city in check, its burghers wrested +from the feeble hands of his widow the famous _Keure_ of 1191, a sort +of local Magna Carta which confirmed all pre-existing privileges and +granted others. The same year the Treaty of Arras, by which Baldwin +VIII ceded Arras and the County of Artois to Philip Augustus, the wily +and land-grasping King of France, made Ghent virtually the capital of +Flanders--a position that had hitherto been occupied by Bruges. Like +its rival on the Roya, Ghent had become an important centre for the +woollen trade with England, and also for all the branches of woollen +manufacture, the "scarlets" of Ghent being renowned far and wide. The +thirteenth century--in consequence of the folly of Baldwin of +Constantinople who, as we have seen, went off on a fanatical +enterprise to the Far East, leaving the richest county in the world at +the mercy of his enemies--saw a steady decline in the power of the +Counts; and, while the Kings of France profited mightily by this +situation, the shrewd burghers of Ghent, Bruges, Ypres and the other +powerful Flemish communes were not backward in extending and securing +their own powers also. The result was that the successive Counts and +Countesses were forced to submit to repeated encroachments on their +authority. In 1228 Count Ferrand established a Council of thirty-nine +members which soon became a virtual oligarchy and the actual ruler of +the city. This body, while maintaining at first fairly friendly +relations with the Counts, soon began to treat with other nations and +the other cities in Flanders as if it was the actual sovereign. Then, +as the King of France, toward the close of the thirteenth century, +began to give evidence of an intention to seize the rich county of +Flanders for himself--thus despoiling both the Counts and the +burghers at the same time--Ghent joined heartily in the general +movement toward a national resistance. In 1297 the Count Guy granted +the city a new _Keure_, or charter, even more liberal than that of +1191, and formed an alliance with England against the common foe. +This, however, came to nothing, and all Flanders was over-run by the +victorious French troops. Ghent, after a brief resistance, yielded, +and the French King, making liberal concessions to win the support of +the most powerful of all the Flemish communes, the Liliaerts, or +supporters of the Lily of France, were temporarily holding the upper +hand when the astounding tidings came of the Battle of the Spurs. + + + + +CHAPTER X + +THE AGE WHEN GHENT WAS GOVERNED BY ITS GUILDS + + +It was on the 12th of July, 1302, that the guildsmen of +Flanders--chiefly, as we have seen, those from the two cities of +Bruges and Ypres--humbled the chivalry of France and demonstrated the +fact that the guilds of the great Flemish communes were a power to be +reckoned with. Obviously, when the greatest monarch of the day had +been so decisively beaten there was no longer any question as to the +relative importance of the guilds and the local Counts of Flanders. +The latter, though still figuring prominently in the history of the +time, were unable to cope with the might of their united subjects, and +only by the help of their overlords of France, by bribery and even by +downright treachery, were they able to maintain themselves on their +tottering thrones at all. This period is the most interesting in the +long history of Flanders, for it was during the fourteenth century +that the land of the Flemings just missed becoming a nation, and, +possibly, a republic. That it failed was due to the fact that, while +there existed a splendid and indomitable spirit of freedom in every +true Flemish breast, the sense of loyalty was local instead of +national. To his guild and his commune the Fleming was intensely +loyal, but his patriotism--fine as it was--was too narrow. Each +commune acted solely for itself, uniting with the others in time of +great and impending peril, but often sending its armies to fight a +sister commune over some trifling dispute as soon as the common danger +was over. The princes were able, by cunningly taking advantage of this +defect in the Flemish character, to play one commune against another +and, by dividing the hosts of the guildsmen, to establish finally a +tyranny too powerful to be thrown off. For one hundred and fifty years +after the Battle of the Spurs, however, the guilds--although now and +then temporarily defeated--were, in the main, supreme throughout the +length and breadth of Flanders, and it was still another century +before the last spark of civic freedom at Ghent was finally +extinguished. + +Two days after the great fight at Courtrai the victors, headed by the +redoubtable Peter de Coninck, William of Juliers and Guy of Namur, +entered the city of Ghent and "converted" the too lukewarm magistrates +to the popular side. The patrician Liliaerts were expelled from the +magistracy and many were killed or driven from the city. The Count +fought stubbornly on, nor did the war with France end immediately, but +in almost every instance the guildsmen were able to maintain the +results of their great victory and firmly establish the foundation of +their power. In the government of the commune of Ghent their voice was +a potent one. Naturally the wool-spinners and weavers were the +dominant organisations, while the _petits-métiers_, or minor +industries, were also represented. + +The apprentice system was rigidly enforced among all the guilds, but +the policy of the organisations was liberal in this respect--for +example, an apprentice was often sent for a year's journey in other +cities or countries in order to obtain a wider knowledge of his craft. +The guildsmen had a hearty and honest pride in good and skilful +workmanship, and the officers of the guilds supervised the quality of +the goods turned out and imposed penalties for poor workmanship or the +use of inferior materials. Each guild had its own house or +meeting-place, and while the fine guild houses on the Marché aux +Grains date from a somewhat later period, they were no doubt preceded +by earlier structures. It was one of the dreams of the Professor to +rummage about in these ancient edifices, poring over the archives of +the guilds and inspecting the rooms and halls where their ofttimes +stormy meetings were held. In this he was destined to be disappointed, +for while the exteriors of several of these historic buildings have +been carefully restored, the interiors are now devoted to private uses +and contain little of interest to the visitor. The archives have been, +for the most part, preserved in the ancient castle of Girard the +Devil. Some of the old guild banners still exist, but the guild houses +themselves are only the empty shells of the powerful organisations +that once made them their homes. + +[Illustration: Photograph by E. Sacré. POST OFFICE, CHURCH OF ST. +NICHOLAS, BELFRY AND CATHEDRAL, GHENT.] + +The most famous structure in Flanders dates from this epoch in the +town's history. This is the Belfry that has looked down on the red +roofs of Ghent for nearly six hundred years. The first Belfry was +begun in 1183, but the present structure was built in 1313-1339, since +when it has been several times modified and "restored"--not always +successfully. The latest restoration was carried out by the municipal +authorities as a preparation for the International Exposition held at +Ghent in 1913 and was carefully and intelligently done. There are +three hundred and fifty-five steps in the staircase by which visitors +ascend the tower, and the climb is one that richly repays those who +make it. On a clear day one can see beyond Bruges to the northwest, as +far as Antwerp to the east and Audenaerde to the south. So densely +peopled is the Flemish plain that these great cities lie almost close +enough together to be within sound of great Roland. + +This was the renowned bell which the burghers of Ghent had cast and +hung high on their Belfry as an emblem of the city's freedom from +tyranny and a tocsin to summon the sturdy guildsmen to its defence +when danger threatened. It bore the following inscription in Flemish: + + Mynen naem is Roelant, als ick clippe dan ist brant + Als icke luyde, dan ist storm in Vlaenderlandt. + +Freely translated, this is what the bell gave as its autobiography: + + My name is Roland; when I speak softly there is fire at hand, + But when I roar loudly it means war in Flanderland. + +The original Roland was cast in 1314, or twelve years after the Battle +of the Spurs. It weighed twelve thousand, five hundred pounds and was +the pride of the city, but was destroyed by order of Charles V when he +forced the burghers abjectly to submit to his despotism in 1540. + +In the lower part of the tower is the "secret room" where from 1402 +the burghers kept, behind triple doors as at Bruges, the charters and +privileges of the city. The famous dragon at the tip of the spire was +for centuries said to have been brought from the Orient at the time of +Baldwin of Constantinople, but recent researches in the archives of +the city have shown that it was made at Ghent in the year 1377-78. +Adjoining the Belfry is the Cloth Hall erected for the most important +of the city's four hundred guilds. The upper hall is now used as a +Bureau of Information for Tourists, while the lower one is a +Rathskeller. Here the columns and vaulted roof greatly resemble the +crypt of Girard the Devil's castle, save that the little tables and +excellent Munich and Pilsen to be had there make it decidedly more +cheerful. The edifice was begun in 1425 and finished, or, at least, +the work was stopped, in 1441. Behind the Cloth Hall, but nestling +close against it, is the quaint little entrance to the communal +prison, which was built in 1741 when the prisoners were confined on +the lower floor of the Cloth Hall. Over the door at the top of the +façade is the celebrated bas-relief representing the legend of the +Mammelokker. The carving really tells all there is to the story; which +is, in brief, that, on one occasion, when an old man was condemned to +die of starvation, his daughter--who just then had a baby whom she was +nursing--secretly gave the breast to her aged parent, thus saving his +life. + +While the Belfry was being built by the burghers of Ghent, France and +England were drifting into the Hundred Years' War. The Count of +Flanders, Louis de Nevers, was ardently loyal to France and utterly +blind to the interests of the great woollen manufacturing communes +over which he ruled and to those of his own dynasty. In 1336, no doubt +at the instance of the King of France, he ordered all the English +merchants in Flanders to be arrested and their goods confiscated. The +King of England, Edward III, promptly retaliated by prohibiting the +exportation of wool from England to Flanders and the sale of Flemish +woollens in his Kingdom. In a few months the Flemish communes of +Ghent, Bruges and Ypres found themselves facing utter ruin as a result +of this economic conflict. The spinners and weavers were idle, the +markets deserted, actual starvation existed, and many of the guildsmen +were forced to wander off into the countryside to beg for food. + +It was at this critical moment that the great figure of Jacques Van +Artevelde appears upon the stage of Flemish history. Son of a rich +wool and cloth merchant who had been long prominent among the +Clauwaerts, or foes of French domination, Jacques Van Artevelde was a +man of wealth and position who by ancestry and calling was inclined to +the popular rather than the aristocratic side. On December 28, 1337, +he harangued the men of Bruges in behalf of peace with England, in +spite of the obstinate and fatuous policy of the Count. As a result of +his eloquence, abundantly enforced by the ruin and misery then +prevailing on every side, the people decided unanimously to establish +a revolutionary government, which was accomplished peacefully on the +third of the following month. Van Artevelde was recognised as the +foremost of the five captains then chosen to administer the government +of the city, and was given a larger guard than his colleagues. The +helpless Count of Flanders, unable to resist, was obliged to ratify +the new policy of the burghers, and by the middle of the year 1338 +the embargo was formally raised on both sides, the woollen industry +started up once more, and Flanders was declared to be neutral as +regarded the contest between its two powerful neighbours. In short, +the wise policy of Van Artevelde was completely triumphant and the +country again placed on the road to renewed prosperity. + +Under the direction of the great tribune the weavers were now the +dominant factor in the government of Ghent, and soon the influence of +Van Artevelde made itself felt in Bruges, Ypres and all the other +Flemish communes, where the guild leaders became likewise the heads of +the magistracy. The Count strove to reassert his power, but Van +Artevelde stormed the Castle and the prince was forced to accompany +the men of Ghent to the annual procession at Tournai wearing their +colours. The "White Hoods," as the warriors of the popular party were +called, destroyed the castles of several of the lesser nobility who +dared to resist their authority and throughout all the land Van +Artevelde reigned supreme. Edward III, after vainly endeavouring to +win the Count of Flanders to his side by flattering matrimonial +offers, ended by treating directly with Van Artevelde as if with a +sovereign prince. + +It was the genius of the great Ghent captain that conceived the +brilliant idea of overcoming the reluctance of the Flemish communes to +take sides with England against their feudal suzerain, the King of +France, by having Edward claim the crown of France, and it was in +consequence of his arguments that the English monarch finally took +this bold but adroit step. On the 26th of January, 1340, the communes +formally recognised Edward as their suzerain on the Marché du Vendredi +at Ghent--one of the many great events that have taken place on that +historic spot. The King made Ghent his headquarters, and it was in the +old Castle of the Counts that his third son, known in English history +as John of Gaunt (Ghent), was born. In the same year occurred the +great Battle of Sluys, in which Edward III led the English ships of +war into the harbour of that town where the French King Philip had +assembled a vast fleet. The defeated Frenchmen leaped overboard in +hundreds only to be slain by the Flemings as they swam ashore. No man +dared tell the King of France of this great disaster until the royal +jester broke the news by exclaiming, "The English cowards! Oh, the +English cowards!" On the King's inquiring what he meant by this, the +jester replied, "They were afraid to jump into the sea as our brave +Frenchmen did at Sluys!" + +This brilliant year, however, saw the climax of the power of Van +Artevelde. Already the other Flemish communes were beginning to +grumble at his rule, outbreaks occurring at Audenaerde, Dendermonde +and Ypres. King Edward began to besiege Tournai with the aid of Van +Artevelde, but on the French King agreeing to a truce he returned to +England, leaving his faithful ally to take care of himself as best he +could. To make matters more difficult, he failed to pay the subsidies +he had promised, and the tribune was violently accused of having +played the people false. Meanwhile the guildsmen began to dispute +between themselves, and on Monday, May 2, 1345, in spite of the +entreaties of Van Artevelde, the fullers and weavers engaged in a +bloody battle on the Marché du Vendredi in which the former with their +_Doyen_, or leader, were massacred. This sad day was called the _Kwade +Maendag_, or Bad Monday. + +Early in July Van Artevelde had a last interview with Edward at Sluys. +On his return to Ghent a mob of malcontents, led by men in the pay of +Count Louis of Nevers, besieged the great tribune in his house, crying +that he had betrayed the country. After vainly trying to argue with +them, he reluctantly permitted himself to be drawn away from the +window by his followers, who sought to persuade him to seek safety in +flight. It was too late, however, as the mob had already burst into +the house and one of them struck Van Artevelde dead on his own +threshold. For nearly nine years he had been virtually a king in +Flanders, his policy bringing unexampled prosperity to the country and +to his native city. + +Although often called a demagogue and a tyrant, Jacques Van Artevelde +ranks as one of the foremost statesmen of his time. He died the +"victim of a faction" and of treachery rather than a popular revolt +against his policies, for the English alliance was steadfastly +continued after his death. To-day his statue stands on the Marché du +Vendredi, where, in 1340, he burned the papal interdict against +Flanders. It represents him in the act of delivering the famous speech +by which he won the allegiance of his fellow citizens to the English +alliance. Count Louis profited little by his treachery, for a little +over a year later, August 26, 1346, he fell in the great battle of +Crécy where the English archers, fighting by the side of many Flemish +guildsmen, gave the death blow to mediæval chivalry and utterly +crushed the power of France. + +The weavers, who under Van Artevelde had become the dominant power in +all of the Flemish communes, soon had good reason to regret his fall, +for the new Count, Louis of Maele--named like most of the Counts of +Flanders from the place where he was born, the great castle of +Maele--was able by liberal promises and the restoration of ancient +charters and privileges to win the support of most of the cities. At +Ghent the butchers, fish merchants, and boatmen's guilds submitted, +followed by the fullers and minor industries. The weavers, although +their numbers had been greatly reduced by the plague, held out +stubbornly, but were massacred on the Marché du Vendredi, Tuesday, +January 13, 1349, their captain and their _Doyen_, Gérard Denys--the +man who had slain Van Artevelde--being flung into the Lys. The victors +called this bloody day _De Goede Disendach_, or Good Tuesday, and it +certainly amply revenged the Bad Monday four years before when the +weavers were the aggressors. The members of the unfortunate guild were +now hunted down like dogs throughout all Flanders, great numbers +fleeing to England where they established the weaving industry--King +Edward wisely welcoming the exiles and giving them every aid in his +power to settle in his Kingdom. Later the competition of these +fugitives and their descendants gave Flanders good cause to rue the +folly of the internal strife that thus drove away some of the best +workmen in the country. + +The numerical superiority of this guild, however, and the fact that +its members were necessarily more skilled than the fullers, led to its +gradual recovery, and by 1359 the weavers were again admitted to a +share in the government of the communes and the fullers were relegated +to the inferior position to which their smaller numbers and less +skilled work entitled them. Louis of Maele made Bruges virtually his +capital, but during the greater part of his reign of forty years was +able to continue on fairly peaceful terms with the turbulent city of +Ghent by means of a careful and detailed adjustment of the order of +precedence between the various guilds which was devised about the year +1352 and continued in effect for nearly two centuries. In 1369 the +daughter of the Count married Philip the Bold, Duke of Burgundy and +brother of the King of France--an event full of dire significance for +the guildsmen as it led to their having, in after years, the powerful +Dukes of Burgundy as their over-lords instead of the comparatively +feeble Counts of Flanders. In 1377 Count Louis held a great tournament +in the Marché du Vendredi. Despite the long conflict between the +guilds the city was at this period very prosperous. + +The Count, however, who was always short of money, sold to the +citizens of Bruges the right to construct a canal from their port to +the River Lys. At this Ghent, headed by the Boatmen's Guild, flew to +arms and a civil war broke out in 1379, the men of Ghent fearing that +they might lose their monopoly of the grain traffic. After various +successes and reverses the Count besieged the city and had very nearly +reduced it by starvation when Philip Van Artevelde, son of the famous +tribune, came forward and was made Captain-General of the city, in +1382. The new leader, and a motley crowd of five thousand half-starved +followers, marched on Bruges, where the Count, at the head of a host +of over forty thousand, attacked them under the walls of the city. The +larger army, however, was a mere rabble--over-confident and half +intoxicated--and Van Artevelde won a complete victory. The Count of +Flanders was compelled to hide for the night under a heap of straw in +a poor woman's hovel, and later escaped to Lille and so to France. +Van Artevelde treated the captured city with generosity and was soon +captain of all Flanders. His next battle was with the King of France, +but this time he was less fortunate, and at Rosbecque, November 27, +1382, the Flemish host was cut to pieces and its leader slain. Louis +of Maele himself died two years later, leaving the reputation of being +the worst and weakest of the line of Flemish Counts, as well as the +last. It was at his request that the French had invaded the country, +which they swept with fire and sword after the defeat of the Flemish +guildsmen, but the victory was of no benefit to the broken-down old +man who no longer dared to show himself in Flanders and died at Paris +in poverty and neglect. + +As an offset to these remarks regarding the weakness of Louis of Maele +it is only fair to that worthy to relate a little legend generally +attributed to his reign. It is said that on a certain occasion the +magistrates of Ghent--which was at the time renowned as the most +opulent city in Europe--were invited to a great feast given in honour +of some foreign king. Those in charge of the arrangements forgot, +however, to put cushions on the chairs and the men of Ghent +accordingly threw their richly embroidered cloaks upon them, and +retired when the feast was over without putting them on again. When +reminded of this the Chief Magistrate replied, "The Flemings are not +accustomed to carry their cushions with them." Not only the grandees +but the bourgeois citizens at this period were said to wear purple and +fine linen. The baths, "stooven," frequented by both sexes, became the +scenes of great vice and disorder and one ancient chronicler reports +an incredible number of murders as occurring during a single year at +gaming tables and drinking places. All this would seem to show that +Louis of Maele was not so bad a sovereign--for at least the country +prospered under his rule--but in reality he had, as we have seen, very +little to do either with the actual government or public policy during +his long reign. + +No visitor to Ghent fails to take a look at De Dulle Griete, or "Mad +Margery," Philip Van Artevelde's big cannon that stands in the +Mannekens Aert. According to Froissart, Van Artevelde took with him to +the siege of Audenaerde "a bombard which was fifty feet in length, and +shot stones of immense weight. When they fired off this bombard it +might be heard five leagues off in the daytime, and ten at night. +The report of it was so loud, that it seemed as if all the devils in +hell had broken loose." Mad Margery seems to have shrunk considerably +since Froissart's time, for she is now nineteen feet long and three +feet in diameter at the mouth. The gun was made of wrought iron and +weighs thirty-four thousand, one hundred and sixty-six pounds, and was +capable of throwing a stone weighing seven hundred and eight pounds. + +[Illustration: DE DULLE GRIETE, GHENT.] + +Another interesting monument dating from the same period in the city's +history as the Belfry is the Hospital of the Biloque or Biloke. Some +of the buildings are of much more recent construction, but the Gothic +chapel was built early in the thirteenth century, apparently about +1228, with a double gable and immense timber roof. The former +Refectory offers an example of early brick work at one of its ends, +_le beau pignon_, that is a joy to architects, and has often been +described and illustrated in the technical books. The timber roof of +this structure is also noteworthy. It is now used as a hospital for +old men. This edifice is a century later than the chapel, while some +of the other buildings date from the seventeenth and eighteenth +centuries. + +Ghent contains two Béguinages, a circumstance that gives not a little +trouble to visitors who in trying to visit one are about always--at +least that was our experience on two occasions--directed to the other. +Both are large, but one is more notable for its antiquity and the +other for its size and the perfection of its appointments. The first +Béguinage in Ghent was founded by Jeanne of Constantinople in 1233 as +a place of refuge for women disciples of the church who in those evil +days felt the need of protection, but did not desire to enter the +conventual life. Little houses sprang up and the institution proved so +popular that a second Béguinage was soon established which came to be +called the Petit Béguinage. Protected by the successive Counts, and +particularly by the patronage of the Countesses of Flanders, both +institutions flourished and expanded steadily. The present Petit +Béguinage de Notre Dame dates largely from the seventeenth century, +and the Chapel and streets of tiny houses inhabited by the Béguines +are most picturesque. It has accommodations for three hundred sisters. +The Grand Béguinage de Ste. Elisabeth was confiscated during the +French Revolution and the property presented to the almshouses of the +city of Ghent. The Committee in charge of the almshouses suffered +the Béguines to remain undisturbed, however, until 1872 when +strained relations resulting from this arrangement led to the Béguines +giving up their establishment, which was modernized by the authorities +and many of its interesting features destroyed. The church remains, +having become a parish church, and the rue des Prébendières retains +its original appearance. Meanwhile, the Duke of Arenberg purchased +ground for a new Grande Béguinage at Mont St. Amand, and here a little +city of small houses, designed in fifteenth-century Flemish style, and +a new chapel were erected, the work being completed in 1874. + +[Illustration: WORKROOM, PETIT BÉGUINAGE DE NOTRE DAME, GHENT.] + +We spent a very charming afternoon visiting the Grande Béguinage. +Passing through the lofty gateway we were greeted by the +pleasant-faced Béguine who receives all visitors and who directed us +how to reach the buildings we were permitted to see. As at Bruges, the +cells were not shown to visitors. Altogether at St. Amand there are +fourteen "convents" and eighty houses, the former accommodating twenty +or thirty inmates and the latter two or three, with occasionally some +lady from the outer world who is taken as a lodger. Each little house +is numbered and also has a name, usually that of some saint. Arriving +at the convent we had been permitted to visit we were first conducted +down a long, clean corridor, painted a glaring white, to a parlour or +reception room, of which there appear to be several. Then, after the +Lady Superior had been notified of our presence and had come to +welcome us, we were taken to the _refter_, or dining-room. The +inventor of the kitchen cabinet could have taken points from this +curious apartment. Along the walls and between the windows are a dozen +or more cupboards, of which one belongs to each Béguine. Here she +keeps her napkins, dishes and cooking utensils, and even her bread and +provisions. A board can be pulled out near the middle, which serves as +a table. These cupboards are so constructed that no Béguine can see +into that of her neighbour, and apparently they take their meals one +at a time, as one was eating her frugal repast when we entered, and +when we passed through the room again a little later her little +private refectory was closed and another one was seated at her little +shelf or table. Adjoining this queer dining-room was a large kitchen, +with an extremely big cook stove, on which a half-dozen little pots +were simmering gently. One Béguine, we were told, has the duty of +attending to the kitchen for three weeks, then another, each taking +turns. The Béguines prepare their own meals to suit themselves, the +one in charge of the kitchen merely looking after the actual process +of cooking. + +We next visited the workroom, where a group of Béguines were busily +engaged in making lace. The bright sunshine streaming through the +large windows on the silent group of workers, each clad in her sombre +garb of black and white, made a pretty picture. All seemed to be +care-free and contented, though the expression on their faces could +hardly be described as one of happiness. As in all conventual +institutions, the inmates are required to go through quite a series of +devotional exercises from morning mass to the Benediction Night +Prayers. The scene in the little chapel attached to each convent, or +in the large chapel of the entire Béguinage, when the sisters are +assembled for service is a very picturesque one and gives the visitor +an impression likely long to be remembered. + +Speaking of the peculiar dining customs of the Béguines reminds me +that in Flanders the judicious should not overlook the importance of +doing justice to the culinary treats that are provided by even the +little hotels. For those travellers who look upon eating as one of the +disagreeable necessities of existence, to be shirked or evaded as far +as possible, and, in any event, to be hurried through with quickly +lest something be overlooked that the immortal Mr. Baedeker said must +be seen, this is one feature of Flemish life that will make no appeal. +On the other hand, for those who are neither mentally nor bodily +dyspeptic; who agree with the French aphorism that "the animals feed, +while man eats"; and who are still able to enjoy a good meal well +planned, well cooked, and well served, a trip through Flanders will +bring a new pleasure every day. A peep into any Flemish kitchen will +convince the most sceptical that here, at all events, one's stomach is +not likely to be forgotten. Pots and kettles, casseroles and pans, +pitchers and jugs, large and small, hang around the walls or rest upon +long shelves--all of brightly polished copper and ready for instant +service. + +The great meal of the day in all parts of Flanders is the dinner, and +it cuts the day in two--coming between noon and two o'clock and +usually lasting an hour or more. The evening meal, or supper, is much +less important, save in a few hotels catering largely to tourists. To +get up a real Flemish dinner, cooked and served in the best style of +which the Flemish cooks are capable, the housewife first ascertains +when the local butcher has fresh-killed meat and plans accordingly. +Vegetables in Flanders are always good, in their respective seasons, +but to get the finest quality of meats one must buy just after the +butcher has made a killing. To Americans, who have been accustomed all +their lives to eat meat that has been kept on ice, it almost seems as +though one has never tasted a roast of beef or a shoulder of mutton +before--so deliciously sweet, tender and juicy are they when cooked +and eaten before the ice has robbed them of their richness and +flavour. + +It was while we were browsing around Ghent that the ladies discovered +a bit of handicraft that seems worth mentioning. We subsequently saw +the same thing at Brussels and Antwerp, so that it appears to be +distinctly a Belgian industry. In a large window they noticed two +women engaged in what from over the way might have been taken for +lace-making. Mrs. Professor hurried across at once to investigate and +she and the Madame spent half an hour watching the operation. Each of +the two women was engaged in repairing, the one a pair of trousers and +the other an overcoat. In each case the repair consisted of literally +weaving a new segment of cloth in place of the damaged portion. First +cutting out all of the latter they frayed out an edge of the goods at +some point where there was sufficient material turned under for their +purpose. This done they took short strands of each of the various +coloured yarns and, with infinite patience and skill, wove them +together in an exact reproduction of the design of the original +textile. So cleverly was the work done that when completed the +reparation could not be detected. It is possible that repairing of +this kind is done in America but none of us had ever seen or heard of +it. In Belgium it seemed to be fairly common, being styled _Reparation +invisible_, and the price varying from one to three or four francs for +each hole repaired, according to the nature of the goods and the +design. We also saw rugs being repaired in the same manner, as well as +ladies' dress goods of every description. + +It is one of the most deplorable features of the war that its most +fearful destructiveness should have been wreaked upon a little country +where every small economy and patient utilisation of trifles had been +practised for centuries. All Belgium is pre-eminently a land of +thrift, of painstaking husbanding of small resources, and to beggar +half the population of such a country means a calamity to each family +group and individual far more poignant than would be the case where +frugality was less deeply ingrained as a national characteristic. + + + + +CHAPTER XI + +PHILIP THE GOOD AND THE VAN EYCKS + + +As the sunset is often the most beautiful hour of the day, so the +splendour of the old Flemish communes reached its zenith at the moment +when many of them were about to sink into their long sleep. This was +the period of Burgundian rule. Upon the death of Louis of Maele the +County of Flanders ceased to be a separate sovereignty, as it had been +since Baldwin of the Iron Arm, for the husband of Margaret, the old +Count's daughter, was Duke of Burgundy and brother of the King of +France--a foreign prince whose interests in France far out-weighed in +his mind his interests in Flanders. The new ruler, Philip the Bold, +was acknowledged as Count of Flanders in 1384, but was only able to +enter Audenaerde by stratagem after a siege, and was defied openly by +the sturdy burghers of Ghent. The following year, however, Philip +effected a family union by which he virtually controlled the two +important States of Brabant and Hainaut. His eldest son was married +to Margaret, daughter of the Regent of Hainaut, while the latter's son +married Philip's daughter. These marriages were celebrated at Cambrai, +in April, 1385, and at the same time the Duchess of Brabant recognised +Philip's second son as heir to the Duchy. Brabant at that time was +less rich and powerful than Flanders, but its chief cities, Brussels +and Louvain, were growing rapidly. Hainaut, on the other hand, had +been termed by one of its leaders "a poor country of proud men"--its +chief cities, Mons and Valenciennes, being places of third-rate +importance, and its present vast mineral wealth then undreamed of. The +marriages of Cambrai are worth remembering, however, as explaining the +rapidity with which the House of Burgundy extended its sway over +nearly all of what is now Belgium. + +Ghent still resisted its new Count, but an army of one hundred +thousand French and Burgundians--gathered primarily to invade +England--destroyed the seaport of Damme, which had been rebuilt since +its previous destruction by the French, and plundered "the Four +Trades," as the fertile region thereabout was called. Ghent, however, +had suffered enough to make it sue for peace and acknowledge Philip's +sovereignty. The invasion of England project came to nothing--as have +so many others before and since--but it had at least enabled Philip to +establish his power in Flanders. + +On Philip's death in 1404, he was succeeded by his son, John the +Fearless (as the old chroniclers call him). The life of this prince +belongs to the history of France rather than Flanders, as he had +little use for his Flemish towns except to extort money from their +burghers--who granted him such sums as he required on his renewing +acknowledgment of their liberties and privileges. In 1407 John caused +the murder of his great rival in the government of France, the Duke of +Orleans. Then came the battle of Agincourt, where the power of France +was ruined by Henry the Fifth, and in 1419 the son of the Duke of +Orleans avenged the murder of his father twelve years previously by +murdering John the Fearless at Montereau. + +The son of John the Fearless was Philip, called by the chroniclers +"the Good." A better term would have been "the Magnificent," for +goodness was hardly his chief characteristic. The murder of his father +caused Philip to take the side of England in the long conflict between +that country and France that was still raging--a policy that pleased +his Flemish communes, which depended for their prosperity on the wool +trade. Meanwhile Philip took advantage of the matrimonial difficulties +of Jacqueline of Bavaria, Countess of Hainaut and Holland, to compel +that beautiful but unfortunate princess to abdicate in his favour. The +dungeon in the Castle of the Counts at Ghent, where the fair +Jacqueline was for a time confined, has already been mentioned. He +also succeeded in making himself Duke of Brabant, thus uniting in his +own person the government of these rich provinces with that of +Flanders and Burgundy and his other possessions in France. + +In 1430 Philip married the Princess Isabel of Portugal, a +great-granddaughter of John, Duke of Lancaster. This marriage cemented +the English alliance, and the English made Philip Regent of France, +over which they still claimed sovereignty. It was Philip who captured +and indirectly caused the execution of Jeanne d'Arc at the darkest +period of French history. + +The now all-powerful Duke of Burgundy signalized his marriage by +establishing at Bruges the famous Order of the Golden Fleece. This +consisted of himself, as founder and sovereign prince, and twenty-four +knights--naturally the highest in the land--and in renown and lustre +the new order quickly took rank as the very pinnacle of mediæval +chivalry. Membership was an honour than which there was none higher, +while members also enjoyed a personal security against the tyranny of +princes in being amenable only to their comrades of the order. The +head of such an institution naturally exerted powers equal, and, in +some respects, superior, to those of any crowned monarch. The fêtes +with which Philip celebrated the establishment of the order were +without precedent in the history of Europe for magnificence, and the +old city of Bruges was for days thronged with the bravest knights and +the fairest ladies to be found in the Duke's widespread dominions. + +Up to this date the policy of Philip had coincided with the interests +of his great communes in Flanders and his popularity throughout the +county was unbounded. Not only did friendship with England protect and +stimulate trade between the two countries, but the misery and ruin of +France also contributed to extend the commerce of the great towns just +over the frontier whose trade and industries were unmolested. In 1435 +Philip concluded the treaty of Arras with Charles VII, King of France, +by which, for the sake of peace, the French King ceded to him a +number of counties in France and made him, during his lifetime at +least, an independent prince owing no homage to the French Crown. This +treaty naturally enraged the English, who at once declared war on +Burgundy, destroying many Burgundian vessels and raiding its coast +towns. In revenge Duke Philip marched on Calais with an army of thirty +thousand Flemings whom he induced to join in the war against their +ancient ally chiefly through their confidence in his good intentions +and against their own better judgment. The siege proved to be a long +one, and the Flemings becoming discontented finally set fire to their +camp and crying, "_Go, go, wy zyn all vermanden!_" ("Go, go, we are +all betrayed!") marched back to Flanders, leaving their Duke raging at +his discomfiture. + +This fiasco determined Philip to adopt a new policy toward the +communes and compel them to obey his orders. On May 22, 1437, he +camped outside of the city of Bruges with a considerable force of +knights and Picard footmen, informing the burghers that he was on his +way to Holland. The next day, telling his men "That is the Holland we +have come to conquer!" as he pointed to the city, Philip led his +forces to the market-place. The tocsin in the old belfry instantly +sounded the alarm, and angry guildsmen and burghers came pouring down +the narrow streets in thousands. Philip's small force, taken at a +disadvantage, was forced to retreat to one of the gates. It was shut, +its heavy bolts securely drawn. Already some of the French force had +been killed, and in a few moments the Duke himself would have perished +but for Burgomaster Van de Walle, who brought a smith and broke the +lock. The Duke escaped with most of his followers, but many who were +caught in the rear lost their lives. This was the Bruges Vespers--to +distinguish it from Bruges Matin, the year of the Battle of the Spurs. + +Philip now set about humbling the proud city in grim earnest, cutting +off the commerce upon which its prosperity depended, and even its food +supplies. To add to the horrors of the siege the plague broke out +within the city, while leprosy was also prevalent. No less than +twenty-four thousand died of pestilence and famine before the brave +burghers at last gave in. Philip's terms were hard. The city officials +were required to meet him bareheaded and barefooted the next time he +deigned to visit the defeated commune, and on their knees give him the +keys of the city. A heavy fine was imposed and forty-two leading +burghers were excluded from amnesty and beheaded--including Van de +Walle, who had saved his life at the Bouverie gate. This was the +"Great Humiliation," as it is sometimes called, but--finding that +continued hostility to the chief trading centre in his dominions was +driving foreign traders away--the Duke now took Bruges again into his +favour and never again molested it during his long reign. + +The proud city of Ghent was the next to feel the weight of the +powerful Duke's displeasure. Rebelling in 1448 against the imposition +of a tax on salt, called the gabelle, the city defied the Duke's +authority for five years. Meanwhile Philip gradually cut off its +supplies, as he had done with Bruges. Ghent was more populous, +however, and its burgher armies took the field and carried open war as +far as Audenaerde, which they besieged. Several small battles were +fought, the advantage resting mainly with the Duke, until on July 23, +1453, the decisive conflict took place. The Duke's forces were +encamped at Gavre, a few miles from the city. Spies within the gates +told the burghers that it would be easy to surprise the camp and +destroy Philip's army. The tocsin therefore was sounded and the hosts +of guildsmen and burghers marched out to attack the enemy. The Duke's +forces, aware of the manner in which the Flemings were to be betrayed, +were placed where the open ground favoured the Burgundian horsemen. In +spite of this advantage, the contest was a stubborn one, both the Duke +and his son Charles narrowly escaping death on one occasion. At last +the Flemings began to give way, and the battle became a slaughter, +more than twenty thousand of the guildsmen being slain on the field, +while all prisoners were hanged. This struggle was called "the red sea +of Gavre." As the men of Ghent were fleeing toward their city Philip +sought to pursue them by the shortest way and intercept their flight. +He accordingly called for a guide. A peasant of the neighbourhood +volunteered, and, after leading the Burgundian army across fields and +by-paths for several hours, conducted the victors--not to the gates of +Ghent, but back to their own camp again! This nameless hero was +incontinently hanged to the nearest tree, but he no doubt saved the +city from pillage and rapine that night. + +Philip by this victory completely crushed the spirit of the communes, +for none dared resist when Ghent the all-powerful had failed. He seems +to have had at least a fleeting realisation, however, that victories +of this sort were not matters for unmitigated satisfaction. The day +after the battle the women of Ghent were searching the ghastly heaps +of dead for the bodies of their husbands, their brothers and their +lovers when Philip exclaimed--possibly touched by the sad sight--"I do +not know who is the gainer by this victory. As for me, see what I have +lost--for these were my subjects!" + +The privileges of Ghent were somewhat curtailed, and the dearly loved +guild banners carried away by the conqueror, but Philip, on the whole, +was very moderate. The obnoxious gabelle, the cause of the war, was +removed, and all citizens guaranteed their individual liberties. The +following year, Philip, possibly to celebrate his now undisputed +supremacy, gave a series of fêtes at Lille that surpassed even those +held on the occasion of his marriage at the foundation of the Order of +the Golden Fleece. Upon one dining table stood a cathedral, with a +choir singing within; another held a huge pie, inside of which an +orchestra of twenty-eight musicians played; a third contained a +pantomime representing Jason in search of the golden fleece. These +fêtes and tournaments lasted for days, and were the wonder of Europe. + +During the remainder of his reign of fifty years Philip never again +had occasion to make war on his Flemish subjects, and while he +seriously curtailed the power and importance of the communes, his rule +was, on the whole, a period of great prosperity for Flanders. Both +merchants and artisans were waxing rich, while the chief cities were +being beautified on every hand. It was under Philip the Good that the +cathedral at Antwerp was begun, and the town halls of Mons, Louvain +and Brussels erected. It was also during his reign that William Caxton +learned the art of printing at the house of Colard Manson at Bruges, +but the prejudice of the burghers led to his banishment as a +foreigner--thus depriving Bruges of the lustre of his achievements. +The greatest event of Philip's reign, however, was one of which the +glory is shared by both Bruges and Ghent--the establishment in +Flanders of the school of painters in oils whose masterpieces loom so +large in the history of art. + +Like most men whose commanding personality dominates the age in which +they live, Philip the Good was many sided. The Professor admires him +because he was, in his judgment, one of the greatest constructive +statesmen of the Middle Ages--aiming steadily throughout his long +reign to weld together, by fair means or foul, a compact Burgundian +nation. On the other hand, I look upon him as a foe rather than a +friend of true progress, because he crushed the self-governing +communes and guilds, the bulwarks of personal liberty in feudal +Europe. Mrs. Professor cares nothing for either of these aspects of +his career, but looks upon him as great for all time because he was an +ardent friend and patron of the fine arts. + +In this she is undoubtedly right, for no greater glory belongs to any +of the long line of princes who ruled over Flanders than that which is +associated with his reign--the birth at Bruges of the art of painting +with oils and of the wonderful school of painting represented by the +early Flemish masters. In his _History of Flemish Painting_ Prof. A. +J. Wauters recounts the names and some faint traces of the work of a +few Flemish painters who lived prior to the period of Philip the Good. +At Ghent there are two interesting frescoes dating from about the end +of the thirteenth century. At that city in 1337 the first guild of +sculptors was organised, under the patronage of St. Luke, and similar +corporations were instituted at Tournai in 1341, in Bruges in 1351, +at Louvain by 1360 and Antwerp by 1382. To this guild from the very +earliest period the painters belonged, sometimes the goldsmiths and +goldbeaters being also associated with them. In the same way the +illuminators of Bruges and Ghent, and the tapestry workers of Arras, +Tournai, Valenciennes and Brussels were organised into guilds, and +these associations of men whose work was in a high degree artistic +soon resulted in the transformation of the artisan into the artist. + +Philip the Good was not the first of his line to give encouragement to +art and artists. One Jehan de Hasselt was court painter to Count Louis +of Maele, while at the same period the better known Jehan de Bruges +was _peintre et varlet de chambre_ for the King of France. By the end +of the fourteenth century not only the great Dukes of Burgundy and the +Kings of France but many minor princes had their chosen painters, +imagers, illuminators and tapestry workers. Philip the Bold, the first +of the Dukes of Burgundy to rule over Flanders, retained his +father-in-law's painter, Jehan de Hasselt, on his pay-roll for some +time, and later employed a resident of Ypres, Melchior Broederlam, +whose masterpiece was an altar-piece for the Carthusian monastery at +Dijon founded by his patron. Part of this has been preserved and is +now in the museum of Dijon. It is of interest as the first great +painting of the early Flemish school and represents the Annunciation +and Visitation, the Presentation in the Temple, and the Flight into +Egypt. John the Fearless, the next Duke of Burgundy, likewise had his +official painter, but it was not until the reign of Philip the Good +that any of these Ducal artists, with the exception of Broederlam, +achieved more than mediocre results. + +The reason for this may have been the medium with which all painters +in those days were accustomed to work. This was called tempera, the +colours being mixed with water, the white of an egg or some other +glutinous substance, then dried in the sun and varnished over. The +colours, however, soon became dull and pale--often fading away +altogether, especially in course of restoration--and the process of +drying was slow and unsatisfactory. To Flanders belongs the honour of +the great discovery of the art of painting with oils that +revolutionised this branch of the fine arts and made the master-works +of the artists of the brush imperishable for all time. + +This epoch-making discovery, which is justly looked upon as the birth +of modern painting, was made by the two brothers Van Eyck about the +year 1410. The early accounts attribute the invention wholly to Jean, +the younger of the two brothers, relating that on a certain occasion +he had placed a painting on wood, which had cost him much time and +labour, in the sun to dry when the heat of the sun caused it to crack. +Seeing his work thus ruined at a blow Jean sought to find some +substance that would obviate the necessity of drying his paintings in +the sun and, after many experiments, discovered that linseed oil and +nut oil were by far the most rapid in drying. He further found that +the colours mixed better in oil than with the white of an egg or glue. +They also had more body, a far richer lustre, were impermeable to +water and--what was best of all--dried just as well in the shade as in +the sun. Later scholarship is not inclined to give the entire credit +for this discovery to Jean alone, however, and his elder brother +Hubert is looked upon by some as the one to whom the glory is due. +Probably it was the joint result of innumerable experiments made by +both, each profiting by the mistakes and successes of the other--just +as was the case with the Wright brothers in perfecting the greatest +invention of our own times. There were, of course, other pioneers who +contributed to the great discovery. + +The brothers were born at Maeseyck (Eyck-sur-Meuse) near Maestricht, +and took the name of the village as their own in a way that was then +very common. Literally they called themselves Hubert and Jean of Eyck. +They first obtained service under the prince-bishop of Liége, and were +illuminators of manuscripts and statues as well as painters. The +increasing wealth and luxury of Flanders under the Dukes of Burgundy +drew the two brothers to that country and they appear to have been in +the employ of the Count of Charolais, afterwards the Duke Philip the +Good, at about the date assigned by the early historians as that when +the art of painting with oils was discovered. The Count was residing +at that time in the Château des Comtes at Ghent with his young wife +Michelle, sister of the Duke of Orleans. In 1419, when the news of the +murder of John the Fearless, Duke of Burgundy, by the Duke of Orleans +on the bridge of Montereau arrived at Ghent, Philip rushed into his +wife's room crying, "Michelle, Michelle! Your brother has killed my +father!" The shock of this terrible intelligence, and the subsequent +suspicion of her husband that she knew of the plot, caused the poor +little French princess to pine away and die two years later. As a +tribute to her memory the guild of St. Luke was asked by the Duke to +grant the freedom of the guild to her favourite painters, the two Van +Eycks, which was done. + +Jean, however, did not remain at Ghent, but took service for a time +under John of Bavaria, whose capital was at The Hague. In 1425 he +became painter and varlet de chambre of Philip the Good, a position he +retained until his death. For a time he seems to have travelled about +with his ducal master, but he eventually settled at Bruges, where most +of his best work was done. Hubert, meanwhile, remained at Ghent, +painting for the rich burghers of that prosperous city. Here he +presently received an order from Jodocus Vydts for an altar-piece for +a chapel he had founded in the Cathedral of St. Bavon in his native +city of Ghent. Hubert began work immediately, planned the great work +and lived to partially complete it when overtaken by death in 1426. +Hubert was recognised as a great painter in his day, the magistrates +of Ghent on one occasion going in state to his studio to inspect a +picture he was painting--which was no doubt the altar-piece for St. +Bavon. He was, however, wholly forgotten by early historians of art +in Flanders, and it is only recently that he has been given his proper +place as one of the first of the great masters of the Flemish school. + +The subject chosen by Hubert for the proposed altar-piece was the +Adoration of the Lamb, and the artist, while true to the conventions +of the age in which he lived, achieved a work that is still full of +interest and charm. Like Shakespeare's plays this, the first great +masterpiece of the Flemish school, belongs not to an age but to all +time. In its entirety the work consists of twenty panels and comprises +more than three hundred separate figures. How far it had been +completed at Hubert's death there is no way to tell, although it is +customary to attribute to him the architectural frame, the central +panel showing the lamb, and the large upper panels. Other critics +believe that Jean practically painted the whole picture when he was +commissioned by the donor to complete it. The books on Flemish art +devote many pages to an analytical description of this picture,[1] +which was finally completed by Jean in 1432. The Duke Philip, his +patron, and the magistrates of Bruges visited his studio in state to +inspect the finished picture, which was afterwards publicly exhibited +at Ghent. When it is considered that this is the very first painting +in oil that has come down to us it is in every respect a most +marvellous performance. The three large central panels in the upper +portion are especially noble and impressive, that of "God the Father," +in the centre, being finely expressive of majesty and repose. In the +panel to the left of the Virgin Mary is a group of youthful angels +singing, who are so skilfully painted that "one can readily tell from +looking at them which is singing the dominant, which the +counter-tenor, and which the tenor and the bass," according to an +early critic. We were told by a Belgian curé with whom we talked about +this wonderful picture shortly before our visit to Ghent that the work +is so fine in its details that in the case of the figures in the +foreground who are holding open in their hands copies of the +Scriptures the very passage at which each book is opened can be +distinguished! We verified this remarkable assertion by the aid of a +glass loaned us by an attendant. + +[Footnote 1: See "The Early Flemish Painters," by J. A. Crowe and G. +B. Cavalcaselle, pp. 49-63; and "Belgium, Its Cities," by Grant Allen, +pp. 164-175.] + +The subsequent history of the painting is interesting. Philip II, who +carried many Flemish masterpieces away to Spain, admired this one, +but contented himself with a copy by Michel Coxcie, for which he paid +four thousand ducats--which was quite likely more than the Van Eyck +brothers received for the original. About 1578 the Calvinists of Ghent +wished to present the painting to Queen Elizabeth in return for her +support of their sect. For a time it was placed in the Hotel de Ville +at Ghent, but was finally restored to the cathedral. After several +other escapes from destruction or shipment abroad the work was finally +dismembered out of deference to the views of Joseph II of Austria, +during the period of Austrian rule in Flanders. He objected to the +nude figures of Adam and Eve as unsuited to a church, and these were +accordingly removed. The entire work was carried away during the +French Revolution, but was returned some years later. The wings, +however, were not restored to their original position, and were +finally sold to a London dealer for four thousand pounds sterling. He, +in turn, sold them to the King of Prussia, and they are now in the +Museum of Berlin. The wings now at St. Bavon are the copies made by +Coxcie. The original panels of Adam and Eve were stored for many years +in the cellars of St. Bavon, and then were exchanged with the Belgian +Government for the Coxcie wings just mentioned. They are now in the +Brussels Museum. The Adam and Eve at St. Bavon are not even copies of +the originals. + +[Illustration: "SINGING ANGELS" FROM "THE ADORATION OF THE +LAMB."--JEAN VAN EYCK.] + +Jean Van Eyck enjoyed the confidence and affection of Philip the Good +until his death, and was often sent on diplomatic missions of great +importance. On one occasion he was sent to Portugal with an embassy +appointed to propose a marriage between his ducal patron and the +Princess Isabel. Jean was also commissioned to paint the portrait of +the fair Isabel so that his master could judge for himself whether her +charms were as great as he had fancied them to be. This portrait was +duly painted and in the inventory of the possessions of Margaret of +Austria there was a painting by Jean Van Eyck called _La belle +Portugalaise_, which was, no doubt, the very one painted for Duke +Philip. It must have been pleasing, for he married the lady. As late +as 1516 _La belle Portugalaise_ was still in existence at Malines. It +represented a lady in a red habit with sable trimmings, attended by +St. Nicholas. It has since disappeared--one of the many thousands that +were lost or destroyed during the wars of the sixteenth to the +eighteenth centuries, but both historically and artistically one +of the most interesting of them all. There are a considerable number +of authenticated paintings by Jean Van Eyck still in existence. +Several of these are in the original frames with the artist's famous +motto, "_Als ik kan_" (As I can), more or less legible. It is by no +means unlikely that in time to come one or more of those now lost will +be discovered, thus adding to the priceless heritage that the world +owes to his immortal brush. + +[Illustration: _"George Van der Paele, Canon of St. Donatian +worshipping the Madonna" Jean Van Eyck_] + +Two of the most celebrated of Jean Van Eyck's paintings can be seen at +Bruges. One of these is in the Museum and shows George Van der Paele, +Canon of St. Donatian, worshipping the Madonna. Of the portrait of the +worthy donor Max Rooses, the Director of the Plantin-Moretus Museum at +Antwerp, says: "The Canon's face is so astoundingly true to life that +it is perhaps the most marvellous piece of painting that ever aspired +to reproduce a human physiognomy. This firm, fat painting renders at +once the cracks of the epidermis and the softness of the flesh. Beside +this head with its lovingly wrought furrows and wrinkles gleam the +dazzling white of the surplice with its greenish shimmer, the intense +red of Mary's mantle, St. Donatian's flowing cape, and the metallic +reflections of St. George's breastplate." Equally fine as an example +of faithful portrait painting is the picture of the artist's wife +which also hangs in this interesting little gallery of old masters. + +Four years after Jean Van Eyck's death, which occurred in 1440, +another Flemish painter of note acquired citizen's rights at Bruges. +This was Petrus Christus. The most celebrated of his paintings depicts +the Legend of Ste. Godeberte. The story was that this young lady's +parents had planned a rich marriage for her, whereas she preferred to +enter a convent. The prospective bride and her groom visited a +jeweller's to select the wedding ring and there encountered St. Eloi, +or Elisius, who was both a goldsmith and a bishop. The Saint, knowing +the wishes of the maiden, placed the ring upon her finger himself, +thereby dedicating her to the service of the Lord. This picture was +painted for the Goldsmiths' Guild of Antwerp, passed into the +collection of Baron Oppenheim, of Cologne, and is now in a private +gallery. + +Besides the "Adoration of the Lamb," the Cathedral of St. Bavon +possesses enough other notable works of art to equip a small museum. +One of these is the wooden pulpit, carved by P. H. Verbruggen, and +representing the glorification of St. Bavon. Another is the famous +tomb of Bishop Triest carved by Jerome Duquesnoy in 1654. This +represents the Bishop reclining on a couch, and has been termed "the +most beautiful piece of statuary in the country." Still a third +masterpiece is "St. Bavon withdrawing from the World," by Rubens. +There are a score of other paintings and pieces of sculpture of +interest and importance, but all are so over-shadowed by the famous +polyptych that the average tourist scarcely notices them unless he +goes back to this remarkable church several times. In front of the +Château of Girard, and close to the cathedral, stands the impressive +monument to the two Van Eycks erected by the city in 1913. It is by +the sculptor Georges Verbanck and represents the brothers receiving +the homage of the nations. + + + + +CHAPTER XII + +TOURNAI, THE OLDEST CITY IN BELGIUM + + +As the ladies were somewhat fatigued by our rambles around Flanders it +was decided that they would spend two or three quiet days with la +tante Rosa while the Professor and I made daily excursions into +wonderland, returning to the home of our hostess every night. The +nearest point of interest was the city of Tournai, the oldest city in +all Belgium. There was no direct railway line, however, and--as on +many other occasions during our pilgrimage--we had no little trouble +studying out a _correspondence_, or set of connections, that would +take us there and back without loss of time. We started each morning +before six o'clock and found the trains at that time of day made up +mostly of fourth-class coaches filled with working people. The Belgian +State Railway sells _billets d'abonnement_ for these trains at +incredibly low rates--a few sous a month for short trips from one town +to the next, and a few francs a month for rides half way across the +Kingdom. I have known clerks residing in the extreme southern end of +the Department of Hainaut, close to the French frontier, who ride +every day to Mons, ten or fifteen miles distant, and there take a +train for Brussels. The object of this low rate of fare is the +paternal desire of the Government that labourers should be able to +obtain work wherever it may be found and still retain their homes in +the villages in which they were born and raised. Home ties are very +strong in Belgium, and the people cheerfully travel considerable +distances under this plan rather than move away from their relatives +and friends. Economically it is a very good thing for the country as a +whole, since it enables the labourer out of work to look for a place +in a hundred different towns and the employer to draw his help from an +equally wide area. Thus in times that are not abnormally bad there are +very few industrial plants without their full quota of hands, and very +few hands out of work. + +The fourth-class coaches are built like the third-class, with cross +divisions making several compartments, but the division walls do not +extend to the roof so the passengers can toss things to one another +over them. Separate cars are provided for men and women, many +scandals having resulted from the promiscuous herding of both sexes +which prevailed some twenty years ago. The occupants of the men's cars +are of all ages, from tiny lads who seem to be hardly more than eight +or nine--but are no doubt older, as the Belgian laws no longer permit +minors of that age to work--to grandsires of eighty. All are roughly +clad, ready to take up their respective tasks the moment they +arrive--no one thinks of having a separate suit for travelling as most +of the workmen who commute to and from an American city would do. In +the women's car the occupants are mostly young girls from fifteen to +twenty, with a sprinkling of little girls and some women up to thirty, +but very few who appear to be older than that. They always seem to be +happy, singing and "carrying-on" with the utmost abandon. They are +ready to start a flirtation at a moment's notice and occasionally, +when their car halts in a station next to some other train in which +there are young men near the windows, the whole bevy of charmers +devotes itself to making conquests--opening the windows and shouting a +volley of good-natured raillery to which, if they are natives and used +to it, the youngsters retort in kind. Then, as the trains start, the +laughing crowd throws kisses by handfuls and the flirtation is over. + +As our train jolted along, with frequent stops to take on and let off +fourth-class passengers, the Professor explained to me that to be +consistent to his plan we really should have visited Tournai first. +However, it was far out of the way as a starting point, and its +history did not dominate that of all Flanders in the way that the +early history of Bruges did. In fact, while in early times subject to +the Counts of Flanders, it was often subject to the French Crown for +generations at a time, and is usually regarded as a Walloon rather +than a Flemish city. Its influence on Flemish art and architecture, +however, led us to include this Ville d'Art in our itinerary. + +According to the scholars Tournai is the _Turris Nerviorum_ of Cæsar, +the capital of the Nervii, and one of the oldest towns north of the +Alps. In 299 it was the scene of the martyrdom of St. Piat, who +founded a church on the site of the cathedral. As the visitor gazes at +that magnificent structure he can reflect that the ground on which it +stands has been consecrated to divine worship for more than sixteen +hundred years. During the fourth and fifth centuries Tournai was the +capital of the branch of the Franks that ruled over the greater part +of what is now Belgium, but the history of these early days when the +Roman Empire was tottering to its fall is very meagre, and more than +half legend at best. The first kings of the Merovingian line are +shadowy, mythical personages who stalk across the pages of history +like the ghost in Hamlet--far off, dim, but awe-inspiring. + +Childeric is one of the most picturesque of these early kings. +Expelled from the tribe owing to his youthful gallantries, he fled to +the court of Basinus, King of the Thuringians. The queen, Basina, +welcomed him even more warmly than her husband, and hardly had +Childeric returned home, on being recalled by the tribe some years +later to rule over them, than she followed him. Arrived at his court, +she announced that she had come to marry him because he was the +bravest, strongest and handsomest man she had heard of. She added, +naïvely, that if she knew of another who surpassed him in these +particulars not even the sea could keep her from such a rival. Basina, +who from all accounts should be the patron saint of the suffragettes, +won her suit and they were married. On the night before the ceremony +mony, according to an ancient chronicle, she bade Childeric go into +the courtyard of the palace at Tournai to see what he might see. He +went at her bidding three times. On the first occasion he beheld a +long procession of lions, unicorns and leopards, struggling and +snapping at one another, but all without a sound, nor did the beasts +cast any shadow. The second time he saw huge bears shambling across +the courtyard which vanished even while he was gazing at them. Then +came packs of wolves which ran in circles and leaped, but silently. On +his last visit he saw dogs of huge size and many colours, and +innumerable cats which always looked behind them. From these portents +Basina explained to him the qualities of the race of kings of which he +was to be the ancestor. Clovis, one of the greatest of the early +Frankish kings, was the child of Childeric and Basina. + +In the sixth century Tournai figured prominently in the narrative of +the furious wars between Fredegonda and Brunehault, one of the great +epics of the early Middle Ages. Fredegonda, who was the daughter of a +bondsman, became by virtue of her beauty and imperious will the wife +of Chilperic, King of the Franks. Brunehault, equally beautiful, but +a king's daughter as well as the wife of a king--Sigebert, brother of +Chilperic--began the contest to avenge the death of her sister +Galeswintha, whom Fredegonda had caused to be slain. Chilperic and +Fredegonda were besieged at Tournai in 575, but the latter caused the +murder of Sigebert, upon whose death the besieging army dispersed. +Incidents in this siege are depicted in the stained-glass windows of +the cathedral. The contest between the two fierce queens lasted more +than half a century, Brunehault at the last being torn to pieces by +wild horses, when more than eighty years old, by the son of her +life-long rival. + +In 880 the Norsemen fell upon the city and its inhabitants fled to +Noyon, where they remained for thirty-one years. In its subsequent +history the old town sustained more than its share of sieges, the +common lot of all frontier places, and changed hands oftener than any +other European city. For many generations it was subject to the early +Counts of Flanders. Philip Augustus then annexed it to France, to +which it belonged until the reign of Francis I. In 1340 occurred the +most famous of all its sieges. It belonged at that time to France and +was attacked by the English under Edward III, a huge army of Flemings +under Jacques Van Artevelde, the Duke of Brabant and the Count of +Hainaut with their followers and many others--a host estimated by +Froissart at one hundred and twenty thousand men. That delightful +historian devotes more than a dozen chapters to a gossipy account of +the siege, which lasted more than eleven weeks and was only raised by +the approach of a French army when the supply of provisions was +reduced to three days' rations. In 1513 Tournai was captured by Henry +VIII, who gave the see to Cardinal Wolsey, but soon sold it back to +the French. The huge round tower a little distance to the right as one +enters the city from the railway station was erected by the English +King during his short rule. In 1521 the city was captured by Charles +the Fifth, becoming a part of his domains, and in 1581 it sustained +another famous siege. In common with the rest of Flanders and the Low +Countries, the city had revolted against the atrocities of Philip II. +It was besieged by the Prince of Parma and heroically defended by +Christine, Princess of Epinoy, whose statue stands in the Grande +Place. She was herself wounded and had lost more than three-fourths of +the garrison before she surrendered. + +Tournai once more passed into the hands of the French in 1668, when +it was captured by Louis XIV and afterwards elaborately fortified by +Vauban, was retaken by Marlborough in 1709, returned to Austria five +years later, and captured once more by the French after the battle of +Fontenoy in 1745. Four years later it was again restored to Austria, +but was twice taken by the armies of the first French republic, +remaining French territory till the battle of Waterloo. It would be a +difficult matter to say how often its fortifications have been built, +demolished, rebuilt and again destroyed. + +The most noteworthy of these later sieges was that of 1745, during the +War of the Austrian Succession, which brought the English and French +into conflict even along the frontiers of their far-off American +colonies. Austrian Flanders became the arena of the decisive campaign +in this war--in which its inhabitants had absolutely no interest or +concern whatever--and Tournai was the prize for which the armies +fought. It was during this and the preceding century that Flanders +became "the cockpit of Europe"--foreign armies sweeping over its +fertile plains in wars the very purpose of which was unknown to the +peasants who helplessly saw their cattle and crops swept away and +their farmsteads and villages destroyed. It is curious to remark how +frequently the English were engaged in these conflicts, particularly +in the vicinity of Tournai. In the words of Lord Beaconsfield, +"Flanders has been trodden by the feet and watered with the blood of +successive generations of British soldiers." + +An English force formed the nucleus and the backbone of the allied +army, which was commanded by the Duke of Cumberland, brother of King +George II. The French forces were led by Maurice de Saxe, the greatest +military leader of that generation, as Marlborough had been of the one +before it. King Louis XV--for almost the only time in his long +reign--played the part of a man throughout this campaign. When Saxe +explained his plan of campaign, which involved a scheme of field +fortifications, the "carpet generals" protested loudly that Frenchmen +were well able to meet their foes on open ground. Louis silenced these +arm-chair critics and replied to his great field-marshal, "In +confiding to you the command of my army I intend that every one shall +obey you, and I will be the first to set an example of obedience." + +For a time the allies, which consisted of English, Hanoverian, Dutch +and Austrian troops--very few Flemings taking part in this campaign +on either side--were in doubt whether Saxe intended to attack Mons, +St. Ghislain or Tournai. With his usual rapidity of action, the French +leader, when his forces suddenly appeared before Tournai, had that +city completely invested before the allies knew where he was. It was +early in the month of May, and very rainy, when the allied army +started from Brussels and marched through the mud toward the +beleaguered city. On the evening of May tenth, eleven days after the +siege had begun, they arrived within sight of the quintuple towers of +the cathedral and the adjacent belfry. Their position was southeast of +the city, on the route to St. Ghislain and Mons, and the towers were +therefore sharply outlined against the sunset as the army, standing on +rising ground, gazed across the rolling country that was to be the +morrow's battlefield. + +Saxe had made the most of the slowness of the allies' advance by +choosing the ground where he would give battle, and strengthening his +position with field redoubts, using the little village of Fontenoy as +a base. The allies attacked from the direction of the little village +of Vezon, while Louis XV watched the battle from a hill near the +intersection of the Mons road with that leading from Ramecroix to +Antoing. The attack began at two o'clock in the morning, the English +advancing in a hollow square, and it was not until after two in the +afternoon that Saxe, after bringing every man in his forces into +action, had the satisfaction of seeing the great square falter and +turn slowly back--halting every hundred yards to beat off its foes. +The fiercest unit in the French army was a brigade of Irish volunteers +who fought like tigers, the men flinging themselves against the +stubborn English square again and again. A learned historian, who has +devoted more than eighty pages to a description of the battle, fails +to give so clear an idea of its decisive moment as does the poet +Thomas Osborne Davis in half as many lines: + + "Thrice at the huts of Fontenoy the English column failed, + And twice the lines of Saint Antoine the Dutch in vain assailed; + For town and slope were filled with fort and flanking battery, + And well they swept the English ranks and Dutch auxiliary. + As vainly through De Barri's wood the British soldiers burst, + The French artillery drove them back, diminished and dispersed. + The bloody Duke of Cumberland beheld with anxious eye, + And ordered up his last reserves, his latest chance to try. + On Fontenoy, on Fontenoy, how fast his generals ride! + And mustering came his chosen troops, like clouds at eventide. + + "Six thousand English veterans in stately column tread; + Their cannon blaze in front and flank, Lord Hay is at their head. + Steady they step a-down the slope, steady they climb the hill, + Steady they load, steady they fire, moving right onward still, + Betwixt the wood and Fontenoy, as through a furnace blast, + Through rampart, trench and palisade, and bullets showering fast; + And on the open plain above they rose and kept their course, + With ready fire and grim resolve that mocked at hostile force; + Past Fontenoy, past Fontenoy, while thinner grew their ranks, + They broke, as broke the Zuyder Zee through Holland's ocean banks. + + * * * * * + + "'Push on my household cavalry!' King Louis madly cried. + To death they rush, but rude their shock; not unavenged they died. + On through the camp the column trod--King Louis turns his rein. + 'Not yet, my liege,' Saxe interposed; 'the Irish troops remain.' + 'Lord Claire,' he said, 'you have your wish; there are your Saxon + foes!' + The Marshal almost smiles to see, so furiously he goes, + How fierce the looks these exiles wear, who're wont to be so gay! + The treasured wrongs of fifty years are in their hearts to-day. + On Fontenoy, on Fontenoy, nor ever yet elsewhere, + Rushed on to fight a nobler band than these proud exiles were. + + * * * * * + + "Like lions leaping at a fold, when mad with hunger's pang, + Right up against the English line the Irish exiles sprang; + Bright was their steel, 'tis bloody now, their guns are filled with + gore; + Through shattered ranks and severed files and trampled flags they + tore. + The English strove with desperate strength; paused, rallied, + staggered, fled; + The green hillside is matted close with dying and with dead. + Across the plain and far away passed on that hideous wrack + While cavalier and Fantassin rush in upon their track. + On Fontenoy, on Fontenoy, like eagles in the sun, + With bloody plumes the Irish stand--the field is fought and won!" + +On our first day's visit the Professor devoted most of the time to the +cathedral and the remains that still exist of the earliest period of +Tournai's long and varied history. As we approached the city, past the +vast excavations around Antoing connected with the lime pits and kilns +and cement works that there abound, we could see the five spires of +the cathedral in the distance. Antoing is only a mile and a half from +Fontenoy, and the battlefield--marked by a monument erected in +1907--is happily free from the pits that scar so much of the +countryside thereabouts, and no doubt looks to-day very much as it did +on the day of the great fight. + +The cathedral of Tournai is the oldest, the most vast, and decidedly +the most imposing religious edifice in Belgium. Its five great towers +dominate the entire city and are visible for miles across the +surrounding plains. The oldest portions of the present structure date +from about 880, when the inhabitants of Tournai returned after the +invasion of the Norsemen. The side porches of the naves belong to this +earliest period. In 1054 a fire destroyed the upper part of the +cathedral and it was shortly after this that the towers were built. +There were originally seven of these, the one in the centre being a +gigantic square structure rising above all the others. The group as it +then stood was without a rival in Europe, but the two towers to the +east of the central one were removed with the ancient choir and the +height of the central tower reduced. In their present form, however, +the towers compose a magnificent assemblage. + +[Illustration: GENERAL VIEW OF TOURNAI AND THE FIVE-TOWERED +CATHEDRAL.] + +The four outer towers, which surround the now much shorter central +one, are two hundred and seventy-two feet high, and, although +apparently alike at the first glance, are not entirely so--a +circumstance that enhances rather than detracts from the +picturesqueness of the group. Placed at the crossing of the nave and +the transept these towers, from without, suggest the fantastic idea +that instead of one there are two cathedrals, each facing the other, +and with the central tower uniting them. + +In reality, the edifice is large enough to make two cathedrals and +more, the interior being four hundred and twenty-six feet in length +and two hundred and twenty feet in width across the transept. Built at +different epochs, this imposing edifice constitutes a veritable +history in stone of the development of mediæval architecture. The nave +was completed in 1070 and the transept in the eleventh and +twelfth centuries. Both are in the Romanesque style, while the +choir--originally Romanesque--was rebuilt in 1242-1325 in the early +Gothic style. It is both longer and almost fifty feet higher than the +older nave--a fact that leads the observer looking at the structure +from without to mistake it for the nave itself. In addition to the +main edifice there is a small parish chapel built against the north +side of the cathedral, a Gothic edifice dating from 1516-1518, while +attached to it by a passage over a picturesque arch called _Le +fausseporte_ is the Bishop's palace. Here there is another chapel, the +Chapel of the Bishops, dating from the twelfth century. + +Like most religious structures in Belgium, the cathedral was for many +years surrounded, and almost entirely obscured, by small private +houses of all kinds built up against it. These have now been removed, +although there are still a few more that we were told were destined to +come down in order to give a better view of the structure from one +side. There are three entrances, of which two are noteworthy. One of +these, called the Porte Mantille, is on the north side facing the +Place des Acacias, and dates from the twelfth century. It is the +oldest part of the exterior, and looks it, the round arch of the +doorway being surrounded by quaint Romanesque sculptures. The winds of +seven hundred winters have worn these bas-reliefs down considerably, +but they are still surprisingly clear, the faces, armour and costumes +of the figures being quite distinct. They are among the oldest stone +carvings in Europe and show that the art of sculpture was practised +at Tournai within a century or two after the retirement of the +Norsemen. + +Even more interesting is the fine façade just behind the groined porch +that faces the Place de l'Evêché. From a distance this end of the +cathedral is hardly pleasing, the sixteenth-century porch concealing +the early Romanesque façade and being out of harmony with it. After +passing within the arches, however, the visitor forgets all this and +is lost in wonder and admiration at the wealth of stone carving that +decorates the walls on both sides of the main entrance. There is no +such decoration in stone to be seen in all Flanders, for the churches +of Tournai escaped the fury of the iconoclasts--Tournai, at that time, +belonging to France. Here the sculptors of Tournai have achieved a +veritable masterpiece. The work is in three tiers and belongs to three +different periods. The lowest tier, carved in blue stone quarried in +Tournai itself or near by, is the most remarkable, and is regarded by +the critics as the finest in artistic merit. It dates from the +thirteenth century and represents Adam and Eve and various prophets +and fathers of the church. The second zone is in white stone, now grey +with age, and was the work of the sixteenth century. It comprises a +series of small panels carved in bas-relief, those at the left +depicting--so the authorities at Tournai tell us--a religious +procession, and those at the right various incidents in the history of +King Childeric. The highest tier comprises a series of large statues +in high relief of the apostles, the Virgin Mary, St. Piat and St. +Eleuthereus. Although the figures are boldly conceived and well +executed, and, in the main, fairly well preserved, they are +artistically less important than the others. In its entirety, however, +this entrance--"_le portail_," "_the_ entrance," as the people of +Tournai style it--is a place of wonderful interest, a place to be +visited again and again under different lights and in different moods. + +Passing into the interior of the cathedral the visitor is again given +the impression that here he is not in one church but at least two and +possibly more. The ancient nave, with its vaulted roof supported by +three series of Romanesque arches placed one above another, seems +somehow to be complete by itself and to have no relation to the +far-off choir which is partially cut off from it by an elaborately +carved rood loft, which--in its flamboyant Renaissance style--seems +out of place and tends to mar the general effect of the vast +interior. The pillars in the nave are not uniform, but have a wide +diversity of capitals--some decorated with the lotus or conventional +foliage, others with beasts or birds or quaint, fantastic heads. At +the intersection of the nave and transept the great pillars supporting +the central tower are of tremendous proportions and the view looking +upward from this point is one of extraordinary grandeur. Here, too, +the rood loft, or _jubé_, can be studied to best advantage. The work +of Corneille Floris of Antwerp and executed in 1572, it is undoubtedly +one of the masterpieces of sculpture of its period. The Doric columns +are of red marble, the architectural outlines of the structure in +black marble, and the medallions and other bas-reliefs in white. +Passing through one of the three arches of this portal we come to the +noble choir. This is the most beautiful portion of the cathedral, its +vast height and the richly coloured light that streams downward from +its fine stained-glass windows creating a very atmosphere of majesty +and inspiration. + +While we were inspecting the choir and the ambulatory, which contains +several paintings and carvings of no little interest, the Professor +discovered that the hours had been slipping by faster than we had +imagined and as there were several relics of the earliest period of +the city's history that we wished to visit on our first day we decided +to betake ourselves to the Grande Place and postpone our visit to the +far-famed treasury of the cathedral to another day. We found a little +place to dine directly facing the Belfry, and with the Princess of +Epinoy, in her coat of mail and brandishing her battle-axe, standing +on her monument hard by. The Place is a very large one, but most of +the houses facing it have been so modernized as to lose much of their +mediæval aspect, although the ancient Cloth Hall--which has recently +been restored--no doubt looks much as it did when in its prime. + +The Belfry was naturally our first stopping place after we had done +justice to the excellent dinner in half a dozen courses that two +francs had secured for us. This edifice dates from 1187, and stands +slightly back from the apex of the triangle formed by the Grande +Place. According to some authorities the peculiar shape of the Place +is due to the intersection of two Roman roads at the point where the +Belfry now stands. Externally the tower, which is two hundred and +thirty-six feet high, strikingly resembles the Belfry of Ghent. +Within, after climbing a winding stairway for some distance, we +were shown several large rooms with heavy timber ceilings that were +once used as prison cells. They looked fairly comfortable, as compared +with the dungeons in the Château des Comtes, and one of them was then +in use by the small son of the concierge as a play-room and was +littered with toys--mostly of his own manufacture, apparently. The +doors to these "cells" were of massive construction and locked by keys +nearly a foot long, or at least it seemed so, though we did not +measure them. The view from the top of the edifice is picturesque and +well worth the climb. A melodious set of chimes is installed near the +top, which ring every half hour. The big bell, _la Bancloque_, which +called the people to arms, was cast in 1392, and must have been rung +quite frequently during the stirring days when Tournai was being +fought for by armies from half the countries in Europe. + +[Illustration: THE BELFRY, TOURNAI.] + +From the Belfry we visited the ancient Church of St. Brice which +stands in one of the very oldest quarters of the city. Almost facing +the church are two buildings known as the Roman houses. Although +hardly dating from the time of the Romans they are undoubtedly very +ancient. Only the outer walls, however, remain of the original +construction, the interiors dating from a much later period. One of +these houses was untenanted when we were there, and the other was an +estaminet. We entered it and ordered drinks, and asked if we could see +the up-stairs rooms, but apparently they were not very tidy as the +landlady declined to show them, assuring us that there was nothing to +see. At No. 18 on the same street, rue Barre-Saint-Brice, is another +estaminet in a house of very ancient construction. After quite a +search we found the caretaker of the church. As old as the oldest part +of the cathedral this structure is a remarkable example of Romanesque +architecture. Externally it looks from the rear like three stone barns +built close together, but its square tower is lofty and imposing, +although much injured by a silly sort of hat which was stuck on early +in the last century. The most interesting object within was a quaint +Tournai tapestry representing a variety of Biblical subjects. + +In the year 1653 archeologists and historians throughout Europe were +greatly excited over one of the most interesting finds of ancient +relics ever recorded. In the house now No. 8 on the Terrace +Saint-Brice, on one side of the church, was dug up at a depth of eight +feet a veritable museum of arms and jewels since known as the +Treasure of Childeric I, whose marriage with Basina was preceded by so +many portents. More than a hundred gold coins of the Byzantine +Emperors were found, several hundred golden bees, a quantity of silver +money of great antiquity, divers clasps and buckles--all mingled with +the remains of human bones, which may have been those of the +Merovingian King and his imperious spouse. One ring bore a bust of a +man with long hair holding a lance, with the inscription _Childerici +Regis_. After passing through various hands the collection came into +the possession of Louis XIV, and eventually into the Bibliotheque +Royale at Paris. Here, in 1831, it was stolen. The thieves were +pursued and threw their booty into the Seine, where a few pieces were +afterwards recovered and are now in the numismatic collection of the +Bibliotheque Nationale at Paris. + +Not far from this interesting old quarter are some picturesque remains +of the ancient city walls, two ivy covered towers facing a moat in +which there is still some water. These are called the Marvis Towers, +and were erected during the thirteenth century. On our way back to the +station we made a little detour in order to see the curious _Pont des +Trous_--literally "the Bridge of the Holes," meaning loopholes--the +most ancient specimen of mediæval military architecture in Belgium. +The tower on the side farthest from the centre of the city was built +prior to 1259, the other in 1304, and the bridge with its three ogival +arches in 1330. Across the bridge at short intervals are narrow +loopholes to enable the defenders to fire at foes approaching by way +of the River Scheldt. One of the towers is said to contain a fine +vaulted room, but as we were unable to find any one who knew who had +the key to the little door at its foot we did not see this room or the +passage-way across the bridge. Between this bridge and the railway +line we noticed a high stone wall of ancient construction which, from +its location, may also have been a fragment of the city walls. Further +on is the Henry VIII tower, which was built by the English monarch +after he captured the city in 1513, as part of a citadel intended to +hold the citizens in check. The tower is slightly over seventy-five +feet in diameter and the walls at the base are said to be twenty feet +thick. The rest of the citadel has long since disappeared and this +vestige of it is now the centre of a pleasant little park much +frequented on sunny days by nursemaids and children. Amid these +peaceful surroundings it was, when we saw it, hard to picture the old +tower as having ever been the scene of fierce conflicts with furious +foes striving to batter a breach in its massive walls or scale it with +long ladders, while its defenders fired volley after volley through +its tiny windows and flung down big stones or boiling tar from its +parapet. + +The strategy of the early part of the present war did not call for a +protracted defence of Tournai, with the result that, as this is being +written, the old city is reported to have suffered little or no +damage. In view of the frequency with which it had been contended for +in former wars it is to be hoped that this one--which has so far been +more destructive than all previous wars put together--will pass quaint +old Tournai by and that the great cathedral with its five towers and +marvellous stone carvings may be spared for generations yet to come. + + + + +CHAPTER XIII + +SEVEN CENTURIES OF TOURNAISIAN ART + + +The citizens of Tournai of to-day have given to their beautiful city +the name of "Ville d'Art." To be sure, the same title is claimed for +Bruges and Ghent, for Antwerp and Malines. The first two are justly +proud of their many beautiful monuments of the past and their +associations with the work of the early Flemish painters, Antwerp of +its connection with the later development of painting in Flanders and +the most artistic of the early printers, Malines of its lace and its +splendid examples of religious architecture and art. Tournai, however, +has a broader title to the phrase than any of them in that the +artistic activities of its gifted sons have not been confined to one +medium or two, but have been independently developed along half a +score of different lines and during a period covering more than seven +centuries. Not only is the city a rich repository of the artistic +productions of past ages, but it is still more notable in having been +one of the most prolific producers of beautiful and artistic things. +To the true connoisseur a stay of several weeks in this fine old +border town would be none too long to afford opportunity to study all +of its collections and rummage in out-of-the-way corners for stray +specimens that the dealers and bargain hunters have overlooked. +Unfortunately, neither the Professor nor I can lay claim to more than +a rudimentary knowledge of such matters and in the chronicle of our +rambles in the City of Art there may be much to make the judicious +grieve. It is not, however, so much in order to give an account of +what we saw that this chapter is written as in the hope that it may +suggest how much there is to see for those whose eyes are better +trained and more discriminating than ours. + +Tournai looms large in the history of early Flemish painting, for it +was here that the next important group of masters after the Van Eycks +appeared. As early as the first half of the fourteenth century +paintings on cloth were executed at Tournai, followed by what was +termed "flat painting" for panels. About 1406 the first of the great +artists whose names have come down to us settled at Tournai. This was +Robert Campin. He acquired the right of citizenship in 1410 and died +in 1444, being thus a contemporary of the Van Eycks. He is known to +have painted many works, but until recently none of these had been +definitely identified. Now, thanks to the earnest and patient study of +Belgian scholars, he seems likely to be given his rightful place as +one of the greatest of the early Flemish masters--after having been +completely forgotten for nearly five hundred years! His most important +work is an altarpiece in the possession of the Mérode family at +Brussels, while the Frankfort Museum and the Prado at Madrid contain +some fine examples of his skill. + +It is known that Robert Campin was the master of two other Tournai +artists, Rogier Van der Weyden and Jacques Daret, of whom the former +soon far surpassed his teacher in renown. Daret entered the atelier of +Robert Campin in 1418, when a lad of fourteen, obtained the title of +apprentice in 1427, and became a member of the Guild of St. Luke in +1432. One of his pictures, a panel showing the Nativity, was in the +collection of the late Mr. J. Pierpont Morgan. Van der Weyden, whose +Walloon name was Roger de la Pasture, became one of Campin's +apprentices in 1427--the same date as Daret--and was admitted to the +guild of the painters at Tournai in 1432. He spent much of his time at +Brussels, however, and is sometimes considered as belonging to that +city rather than Tournai. A "Descent from the Cross" now at the +Escorial is his most famous picture. It was painted for the Archers' +Company at Louvain and a copy of it, made by the master himself, was +hung in the Church of St. Pierre in that city. About 1430 Van der +Weyden was commissioned to paint four large panels for the Hall of +Justice in the new Hotel de Ville at Brussels. Two of these showed +Trajan, the Just Emperor, and the other two depicted the Justice of +Herkenbald, and for more than two centuries the series was regarded as +the finest group of paintings in the Low Countries. They were +destroyed at the bombardment of Brussels in 1695, but tapestries +copied from the originals still exist in the Museum at Berne, having +been captured by the Swiss when Charles the Bold was defeated at +Granson. + +In 1443 the artist began what in the judgment of the art critics was +his most important work, an altarpiece representing "The Last +Judgment" for the chapel of a hospital at Beaune, near Dijon in +Burgundy, where it still remains. The museum at Antwerp contains a +triptych of the Seven Sacraments by this master, showing the interior +of a cathedral suggestive of that of Tournai--and, in fact, it was for +the Bishop of Tournai that it was originally painted. Nearly every +important art gallery in Europe contains one or more works by Van der +Weyden, who not only was very industrious, receiving numerous orders +from the great men of his day, but fortunate in having most of his +masterpieces preserved from the destruction that overtook so much of +the work of the early Flemish artists. + +The former Cloth Hall of Tournai, erected in 1610, was completely and +very successfully restored in 1884, and is now used to house an +admirable little collection of paintings and a museum of antiquities. +The paintings are, for the most part, the work of Tournai artists, and +most of its three hundred and eighty titles are of local rather than +international interest. There are several works, however, of the +highest rank, and the museum as a whole serves admirably to illustrate +the fact that the traditions and inspiration of the first great +masters of Flemish painting, whose work has made the name of Tournai +illustrious for all time, have never been wholly forgotten in their +native city. To be sure, there is nothing to represent Robert +Campin or Jacques Daret, nor had the caretaker ever heard of either of +them--a fact hardly to be wondered at, since the works of the former +have not yet been fully identified by the critics. Van der Weyden is +credited with a "Descent from the Cross" in the museum catalogue, but +many critics hold this to be a copy of a lost work by Hugo Van der +Goes. Those in charge of the museum have wisely included some +excellent photographs of the more famous works by Van der Weyden in +the leading European galleries--a plan that might well be followed +with respect to the other notable works by Tournaisian artists. The +masterpiece of the collection is the well known "Last Honours to +Counts Egmont and Horn," by Louis Gallait, the greatest of Tournai's +modern artists, whose statue stands in the little park before the +railway station. A replica of this fine but gruesome work was painted +by the artist for the Antwerp museum. The Tournai museum contains +nearly a dozen other works bequeathed to the city by this painter, +including several admirable portraits--a branch in which he was +especially skilful. The powerful "Abdication of Charles V" by this +master hangs in the Brussels museum, and his notable "Last Moments of +the Comte d'Egmont" in the museum of Berlin. + +[Illustration: A TRIPTYCH OF THE SEVEN SACRAMENTS BY ROGIER VAN DER +WEYDEN.] + +Equally fine in a very different way, but less widely known, is a +spirited painting by a comparatively unknown artist, Van Severdonck, +representing the Princess of Epinoy valiantly defending a breach in +the walls during the siege of Tournai in 1581. We were unable to +obtain a photograph of this admirable work as it is so hung that it is +difficult to get a good light upon it. A fine portrait of St. Donatian +is attributed in the catalogue to Jan Gossaert or Mabuse (from +Maubeuge where he was born). By some critics it is assigned to +Bellegambe, who was born at Douai in French Flanders and was a +contemporary of Gossaert. The museum also contains works by Hennebicq, +who painted the historical picture of Philip Augustus granting a +charter to the city of Tournai in the Hotel de Ville; Hennequin, the +teacher of Gallait; Stallaert, whose "Death of Dido" is in the museum +of Brussels, and several other natives of Tournai who are less well +known. From Robert Campin, who settled at Tournai about 1406 and died +in 1444, to Louis Gallait, whose three great masterpieces were painted +between 1840 and 1850, and to Stallaert and Hennebicq, who laid aside +their brushes in the first decade of the present century, there +extends a period of five hundred years during which the noble art of +painting has been practised and taught at Tournai by men of commanding +genius--a record in the history of art that no town in the world of +similar size has ever equalled. + +It is worthy of remark, in passing, that the art of sculpture which +was practised at Tournai with such notable success as early as the +thirteenth century, and steadily thereafter for several hundred years, +has not survived to the present day. There are no modern sculptors in +the list of Tournaisian artists, but the cathedral is a veritable +museum of the stone carvings of the past. The men of the chisel, +moreover, must be credited with giving some of the inspiration that +made the work of the early artists of the brush so notable. Van der +Weyden, particularly, shows the influence of sculpture and a marked +appreciation of its effects in the framework and backgrounds of many +of his pictures. Moreover, for several centuries the sculptors of +Tournai enjoyed a renown that extended throughout Flanders and +northern France. In the churches of Tournai and of many other cities +examples of their work can be seen that show a continuous record of +achievement from the twelfth to the sixteenth centuries. + +Closely allied to the carvers of stone were those who worked in metals +and of these Tournai had its full share. A street of the Goldsmiths +(rue des Orfévres) near the Grande Place indicates the importance of +that industry in ancient times. The best example of this branch of +Tournaisian art is to be found in the treasury of the cathedral. This +is the superb Chasse, or Reliquary of St. Eleuthereus, which is +considered to be one of the finest products of the goldsmith's art +during the Middle Ages. While the name of the maker of this +masterpiece is unknown, it is unquestionably of Tournaisian origin and +was completed in 1247. Built in the form of a sarcophagus, and made of +silver, heavily gilded, it is almost bewildering in the richness and +intricacy of its decorations and filigrees. At one end is a large +seated figure of Christ, at the other of St. Eleuthereus, while the +sides contain figures of the Virgin and the Apostles. Around, above +and below these chief figures the artist has placed a labyrinth of +minor ones, of churches and landscapes, of columns, arches and +architectural embellishments, all carved with a richness of design +that cannot be adequately described. Still older, for it dates from +1205, is the Chasse de Notre Dame, another treasure of the cathedral. +This was made by Nicolas de Verdun, a citizen of Tournai, and is of +wood, painted and adorned with curious bas-reliefs representing +incidents from the New Testament. A third chasse, which on account of +its great value is kept under lock and key in the treasury, like that +of St. Eleuthereus, is called the Chasse des Damoiseaux. It is made of +silver and bears in relief, and enamelled, the arms of some of the +patrician families of the city in the thirteenth and fourteenth +centuries, when the Confrerie des Damoiseaux held many brilliant +tournaments in Tournai and other cities. This chasse, the keeper told +us, was not made at Tournai, but at Bruges. Although very beautiful, +it is not considered so notable a work of art as its companion. + +During the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries Tournai rivalled Dinant +as a producer of fine copper and brassware, and in this industry the +artistic instincts of its citizens soon led them to produce pieces of +remarkable distinction. One of the finest of these is the baptismal +font in the church of Notre Dame at Hal, made in 1446. The artisans of +Tournai turned out a prodigious number of fine products of the +copper-smith's art during the two centuries mentioned--lamps, +candlesticks, chandeliers, funeral monuments, crucifixes and other +religious articles; and, in fact, it was not until the eighteenth +century that this industry declined, only to give place to the +manufacture of gilded bronze ware. + +The cathedral and the museum of antiquities contain some choice +examples of another great Tournaisian art industry of the Middle +Ages--the manufacture of rich tapestries. During the fourteenth +century the renown of the products of Tournai in this field was +already considerable, and between 1440 and 1480 its artisans surpassed +even those of Arras. In richness of colouring, diversity and +sprightliness of subjects, beauty of design and workmanship, the +tapestries of Tournai rank among the finest art productions of the +Middle Ages. In 1477, when Louis XI seized Arras and dispersed its +workmen, many of them fled to Tournai, Audenaerde and Brussels, +establishing the industry in those cities. Tournai, where it had +already made great progress, was the first to benefit by this +emigration and for a time became the leading tapestry-making centre in +Europe. It was the school of Tournai that was the true forerunner of +the still more famous tapestry weavers of Brussels in depicting +historical and mythological scenes of the utmost vivacity and +richness, while the ateliers of Audenaerde specialised more largely in +quieter pastoral scenes and landscapes. Philip the Good, the most +fastidious connoisseur of his age, ordered several tapestries at +Tournai, including the history of Gideon in eight panels to decorate +the Hall of the Order of the Golden Fleece. In the cathedral the most +notable of the Tournai tapestries illustrates vividly the story of +Joseph, while one of the best in the museum depicts the history of +Abraham--the angels announcing the birth of Isaac. The border of a +Tournai tapestry usually bears the mark of the ateliers of that city, +a castle tower, which is plainly to be seen on the one last mentioned. +The cathedral also possesses a remarkable tapestry of Arras, made by +Pierrot Féré in 1402, and depicting incidents connected with the lives +of St. Piat and St. Eleuthereus and the plague at Tournai. This +masterpiece originally hung above the stalls in the choir, and more +than half of it has been destroyed at one time or another. The +remainder has been placed in a continuous panel, like a panorama, +around a semi-circular chapel back of the treasury, and constitutes +one of the most curious relics of the mediæval art to be seen in +Europe. According to some authorities the designs for this work were +drawn by one of the artists of the Tournai school of painters from +which Van der Weyden subsequently received his instruction. At all +events the scenes are extremely naïve, and the artist has inserted +sundry little devils who are giving expression to their contempt of +the various religious ceremonies depicted in some of the sections in a +manner that, to say the least, is most unconventional. + +The wars and troubles of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries very +nearly extinguished the art industries of Tournai, the number of +master-weavers of tapestries declining from two hundred and fourteen +between 1538 and 1553 to forty in 1693, and twenty-nine in 1738. It +was only a few years after the last date, however, when a new art +industry became established in the city. In 1751 a native of Lille, +named François Péterink, began the manufacture at Tournai of fine +porcelains. Dinner sets elaborately decorated and daintily formed, +vases, statues and statuettes of "biscuit" equal to the finest +products of Sèvres, Saxony or England, were turned out in considerable +quantities for more than a century, and the porcelains of Tournai +became so renowned that princes vied with one another to secure these +works of art. It is still possible for the collector to secure some of +these fine products, the trademarks being a rude castle tower or two +crossed swords with tiny crosses at their intersecting angles. In the +finest tableware these are usually in gold, but red or some other +colour should not be despised, as the genuine Tournai ware is becoming +rare and already brings high prices. These marks, it should be added, +have been imitated, and the amateur will do well to consult expert +advice before purchasing. + +Still another noteworthy art industry of Tournai merits at least a +word in passing. From the very earliest period after the art of making +stained or painted glass was invented the ateliers of the "Ville +d'Art" have excelled in this fine branch of handicraft. During the +fifteenth century Tournaisian artists made the seven stained glass +windows in the transept of the cathedral that depict in glowing +colours the history of the contest between Childeric and Sigebert and +the donations and privileges granted to the bishop and the cathedral +by Chilperic. Not only are these scenes of the utmost interest +historically, but the student of costumes and customs during the +Middle Ages and the student of early Flemish art will both find in +them abundant material for study. It has already been said that the +cathedral of Tournai is in itself a history of Flemish architecture +covering a period of well-nigh a thousand years. It is also a +veritable museum of Flemish art, and especially of Tournaisian art, in +almost all of its many branches. + +In the eighteenth century the apparently inextinguishable artistic +spirit of Tournai found expression in the production of carpets that +recalled the best period of its tapestry weavers. The carpet in the +cabinet of Napoleon at Fontainebleau and the celebrated carpet of the +Legion of Honour, which was shown in the French pavilion at the recent +exposition at Turin, were made at Tournai during this period. At the +same epoch the goldsmiths and coppersmiths, whose activities had never +entirely ceased during the centuries of trouble, began once more to +turn out their artistic products in considerable quantities, nor have +these ateliers entirely ceased operations at Tournai to this day. +Truly the name "Ville d'Art" has been fairly won and kept by this +little city, if seven centuries of almost uninterrupted artistic +endeavour and achievement count for anything! + +It is a somewhat remarkable feature of modern Belgium, however, that +while its cities abound in beautiful and artistic things, the common +people--both the working classes and the _bourgeoisie_, or fairly +prosperous middle-class of small merchants and manufacturers--seem to +have very little interest in pictures or works of art, and little or +no desire to acquire them. The average Belgian home is utterly bare of +ornament, save perhaps a crucifix or a religious image or chromo--if +these can be termed ornamental. Reproductions of the fine masterpieces +of painting and statuary in which this little country is so rich are +incredibly scarce and difficult to procure--save only the very famous +pictures, of which copies have been made to sell to tourists in the +larger cities. Even these the native Belgian apparently never buys, +and the art stores carry very few coloured prints of moderate price +such as are to be seen everywhere in the United States. In fact, of +those we saw a considerable proportion were of American manufacture. +Of course these remarks do not allude to the stores handling original +paintings by ancient and modern masters, costly water-colours and +etchings. These are purchased in Belgium, as everywhere else, by the +wealthy class, whose homes are as rich and artistic as any in the +world. It is the absence of interest by the two classes first +mentioned that seems to me so remarkable in a country that for +centuries has been passionately devoted to art in all its +manifestations, and, for its population and area, is without doubt the +world's largest producer of beautiful things. + +On the other hand, the Belgian of even the humblest social standing is +invariably fond of flowers. In the cities every woman on her way to or +from market buys a bouquet for the table, while in the country there +is no garden without its little flower-bed, or flower-bordered paths, +or rambling rosebushes climbing up the high brick garden wall or +arching over the entrance. This shows an intense and inborn love of +the beautiful. Why is it, then, that men and women whose daily lives +are spent in creating beautiful things--rare lace, fine wood-carvings, +rich brass or copper ware--are content with homes that are as bare of +ornament as any prison cell? + + + + +CHAPTER XIV + +THE FALL OF CHARLES THE BOLD--MEMLING AT BRUGES + + +There are few careers in history more fascinating, more spectacular, +more dramatic, than that of the last Duke of Burgundy who ruled over +Flanders--Charles the Bold. Heir to dominions that included all of +what is now Belgium and Holland, nearly a third of France, and +portions of what is now Germany, Charles was by far the most powerful +of the feudal lords of his day, surpassing the King of France, and +even the Emperor in the splendour and wealth of his court and in the +number of feudal princes and knights whom he could summon to his +standard. He not only had dreams of becoming a king himself, but was, +on one occasion, offered a crown--the Emperor Frederick III proposing +to make him King of Brabant. This he refused--a serious error, for he +could easily have extended his royal title, once legally acquired, +over the rest of his dominions. + +In "all the pomp and pageantry of power," however, Charles was every +inch a king--magnificent in his hospitality, exceedingly ceremonious +and punctilious in court etiquette, and fond of showing his vast power +on every occasion. On the other hand, he was profoundly ignorant of +the fact that the real source of his wealth and strength was in the +great industrial communes of Flanders, Brabant and Liége, and the +cruelty with which he destroyed the cities of Liége and Dinant cost +him the affection and good will of all his people. His great +antagonist was Louis XI of France--also one of the most picturesque +figures in history--but the exact antithesis of Charles in almost +every respect. While Charles never received a delegation unless seated +on a throne, the loftiness and grandeur of which filled every eye, +Louis dressed plainly--often wearing the grey cloak of a pilgrim, and +almost invariably a pilgrim's hat, with a leaden image of some saint +in the hat-band. On one occasion, when he paid a visit to his subjects +in Normandy, riding in company with the gorgeous Duke of Burgundy, the +peasants exclaimed, "Is that a King of France? Why, the whole outfit, +man and horse, is not worth twenty francs!" + +Charles, like his father, held his ducal court wherever he might +happen to be--both princes often carrying a lengthy train of baggage, +including even furniture and tapestries, from one castle to another. +Bruges, however, is identified with some of the most important events +of his career, and he held his court there much oftener than at the +ancestral capital of Burgundy, Dijon. During the last years of the +reign of his father, Philip the Good, Charles acted as Regent, and it +was during this period of his rule that he astonished and terrified +Europe by the ferocity with which he avenged an insult to his parents' +honour by utterly destroying the prosperous city of Dinant and +slaughtering most of its male inhabitants. On his accession to the +ducal throne, however, the great communes of Ghent, Bruges, Malines +and Brussels were able to extort from their new Duke all of the +privileges that his father had taken away during his long reign. +Charles granted these with fury in his heart, vowing openly that +before long he would humble these presumptuous burghers. Fortunately +for the liberties of the Flemish towns, their Duke's attentions were +speedily called elsewhere and he found no opportunity to carry out his +threats. + +Fomented by the emissaries of Louis XI, the turbulent citizens of +Liége--already a large and prosperous manufacturing town, as advanced +in the metallurgical arts as the Flemish cities were in the textile +industries--rose in insurrection against their Bishop-Prince, an ally +of Charles. With an army of one hundred thousand feudal levies Charles +quickly suppressed this revolt. The following year Louis ventured to +place himself in Charles' power by paying him a visit at his powerful +castle of Péronne. This famous historical incident is brilliantly +described by Sir Walter Scott in _Quentin Durward_. To the king's +alarm and very extreme personal danger, the people of Liége took the +moment of this visit to rise again. Charles was furious, and, not +unjustly considering Louis to be the author of this attack on his +authority, had that monarch locked up in a room in the castle. Nor was +he placated until Louis signed a treaty still further extending the +power of the Dukes of Burgundy in France, and agreed to join Charles +in the expedition to punish his unruly subjects. This time the city +after being captured was given over to the half-savage Burgundian +soldiery to be sacked, some forty thousand of its inhabitants +perishing. + +Returning to Flanders, Charles bitterly denounced the cautious policy +of the burghers in refusing to pay tax levies for his armies unless +they knew how the money was to be spent. "Heavy and hard Flemish heads +that you are," he cried to a delegation from Ghent, "you always remain +fixed in your bad opinions, but know that others are as wise as you. +You Flemings, with your hard heads, have always either despised or +hated your princes. I prefer being hated to being despised. Take care +to attempt nothing against my highness and lordship, for I am powerful +enough to resist you. It would be the story of the iron and the +earthen pots." + +Presently Louis, repudiating the recent treaty as being extorted by +force, invaded Charles' dominions and captured several cities on the +Somme. Charles sought to retake them and was repulsed both at Amiens +and Beauvais, the defenders at the latter place being urged to +stronger resistance by Jeanne Hachette, one of the heroic figures of +French history. Charles now turned his attention to the German side of +his dominions, and here also the implacable enmity of Louis stirred up +enemies for him in every direction. In Alsace the people rose in +revolt and slew the cruel governor Charles had set over them, while +the Swiss defeated the Marshal of Burgundy. Charles set forth to +re-establish his authority with an army of thirty thousand men, the +flower of his feudal levies. The Swiss, alarmed, sued for peace, +assuring the powerful Duke that there was more gold in the spurs and +bridles of his horsemen than could be found in all of Switzerland. + +Charles, however, was bent on punishing these impudent mountaineers +and ordered the invasion of their country. The defenders of the little +fortress of Granson surrendered on the approach of his army, but in +flagrant violation of the terms he had just granted the Duke of +Burgundy ordered the entire garrison to be hanged. This act was +speedily avenged, for the Swiss a few days later utterly routed the +Burgundian forces just outside of Granson. The mountaineers in this +battle advanced in a solid phalanx against which Charles' horsemen and +archers could make no impression. The blow to the pride and prestige +of the Duke was far more serious than the loss of the engagement and +the scattering of his army. With great difficulty he raised fresh +levies, the Flemish communes granting aid only on condition that no +further subsidies should be demanded for six years to come. The battle +of Granson took place March 2, 1476. By June he had raised another +and a larger army, and on the 22nd met the Swiss again at Morat. On +reviewing his host before the battle, Charles is said to have +exclaimed, "By St. George, we shall now have vengeance!" but the +vengeance was not to be always on one side, for the Swiss, making +their battle-cry "Granson! Granson!" in remembrance of their +countrymen, whom Charles had treacherously slain, almost annihilated +his army. The Swiss showed no mercy and took no prisoners, while the +number of killed on the Burgundian side amounted to eighteen thousand. +Charles escaped with his life, accompanied by a small body of his +knights. + +For a time it seemed as if his rage and despair at these two defeats +would cause the proud Duke to lose his reason, nor could his threats +or entreaties secure more assistance from Flanders. He managed, +however, to keep the field, and with a small force sat down to besiege +Nancy--which had been lost to him again after Morat. The town held out +stubbornly, as all towns did, now that Charles' cruelty and treachery +to those who surrendered were known, and the Burgundian forces +suffered much hardship from the cold, for it was now mid-winter. On +January 5th Charles gave battle to an advancing force of Swiss, was +again crushed and the greater part of his little army killed. After +the battle the Duke could not be found, and no man knew what had +become of him. The following day a page reported that he had seen his +master fall, and could find the place. He led the searchers to a +little pond called the Etang de St. Jean. Here, by the border of a +little stream, they found a dozen despoiled bodies, naked and frozen +in the mud and ice. One by one they turned these over. "Alas," said +the little page presently, "here is my good master!" Disfigured, with +two fearful death wounds, and with part of his face eaten by wolves, +it was indeed the body of the great Duke. + +Even his enemies did honour to the dead prince. Clothed in a robe of +white satin, with a crimson satin mantle, his body was borne in state +into the town he had vainly sought to conquer, and placed in a velvet +bed under a canopy of black satin. His remains were interred in the +church of St. George at Nancy, where they remained for more than fifty +years. The Emperor, Charles V, then had them brought to Bruges and +placed in the church of St. Donatian. His son, Philip II, removed +them, five years later, to the wonderful shrine in the Church of +Notre Dame where they remained until the French Revolution, when they +were scattered to the winds as the bones of a tyrant. The sarcophagus, +however, of the Duke and his gentle daughter, Marie, still remain, as +we have seen, and are among the finest in existence. + +The death of the powerful Duke of Burgundy made a profound impression +throughout Europe, and still remains, as Mr. Boulger in his admirable +_History of Belgium_ says, "one of the tragedies of all history." His +downfall was mainly due to the implacable hostility of Louis XI, whom +he had once publicly humiliated at Péronne and affected at all times +to despise. Many of the Swiss and Germans who fought against him in +his last fatal campaign were hired mercenaries in the pay of the King +of France, while some of his most trusted followers and advisers were +traitors in constant correspondence with his wily and unscrupulous +antagonist. Had Charles sought to conciliate his great Flemish +communes instead of intimidate them his reign might have been +prolonged by their powerful aid, and his dream of establishing a +kingdom of Burgundy have been realised. As it was, he failed signally +in most of his undertakings, and with all his fury and vainglory and +cruelty lost in ten years the huge power that his father had taken +fifty years to accumulate. + +Marie, Charles' only daughter, was left by his sudden and unexpected +death "the greatest heiress in Christendom," but also well-nigh +helpless to rule over or even hold her widespread dominions. To +prevent the King of France from taking advantage of this situation her +Flemish counsellors advised her to accept an offer of marriage from +Maximilian, son of the Emperor Frederick III, and in August of the +same year that saw the battle of Granson they were quietly married at +Bruges. This event made Flanders a still smaller unit than before in a +vast aggregation of states that in the course of events was being +combined under the rule of the House of Hapsburg, nor did Marie's +untimely death, less than five years later, in any wise delay the +process of consolidation. + +Bruges, during the stormy reign of Charles the Bold and the quarter of +a century of anxiety and troubles for its burghers that followed after +the battle of Nancy, was steadily losing its population and material +prosperity, and, at the same time, acquiring its greatest claim to +fame--for it was between the year 1462 and 1491 that Memling, the +foremost of the early Flemish painters, executed the wonderful series +of masterpieces that have come down to us. And it is to Bruges that +the student of art must come to see the famous Fleming at his best, +for there are more of his important works here than in all the rest of +the world put together. + +In common with many others in the early Gothic school very little is +known of the early life of Hans Memling, but the recent discovery in +an old manuscript of a note stating that he was born at or near +Mayence gives a most interesting clue both as to his birthplace and +the origin of his name. In the Rhineland district near Mayence there +is a small tributary to the great river called Memling, and a village +named Memlingen. It is probable, therefore, that--just as the brothers +Van Eyck called themselves Hubert and Jean of Eyck--so their most +famous successor called himself Hans of Memling. For lack of authentic +details regarding his early career legend has supplied a most +interesting history--that he was wild and dissolute in his younger +days, was wounded while fighting with Charles the Bold at Nancy, +dragged himself to the door of the hospital of St. Jean at Bruges, and +was there tenderly nursed back to health and strength, in gratitude +for which he painted for the kind sisters the little gallery of fine +works that are still preserved in the original chapter house of the +institution. All of this romance, and that of his love for one of the +sisters, makes a charming background for many of the accounts of his +life and work, but the painstaking scholarship of modern days has +shown that at the time when he was supposed to be lying wounded and +destitute at the hospital he was in fact very prosperous, having +lately bought the house in which he lived and his name appearing as +one of the leading citizens of whom the commune had borrowed money. It +is perhaps pleasanter on the whole to think of the artist as rich and +honoured instead of at the other extreme of the social scale--but the +legend is, after all, so much more romantic that we cannot give it up +without regret. + +At Bruges the first spot for the admirer of Memling to visit is, of +course, the hospital of St. Jean, and at the hospital the first thing +to see is the world-famous shrine of St. Ursula. Little it is, yet +beyond price in value. It was constructed as a casket to contain the +relics of the Saint and was completed in 1489. In design it is a +miniature Gothic chapel two feet ten inches high and three feet +long, with three little panels on each side which contain Memling's +famous pictures setting forth the life and martyrdom of the Saint and +the eleven thousand other virgins who shared her fate. The story of +the famous pilgrimage to Rome and its melancholy ending at Cologne has +been told so often that it need not be repeated here. Ask one of the +sisters to tell it to you in her charming broken French--for they are +Flemish, these sweet-faced sisters, and, as a rule, understand neither +French nor English. + +[Illustration: SHRINE OF ST. URSULA, HOSPITAL OF ST. JEAN, BRUGES.] + +This fact is said to have served them in good stead on the terrible +day when the bandit-soldiery of the French Republic clamoured at the +doors of the hospital in 1494. "The shrine! the shrine!" they cried, +"give us the shrine!" ("_La châsse, la châsse, donnez nous la +châsse!_") The nuns, who had never heard it called by that name, but +knew it only by its Flemish name of _Ryve_, replied that they did not +possess such a thing as a _châsse_, and their voices and expressions +so clearly showed their truthfulness and innocence of any deceit that +the rabble of soldiers went away and the shrine was saved. Early in +the nineteenth century the Mother Superior refused a most tempting +offer to purchase the shrine, replying, "We are poor, but the +greatest riches in the world would not tempt us to part with it." + +While the paintings on the shrine are the most famous of Memling's +works, they are not regarded by the critics as being his best. As Mr. +Rooses expresses it, "The artist seems to have been less intent on +perfection of detail for each figure than on the marvellous polychromy +of the whole." The hospital of St. Jean possesses three of the +master's greatest works--two triptychs entitled "The Marriage of St. +Catherine" and "The Adoration of the Magi," and the diptych +representing the Madonna and Martin Van Nieuwenhove. The museum at +Bruges contains still another masterpiece, a picture showing in the +centre St. Christopher, St. Maurus and St. Giles--the first bearing +the Infant Christ upon his shoulders--while the two shutters contain +the usual portraits of the donors. One of Memling's most important +works was a picture of "The Last Judgment" which was painted for an +Italian, Jacopo Tani, and placed on board ship to be sent to Florence +by sea. The ship was captured by privateers in the English Channel, +and as its owners were citizens of Dantzig it was presented by them to +the Church of Our Lady in that city, where it still remains. There +are several admirable works by this master at the museums of Brussels +and Antwerp, while others are scattered throughout Europe, and one +particularly fine example of his art was brought to America by the +late Benjamin Altman and now hangs in the Altman collection at the +Metropolitan Museum at New York. + +While the chief interest to the visitor at the hospital of St. Jean is +the remarkable collection of works by Memling, the old buildings +themselves merit more than a casual glance. Some of them date from the +twelfth century, and the view looking back at the ancient waterfront +from the bridge by which the rue St. Catherine here crosses the river +is particularly picturesque. The old brick structures go down to the +very water's edge, and sometimes below it, and the entire pile from +this side must look much as it did in Memling's day. + +Another artist whose work sheds lustre on the old town of Bruges was +Gheerhardt David. For nearly four centuries his name and even his very +existence were forgotten, his paintings being attributed to +Memling--in itself a high evidence of their merit. Recent studies by +James Weale and other scholars have given us quite a complete life of +this artist, who lived between 1460 and 1523, and a number of his +works have been identified. All of these seem to have been painted at +Bruges, and some of the more notable ones still remain there. The +municipal authorities commissioned him to paint two great pictures +representing notable examples of justice such as Van der Weyden had +done for the Hotel de Ville at Brussels. These depict the flaying +alive of the unjust Judge Sisamnes by Cambyses, King of Persia, and +are still preserved in the museum at Bruges. The museum also possesses +another masterpiece by this artist, "The Baptism of Christ." Others +that have been identified through painstaking study of the old +archives of the city and contemporary sources are located in the +National Gallery at London and in the museum of Rouen. + +The prosperity of Bruges was declining very fast while David was +painting the last of his religious pictures and the merchants were +steadily leaving the city for Antwerp, which was now rising into +importance. The artists, whose prosperity depended upon the wealth of +the burghers were also drifting to the new commercial metropolis on +the Scheldt and the famous school of Bruges was near its end by the +middle of the sixteenth century. The last artists who worked at +Bruges were of minor interest. Adriaen Ysenbrant, Albert Cornelis and +Jean Prévost belong to this period, and their most important works are +still preserved in the city where they were executed. "The Virgin of +the Seven Sorrows," in the church of Notre Dame, is attributed to the +first, a triptych in the church of St. Jacques to the second, while +the museum has several pictures by Prévost, including an interesting +"Last Judgment," and another striking representation of the same +subject by Pieter Pourbus, of which there is a copy in the Palais du +Franc. The masterpieces by Jean Van Eyck in this museum have already +been mentioned, and the small but exceedingly rich collection also +includes a fine production entitled "The Death of the Virgin," which +is now generally attributed to Hugo Van der Goes--one of the +comparatively few works by that master that have come down to us. +There are also several other works by P. Pourbus, and a powerful +allegorical picture by Jean Prévost representing Avarice and Death. +There is undoubtedly no collection of paintings in the world of which +the average value is so great as that of the little group in the +hospital of St. Jean, and the one in the Bruges museum--while it has +quite a few of minor interest and value--would also bring a very high +average if subjected to the bidding of the world's millionaire art +lovers. + +[Illustration: _An Illumination by Gheerhardt David of Bruges, 1498; +St. Barbara_] + +Bruges possesses another museum of great interest which dates from the +days of the last Dukes of Burgundy. This is the Gruuthuise mansion, of +which the oldest wing was built in 1420, and much of the finer portion +about 1470 by Louis, or Lodewyk, Van der Gruuthuise, who here +entertained Charles the Bold and his pretty daughter--becoming one of +the latter's chief advisers on the death of her father and one of the +two Flemish noblemen who witnessed her marriage. The stately old +palace is therefore rich with historic associations. As we entered its +broad courtyard, however, we were most unfavourably impressed by its +rough-paved surface with the grass growing thick between the stones. +Surely this must have looked very different in the days when knights +and fair ladies swarmed here like bees, and the city, which has so +carefully restored everything else, would do well to at least park +this otherwise very pretty little enclosure. The interior is both +pleasing and disappointing. The edifice itself is superb as a survival +of a nobleman's palace of the fifteenth century, and as an example of +Flemish interior architecture. The grand stone staircase, the massive +fireplaces, also in white stone, and one or two of the rooms in their +entirety give a fine impression of the splendour of the establishment +maintained by the great Lord of Gruuthuise in the days when he counted +King Edward IV of England and Richard Crookback among his guests, and +was engaged in collecting the marvellous library now in Paris. +Everywhere, over the fireplaces, and in various stone carvings, one +reads the proud motto of the powerful builders of this palace, _Plus +est en nous_. + +When the palace was in course of restoration some years ago the +workmen uncovered a secret chamber behind the great stone fireplace in +the kitchen, concealed within the masonry of the huge chimney, and +within it the skeleton of a man. A secret staircase was also +discovered here which led to two underground passages branching off in +opposite directions. Strangely enough neither of them has ever been +explored, but one is supposed to lead to the vaults beneath the +adjoining church of Notre Dame, and the other to some point outside +the city walls. Some have conjectured that it leads to the Château of +Maele, some four miles distant, but probably it went to the manor of +the Lords of Gruuthuise at Oostcamp. Within this mansion a modern Sir +Walter Scott could easily conjure forth a new series of Waverley +novels treating of the stirring days when Bruges was virtually the +capital of Flanders and Flanders was the brightest jewel in the +Burgundian crown. + +All this is most fascinating, and, as far as it goes, helps us to +reconstruct in fancy the great days of the past. The disappointing +feature about the palace is the museum itself, which, although +interesting and valuable, utterly spoils many of the fine rooms by +converting them into mere exhibition places. In a measure the +authorities have followed the admirable plan of the owners of the +Hotel Merghelynck at Ypres, and the immense kitchen, for example, +contains only kitchen utensils of the Middle Ages--a most complete and +interesting collection. The same is also true of the large dining-room +on the same floor, but as one proceeds farther the atmosphere of +antiquity becomes lost and it is all nothing but museum. The palace +contains a splendid collection of old lace, the gift of the Baroness +Liedts, but it seemed to us that it would have been much better to +have housed this and the various collections of antiquities in some +less famous and historic structure and endeavoured to restore all of +these rooms to approximately their condition when Charles the Bold +stalked through them. + +The period of Philip the Good and his terrible son was the one in +which mediæval Bruges took on substantially its present form. In +addition to the Gruuthuise Palace scores of important edifices, public +and private, were built or rebuilt at this time, while hundreds of +smaller houses were constructed--of which many remain in existence +to-day. The greatest and most famous edifice dating in large part from +this epoch is the cathedral of St. Sauveur whose grim, castle-like +tower dominates the entire city. The lowest part of the tower dates +from 1116-1127--as already related in the chapter on Bruges under +Charles the Good--when the church was rebuilt after a fire that +destroyed the primitive structure erected on the site a century or +more earlier. Between 1250 and 1346, or for almost a century, the men +of Bruges were slowly piling up a noble church in the early Gothic +style, but another fire in 1358 necessitated rebuilding the nave and +transept--a task which occupied the next ten or fifteen years. In 1480 +work was begun upon the five chapels of the choir and nine years later +the Pope, Innocent VIII, granted a special Bull of Indulgence in +favour of benefactors of this work, which appears to have been delayed +for lack of funds. Work of various kinds was continued until the +middle of the sixteenth century, but, in the main, the great church +was nearly as we see it now by the year 1511. The upper part of the +tower is comparatively modern, dating from 1846, and the spire from +1871. While it has been criticised by some as ungainly and cumbrous, +the effect of this tower, from whatever angle it may be viewed, is +very pleasing. The high lights and shadows on a sunny morning, or late +in the afternoon, make it far more beautiful than its sister of Notre +Dame, while against the grey cloud masses of a typical Flemish sky its +huge tawny mass stands out sharp and clear, the embodiment of majesty +and strength. + +The interior of the church is very large, measuring three hundred and +thirty-one feet by one hundred and twenty-five feet, with an extreme +width of one hundred and seventy-four feet across the transepts. Its +polychrome decorations and stained glass windows are modern. In +another place the wealth of art treasures in this church would merit a +chapter, but in Bruges they are so overshadowed by the many +masterpieces to be seen elsewhere that we felt somewhat satiated +after such a feast and spent very little time looking at the pictures +here. The most famous one is a "Martyrdom of St. Hippolytus," by +Dierick Bouts, which is interesting because so few examples of this +primitive master are in existence. It is a triptych, the central panel +showing the saint about to be torn to pieces by wild horses, on the +left an incident in the life of the saint, and on the right the +donors. The last picture has been attributed by many critics to Hugo +Van der Goes, and for many years the entire picture was thought to be +the work of Memling. Bouts delighted in unpleasant subjects, which he +depicted with great realism. + +[Illustration: "THE LAST SUPPER."--THIERRY BOUTS.] + +Dierick, or Thierry, Bouts settled at Louvain about the middle of the +fifteenth century. Beyond the fact that he came from Haarlem nothing +is known of his early life and training, but as Van der Weyden of +Tournai had done some important work at Louvain it is likely that +Bouts may have derived some of his inspiration from studying the +methods of that master. He was a contemporary of Memling. Two of his +paintings, "The Last Supper" and the gruesome "Martyrdom of St. +Erasmus," were executed for the wealthy brotherhood of the Holy +Sacrament and were hung in the church of St. Peter.[2] Bouts became +the official painter for the city of Louvain and produced a "Last +Judgment" for the hall of the échevins which has since been lost, and +two panels for the council-room of the Hotel de Ville representing +"The Judgment of Otho." These are now in the museum at Brussels. The +Queen having accused an earl of offending her honour, the latter is +decapitated. The head is then given to his Countess, together with a +glowing bar of iron. In the second panel she is shown triumphantly +holding both, the hot iron refusing to burn her and thereby +vindicating her husband's innocence. The result of the ordeal is shown +in the distance where the false Queen is being executed at the stake. +These pictures were ordered, in imitation of those painted by Van der +Weyden for the Hotel de Ville at Brussels, as part of a series of +panels designed to instill the love of virtue and justice into the +minds of the magistrates and people. The artist's death prevented his +completing two other panels that the archives of Louvain show had been +ordered. Besides this "Martyrdom of St. Hippolytus" a comparatively +small number of other works from his brush are listed in the +catalogues of various European museums. + +[Footnote 2: They were probably destroyed during the burning of +Louvain by the Germans.] + +Of the other structures in Bruges of to-day there are a score that +merit a visit from those who are interested in the city's splendid +past, and that date for the most part from the last years of the +Burgundian period. In the rue des Aiguilles there still exists a +fragment of the Hotel Bladelin, the town house of Peter Bladelin, who +was for many years Controller-General of Finance, Treasurer of the +Order of the Golden Fleece, and the trusted agent of the Dukes in all +manner of business and private affairs. Peter subsequently built the +town of Middleburg, for the church in which Van der Weyden painted one +of his most famous pictures. The Ghistelhof in the same street also +dates from this epoch, and was built by the Lords of Ghistelle. Then +there is the Hotel d'Adornes and the church of Jerusalem, which was +formerly the private chapel of the rich brothers Anselm and John +Adornes. There is still a fine mediæval atmosphere lingering about +this group of buildings, although much altered from what they were in +their prime. The church itself is most curious, and beneath the choir +is a crypt that leads to a reproduction of the Holy Sepulchre, said to +be a facsimile of the one in the garden of Joseph of Arimathea. It +would take a volume to cite all of the fine old structures of which +traces still exist in this, the most picturesque of all the Flemish +cities. The reader who desires to find them all cannot do better than +to take Ernest Gilliat-Smith's brilliant _Story of Bruges_ with him +and look for them, one by one. For those who cannot devote a week or +more to this delightful task a quicker way to see the Bruges of +Charles the Bold is to stroll slowly along the Quai Vert, the Quai des +Marbriers and the Quai du Rosaire and let the beautiful vistas of the +Vieux Bourg with its quaint red roofs and noble towers become engraved +upon the memory, for here, more completely than anywhere else, one can +see the Bruges of the past much as it looked in the day of its +greatest splendour when it was about to sink into its long sleep. + +Thus far Bruges has not suffered seriously from the war, and it is +profoundly to be hoped that no bombardment such as crumbled its fair +neighbour Termonde into utter ruin will create similar havoc amid +these indescribably beautiful scenes. A few hours would suffice to +destroy artistic and architectural treasures of a value that would +make the destruction of Louvain seem of little consequence in +comparison. + +[Illustration: QUAI VERT, BRUGES.] + + + + +CHAPTER XV + +MALINES IN THE TIME OF MARGARET OF AUSTRIA + + +Since this chapter was written the ill-fated city of Malines has been +swept with shot and shell for many days together, its once happy and +prosperous inhabitants driven far and wide--many of them into foreign +lands--and it is doubtful if a single one of the various ancient +edifices which we visited last June has escaped injury. +Notwithstanding these sad facts it has seemed best to retain the +chapter substantially as it was written, inasmuch as it affords a pen +picture of the old town as it looked on the very eve of its +destruction. Let us hope that when the war is over it will be found +that most, if not all, of its famous old structures can be restored +again. As the scene of some of the most stubborn conflicts of the +great war, it is likely that the city will be more generally visited +by tourists than was the case when its architectural and artistic +treasures were uninjured, save by the gentle hand of time. To those +who thus visit it the following account of the Malines that was may +prove interesting. + +Situated midway between Antwerp and Brussels, on a route formerly +traversed by scores of _rapides_ every day, the ancient city of +Malines--which is the French spelling, the Flemish being Mechelen--was +exceptionally easy to visit, yet during the three days that we spent +wandering along its entrancing old quays and streets and inspecting +its many "monuments" we saw not a single tourist. This was the more +remarkable because Malines is not only one of the very oldest cities +in Northern Europe, but was for centuries among the most famous. For a +considerable period it was the capital of all the Netherlands, and it +is still the religious capital of Belgium--the archbishop of its +cathedral church exercising authority over the bishops of Bruges, +Ghent, Liége, Namur and Tournai. + +No matter from which side one approaches the city the first object to +be seen is the vast square tower of the Cathedral of St. Rombaut, and +as this huge structure--the eighth wonder of the world, according to +Vauban--dominates the town, so the church itself has dominated the +history of the city on the River Dyle for more than eleven +centuries. According to tradition St. Rombaut, or Rombold, to use the +English spelling, sought to convert the savage tribes inhabiting the +marshes that extended along the river about the middle of the eighth +century, the date of his martyrdom being placed at 775. A Benedictine +abbey was shortly afterwards established near his tomb, which steadily +grew in importance and power until by the twelfth century it had +become one of the most important religious institutions in the region. +During the thirteenth century the prince-bishops of Malines became the +virtual sovereigns of the city, one of them--Gauthier Berthout, +sometimes called the Great--defeating the Duke of Gueldre, who +attempted in 1267 to assert his authority over that of the prelate. At +this period many of the religious institutions of Malines were +established under the patronage of Gauthier Berthout and his +successors. + +[Illustration: CATHEDRAL OF ST. ROMBAUT. MALINES.] + +Meanwhile the comparative immunity of the city from the ravages of the +wars that so often raged at that period between the various feudal +lords of the region caused great numbers of artisans to settle there, +particularly weavers, while the cloth merchants' guild came to be +recognised as entitled to a voice in the civil affairs of the +commune. Ships, according to the chronicles, came up the River Dyle in +such numbers as to make the commercial activity of the town rival that +of Antwerp--a statement that is hard to believe when one gazes at the +tiny River Dyle of to-day. However, the ships in those days were very +small, and the river, like so many others in Belgium, was no doubt +broader then than it is now that the marshes have all been drained. +The weavers and other artisans were a turbulent lot, and it soon +became evident that the bishops lacked the power to hold them in +check. + +This led to a series of alienations of the temporal power over the +commune to neighbouring princes whose armies were strong enough to +keep the unruly burghers in restraint. The first of these was effected +in the year 1300 between the prince-bishop, Jean Berthout, and Jean +II, Duke of Brabant. In 1303 the news of the great victory gained over +the nobility by the Flemish communes at Courtrai caused the citizens +to revolt against their new master, the Duke, who besieged the city +and finally reduced it by starvation. Until this time the Dyle had +never been bridged, its waters flowing over a broad marshy bed. This +made the siege the more difficult as the attacking forces were +separated by the river, and it was five months before the sturdy +burghers yielded. To this day an annual procession, called the +_peysprocessie_, perpetuates the memory of this famous siege. + +During the next half century the civil authority over the city became +a veritable shuttlecock of politics and war, shifting back and forth +between the Dukes of Brabant and the Counts of Flanders. It was bought +and sold like a parcel of real estate, but eventually rested with the +Counts of Flanders, who had first acquired it by purchase in 1333, and +were finally left in undisputed possession by a treaty signed in 1357. +Four years later a violent insurrection of the weavers and other +artisans broke out that was only mastered after the city had been in +their possession fifteen days, but with the advent of the Dukes of +Burgundy to the supreme power over all of Flanders, Brabant, Hainaut +and Holland, the unruly workmen were no longer strong enough to resist +these redoubtable princes. Great numbers of them emigrated to other +cities, and the cloth industry, after languishing for a time, finally +disappeared. + +Like most Flemish towns, Malines has its principal railway station +located on its very outskirts, and as far as possible from the Grande +Place. A tram car was standing in front of the station on the morning +of our first visit, but it seemed that it did not start for ten +minutes. A score of roomy two-seated carriages invited our patronage, +but we valiantly decided to walk. We soon regretted our decision as +the walk proved to be long and hot, with very little of interest to +see, as the houses in this part of the town are comparatively modern. +At the bridge across the Dyle we paused for a few moments to admire +the fine views that can here be had of the old Church Notre Dame au +delà de la Dyle to the westward and the equally picturesque Notre Dame +d'Hanswyck to the eastward. Just beyond the river is the entrance to +the Botanical Gardens, and as our first visit chanced to be on a +Friday we walked in unmolested and enjoyed the welcome shade and the +beautiful landscape effects of this charming little park. Later on we +learned that Friday is the only week-day on which admission is free, a +fee of ten cents being exacted on other days. + +As is the case in most Belgian cities, the street from the station to +the heart of the town, although continuous and straight, changes its +name more than once. At the outset it is the rue Conscience, then the +rue d'Egmont, and from the bridge across the Dyle to the Grande Place +it is named Bruul. Entering the Place from this side we paused to +admire the tremendous tower of the cathedral which here burst upon us +in all its majestic grandeur, although the edifice is situated a +little to the west of the Place itself. In front of us, on the right, +was a singularly dilapidated ruin, which we learned was the old Cloth +Hall. Part of it is used as a police station, part is vacant with its +window openings devoid of sashes or glass staring blankly at the sky, +while part is devoted to housing a small museum of municipal +antiquities. The first Cloth Hall at Malines was destroyed by fire in +1342, and the new one that was begun to replace it was never finished, +owing to the ruin of the cloth industry during the struggles between +the artisans and their overlords, and a belfry which it was proposed +to erect similar to that at Bruges was never begun. The museum +contains a number of pictures by Malines artists, of historical rather +than artistic interest, a "Christ on the Cross," by Rubens, and a +variety of relics of the city's famous past. Curiously enough, there +is not a single piece of lace in the collection, nor anything to +represent the great cloth weaving industry--the two branches of +manufacture to which the city owes so much of its former wealth and +fame. + +Adjoining the _Halle aux Draps_ to the north is a fine modern +post-office built from designs drawn by the great Malines architect of +the sixteenth century, Rombaut Keldermans, for a new Hotel de Ville, +which was never built. Unfortunately its principal façade overlooks +the narrow rue de Beffer instead of the Grande Place, and its +beautiful details cannot be seen as effectively as could be desired. +In the Vieux Palais, the ancient "Schepenhuis," or house of the +bailiffs, situated a little south of the Place, we were shown the +original design by Keldermans. It is kept in a sliding panel on the +wall and, although somewhat dim with age, can still be studied in +detail. The modern architects of the post-office have reverently +followed the plans of the great master so that at least this one of +his many brilliant architectural dreams has come true, and now stands +carved in imperishable stone just as his genius conceived it nearly +four centuries ago. + +To the ancestor of this architect, Jean Keldermans, is generally +attributed the honour of designing the tower of St. Rombaut, the +architectural glory of Malines and one of the most magnificent +structures of the kind in the world. There are a thousand places +throughout the city where the photographer or painter can obtain +attractive views of this masterpiece, but perhaps the best of all is +from a point some distance down the Ruelle sans Fin (Little Street +without End) where a quaint mediæval house forms an arch across the +narrow street, while behind and far above it rises the majestic tower. +From whatever standpoint one regards the great tower, whether gazing +up at its vast bulk from directly beneath--a point of view that the +camera cannot reproduce--or from any of the little streets that +radiate away from it, its grandeur and beauty are equally impressive. + +[Illustration: TOWER OF THE CATHEDRAL OF ST. ROMBAUT FROM THE RUELLE +SANS FIN.] + +Begun in 1452, work on the great tower advanced slowly. In 1468, +according to a memorial tablet near the southern side of the tower, +Gauthier Coolman was buried there. It was the custom in the Middle +Ages to thus recognise the _magister operis_, or creator of the work, +but it is generally acknowledged that Jean Keldermans is entitled to +share in the credit for this achievement. Jean was the first in a +family of famous architects, his brothers André, Mathieu and Antoine +I, following the same profession, and their skill being handed down +to later generations, of whom the most famous were Antoine II, Rombaut +and Laurent. At the beginning of the sixteenth century work on the +great tower was stopped, owing to lack of funds, after attaining a +height of three hundred and eighteen feet. The plans, of which +sketches are still preserved at Brussels, called for carrying the +spire upward to a total height of five hundred and fifty feet, and in +the ambulatory of the cathedral we found a plaster cast showing the +spire as it was proposed to erect it. The stones to complete the work +were already cut and brought to Malines, but were carried away between +1582 and 1584 by the Prince of Orange to build the town of +Willemstadt. Apart from its height, this tower is remarkable for its +great bulk, measuring no less than twenty-five metres in diameter at +the base. + +On each side for most of its height the architect designed a series of +lofty Gothic windows. Of these the lowest are filled in with masonry, +except for a tiny window in the centre. In the higher ones stone +blinds fill in the openings, while the topmost pair are wide open to +the sky. The well-known legend about the over-excitable citizen of +Malines who cried "Fire!" one night after seeing the full moon +through these windows gave the people of the town for many years the +nickname of _Maanblusschers_, or moon extinguishers, and also gave +rise to the slur in the last three words of the following Latin +distich in which an old monkish poet compares the six chief cities of +Belgium: + + _Nobilibus Bruxella viris, Antwerpia Nummis, + Gandavum laqueis, formosis Bruga puellis, + Lovanium doctis, gaudet Mechlinia stultis._ + + Brussels is renowned for its noble men, Antwerp for its money, + Ghent for its halters, Bruges for its pretty girls, + Louvain for its scholars, Malines (Mechelen) for its fools. + +This seems rather hard on Malines, and also on Ghent, the allusion to +that city referring to numerous occasions when its sovereigns humbled +the burghers by forcing them to plead for mercy with halters around +their necks. + +On the outside of the tower, close to its present summit, is a clock +the face of which is claimed to be the largest in the world. As the +same claim is made for the great clock on an industrial establishment +in Jersey City I will simply give the dimensions of the one at Malines +and let those interested make the comparison for themselves: Diameter +of face, 13.5 metres; circumference, 41 metres; length of hour hand, +3.62 metres; height of figures, 1.96 metres. The minute hands were +originally 4.25 metres long, but are missing on all four sides. This +renders the time-piece hardly one to be consulted if one is catching a +train, as the exact minute can only be estimated from the position of +the hour hand. Furthermore, the gilding on the hour hands and on most +of the figures has become so dim that only the strongest eyes can +distinguish the former, and some of the latter can only be made out +from their position. As the city appeared to be exceedingly proud of +the size of this clock it seemed strange that the authorities did not +authorise the expenditure of the small sum necessary to re-gild it. + +It is a hard climb to the top of the tower, but one well worth making, +not only for the fine panorama of the city that unfolds itself wider +and wider as one mounts higher, but for the opportunity thus afforded +of seeing the fine _carillon_, or set of chimes, and the curious +mechanism operating the clappers that strike the hours. Just before +reaching the floor upon which these are placed the guide conducts the +visitor to a trap door from which one can look down into the interior +of the cathedral--a thrilling experience to be enjoyed only by those +who are not inclined to be dizzy. The massive timber work supporting +the huge bells was constructed in 1662, but the oldest of the bells +dates from 1498, or six years after the discovery of America. The two +biggest bells are named Salvator and Charles, of which the larger one +weighs 8,884 kilos, or more than nine tons, and requires twelve men to +ring it. There are four other big bells and forty-five for the entire +_carillon_, most of which were cast by Pierre Hémony of Amsterdam, the +Stradivarius of bell founders, in 1674. Altogether they form four +octaves, the giants chiming in with the others as the music demands. +The keyboard which operates the little hammers is operated by both +hand and foot power, and the _carillonneur_ who operates it is worthy +of the splendid instrument at his command, being Josef Denyn, the son +of an equally famous _carillonneur_, and reputed to be the finest in +Europe. M. Denyn not only gives frequent concerts at Malines, but also +at Antwerp and Bruges, as well as in many European cities outside of +Belgium. + +We made a special trip to Malines one Monday afternoon in June solely +to listen to one of these concerts, which takes place on that day +between eight and nine in the evening, during the months of June, +August and September. The sleepy old town was thronged with +automobiles, for the renown of these famous concerts has spread far +and wide, and some of the cars, we were told, had come from points as +far away as Ostende, Blankenburghe and Heyst, while scores were from +Antwerp and Brussels. The crowd gathered quietly in the streets +surrounding the great tower and a great silence seemed to pervade the +entire city as the hour of eight approached. Then, faint and far at +first, came the first dulcet tones from this great organ of the sky, +until--as the music swelled and more of the larger bells began to +blend their notes in the harmony--the very air seemed vibrant with +celestial sounds. The selection, as we afterwards learned, was one of +the _Volksliederen_, or pieces of folk music for the rendition of +which M. Denyn is famous. As we listened we realised as never before +the part the ancient _carillon_ was meant to take in the daily life of +the people. It is, in truth, as a French author has beautifully +expressed it, the orchestra of the poor, giving expression through its +wondrous notes to their joys and their sorrows. On the occasion of +great fêtes its music is light and gay, in attune with the popular +rejoicing; in times of public grief the _carillon_ gives utterance to +notes of lamentation; when a famous citizen is being borne to his last +resting-place through the streets lined with silent mourners the +_carillon_ sends the deep notes of its funeral dirges across the city; +in time of war or sudden danger the great bells roar the wild tocsin +of alarm; in time of peace their softest notes breathe a sweet prayer +of peace and benediction at eventide. + +While we were visiting the tower we were shown the _tambour_ cast in +copper by means of which the clock strikes the hours, the half hours +and the quarters. This was cast in 1783, and two years were required +to make the sixteen thousand, two hundred square holes into which drop +the teeth that actuate the striking hammers. + +The interior of St. Rombaut, while majestic and imposing, is hardly as +masterly as the tower. On the occasion of our first visit a high mass +was being celebrated and we reverently joined the throng of +worshippers. In addition to the choir there was a body of some two +hundred young men in the centre of the cathedral who participated in +the singing, a curé beating time for them. Their strong manly voices +blended finely with the higher notes of the distant choir boys and +the deep tones of the organ. From the top of the choir long crimson +streamers were suspended, terminating at the back of the high altar +and giving a rich note of colour to the interior, while the light from +the stained glass windows overhead poured downward in many-coloured +rays upon the throng of black-robed priests, with a sprinkling of +higher dignitaries clad in purple. Truly a picture that filled the eye +with the pageantry of religion, even as the rolling notes of the +sonorous chants filled the ear! + +After the service was over, and the great cathedral, but now so +crowded, was deserted, we started on our tour of inspection. It would +be a tedious task to chronicle all of the objects of interest. The +carved stalls of the Gothic choir are far less elaborate in +workmanship than those at Amiens. The altar by Faid'herbe, a native of +Malines, is imposing, but not of remarkable merit. The carved pulpit +in the nave, however, is a veritable masterpiece of wood carving by +Michel Van der Voort of Antwerp, and dates from 1723. Below, St. +Norbert is shown flung from his horse by a thunderbolt, above is the +Crucifixion at the left, with the Virgin and St. John standing below +the cross, while at the right is shown a charming representation of +the Fall, with Eve offering the apple to Adam, both figures embowered +in a mass of foliage that twines up the stairway to the pulpit and +lifts its branches far overhead. The masterpiece of the paintings is +an altarpiece by Van Dyck representing the Crucifixion, a notable +representation of the gradations of grief in the faces of the Virgin +and Mary Magdalen. The attendant requires a franc to uncover this +picture. "The Adoration of the Shepherds," by Erasmus Quellen, in the +opposite arm of the transept, while less famous, is a noble piece of +work. + +As would be expected from its great religious importance, Malines has +numerous minor churches that contain much of interest to the visitor. +The largest of these is Notre Dame au delà de la Dyle, situated across +the River Dyle from the oldest part of the city, but dating from the +fifteenth century. Here the tourist usually asks to see "The +Miraculous Draught of Fishes," by Rubens, a highly coloured triptych +that is only uncovered when one pays a franc to the attendant. As this +master produced some seventeen hundred known works it would cost a +small fortune to see them all at a franc apiece, but this one dates +from the artist's best period and is fully worth the price charged to +see it. It is vigorous in treatment, and the Fishmongers' Guild, which +purchased it from the artist in 1618 for sixteen hundred florins, +certainly got very good value for their money. The wings are painted +on both sides. This church also contains the curious Virgin with the +Broken Back. According to the popular legend her sharp leaning to the +right is due to the fact that one day, when the sacristan of the +church failed to wake up in time to ring the angelus the lady +obligingly did it for him, but wrenched her spine in the effort. Her +smug smirk of satisfaction, as if over a duty well performed, no doubt +also dates from the same incident. + +Hardly less interesting is the ancient church of Notre Dame +d'Hanswyck, situated on the same side of the Dyle as the other Notre +Dame just described. A chapel was erected on the site of this church +soon after the country was converted from paganism by St. Rombaut, and +a large church was built near the end of the thirteenth century. This, +however, was pillaged by the iconoclasts in 1566, riddled by shot from +the cannon of the Prince of Orange in 1572, and finally completely +demolished eight or nine years later by the Gueux. It was not until +1663 that the present edifice was begun. It was designed by Luke +Faid'herbe, the famous sculptor of Malines and a pupil of Rubens, and +was built under his personal supervision. The church itself is a +veritable museum of the works of this master. The finest and most +famous of these are the two bas-reliefs in the dome, one showing "The +Nativity," and the other "The Saviour Falling Under the Burden of the +Cross." The pulpit, by Theodore Verhaegen, is a fine example of +Flemish wood carving. In this church the chief treasure, from the +standpoint of its priests and parishioners, is the miraculous statue +of the Virgin, which dates from 988, or earlier, according to some +authorities. It is made of wood, painted and gilded, and is life size. +Not the least miraculous feat of this interesting relic of the Middle +Ages is its escape from destruction, at the hands of the iconoclasts, +the Gueux, and the French revolutionists. At the period when the +church itself was destroyed the statue was hidden in a secret +subterranean passage for nearly a century; during the French +Revolution it was successively lodged in various houses in the rue +d'Hanswyck--each time being replaced in the church, after the danger +was over, amid great popular rejoicing. + +Another church that is a small art gallery is that of St. Jean, not +far from the cathedral. Here is the fine "Adoration of the Magi," by +Rubens, which many critics consider one of the four best of his +ceremonial works. It was painted in 1617, the year before "The +Miraculous Draught of Fishes," at Notre Dame de la Dyle, when the +artist was fresh from his studies in Italy, and before his success had +caused him to employ a throng of students to assist in the production +of his works. Furthermore, it was executed for this very church, which +still possesses his receipt for the final payment, written in Flemish, +dated March 24, 1624, and signed by the artist, "Pietro Paulo Rubens." +The price was eighteen hundred florins, but for good measure the +church obtained three small paintings by the great master to be hung +below the triptych. In 1794 these pictures were taken to Paris and the +"Adoration of the Magi" was not restored to its original position +until after the fall of Napoleon. Two of the small pictures, "The +Adoration of the Shepherds" and "The Resurrection," are now in the +museum of Marseilles--having never been returned--while the third, +"Christ on the Cross," after changing hands several times, was at last +purchased by an amateur who recognised its authorship and history and +restored it to the church of St. Jean. The two little pictures on +either side of it, often attributed to Rubens, are by Luc Franchoys +the younger. This church also boasts some marvellous Flemish wood +carvings. Around the two pillars of the transept where it intersects +the nave are some bas-reliefs, six altogether, by Theodore Verhaegen +and his pupils, that if there was nothing else to see would alone +justify a visit to St. Jean, while the pulpit by the same master, +representing "The Good Shepherd Preaching to His People," is one of +the most noteworthy of the numerous examples of pulpit carving to be +seen in Flanders. Below the organ are two more admirable bas-reliefs +carved in Flemish oak by Pierre Valckx, a pupil of Verhaegen. + +Of the many other churches in the old town it would be tedious to +speak. Nowhere in all Flanders did we see so many black-robed priests +walking solemnly about--although they do not lack in any part of the +country. All Belgium, in fact, is full of priests, monks and nuns, +owing to the expulsion of the religious orders from France some years +ago. We frequently engaged them in conversation to ascertain more +about the monuments we were visiting and invariably found them +courteous and well-informed, and not infrequently we were indebted to +them for suggestions or information of much value. At the same time, +it must be said that it seems to a layman as though there are far too +many for so small a country, but their fine spirit of devotion during +the war--when thousands of them shared cheerfully the hardships of the +soldiers--will never be forgotten. + +Of the civil edifices in Malines the most important is the Hotel de +Ville. Architecturally it is disappointing, save for the older +portion, which was called Beyaerd, and was purchased by the commune in +1383. The greater part of the edifice was reconstructed during the +eighteenth century. The many rooms in the interior are pleasing but +hardly notable, nor are the paintings and sculptures important save to +the historian. In the Vieux Palais, the room in which the Great +Council of the Netherlands held its sessions from 1474 to 1618, is +still preserved in its original state, while one of the ancient +paintings on the wall shows the Council in session. In this building +also is the curious statuette of the Vuyle Bruydegom called +"Op-Signorken," whose grinning face and quaint mediæval costume are +reproduced on many postcards. The history of this worthy is best +told in French--and in whispers! + +[Illustration: _IN HET PARADIJS_ AND _MAISON DES DIABLES_: TWO +FIFTEENTH CENTURY HOUSES, MALINES.] + +In our tramps around the narrow, crooked streets of the old town, and +along its picturesque quays, we found many fine examples of fifteenth +and sixteenth century architecture. On the Quai au Sel is the House of +the Salmon, the ancient guildhouse of the fishmongers, which dates +from 1530, and on the Quai aux Avoines we visited the little estaminet +entitled _In het Paradijs_, with its two painted reliefs of the Fall +and Expulsion from Eden, and the _Maison des Diables_--so called from +the carved devils that decorate its wooden façade of the sixteenth +century. The Grand Pont across the Dyle to these old quays itself +dates from the thirteenth century, as its grimy arches testify. + +After the defeat and death of Charles the Bold at Nancy his widow, +Margaret of York, transferred her residence to Malines, and here she +raised and educated the two children of her daughter, Marie of +Burgundy, Philip the Handsome and Margaret of Austria. Their father, +the Emperor Maximilian, was so occupied with affairs of state over his +widely scattered realm that he seldom came to the city, but from 1480 +onward the States General of the Netherlands often met here, and in +1491 Philip the Handsome presided at a chapter of the Order of the +Golden Fleece at the cathedral of St. Rombaut. On his premature death, +in 1506, Maximilian again became Regent, as Philip's eldest son +Charles was barely six years old. The following year Maximilian made +his daughter Margaret of Austria Governess-General of the Netherlands +and guardian of Philip's children. Margaret at once chose Malines, +where she had herself been educated, as her seat of government and +there she reigned as Regent until her death twenty-three years later. +This period was the golden age in the history of the city on the Dyle, +its brief day of splendour. + +In her infancy Margaret had been betrothed to the son of the King of +France, Louis XI--the cunning enemy of her house whose plots had +brought about the ruin of her grandfather, Charles the Bold. She was +only three, and the Prince Dauphin, afterwards Charles the Eighth, was +only twelve. Nine years later a more advantageous alliance caused him +to renounce this betrothal, and Margaret was subsequently married by +proxy to the son of the King of Spain. On her voyage from Flushing to +Spain a storm arose which nearly wrecked her ship, and after it had +somewhat subsided she and her companions amused themselves by each +writing her own epitaph. That composed by Margaret, then a sprightly +girl of eighteen, is well known: + + _Cy gist Margot la gentil' Damoiselle, + Qu' ha deux marys et encor est pucelle._ + +Eventually, however, she arrived safely at Burgos, but her young +husband, Prince John of Asturias, died suddenly seven months later of +a malignant fever. At the age of nineteen, therefore, Margaret had +already missed being Queen of France and Queen of Spain. After two +years at the Spanish court, where she was very popular, she returned +to Flanders, arriving in 1500, just in time to be one of the +godmothers at the christening of her nephew, Charles, at the church of +St. Jean in Ghent. The following year Margaret married Philibert II, +Duke of Savoy, surnamed the Handsome, who was the same age as herself. +This time her married life proved to be only a little longer than the +other, for her husband died in 1504. Left twice a widow while still in +the bloom of youth, the Duchess devoted herself to poetry and the +erection of a church at Brou in her second husband's duchy of Savoy. + +There, on the walls, woodwork, stained glass windows and tombs she +repeated her last motto: + + FORTUNE . INFORTUNE . FORT . UNE + +which has generally been interpreted to mean that Fortune and +Misfortune have tried sorely (fort) one lone woman (une). + +The palace of Margaret of York stood on the rue de l'Empereur, where +some vestiges of it still remain, but Margaret of Savoy and of Austria +found this edifice inadequate to the requirements of a Regent and +acquired the Hotel de Savoy opposite. This has been restored and is +now used as the Palais de Justice, but--apart from its pretty +courtyard and one fine fireplace--we found very little to recall the +glories of the period when the great men of all the Netherlands +gathered here. The edifice was largely reconstructed by Rombaut +Keldermans, and it was here that the boyhood of the future Emperor +Charles the Fifth was passed, watched over by his Aunt Margaret. At +the time of her accession as Regent Margaret was twenty-seven years +old--"a fair young woman with golden hair, rounded cheeks, a grave +mouth, and beautiful clear eyes," according to one observer. Her +father, the Emperor Maximilian, was very fond and proud of her, and +the greatest treasure in the library in the Vieux Palais is a +"graduale," or hymnbook, which he presented to her in recognition of +her services in educating his grandchildren. On one of the pages in +this book is an illuminated picture showing Maximilian himself seated +on a throne surmounted by the arms of Austria, with Margaret and the +youthful Charles and his sister forming part of the group gathered in +front of him. The other illustrations in this priceless volume, all of +which we were permitted to examine, consist of religious subjects. + +The events connected with the regency of Margaret of Austria belong to +the history of Europe. More than once she aided her father in solving +the great problems of government and diplomacy with which he was +confronted, notably in the prominent part she took in the negotiations +resulting in the League of Cambrai, which was directed against +France--the nation to which she always showed an unrelenting hostility +for the slight put upon her in childhood. In 1516 Charles became of +age, and two years later--while the new King of Spain was visiting his +Spanish subjects--Margaret was again proclaimed Regent of the +Netherlands. In 1519 Maximilian died, and five months later Charles +was elected King of the Romans, and was chosen Emperor the following +year, succeeding to the widest dominions ever ruled over by one man in +the history of Europe. In fact it is doubtful if any sovereign since +has exercised so vast a power, as the Kings and Emperors of later +years have had their authority more restricted, while that of Charles +was absolute. + +In 1529 Margaret brought about the negotiations that resulted in the +famous Ladies' Peace between the Pope, the Emperor Charles, and the +Kings of France, England and Bohemia. Margaret represented Spain, and +Louise of Savoy, her sister-in-law and the mother of Francis, the King +of France, represented that monarch. The result of the conferences was +a treaty that was highly advantageous to Spain, and a great diplomatic +victory for Margaret; but as all Europe was tired of war the terms +were accepted and peace proclaimed amid great popular rejoicings, the +fountains at Cambrai flowing wine instead of water. The splendid +mantelpiece in the Hotel de Franc at Bruges was erected to commemorate +this treaty, although it hardly does justice to the prominent part +taken by Margaret in negotiating it. The conclusion of the Treaty of +Cambrai marks the climax of Margaret's career and also that of the +House of Austria. In addition to the vast empire ruled over by +Charles, his brother Ferdinand was King of Bohemia, and his sisters +Eleanor, Isabel, Marie and Katherine, Queens of France, Denmark, +Hungary and Portugal respectively. All owed their brilliant positions +to the patience and skill of their Aunt Margaret who, as her +correspondence shows, was looking forward to the time when she could +hand over the government of the Netherlands to the Emperor and spend +her remaining days in quiet seclusion. + +Under her wise rule the Netherlands had attained the greatest +prosperity ever known. Industry and commerce flourished, peace and +safety reigned throughout her broad dominions. At her court in Malines +Margaret gathered a brilliant group of artists, poets and men of +letters. Mabuse (Jan Gossaert), Bernard Van Orley and Michel Coxcie +were among the famous Flemish artists patronised by the Duchess. +Rombaut Keldermans received many commissions as architect from the +great Lady of Savoy and her Imperial nephew for important edifices not +only at Malines but at Antwerp, Brussels, Ghent and throughout the +Low Countries. In 1451 the Pope, Nicholas V, had proclaimed a Holy +Year at Malines and enormous numbers of pilgrims visited the city in +consequence. Their lavish gifts made possible the rapid erection of +most of the splendid religious edifices with which the city is so +amply provided, and it was during the reign of Margaret that these +structures were completed and decorated. Among the beautiful buildings +executed during this period may be mentioned the Belfry at Bruges, the +tower of St. Rombaut, the Hotel de Ville at Ghent, the spire of the +cathedral at Antwerp, the cathedral of Ste. Gudule at Brussels, and +many minor churches throughout the Low Countries. + +Margaret displayed rare taste for works of art, and her palace was a +veritable treasure house of masterpieces, as an inventory prepared at +her direction shows. One of the most famous of these was the portrait +of Jean Arnolfini and his wife by Jean Van Eyck, which--after many +vicissitudes--has now found a permanent resting place in the National +Gallery at London, unless some militant suffragette adds another +chapter to its chequered history. Another treasure has been less +fortunate, namely the portrait of _La belle Portugalaise_, wife of +Philip the Good, which was painted by Jean Van Eyck under +circumstances already described in another chapter. This famous +picture disappeared during the religious wars and has never been +discovered. The inventory lists a great many other paintings, of which +some are still in existence and some have been lost. The descriptions +are often quaint and charming, and may have been dictated by the +Duchess herself, as for example: "_Une petite Nostre-Dame disant ses +heures, faicte de la main de Michel (Coxcie) que Madame appelle sa +mignonne et le petit dieu dort_," and "_Ung petit paradis ou sont +touxs les apôtres._" Other artists of note in the collection were +Bernard Van Orley, Hans Memling, Roger Van der Weyden, Dierick Bouts, +Jerome Bosch and Gerard Horembout. + +[Illustration: PORTRAIT OF JEAN ARNOLFINI AND HIS WIFE BY JEAN VAN +EYCK.] + +Among the men of letters whom Margaret gathered around her were Jean +Molinet, her librarian and a poet who often celebrated her charms; +Jean Lemaire de Belges, who became her historian; Erasmus, Nicolas +Everard, Adrian of Utrecht, Cornelius Agrippa, Massé, Rénacle de +Florennes, Louis Vivés, and many others. Her library was as choice as +her collection of paintings and included a Book of Hours and several +other illuminated manuscripts now in the Bibliotheque Royale at +Brussels, and many of the mediæval classics. History records few great +personages whose personality, considered from every aspect, is more +pleasing than that of this gracious lady, whose very pets are known to +us through the frequent references made to them by her literary +courtiers. Her career, though shaded by sadness and disappointment, +was a great and noble one, and, while she lived, the land over which +she ruled remained in almost uninterrupted peace and prosperity--the +wars of the Emperor being for the most part waged far away on the +plains of Italy or in France. + +On the last day of November, 1530, the Regent Margaret passed away at +her palace at Malines in the fiftieth year of her age and the +twenty-third of her regency. For forty-five days the bells of the +churches throughout the city tolled at morning, noon and night in +expression of the profound grief of the people at their great loss. +The dirges may well have been for the departure of the city's +greatness as well, for the death of its great patroness proved the +beginning of its decline. The new Regent, Marie of Hungary, removed +her court to Brussels, and although Malines, by way of compensation, +was made the seat of an arch-bishopric it never recovered its former +splendour and sank rapidly into the quiet town that it was when the +great war added a new and tragic chapter to its history. + + + + +CHAPTER XVI + +GHENT UNDER CHARLES THE FIFTH--AND SINCE + + +But for the great disaster at Nancy, it is altogether probable that +Charles the Bold would, before very long, have sought to chastise the +burghers of Ghent as he did those of Liége, but his unexpected death, +and the ruin of his plans, gave the citizens at least a brief period +of respite from the tyranny that had been pressing more and more +heavily upon them since the "bloody sea of Gavre." His daughter, +Marie, was only nineteen when her father's fall placed her at the +mercy of the turbulent communes, and at Ghent as well as Bruges she +was forced to grant a charter restoring the many privileges that +Charles and Philip the Good had taken away. She was even helpless to +save the lives of two of her most trusted counsellors, who were +accused by the men of Ghent of treacherous correspondence with their +wily enemy, Louis XI, and--in spite of her entreaties and tears in +their behalf in the Marché de Vendredi--were publicly beheaded in the +first year of her brief reign. + +Shortly after the untimely death of this princess whose popularity +might have held the communes in check, her husband, Maximilian, began +the long war that finally resulted in establishing his authority over +all of Flanders. This accomplished, he established his daughter, +Margaret of Austria, as Regent and during the twenty-three years of +her wise and gentle reign the country remained for the most part at +peace and its commerce and prosperity returned. + +It was during the struggle with Maximilian that the Rabot was +constructed at Ghent, in 1489. The previous year the Emperor Frederick +III, father of Maximilian, had threatened the city at this point, +where its fortifications were weakest, and the two famous pointed +towers were built as part of the protective works designed to render a +similar attack impossible. Although somewhat mutilated in 1860, the +twin towers still stand, and with the curious intervening structure +constitute one of the finest bits of military architecture of the +fifteenth century that has come down to us. Historically, they form a +monument of the victory gained by the commune over Frederick and his +son in their first attempt to curtail its liberties and privileges. + +On the 24th of February of the year 1500 the city of Ghent learned +that a baby boy had been born at the Cour de Princes, to its +sovereigns, Philip the Handsome and Joanna of Spain, who was destined +to become the most powerful monarch in the world. On the day when this +fortunate baby was baptised with the name of Charles, the city gave +itself up to rejoicings that might well have been tempered had it +known the fate that was in store for it at the hands of its +illustrious son forty years later. As it was, joy reigned, and at +night ten thousand flaming torches flared, the great dragon in the +belfry spouted Greek fire, and on a rope suspended from the top of the +belfry to the spire of St. Nicholas a tight-rope dancer performed +prodigies of skill for the cheering crowds that thronged the streets +below. + +Fifteen years later, when Charles was declared of age, it was at Ghent +that he was proclaimed Count of Flanders. The following year he became +King of Spain, and in 1520 Emperor; thus at the age of twenty ruling +over all the Netherlands, Germany, Austria, Northern Italy, Spain and +the vast empire in the new world--then in course of conquest by +Pizzaro, Cortés and the other Spanish conquistadores. While the +city's most famous son was advancing to the zenith of human power and +wealth, its own fortunes were steadily declining. The long contest +with Maximilian and the competition of England had struck a death blow +to the cloth industry, which languished for a time and then gradually +decayed and disappeared. The Cloth Hall was therefore left unfinished, +which accounts for its insignificance as compared with similar +structures in other Flemish towns where the textile trade was far less +important than that of Ghent in the days of its greatest prosperity. +The city continued, however, to be the centre of the grain trade as +before, and the fine façade of the Maison des Bateliers (House of the +Boatmen's Guild), on the Quai au Blé, was built at this epoch, in +1534. + +[Illustration: Photograph by E. Sacré. MAISON DE LA KEURE, HOTEL DE +VILLE, GHENT.] + +A still more notable structure, the Hotel de Ville, dates in part from +the time of Charles. This edifice in reality comprises a group of +buildings erected at different epochs and for diverse purposes. +Architecturally the most beautiful of these is the Maison de la Keure, +which forms the corner of the Marché au Beurre and the rue Haut Port, +extending for most of its length on the latter somewhat narrow street. +This was designed and built by Dominique de Waghenakere of Antwerp +and the famous Rombaut Keldermans of Malines, and was erected between +1518 and 1534. The actual edifice represents only a quarter of the +fine design of the architects and lacks an entire story with various +decorative features which would have greatly improved its appearance +and made it one of the finest Hotels de Ville in Flanders. As it is, +this part is by far the best of the entire structure. The Maison des +Parchons facing the Marché au Beurre was built in 1600 to 1620 and is +in the Italian Renaissance style and vastly inferior to the fine +Gothic structure of a century earlier. The other portion of the +building comprises a Hall for the States of Flanders, in the ruelle de +Hotel de Ville, built in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries; the +grande conciergerie joining this to the earlier Gothic Maison de la +Keure and built in 1700; and a Chambre des Pauvres built by order of +Charles V in 1531, of which the present façade dates from 1750. + +The inner rooms of this collection of buildings, of different ages and +different architectural styles, are of relatively minor interest. The +Grande Salle de Justice de la Keure is somewhat imposing with its +large fireplace, but its lack of other decorations makes it rather +cold and gloomy and we were glad to leave it. Much more beautiful is +the Salle de l'Arsenal, built half a century later. In the Chapel of +St. John the Baptist, which adjoins the Salle de Justice in the most +ancient part of the edifice, and is now used as a Salle des Mariages, +is a fine picture representing Marie of Burgundy begging her people to +forgive Hugonet and Humbercourt, her two ministers who--despite her +tearful pleas--were executed in the Place Ste. Pharaïlde hard by. + +On the death of Margaret of Austria the Emperor appointed his sister, +Marie of Hungary, Regent of the Netherlands. The steady decline of its +trade and the increasing poverty of the people caused the city of +Ghent to seethe with discontent, and in 1539 an outbreak occurred that +gave the Regent great alarm. Under the leadership of a group of +demagogues the _Métiers_ or lower associations of artisans, overawed +the magistrates and seized Liévin Pyn, an aged and honourable member +of the Council and Dean of the _Métiers_ who was unjustly accused of +giving the Queen Regent a false report on the situation and of having +stolen the great banner of the city. This unfortunate old man was +subjected to fearful tortures in the Château des Comtes, but +resolutely refused to confess to any of the acts charged against him. +Nevertheless, he was finally executed on the Place Ste. Pharaïlde--one +of the most pitiful and unjust of the many cruel tragedies enacted +there. Broken and weakened from the tortures to which he had been +subjected, he had to be carried to the place of execution, where his +indomitable spirit was such that before bowing before the axe of the +executioner he sternly reproached his judges with their cowardice, and +predicted that the people would soon have occasion to regret the +fatuous course they were pursuing. + +The dying old man spoke the truth. The Emperor was then in Spain and +matters connected with the government of his world-encircling realm +demanded for the moment his attention, but he was none the less kept +well informed as to what was going on in his native city, where +affairs meanwhile progressed from bad to worse, until a veritable +state of anarchy prevailed. When Charles learned of the virtual +insurrection against his authority that prevailed, and of the death of +Liévin Pyn, he was furious and vowed to inflict upon the rebellious +city a vengeance that would deter all other cities in the empire from +ever following its example. Slowly, but with a deliberateness that +boded ill for the foolhardy rabble who for the moment guided the +destinies of the commune, the Emperor made his preparations for a trip +to the Low Countries. Two months after the execution of Pyn it became +known in the city that their puissant sovereign was on his way. The +news filled the mutineers with terror. No longer was Ghent in the +proud position she had occupied under the Counts of Flanders and the +first Dukes of Burgundy--the premier city of the realm and a foe to be +respected and even feared. The power of Charles V was too vast for +even the most ignorant to think of armed resistance to his authority, +now that he was about to assert it in person. Many of those +responsible for the period of anarchy fled, others went into hiding. + +Early in the year 1540 the Emperor arrived at Cambrai, proceeding next +to Valenciennes and Brussels. Meanwhile a strong force of German +soldiers entered the city--meeting with no resistance from its now +thoroughly terrified inhabitants, many of whom no doubt wished they +could restore the dead Doyen des Métiers, whom they had so cruelly +sacrificed, to life again that he might plead their cause with the +dreaded Emperor. They had good reason to tremble, for in a few days +the ring-leaders of the late troubles began to be arrested and all men +were forbidden, under penalty of death, to harbour them or aid them to +escape their sovereign's wrath. A few days later nine of the mutineers +were executed on the Place Ste. Pharaïlde where Liévin Pyn had +perished at their hands six months before. The magistrates were now +filled with terror and abjectly pleaded for mercy. The Emperor +haughtily replied that he knew how to be merciful and also how to do +justice, and that he would presently give judgment on the city "in +such a manner that it would never be forgotten and others would take +therefrom an example." + +This disquieting response was followed by the Emperor's famous visit +to the top of the cathedral tower in company with the Duke of Alva. It +was on this occasion that the latter, with the ferocity that +afterwards made his name a by-word for cruelty for future ages, +counselled his sovereign to utterly destroy the rebellious city. To +this the Emperor responded with the _bon mot_ that showed at once his +sense of humour and his moderation. Pointing to the wide-spreading red +roofs of the populous city he asked, "How many Spanish skins do you +think it would take to make a glove (_Gand_, the French spelling of +Ghent, also means glove) as large as this?" + +[Illustration: PORTRAIT OF THE DUKE OF ALVA BY A. MORO.] + +Meanwhile, under the direct supervision of the Emperor, a huge citadel +began to be erected on the site of the ancient little town surrounding +the Abbey of St. Bavon--a choice that involved the destruction of many +of the Abbey buildings. The Emperor, while this work was going on, +remained at the Princenhof where he held his court, but gave no sign +as to what the fate of the city was to be. It was not until April +29th, 1540, that he finally--in the presence of a great throng of +princes, nobles and the members of his Grand Council, with the city +magistrates on their knees at his feet--gave his long delayed +decision. In a loud voice the Imperial herald first read a list of +thirty-five crimes committed by the people of the city, declaring them +guilty of _dèsléalté_, _désobéyssance_, _infraction de traictés_, +_sedition_, _rébellion et de léze-magesté_. In consequence of these +crimes the sentence deprived them forever of their privileges, rights, +and franchises. It directed that the charters, together with the red +and black books in which they were registered, should be turned over +to the Emperor to do with them as he pleased, and it was forbidden +ever again to invoke or appeal to them. It pronounced the +confiscation of all the goods, rents, revenues, houses, artillery and +war material belonging to the city or to the _Métiers_. It confiscated +the great bell Roland and decreed that it must be taken down. It +further directed that three days later the magistrates, thirty members +of the bourgeois or middle class, the Doyen of the weavers, six men +from each _Métier_ and fifty "creesers" should beg pardon of the +Emperor and Queen. The suppliants on this occasion were dressed in +black, with heads and feet bare, and cords about their necks, and were +compelled to beg the pardon of the Emperor on their knees in the +market-place. Besides this public degradation the magistrates were +required to wear the cords about their necks thereafter during the +exercise of their functions. It is said, however, that before very +long the hemp was converted into a rich cord of gold and silk, which +they wore as a scarf--as if it were a badge of honour instead of one +of disgrace. + +The walls of the city were to be still further demolished, and the +sovereign reserved the right to specify later which towers, gates and +walls should be torn down to erect the citadel. Finally, a heavy money +indemnity was exacted, and the following day a new code of laws in +sixty-five articles was promulgated--the famous Concession +Caroline--which served as the basis of government until the end of the +old régime during the French Revolution. The city, no doubt, breathed +a sigh of relief that the Emperor exacted no further toll of human +life, but the conditions were none the less heavy enough. In brief, +these terms ended, once and for all, every vestige of self-government, +and swept away all of the privileges for which the burghers had fought +for so many centuries. The year 1540 marks the end, therefore, of the +long and brilliant history of the Flemish communes--for no other city +dared resist the Emperor's authority after this--and thereafter +Flanders became a mere province in the wide dominions of sovereigns +who seldom visited its cities and frequently did not even speak the +language of its people. + +Among the tombstones in the Cathedral of St. Bavon one that deserves +more than a passing glance is that of Bishop Triest. Designed by the +celebrated sculptor, Jerome Duquesnoy, it is a notable example of +Flemish sculpture, besides possessing an added interest by reason of +the fact that the artist sought to destroy it when complete. More +important, however, than the monument and its story is the fact that +Bishop Triest was the father of the art of horticulture for which +Ghent is so renowned today. It was in his gardens--which were famous +throughout the seventeenth century--that rare and exotic plants were +for the first time planted out of doors in Flanders and trained to +grow in the form of pyramids, arches, summer-houses, and a hundred +fantastic shapes. The "Belvedere Gardens" of the worthy prelate became +the model for other gardeners, and the seed, planted in fertile soil, +from which sprang a great industry. + +Not content with cultivating his own gardens the Bishop sought to +encourage in every way the humble gardeners of the city, giving them +his august protection, his friendly counsel, making loans to the +needy, and uniting them into a society under the patronage of St. +Amand and Ste. Dorothy. This noble example was speedily followed by +the city, which also encouraged the horticulturists. In 1640 William +de Blasère, an alderman of the city, constructed the first hothouse +ever seen in Europe. It was a hundred feet long, made of wood and +glass, heated with huge stoves, and sufficiently high to accommodate +the exotic plants that, in summertime, were set outdoors. This novelty +made a great stir and brought many visitors to Ghent. Soon afterward a +society of horticulturists was founded, and by the end of the century +a botanical garden was established. + +In the opening years of the nineteenth century this institution very +nearly came to an end. It was costly to keep up, produced little or no +revenue, and Napoleon, who was then First Consul and included Ghent in +his rapidly widening dominions, decided that it should be suppressed. +A friend of the garden skilfully took advantage of a visit of +Josephine to Ghent to enlist her aid in persuading her husband to +spare it. Inviting the future empress to visit the establishment, he +contrived that the plants and flowers should plead their own cause. +Between two palms at the entrance he had a huge placard suspended +bearing the words: "_Ave, Cæsar, morituri te salutamus_." Then, along +the different walks, each flower and plant bore a card proportionate +to its size and containing a verse alluding to its approaching +destruction. Naturally surprised at this outburst of poetry on the +part of the "nymphs" of the garden, as the flowers styled themselves +in their effusions, Josephine inquired the reason for it. This gave +her conductor his opportunity, and he pleaded for the preservation of +the garden with such ardour and eloquence that he won her assurance +that if her wishes had any weight his beautiful garden should be +preserved and its "nymphs" should not perish in exile. The event +proved that he had secured a powerful ally, for the edict of the First +Consul was rescinded and the garden was saved. + +To-day Ghent boasts of her title of "the City of Flowers." The +Botanical Garden is protected by a Royal Society, there are many +private collections that are worth going far to see, and more than +five hundred establishments, large and small, are engaged in +horticulture as an industry, the annual exports amounting to millions +of dollars. Bishop Triest can therefore be thanked for giving Flanders +one of its great industries. + +Speaking of Napoleon, it is not generally remembered that Ghent was, +for the brief space of one hundred days, the capital of France. When +Napoleon returned from Elba, and was received with open arms by the +very troops sent to attack him, Louis XVIII fled incontinently to +Ghent where he set up a feeble court at his residence on the rue des +Champs. Here Guizot, Chateaubriand, and his other ministers met +formally every morning to discuss with His Majesty the chances of his +ever getting back to Paris again--Paris where, by the way, the mob was +singing mockingly: + + "Rendez nous notre père de Gand + Rendez nous notre père!" + +It would take a satirist like Dickens or Thackeray to describe the +scene when the fat monarch sat down to his mid-day meal, in the +presence of whoever might wish to watch the curious spectacle. He +conquered enormous quantities of food, but depended on Wellington and +Blücher to conquer the army of Napoleon. The forms of sovereignty were +none the less carefully observed, as the little court waited day by +day for the great event that all men could see was drawing steadily +nearer. At last, as the thunder of Napoleon's guns startled the allies +from their dance at Brussels, and the tramp of his advancing squadrons +shook the fields of Waterloo, this fat little fly on the chariot wheel +of European politics prepared once more for flight. Coaches were made +ready to carry the entire court to Ostende, where an English vessel +awaited them if the battle went against the allies. All day long the +horses stood in the courtyard, the drivers whip in hand. History does +not record what gastronomic feats His Majesty performed that day, but +late at night the tidings came that the Grande Armée was in retreat, +and that King Louis could return to his kingdom. + +Ghent shares with Bruges the glory of being the birthplace of Flemish +painting. The famous "Adoration of the Lamb," by the brothers Van +Eyck, was ordered by a wealthy burgher of Ghent for the cathedral of +St. Bavon--where the greater part of the original work still rests. It +was at Ghent that Hubert, the elder brother, planned the masterpiece +and completed his share of it. But Ghent also had masters belonging to +the early Flemish school whose fame she does not have to share with +any other city. One of these was Josse or Justus, usually called +Justus of Ghent, who visited Italy in 1468 and there painted several +pictures. Another was Hugo Van der Goes who gave promise of becoming +as great a master as Jean Van Eyck when he suddenly gave up his chosen +profession and entered the Monastery of Rouge-Cloitre, near Bruges. He +was admitted to the Guild of Painters at Ghent in 1467, and left the +world of action in 1476--eventually becoming insane and dying six +years later. There is a story to the effect that he once painted a +picture of Abigail meeting David for a burgher of Ghent who lived in a +house near the bridge called the Muyderbrugge, and while engaged on +this work--which was painted on the wall above a fireplace--fell in +love with his patron's daughter. The painting proved a great success, +but the stern parents frowned on the suit of the young artist, and the +daughter, in despair, entered the convent of the White Ladies known as +the Porta Coeli, near Brussels. The house, which was said to have been +entirely surrounded by water, has long since disappeared, together +with the painting, but the story may be the explanation for the +abandonment by the artist of a promising career when he was still in +the prime of life. One of the finest pictures in the Modern Gallery at +Brussels is that by E. Wauters representing the madness of Van der +Goes. The painter is shown seated and staring eagerly at some phantasm +before him--perhaps a vision of the fair Abigail--while a group of +little choir boys are striving, under the leadership of a monk, to +exorcise the evil demon that possesses their famous brother by means +of sacred songs and chants. It is said that this method of cure was +indeed attempted while he was at Rouge-Cloitre, but without success. + +The best work of both of these artists is, unfortunately, far from +Flanders--being found in Italy, where Flemish painters were in their +day very highly regarded. "The Last Supper," which was the greatest +masterpiece of Justus, was painted as an altarpiece for the +brotherhood of Corpus Christi at Urbino and still hangs in the church +of Sant' Agatha in that Italian town. "The Adoration of the +Shepherds," which was the greatest work of Van der Goes, is in the +Uffizi Gallery at Florence. At Bruges there are two paintings +attributed to this master, "The Death of the Virgin," in the museum, +and the panel representing the donors in "The Martyrdom of St. +Hippolytus" in the church of St. Sauveur. The greater part of the +paintings by Van der Goes in Belgium were destroyed by the iconoclasts +in the sixteenth century, including several of which his +contemporaries and other early writers spoke in the highest terms. +Frequent mention is made of his skill as a portrait painter, and Prof. +A. J. Wauters, after a careful study of his known works throughout +Europe, ascribes to him the famous portrait of Charles the Bold in the +museum at Brussels. The early writers state that private houses at +Bruges and Ghent, as well as churches, were filled with his works. Let +us hope that some of these--hidden away during the religious wars or +at the time of the iconoclasts--may yet be discovered and identified. + +Ghent, during the fifteenth century, was the artistic centre of +Flanders, and the names, but not the works, of many of its painters +have come down to us. One of the most celebrated of these in +contemporary annals was Gerard Van der Meire, to whom tradition has +assigned the triptych of "The Crucifixion" in the cathedral of St. +Bavon. This artist rose to high rank in the Guild of St. Luke, to +which he was admitted in 1452, and a considerable number of paintings +in various European galleries are attributed to him. An Italian writer +ascribes to him one hundred and twenty-five of the exquisite +miniatures in the famous Grimani Breviary, now in the library of St. +Mark's at Venice. If this were true, Van der Meire was indeed a great +artist, but this book was illustrated after his death. + +[Illustration: "THE ADORATION OF THE SHEPHERDS."--HUGO VAN DER GOES.] + +According to the Royal Commission of Art and Archeology of Belgium, +Ghent contains more noteworthy antiquities than any other town in the +Kingdom. The Commission, it appears, divides the "antiquities" into +three classes, according to their relative importance, and credits +Ghent with thirteen of the first class, ten of the second and six of +the third--or twenty-nine in all. The figures for the other Flemish +cities are: Antwerp, seven first, five second, six third, total +eighteen; Bruges, four first, six second, six third, total sixteen; +Tournai, three first, six second, six third, total fifteen; Malines, +four first, eight second, two third, total fourteen. Many places are +credited with two or three each. We tried to get a copy of the Report +of the Commission giving the names of the antiquities in each class, +and the reasons for ranking them, but were unable to do so during our +stay in Belgium. It would have been a learned check on the list of +places we had found most interesting. Quite likely we would have found +that the Commission gave the first rank to some "antiquity" we did not +see at all, and maybe never heard of! However, we saw enough to occupy +every minute of our brief vacation, and the majority of those we +missed--wilfully at least--were churches, of which Flanders has enough +to fill three books like this were one to faithfully report them all. + +In Ghent there are, as at Bruges, many interesting private houses +scattered throughout the city. The Professor and I on our morning +walks looked up many of these, but the list would be tedious to +enumerate. One of the most famous is the "Arriére-Faucille," formerly +the home of a rich seigneur, but since 1901 used as a Royal +Conservatory of Music. Its castle-like tower is very picturesque, but +we saw nothing of interest in the interior. Near by are two very old +houses with typically Flemish gables, called the Zwarte Moor and +the Groot Moor. Built in 1481, or thereabouts, the Confrerie of St. +George had its headquarters here for many years. + +[Illustration: OLD GUILD HOUSES, QUAI AUX HERBES, GHENT.] + +The guilds have already been mentioned, and the façades of all of the +more famous of the guild houses have been carefully restored. These +include the Maison des Mesureurs de Blé and the Maison des Francs +Bateliers on the Quai aux Herbes, the Maison des Maçons and the Maison +des Bateliers non francs. The ancient Grand Boucherie, recently +restored, is another interesting "monument." It seems that the +Butchers' Guild at Ghent owed its prosperity to the fact that Charles +V chanced one day to fall in love with the pretty daughter of a Ghent +butcher. This young lady obtained for her son and his descendants an +imperial monopoly of the slaughtering and meat-selling business which +survived all the various dynastic changes till the French Revolution. +The butchers were called _Prinse Kinderen_, or Prince's Children, and +seem to have made a very good thing out of the blot on their family +escutcheon. Another old edifice is the Maison de l'Etape, or Staple +House, a granary dating from the thirteenth century, which stands +beside the guild houses on the Quai aux Herbes. In short, the tourist +can easily find enough of interest in this rare old Flemish city to +occupy many days of leisurely sight-seeing. Ghent, like Bruges, has +thus far been spared the destruction that has overtaken so many of the +smaller Flemish towns during the war and, as far as is at present +known, all of its twenty-nine monuments are still intact. + + + + +CHAPTER XVII + +AUDENAERDE AND MARGARET OF PARMA + + +It was on a pleasant morning in June that the Professor and I set +forth on a little expedition to the famous town of the tapestry +weavers, leaving the ladies to rest and shop at Brussels. The +poplar-trees that line the country roads and canals in all parts of +Belgium were in full bloom and their light cotton-clad seeds were +drifting like snow in every direction. Moreover, contrary to our +experience for some time past, the sun seemed likely to shine all day +and our old friend J. Pluvius was in complete retreat. Our route lay +for a considerable distance through a charming hop country, the plots +being much smaller than one sees in Kent or in Central New York State, +but very numerous, and, no doubt, aggregating a considerable acreage. +Farther along we passed through a superb stretch of hilly country +where many of the houses and barns had thatched roofs and were so +picturesque, both in themselves and in their surroundings, that we +would fain have descended at one of the little stations and spent the +day exploring and photographing this charming corner of Flanders. The +most beautiful spot of all bore the pretty name of Louise-Marie--the +thatch-roofed houses nestling cosily together upon a hillside. This +little station, by the way, is on the line from Blaton to Audenaerde +(in Flemish Oudenaarde), as we were approaching our destination from +the south instead of directly from Brussels. Presently the great tower +of Ste. Walburge loomed up ahead on our right, and we could even catch +a glimpse of the famous Hotel de Ville. Instead of stopping, however, +our train went on past the church, past the town, past everything, +until we began to fear that our faithful "_omnibus_" had suddenly gone +crazy and fancied itself a "_rapide_" bound for goodness knows where. +At last, however, the station came in sight, but we even sped past +that, coming to rest finally some distance down the railroad yard. As +we walked back toward the "_Sortie-Ausgang_" gateway we debated +whether we would drive back to the town in a cab or take a tram. +Emerging on the street we promptly decided to walk, since neither cab +nor tram-car could be seen. + +There was no danger of losing our way, for there, straight down the +long street before us, we could see the huge mass of Ste. Walburge +towering far above the little houses around it. After a leisurely walk +of five or six minutes we arrived at a large bleak-looking square, +called the Place de Tacambaro, at the centre of which stood a monument +that--had we been in a carriage or on a tram-car--we would have passed +without more than a passing glance. As it was, we paused to read the +inscriptions and found that, for Americans, they told a story of no +little interest. It appears that this is a memorial erected in honour +of the volunteers from Audenaerde who died in Mexico in the service of +the unfortunate Emperor Maximilian. The south side of the monument, +which represents a reclining female figure by the sculptor, W. Geefs, +bears the following inscription: + + "Ordre de Jour + + Officiers et Soldats! Vous avez pris votre part des travaux + et des luttes dans la guerre du Mexique, votre + valeur dans les combats, votre discipline + dans les fatigues des longues + marches ont honoré le + nom Belge. + + Au moment de vous rembarquer pour aller revoir votre + patrie recevez les adieux de vos frères d'armes du + corps expeditionaire français. + + Dans quelques semaines vous aurez revu les rivages de votre + patrie y conservez, je l'espère, bon souvenir de leux + qui ont soufert et combattu à vos cotes, + ainsi que du Maréchal de France + qui a eu l'honneur de + vous commander. + + Le Maréchal de France, Commandant en Chef. + + BAZAINE." + +Proceeding along the street, which still led straight toward the great +church, we discussed the strange fate that had led these valiant +Flemings to give their lives in a war of conquest so many thousands of +miles away--a futile sacrifice as the event proved, with this little +monument as their sole reward. + +Almost before we were aware of it we found ourselves at the Grande +Place with the Hotel de Ville right in front of us. We were on the +west side of the little structure, which on the rue Haute adjoins the +ancient Halle aux Draps. An old doorway gives on the rue Haute, but is +no longer used, the entrance being now through the Hotel de Ville. + +While the two principal churches of the town have suffered severely +from the fanatical ravages of the iconoclasts, or image breakers, the +Hotel de Ville can be seen in almost its pristine magnificence. +Architecturally this monument is generally considered as one of the +finest, not only in Flanders, but in the whole of Europe. Little it +undeniably is, although it towers up bravely above the low two-story +buildings surrounding it, but its very smallness gives its marvellous +façade the richness and delicacy of the finest lace. Begun in 1525, it +was completed twelve years later at a cost of "65,754 livres parisis, +16 sols, 2 deniers." Those who are curious can ascertain the modern +equivalent of the "Paris pound" of 1537, but even when we add the 16 +sols, 2 deniers, it seems as though the burghers got very good value +for their money. + +[Illustration: HOTEL DE VILLE, AUDENAERDE. Photograph by E. Sacré.] + +Late Gothic is the period to which this gem in the galaxy of splendid +Flemish town halls belongs. It is considered the masterpiece of its +architect, Henri Van Péde, who also designed the superb Hotel de Ville +at Brussels and that at Louvain. The many little niches on the front +once contained statues of the noble lords and dames of Flanders, +including no doubt several of the great house of Lalaing, the Count +Philippe de Lalaing having laid the corner stone. Unfortunately these +were all destroyed during the religious wars and the French Revolution +and have never been replaced. This seems a great pity, as Flanders +still possesses many stone-carvers of great skill, and the kindly +hand of time would soon mellow the new work to harmonise with the old. +As it is, every niche contains the iron projection that formerly held +its statue in place, so that the work of restoration would consist of +simply carving each of the little statues in the sculptor's own +atelier, wherever it might be, and afterwards placing them in +position. + +One of the original statues still remains in place, however, and is +entitled to the honour of being styled the oldest citizen of +Audenaerde. This is none other than Hanske 't Krijgerke, Petit Jean le +Guerrier, or Little John the Warrior, who, with his diminutive +standard bearing the arms of the city, stands on the topmost pinnacle +of the tower. His gaze is ever toward the South, with a far-away look +in his eyes, across the Grande Place and toward the distant hills. +During the three hundred and seventy-eight years that he has been +standing there, braving the winter rains and the summer sunshine, how +many changes have taken place in the great outside world while little +Audenaerde has stood still! + +Even without its statues the principal façade of the Hotel de Ville +merits more than a passing glance. In the admirable harmony of its +proportions, the delicate beauty of its details, in the excellence of +the stone carvings--almost perfectly preserved--that form wreaths and +festoons of stone about its Gothic windows, there is nothing finer to +be seen in all Flanders. The high pointed roof, with its tiny dormer +windows, is exactly as the architect intended it, and the charming +little tower seems as perfect as the day the last of the +sixteenth-century masons left it. + +The interior is worthy of the exterior. On the first floor a large +hall, called the Salle du Peuple--Hall of the People--extends from one +side of the building to the other. This contains a fine stone +fireplace surmounted by a splendidly carved Gothic mantelpiece with +statues of Ste. Walburge in the centre and Justice and Power on either +side. Below are the arms of Austria, Flanders, and of Audenaerde. This +masterpiece was carved by Paul Van der Schelden. The walls on each +side of the fireplace are decorated with modern mural paintings +depicting Liederick de Buck, the first Forester of Flanders, Dierick +of Alsace, Baldwin of Constantinople, and Charles the Fifth. Between +the windows overlooking the Grande Place are the Arms of Castile and +Aragon, while at the ends of each of the great beams that support the +ceiling are carved the arms of the various kingdoms and +principalities belonging to Charles V. + +Already we perceive that the shadow of the great Emperor rests heavily +on this little city of Audenaerde, and as we proceed further in our +explorations the more dominating and omnipresent does his personality +become. Even the very arms of the city bear a mute evidence to his +generosity and sense of humour. It is related that on a certain +occasion the Emperor and his stately train approached the city without +being perceived by the sentinel stationed in the tower of this very +Hotel de Ville to announce his arrival. On reaching the gates, +therefore, the Imperial cortège found no one to welcome the great +monarch. The Burgomaster and the members of the Council, who should +have been there in their robes of state, were conspicuous by their +absence. Had this happened to his ancestor Charles the Bold, whose +fiery temper brooked no discourtesy, even when unintended, it might +well have gone hard with the unfortunate officials. As it was, the +Emperor overlooked the slight, but not long afterwards he maliciously +inserted a pair of spectacles in the arms of the city, remarking that +in future they would thus be able to see more clearly the approach of +their sovereign. + +[Illustration: WOODEN DOORWAY, CARVED BY VAN DER SCHELDEN, HOTEL DE +VILLE, AUDENAERDE.] + +Adjoining the Salle du Peuple is a smaller chamber, the Salle des +Échevins, or the Council Chamber of the ancient commune. Here there is +another stone fireplace slightly inferior to the one in the larger +hall, but resembling it in general design. The statues here represent +the Virgin Mary in the centre, with Justice and Hope on either side. +The chief masterpiece in this room, however, is the wooden doorway +carved by Van der Schelden, who was instructed by the burghers to make +it as beautiful as possible. How faithfully the artist performed his +task the result shows. Around its top stand wooden cupids surmounting +a richly carved entablature containing the arms of Charles V in the +centre with those of Flanders and of Audenaerde on either side. The +first is supported by two griffins, the second by two lions and the +last by two savages. The panels of the door itself and of the +sidewalls forming the complete portal are richly carved, each design +being different from all the others. For this bit of wood-carving the +frugal burghers paid the sum of one thousand, eighteen livres parisis, +or nine hundred and twenty-three francs--something over $175--and the +artist furnished the wood! + +Formerly the walls of this room were decorated with tapestries of +Audenaerde, but at the time of Louis XIV these were all removed and +taken to Paris. Most of the tapestries in the town overlooked by le +Grande Monarque were subsequently taken away by Napoleon, so that the +Hotel de Ville of the city that gave these treasures to the world, and +that should possess the finest collection of them, has been stripped +completely bare. In their stead the Council Chamber at present +contains a collection of paintings of no special artistic merit but of +great historical interest. There is, of course, a portrait of Charles +V, wearing the insignia of the Order of the Golden Fleece. A portrait +of Louis XIV on horseback and bearing a marshal's baton, by Philippe +de Champaigne, forms a poor substitute for the tapestries filched by +His Majesty. This collection also comprises several portraits of +personages famous in later Flemish history. Of these the most +noteworthy is that of Margaret of Parma, which hangs close to that of +her father, the Emperor. + +Just across the Grande Place from the Hotel de Ville stands the Tower +of Baldwin, undoubtedly the oldest structure in the city, and erected +by Baldwin V, a Count of Flanders who died in 1067, making it date +from the Norman Conquest. The concierge of the Hotel de Ville +informed us that this little tower, which adjoins another ancient +edifice now used as a brewery, was the birthplace of Margaret, but +this does not appear to be altogether certain. Some authorities state +that the honour belongs to a little two-story house with a high, +steep-sloping roof that also faces the Place. If the walls of these +old houses had the ears that proverbially belong to all walls, and +were still further provided with lips to whisper the secrets they +overheard, they could no doubt settle this question; and at the same +time throw some additional light upon a famous bit of mediæval romance +and scandal. + +Of all the natives of the ancient town of Audenaerde the most famous +was Margaret, afterwards the Duchess of Parma, and for many years +Regent of the Low Countries, over which she ruled with an almost +imperial sway. Her father was the great Emperor, Charles V, who +dallied here for several weeks as guest of the Countess de Lalaing, +wife of the Governor of Audenaerde, while his soldiers were besieging +Tournai in the year 1521. The attraction that kept him so far from his +army was a pretty Flemish maiden named Jehanne or Jeanne Van der +Gheynst. According to the none too trustworthy Strada, this young +lady was a member of the Flemish nobility, but according to the city +archives it appears that she belonged to a family of humble tapestry +workers residing at Nukerke, a suburb of Audenaerde. At all events, +her pretty face attracted the attention of the youthful +Emperor--whether at a ball, as Strada says, or while she was serving +as maid of the Countess de Lalaing, as many writers assume, or perhaps +at a village Kermesse which Charles might well have attended +incognito. After the little Margaret was born the mother received an +annual income of twenty-four livres parisis from the Emperor. In 1525 +she married the Maître de Chambre extraordinaire of the Counts of +Brabant, and died in 1541. Charles took his little daughter and had +her brought up as a princess. In 1537, when she was only fifteen years +old, she was married by the Emperor to Alexander, the Duke of Urbin, a +cruel and dissolute Italian prince who, however, died the same year. +The following year she was married to Octavio Farnese, a grandson of +Pope Pius III, who was then only fourteen. She was herself strongly +opposed to this marriage, but the Emperor was obdurate and she finally +yielded. Her son, Alexander Farnese, was the famous Duke of Parma who +became the foremost military leader on the Spanish side during the +sanguinary war between Philip II and the Netherlands. On the death of +her father, Margaret was made Regent of the Low Countries by her +half-brother Philip II. She arrived at Ghent, July 25th, 1559, and on +August 7th the King presented her to the States General, saying that +he had chosen her as his representative because she was so close to +him by birth and "because of the singular affection she has always +borne toward the Low Countries where she was born and raised and of +which she knew all the languages." She retired from the Regency in +1567, but was called back once more in 1580 at the personal request of +the King. As her son Alexander was then at the zenith of his power, +and opposed to her resuming the regency, she finally declined the +honour which was reluctantly given to him. She died in 1586 at the age +of sixty-six. + +It was her fortune, or rather misfortune, to rule over the Netherlands +at a period when the seething forces of religious unrest and protest +were becoming too violent to be restrained. Had Philip II, her +half-brother, been less bigoted, less cruel, and less blind to the +best interests of the country and of his own dynasty, it is possible +that the great popularity of the Duchess--who was sincerely loved by +the majority of her subjects and respected by all--might have enabled +the Government to restrain the rising passions of the people. If, +instead of a policy of savage repression, the King of Spain had +authorised Margaret to pursue a policy of moderation and conciliation, +the fearful history of the next eighty years--the blackest page in +human history--might never have been written. Unfortunately, +moderation and conciliation were as foreign to the nature of that +sombre monarch as to Torquemada himself, and fanaticism fought +fanaticism with a fury that was as devoid of intelligence as it was of +mercy. + +The first act in the drama of blood was the sudden outbreak of the +frenzy of the iconoclasts, or image-breakers, which swept over the +greater part of the Spanish Netherlands in the month of August, 1566. +Scarcely a church, a chapel, a convent or a monastery, escaped the +devastation that resulted from these fanatical attacks. Paintings, +statuary, altars and chapels, even the tablets and monuments of the +dead--the accumulated art treasures of centuries--were torn to pieces +or carried bodily away. In some places the work of destruction was +completed in a few hours, in others organised bands of pillagers +worked systematically for days before the local authorities--taken +completely by surprise--recovered their wits and put a stop to the +work of desecration. The loss to art and civilisation effected by the +iconoclasts in Flanders is beyond computation. The Regent acted with +energy and decision, her spirited appeals to the magistrates finally +bringing them to their senses and resulting in a speedy restoration of +order. Philip, who had just cause for resentment, meditated vengeance, +however, and in 1568 replaced the too gentle Margaret by the Duke of +Alva. + +For the Professor the Hotel de Ville contained still another room of +inexhaustible interest. This was the museum of the commune which +occupies the entire second floor. For some reason--certainly not from +fear of the suffragette, which is a non-existent species in +Belgium--this is closed to the public, but we were admitted by +courtesy of the Secretary of the Commune. The collection is of the +utmost value to the historian and archeologist, but is rather badly +kept. Among the most interesting objects were four chairs once used by +Charles V; the ancient keyboard of the _carillon_ which formerly hung +in the belfry of the town hall but is now installed in the tower of +Ste. Walburge, and some water-colour designs for tapestries. A large +painting of the Last Judgment covered a considerable part of one wall. +This is attributed to Heuvick, and originally hung in the Salle des +Échevins. It was the ancient custom to have a painting of this +subject, covered by curtains, in the olden justice halls. When a +witness was about to be sworn the curtains were suddenly drawn back +and the sight of the picture, which represented with great vividness +the destruction of the damned, was intended to prevent false +testimony. The collection also included a variety of ancient arms and +coins, several curious mediæval strong boxes, and two huge snakes +which hung from the rafters overhead. There are no snakes in Belgium +to-day, but our guide assured us that a crocodile had once been taken +in the River Scheldt near Audenaerde, so the snakes may have been +natives after all--assuming, of course, that the crocodile story is +correct. + +Back of the Hotel de Ville proper is the still more ancient Cloth +Hall, dating from the beginning of the thirteenth century. Its small, +high windows were built slantingly, to prevent archers from sending +arrows directly into the interior. At some comparatively recent +period two large windows were cut through, the walls on each side, +but a goodly number of the earlier windows still remain, and the beams +that support the high, pointed roof are still as sound as the day they +were laid in position. + +[Illustration: CHURCH OF STE. WALBURGE, AUDENAERDE.] + +To the west of the Grande Place, and scarcely a stone's throw from +Baldwin's Tower, rises the vast grey mass of Ste. Walburge, with ten +or twelve tiny fifteenth or sixteenth century houses nestling snugly +up against it. This splendid church dates from the very foundation of +the city, an early chapel erected on this site having been sacked and +burned by the Norsemen in 880. Twice after this the church was +destroyed in the wars between Flanders and France, but in 1150 was +begun an edifice of which some portions still remain. When John the +Fearless, Duke of Burgundy, chose Audenaerde as his Flemish place of +residence the burghers determined to enlarge and beautify their church +and erected the semi-circular portion of the choir in 1406 to 1408. +Soon afterwards the great nave was begun, but was not completed for +fully a century, in 1515. The tower, one of the finest in the world, +advanced still more slowly and was not entirely finished until 1624. +Its original height was three hundred and seventy-three feet, but in +1804 the wooden spire was struck by lightning and burned. It has +never been rebuilt, and the present height of the tower is two hundred +and ninety-five feet. As it is, it dominates the little city and +commands a wide view across the broad valley of the Scheldt in every +direction. It was a stiff climb, up a perpetually winding stone +stairway, to the top, but the view well repaid us for the exertion. + +The interior of the edifice suggests a great metropolitan cathedral +rather than the chief church of a small provincial town. The choir, +which suffered severely from the ravages of the iconoclasts, has +recently been restored with great skill, and is now one of the most +beautiful in Europe. This church contains several paintings by Simon +de Pape, a native of Audenaerde, whose father was the architect of the +spire burned in 1804, also an "Assumption of the Virgin Mary" by +Gaspard de Crayer, a follower of Rubens, who painted more than two +hundred religious pictures. This, like all the others, is of mediocre +merit. To the student of history and of ancient art one of the most +interesting treasures of the church is its collection of tapestries of +Audenaerde. Three of the more important ones represent landscapes--in +fact the majority of Audenaerde tapestries that I have seen may be +thus described--with castles, churches, and farmhouses in the centre +and roses, tulips and other flowers in the foreground. Like most +Audenaerde tapestries also they are crowded with winged +creatures--birds flying or singing in the trees and hens, turkeys and +pheasants strolling in the grass. A tapestry of a different genre is +one belonging to the Confrerie de la Ste. Croix, which shows an +Oriental landscape with Jerusalem in the distance, and at the four +corners the figures of Herod, Pilate, Anna and Caiphas. + +Tapestry weaving was introduced into Flanders during the time of the +Crusades, the reports of the returning crusaders regarding the +splendid carpets and rugs of the Orient arousing a desire on the part +of the Flemish weavers to imitate them. Castle walls, however thick +and strongly built, were apt to be damp and cold and a great demand +speedily sprang up for the new productions for wall coverings. +Starting at Arras and Tournai, the manufacture of tapestries spread to +all the cities in the valley of the Scheldt and received a +particularly important development at Audenaerde, which soon became +the leading tapestry centre of Flanders. The weavers adopted Saint +Barbara as their patron, and in 1441 were organised into a +corporation. In their original charter it was stipulated that each +apprentice must work three years for his first employer. Despite the +severity of this regulation the manufacture of tapestries expanded +with such rapidity that in 1539 no less than twenty thousand +persons--including men, women and children--were employed as tapestry +weavers at Audenaerde and its environs. + +Among the famous Flemish artists who painted designs for the tapestry +weavers of Audenaerde may be mentioned Floris, Coxcie, Rubens, David +Teniers, Gaspar de Witte, Victor Janssens, Peter Spierinckx, Adolphus +de Gryeff, and Alexander Van Bredael, while there were a host of +others. Gradually, however, the artisans began to be discontented with +their rate of pay, which the master tapestry makers kept at a low +figure, and the advent of the religious wars found them eager to join +any movement of revolt. After the outburst of the iconoclasts and the +arrival of the Duke of Alva many fled to the Dutch provinces and to +England, never to return. This emigration continued well into the +seventeenth century, as various decrees passed by the magistrates +between 1604 and 1621, confiscating the possessions of such emigrants, +testify. + +[Illustration: A FLEMISH TAPESTRY OF THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY.] + +Another cause that contributed to the ruin of the tapestry industry at +Audenaerde was the active effort made by the Kings of France, Louis +XIII and Louis XIV, to induce the best weavers and master-workmen to +emigrate to Paris. Philippe Robbins, one of the most celebrated +master-weavers of Audenaerde, was invited to come to France in 1622 +and was afterwards proclaimed at Beavais to be the _Chef de tous les +tapitsers du Roy_. Many of the weavers who went to Paris and Brussels +on their own account established ateliers where they manufactured what +they proclaimed to be _veritables tapis d'Audenaerde_, and this +competition still further injured the industry which soon afterward +disappeared entirely from the city that gave its name to this type of +tapestry and has never since been re-established there. With the +departure of its weavers the little city on the Scheldt rapidly +declined in importance, and for the past two centuries has been the +sleepy little market-town that it is to-day. + +On the other side of the River Scheldt, which flows through the town +and is crossed by several bridges, is the interesting Church of Notre +Dame de Pamela, which dates from the thirteenth century, having been +constructed in the remarkably short space of four years and completed +in 1239. It thus belongs to the transitional period between the +Romanesque style and the pure Gothic and is of interest to the student +of architecture as one of the most perfect examples of this period in +Flanders. The general effect of the interior, especially when viewed +from the foot of the organ loft, is noble and imposing in the highest +degree. Our visit was during a sunny afternoon, and the effect of the +long beams of light falling from the lofty windows of the nave across +the stately pillars below was indescribably beautiful. Truly this +masterpiece of stone expresses in its every line the truth of +Montalembert's beautiful remark that in such a church every column, +every soaring arch, is a prayer to the Most High. + +One of the most curious of the paintings in Notre Dame de Pamela is a +triptych by Jean Snellinck, a painter of Antwerp and a forerunner of +Rubens who was greatly in vogue among the tapestry weavers of +Audenaerde. This work represents the "Creation of Eve" in the central +panel, the "Temptation" at the left and the "Expulsion from Eden" at +the right. The figures are all finely painted, especially those in the +left wing, and the entire work is an admirable example of early +Flemish art. The church also possesses an interesting work by Simon +de Pape representing the invention of the cross. Beneath the organ +loft were three tapestries of Audenaerde workmanship which the +caretaker obligingly spread out on the church floor for our +inspection. All were in a poor state of preservation. One represented +a woodland scene with three peasants on their way to market in the +foreground. The second had a curious group of fowls in the foreground, +while the third showed a sylvan scene with a mother and three +daughters, each of the girls bearing a basket of flowers. + +Both Ste. Walburge and Notre Dame de Pamela suffered severely from the +fury of the iconoclasts, although the storm broke in Audenaerde at a +later period than in the larger cities farther to the eastward. The +curé of Ste. Walburge and four priests of Notre Dame de Pamela were +thrown by the rioters into the Scheldt and drowned October 4th, 1572, +while both churches were sacked. + +On our way back from visiting the smaller church we paused on the quay +named Smallendam to admire the superb view of Ste. Walburge across the +river. A bit further on we entered a quaint little estaminet bearing +the inviting name of _In der Groote Pinte_ which we freely translated +as "the big pint." Apparently our Flemish was inexact, for the +beverage with which we were served was not notable for quantity. It +proved, moreover, to be exceedingly sour and unpleasant, and we left +our glasses unfinished. In the course of a tour around the town we +inspected what remains of the ancient Château de Bourgogne, the early +residence of the Dukes of Burgundy. The principal building is now used +by a Justice of the Peace, and we found little of interest save some +old walls and a massive inner courtyard. At the hospital of Notre +Dame, opposite the great tower of Ste. Walburge, we found two more +Audenaerde tapestries in an admirable state of preservation, while a +dozen fine mediæval doorways in different parts of the town attracted +our attention. For so small a place there are a great many religious +institutions, many of them of great antiquity. Among these may be +mentioned the Convents of the Black Sisters (Couvents des +Soeurs-Noires), the Abbey of Maegdendale, the Convent of Notre Dame de +Sion, and the Béguinage--the last an especially charming little spot +with a delightful street entrance dating from the middle of the +seventeenth century. + +It is hard to believe, as one wanders about the half-deserted streets +of this sleepy old Flemish town, that in its day of greatness it was a +city of no mean power, holding its own sturdily against the greatest +princes in the world. Of its ancient walls and towers not a single +trace remains, yet those vanished ramparts four times in less than two +centuries defied the armies of the neighbouring--but, alas, not always +neighbourly--city of Ghent, even the redoubtable Philip Van Artevelde +retiring from in front of them discomfited in 1382. Three centuries +later, in 1684, Louis XIV was beaten off from an assault on these same +walls, but in revenge he ordered the bombardment of the city. This +resulted in a conflagration from which it had not fully recovered half +a century later. In 1708 the Duke of Marlborough and Prince Eugene of +Savoy won a great victory over the French under the walls of +Audenaerde. To this day along the frontier between France and Flanders +the peasant women lull their babies to sleep with a crooning ballad +which begins: + + Malbrook s'en va't en guerre, + Mirlonton, mirlonton, mirlontaine; + Malbrook s'en va't en guerre, + Dieu sait quand il reviendra. + Il reviendra à Pâques, + Mirlonton, mirlonton, mirlontaine, + _Il reviendra à Pâques, + Ou à la Trinité. (bis)_ + +Small wonder that even the nursery songs tell of war and chant the +name of the great Duke two hundred years after the Battle of +Audenaerde, for during three centuries the Flemish plains were the +battlefield of Europe. Happily the present war has not as yet smitten +Audenaerde with any serious damage, although Le Petit Guerrier, from +his perch on the belfry of the Hotel de Ville, has no doubt looked +down upon long lines of marching men and gleaming bayonets. + + + + +CHAPTER XVIII + +OLD ANTWERP--ITS HISTORY AND LEGENDS + + +While Bruges and Ghent were in their prime as centres of Flemish +commerce and industry a rival that was destined ultimately to supplant +and eclipse them both was slowly growing up along the banks of the +River Scheldt at a point where that important stream, which flows +entirely across Flanders, becomes a tidal estuary. From the most +ancient times the prosperity of Antwerp--which in French is called +Anvers, in Flemish Antwerpen--has been closely connected with the +river. According to the legends a giant named Antigonus once had a +castle where the city now stands and exacted a toll of all who passed +up or down the river. Evasion of this primitive high tariff was +punished by cutting off both the culprit's hands. Of course this giant +just had to be killed by the hero, whose name was Brabo, and who was +said to have been a lieutenant of Cæsar. Brabo cut off the dead +giant's right hand and flung it into the river in token that +thenceforth it should be free from similar extortions. The visitor +will find this legend recalled in the city's arms--which has two hands +surmounting a castle--and in many works of art. Brabo is said to have +become the first Margrave of Antwerp, and to have founded a line of +seventeen Margraves, all bearing the same name, but the deeds and even +the existence of these princes is as mythical as those of their +ancestor--or the famous legend of Lohengrin, which belongs to this +period of Antwerp's history. + +Like London, Antwerp is situated sixty miles from the sea. In olden +days commerce was rather inclined to seek the more inland ports, as +being safer from storms and less exposed to sudden attacks. The size +of ocean-going ships was, moreover, slowly but steadily increasing +from generation to generation, and this increase favoured Antwerp, +which had a deep, sure channel to the sea, as against its early rival +Bruges, whose outlet, the little River Zwyn, was gradually silting up. +The fact that the town was situated just outside of the dominions of +the Counts of Flanders probably helped its early growth, for the +jealous men of Bruges might otherwise have obtained from the Counts +decrees restricting, and perhaps prohibiting, its expansion. As it +was, the great Counts ruled all of the left bank of the Scheldt from +Antwerp to the sea, and also the waters of the river as far as one +could ride into it on horseback and then reach with extended sword. + +The Tête de Flandre, opposite the centre of the older part of the +city, marks the end of Flanders proper in this direction. As already +explained by the Professor, however, Antwerp is none the less +essentially a Flemish city in its art and architecture, its language +and literature, and for many centuries of its brilliant history, and +for these reasons deserves a place in this book. + +Like the County of Flanders, the region surrounding Antwerp was an +outlying "march" or frontier district of the Empire, and its rulers +therefore derived their feudal title from the Emperor. About the year +1100 the Emperor bestowed the march on Godfrey of the Beard, Count of +Louvain and first Duke of Brabant. To the Dukes of Brabant it +thereafter always belonged until that title, with so many others, +became merged in those acquired by the Dukes of Burgundy and united in +their illustrious descendant, Charles V. On the whole, the Dukes, +being absentees, were easy rulers--the shrewd burghers seizing upon +their moments of weakness to wrest new privileges from them, and +relying upon their strength for protection in times of danger. From +time immemorial the burghers claimed a monopoly right to trade in +fish, salt and oats. Other trading privileges followed, and by the +time of the first Duke of Brabant the town was already an important +one, with a powerful Burg, or fortress, surrounding five acres of land +and buildings. Among the latter was the Steen, or feudal prison, a +part of which still stands close to the river and is used as a museum +of antiquities. + +The early Dukes greatly extended the commercial rights and privileges +of the town, Henry III granting a charter that allowed its citizens to +hold bread and meat markets and trade in corn and cloth. Duke John I +granted rights in his famous Core van Antwerpen, dated nearly five +hundred years before the Declaration of Independence, that were +remarkable for wisdom and liberality. "Within the town of Antwerp," +the charter read, "all men are free and there are no slaves. No +inhabitant may be deprived of his natural judges, nor arrested in his +house on civil suit." In 1349 Duke John III granted a charter that not +only confirmed all of its ancient privileges, but gave exceptional +rights and liberties to foreigners--causing many of them to come and +settle there. Among these was the right granted to any dweller within +the city to sue: citizens according to local customs, foreigners +according to the laws of their own lands. As at Bruges and Ghent all +these precious charters were kept in a box having many locks, of which +the keys were kept by delegates of the Broad Council of the city. +"This box," said Mr. Wilfred Robinson, in his valuable historical +sketch of Antwerp, "might only be opened in the presence of all the +civic authorities, while they stood around it bareheaded and holding +lighted tapers in their hands. Truly it must have been a quaint and +solemn scene!" + +Some fifty years prior to the charter last mentioned Duke John II +married one of the daughters of Edward I, King of England, and gave +that monarch the city of Antwerp as a fief. Edward III used the city +as a naval base, and in 1339 signed there with Jacques Van Artevelde a +treaty of alliance with the communes of Brabant and Flanders. The +Kings of England did not, however, retain their suzerainty over +Antwerp very long, for it next passed--once more by marriage--to the +daughter of Louis of Maele, Count of Flanders. The city sought to +resist, and Count Louis was obliged to besiege it and punished the +burghers severely for their disobedience. On his death it passed to +Philip the Bold, Duke of Burgundy, along with the entire County of +Flanders of which it was then a part, and thereafter remained under +the Burgundian Dukes and their successors. + +In 1446 Philip the Good--whose policy had proved so disastrous to +Bruges and Ghent--laid the foundation for the commercial greatness of +Antwerp by a liberal charter which he granted to the Merchant +Adventurers of England. The English merchants had already left Bruges, +where the River Zwyn was fast silting up, and now came to Antwerp and +established there a most extensive trade. They were followed by the +merchants of the other nations, and in less than seventy-five years +after the granting of the charter the population of the city had +doubled twice--from less than seventeen thousand to over forty--four +thousand inhabitants. + +It was during this period that many of the most interesting structures +of "old Antwerp"--the portion of the city between the Steen and the +cathedral and north of the Hotel de Ville--were built. We spent +several interesting mornings tramping these quaint old winding +streets, some of which are still as mediæval in aspect as any to be +seen in Europe. The _Vielle Boucherie_, recently restored, dates from +the reign of Louis of Maele. In its time it contained stalls for +fifty-three butchers. The streets surrounding this quaint structure of +ragged brick are well nigh as ancient and interesting as the +"monuments" which one encounters here and there while exploring them. +The Steen itself dates, as we have seen, from the very earliest period +of the city's history, but is only a remnant of what it was. In the +days of the Spanish Inquisition this grim old structure became a place +of dread, and its gloomy dungeons--which the cheerful and smiling +guide showed us by candlelight, for two cents a head--were in constant +use for the entertainment of guests of the Margraves and their +successors, the Burgundian Dukes, for nigh on to eight centuries. + +[Illustration: THE _VIELLE BOUCHERIE_, ANTWERP.] + +In 1485 the rivalry between Antwerp and Bruges reached the point of +open war. The men of Bruges built a fort commanding the River Scheldt +at a point near Calloo, mounting on it no less than sixty cannon. The +Antwerp burghers met this challenge by building a similar fort at +Austruwel, and then attacked and captured the Flemish fort on April +23--St. George's Day. A yearly procession still commemorates this +victory in the long contest to maintain the freedom of the river. A +fleet of forty-nine merchant vessels that the Flemings had detained +came triumphantly up the river, and the conflict for supremacy between +the old sea gateway of the Netherlands and the new was settled once +for all--as far as poor Bruges was concerned--in favour of Antwerp, +the new maritime queen of the North. + +The river itself seemed to favour the prosperity of Antwerp, as if +proud and eager to become the handmaiden of so valiant and beautiful a +city, for the western entrance of the Scheldt gradually deepened at +about this period--from causes that in those days no one tried to +understand. This gave the port a deep channel to the sea to +accommodate the growing draught of ocean-going ships. The discoveries +of Columbus and Vasco da Gama helped the port also. Until then Venice +had enjoyed a monopoly of the sugar trade of the East. Now it came +sea-borne to Antwerp, and the formerly profitable overland sugar trade +between Venice and Germany was ruined. This caused the Portuguese to +establish a factory at Antwerp. The Spaniards followed, while the +English and Italians enlarged their warehouses. Several great German +trading houses opened premises in the city, although the Hanseatic +League did not abandon Bruges for Antwerp until 1545--being the very +last to go. + +While the decline of Bruges led the painters of that city to desert it +for its fast-growing rival on the Scheldt, Quentin Matsys, the +greatest of the early Antwerp artists, does not seem to have derived +much of his inspiration from the masterpieces of the Bruges school. +The early chronicles give a most romantic account of the life of this +painter, who was born at Louvain about 1466. According to these more +or less legendary stories he was at first a blacksmith, and changed to +a painter through love for a damsel whose father was a great patron +and admirer of that art. Another account has it that he took up +painting owing to illness, first colouring images of the saints such +as were then given to children during the carnival. Blacksmith he +certainly was, as his father had been before him, and the wonderful +cover for the well in front of the cathedral is his handiwork. It +seems probable, however, that he first learned the art of painting at +Louvain, probably as an apprentice to the son of Dierick Bouts. At +Antwerp he soon fell in love with a beautiful girl, who may have been +the model for some of his charming Madonnas. The story is told by one +old chronicler that the maiden's father opposed the match because the +young suitor was not a sufficiently skilful artist. On a certain +occasion Matsys, finding his intended father-in-law out, painted a fly +on one of the figures in a painting belonging to him. On his return +the owner of the painting started to brush the fly off and, seeing his +mistake, heartily admitted that the young artist who had painted it +merited all praise and gave his consent to the nuptials. + +The museum at Antwerp is rich in masterpieces by Matsys, including his +greatest work, "The Entombment." This is a triptych, the panels +showing Herod's banquet with the head of John the Baptist lying on the +table, and St. John in the boiling oil. The "Madonna," in the same +museum, is one of the sweetest faces ever painted among the hundreds +of Madonnas that abound in mediæval art, and one cannot but feel that +it is the very face that won the heart of the artist and caused him to +adopt painting as his profession. Its resemblance to the face of the +Madonna now in the Berlin museum strengthens this theory. At Antwerp +also there are to be seen "The Holy Face," a companion painting to the +"Madonna" just mentioned, and the gruesome yet appealing "Veil of +Veronica," showing the livid face of the Saviour with drops of blood +from the cruel crown of thorns trickling down across it. The museum at +Brussels possesses another masterpiece, and the oldest dated picture +by this artist, "The Legend of St. Anne," which was completed in 1509 +for the brotherhood of St. Anne at Louvain. He also painted several +strong and striking portraits, of which the best is that of Erasmus at +the Städel Institute at Frankfort. Matsys was one of the first Flemish +artists to present subjects of every-day life as well as religious +episodes and characters. "The Banker and his Wife," at the Louvre in +Paris, is the finest example of this kind. There are authenticated +works by this master in a number of European museums, while a +considerable number of his pictures have become lost or have not as +yet been identified. + +[Illustration: "THE BANKER AND HIS WIFE."--MATSYS.] + +Matsys is the greatest name in the history of Flemish art between the +masters of Bruges and the school of Rubens. It was his success that +made Antwerp the Florence of the North. Among Matsys' successors Frans +de Vriendt, better known as Frans Floris, was one of the most notable. +He was a member of the Antwerp guild of St. Luke at the age of +twenty-three, and produced a vast number of works, many of which can +still be seen scattered among the churches and art collections of +Flanders. He had over one hundred pupils, of whom Martin de Vos +achieved the greatest fame. As this painter worked after the +destruction of the image-breakers many of his religious subjects +survive to this day. The Antwerp museum contains no less than +twenty-three of his works, as against only four by his master. Both of +these artists, however, were profound admirers of the Italian school, +and the work of Floris especially--though vastly admired in his +day--is now looked upon as more Italian than Flemish, more imitative +than original. + +This cannot be said of the next really great painter to appear in +Flanders, Peter Breughel the Elder. Born at the little village of +Breughel, near Breda in Brabant, about 1526, this artist studied for a +time in Italy--as did all of his contemporaries--and then settled at +Antwerp. Here he obtained the themes of many of his most famous +compositions. "In the port, in the tavern, in the fairs of +neighbouring villages," says Prof. A. J. Wauters, "meeting now a young +couple in the giddy dance, or a drunkard stumbling in his path, he +sought the humble spectacle of homely things, the noisy mirth of +rustic festivities, and was always in quest of every-day subjects, +which earned for him, at the hands of posterity, the surname of +'Breughel of Peasants.'" He later removed to Brussels, where he +received many commissions, particularly from the Emperor Rudolph II, +who greatly admired his work. Several of his chief masterpieces are +therefore in the Imperial Museum at Vienna, but the Royal Museum at +Antwerp contains four of his works, while several others are scattered +about Europe. + +[Illustration: "WINTER."--PETER BREUGHEL.] + +To the lover of Flemish paintings Breughel is one of the most +characteristic and charming of them all. His art is distinctively +Flemish, in subject, treatment and inspiration. Somewhat influenced +perhaps by Jerome Bosch, a Brabant painter of the previous century +renowned for his weird and eccentric conceptions, Breughel is never +conventional. His work is that of a humourist, a satirist who sees the +follies of the world but laughs at them. His pictures are admirable in +their colouring, execution and the grouping of the figures, and they +are especially interesting in their vivid portrayal of the every-day +Flemish life of the times in which he lived. + +The visitor to Antwerp cannot fail to observe the images of the +Virgin placed at the corners of nearly every street in the older +quarter of the city. These are said to be due to the Long Wapper, a +somewhat humorous but none the less grim and terrifying fiend who was +wont, many centuries ago, to play weird pranks upon the good people of +Antwerp after nightfall. He used to lie in wait for wayfarers upon +deserted by-streets in the uncanny hours between midnight and dawn. +Pouncing upon his terrified victims, he would carry them off, +sometimes never to return. Now and then he assumed the form of a lost +baby, to which, being found by some charitable mother, the breast was +given. Presently the good woman discovered to her horror that the +foundling was swelling and becoming heavy, and when she put it down +the Wapper assumed his own shape and ran off shrieking. At times he +peered into church windows and howled and gibbered at the worshippers, +and afterwards frightened them terribly as they went homeward, or, +stretching his body to an incredible length, he peered into the upper +windows of people's houses. Men feared to speak evil of the Long +Wapper, for something terrible was certain to happen to those who did. +At last it was found that he would never pass an image of the Virgin, +and that is why so many were erected that finally the evil fiend had +no more streets left in which to play his mad pranks and left Antwerp +for the lonely moors and dunes along the seacoast where he is still +said to be seen. + +The place most frequented by the Long Wapper was a little stream which +came to be called the Wappersrui in consequence, and a bridge across +it the Wappersbrucke. Here he often strode out of the water with his +long thin legs extending far down into its dark depths like two black +stilts. Once he had reached the embankment he shrank instantly to a +diminutive size--usually taking the form of a schoolboy. These first +appearances were generally between daylight and dark, when the +twilight made it difficult to distinguish faces clearly, and he always +took the place of some boy who happened to be absent. A favourite game +of the boys, who were then returning from school, was called +shove-hat. In this game one boy tossed his hat on the ground and the +others shoved and kicked it about with their feet while its owner +sought to regain it. When it came the turn of the Long Wapper to throw +down his hat the first one to give it a kick broke his wooden shoe to +pieces and fractured his toes, for the hat proved to be a heavy iron +pot. Then the street echoed with a jeering "Ha, ha, ha!" but the +Wapper had disappeared. + +His pranks upon grown-up people were apt to be far more serious in +their consequences than those just described. Often he paused at some +tavern door and joined the party seated there in a game of cards, +which invariably resulted in a violent quarrel in the course of which +one or more of the players was usually killed. On another occasion he +appeared in broad daylight selling mussels. Encountering four women +sitting outside their door at work he opened a mussel and offered it +to one of them. She tasted it, but it turned into dirt in her mouth. +Apologising, he opened another, which all could see was a sound, fine +mussel, and offered it to another of the women. No sooner was it in +her mouth than it turned into a huge spider. The women thereupon set +upon him, but he defended himself so rudely that two of them were +nearly killed, when he suddenly vanished, leaving only an echo of wild +laughter. + +In the country to the east of Antwerp there are many quaint legends +still told at the peasants' firesides on stormy winter nights about +the Kaboutermannekens who in ancient times frequented that +neighbourhood. Near the village of Gelrode there is a small hill on +the sides of which are many little caves which were formerly the +abode of these fairies, the hill being called the Kabouterberg +to this day in consequence. There is a similar hill, called +Kaboutermannekensberg, between Turnhout and Casterle. They were also +called Red Caps or Klabbers, and were usually clad in red from head to +foot, and often had green hands and faces, according to those who were +so fortunate as to see them. These little gnomes or elves seem to have +resembled their kind as reported in the folk-lore of other northern +countries, being the willing and loyal slaves of those who treated +them kindly, and the bitter, and sometimes dangerous, enemies of those +who misused them. + +Still another local sprite--this time a spirit of evil resembling in +some respects the Long Wapper--was known as Kludde. This fiend was +often met with after dark in many parts of Flanders, and even in +Brabant. At times Kludde would appear to the peasants as the dusk of +twilight was deepening into the intense darkness of night on the +Flemish plains, in the guise of an old, half-starved horse. If a +farmer or stable-boy mistook him for one of his own horses and mounted +on Kludde he instantly rushed off at an incredible speed until he +came to some water into which he pitched his terrified rider headlong. +This accomplished to his satisfaction he vanished, crying "Kludde, +Kludde!" as he went away, whence came his name. + + + + +CHAPTER XIX + +THREE CENTURIES OF ANTWERP PRINTERS + + +The joyous entry of the boy prince who was afterward to become Charles +V was the signal for ten days of rejoicing by the citizens of Antwerp. +This was early in the year 1515; and, in truth, the city prospered +mightily under the rule of the great Emperor, who favoured it on many +notable occasions. The bankers and merchant princes of Antwerp became +renowned the world over for their wealth and magnificence. Anthony +Fugger, who was the banker of Maximilian and Charles V, left a fortune +of six million golden crowns, and it is said that his name survives to +this day as a synonym for wealth--the common people calling any one +who is extremely rich a _rykke Fokker_, a rich Fugger. It is related +that another rich Antwerp merchant, Gasparo Dozzo, on being privileged +to entertain the Emperor in his house, cast into the fire a promissory +note for a large loan he had formerly made to his sovereign. + +This period of wealth and prosperity continued till the very end of +the reign of the Emperor, but under his successor, Philip II, the city +was plunged into misfortunes and miseries as swift and as appalling as +those that befell in the terrible Fall of 1914. In 1556 Philip opened +a chapter of the Knights of the Golden Fleece at St. Mary's, afterward +the cathedral, in Antwerp--thereby recognising the supremacy of this +town over the others in his Flemish dominions. Among the new knights +to whom he gave the accolade were William the Silent and the Count of +Horn. Little men thought on that day of festivity and good will what +the future held in store for them all! + +On August 18, 1566, the miraculous statue of the Blessed Virgin was +taken from its place in St. Mary's church and carried through the +streets of the city in a solemn procession--as it had been for nearly +two hundred years. This time there were murmurs of disapproval from +the crowds that lined the streets, some stones were thrown, and the +procession hastily returned to the church. The next day a small mob, +composed for the most part of boys and men of the lowest class, +entered the church and destroyed the statue and the entire contents of +the sacred edifice, including some seventy altars, and paintings and +statues almost without number. The organ, then the wonder of Europe, +was ruined, and the rabble dressed itself in the costly vestments of +the clergy and carried away the treasures of the church and even the +contents of the poor boxes. This was the beginning of the work of the +image-breakers, as they came to be called, which spread throughout +Flanders until scarcely a religious edifice had escaped the +destruction of its movable contents, while a few here and there were +burned. As noted in the chapter on Audenaerde, Margaret of Parma was +Regent at this time and acted resolutely to suppress the +disorders--which were largely due to the supine attitude of the local +magistrates at the beginning. + +She had all but succeeded in restoring peace and quiet throughout +Flanders when Philip suddenly decided to send an army there, and +selected the Duke of Alva to command it. The story of the eighty +years' war that followed is familiar to every American through +Motley's account of it, although that brilliant writer is more +concerned with the details relating to the Dutch provinces than those +regarding the portion of the Netherlands that remained subject to +Spain. Two events, however, in the long war were so directly +concerned with Antwerp, and loom so large in its history, that they +cannot be passed over here. Both have a renewed interest in view of +the history of Antwerp's latest siege in 1914. These are the Spanish +Fury, and the great siege of the city by the Duke of Parma. + +Alva, who superseded the gentle Margaret of Parma as Regent of the +Netherlands, quickly took stern measures for the repression of further +disorders at Antwerp, which he regarded as a hot-bed of heresy. A huge +citadel was built at the southern end of the town, near the Scheldt, +in 1572, in the centre of which Alva erected a bronze statue of +himself. On the marble pedestal the inscription related how "the most +faithful minister of the best of Kings had stamped out sedition, +repelled the rebels, set up religion, and restored justice and peace +to the country." So far were these boasts from being true that only +the following year, in 1573, Alva stole away to Spain secretly, his +government a failure, his army mutinous, and half of the country he +had been sent to rule in open and successful revolt. War with England +had ruined the commerce of Antwerp, Alva's fiscal policy and incessant +taxes had half beggared the people of the entire country, while +thousands of the noblest and bravest in the land had met death on the +scaffold or in the torture chambers of the Inquisition. + +Requesens, the next Regent, was unable either to stem the rising tide +of revolt or to pay his soldiers--King Philip failing to send funds +until the pay of the Spanish veterans was at one time twenty-two +months in arrears. The sudden death of Requesens in 1576 left matters +in a nearly chaotic condition. The veterans who had been fighting in +Zeeland against the Dutch mutinied and returning to Flanders captured +the town of Alost, where they forced the citizens to give them food +and shelter. On November 4th, 1576, the mutineers marched to Antwerp, +some two thousand strong, where they joined the Spaniards and +mercenaries in the citadel. They were under the command of an +_Eletto_, or elected leader. Jerome Roda, a Spaniard, had proclaimed +himself the commandant of the fortress until the new Regent, Don John +of Austria, should arrive in Flanders. Under these two worthies the +combined forces in the citadel, some five thousand men in all, +proceeded to attack the city. The citizens, on their side, had for +some time feared such an attack and should have been able to repel +it. There were fourteen thousand armed burghers, four thousand +Walloons and an equal number of German troops--twenty-two thousand in +all. It may have been that they felt unduly secure against an attack +on that day because it was Sunday. It is certain that they were badly +commanded. + +Shortly after noon the Spaniards rushed from the citadel and across +the broad open esplanade cleared a few years before by Alva, shouting +their war cry, _Sant Jago y cierra España_. The _Eletto_ was the first +to fall, but the rush of furious soldiers was not to be stopped by a +single volley. The Walloons put up a brave fight but part of the +Germans treacherously lowered their pikes and let the Spaniards pass +down the rue St. Georges. On the Place de Meir the defenders made +another stand, but were swiftly swept back in a confused and +disorganised mass by the Spanish cavalry. At the Hotel de Ville the +burghers fought fiercely until the mutineers set fire to the edifice. +In the conflagration that followed not only this noble structure, one +of the finest in Europe, but the adjoining guild houses and some +eighty other buildings were consumed. Of the Hotel de Ville only the +blackened walls remained. By nightfall the Spaniards and the German +mercenaries, most of whom had joined the victors in order to share in +the spoils, were masters of the doomed city. + +That night the scenes of pillage and rapine as the savage and half +drunken soldiers swept through the streets and ransacked the houses of +all who did not instantly pay a stiff ransom, exceed the descriptive +powers of the contemporary historians. One of the burgomasters was +stabbed to end a quarrel as to his ransom. Many burghers were killed +near the town hall, or were burned within it like rats. For three days +the city was given up to be sacked. The number who were killed, +including women and children, has been variously estimated at from +seven thousand to seventeen thousand of the citizens and defenders of +the city, and from two hundred and fifty to six hundred of the +Spaniards. The loss in property amounted to many millions, but no +accurate estimate could be made of it, as many who suffered most in +this respect lost their lives as well. Cartloads of plunder were sent +out of the city, while much of it was actually sold by those who did +not care or dare to keep it in a temporary market-place at the Bourse. +Some were said to have concealed their wealth by having sword hilts +and breastplates made of solid gold. Like the ill-gotten gains of the +Spaniards in America, however, none of this booty--the reward of +treachery, of assassination, of cruelty and the sudden setting free of +all the basest elements in human nature--profited its captors very +greatly. In a few days after the arrival of Don John, the new Regent, +the mutinous soldiers were paid off and marched away to Maestricht and +presently to other battlefields, from Flanders to Lombardy, where, no +doubt, most of the golden breastplates and sword hilts fell--in due +time--to other conquerors. Such was the Spanish Fury--until 1914 the +worst blot on civilisation that history records. + +Soon after the Spaniards left the city permission was given to the +people to destroy the citadel that the tyrant Alva had built to +overawe the town. The entire population flocked to this welcome +task--men, women and children, each taking a shovel, a basket or a +barrow. It is related that even the great ladies of the city took part +in the work of demolition--so hated had the grim fortress become. The +statue of the cruel Duke that he had so vaingloriously erected in the +centre of the citadel only five years before was torn down and dragged +through the streets by a cheering throng. Charles Verlat has given the +world a vivid picture of this incident which hangs in the Antwerp +museum. + +[Illustration: "DRAGGING THE STATUE OF THE DUKE OF ALVA THROUGH THE +STREETS OF ANTWERP."--C. VERLAT.] + +Six years later the Duke d'Alençon, who had been made nominal +sovereign over the Low Countries by William the Silent, planned to +treacherously attack and sack the city with his French soldiers, some +three thousand, five hundred strong. This time, however, the citizens +were not caught napping and when the tocsin in the cathedral called +the alarm the burghers rushed out in thousands. The French +swashbucklers proved to be less stubborn fighters than the Spanish +veterans and soon were driven back in a confused mass to the city +gates, most of them being killed and the cowardly Duke only saving +himself by flight. This episode has been derisively called the French +Fury. It happened January 17, 1583. + +The following year Alexander Farnese, the Duke of Parma--and the son +of the Duchess of Parma, whose career as Regent of the Netherlands +was briefly described in the chapter on Audenaerde, her +birthplace--determined to besiege Antwerp, which, since the Spanish +Fury, had fallen into the hands of the revolted Provinces. +Unfortunately for its defenders, William the Silent had just died at +the hands of an assassin and his plans for the protection of the city +by flooding all of the marshes surrounding it were not followed. The +butchers opposed flooding all of their pasture lands and the important +Kowenstein Dyke was not cut. The Prince of Parma, who was the greatest +military leader of his age, swiftly captured the forts on the Flemish +side of the river, seized the Kowenstein Dyke--which extended on the +Brabant side from a point opposite Calloo to Starbroeck--and began to +build a bridge across the river itself. This daring project, if +successful, would completely isolate Antwerp from the sea and its +Dutch allies and render certain its ultimate subjection by starvation. + +The bridge was built partly on piles, as far out as the water was +sufficiently shallow, then the intervening gap was spanned by means of +thirty-two large vessels anchored at both ends and lashed together by +chains and heavy cables. The structure was completed in February, +1585, to the amazement of the besieged burghers and the great joy of +the Prince's army. It would seem a small affair to the pontoon bridge +builders of to-day, being two thousand, four hundred feet long and +twelve feet wide, but at that time it was deemed one of the most +notable achievements ever known. The defenders of the city sent huge +fireships down the river to destroy the bridge. One of these actually +exploded against the structure and another off Calloo, destroying more +than eight hundred Spanish soldiers and endangering their intrepid +leader himself. The bridge was wrecked, but Farnese repaired it before +the people at Antwerp learned of the success of their attempt. + +A tremendous attack was next made on the Kowenstein Dyke, with a view +to cutting it--a feat that could have been done without any trouble if +the Prince of Orange's counsels had been followed a few months +earlier. A fleet of one hundred and fifty Dutch ships joined in the +battle from the sea side, while a strong force of Flemings, English +and Dutch from Antwerp attacked the dyke from the land side. After a +fierce struggle it was cut, the waters rushed through and one vessel +loaded with provisions for the beleaguered city made its way past. +That night Antwerp rejoiced, but in the darkness the Prince of Parma +made another furious assault and finally drove back the allies, +capturing twenty-eight ships of the Dutch fleet and filling in the +dyke once more. This victory--which as a feat of arms was one of the +most brilliant of the war--sealed the fate of the city, which finally +capitulated August 17th. So important was this success to the +Spanish, cause that Isabella, the daughter of King Philip, was +awakened by her father during the night by the tidings, "Antwerp is +ours!" Its fall settled approximately the extent of the region that +was left to the Spanish Crown out of the wreck of its former empire in +the Low Countries. Thenceforth all of the provinces to the west and +south of Antwerp--the region now comprised in the Kingdom of +Belgium--remained subject to the King of Spain and his Austrian +successors until the great French Revolution. The remaining provinces +became the Dutch Republic and now form the Kingdom of Holland. + +The Spanish Fury and the great siege had together well-nigh destroyed +the commerce of the port, and the heavy fine imposed by the conquerors +upon the city for its rebellion completed its ruin. Packs of wild dogs +are said to have roamed unmolested through the outlying villages, +which stood deserted, while even wolves were seen. Grass grew in the +once crowded streets of the city, and famine added to the miseries of +its fast declining population. It would hardly be conceivable that a +quarter of a century of hideous misrule could have so utterly +obliterated the prosperity of this once opulent city, but for the +fearful object lesson afforded in 1914 that war is still as potent a +breeder of destruction and despair as it was in that dark age. + +Enough, however, of wars and sieges and the sack of cities. Antwerp's +past includes many pleasanter stories as well--stories of progress and +achievement. To those who are interested in the noble art of printing, +and the various branches of the fine arts that serve as handmaids to +the printer, Antwerp possesses one of the rarest treasure-houses in +the world. This is the Museum Plantin-Moretus, for three centuries the +head office and workshop of the great printing-house whose name it +bears. + +Christopher Plantin, the founder of this famous establishment, was by +birth a Frenchman--having first seen the light of day in the vicinity +of Tours in the year 1514. Fleeing from the plague with his father to +Lyons, he went from there to Orleans, to Paris, and finally to Caen in +Normandy, where he learned the art of printing from Robert Mace. Here +also he met Jeanne Rivière, who became his wife in 1545 or 1546. The +couple soon went to Paris, where Plantin learned the art of +bookbinding and of making caskets and other articles of elegance from +leather. In 1549 he came to Antwerp and the following year was +enrolled as a citizen and also as a member of the famous guild of St. +Luke with the title of printer. He does not appear to have followed +this profession, however, but speedily gained much renown for his +exquisite workmanship as a bookbinder and casket maker, finding +several wealthy patrons and protectors-among them Gabriel de Çayas, +Secretary of Philip II, then the most powerful monarch in Christendom. + +In the year 1555, while on his way to deliver in person a jewel-case +he had just made for this client, he met with an adventure that +changed the course of his career. It was quite dark before he had +completed his errand, and as he made his way along the narrow, ill-lit +streets of the old city he was set upon by a party of drunken +revellers who mistook him, with the casket under his arm, for a guitar +player against whom they had some grievance. One of the party ran the +unfortunate casket-maker through the body with his sword, and he had +barely strength enough to drag himself home, more nearly dead than +alive. Skilful medical and surgical aid finally saved his life, but +left him unable to do any manual work. He therefore gave up his +casket-making and resumed the trade of printer, which he had learned +at Caen. Instead of a misfortune, as it no doubt seemed at the time, +this sword thrust proved the turning point in his career, for in his +new profession he was destined to achieve undying fame. + +There were at this time no less than sixty-six printing establishments +in the Low Countries, of which thirteen were at Antwerp, some of the +latter rivalling the best printers of Paris, Basel and Venice in the +beauty of their productions. Plantin's first book was issued the year +of his accident, in 1555, and was entitled "_La Institutione di una +fanciulla nata nobilmente_." During the next seven years his presses +turned out a limited number of works, but in 1562 his office was +raided by order of the Regent, Margaret, the Duchess of Parma, and +three of his workmen seized and condemned to the galleys for a +heretical book they had printed unknown to him, entitled "_Briefve +instruction pour prier_." Plantin fled to France, and to avoid +confiscation he had some of his friends, acting as creditors, sell and +buy in his printing plant. The following year--having convinced the +Government of his orthodoxy--he returned to Antwerp and organised a +company consisting of himself and four partners, including some of his +pretended creditors. While this arrangement lasted, from 1563 to +1567, more than two hundred books were printed, and forty workmen kept +constantly employed. His work was already considered notable for the +beauty of its type and excellence of the paper used. + +Soon after the partnership was dissolved Plantin undertook what was +destined to be the greatest work of his career, and one of the most +notable in the history of printing, the famous _Biblia Regia_. This +was an edition of the Bible in four ancient languages, Latin, Hebrew, +Greek and Chaldean. The Hebrew type was purchased from a Venetian +printer, while the last two were cast expressly for this book. His +friend Çayas interested Philip II in the project and that monarch sent +the great scholar Arias Montanus from Alcala to supervise the work. At +the suggestion of Cardinal Granville, Syriac was added to the other +texts, so that, including French, there were six languages in all. The +first volume of this "Polyglot Bible," as it came to be called, +appeared in 1569 and the eighth and last in 1573. The work proved to +be exceedingly costly, and to help meet the expense the King of Spain +advanced 21,200 florins, and granted Plantin a monopoly for its sale +throughout the Spanish dominions for the period of twenty years. A +similar monopoly was granted by the Pope, the Emperor, the King of +France and the Republic of Venice. In spite of all this, the book +brought its printer no profits, but kept him in debt for the rest of +his life. Pensions promised by Philip II to himself and his +son-in-law, Raphelingen, were never paid. + +Between the editor of the great Bible and its printer a strong +friendship sprang up. "This man," wrote Arias on one occasion, "is all +mind and no matter. He neither eats, drinks, nor sleeps." And again, +"Never did I know so capable and so kindhearted a man. Every day I +find something fresh to admire in him, but what I admire the most is +his humble patience towards envious colleagues, whom he insists on +wishing well, though he might do them much harm." + +Besides the _Biblia Regia_ Plantin, now at the height of his fame, +managed to turn out a vast quantity of printed matter. High in royal +favour by reason of this worthy work, he had no difficulty in +obtaining for himself and his heirs a profitable monopoly for printing +and selling missals and breviaries throughout Spain's wide dominions. +While the largest printers at Paris rarely employed more than six +presses, Plantin kept twenty-two constantly at work, had agents at +Paris and Leyden, and sent a member of his family every year to attend +the fairs at Leipzig and Frankfort. In 1575 his office is said to have +had seventy-three kinds of type, weighing over seventeen tons. + +In 1570 he was appointed by Philip to the newly created office of +Prototypographer in the Netherlands. Masters and men in the printing +trade had to apply to him for certificates as to their fitness, while +he was also required to draw up a list of forbidden books. In this, +curiously enough, one of the earlier products of his own press found a +place--a rhyming version of the Psalms in French by Clement Marot. +This office does not seem to have paid much salary, if any, or to have +given its first possessor anything but a lot of worry. + +The Plantin Press was located at various places about the city until +1576, when it was established on the rue Haute near the Porte de St. +Jean. Three years later Plantin purchased from the owner of this +property the premises occupied by the present museum and extending +from the rue Haute through to the Friday Market, with a large gateway +opening into the latter. Plantin had been only eight months in this +new location when the Spanish Fury broke out. He was away on a +journey himself, but his son-in-law, Moretus, had to pay a heavy +fine to save the printing-office from pillage. The next few years were +full of trouble and anxiety. For a time Plantin had to leave Antwerp, +going to Leyden, where he met Justus Lipsius and was made printer to +the University. During the great siege of Antwerp he fled, with many +other Catholics, to Cologne, where he thought for a time of +establishing his chief printing-office. After the siege he hurried +home, but a short time later his health began to fail. + +[Illustration: COURTYARD OF THE PLANTIN MUSEUM, ANTWERP.] + +It was in the house on the Friday Market that the dying printer +gathered his family about him. His only son had died in infancy, but +his five daughters had all lived to be married, three of them to men +associated with him in the printing office. The eldest, Margaret, +married Francis Raphelingen, the chief proof-reader and an able +linguist; while the second, Martina, married Jean Moretus, the father +of a long line, of which the eldest sons bore the same name so that +they came to be distinguished by numbers, the first being Jean Moretus +I--like a line of kings. This son-in-law was Plantin's business +manager. The third daughter aided the mother, who ran a linen business +in the frugal way that many Flemish housewives have of helping their +husbands. A fourth, Magdalen, when only a child, corrected proofs on +the _Biblia Regia_ in five languages, and later married her father's +Paris agent. The fifth married a brother of Jean Moretus I, who became +a diamond-cutter. + +Plantin had from a very early date adopted the motto "_Labori et +Constantia_," together with the emblem of a hand holding a pair of +open compasses, which may be seen over the Friday Market gateway to +the museum. This emblem, with the motto entwining it in the form of a +scroll, or appearing above, below or across it in a hundred +variations, is the mark by which connoisseurs can distinguish the +products of the Plantin Press. It must have been constantly in the +mind of the great printer himself, for on his deathbed he composed the +following French couplet, which expresses and describes his own +character better than any epitaph could do: + + "Un Labeur courageux muni d'humble Constance + Resiste à tous assauts par douce Patience." + +On July 1, 1589, this "giant among printers" breathed his last, and +was buried in the ambulatory of the cathedral, his friend Justus +Lipsius writing the inscription for his tombstone. While his name is +not associated with the earliest beginnings of the art of printing, +and the products of his press do not therefore command the almost +fabulous prices paid for the rarest productions of some of the first +printers, Christopher Plantin was not only the greatest printer of his +age, but one of the greatest in the history of the art. Almost from +the first he knew how to gather about him the foremost scholars and +artists of his time, making his establishment not merely a +printing-office but an institution of learning, a home of the fine +arts. Arias Montanus, editor of the _Biblia Regia_, aided by a host of +the most learned churchmen of Europe; Justus Lipsius, lecturer before +Princes at the Universities of Leyden and Louvain; Mercator and +Ortelius, the geographers, from whom the world learned the right way +to make maps and atlases; Crispin, Van den Broeck, Martin de Vos, and +a score of the foremost Flemish artists, who were employed by Plantin +to illustrate his books; these and many more no doubt were frequent +visitors at the printing-house during the lifetime of its founder. + +These noble traditions were fully maintained under his successors. +Jean Moretus I ruled over the destinies of the house until his death, +in 1610, leaving it to his two sons, Jean II and Balthazar I. The +latter was the greatest of the dynasty of printers after Plantin and +Jean Moretus I. He was a warm friend of Rubens, who illustrated many +of the publications of the house during this period. In the fourth +generation, represented by Balthazar III, who ruled for half a +century, from 1646 to 1696, the family was ennobled, but after this +period the house confined its output and commerce to missals and +breviaries, under the monopoly granted by Philip II for the countries +under the rule of Spain. This business was completely destroyed by an +edict prohibiting the importation of foreign books into the Spanish +dominions, and in 1800 the printing office ceased operations. It +resumed activity on a small scale once or twice during the nineteenth +century, but finally closed in 1867, after an existence of three +hundred and twelve years, and in 1876 the last representative of the +house, Edouard Moretus, sold the entire establishment, with all its +priceless collections and furnishings, to the City of Antwerp for the +sum of 1,200,000 francs, to be maintained as a museum. + +During the splendid period of activity in the first half of the +seventeenth century, the throng of famous men in the libraries and the +corrector's room of the old establishment surpassed that of the days +of Plantin and Jean Moretus I. Rubens, Van Dyck, Erasmus Quellin and a +host of other artists; Lævinius Torrentius, bishop and poet, Kiliaen, +the lexicographer, and scores of other learned men; Princes and Dukes +innumerable, the patrons and protectors of the house--all these and +many more were constant visitors. To the student the museum of to-day +recalls these great names with a freshness and vividness that the +ordinary museum fatally lacks, for here are countless mementoes of +their presence in the very proofs and prints they handled and +corrected, in the letters they wrote, in the sketches drawn by the +greatest artists of Flanders and engraved by the foremost engravers of +the time. + +As a detailed description of the Plantin Museum can be found in all +the guidebooks, while an excellent handbook regarding its treasures by +Max Rooses, its renowned curator, can be purchased for a franc, it +would be unnecessary as well as tedious to recount them here. To those +who have but a little time at their disposal a liberal honorarium to +the attendant in each room--all of whom are garbed in brown with a +quaint cap of the same colour, as the printers of the house were wont +to be dressed in the great olden days--will bring forth a wealth of +curious and interesting information not to be found in any book, +anecdotes of distinguished visitors, bits of lore about this or the +other treasure, that will make the trifling investment well worth +while. In our case we made our first visit in this way, roaming about +the splendid old rooms and dipping into this case or that at +random--like butterflies amid a bower of roses. Visitors were few that +day and we had each attendant to ourselves. Later on we made another +visit, armed with letters of introduction to M. Denucé, the learned +assistant curator, and through his courtesy revisited each room once +more. A single book--one of the marvellous collections of early +Bibles--was, according to the attendant in that room, made the object +of an offer of a million francs, or maybe it was a million dollars, by +a well-known American millionaire. The collection in its entirety, if +dispersed by auction, would doubtless fetch many millions--but it +belongs exactly where it is. Like the collection of Van Eycks and +Memlings in Bruges, it would be a world calamity to despoil it or +disperse it. Even the very furnishings of the chambers up-stairs are +associated with the house of Plantin, were used by the family for +many years; the paintings that crowd the walls like an art gallery are +for the most part by Rubens--portraits of leading members of the +family. Then there are numberless drawings, prints and engravings that +represent the work of half of the greatest artists of the Flemish +school during the century of its greatest splendour--an inimitable, +indescribable collection! + +Among other pictorial treasures we saw a collection of views of old +Antwerp that the Professor said he would gladly have spent a month in, +if only his vacation were a little longer. Then there were the +books--and again words fail to convey an adequate idea of the richness +and interest of the collection. There are nearly a score of early +German Bibles, including a fine copy of Gutenberg's _Bible latine_ of +1450; rare German and Italian incunabula, choice examples of the work +of the early Flemish printers, including _Les dicts moraulx des +philosophes_, printed by Colard Manson at Bruges in 1477. There are +examples of early French, Dutch and Italian printing; there are +Aldines, Estiennes, Elzevirs; books from the first printing presses of +Switzerland, Spain and Portugal. Truly the historian of the early art +of printing might come here and complete his work within these charmed +walls--he would need no other materials! Naturally the collection of +books printed by the house itself is large, though not complete, and +there are a great many products of other Antwerp presses. Most +valuable of all is the collection of manuscripts, which includes a +huge Latin Bible completed in 1402 and ornamented with the most +marvellous miniatures. Here are also several superb Books of Hours and +many other books with choice miniatures. + +The printing-rooms also deserve all the time the tourist can spare. +The proofreaders' room is a gem, architecturally, artistically, and +from its historic associations with one of the world's finest arts. A +few old proof sheets are still lying on the high desks, near the +stained glass windows with their tiny panes. The typeroom has still +some of the old fonts of type and original matrices, while the +composing and pressroom has two presses of the sixteenth century, and +many quaint and curious devices then in use. All these rooms, together +with the large state rooms, which contain the manuscripts and choicest +examples of early printing, surround a charming courtyard which is +still kept bright with flowers as it was in the days of the +founders of the great house. The City of Antwerp is justly proud of +this noble monument to its great family of great printers, which +serves to keep green the memory of their achievements and of their +fine artistic taste and skill as no other form of memorial could do. + +[Illustration: ANCIENT PRINTING PRESSES AND COMPOSING CASES, PLANTIN +MUSEUM, ANTWERP.] + + + + +CHAPTER XX + +ANTWERP FROM THE TIME OF RUBENS TILL TO-DAY + + +If there is one name more honoured in Flanders than any other--more +often employed as the name of hotels, restaurants or cafés; more +frequently on the lips of guides, caretakers and sacristans; more +constantly in the mind of every tourist, be he or she American, +English or Continental--it is the name of the greatest of Flemish +painters, Peter Paul Rubens. No book on Flanders, and most assuredly +no work touching on Antwerp, would be complete without some reference +to the life and work of this prince among painters, yet no task can be +more superfluous, since nothing can be said that will add in the +slightest degree to his fame. He ranks in the history of art with the +greatest masters in the world--with Michael Angelo, Leonardo, +Rembrandt, Raphael, Titian and Velasquez--and it is probable that more +books have been written about him than about Antwerp itself. + +Occasional references have been made in previous chapters to +notable paintings by Rubens to be seen in various churches throughout +Flanders--particularly to "The Miraculous Draught of Fishes" at +Malines, which is said to have been saved from the destruction of that +city, having been carried away before the first of its many +bombardments. It is at Antwerp, however, that the tourist who desires +to study the work of Rubens will find him at his best and in greatest +profusion. And the most famous spot enriched by his unrivalled art is +the cathedral. Here hang his two greatest devotional works, "The +Elevation of the Cross" and "The Descent from the Cross." The former +was painted in 1610 and gave the young artist--he was then only +thirty-three--instant and enduring fame. The companion work was +completed the following year. Neither was originally painted for the +cathedral. "The Elevation of the Cross," the earlier and inferior of +the two, was intended to be the altarpiece for the church of Ste. +Walburge, while the other was painted for the Society of Arquebusiers, +to adjust a difficulty that had arisen over apportioning the cost of a +wall separating Rubens' house from that of the guild. Both, however, +are in an ideal location where they now are, and form an admirable +starting point from which to see, first the cathedral, and then the +work of Rubens as a whole. + +[Illustration: "THE DESCENT FROM THE CROSS."--RUBENS.] + +The Cathedral of Notre Dame is without doubt the most beautiful Gothic +church in Belgium, and has thus far happily escaped the ravages of the +present war--passing unscathed through the furious German bombardment +of the city. Begun in 1352 it was, like other churches of its size, +centuries in reaching completion. The exquisite lace-work in stone of +the north tower was completed during the sixteenth century, but was +not wholly finished when the iconoclasts ravaged the interior of the +edifice. Originally the church of St. Mary, it became the Cathedral of +Notre Dame in 1560. The nave and transepts were not vaulted until +1611-16, or the very period when Rubens was painting the famous +pictures that now hang in the south transept. Work on the south tower +was discontinued in 1474, which seems a pity, as its completion would +have made the cathedral one of the most perfect specimens of Gothic +architecture in the world. As it is, the single tower dominates the +old part of the city and is a familiar feature of its sky line. The +chimes of the cathedral are famous, and are often played by Jef Denyn +of Malines. There are forty bells of various sizes, of which the +greatest was named Charles V, and requires the strength of nineteen +men to swing it. This bell was founded some eight years before the +young Duke Charles made his joyous entry into Antwerp, and no doubt +rang lustily on that occasion. + +The interior of the cathedral is very vast, comprising six aisles, but +is too well known to require description. Among the numerous paintings +with which the chapels are adorned is one, a "Descent from the Cross," +by Adam Van Noort, the teacher of Jordaens, and said to be the first +who taught Rubens how to handle a brush. In the second chapel on the +south is an interesting "Resurrection" by Rubens, which was painted in +1612 for the tomb of his friend Moretus, of the famous printing-house +of Plantin. The fourth chapel on the same side contains the tomb of +Christopher Plantin, with an inscription by his colleague and friend, +Justus Lipsius, and several family portraits. The visitor will find +many other points of interest in this vast church, which is a +veritable museum of art, architecture, history and human progress. The +high altarpiece is another famous Rubens, an "Assumption"--a subject +which he painted no less than ten times. There are half a dozen other +notable paintings by other artists, but the majority are of minor +artistic importance. The rich Gothic choir stalls, however, are worth +more than a passing glance, for the wood-carvings here are very fine, +although modern--having been begun in 1840, and completed forty years +later. The elaborately carved pulpit was made in the eighteenth +century by the sculptor Michel Vervoort, and was intended for the +Abbey of St. Bernard. + +After the completion of the two great masterpieces now in the +cathedral Rubens was by universal acclaim acknowledged to be the +foremost painter in Flanders and of his time. His studio was besieged +by artists desirous of becoming the pupils of the brilliant master. As +early as 1611 he wrote that he had already refused more than a hundred +applicants. In 1614 he painted "The Conversion of St. Bavon," now in +the cathedral of St. Bavon at Ghent; in 1617 "The Adoration of the +Magi" in the church of St. John at Malines, and "The Last Judgment," +now in the Pinacothek of Munich; in 1618 "The Miraculous Draught of +Fishes" at Malines; in 1619 "The Last Communion of St. Francis," now +in the museum at Antwerp, and, according to Fromentin, his greatest +masterpiece; in 1620 the "Coup de Lance," now at the museum of +Antwerp, and his finest work according to some other authorities. In +1622-23 he produced the twenty-four superb paintings of the Galerie +des Medicis. The "Lion Hunt," and the "Battle of the Amazons," now in +the Pinacothek at Munich, belong to this decade, together with the six +paintings of the history of Decius in the Liechtenstein Gallery, and +thirty-nine pictures for the church of the Jesuits, of which all but +three were destroyed at the burning of the church in 1718. The three +are in the museum of Vienna. + +[Illustration: "COUP DE LANCE."--RUBENS.] + +Here, in the space of a little over ten years, were nearly a hundred +masterpieces--works of such magnitude that two or three would have +sufficed to immortalise any other painter. Yet in addition to these +labours he designed for the tapestry-workers of Brussels the life of +Achilles in eight parts, the history of Constantine in twelve, and +many other cartoons of extraordinary merit. His friend, Moretus, in +accordance with the high traditions of the house of Plantin, came to +him for designs for many books, and he drew borders, designs, +title-pages and vignettes, and illustrated himself a book on cameos. +He even painted triumphal arches and cars for ceremonial processions, +and these works in his hands acquired a permanence of artistic value +that is in itself one of the highest tributes to his genius. The fine +portraits of Albert and Isabella, now in the museum at Brussels, were +painted for a triumphal arch in the Place de Meir--yet they are +masterpieces of portraiture, perfect and splendid down to the minutest +detail! + +According to a report made in 1879, by the _Commission Anversoise +chargée de réunir l'ouevre de Rubens, en gravures ou en +photographies_, there are altogether no less than two thousand, two +hundred and thirty-five pictures and sketches by this amazingly +prolific artist, and four hundred and eighty-four designs--a total of +two thousand, seven hundred and nineteen known works. At Antwerp alone +there are upwards of one hundred pictures, of which more than a score +are masterpieces of world-wide renown and incalculable value. Besides +the great trio at the cathedral, and the family portraits in the +Plantin Museum, the museum catalogues more than thirty subjects of +which the "Spear Thrust" (_Coup de Lance_), "Adoration of the Magi or +Wise Men," the "Last Communion of Saint Francis," the "Christ on the +Straw" (_à la Paille_), "The Prodigal Son," and "Virgin Instructed +by Saint Anne" are among the more notable. Both here and at the +Plantin Museum the student of Rubens can find many interesting prints, +sketches and minor examples of the great master's work. At the museum +also is the interesting Holy Family known as "_La Vierge au +Perroquet_" (Virgin with the Parrot) which was presented by Rubens to +the Guild of St. Luke when he was elected President of that famous +organisation in 1631. Near the Place de Meir is the house of Rubens, +largely a replica of the original built in the eighteenth century--few +vestiges of the building in which the great painter held his almost +royal court remaining. It is worth a visit, but is far inferior to the +Plantin Museum as a memorial and in the interest and importance of its +contents. + +[Illustration: "_LA VIERGE AU PERROQUET._"--RUBENS.] + +On his death in 1640--"twenty years too early"--the artist was buried +in the church of St. Jacques, an edifice rivalling the cathedral in +size and interest. It was the burial-place of many of the wealthiest +families in Antwerp. The Rubens chapel is in the ambulatory, behind +the high altar, and contains a picture of the "Holy Family" which, +according to the critics, is one of the worst of the artist's +pictures. Several of the faces are those of his own family, which +probably was the reason why his widow placed it here. + +Besides the paintings in various churches and museums in Flanders +there are twenty-three by Rubens in the museum at Brussels, +seventy-seven in the Pinacothek at Munich, ninety at Vienna, sixty-six +at Madrid, fifty-four in the Hermitage at St. Petersburg and the same +number in the Louvre at Paris, sixteen at Dresden, thirty-one at +London, while a considerable number can be seen in various public and +private art collections in the United States. "He is everywhere," +writes Prof. Wauters with justifiable enthusiasm, "and everywhere +triumphant. No matter what pictures surround him, the effect is +invariable; those which resemble his own are eclipsed, those that +would oppose him are silenced; wherever he is he makes you feel his +presence, he stands alone, and at all times occupies the first +place.... He has painted everything--fable, mythology, history, +allegory, portraits, animals, flowers, landscapes--and always in a +masterly way.... Is he perfect? No one is. Has he faults? Assuredly. +He is sometimes reproached with having neither the outline of Raphael, +the depth of Leonardo da Vinci, the largeness of Titian, the +naturalness of Velasquez, nor the chiaroscuro of Rembrandt. But he +has the outline, the depth, the largeness, the naturalness and the +chiaroscuro of Rubens; is not that enough?" + +To appreciate fully the magnitude of this greatest of all Flemings it +is necessary to recall, for a moment, the times in which he lived. +Fourteen years after the capture of Antwerp by the Prince of Parma, +Philip II determined--when on his deathbed--to give the Spanish +Netherlands partial independence by transferring the sovereignty over +the loyal provinces possessed by the Crown of Spain to his daughter +Isabella and her husband, the Archduke Albert. The arrival of the +Archdukes, as they were called, in 1599, was made the occasion of a +joyous entry that, on the whole, was justified by their +Government--which was a great improvement over anything that had +preceded it since the days of the unspeakable Alva. To be sure, the +war with the States of Holland still dragged on, and the Scheldt was +closed. But the burghers wisely sought to replace the loss of their +sea trade by encouraging industries. Silk and satin manufactures +during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries gave employment to +upwards of twelve thousand hands, and diamond-cutting became an +industry of growing importance. While the commercial stagnation was +severely felt, the city did not decline like Bruges, but held much of +its population and recovered some of its former wealth. + +The Archdukes, who were relieved of the paralysing necessity of +referring every important act to Madrid, did their best to heal the +terrible wounds of the early years of the war and restore some degree +of tranquillity and prosperity to their dominions. Religious +persecutions ceased. Eager to win the love of their subjects, the +Archdukes welcomed Rubens to Antwerp when he returned to his native +city on the death of his mother in 1608, and in order to keep him from +returning to Italy made him their court painter in 1609. During the +remainder of his lifetime their favour never ceased, and on many +occasions Rubens was sent as a special ambassador of the Government on +important diplomatic missions. His courtly manners and stately +appearance favoured him, as well as his now tremendous artistic +reputation. He was knighted by Charles I, while on a visit to England, +and created a Master of Arts by the University of Cambridge. Among his +friends he numbered--besides his royal patrons, Moretus, the printer, +and Rockox, the burgomaster--many of the most famous scholars and +statesmen of his time. He was interested in literature and science as +well as art in all its branches and wrote a vast number of letters on +an astounding variety of subjects--one calculation places the total +number at eight thousand! + +[Illustration: PETER PAUL RUBENS.] + +As if his own achievements were not enough, the genius of Rubens was +the torch that set aflame a renaissance of Flemish painting that made +the later Flemish school, which justly bears his name, the peer of any +in the long history of art. Of his many pupils the greatest is Anthony +Van Dyck, who was born at Antwerp in 1599 and entered the studio of +the master at the age of fifteen. In the little church of Saventhem, +not far from Brussels, is the most famous of Van Dyck's early +paintings which shows his precocious talent. Rubens had urged his +promising pupil to visit Italy, and not only gave him a letter of +introduction but provided funds for the long journey. The youth set +forth, but in a little village on the way there happened to be a +kermesse into the merriment of which he entered heartily. Among others +with whom he danced was a beautiful country girl with whom the artist +fell so deeply in love that he was unable to proceed any further, but +devoted himself for days to courting her. Meanwhile his funds ran +out, and he bethought himself with horror, when it was too late, that +this meant the abandonment of the trip to Italy. In his extremity he +applied to the parish priest and offered to paint an altarpiece for +the village church on very moderate terms. It is related that the +priest smiled indulgently at the youth's pretensions that he was a +historical painter and put him off, saying that there were no funds. +Van Dyck, however, persisted, and offered to paint the picture if +provided only with the canvas, and leave the matter of the price to +the curé's liberality. + +These terms could hardly be refused, and the young artist set to work +with such energy that in a few weeks the picture was finished. The +priest admired the work greatly, particularly the beautiful figure of +the Saint--the subject selected having been Saint Martin dividing his +Cloak among the Beggars--and sent for a connoisseur from Brussels to +decide if he should keep the picture. The verdict was favourable, and +the price paid to the artist enabled him to proceed on his journey to +Italy. It is not reported whether the future painter of kings and +courtiers ever returned to visit his fair inamorata of the kermesse, +but this pretty story, which is told in a rare little book, "Sketches +of Flemish Painters," published at The Hague in 1642, was written by a +contemporary, and may quite possibly have been true. At any rate, +there is the painting itself to prove it. + +On his return to Antwerp in 1625 Van Dyck left behind him in Italy +more than a hundred paintings, in itself a prodigious achievement. He +now began to work in his native city with a rapidity and perfection +resembling his master's and produced the altarpieces that are among +the master works of Flemish churches. Here also he painted a +marvellous galaxy of portraits of the great artists of his time and of +the Flemish, French and Spanish nobility. His marvellous etchings also +belong to this period, so that Antwerp is associated with much of his +finest work in two great branches of art. In 1632 the artist went to +London, which he had visited on one or two previous occasions, and +became painter to the court of Charles I. Here he remained for the +rest of his lifetime, painting more than three hundred and fifty +pictures portraying the royal family and nobility of England. He died +in 1641, or only a year after his master, leaving a record of varied +achievement comprising more than one thousand, five hundred works. The +museum at Antwerp possesses twelve of his paintings, of which one of +the most interesting is the "Christ on the Cross" painted for the +Dominican nuns in recognition of the care and tenderness with which +they had nursed his father during the old man's last illness. The +catalogue of the museum somewhat conceals the artist's name under the +Flemish form, Antoon Van Dijck, which hardly suggests the brilliant +and debonnaire Sir Anthony of Whitehall and the beauties of England +under Charles the First. There are sixty-seven works by this master in +Vienna, forty-one at Munich, thirty-eight at St. Petersburg, +twenty-four at the Louvre, twenty-one in Madrid and nineteen in +Dresden, but England possesses the largest collections of his +productions, most of those he painted at London still remaining in the +public and private galleries of that country. + +It would be a tedious task to recount the names and works of the +throng of lesser artists who studied at the feet of Rubens and Van +Dyck during the fruitful years when those masters were giving their +talents to the world with such amazing prodigality. Erasmus Quellin I, +the Elder, was one of the first--a sculptor who founded a family of +notable sculptors and painters who lived and gained renown at +Antwerp for more than a century. Faid'herbe, whose work abounds at +Malines, was another sculptor of the highest rank who was a direct +pupil of Rubens; Dusquesnoy, Grupello and Verbrugghen were renowned +sculptors who owed much to his influence. + +[Illustration: "AS THE OLD BIRDS SING THE YOUNG BIRDS PIPE."--JACOB +JORDAENS.] + +After Rubens and Van Dyck the greatest name in the Flemish school of +this brilliant period was that of Jacob Jordaens, who learned his art +under Rubens' old master, Adam Van Noort, and married his teacher's +beautiful daughter Catherine, who posed for many of his pictures. The +numerous family gatherings depicted by this master are famous, one of +the most characteristic of them all being the well-known "As the Old +Birds Sing the Young Birds Pipe" in the Antwerp museum. His satyrs and +peasants and rural scenes are among the finest products of the Flemish +school. The religious pictures of Gaspard de Crayer and Gerard +Zeghers, the portraits of Cornelius de Vos, and the animal pictures of +Francis Snyders and John Fyts all belong to this epoch when Antwerp, +although sinking in commercial and political importance, was making +herself for all time one of the art capitals of the world. + +In pictures of homely Flemish life David Teniers, who belongs to the +next generation of Antwerp artists, achieved a fame that places him in +a sense in a class by himself, for none of the earlier masters +surpassed him in his particular field. He, too, was prolific--one +catalogue enumerating no less than six hundred and eighty-five of his +works. Of the same genre is the work of Adrian Brauwer, whose early +death prevented him from leaving so great a legacy to posterity. +Besides these masters of the first rank, Antwerp boasts an almost +innumerable throng of minor artists--pupils of Rubens, Van Dyck and +their successors--much of whose work is of excellent merit. Any +half-dozen of these would have rendered another city notable in the +history of art, but here their achievements are lost as are the heroic +deeds of the private soldiers in a great army. The mind cannot retain +so many names, cannot appraise and classify so bewildering a mass of +productions. + +For this reason the tourist who is a philosopher will not regard too +seriously the dicta of the learned as to which of these lesser +paintings is or is not of the first rank in the order of merit. What +of it if the guidebook does not indicate by its little stars that this +is a picture for one to go into raptures over, if the sacristan or +guide passes it coldly by? If it appeals to us by all means let us +pause and admire it, let us study it, find out about it, learn +something of its history and that of the unknown artist who painted +it. Indeed, if on such closer inspection it still appeals to us, let +us buy it if we can--but at all events let us enjoy it to the utmost, +for of such joys Flanders is full. In out of the way corners +everywhere one can find genre pictures like those of Tenier, +brilliantly coloured groups suggestive of Rubens, scenes of bucolic +feasting in imitation of Jordaens. And here and there, who knows, +perhaps one may yet discover an original by one of these greater +artists or their rare predecessors, and retire on the proceeds! Who +knows? + +The visitor to the Royal Museum of Fine Arts at Antwerp should not +leave without devoting at least a day to the modern paintings. To an +American, accustomed to museums where long walls filled with dreary +mediocrities are illuminated only at rare intervals with something +altogether fine and satisfactory, these modern galleries are a treat. +Picture after picture, room after room--all are beautiful and worthy, +many are splendid. The collection of modern paintings is not large as +European galleries go, some five hundred and fifty altogether, but +the general average of quality is exceptionally high--much superior in +this respect it seemed to us than the far larger collection at +Brussels, though it is not so regarded by the critics. The interiors +of Henri de Braekeleer, and his charming Nursery Garden, for example, +what could be finer? The "Ancient Fishmarket" at Antwerp by Frans +Bossuet, a native of Ypres; the "Lull before the Storm," by P. J. +Clays, of Bruges, one of whose paintings is in the Metropolitan Museum +at New York--all these are notable. So are the historical pictures of +Baron Leys, Guffens, Louis Gallait and Charles Verlat--but the list is +too long. These pictures are not to be described, they must be seen. +Individually the savants may quarrel as to their merits, but, taking +them all together, these paintings--for the most part by Flemish +artists--prove that the great traditions of Rubens and Van Dyck, +Jordaens and Teniers, have not been forgotten in their native land and +that modern Flemish art is a worthy successor to the greatness of the +past. + +The lover of the beautiful has yet another treat in store for him when +he visits the famous old Hotel de Ville. It had hardly been +completed, in 1565, by Cornelis de Vriendt when it was partially +destroyed during the Spanish Fury. Rebuilt a few years later in its +present form, it contains some of the most beautiful rooms to be seen +in all Europe. The vestibule and grand staircase are richly decorated +with coloured marble, while imposing frescoes depict the zenith of +Antwerp's commercial and artistic splendour. The great reception-room +is decorated with four superb historical frescoes by Baron Leys, while +the exquisite Salle des Mariages is completely surrounded with +allegorical paintings portraying the history of the marriage ceremony +by Lagye, a pupil of Leys. In the rooms of this edifice the history of +the famous old city lives again, while in its splendid fireplaces and +minor decorations one can see examples of every branch of Flemish art. + +[Illustration: HOTEL DE VILLE, ANTWERP.] + +While the Hotel de Ville is most gratifying to the eye and the +imagination, it is not, however, intimately associated with many +important events in the history of the city. Albert and Isabella, +while they ruled, were virtually independent sovereigns, but on the +death of Albert without issue, in 1621, the country reverted to Spain. +Thereafter, for more than two centuries, the city, together with +Flanders, Brabant and the other loyal provinces of the Netherlands, +became the football of European politics, and Belgium received its +sinister name of "the cockpit of Europe." The people, as a whole, took +little interest in the great wars of the Spanish and of the Austrian +Successions that were fought largely to decide who should rule over +them, since there seemed no likelihood of their in any event ever +being able again to rule over themselves. Marlborough, after his great +victory at Ramillies, occupied the city with English troops in 1706, +and in 1715 the Hotel de Ville was the scene of the signing of the +treaty that ended the war. By this treaty the Spanish Netherlands were +ceded to Austria, becoming subject to the Emperor Charles VI. Thirty +years later the French victory at Fontenoy made them masters of the +city, and Louis XV had a joyous entry the following year. Two years +later, in 1748, the country was handed back to Austria and Charles +made a joyous entry in turn, the people apparently welcoming any +change of government with complete impartiality. The Empress Maria +Theresa was popular in her Netherlands dominions, but her son Joseph +II made Austrian rule so odious that there was a revolt, and in 1790 +Antwerp was taken by the patriot army, to the immense joy of its +citizens. The Austrians soon crushed the revolution and reoccupied the +city, but the great victory of the French republicans, under +Dumouriez, at Jemappes destroyed the power of Austria in the +Netherlands, and in 1792 the army of the _sans-culottes_ entered +Antwerp. The defeat of Dumouriez at Neerwinden resulted in the +Imperial forces again occupying the city in 1793, but the French +victory at Fleurus the following year turned the tables again and +Antwerp once more became subject to the republic. + +All these years the Scheldt had been firmly closed, Joseph II having +made a feeble attempt to free the river, which had collapsed at the +first shot from the Dutch forts. In 1795 the free navigation of the +river was decreed by the French, and a ship came up and was received +in state by the delighted burghers. It is stated that the value of +real estate in the city increased tenfold in consequence of this +decree. On the other hand, the _sans-culottes_ very nearly rivalled +the image-breakers in the vigour with which they destroyed the city's +religious monuments. The cathedral and churches were despoiled, and it +was even proposed to tear down the cathedral, because (they said), "it +cannot be reckoned a monument of any value except for the lead, iron, +copper and timber it contains." Fortunately Napoleon seized the reins +of power at Paris at about this time, and put an end to such nonsense. +In 1803 the First Consul visited Antwerp, which--as he afterwards +said--was "like a loaded pistol pointed at the heart of England." +Filled with this idea, he systematically sought to revive the commerce +of the port and erected great docks there for his war vessels, +portions of which still remain. In 1814, after the Emperor's defeat +and abdication, Antwerp, under Gen. Carnot, was the last French +stronghold in the Netherlands to yield. + +After the second defeat of Napoleon at Waterloo Antwerp succeeded in +recovering most of the paintings that had been carried away to France +by the republicans in 1794. The treaty that followed the last +Napoleonic war gave all of what is at present Belgium to the King of +Holland, William I, who favoured Antwerp in many ways. As the Scheldt +still remained free the commerce of the port was considerable and +prosperity seemed to be returning. In 1830 began the revolution that +resulted in the independence of Belgium. One of its first events was +the bombardment of the city of Antwerp by the Dutch troops holding +the citadel. The following year Prince Leopold of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha +was elected by the National Congress as King of the Belgians under the +title of Leopold I. The war with Holland was not yet over, however, +and in 1832 the English, French and Belgian troops began a siege of +the citadel at Antwerp, which was still in the hands of the Dutch. The +fortress had one hundred and forty-three guns, and the besiegers two +hundred and twenty-three, and it is stated that sixty-three thousand +projectiles were fired against it. The fortress was a mass of ruins +before its sturdy defenders capitulated. + +From 1832 until 1914 Antwerp and the liberty-loving Flemings of +ancient Flanders remained free, happy and increasingly prosperous +under the wise and moderate rule of their chosen Kings. Leopold I +reigned until his death in 1865, and proved to be one of the wisest +monarchs in history. For Antwerp his greatest achievement was the +final freeing of the River Scheldt in 1863, after more than ten years +of diplomatic negotiations, from the tolls which the Dutch had +insisted in levying since 1839. Under his successor, Leopold II, one +of the most efficient chief executives it was possible for a nation to +have, the fine Belgian public service system was developed and the +prosperity of its cities and citizens promoted in every practical way. +In the two decades following the freeing of the Scheldt the commerce +of the port of Antwerp increased six-fold, while that of its rivals, +London and Liverpool, doubled and that of Hamburg and Rotterdam +tripled. Since then the business of the port has advanced even faster, +and the imposing modern business buildings that now line the Place de +Meir, one of the handsomest commercial streets in the world, afford +abundant testimony to its prosperity and wealth--as do the fine +residences of its merchants to be seen in drives through the outskirts +of the city. Under Albert I the wise policies of his predecessors were +continued, and the little country was enjoying peace and contentment +such as never came to it during the centuries of foreign oppression +and tyranny that began with the acquisition of Flanders and Brabant by +the Dukes of Burgundy. It is the greatest moral issue in this war +whether Belgium, after being free for less than eighty-five years, +shall once more pass into the hands of a foreign power. Its people +have demonstrated conclusively that under the limited monarchy they +have chosen they are capable of governing themselves far better than +the best of their self-appointed masters ever did in the bad old days +that, they had hoped, had forever passed away. + + + + +CHAPTER XXI + +WHERE MODERN FLANDERS SHINES--OSTENDE AND "LA PLAGE" + + +Our last stopping place in Flanders was the one that many tourists +visit first, the gay watering place of Ostende. Here a little fleet of +fast Channel steamers convey the traveller to Dover in four or five +hours, while an excellent service of through express trains connect +the Dover end of the water route with London, and the Ostende end with +Brussels, Berlin and half the capitals of Europe. Our stay in +Flanders, however, was drawing to a close, and we were headed for +Liverpool, where the new _Aquitania_ was waiting to bear us home. + +The tourist who expects in Ostende to find much that is reminiscent of +the Flanders of the sixteenth century, of which so much has been said +in the other chapters of this book, will be disappointed. To be sure, +it is not a young city, being mentioned in the chronicles of Flanders +as far back as the eleventh century. In the Eighty Years' War between +Spain and her revolted Dutch colonies Ostende was for a long time held +by the Dutch, who beat off two severe attacks by the Spaniards in 1583 +and 1586, the former led by the all but invincible Farnese, Prince of +Parma. In the year 1600 the Battle of the Dunes took place at +Nieuport, in which the troops of the Archduke Albert were defeated by +a Dutch army under Maurice, Prince of Nassau. This victory, while it +gave great encouragement to the enemies of Spain by demonstrating that +the renowned Spanish soldiers were not invincible, was otherwise +barren of results, and in 1601 the Archdukes determined to besiege +Ostende, which was the last stronghold of the Dutch in Flanders. + +Prior to the war with Philip II Ostende had been little more than an +obscure fishing-village, but since it had been fortified by the Dutch, +and had so successfully maintained itself against all assaults, the +place was fast becoming a "thorn in the foot" to the government of the +Archdukes. Queen Elizabeth, whose defeats of Philip's armadas had made +England mistress of the seas, was determined that Spain should not +regain so important a strategic base, and had kept an English garrison +there under an English commander. Since Albert's accession the town +had been greatly strengthened by new ramparts, bastions and +fortifications of every type, then known in the engineering art of +warfare. To protect Flanders against this hostile fortress in its very +midst the Archdukes were obliged to erect eighteen forts around +Ostende and keep them constantly garrisoned and supplied. This cost +ninety thousand crowns a month and kept the rich province in a state +of perpetual war. Towns in the vicinity were compelled to pay tribute +in order to escape pillage, and commerce--then, as always, dependent +upon peace--languished. + +The Estates of Flanders under these direful conditions offered the +Archdukes three hundred thousand florins a month as long as the siege +to rid them of this menacing stronghold might last, and three hundred +thousand florins additional as a bonus to be paid in instalments--a +third when the city was invested, a third when a breach was made in +the fortifications, and the balance when the place was taken. These +terms are curiously similar to those employed in drawing building +loans at the present day and show that the Flemings had lost none of +their ancient caution. + +On July 5th, 1601, the Archduke Albert arrived before Ostende and +formally began its investment. The Infanta Isabella came with him, +and often shared camp life with her husband during the weary months +that followed. The siege from the very first developed into a contest +of engineers and military strategists on the taking and the defence of +fortified places the like of which had never before been known in +Europe. In fact nearly all Europe was directly engaged in the +conflict. On the Archdukes' side were Spaniards, Italians and +Walloons; on the ramparts of the defenders were lined up side by side +English, Dutch, French, German and Scotch forces. The fortress was +commanded by Sir Francis Vere. The operations of the siege consisted +of mining and counter-mining, the erection and destruction of +batteries, storming of outlying works--all the devices of attack and +defence known to the military science of the day. Never before had the +world seen such cannons and engines of destruction. The siege became +Homeric, epic, a seventeenth-century Siege of Troy. + +The great difficulty of the besiegers was their inability to cut off +the town from receiving new provisions and supplies, and a constant +stream of reinforcements, by sea. The Dutch, English and French ships +came and went almost at will. All the summer and fall of 1601 the +siege dragged on, and through the cold winter that followed. In 1602 +Sir Francis Vere and a large part of the garrison were relieved and a +new commander and garrison installed without the Archdukes being able +to prevent the manoeuvre. In 1603 Ambrose, the Marquis Spinola, a +young scion of a rich Genoese family, offered to take charge of the +siege of Ostende and to capture the city. As the Archduke Albert had +made a complete failure of the job, and was unpopular besides among +his troops, whom he had not been able to pay with any regularity, he +welcomed this offer and Spinola assumed the command. His wealth +enabled him to pay and feed his soldiers, while his youth and ambition +made him a wary and energetic commander. Day and night he took part in +person in supervising the mines, assaults, trenches and erection of +new positions. Gradually, under his vigorous leadership, the besiegers +began to burrow their way into the town. Maurice of Nassau, unable to +pierce Spinola's network of entrenchments around the town created a +diversion by besieging and capturing Sluys. In spite of this, however, +Spinola clung doggedly to his prey and on September 13th, 1603, Sand +Hill, after a resistance of three years, was captured. Seven days +later the Governor, who now controlled nothing but the heart of the +town, capitulated and on September 22nd, the garrison marched out with +all the honours of war. Hardly a soul of the former population of +Ostende remained at the time of its capture, and it is said that the +Archduchess Isabella "wept at the sight of the mound of earth, all +that remained of the city which she had been so anxious to capture." +It was estimated that the place, which had been little more than a +village, cost the besiegers one hundred thousand lives and the +defenders sixty thousand. The siege had lasted three years, two months +and seventeen days, but the "thorn" had at last been extracted. + +For several years after this Ostende remained a city without +inhabitants, the Archdukes rebuilding the place but population coming +to it but slowly. In 1722 The East and West India Company of the +Austrian Netherlands was founded at Ostende, chiefly by Antwerp +capitalists and merchants, who were deeply interested in the +enterprise. Factories were established in India, but the Emperor +Charles VI dissolved the company in 1731 in order to secure English +and Dutch support for his Pragmatic Sanction. The next century was one +of stagnation, the town reverting to a fishing-place, but almost at +the moment of Belgian independence--or from about 1830--it began to be +renowned as a watering-place. It owes much of its present prosperity +to Leopold II, who made it a place of royal residence during the +summer, and whose royal palace still looks down upon the _Digue_ not +far from the racetrack. The coming of the cross-channel steamers still +further stimulated its growth, and at present it is one of the most +beautiful and picturesque of all the Flemish cities. + +Our visit was unfortunate--as we regretfully told one another at the +time--in that it came in July, before the season had really opened. +August is the time to come, the waiters and hotel porters all assured +us, for then the Grand Dukes come from Russia, the long special trains +from Germany roll in one after another loaded to capacity, the Channel +steamers arrive three times a day with decks black with English +tourists, and Ostende's many kinds of gaiety are in full swing. +However, the opening of the August season in 1914 was conducted under +circumstances that made us rather glad we were there in July. The +Germans came, to be sure, but the gaiety departed. + +No one in Ostende foresaw a bit of the terrible future when we were +there in July. The long curving beach was crowded with people, +little people for the most part, and most of the queer little +beach-houses--summer cottages on wheels--were gradually getting +rented. The beach is splendidly broad and smooth, but the slope +seaward is so slight that at low tide one must needs go very far out +to get into the water at all. This did not seem to trouble anybody +very much, for we saw few who ever went near the water, most of the +pleasure-seekers staying on the warm, dry sand up near the big sloping +sea wall of the _Digue_. For families with small children the little +summer-houses seemed rather attractive, as papa and mamma could sit +within, sheltered from sun or rain, while the youngsters rollicked all +day long in the deep sand. + +The _Digue_ just mentioned is a high artificial seawall or embankment, +faced with sloping stone on the sea side and surmounted by a broad +boulevard--the Esplanade. It slopes gradually on the landward side, +one row of stately hotels and lodging-houses facing directly on the +Esplanade, while on the side streets the buildings drop each below the +other until they reach the level of the town, which is some forty or +fifty feet lower than the summit of the embankment. Here the +fashionable crowds promenade at the proper times, while the +unfashionable promenade all day long and far into the night. Even in +July the sight is a most fascinating one, and the Bohemianism of the +crowd and its diversity of national types most interesting. Here, as +everywhere in Belgium, the cafés and hotels place their tables and +chairs far out into the roadway, so that we can sit outdoors in the +manner that the Madame so much enjoys and eat our dinner, or sip our +coffee and cognac, while watching the ever-changing crowds go by. + +At Ostende the scale of expenses for everything, rooms, meals, +service, pleasure, cigars, tips, and even for the English newspapers, +increases or falls according to the proximity or remoteness of the +_Digue_. If you are on top of it--look out! To Americans the +charges, even in the finer big hotels, do not seem particularly +excessive--though in August they are usually much higher than in +July--but there is a constant succession of incidental expenses that +make the voyager as a rule hurry more than once to the banker where +his letter of credit can have another illegible notation made on it. +Externally the hotels are very imposing and stately--making a brave +show as one looks down the long line that extends for several miles +from the harbour entrance westward to Westende and beyond half way to +Nieuport. Within they are pretty much like all Belgian hotels of the +better class. For the novelty of the thing we thought of renting one +of the tiny _apartements meublés_, that, each with a charming broad +window--usually open all day long like a piazza--look out directly +upon the sea. The price was a thousand francs a month, which seemed +too much for what was after all little more than one big room with an +alcove. The landlady informed us that she attended to all the details +of the _ménage_, cooking and serving the meals and providing maid +service, but that messieurs must provide the provisions, both solid +and liquid. + +The great show place of Ostende is, of course, the Kursaal, a huge +structure of glass, iron and stone belonging to no particular school +of architecture, but in the main making a pleasing impression and +serving very well indeed for the somewhat diversified uses for which +it is intended. In the daytime the Kursaal is a place of relatively +little interest, although well-dressed people flock through it at all +hours. At night it is the scene of much animation, and is, as it was +meant to be, the centre of the gay life of the town. A large +orchestra gives a concert every evening in a very pretty concert hall, +which, when we were there, contained numerous little tables for +refreshments, although I have seen pictures in which the room was +filled with seats in solid rows, like a theatre. It was much more +comfortable the way we found it, and the concert was very enjoyable. +At the intermission, however, we observed that nearly everybody rose +and flocked off into an anteroom leading out of the concert hall. The +Professor and I decided that there appeared to be "something doing" in +that direction and followed the crowd, leaving the ladies to look +after our wraps, and promising to return and get them if we found +anything worth while. + +I fear that the narrative of our experience may sound a bit like an +extract from _Innocents Abroad_, but I will relate the thing as it +happened and make no pretence that we were a bit more sophisticated +than we really were. The crowd seemed to be headed through a long and +handsome corridor toward a distant room. We followed along, passing on +the way what looked more or less like the office of a hotel, with a +register book and two or three clerks, to which we paid no attention. +Arrived at the end of the corridor we found ourselves in a large +circular room around which were a number of small tables on which +visitors were rolling balls down toward a group of pockets--some such +a game as one sees at Coney Island or any popular American amusement +resort. The price was two francs for three shots, and barkers were +shouting lustily to all comers to try their luck. On one side a +doorway was heavily curtained with velvet draperies and here +occasional groups of the guests were silently disappearing. We +approached this mysterious passageway and sought to pass like the +others when two tiny lads in brilliant livery demanded our cards. On +our replying that we had none, a large man, also in livery, appeared +from somewhere behind the draperies and courteously informed us that +special membership or admission cards were required from all who +wished to proceed further. + +We thereupon returned to the ladies and reported what we had seen, and +took our turn at looking after the wraps while they visited the +circular room. They likewise returned, reporting that admission beyond +the curtains had been refused. After the concert was over we decided +to make another attempt--as both the Professor and I surmised what +attraction lay beyond the mysterious portal. Pausing at the hotel +office we had previously noticed, we asked bluntly how admission to +the hidden room could be secured, and were told that a card would be +given each of us on the sole formality of registering. This we +accordingly did, giving our names, hotel address, home address and one +reference. This done, we each received a card admitting two and +departed to find the Madame and Mrs. Professor. + +Arriving at the doorway armed with the cards we had received, we were +ushered at once into a very handsome room where perhaps three hundred +people were gathered about half a dozen roulette tables. No one paid +the slightest attention to us, nor did any employé appear to care +whether we played or contented ourselves with merely looking on. +Practically every one in the room, however, was playing--with all the +tense earnestness that this game of chance seems to impress upon its +devotees. White chips, we observed, cost five francs, reds twenty, +round blues a hundred--or twenty dollars. There were, in addition, a +large ovalshaped blue, marked five hundred and an oblong one marked +one thousand. In less than three minutes one player lost eight of the +thousand franc chips, and then, this being apparently enough for +the evening, lit a cigar and started for home. While he was playing we +observed an over-painted young woman who had just lost her last stake +solicit a loan from him. He tossed the girl a hundred-franc chip and +left without pausing to see whether she won or lost with it. We were +more curious. She lost. + +[Illustration: THE "SALLE DES JEUX" IN THE KURSAAL, OSTENDE.] + +At about this period of the evening the Madame raised a commotion by +discovering that her reticule was open and a piece of money had fallen +out onto the thick carpet. The Professor and I instantly got down to +look for it, and even the croupiers at the adjoining gaming table +paused to take in the incident. Two or three attendants and waiters +hurried up to help when the Madame spied her lost coin and +triumphantly seized it. It was a one centime piece--worth a fifth of a +cent! I have never seen a more disgusted-looking group of attendants, +and doubt if so small a coin had ever been seen before in this +northern Monte Carlo. The Madame, however, was serenely indifferent to +their opinion. This was the nearest, I may add, that we came to losing +any money there. + +At the end of the Esplanade is the Estacade, a pier that extends well +out to sea. Pleasure steamers start here for short trips along the +coast, and turning to the right at this end of the town one comes to +the harbour and the broad basin where hundreds of little brown-sailed +shrimp fishing-boats congregate. Several of these came in while we +were there and sold their cargoes, almost as soon as they were tied +up, to groups of eager market-women with big baskets. Several girls +sat along the quay wall mending huge nets also used in the shrimp +fishery. The little back streets in this vicinity, and around the +quaint fish-market, are the oldest in the town--and the most crooked. + +The principal business street of the little city is the rue de Flandre +and its continuation, the rue de la Chapelle, which together take one +from the Digue de Mer straight to the railway and boat stations. On +one side of this street is the Place d'Armes, where a military band +played every evening, and facing which is the Hotel de Ville. Our last +day was spent poking about this part of the town in a pouring rain, +with an occasional peep into huge cafés designed to accommodate a +thousand guests, but which were then almost deserted. The rain ceased +suddenly toward nightfall and we returned to the Digue for a farewell +look at the crowds and the long beach. It was night before we had +seen enough, and then, after ordering and enjoying to the utmost our +last Flemish dinner, we made our way to the Gare Maritime to take the +night boat for Dover. As we steamed out past the long Estacade and +looked back upon the gleaming lights along the Digue we saw the moon +rising redly above the masts in the little harbour. This was our last +view of Flanders, and, as we regretfully saw the lights of the city +sink out of sight behind the tossing waves that gleamed brightly under +the moonbeams, we knew that our pilgrimage was over. + + + + +CHAPTER XXII + +THE SPELL OF FLANDERS + + +In this little book the author has endeavoured to portray as clearly +as his limited powers of expression permitted, some of the many +elements that make the spell that Flanders lays upon the minds and +hearts of those who know it and love it well. It is a complex +influence, composed of many and widely diverse factors. If in the +narrative a thread of history has been permitted to obtrude itself, +sometimes perhaps at undue length, it is because before all else +Flanders is a land whose interest lies in its long and romantic +history, and in the marvellous manner in which its artists and +sculptors have portrayed its famous past. As Mr. Griffis in "Belgium, +the Land of Art," has well expressed it, "No other land is richer in +history or more affluent in art than is Belgium. In none have devout, +industrious, patriotic and gifted sons told their country's story more +attractively. By pen and in print, on canvas, in mural decoration, in +sculpture, in monuments of bronze and marble, in fireplaces and in +wood-carving, the story may be read as in an illuminated missal. +Belfries, town halls, churches, guild houses, have each and all a +charm of their own." If these pages have caught ever so little of that +charm they have served their purpose. + +To the student of history, of art and architecture, of tapestry and +lace-making, of the origin of the great woollen and linen industries, +of guilds and the organisation of labour, of the commune or municipal +republic in its earliest and finest development, and--before all +else--of liberty in its age-long conflict with tyranny and oppression, +Flanders is a land of endless interest and inspiration. Nowhere else +in the world can there be found within so small a compass so many +monuments of the past, so many of the milestones of human progress. +That some of these relate to a past so remote as to be all but +forgotten, while others are hidden away in spots where few tourists +ever penetrate, only enhances the pleasure of those who are so +persevering or so fortunate as to find them. + +Like rare wine, Flanders has mellowed with age, the storms and +sunshine of succeeding centuries touching its fine old houses, its +noble churches and splendid town halls and guild houses but +lightly--imparting the majesty of antiquity without the sadness of +decay. Its dramatic and tragic history--some of which was so terrible +in the making--lives again, without the old-time rancour and hatred, +as the foundation upon which artists with chisel, brush or pen have +created some of the finest of the world's masterpieces. + +That to-day Flanders has once more, as so often in the past, become +the battleground of warring Europe gives an element of inexpressible +sadness to these feeble attempts to sketch its glories as they were +only a few short months ago. Already some of the splendid monuments +described in these pages have been shattered by engines of war more +destructive than all those of all former wars taken together. The +noble Hotel de Ville at Ypres, the fine old church of St. Nicholas at +Dixmude, the incomparable cathedral of Malines--we know that these at +least have suffered fearfully, that they may have been injured beyond +any hope of restoration. + +In this last sad chapter of Flemish history, it is a pleasure to be +able to record the fact that the people of the United States have for +the first time entered its pages--and in a work of mercy. To the +American people have been given the opportunity, the means and the +disposition to play a noble part in this later history of much +troubled Flanders--to feed the starving, care for the widowed and +orphaned non-combatants of the great war, to help bind up the nation's +wounds and restore hope and courage to its fearfully afflicted people. +This is our part in the history of Flanders--our duty to the people of +the brave nation of which Flanders forms so important and so famous a +part. May all of those on whom the spell of Flanders falls do their +share, however small, to help in this great work so long as the need +lasts! + +And when the great war is over let no American tourist omit Flanders +from his or her European itinerary. Its churches and town halls, its +quaint crooked streets and sixteenth-century houses, have received a +new and greater baptism of fire that has made them, one and all, +shrines to which every lover of liberty should make a pilgrimage. Even +the pleasant Belgian fields, with their bright poppies and corn +flowers, have a more profound interest now that so many of them have +been stained with a deeper red than the poppies ever gave. + + +THE END + + + + +BIBLIOGRAPHY + + + ALLEN, GRANT: Belgium: Its Cities. + + ALTMEYER: Des Causes de la Décadence du Comptoir hanséatique + de Bruges. + + ARMSTRONG, EDWARD: Emperor Charles V. + + + BALAU, S.: Soixante-dix Ans d'Histoire contemporaine de Belgique. + + BOULGER, DEMETRIUS C.: Belgian Life in Town and Country. + -- Belgium of the Belgians. + -- The History of Belgium. + + BUMPUS, T. F.: Cathedrals and Churches of Belgium. + + + CHARRIANT, H.: La Belgique Moderne. + + CHRISTYN, J. B.: Les Délices des Pays-Bas. + + CONSCIENCE, HENRI (or HENDRYK): De Kerels van Vlaanderen + (The Lion of Flanders). + -- Many of the other works of this great Flemish author have + been translated into English, French or German. + + CONWAY: Early Flemish Artists. + + CROWE, SIR J. A. and CAVALCASELLE, C. B.: The Early Flemish + Painters, Notices of their lives and work. + + + DE FLOU, CHARLES: Promenades dans Bruges. + + DELEPIERRE, OCTAVE: Annales de Bruges. + -- Chasse de Ste. Ursule. + -- Histoire de Charles le Bon. + -- Histoire de Marie de Bourgogne. + -- Galerie des Artistes Brugeois. + -- Old Flanders, or Popular Traditions and Legends of Belgium. + -- Sketch of the History of Flemish Literature. + + DESTRÉE, J. and VAN DEN VEN, P.: Tapisseries des Musées + Royaux du Cinquantenaire à Bruxelles. + + DESTRÉE, OLIVER GEORGES: The Renaissance of Sculpture in + Belgium. + + DUCLOS, AD.: Bruges, Histoire et Souvenirs. + + + EDWARDS, GEORGE WHARTON: Some Old Flemish Towns. + + + FRIS, VICTOR: Histoire de Gand. + + FROISSART, SIR JOHN: Chronicles of England, France, Spain + and the Adjoining Countries. + + FROMENTIN, EUGÈNE: The Old Masters of Belgium and Holland + (Les maîtres d'autrefois). + + + GÉNARD, P.: Anvers à travers les Ages. + -- La Furie Espagnole, in Annales de l'Académie d'Archéologie + d' Anvers. + + GEFFROY, GUSTAVE: Les Musées d'Europe: La Belgique. + + GILLIAT-SMITH, ERNEST: The Story of Bruges. + + GORDON, PRYSE L.: Belgium and Holland. + + GRIFFIS, W. E.: Belgium the Land of Art. + + + HAGGARD, A. C. P.: Louis XI and Charles the Bold. + -- Two Great Rivals (François I and Charles V). + + HAVARD, HENRY: La Flandre a vol d'oiseau. + + HOLLAND, CLIVE: Belgians at Home. + + HYMANS, HENRI: Anvers, in Les Villes d'Art célèbres. + -- Bruges et Ypres, in same series. + -- Gand et Tournai, in same series. + + + JAMESON, MRS. ANNA BROWNELL: Sacred and Legendary Art. + -- Legends of the Madonnas. + -- Legends of the Monastic Orders. + + + KERVYN DE LETTENHOVE: Huguenots et Gueux. + -- La Flandre pendant les trois derniers Siècles. + + KINTSCHOTS, L.: Anvers et ses Faubourgs. + + KIRK, J. F.: History of Charles the Bold, Duke of Burgundy. + + KLINGENSTEIN, L.: The Great Infanta Isabel. + + + MAC DONNELL, JOHN DE COURCY: Belgium, her Kings, Kingdom + and People. + + MICHIELS, A.: Rubens et l'École d'Anvers. + + MOTLEY, JOHN LOTHROP: The Rise of the Dutch Republic. + -- History of the United Netherlands. + + + NAMÉCHE: Histoire Nationale de la Belgique. + + + OMOND, GEORGE W. T.: Brabant and East Flanders. + -- Belgium. + + + PIRENNE, H.: Histoire de la Belgique. + + + REIFFENBURG: Mémoire sur le Commerce des Pays-Bas au XVe + et au XVIe Siècle. + -- Histoire de l'Ordre de la Toison d'Or. + + ROBERTSON, WILLIAM: History of the Reign of the Emperor, + Charles the Fifth. + + ROBINSON, WILFRID C.: Antwerp, an Historical Sketch. + + ROOSES, MAX: Art in Flanders. + -- Christophe Plantin, Imprimeur anversois. + -- Catalogue du Musée Plantin-Moretus. + -- Geschiedenis de Antwerpsche schilderschool. + + ROYAL ACADEMY OF BELGIUM: Biographie Nationale. + + + SCHAYES, A. G. B.: Histoire de Architecture en Belgique. + + SCOTT, SIR WALTER: Quentin Durward. + + SCUDAMORE, CYRIL: Belgium and the Belgians. + + SINGLETON, ESTHER: Art of the Belgian Galleries. + + SKRINE, FRANCIS HENRY: Fontenoy and the War of the Austrian + Succession. + + SMYTHE, C.: The Story of Belgium. + + STEPHENS, F. G.: Flemish Relics. + + STRADA, FAMIANO: De Bello Belgico (in French, Histoire de + la Guerre de Flandre). + + + THORPE, BENJAMIN: Netherlandish Traditions, in his Northern + Mythology. + + TREMAYNE, ELEANOR E.: The First Governess of the Netherlands, + Margaret of Austria. + + + VAN DE VYVERE, PAUL: Audenaerde et ses Monuments. + + VILBORT, JOSEPH: Renaissance de la Littérature flamande, les + Romans non traduits de Henri Conscience. + + + WAAGEN: Handbook of Painting in the German, Flemish and + Dutch Schools. + + WAUTERS, PROFESSOR A. J.: The Flemish School of Painting. + + + ZIMMERN, H.: The Hansa Towns. + + + + +INDEX + + + A + + Aardenburg, 59. + + Adornes, Anselm and John, of Bruges, 309. + + Adrian of Utrecht, 341. + + Agincourt, Battle of, 220. + + Agrippa, Cornelius, 341. + + Aire, seized by Philip Augustus, 135. + + Albert, Archduke, and Regent of Spanish Netherlands, defeated in + Battle of the Dunes, 96-98; + portrait by Rubens, 441; + arrival at Antwerp, 447; + welcomes Rubens, 448; 457; + siege of Ostende, 465-469. + + Albert I, King of the Belgians, makes headquarters at Furnes in the + Great War, 87; + continues wise policies of predecessors, 462; + peace and contentment under reign of, 462-463. + + Alençon, Duke of, 419. + + Alfred the Great, taught by Judith, afterwards Countess of Flanders, + 26; + daughter Alfrida marries Baldwin II, 24; 182. + + Alfrida, daughter of Alfred the Great, 34; 182. + + Allen, Grant, "Belgium, its Cities," cited, 235. + + Allowin, afterwards St. Bavon, 181-182. + + Alost, seized by Spanish mutineers, 415. + + Alsace, revolts against tyranny of Charles the Bold, 289. + + Alva, Duke of, recommends destruction of Ghent, 352; + made Regent of Spanish Netherlands, 381; 386; + policy a failure, 414-415; 416; + citadel and statue demolished, 418-419; 447. + + Amiens, repulses Charles the Bold, 289; 326. + + Angelo, Michael, Virgin and Child at Bruges, 51; + compared with Rubens, 438. + + Antigonus, legend of, 393-394. + + Antoing, village near Fontenoy, 253; 255-256. + + Antwerp, an experience in, 8-11; + crippled by closing of the Scheldt, 18-19; + first view of, 20-21; 71; 170; 228; + "_Ville d'Art_," 268; + painting by Van der Weyden at, 272; + works by Memling at, 299; + merchants leave Bruges for, 300; 312; + "renowned for its money," 320; 323; 324; + Cathedral spire completed, 339-340; + "monuments" classified, 363; + legend of Antigonus and Brabo, 393-394; + Scheldt displaces the Zwyn as a highway of commerce, 394-395; + under Dukes of Brabant, 395-397; + under Dukes of Burgundy, 397-398; + _Vielle Boucherie_ and Steen, 399; + new trade routes favour city, 399-401; + Quentin Matsys, 401-403; + other early Antwerp painters, 403-405; + legends of the Long Wapper, Kludde, etc., 405-410; + prosperity under Charles V, 411; + outbreak of the iconoclasts, 412-413; + failure of the Duke of Alva, 414-415; + the "Spanish Fury," 415-418; + citadel and statue of Alva demolished, 418-419; + the "French Fury," 419; + the great siege, 419-422; + ruin resulting from the Fury and the siege, 422-423; + the great printing house of Plantin-Moretus, 423-437; + home of Rubens, 438-439; + Cathedral, description of, 439-442; + life and achievements of Rubens, 442-447; + mild government of Archdukes, 447-448; + Van Dyck, 449-452; + Quellin, Jordaens, David Teniers and lesser Antwerp artists, + 452-455; + Royal Museum of Fine Arts, 455-456; + Hotel de Ville, 456-457; + later history from the Archdukes to the Great War, 457-463. + + Archery contests in Belgium, 105-110. + + Ardennes, 130. + + Arenburg, Duke of, 211. + + Arnolfini, Jean, and wife, portraits of, by Jean Van Eyck, 340. + + Arnulph the Great, strengthens Flemish cities, 35; + founds St. Donatian's at Bruges, 35. + + Arras, Treaty of 1191, 189; + Treaty of 1435, 222-223; + tapestry workers organised, 230; + tapestries of, 278-279; + starting point otapestry weaving, 385. + + Artois, Count of, besieges Furnes, 90; + leads French at Battle of the Spurs, 157; + death, 159; 160; + County of Artois ceded to France, 189. + + Audenaerde, tapestries, 5; + guildsmen from at Battle of the Spurs, 157; 202; + siege of by Philip Van Artevelde, 208; + besieged bPhilip the Bold, 218; + besieged by men from Ghent, 225; + Louis XI drives tapestry weavers from Arras to, 278; + tapestry ateliers specialise in pastoral scenes, 279; + country around, described, 367-368; + monument to volunteers who died in Mexico, 369-370; + description of Hotel de Ville, 370-376; + birthplace of Margaret of Parma, 377; + communal museum in Hotel de Ville, 381-382; + Cloth Hall, 382-383; + church of Ste. Walburge, 383-385; + tapestry weaving at, 385-387; + church of Notre Dame de Pamela, 387-389; + Château de Bourgogne, 390; + many religious institutions of, 390; + sieges and battles of the past, 391-392; 413. + + Austria, War of the Austrian Succession, 250; + Austrian troops at Fontenoy, 251; + arms of, at Audenaerde, 373; + Flanders during Warof the Austrian Succession, 458; + under Austrian Empire, 458-459. + + Auxerre, marriage of Baldwin I and Judith in 863, 26. + + + B + + Baldwin of Constantinople, Count of Flanders, 129-139; + painting of, at Courtrai, 152; 153; 162; 189; 197; + portrait of, 373. + + Baldwin of the Iron Arm, first Count of Flanders, 26; + remains of old Bourg, 27; + traces of chapel, 28; 55-56; 57; 218. + + Baldwin II, marries Alfrida, 34; + fortifies Flemish towns, 34-35; 182. + + Baldwin V, Count of Flanders, tower of, at Audenaerde, 376. + + Baldwin VIII, signs Treaty of Arras, 189. + + Basina, marriage to Childeric at Tournai, 246-247; 265. + + Basinus, King of the Thuringians, 246. + + Battle of the Spurs, 58; 119; + account of, 156-160; 177; 191; + effects of, 192-193; 196; 224; 314. + + Bazaine, Marshal of France, 370. + + Beaconsfield, Lord, quoted, 251. + + Beaune, painting by Van der Weyden at, 271. + + Beauvais, repulses Charles the Bold, 289; 387. + + Béguinage, at Bruges, 33-36; + origin of institution, 34-35; + Grand Béguinage at Ghent, 35; + description of, 209-213; + Petit Béguinage at Ghent, 210; + at Audenaerde, 390. + + Belfry, at Bruges, built above the Boterbeke, 27; + history and description of, 63-67; + at Courtrai, 147-148; + at Ghent, 184; + description of, 195-198; + at Tournai, description of, 262-263; + at Bruges, completed under Margaret of Austria, 340. + + Belgian coast, 16; + Belgian barbers, 44-46; + Belgian State Railway train service, 79-83; + Belgian popular sports, 105-115; + Belgian thrift, 216-217; + Belgian State Railway, working peoples' trains, 242-245. + + Bellegambe, 274. + + Bergues, canal from Nieuport to, 104. + + Berthout, Gauthier, Bishop of Malines, 312. + + Berthout, Jean, Bishop of Malines, 314. + + Bertulph, Provost of St. Donatian, 37; + executed at Ypres, 40-41. + + Bicycle racing in Belgium, 111-112. + + _Billets d'abonnement_, 3; 79; + for working-people, 242-243. + + Biloque (or Biloke) Hospital at Ghent, 209. + + Bladelin, Peter, town house at Bruges, 309; + founder of Middleburg, 309. + + Blankenberghe, from the sea, 16; + part of the Franc of Bruges, 59; 324. + + Blasère, William de, constructs first hothouse at Ghent, 356. + + Blaton, 368. + + Blondeel, Lancelot, 61. + + Blücher, 359. + + Bosch, Jerome, 341; 405. + + Botanical Garden at Malines, 316; + at Ghent, 356-358. + + Boterbeke River, intersection with the Roya, 26; + subterranean channel of, 27. + + Boulger, "History of Belgium," quoted, 293. + + Bouts, Dierick, life and principal works, 307-309; 341; 401. + + Bouvines, Battle of, 136. + + Brabant, Duchy of, 137; + united to Flanders by marriages of Cambrai, 218-219; + Philip the Good becomes Duke of, 221; + Duke of, at siege of Tournai, 249; 286; + Dukes of, contend with Counts of Flanders for Malines, 315; + Dukes of, rule over Antwerp, 395-397. + + Brabo, legend of, 393-394. + + Braekeleer, Henri de, "Nursery Garden" in Antwerp Museum, 456. + + Braine-le-Comte, Flemish name for, 150. + + Brauwer, Adrian, 454. + + Breidel, John, Dean of Butchers' Guild at Bruges, 154; + at the Matin de Bruges 155-156; + at the Battle of Courtrai, 157-160. + + Breughel, Peter the Elder, principal works and characteristics, + 404-405. + + _Brioches_, 46. + + Britto, Jean, printer at Bruges, 58. + + Broederlam, Melchior, early painter of Ypres, 230-231. + + Broel Towers at Courtrai, 164. + + Brou, in Savoy, 335-336. + + Bruges, repels Philip the Good in 1437, 4; + murder of Charles the Good, 4-5 and 36-42; + lace makers at, 5; + the first capital of Flanders, 13; + first visit to, 24; + founding of, 26; + derivation of name, 26-27; + _Vieux Bruges_ (old Bruges), 27-28; + more tourists than formerly, 30; + some quaint old streets, 31; + lacemakers on rue du Rouleau, 32; + fortified by Baldwin II, 34; + from Charles the Good to Marie of Burgundy, 52-53; + charter granted by Philip of Alsace, 55; + description of Hotel de Ville, 57-59; + Belfry and chimes, 65-67; + _Halles_, description of, 67-68; + period of greatest commercial activity, 68-70; + silting up of the Zwyn, 70-71; + Baldwin of Constantinople holds court at, 137; + artisans from Ypres move to, 145; + revolt against the French, 154; + visit of King of France, 155; + the Matin de Bruges, 155-156; + guildsmen from Bruges at Battle of the Spurs, 157; 171; + superseded by Ghent as capital of Flanders, 189; 190; 192; 197; + influence of Jacques Van Artevelde in, 200; + capital of Louis of Maele, 205; 210; + Philip the Good establishes Order of the Golden Fleece, 221-222; + the Bruges Vespers, 223-224; + the "Great Humiliation," 224-225; + Guild of St. Luke organised, 229-230; + Jehan de Bruges, 230; + "_Ville d'Art_," 268; 277; + principal capital of Charlesthe Bold, 287; + marriage of Maximilian and Marie of Burgundy, 294; + Memling at Bruges, 294-299; + Gheerhardt David, 299-300; + other early Flemish painters, 300-302; + the Gruuthuise Palace, 302-305; + Cathedral of St. Sauveur, 305-307; + other fine old mediæval buildings, 309-310; 312; + "renowned for its pretty girls," 321; 323; + Treaty of Cambrai, 338-339; + Belfry completed under Margaret of Austria, 340; 344; + paintings by Van der Goes, 362; + "monuments" classified, 363; 366; 393; 394; 397; 398; + attempt to close the Scheldt, 399-400; 401; 434; 448; 456. + + Brunehault, rival of Fredegonda, 247-248. + + Brussels, 9; + relation to Flanders, 12-13; + more French than Flemish, 13; + weather at, 22-23; + passage through, 24; 150; 170; 219; + Hotel de Ville built by Philip the Good, 228; + tapestry workers organised, 230; + part of the "Adoration of the Lamb" in Museum, 238; 243; + work of Van der Weyden at, 271; + "Abdication of Charles V," by Gallait at, 273; + Stallaert's "Death of Dido" at, 274; + tapestry weavers of Arras driven to, 278; + extorts privileges from Charles the Bold, 287; + works by Memling at, 299; + works by Dierick Bouts at, 308; + "renowned for its noble men," 321; 324; 339; + Cathedral of Ste. Gudule erected, 340; + manuscripts of Margaret of Austria in Bibliotheque Royale, 342; + Marie of Hungary removes capital to, 342; 351; 359; + "Madness of Hugo Van der Goes" in the Modern Gallery, 361; + portrait of Charles the Bold by Van der Goes, 362; 367; 368; + Henri Van Péde architect of Hotel de Ville, 371; + "Legend of St. Anne," by Quentin Matsys, 403; 443; 444; + Modern Gallery compared with Royal Museum at Antwerp, 456; 464. + + Burgundy, Dukes of, 4; 17; 174; + the marriages of Cambrai, 218-219; + power extended by Treaty of Arras, 222-223; + further extended at Péronne, 288; + defeated by Swiss at Granson, Morat and Nancy, 290-292; + Kingdom of Burgundy almost established, 293; 315; 351; + early château at Audenaerde, 390; 395; + acquire Antwerp, 398; + tyranny of, 462. + + Byzantine Emperors, coins of, found at Tournai, 265. + + + C + + Caen, Normandy, Plantin learns art of printing in, 423; 424. + + Cæsar, Julius, 245; 393. + + Calais, siege of by Philip the Good, 223. + + Calloo, 399; 420; 421. + + Calvinists, partially destroy Abbey of St. Bavon, 184; + propose to present "Adoration of the Lamb" to Queen Elizabeth, + 237. + + Cambrai, 61; + Marriages of, 218-219; + League of, 337; + Treaty of, 338-339; 351. + + Campin, Robert, early painter of Tournai, 270; 273; 274. + + Carnot, Gen., defence of Antwerp, 460. + + Cassel, captured by Philip Augustus, 135. + + Castle of the Counts (Château des Comtes), at Ghent, 170-179; + stormed by Jacques Van Artevelde, 200; + birthplace of John of Gaunt, 201; 233; 262; + Liévin Pyn tortured at, 349. + + Caxton, William, learns printing at Bruges, 228. + + Çayas, Gabriel de, patron of Christopher Plantin, 424; + interests Philip II in _Biblia Regia_, 426. + + Chapel of the Holy Blood at Bruges, crypt of St. Basil, 27-28; + receives relic from Dierick of Alsace, 55-56; + Procession and _Confrerie_, 56; + ruined during French Revolution, 56-57; + restoration, 57; 58. + + Charlemagne, breaking up of empire of, 26. + + Charles the Bald, creates title of Count of Flanders, 26. + + Charles the Bold, 3; + tomb at Bruges, 51-53; + betrothal at Damme, 75-77; 124; 271; + meteoric career and death, 285-294; 295; 302; 305; 310; 333; 344; + portrait of, 362. + + Charles I, King of England, knights Rubens, 448; + employs Van Dyck as court painter, 451-452. + + Charles V, the Emperor, 52; 62; + statue at Courtrai, 152; + destroys Abbey of St. Bavon, 183-184; + orders bell Roland removed, 197; + captures Tournai, 249; + "Abdication of," painting by Louis Gallait, 273; 292; + christened, 335; + educated by Margaret of Austria, 336; + becomes King of Spain, 337; + elected King of the Romans, 338; + chosen Emperor, 338; + rejoicings at Ghent over birth of, 346; + vast extent of dominions at age of twenty, 346-347; 348; + revolt of Ghent in 1539, 349-350; + withdraws all the city's ancient privileges, 350-355; + origin of Butchers' Guild of Ghent, 365; + portrait of, at Audenaerde, 373; + many reminders of, at Audenaerde, 374; + inserts spectacles in arms of Audenaerde, 373; + statue of, 375; + portrait of, 376; + father of Margaret of Parma, 377-378; 381; 395; + aids prosperity of Antwerp, 411; 412; + great bell at Antwerp named for, 441. + + Charles the Good, murder of, 4-5 and 36-42; + rebuilds Cathedral of St. Sauveur, 47; + erects part of church of Notre Dame, 50; + Bruges in the days of, 52-53; 54; 305. + + Charles VI, Emperor of Austria, 458; 469. + + Charles VI, King of France, sacks Courtrai, 161-162; + wins battle of Rosbecque, 207; 218. + + Charles VII, King of France, concludes Treaty of Arras, 222-223. + + Charles VIII, King of France, 334. + + Charolais, Count of, 233. + + Chateaubriand, minister of Louis XVIII, 358. + + Childeric, marriage with Basina at Tournai, 246-247; + incidents in life of, carved on portal of the Cathedral, 260; + relics of, discovered, 264-265; 281. + + Chilperic, King of the Franks, 247; + besieged at Tournai, 248; 281. + + Chimes, at Bruges, 65-67; + at Malines, 322-325; + at Audenaerde, 381; + at Antwerp, 440. + + Christus, Petrus, early painter of Bruges, 240. + + Claire, Lord, at Battle of Fontenoy, 254. + + Clauwaerts, partisans of Flemish independence, 154; + Jacques Van Artevelde, leader of, 199. + + Clays, P. J., 456. + + Clovis, King of the Franks, 247. + + _Concession Caroline_, promulgated by Charles V in 1540, 355. + + Columbus, discovery of America helps Antwerp, 400. + + Condé, defeats French under Turenne, 95. + + Conscience, Hendryk, Flemish novelist, 36. + + Conynck, Peter de, Dean of Weavers at Bruges, 154; + leader at the Matin de Bruges, 155-156; + at Battle of Courtrai, 157-160; 193. + + Coolman, Gauthier, 319. + + Cornelis, Albert, early painter of Bruges, 301. + + Cortés, 347. + + Counts of Flanders, rule over part of France, 12; + origin of County, 25; + the first Count, Baldwin of the Iron Arm, 26; + model of first castle, 28; + Emperor makes title hereditary, 34; 54; 151; + castle of, at Ghent, 170-179; + foster Abbey of St. Bavon, 182; + make Ghent their capital, 189; + decline in power of, 190; + weakness after Battle of the Spurs, 192-193; + obtain temporal power over Malines, 315; 351; + Scheldt their frontier, 394-395. + + Courtrai, linens, 5; + fortified by Baldwin II, 34; 58; + destroyed by Philip Augustus, 136; + lace makers at, 141; 146; + Belfry, 147-148; + Hotel de Ville, 151-153; + Battle of Courtrai, 152-160; + churches of, 161-163; + Broel towers at, 164; 193; 314. + + Coxcie, Michel, 237; 238; 339; 341; 386. + + Coxyde, dunes at, 92-93; + _pêcheurs de crevettes_, 93. + + Crayer, Gaspard de, 384; + religious pictures of, 453. + + Crécy, Battle of, 203. + + Crispin, 431. + + Crowe and Cavalcaselle, "The Early Flemish Painters," cited, 235. + + _Cuches au beurre_, 46-47. + + Cumberland, Duke of, defeated at Fontenoy, 251-255. + + + D + + Damme, receives charter from Philip of Alsace, 55; + birth of Van Maerlant (mural painting), 59; + period of prosperity and present aspect, 72-75; + betrothal of Margaret of York by Charles the Bold, 76-77; + destroyed by Philip Augustus, 135; + rallying place for Clauwaerts before the Matin de Bruges, 155; + destroyed by Philip the Bold, 219. + + Danes, invasions of, 34. + + Daret, Jacques, early painter of Tournai; 270; 273. + + David, Gheerhardt, life and principal works, 299-300. + + Davis, Thomas Osborne, poet, "Battle of Fontenoy" quoted, 253-255. + + Delbeke, Louis, 123. + + Deledicque, Antony, 139. + + Delvin, Jean, 93. + + Dendermonde (Termonde), 202; 310. + + Denucé, assistant curator of Plantin Museum, 434. + + Denyn, Josef, official bell ringer at Malines, 323-324; 440. + + Denys, Gérard, Dean of Weavers at Ghent, 204. + + Devreese, Godefroid, sculptor of Courtrai, 165. + + Dierick of Alsace, Count of Flanders, 54; + wise rule, 54-55; + brings Holy Blood from Jerusalem, 55-56; 59; 129; 171; + besieges ancient castle at Ghent, 177; + portrait of, 373. + + Dierick, Lord of Dixmude, legendary hero, 179. + + Dijon, capital of Burgundy, 148; + paintings by Melchior Broederlam at, 230-231; + "The Last Judgment" by Van der Weyden, at Beaune, 271; 287. + + Dinant, 277; 286. + + Dixmude, at time of the Crusades, 13; + part of the Franc of Bruges, 59; + history of, 83; + church of St. Nicholas, 84-85; + _gâteaux d'ames_, 85; + ravages of the war, 86; + Yser River and canal, 103-104; + church of St. Nicholas destroyed by the Germans, 482. + + Dozzo, Gasparo, rich Antwerp merchant, 411. + + Dumery, George, 65. + + Du Guesclin, 70. + + Dumuriez, general of first French Republic, 459. + + Dunes, viewed from the sea, 15; + at Coxyde, 92-93; + Battle of the Dunes, 96-98; 465. + + Dunkerque, receives charter from Philip of Alsace, 55; + canal from Nieuport to, 104. + + Duquesnoy, Jerome, 241; 355; + influenced by Rubens, 453. + + Dyle, river, at Malines, 312; 314; + views from, 316; 317; + _grand pont_ across, 333; 334. + + Dyver, at Bruges, 27; + view of Notre Dame from, 50. + + + E + + Eccloo, part of the Franc of Bruges, 59. + + Edward I, King of England, obtains Antwerp as a fief, 397. + + Edward III, King of England, 198; + treats with Jacques Van Artevelde, 200; + wins Battle of Sluys, 201; + welcomes Flemish weavers, 204-205; + besieges Tournai, 248-249; + at Antwerp, 397. + + Edward IV, King of England, guest of the Lord of Gruuthuise, 303. + + Egmont, Count of, "Last Honours to" and "Last Moments of" by Louis + Gallait, 273-274. + + Eleanor, Queen of France, 339. + + Elizabeth, Queen of England, 237; + sends English garrison to Ostende, 465-466. + + Epinoy, Christine, Princess of, heroic defence of Tournai, 249; + statue of, 262; + painting of, 274. + + Erasmus, 341. + + Erembald, house of, 37; + murder of Charles the Good, 38; + besieged in church of St. Donatian, 39; + flung from church tower, 41; + house nearly annihilated, 42. + + Erembald, blacksmith at Bruges, 65. + + Ethelwolf, King of Wessex, 26. + + Eugene, Prince of Savoy, 391. + + Everard, Nicholas, 341. + + + F + + Faid'herbe, Luke, sculptor of Malines, 326; + designs church of Notre Dame d'Hanswyck, 329; + pupil of Rubens, 453. + + Farnese, Octavio, Duke of Parma, 378. + + Ferdinand of Aragon, 62. + + Ferdinand, King of Bohemia, 339. + + Ferdinand of Portugal, Count of Flanders, 122; 135-136. + + Féré, Pierrot, tapestry maker of Arras, 279. + + Ferrand, Count of Flanders, 190. + + Flanders, location of, 1 and 12-13; + historical interest of, 3-5; + Bruges first capital of, 13; + plan of chronological tour of, 14; + climate, 22-24; + travel hints, 23; + origin of the County, 25; + just misses becoming independent, 192-193; + "the cock-pit of Europe," 250-251; 286; + end of independence in 1540, 355; + arms of, at Audenaerde, 373; + the Scheldt its Eastern boundary, 394-395. + + Flemish architecture, 3; + art, 6; + inns, 7-11; + language, 12-13; + coast, 15-16; + cleanliness, 43-44; + language in West Flanders, 99-100; + Belgium bi-lingual, 149-150; + Flemish dinners, 213-215. + + Fleurus, Battle of, 459. + + Floris, Corneille, 261. + + Floris, Frans, 386; + life and chief works, 403-404. + + Flowers in Belgium, 165-166; + fondness of people for, 284; + Bishop Triest encourages horticulture at Ghent, 355-356; + first hothouse, 356; + Botanical Gardens at Ghent, 357-358. + + Flushing, 17; 334. + + Fontenoy, Battle of, 250-255; + battlefield and monument, 256; 458. + + Franchoys, Luc, 331. + + Francis I, King of France, 62; + loses Tournai, 248; + concludes Treaty of Cambrai, 338-339. + + Fredegonda, Queen of the Franks, 247-248. + + Frederick II, Emperor, offers crown to Charles the Bold, 285; 294; + defeated by burghers of Ghent, 345. + + Froissart, 148; + eulogy of Ghent, 169; + description of "Mad Margery," 208-209; + describes siege of Tournai, 249. + + Fugger, Anthony, fame of his wealth, 411. + + Furnes, at time of the Crusades, 13; + receives charter from Philip of Alsace, 55; + history, 86-87; 90; + the Procession of, 87-89; + principal buildings, 90-92. + + Fyts, John, animal pictures of, 453. + + + G + + Galeswintha, sister of Brunehault, 248. + + Gallait, Louis, "Last Honours to Counts Egmont and Horn," 273; + other notable works, 273-274; + in Antwerp Museum, 456. + + Gavre, Battle of, 225-227; 344. + + Geefs, W., sculptor, 369. + + George II, King of England, 251. + + Gertrude, Countess of Flanders, 87. + + Ghent, fortified by Baldwin II, 34; + receives charter from Philip of Alsace, 55; + attack on Nieuport in 1383, 95; + repulsed at Ypres, 144; + artisans from Ypres move to, 145; + loyal to French in 1302, 156; + greatness in the Middle Ages, 169-170; + Château des Comtes, 170-179; + Abbey of St. Bavon, 181-185; + château of Girard the Devil, 185-186; + church of St. Nicholas, 186-188; + cathedral of St. Bavon, 188; + rapid growth in power, 189-191; + takes popular side after Battle of the Spurs, 194; + guilds, 194-195; + Belfry, 195-198; + Cloth Hall (Halles), 197; + the Mammelokker, 198; + Jacques Van Artevelde, 199-204; + expulsion of weavers, 204-205; + Philip Van Artevelde, 206-207; + resists Philip the Bold, 218; + rebels against Philip the Good, 225; + crushed at Gavre, 226-227; 228; + Guild of St. Luke organised, 229; 230; 233; + "the Adoration of the Lamb," 234-238; 262; + "_Ville d'Art_," 268; + extorts concessions from Charles the Bold, 287; + denounced by Charles, 289; 312; + "renowned for its halters," 321; + Hotel de Ville completed, 340; 344; + the Rabot, 345-346; + rejoicings over birth of Charles V, 346; + decline of cloth industry, 347; + Hotel de Ville, description of, 347-349; + outbreak of 1539, 349; + execution of Liévin Pyn, 350; + Emperor withdraws liberties and privileges, 350-355; + Bishop Triest and beginnings of horticulture, 355-357; + Botanical Garden, 357-359; + Louis XVIII at, 358-359; + Justus of Ghent and Hugo Van der Goes, 360-362; + Gerard Van der Meire, 363; + ranks first in "monuments," 363; + some of its minor monuments, 363-366; + Margaret of Parma presented as Regent at, 379; 391; 394; 397; 442. + + Ghistelle, Lords of, 309. + + Gilliat-Smith, Ernest, "Story of Bruges," cited, 310. + + Gilliodts, archevist of Bruges, quoted, 66-67. + + Girard the Devil (Girard le Diable), château of, 185-186; 195; 197; + 241. + + Godfrey of the Beard, Duke of Brabant, 395. + + Godfrey of Bouillon, 187. + + Gordon, Pryse L., cited, 180. + + Gossaert, Jan (or Mabuse), painting by, at Tournai, 274; + at court of Margaret of Austria, 339. + + Granson, Battle of, 271; 290; 291; 294. + + Granville, Cardinal, 426. + + Gravelines, 55. + + Griffis, "Belgium, the Land of Art," quoted, 480. + + Groeninghe, Abbey of, 159; + Flemish name for Battle of the Spurs, 164. + + Grupello, sculptor of Rubens school, 453. + + Gruuthuise, Louis (or Lodewyk) Van der, 302; 303. + + Gruuthuise Palace, 68; 302-305. + + Gryeff, Adolphus de, 386. + + Gueldre, Duke of, 313. + + Gueux, 328; 329. + + Guffens, Godefroid, fresco at Ypres, 124; + at Courtrai, 152. + + Guido Gezelle, poet, 163. + + Guilds, at Bruges, 64 and 70; + the 400 guilds of Ypres, 128; + guild leaders in 1302, 154; + at Battle of Courtrai, 157; + power of, 192-193; + guild houses in 14th century, 194-195; + slaughter of the fullers, 202; + slaughter of the weavers, 204; + expulsion of weavers, 204-205; + at Malines, 313-315; + house of Boatmen's Guild at Ghent, 347; + fine guild houses of Ghent, 365; + origin of Butchers' Guild, 365. + + Guizot, minister of Louis XVIII, 358. + + Guy of Dampierre, Count of Flanders, 122; 153-154; + grants Ghent a new _Keure_, 191. + + Guy of Namur, 193. + + + H + + Hachette, Jeanne, heroine of Beauvais, 289. + + Hacket, Châtelain of Bruges, 37; 42. + + Hainaut, County of, 130; + united to Flanders by marriages of Cambrai, 218-219; + Philip the Good becomes Count of, 221; 243; + Count of, at siege of Tournai, 249. + + Hal, baptismal font at, 277. + + Hanseatic League, 58; + at Bruges, 69; + abandons Bruges for Antwerp, 71; 401. + + Hay, Lord, at Battle of Fontenoy, 254. + + Hémony, Pierre, 323. + + Hennebicq, painter of Tournai, 274. + + Hennequin, painter of Tournai, 274. + + Henry III, Duke of Brabant, grants privileges to Antwerp, 396. + + Henry V, King of England, wins Battle of Agincourt, 220. + + Henry VIII, captures Tournai, 249; + tower of, 266-267. + + Herkenbald, "Justice of," painting by Van der Weyden, 271. + + Heuvick, early painter of Audenaerde, 382. + + Heyst, 16; 324. + + Hiéronimites, 186. + + Horembout, Gerard, 341. + + Horn, Count of, "Last Honors to," 273; 412. + + Hugonet, minister of Marie of Burgundy, 349. + + Humbercourt, minister of Marie of Burgundy, 349. + + Hundred Years' War, 70; 143; 198. + + + I + + Iconoclasts (or "Image Breakers"), at Malines, 328; 329; 370; + outbreak of, 380-381; + at Audenaerde, 389; + at Antwerp, 412-413; 440. + + Innocent VIII, 305-306. + + Inquisition, meeting-place at Furnes, 91; 415. + + Isabella of Castile, 62. + + Isabel, Queen of Denmark, 339. + + Isabella, Queen of France, 155. + + Isabella, Regent of the Netherlands, 422; + portrait by Rubens, 444; + arrival at Antwerp, 447; + encourages Rubens, 448; 457; + at siege of Ostende, 467; + weeps at ruin of the town, 469. + + Isabel of Portugal, marries Philip the Good, 221; + portrait of, 238; + picture of, in collection of Margaret of Austria, 340-341. + + + J + + Jacqueline, Countess of Hainaut and Holland, 176-177; + forced to abdicate, 221. + + Jansenius, Bishop of St. Martin at Ypres, 125-126. + + Janssens, Victor, 386. + + Jean II, Duke of Brabant, 314. + + Jeanne d'Arc, 221. + + Jeanne of Constantinople, Countess of Flanders, 122; 132; 135; + 136-139; + founds first Béguinage at Ghent, 210. + + Jehan de Bruges, early painter, 230. + + Jehan de Hasselt, early painter, 230. + + Jemappes, Battle of, 459. + + Joanna of Spain (Jeanne de Castile), 62; 346. + + John, Prince of Asturias, 334-335; + sudden death, 335. + + John, Don, of Austria, Regent of the Netherlands, 415; 418. + + John of Bavaria, 234. + + John I, Duke of Brabant, grants the _Core van Antwerpen_, 396. + + John II, Duke of Brabant, gives Antwerp to Edward I, 397. + + John III, Duke of Brabant, extends rights of foreigners at Antwerp, + 396-397. + + John the Fearless, Duke of Burgundy, 220; + court painter of, 231; 233; 383. + + John of Gaunt (Ghent), Duke of Lancaster, birth of, 201; 221. + + John, King of England, alliance with Ferdinand of Portugal, 136. + + Jordaens, Jacob, "Adoration of the Magi" at Dixmude, 84; + characteristics, 453; 455; 456. + + Joseph II, Emperor of Austria, 237; + revolt against, 458-459. + + Josephine, Empress of France, saves Botanical Garden at Ghent, + 357-358. + + Judith, first Countess of Flanders, 26; + traces of her chapel, 28; 34. + + Justus of Ghent, early Flemish painter, 360-362. + + Justus Lipsius, meets Christopher Plantin, 429; + writes his epitaph, 430; 431; 441. + + + K + + Kaboutermannekens, legends of, 408-409. + + Karls, refuse allegiance to feudal overlords, 37; + support the Erembalds, 38; + receive _Keurbrief_ from Philip of Alsace, 60-61. + + Katherine, Queen of Portugal, 339. + + Keldermans, André, Antoine I, Antoine II, Jean, Laurent and Mathieu, + all architects of Malines, 319-320. + + Keldermans, Rombaut, architect of Malines, 318; 320; + rebuilds Hotel de Savoy, 336; + receives many commissions from Margaret of Austria, 339-340; + designs _Maison de la Keure_ at Ghent, 348. + + Kerel van Yper, painter of Ypres, 141. + + Kermesse, its antiquity, 115; 378; 449. + + Keyser, Nicaise de, 160. + + Kiliaen, the Flemish lexicographer, 433. + + Kipling, quoted, 29. + + Kludde, legends of, 409-410. + + Knocke, 16. + + + L + + _Lac d'Amour_, Bruges, see Minnewater. + + Laevinius Torrentius, 433. + + Lagye, Victor, 457. + + Lalaing, Countess of, 377; 378. + + Lalaing, Philippe, Count of, 371. + + Lannoy, Charles de, 62. + + Larks in Belgium, 166-168. + + Legend of Baldwin of Constantinople, 130-133; + of siege of Ghent in 930, 179-180; + of St. Nicholas, 187; + of the Mammelokker, 198; + concerning the wealth of the Flemish burghers, 207-208; + of the marriage of Childeric and Basina, 246-247; + of Memling's wound at Nancy, 295-296; + of the "Vuyle Bruydegom" at Malines, 332-333; + of Antigonus and Brabo at Antwerp, 393-394; + of Lohengrin, 394; + of Quentin Matsys, 401-402; + of the Long Wapper of Antwerp, 405-408; + of the Kaboutermannekens, 408-409; + of Kludde, 409-410; + of Van Dyck at Saventhem, 449-451. + + Lemaire des Belges, Jean, 341. + + Leopold I, King of the Belgians, + first welcomed to Belgium at Furnes, 87; + elected King, 461; + frees the Scheldt in 1863, 461. + + Leopold II, King of the Belgians, + an efficient chief executive, 461-462; + Palace at Ostende, 470. + + Leys, Baron Henri, 456; + paintings in Hotel de Ville at Antwerp, 457. + + Liederick de Buck, portrait of, 373. + + Liedts, Baroness, lace collection at Bruges, 304. + + Liége, 106; 286; + insurrections at, 287-288; + city sacked, 288; 312; 344. + + Lieve, river, at Ghent, 169; 172. + + Liliaerts, partisans of France, 154; 189; 191; 194. + + Lille, destroyed by Philip Augustus, 136; + Baldwin of Constantinople executed at, 138-139; 207; + fêtes held by Philip the Good at, 227; 280. + + Lissweghe, 59. + + Lombartzyde, 95; + statue of the Virgin, 104-105. + + Longfellow, quoted, 67. + + Long Wapper of Antwerp, legends of, 405-408. + + Louis of Maele, Count of Flanders, 59; 175; + besieged at Ghent, 178; 183; 204; + marriage of daughter, 205-206; + defeated by Philip Van Artevelde, 206; + death, 207; + wealth of Ghent during reign of, 207-208; 218; + court painter of, 230; 397. + + Louis of Nevers, Count of Flanders, 124; 194; 198; + vainly resists popular party, 199-200; + hires assassination of Jacques Van Artevelde, 202-203; + death at Crécy, 203. + + Louis the Fat, King of France, 41-42. + + Louis XI, King of France, lives at Furnes while Dauphin, 90; + drives tapestry weavers from Arras, 278; + implacable foe of Charles the Bold, 286; + foments insurrection at Liége, 287-288; + stirs up German resistance to Charles, 289; + causes downfall of Charles, 293; 294; 334; 344. + + Louis XIII, King of France, 387. + + Louis XIV, captures Tournai, 250; 265; + removes tapestries from Audenaerde, 376; + portrait of, 376; 387; + bombards Audenaerde, 391. + + Louis XV, King of France, at Battle of Fontenoy, 251-255; + Joyous Entry at Antwerp, 458. + + Louis XVIII, King of France, at Ghent, 358-359. + + Louise of Savoy, 338. + + Louvain, 219; + Hotel de Ville, 228; + Guild of St. Luke organised, 230; + work of Van der Weyden at, 271; + Dierick Bouts at, 307-308; 310; + "renowned for its scholars," 321; 371; 395; + birth-place of Quentin Matsys, 401; 403. + + Lyon, Jean, Dean of Boatmen's Guild, 188. + + Lys, river, 146; + superior for retting flax, 147; 158; 164; 169; 204; 206. + + + M + + Mabuse, see Jan Gossaert. + + Mace, Robert, teaches art of printing to Christopher Plantin, 423. + + Maele, Château of, near Bruges, 303. + + Mahaut, Countess of Flanders, 122. + + Malfait of Brussels, 124. + + Malines, lace makers at, 5; + centre of Flemish architecture, art and learning, 12; + "_Ville d'Art_," 268; + extorts privileges from Charles the Bold, 287; + terrible destruction in the Great War, 311; + situation and importance, 312; + early history, 312-315; + Cloth Hall and museum, 317; 318; + Cathedral of St. Rombaut, 318-323; + chimes, 323-325; + interior of Cathedral, 325-327; + "renowned for its fools," 321; + Notre Dame au delà de la Dyle, 327-328; + Notre Dame d'Hanswyck, 328-329; + church of St. Jean, 330-331; + Hotel de Ville, 332; + Vieux Palais, 332-333; + some fine old houses, 333; + Margaret of Austria, early life, 333-336; + her court at Malines, 336; 342; + death,342-343; + "monuments" classified, 363; 439; 442; + Cathedral sadly injured, 482. + + Mammelokker, bas relief and legend of, 198. + + Manson, Collard, printer at Bruges, 228; 435. + + Margaret of Austria, Regent of the Netherlands, 61-62; + childhood and early life, 333-336; + Palace at Malines, 336; + Regent of the Netherlands, 337; + negotiates the "Ladies' Peace," 338-339; + brilliant court, 339; + taste for art and literature, 340-342; + untimely death, 342-343; 345; 349. + + Margaret, Countess of Flanders, 122; 132; 135; 136; 153. + + Margaret, daughter of Louis of Maele, 183; 205-206; 218. + + Margaret of Parma, portrait at Audenaerde, 376; + birth and marriages, 377-378; + Regent of the Netherlands, 379; + popularity, 379-380; + suppresses outbreak of the Iconoclasts, 380-381; + superseded by Duke of Alva, 381; 413; 419; 425. + + Margaret of York, betrothal to Charles the Bold at Damme, 75-77; + resides at Malines, 333; 336. + + Maria Theresa, Empress of Austria, 458. + + Marie of Burgundy, tomb at Bruges, 51-53; + statue, 62; 293; + marries Maximilian, 294; + children of, 333; 344; 345; 349. + + Marie of Champagne, Countess of Flanders, 133; + dedicates Cloth Hall at Ypres, 134; + death in Syria, 134; 162. + + Marie, Queen of Hungary, 339; + Regent of the Netherlands, 342-343; + insurrection at Ghent during reign of, 349-350; 354. + + Marlborough, Duke of, captures Tournai, 250; + wins Battle of Audenaerde, 391; + recalled in peasant nursery song, 391-392; + takes Antwerp after Battle of Ramillies, 458. + + Marot, Clement, 428. + + Marvis Towers at Tournai, 265. + + Massé, 341. + + Matsys, Quentin, life and principal works, 401-403. + + Matthew, Duke of Lorraine, 122. + + Maurice, Count of Nassau, wins Battle of the Dunes, 96-98; 465; + captures Sluys, 468. + + Maximilian, Emperor, 51; + statue of, 62; + conflict with Bruges, 71; + marriage to Marie of Burgundy, 294; 333; + Regent of Flanders, 334; + fondness for daughter, Margaret of Austria, 337; + death, 338; 345; 347; 411. + + Maximilian, Emperor of Mexico, 369. + + Memling, Hans, at Bruges, 295-296; + works of, in Hospital of St. Jean, 296-298; + other notable paintings, 298-299; 307; + in collection of Margaret of Austria, 341. + + Mercator, 431. + + Merghelynck Museum at Ypres, 139-140; 304. + + Meunier, Constantin, statue of _pecheur des crevettes_, 93; + painting at Courtrai, 160. + + Michelle, first wife of Philip the Good, 183; + death of, 233-234. + + Middleburg, paintings by Van der Weyden at, 309. + + Minnewater, 33; + view of Notre Dame from, 50; + formerly chief harbour of Bruges, 71-72. + + Molinet, Jean, 341. + + Mons, capital of Hainaut, 130; + Flemish name for, 150; 219; + Hotel de Ville, 228; 243; 252. + + Montalembert, quoted, 388. + + Montanus, Arias, supervises _Biblia Regia_, 426; + opinion of Christopher Plantin, 427; 431. + + Morat, Battle of, 291. + + Moretus, Balthazar I, 432. + + Moretus, Edouard, sells Plantin-Moretus museum to city of Antwerp, + 432. + + Moretus, Jean I, marries Martina, daughter of Christopher Plantin, + 429; 431; 432; + tomb in the Cathedral, 441; + employs Rubens, 443; + friend of Rubens, 448. + + Moretus, Jean II, 431-432. + + Montereau, murder of John the Fearless at, 220. + + _Morte d'Ypres, la_ (the Death of Ypres), 117; 122; 123; 144. + + Motley, cited, 413. + + + N + + Nancy, siege of, 291; + death of Charles the Bold before, 292; 295; 333. + + Namur, 312. + + Napoleon, saves Chapel of the Holy Blood, 56; 94; 282; 330; 358; + 358-359; + removes tapestries from Audenaerde, 376; + at Antwerp, 460. + + Nauwelaerts, official bell ringer of Bruges, 66. + + Neerwinden, Battle of, 459. + + Nicholas V, Pope, 340. + + Nicholas de Verdun, 277. + + Nieuport, at time of the Crusades, 13; + receives charter from Philip of Alsace, 55; + some famous sieges of, 95; + Battle of the Dunes, 96-98; + Chambers of Rhetoric, 99; + Tower of the Templars, Cloth Hall and church of Notre Dame, + 99-101; + the Yser River, locks and canals, 103-104; 465; 473. + + Norsemen, anarchy resulting from invasions of, 36; + capture Tournai, 248; 256; 259; + burn church at Audenaerde, 383. + + Notre Dame, Cathedral of, at Antwerp, 20; 228; + well cover made by Quentin Matsys, 401; + description of, 440-442. + + Notre Dame de Pamela, church of, at Audenaerde, 387-389. + + Notre Dame, church of, at Bruges, 50-53; + remains of Charles the Bold placed in, 292; 303; 306. + + Notre Dame, church of, at Courtrai, 162-163. + + Notre Dame au delà de la Dyle, church of, at Malines, 316; + description, 327-328. + + Notre Dame d'Hanswyck, church of, at Malines, 316; + description, 328-329. + + Notre Dame, Cathedral of, at Tournai, 245; + description, 255-262. + + + O + + Order of the Golden Fleece, 58; 172; 175; + established by Philip the Good, 221-222; + fêtes at Lille, 227; + Tournai tapestries ordered for, 279; + chapter at Malines, 334; + at Antwerp, 412; + portrait of Charles V wearing insignia of, 376. + + Ostende, part of the Franc of Bruges, 59; 102; + canal from Nieuport to, 103; 324; 359; + on main tourist routes, 464; + great siege of 1601-1603, 465-469; + renown as a watering place since 1830, 470; + description of the _Digue_, the Esplanade and the beach, 471-472; + summer prices at, 472-473; + the Kursaal, 473-477; + the Estacade, 477-478; + last glimpses of, 478-479. + + Orleans, Duke of, 220; 233. + + Ortelius, 431. + + Oudenaarde, Jan van, 72. + + + P + + Pape, Simon de, early painter of Audenaerde, 384; 389. + + Parma, Duke of, captures Ypres, 144; + besieges Tournai, 249; + son of Margaret of Parma, 378; + Regent of the Netherlands, 379; 414; + siege of Antwerp, 419-422; 447; + siege of Ostende, 465. + + Pauwels, Ferdinand, 121-122. + + Pavia, Battle of, 62. + + Pembroke, Duke of, 70. + + Péronne, 138; + Louis XI visits Charles the Bold at, 288; 293. + + Péterinck, François, maker of fine porcelains at Tournai, 280. + + Philibert II, Duke of Savoy, 335. + + Philip of Alsace, Count of Flanders, grants charters to many Flemish + cities, 55; 59; + grants the _Keurbrief_, 59-61; 87; 129; + builds Spuytorre at Courtrai, 164; + erects Château des Comtes at Ghent, 171; 173; 189. + + Philip Augustus, King of France, 135-136; 138; 153; + Treaty of Arras, 189; + annexes Tournai, 248; + painting of, at Tournai, 274. + + Philip the Bold, Duke of Burgundy, 90; 124; + removes clock at Courtrai, 148; + rebuilds Spuytorre at Courtrai, 164; + marries Margaret of Maele, 183; + significance of this event, 205-206; + acknowledged as Count of Flanders, 218; + arranges the marriages of Cambrai, 218-219; + death, 220; + court painter of, 230-231; 397. + + Philippe de Champaigne, 376. + + Philip the Fair (Philippe le Bel), King of France, 153; + annexes Flanders, 154; + at Bruges, 155; + rage over the Matin de Bruges, 156; + defeated at Courtrai, 157-160; + sheriffs of, besieged at Ghent, 177. + + Philip the Good, Duke of Burgundy, 4; 58; 90; 175; 176; + becomes Count of Flanders, Hainaut and Holland, and Duke of + Brabant, 220-221; + founds Order of the Golden Fleece, 221-222; + siege of Calais, 222-223; + repulsed at Bruges (Bruges vespers), 223-224; + humbles Bruges, 224-225; + crushes Ghent at Gavre, 225-227; + holds fêtes at Lille, 227; + divergent estimates of character, 228-229; 231; + visits studio of Jean Van Eyck, 235-236; + orders portrait of Isabel of Portugal, 238; + orders tapestries at Tournai, 279; 287; 305; 340; 344; + grants liberal charter to Antwerp, 398. + + Philip the Handsome, Duke of Burgundy, 51; 62; 91; + education, 333; + premature death, 334; 346. + + Philip II, King of Spain, 91; 236-237; 249; 292-293; + unwise policy provokes revolt, 379-380; + sends Duke of Alva to punish iconoclasts, 381; 412; 413-415; + rejoices at fall of Antwerp, 422; 424; + aids Plantin to publish _Biblia Regia_, 426; 427; 432; 447; 465. + + Philip of Valois, King of France, 201-202. + + Pierre de Beckère, 52. + + Pius II, 378. + + Pizarro, 346. + + Plantin, Christopher, early life, 423-424; + establishes printing house at Antwerp, 425; + issues the _Biblia Regia_, 426-427; + extent of business, 427-428; + moves to Friday Market, 428-429; + death, 429-430; + extent of achievements, 431; + tomb in the Cathedral, 441. + + Plantin-Moretus Museum, at Antwerp, 423; 432-437; + portraits by Rubens, 444; + sketches by Rubens, 445. + + Pourbus, Pieter, 301. + + Prévost, Jean, 301. + + Procession of the Holy Blood at Bruges, 56; + Procession at Furnes, 87-89; + _Peysprocessie_ at Malines, 315. + + Pyn, Liévin, execution of, 349-350; 351; 352. + + + Q + + Quellin, Erasmus, "The Adoration of the Shepherds" at Malines, 327; + 433; + founds family of sculptors and painters, 452-543. + + "Quentin Durward" by Sir Walter Scott, cited, 288. + + + R + + Rabot at Ghent, 345-346. + + Raeske, Richard de, 37. + + Ramillies, Battle of, 458. + + Raphelingen, Francis, chief proof-reader of Christopher Plantin, + 427; + marries Margaret, eldest daughter, 429. + + Rénacle de Florennes, 341. + + _Reparation invisible_, 215-216. + + Requesens, Regent of the Netherlands, 415. + + Richard, Duke of Gloucester, later Richard III, King of England, + 303. + + Rivière, Jeanne, wife of Christopher Plantin, 423; + aids husband with a linen business, 429. + + Robbins, Philippe, master tapestry weaver of Audenaerde, 387. + + Robert the Frisian, Count of Flanders, 141. + + Robert II, Count of Flanders, 87-88. + + Robinson, Wilfrid, "Antwerp, an Historical Sketch," quoted, 397. + + Rockox, burgomaster of Antwerp, 448. + + Roda, Jerome, 415. + + Roland, the great bell at Ghent, 196-197; + inscription on, 196; + taken down by Charles V, 354. + + Rooses, Max, Director of Plantin-Moretus Museum, quoted, 239-240; + 298; + description of Plantin Museum, cited, 433. + + Rosbecque, Battle of, 162; 163; 207. + + Roya, at Bruges, 26; 27; 52. + + Rubens, Peter Paul, "St. Bavon withdrawing from the World" at Ghent, + 241; + "Christ on the Cross" at Malines, 317; + "Miraculous Draught of Fishes" at Malines, 327-328; + "Adoration of the Magi" at Malines, 330; 386; 433; + rank among the masters, 438; + two masterpieces in Cathedral at Antwerp, 339-440; + "Resurrection" in the Cathedral, 441; + at height of fame, 442-444; + enormous productivity, 444-445; + death, 445; + Prof. Wauters' estimate of, 446-447; + patronised by the "Archdukes," 448; + diplomatic missions, 448; + letters, 449; 455; 456. + + Rudolph II, Emperor of Austria, 405. + + + S + + St. Amand, early missionary, 181. + + St. Basil, crypt of, at Bruges, 27-28; + restoration, 57; 171. + + St. Bavon, Abbey of, at Ghent, 181-185; 189; + destruction of, by Charles V, 353. + + St. Bavon, Cathedral of, at Ghent, 172; + crypt, 188-189; + altar-piece by the Van Eycks, 234-238; + other works of art in, 240-241; 355; 360. + + St. Brice, church of, at Tournai, 263-264. + + St. Donatian, church of, at Bruges, 35; + scene of murder of Charles the Good, 38; + besieged by foes of the Erembalds, 39-41; + Erembalds flung from tower, 41; + destroyed in French Revolution, 42; + relics and approximate site, 42-43; 292. + + St. Eleuthereus, statue of, on portal of Cathedral, 260; + _Chasse_ of, 276-277; + life of, depicted on tapestry in Cathedral, 279. + + St. George, church of, at Nancy, 292. + + St. Ghislain, 252. + + Ste. Gudule, Cathedral of, at Brussels, 340. + + St. Jacques, church of, at Antwerp, 445-446. + + St. Jean, Hospital of, at Bruges, legend of nursing Memling, + 295-296; + Shrine of St. Ursula, 296-298; + other works by Memling at, 298; + description of, 299; 301. + + St. Jean, church of, at Ghent, name changed to St. Bavon in 1540, + 188. + + St. Jean, church of, at Malines, 330-331. + + St. Luke, Guild of, first organised in Flemish towns, 229-230; + admits brothers Van Eyck at Bruges, 234; + at Tournai, 270-271; + at Ghent admits Van der Meire, 363; + admits Frans Floris at Antwerp, 403; + admits Christopher Plantin at Antwerp, 423; + elects Rubens President, 445. + + St. Martin, church of, at Courtrai, 161-162. + + St. Martin, church of, at Ypres, 125-126. + + St. Mary, church of, at Antwerp, 412; + becomes Cathedral of Notre Dame in 1560, 440. + + St. Michel, church of, at Ghent, 181. + + St. Nicholas, church of, at Dixmude, 84-85; 482. + + St. Nicholas, church of, at Ghent, 186-188. + + St. Omer, seized by Philip Augustus, 135. + + St. Peter, monastery of, at Ghent, 181-182; 189. + + St. Peter, church of, at Louvain, 307-308. + + St. Piat, martyrdom at Tournai, 245; + statue of, on portal of Cathedral, 260; + life of, depicted on tapestry in Cathedral, 279. + + St. Rombaut, Cathedral of, at Malines, 312; 313; + first view of, 317; + the tower and its builders, 318-323; + the chimes, 323-325; + interior and art treasures, 325-327; 328; + tower completed, 340. + + St. Sauveur, Cathedral of, at Bruges, 47-50; 305-307; 362. + + Ste. Ursula, Shrine of, 296-298. + + Ste. Walburge, church of, at Audenaerde, 368; 369; 382; + description of, 383-385; 389. + + Ste. Walburge, church of, at Furnes, 88 and 92. + + Saventhem, 449-451. + + Savoy, Duchess of, see Margaret of Austria. + + Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, Leopold, Prince of, elected King of the Belgians, + 461. + + Saxe, Maurice, victor at Fontenoy, 251-255. + + Scheldt, estuary, 17; + "the greyest of grey rivers," 18; + history of navigation on, 18-19; + view from, 19-20; + river traffic on, 20; + Antwerp from, 21; + monument on Place Marnix, 19; 169; + at Tournai, 266; 300; + snakes in, 382; + at Audenaerde, 387; 389; + legend of Brabo, 393-394; + displaces the Zwyn as highway of commerce, 394-395; + fight for mastery of, 399-400; + deepens as commerce grows, 400; 401; 414; + closed during reign of the Archdukes, 447; + opened to navigation in 1795, 459; + docks erected by Napoleon, 460; + free under the Dutch, 460; + freed permanently by Leopold I in 1863, 461; + growth of commerce since, 462. + + Scott, Sir Walter, "Quentin Durward," cited, 288; 304. + + Seghers, Daniel, 51. + + Shelley, "Ode to the Skylark," quoted, 167-168. + + Sigebert, brother of Chilperic, 248; 281. + + Sluys, part of the Franc of Bruges, 59; + landing place of Margaret of York in 1468, 76; + Battle of, 201; + captured by Maurice of Nassau, 468. + + Snellinck, Jean, "Creation of Eve" at Audenaerde, 388-389. + + Snyders, Francis, animal pictures of, 453. + + Spanish Fury, the, 415-418. + + Spierinckx, Peter, 386. + + Spinola, Ambrose, Marquis of, captures Ostende, 468-469. + + Stallaert, "Death of Dido," 274. + + Steen, 396; 398; + description of, 399. + + Strada, the historian, cited, 378. + + Swerts, Jean, mural paintings at Ypres, 125; + at Courtrai, 152. + + + T + + Taillebert, Urban, 84. + + Tancmar, Lord of Straten, 37. + + Tani, Jacopo, 298. + + Tapestry, 5; + workers organised into a guild, 230; + in church of St. Brice at Tournai, 264; + weaving at Tournai, 278-280; 376; + at Audenaerde, 384-390. + + Templars, Tower of, at Nieuport, 95; 99; + House of, at Ypres, 140-141. + + Teniers, David, 7; 386; + master of scenes of homely Flemish life, 453-454; 455; 456. + + Tournai, tapestries, 5; + forest of, 134; + besieged by Edward III, 202; + Guild of St. Luke organised, 229; + tapestry workers organised, 230; + oldest city in Belgium, 242; + _Turris Nerviorum_ of Cæsar, 245; + capital of Merovingian Kings, 245-248; + many sieges, 248-250; + Battle of Fontenoy, 250-255; + Belfry, 262-263; + Roman houses and church of St. Brice, 263-264; + relics of King Childeric, 264-265; + Marvis Towers, _Pont des Trous_, and tower of Henry VIII, 265-267; + _Ville d'Art_, 268-269 and 281-282; + Robert Campin, Jacques Daret and Van der Weyden, 269-272; + Cloth Hall and Museum of Fine Arts, 272-275; + later artists, 274-275; + sculptors at, 275-276; + gold and silversmiths at, 276-277; + coppersmiths at, 277-278; + tapestry weavers, 278-280; + porcelains of, 280-281; + manufactures of stained glass, 281-282; + manufacture of fine carpets, 282; 312; + "monuments" classified, 363; 377; + tapestry weaving at, 383. + + Trajan, "the Just Emperor," painting by Van der Weyden, 271. + + Triest, Bishop, tomb in Cathedral of St. Bavon at Ghent, 241; + encourages horticulture at Ghent, 355-356; 358. + + Turenne, defeated by Condé near Nieuport, 95. + + Turin, Exposition of, Tournai carpet shown at, 282. + + Turnhout, lace makers at, 5; + fairy hill near, 409. + + + U + + Urbin, Duke of, 378. + + + V + + Valckx, Pierre, sculptor, 381. + + Valenciennes, 134; 137; + lace made at Ypres, 141; 219; + tapestry workers organised, 230; 351. + + Van Artevelde, Jacques (or Jacob), besieges Louis of Maele at Ghent, + 178; + rise to power, 199-200; + alliance with Edward III, 201; + Battle of Sluys, 201-202; + assassination, 202-204; 248-249; 397. + + Van Artevelde, Philip, brief career, 206-207; + big cannon of, 208; + at siege of Audenaerde, 391. + + Van Bredael, Alexander, 386. + + Van den Broeck, 431. + + Van Dyck, Anthony, "The Raising of the Cross" at Courtrai, 162-163; + "The Crucifixion" at Malines, 327; 433; + pupil of Rubens, 499; + "Saint Martin dividing Cloak among the Beggars," 499-451; + at Antwerp, 451; + court painter of Charles I, 451; + chief works, 451-452; 456. + + Van Eyck, Hubert, tombstone at Abbey of St. Bavon, 184; + discovery of art of painting with oils, 231-233; + in service of Philip the Good, 233-234; + plans and begins "The Adoration of the Lamb," 234-235; + death, 234; + monument, 241; 269; 270; 295; 360. + + Van Eyck, Jean, colours statues for Hotel de Ville at Bruges, 58; + 59; + discovery of art of painting with oils, 231-233; + enters service of Philip the Good, 233-234; + completes "The Adoration of the Lamb," 235; + later paintings, 238-239; + death, 240; + monument, 241; 269; 270; 295; 301; + "_La Belle Portugalaise_" at Malines, 341-342; 360. + + Van der Gheynst, Jehanne (or Jeanne), 377-378. + + Van der Goes, Hugo, 273; 301; 307; + life and principal works, 360-362. + + Van Maerlant, Jacob, Flemish poet, 59; + statue at Damme, 73-74. + + Van der Meire, Gerard, painter of Ghent, 363. + + Van Nieuwenhove, Martin, painting of, by Memling, 298. + + Van Noort, Adam, teacher of Rubens, 441. + + Van Orley, Bernard, 339; 341. + + Van der Paele, George, painting of, by Jean Van Eyck, 239-240. + + Van Péde, Henri, 371. + + Van der Schelden, Paul, sculptor, 373; + wooden doorway at Audenaerde, 375. + + Van Severdonck, 274. + + Van de Walle, burgomaster of Bruges, 224; 225. + + Van der Voort, Michel, sculptor of Antwerp, 326. + + Van der Weyden, Rogier (Roger de la Pasture), 270-272; 273; + influence of sculpture on, 275; 280; 300; 307; 308; 309; 341. + + Vauban, military engineer, constructs walls of Ypres, 142; + fortifies Tournai, 250; 312. + + Verbanck, Georges, 241. + + Verbruggen, P. H., sculptor, 241; 453. + + Vere, Sir Francis, English commander at Ostende, 467-468. + + Verhaegen, Theodore, sculptor, 329; + fine carvings at Malines, 331. + + Verlat, Charles, 418-419. + + Vervoort, Michel, 442. + + Vivés, Louis, 341. + + Voisin, Belgian historian, 160. + + Vos, Martin de, many works of, at Antwerp, 404; 431. + + Vriendt, Albrecht and Julian de, frescoes at Bruges, 58-59; + at Furnes, 91. + + Vriendt, Cornelius de, 456-457. + + Vos, Cornelius de, portraits of, 453. + + Vydts, Jodocus, 234. + + + W + + Waghenakere, Dominique de, architect, 348. + + Walloon provinces, 13; 24. + + Walter of Straten, 37. + + Waterloo, Battle of, 94; 158; 250; 359; 460. + + Wauters, Prof. A. J., "History of Flemish Painting," cited, 229; + attributes portrait of Charles the Bold to Van der Goes, 362; + on Peter Breughel the Elder, quoted, 404-405; + eulogy of Rubens, quoted, 446-447. + + Wauters, Emile, painting of the madness of Hugo Van der Goes, 361. + + Weale, James, cited, 299. + + Westende, 473. + + White Hoods, 188; + destroy castles of Liliaert nobles, 200. + + William of Dampierre, Count of Flanders, 153. + + William I, King of Holland, 460. + + William of Juliers, Provost of Maestricht, 154; 193. + + William the Silent, Prince of Orange, 320; 328; 412; 419; + death, 419; + plans for defence of Antwerp disregarded, 420-421. + + Winders, sculptor, 19. + + Witte, Gaspar de, 386. + + Wolsey, Cardinal, 249. + + Wordsworth, quoted, 168. + + Wynandael, 53; 132. + + + Y + + Yperlée, tributary to the Yser, 104. + + Ypres, at the time of the Crusades, 13; + fortified by Baldwin II, 34; + execution of Provost of St. Donatian at, 40-41; + receives charter from Philip of Alsace, 55; + stubborn defence in the Great War, 116-118; + _Halle aux Draps_, or Cloth Hall, 118-125; + church of St. Martin, 125-126; + Grande Place, 126-129; + Musée Merghelynck, 139-140; + rue de Lille and ancient city walls, 141-143; + causes of decline, 143-145; + language spoken at, 159; + guildsmen of, at Battle of the Spurs, 157; 190; 192; 198-199; + influence of Jacques Van Artevelde in, 200; 202; + Melchior Broederlam, early painter of, 230-231; 304; + Hotel de Ville destroyed by the Germans, 482. + + Ysenbrant, Adriaen, early painter of Bruges, 301. + + Yser Canal, limit of the German advance, 94; + the locks, the river and the three canals, 103-104. + + + Z + + Zee-Brugge, from the sea, 16. + + Zeghers, Gerard, religious pictures of, 453. + + Zwyn, ancient channel to Bruges, 16-17; 59; + silting up of, 70-71; + replaced by the Scheldt, as channel of commerce, 394-395; 398. + +*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 41830 *** |