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diff --git a/41807.txt b/41807.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 5395bea..0000000 --- a/41807.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,11551 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg eBook, The Panama Canal, by Frederic Jennings -Haskin, Illustrated by Ernest Hallen - - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org - - - - - -Title: The Panama Canal - - -Author: Frederic Jennings Haskin - - - -Release Date: January 9, 2013 [eBook #41807] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ISO-646-US (US-ASCII) - - -***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE PANAMA CANAL*** - - -E-text prepared by Linda Cantoni, Bryan Ness, Julia Neufeld, and the -Online Distributed Proofreading Team (http://www.pgdp.net) from page -images generously made available by the Google Books Library Project -(http://books.google.com) - - - -Note: Project Gutenberg also has an HTML version of this - file which includes the original illustrations. - See 41807-h.htm or 41807-h.zip: - (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41807/41807-h/41807-h.htm) - or - (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41807/41807-h.zip) - - - Images of the original pages are available through - the the Google Books Library Project. See - http://www.google.com/books?id=I0X49oGRUYMC&oe - - -Transcriber's note: - - Text enclosed by underscores is in italics (_italics_). - - Small capital text has been replaced with all capitals. - - - - - -THE PANAMA CANAL - - * * * * * - -[Illustration: The 5 Points of Authority] - -The 5 Points of Authority in this Book - - - 1. All of the chapters in this book pertaining to the actual - construction of the Canal were read and corrected by Colonel - George W. Goethals, Chairman and Chief Engineer of the Isthmian - Canal Commission. - - 2. All of the illustrations were made from photographs taken by - Mr. Ernest Hallen, the official photographer of the Commission. - - 3. The book contains the beautiful, colored Bird's-eye View of - the Canal Zone, made under the direction of the National - Geographic Society, as well as the black-and-white official map - of the Canal. - - 4. The extensive index was prepared by Mr. G. Thomas Ritchie, of - the staff of the Library of Congress. - - 5. The final proofs were revised by Mr. Howard E. Sherman, of the - Government Printing Office, to conform with the typographical - style of the United States Government. - - -"The American Government," - -by the same author, was read by millions of Americans, and still holds -the record as the world's best seller among all works of its kind. - - * * * * * - -[Illustration: ATLANTIC OCEAN PACIFIC OCEAN - -Courtesy, National Geographic Magazine, Washington, D. C. - -BIRD'S-EYE VIEW OF THE PANAMA CANAL - -Copyright, 1913, by the J. N. Matthews Co., Buffalo, N. Y.] - - -THE PANAMA CANAL - -by - -FREDERIC J. HASKIN - -Author of "The American Government," etc. - -[Illustration: logo] - -Illustrated from photographs taken by - -ERNEST ALLEN - -Official Photographer of the Isthmian Canal Commission - - - - - - - -Garden City New York -Doubleday, Page & Company -1913 - -Copyright, 1913, by -Doubleday, Page & Company - -All rights reserved, including that of -translation into foreign languages, -including the Scandinavian - -Press of -J. J. Little & Ives Co. -New York - - - - -PREFACE - - -The primary purpose of this book is to tell the layman the story of -the Panama Canal. It is written, therefore, in the simplest manner -possible, considering the technical character of the great engineering -feat itself, and the involved complexities of the diplomatic history -attaching to its inception and undertaking. The temptation to turn -aside into the pleasant paths of the romantic history of ancient -Panama has been resisted; there is no attempt to dispose of political -problems that incidentally concern the canal; in short, the book is -confined to the story of the canal itself, and the things that are -directly and vitally connected with it. - -Colonel Goethals was good enough to read and correct the chapters -relating to the construction of the canal, and, when shown a list of -the chapters proposed, he asked that the one headed "The Man at the -Helm" be omitted. The author felt that to bow to his wishes in that -matter would be to fail to tell the whole story of the canal, and so -Colonel Goethals did not read that chapter. - -Every American is proud of the great national achievement at Panama. -If, in the case of the individual, this book is able to supplement -that pride by an ample fund of knowledge and information, its object -and purpose will have been attained. - - - - -ACKNOWLEDGMENTS - - -The grateful acknowledgments of the author are due to Mr. William -Joseph Showalter for his valuable aid in gathering and preparing the -material for this book. Acknowledgments are also due to Colonel George -W. Goethals, chairman and chief engineer of the Isthmian Canal -Commission, for reading and correcting those chapters in the book -pertaining to the engineering phases of the work; to Mr. Ernest -Hallen, the official photographer of the Commission, for the -photographs with which the book is illustrated; to Mr. Gilbert H. -Grosvenor, editor of the _National Geographic Magazine_, for -permission to use the bird's-eye view map of the canal; to Mr. G. -Thomas Ritchie, of the Library of Congress, for assistance in -preparing the index; and to Mr. Howard E. Sherman, of the Government -Printing Office, for revising the proofs to conform with the -typographical style of the United States Government. - - - - -CONTENTS - - - CHAPTER PAGE - - I. The Land Divided--The World United 3 - - II. Greatest Engineering Project 23 - - III. Gatun Dam 32 - - IV. The Locks 45 - - V. The Lock Machinery 57 - - VI. Culebra Cut 70 - - VII. Ends of the Canal 82 - - VIII. The Panama Railroad 93 - - IX. Sanitation 105 - - X. The Man at the Helm 118 - - XI. The Organization 133 - - XII. The American Workers 145 - - XIII. The Negro Workers 154 - - XIV. The Commissary 164 - - XV. Life on the Zone 176 - - XVI. Past Isthmian Projects 194 - - XVII. The French Failure 206 - - XVIII. Choosing the Panama Route 221 - - XIX. Controversy with Colombia 233 - - XX. Relations with Panama 246 - - XXI. Canal Zone Government 256 - - XXII. Congress and the Canal 268 - - XXIII. Sea Level Canal Impossible 277 - - XXIV. Fortifications 283 - - XXV. Fixing the Tolls 295 - - XXVI. The Operating Force 309 - - XXVII. Handling the Traffic 317 - - XXVIII. The Republic of Panama 326 - - XXIX. Other Great Canals 335 - - XXX. A New Commercial Map 347 - - XXXI. American Trade Opportunities 358 - - XXXII. The Panama-Pacific Exposition 368 - - - - -THE ILLUSTRATIONS - - - Birdseye View of the Panama Canal Zone _Color insert_ - - FACING PAGE - - George W. Goethals, Chairman and Chief Engineer 10 - - A Street in the City of Panama 11 - - Theodore Roosevelt 18 - - William Howard Taft 18 - - Woodrow Wilson 18 - - Vendors in the Streets of Panama 19 - - A Native Boy Marketing 19 - - Lieut. Col. W. L. Sibert 43 - - The Upper Locks at Gatun 43 - - Toro Point Breakwater 43 - - Concrete Mixers, Gatun 50 - - A Center Wall Culvert, Gatun Locks 50 - - The Machinery for Moving a Lock Gate 51 - - Steam Shovels Meeting at Bottom of Culebra Cut 74 - - L. K. Rourke 74 - - The Man-made Canyon at Culebra 75 - - The Disastrous Effects of Slides in Culebra Cut 82 - - U. S. Ladder Dredge "Corozal" 83 - - A Mud Bucket of the "Corozal" 83 - - W. G. Comber 83 - - Col. William C. Gorgas 106 - - The Hospital Grounds, Ancon 106 - - Lieut. Frederic Mears 107 - - The Old Panama Railroad 107 - - Sanitary Drinking Cup 114 - - Mosquito Oil Drip Barrel 114 - - Spraying Mosquito Oil 114 - - Typical Quarters of the Married Laborer 115 - - A Native Hut 115 - - Maj. Gen. George W. Davis 138 - - Rear Admiral J. G. Walker 138 - - Theodore P. Shonts 138 - - John F. Wallace 138 - - John F. Stevens 138 - - Charles E. Magoon 138 - - Richard Lee Metcalfe 139 - - Emory R. Johnson 139 - - Maurice H. Thatcher 139 - - Joseph Bucklin Bishop 139 - - H. A. Gudger 139 - - Joseph C. S. Blackburn 139 - - Brig. Gen. Carroll A. Devol 146 - - American Living Quarters at Cristobal 146 - - Harry H. Rousseau 147 - - Lowering a Caisson Section 147 - - John Burke 170 - - Meal Time at an I. C. C. Kitchen 170 - - Washington Hotel, Colon 171 - - Major Eugene T. Wilson 171 - - The Tivoli Hotel, Ancon 171 - - Floyd C. Freeman 178 - - I. C. C. Club House at Culebra 178 - - A. Bruce Minear 179 - - Reading Room in the I. C. C. Club House, Culebra 179 - - Col. Chester L. Harding 202 - - The Gatun Upper Locks 202 - - Lieut. Col. David D. Gaillard 203 - - Culebra Cut, Showing Cucaracha Slide in Left Center 203 - - The Man of Brawn 210 - - Ferdinand de Lesseps 211 - - An Old French Excavator Near Tabernilla 211 - - Philippe Bunau-Varilla 211 - - S. B. Williamson 234 - - The Lower Gates, Miraflores Locks 234 - - Middle Gates, Miraflores Locks 235 - - H. O. Cole 235 - - The Pay Car at Culebra 242 - - Edward J. Williams 242 - - Uncle Sam's Laundry at Cristobal 243 - - Smoke from Heated Rocks in Culebra Cut 266 - - Tom M. Cooke 267 - - The Post Office, Ancon 267 - - A Negro Girl 274 - - A Martinique Woman 274 - - San Blas Chief 274 - - An Indian Girl 274 - - An Italian 274 - - A Timekeeper 274 - - A Spaniard 274 - - A Negro Boy 274 - - Testing the Emergency Dam, Gatun Locks 275 - - Col. Harry F. Hodges 275 - - The Ancon Baseball Park 298 - - Caleb M. Saville 399 - - Gatun Spillway from Above and Below 299 - - An Electric Towing Locomotive in Action 306 - - Blowing Up the Second Dike South of Miraflores Locks 307 - - - DIAGRAMS - - A Graphic Illustration of the Material Handled at Panama 25 - - A Cross Section of the Gatun Dam 35 - - Plan of the Gatun Dam and Locks 36 - - A Profile Section of the Canal 40 - - From a Model of Pedro Miguel Lock 48 - - A Cross-section of Locks, Giving an Idea of Their Size 49 - - One of the 92 Gate-leaf Master Wheels 64 - - A _Mauretania_ in the Locks 67 - - The Effect of Slides 72 - - Average Shape and Dimensions of Culebra Cut 75 - - The _Corozal_ and its Method of Attack 85 - - International Shipping Routes 351 - - A Map Showing Isthmus with the Completed Canal 379 - - - - -The Panama Canal - -"_I have read the chapters in 'The Panama Canal' dealing with the -engineering features of the Canal and have found them an accurate and -dependable account of the undertaking._" - - GEO. W. GOETHALS. - - - - -THE PANAMA CANAL - - - - -CHAPTER I - -THE LAND DIVIDED--THE WORLD UNITED - - -The Panama Canal is a waterway connecting the Atlantic and Pacific -Oceans, cut through the narrow neck of land connecting the continents -of North and South America. It is the solution of the problem of -international commerce that became acute in 1452 when the Eastern -Roman Empire fell before the assaults of the Turks, and the land -routes to India were closed to Western and Christian Europe. - -Forty years after the Crescent supplanted the Cross on the dome of St. -Sophia in Constantinople, Columbus set sail to seek a western route to -the Indies. He did not find it, but it was his fortune to set foot on -the Isthmus of Panama, where, more than four centuries later, the goal -of his ambition was to be achieved; not by discovery, but by virtue of -the strength and wealth of a new nation of which he did not dream, -although its existence is due to his own intrepid courage. - -Columbus died not knowing that he had multiplied the world by two, and -many voyagers after him also vainly sought the longed-for western -passage. Magellan sought it thousands of leagues to the southward in -the cold and stormy seas that encircle the Antarctic Continent. Scores -of mariners sought it to the northward, but only one, Amundsen, in the -twentieth century, was able to take a ship through the frozen passages -of the American north seas. - -Down the western coast of the new continent from the eternal ice of -Alaska through the Tropics to the southern snows of Tierra del Fuego, -the mighty Cordilleras stretch a mountain barrier thousands and -thousands and thousands of miles. - -Where that mountain chain is narrowest, and where its peaks are -lowest, ships may now go through the Panama Canal. The canal is cut -through the narrowest part of the Isthmus but one, and through the -Culebra Mountain, the lowest pass but one, in all that longest, -mightiest range of mountains. There is a lower place in Nicaragua, and -a narrower place on the Isthmus east of the canal, but the engineers -agreed that the route from Colon on the Atlantic to Panama on the -Pacific through Culebra Mountain was the most practicable. - -The canal is 50 miles long. Fifteen miles of it is level with the -oceans, the rest is higher. Ships are lifted up in giant locks, three -steps, to sail for more than 30 miles across the continental divide, -85 feet above the surface of the ocean, then let down by three other -locks to sea level again. The channel is 300 feet wide at its -narrowest place, and the locks which form the two gigantic water -stairways are capable of lifting and lowering the largest ships now -afloat. A great part of the higher level of the canal is the largest -artificial lake in the world, made by impounding the waters of the -Chagres River, thus filling with water the lower levels of the -section. Another part of the higher level is Culebra Cut, the channel -cut through the backbone of the continent. - -Almost before Columbus died plans were made for cutting such a -channel. With the beginning of the nineteenth century and the -introduction of steam navigation, the demand for the canal began to be -insistent. - -Many plans were made, but it remained for the French, on New Year's -Day of 1880, actually to begin the work. They failed, but not before -they had accomplished much toward the reduction of Culebra Cut. They -expended between 1880 and 1904 no less than $300,000,000 in their -ill-fated efforts. - -In 1904 the United States of America undertook the task. In a decade -it was completed and the Americans had spent, all told, $375,000,000 -in the project. - -Because the Atlantic lies east and the Pacific west of the United -States, one is likely to imagine the canal as a huge ditch cut -straight across a neck of land from east to west. But it must be -remembered that South America lies eastward from North America, and -that the Isthmus connecting the two has its axis east and west. The -canal, therefore, is cut from the Atlantic south-eastward to the -Pacific. It lies directly south of Pittsburgh, Pa., and it brings Peru -and Chile closer to New York than California and Oregon. The first 7 -miles of the canal, beginning at the Atlantic end, run directly south -and from thence to the Pacific it pursues a serpentine course in a -southeasterly direction. - -At the northern, or Atlantic, terminus are the twin cities of Colon -and Cristobal, Colon dating from the middle of the nineteenth century -when the railroad was built across the Isthmus, and Cristobal having -its beginnings with the French attempt in 1880. At the southern, or -Pacific, terminus are the twin cities of Panama and Balboa. Panama was -founded in 1673 after the destruction by Morgan, the buccaneer, of an -elder city established in 1519. The ruins of the old city stand 5 -miles east of the new, and, since their story is one, it may be said -that Panama is the oldest city of the Western World. Balboa is yet in -its swaddling clothes, for it is the new American town destined to be -the capital of the American territory encompassing the canal. - -The waterway is cut through a strip of territory called the Canal -Zone, which to all intents and purposes is a territory of the United -States. This zone is 10 miles wide and follows the irregular line of -the canal, extending 5 miles on either side from the axis of the -channel. This Canal Zone traverses and separates the territory of the -Republic of Panama, which includes the whole of the Isthmus, and has -an area about equal to that of Indiana and a population of 350,000 or -about that of Washington City. The two chief Panaman cities, Panama -and Colon, lie within the limits of the Canal Zone, but, by the -treaty, they are excepted from its government and are an integral part -of the Republic of Panama, of which the city of Panama is the -capital. Cristobal and Balboa, although immediately contiguous to -Colon and Panama, are American towns under the American flag. - -The Canal Zone historically and commercially has a record of interest -and importance longer and more continuous than any other part of the -New World. Columbus himself founded a settlement here at Nombre de -Dios; Balboa here discovered the Pacific Ocean; across this narrow -neck was transported the spoil of the devastated Empire of the Incas; -here were the ports of call for the Spanish gold-carrying galleons; -and here centered the activities of the pirates and buccaneers that -were wont to prey on the commerce of the Spanish Main. - -Over this route, on the shoulders of slaves and the back of mules, -were transported the wares in trade of Spain with its colonies not -only on the west coasts of the Americas, but with the Philippines. - -Not far from Colon was the site of the colony of New Caledonia, the -disastrous undertaking of the Scotchman, Patterson, who founded the -Bank of England, to duplicate in America the enormous financial -success of the East India Company in Asia. - -Here in the ancient city of Panama in the early part of the nineteenth -century assembled the first Pan American conference that gave life to -the Monroe doctrine and ended the era of European colonization in -America. - -Here was built with infinite labor and terrific toll of life the first -railroad connecting the Atlantic and the Pacific Oceans--a railroad -less than 50 miles in length, but with perhaps the most interesting -story in the annals of railroading. - -Across this barrier in '49 clambered the American argonauts, seeking -the newly discovered golden fleeces of California. - -This was the theater of the failure of Count de Lesseps, the most -stupendous financial fiasco in the history of the world. - -And this, now, is the site of the most expensive and most successful -engineering project ever undertaken by human beings. - -It cost the French $300,000,000 to fail at Panama where the Americans, -at the expenditure of $375,000,000, succeeded. And, of the excavation -done by the French, only $30,000,000 worth was available for the -purpose of the Americans. That the Americans succeeded where the -French had failed is not to be assigned to the superiority of the -American over the French nation. The reasons are to be sought, rather, -in the underlying purposes of the two undertakings, and in the -scientific and engineering progress made in the double decade -intervening between the time when the French failure became apparent -and the Americans began their work. - -In the first place, the French undertook to build the canal as a -money-making proposition. People in every grade of social and -industrial life in France contributed from their surpluses and from -their hard-earned savings money to buy shares in the canal company in -the hope that it would yield a fabulously rich return. Estimates of -the costs of the undertaking, made by the engineers, were arbitrarily -cut down by financiers, with the result that repeated calls were made -for more money and the shareholders soon found to their dismay that -they must contribute more and yet more before they could hope for any -return whatever. From the beginning to the end, the French Canal -Company was concerned more with problems of promotion and finance than -with engineering and excavation. As a natural result of this spirit at -the head of the undertaking the whole course of the project was marred -by an orgy of graft and corruption such as never had been known. Every -bit of work was let out by contract, and the contractors uniformly -paid corrupt tribute to high officers in the company. No watch was set -on expenditures; everything bought for the canal was bought at prices -too high; everything it had to sell was practically given away. - -In the next place, the French were pitiably at the mercy of the -diseases of the Tropics. The science of preventive medicine had not -been sufficiently developed to enable the French to know that -mosquitoes and filth were enemies that must be conquered and -controlled before it would be possible successfully to attack the land -barrier. Yellow fever and malaria killed engineers and common laborers -alike. The very hospitals, which the French provided for the care of -the sick, were turned into centers of infection for yellow fever, -because the beds were set in pans of water which served as ideal -breeding places for the death-bearing stegomyia. - -In this atmosphere of lavish extravagance caused by the financial -corruption, and in the continual fear of quick and awful death, the -morals of the French force were broken; there was no determined spirit -of conquest; interest centered in champagne and women; the canal was -neglected. - -Yet, in spite of this waste, this corruption of money and morals, much -of the work done by the French was of permanent value to the -Americans; and without the lessons learned from their bitter -experience it would have been impossible for the Americans or any -other people to have completed the canal so quickly and so cheaply. - -The Americans brought to the task another spirit. The canal was to be -constructed not in the hope of making money, but, rather, as a great -national and popular undertaking, designed to bring the two coasts of -the great Republic in closer communication for purposes of commerce -and defense. - -The early estimates made by the American engineers were far too low, -but the French experience had taught the United States to expect such -an outcome. Indeed, it is doubtful if anybody believed that the first -estimates would not be doubled or quadrupled before the canal was -finished. - -[Illustration: Signature of George Goethals -_Chairman and Chief Engineer_] - -[Illustration: A STREET IN THE CITY OF PANAMA] - -The journey of the U. S. S. _Oregon_ around the Horn from Pacific -waters to the theater of the War with Spain in the Caribbean, in 1898, -impressed upon the American public the necessity of building the canal -as a measure of national defense. Commercial interests long had been -convinced of its necessity as a factor in both national and -international trade, and, when it was realized that the _Oregon_ would -have saved 8,000 miles if there had been a canal at Panama, the -American mind was made up. It determined that the canal should be -built, whatever the cost. - -From the very first there was never any question that the necessary -money would be forthcoming. It is a fact unprecedented in all -parliamentary history that all of the appropriations necessary for the -construction and completion of the Isthmian waterway were made by -Congress without a word of serious protest. - -During the same War with Spain that convinced the United States that -the canal must be built, a long forward step was taken in the science -of medicine as concerned with the prevention and control of tropical -diseases. The theory that yellow fever was transmitted by mosquitoes -had been proved by a Cuban physician, Dr. Carlos Finley, a score of -years earlier. An Englishman, Sir Patrick Manson, had first shown that -disease might be transmitted by the bites of insects, and another -Englishman, Maj. Roland Ross, had shown that malaria was conveyed by -mosquitoes. It remained, however, for American army surgeons to -demonstrate, as they did in Cuba, that yellow fever was transmissible -only by mosquitoes of the stegomyia variety and by no other means -whatsoever. - -With this knowledge in their possession the Americans were able to do -what the French were not--to control the chief enemy of mankind in -torrid climes. In the first years of the work the public, and -Congress, reflecting its views, were not sufficiently convinced of the -efficacy of the new scientific discoveries to afford the means for -putting them into effect. The Isthmian Canal Commission refused to -honor requisitions for wire screens, believing that they were demanded -to add to the comfort and luxury of quarters on the Zone, rather than -for protection against disease. But the outbreak of yellow fever in -1905 was the occasion for furnishing the Sanitary Department, under -Col. W. C. Gorgas, with the necessary funds, and thus provided, he -speedily and completely stamped out the epidemic. From that time on, -no one questioned the part that sanitation played in the success of -the project. The cities of Panama and Colon were cleaned up as never -were tropical cities cleaned before. All the time, every day, men -fought mosquitoes that the workers in the ditch might not be struck -down at their labors. - -The Americans, too, made mistakes. In the beginning they attempted to -build the canal under the direction of a commission with headquarters -in Washington. This commission, at long distance and by methods -hopelessly involved in red tape, sought to direct the activities of -the engineer in charge on the Isthmus. The public also was impatient -with the long time required for preparation and insistently demanded -that "the dirt begin to fly." - -The work was begun in 1904. It proceeded so slowly that two years -later the chairman of the Isthmian Canal Commission asserted that it -must be let out to a private contractor, this being, in his opinion, -the only way possible to escape the toils of governmental red tape. -The then chief engineer, the second man who had held that position -while fretting under these methods, was opposed to the contract -system. Bids were asked for, however, but all of them were rejected. - -Fortunately, Congress from the beginning had left the President a -practically free hand in directing the course of the project. Mr. -Roosevelt reorganized the commission, made Col. George W. Goethals, an -Army engineer, chairman of the commission and chief engineer of the -canal. The constitution of the commission was so changed as to leave -all the power in the hands of the chairman and to lay all of the -responsibility upon his shoulders. - -It was a master stroke of policy, and the event proved the choice of -the man to be admirable in every way. From the day the Army engineers -took charge there was never any more delay, never any halt in -progress, and the only difficulties encountered were those of -resistant Nature (such as the slides in Culebra Cut) and those of -misinformed public opinion (such as the absurd criticism of the Gatun -Dam). - -The Americans, too, in the early stages of the work were hampered by -reason of the fact that the final decision as to whether to build a -sea-level canal or a lock canal was so long delayed by the conflicting -views of the partisans of each type in Congress, in the executive -branches of the Government, and among the engineers. This problem, -too, was solved by Mr. Roosevelt. He boldly set aside the opinion of -the majority of the engineers who had been called in consultation on -the problem, and directed the construction of a lock canal. The wisdom -of this decision has been so overwhelmingly demonstrated that the -controversy that once raged so furiously now seems to have been but a -tiny tempest in an insignificant teapot. - -One other feature of the course of events under the American regime at -Panama must be considered. Graft and corruption had ruined the French; -the Americans were determined that whether they succeeded or not, -there should be no scandal. This, indeed, in part explains why there -was so much apparently useless circumlocution in the early stages of -the project. Congress, the President, the engineers, all who were in -responsible position, were determined that there should be no graft. -There was none. - -Not only were the Americans determined that the money voted for the -canal should be honestly and economically expended, but they were -determined, also, that the workers on the canal should be well paid -and well cared for. To this end they paid not only higher wages than -were current at home for the same work, but they effectively shielded -the workers from the exactions and extortions of Latin and Oriental -merchants by establishing a commissary through which the employees -were furnished wholesome food at reasonable prices--prices lower, -indeed, than those prevailing at home. - -As a result of these things the spirit of the Americans on the Canal -Zone, from the chairman and chief engineer down to the actual diggers, -was that of a determination to lay the barrier low, and to complete -the job well within the limit of time and at the lowest possible cost. -In this spirit all Americans should rejoice, for it is the highest -expression of the nearest approach we have made to the ideals upon -which the Fathers founded our Republic. - -It is impossible to leave out of the reckoning, in telling the story -of the canal, the checkered history of the diplomatic engagements on -the part of the United States, that have served both to help and to -hinder the undertaking. What is now the Republic of Panama has been, -for the greater part of the time since continental Latin America threw -off the yoke of Spain, a part of that Republic having its capital at -Bogota, now under the name of Colombia, sometimes under the name of -New Granada, sometimes a part of a federation including Venezuela and -Ecuador. The United States, by virtue of the Monroe doctrine, always -asserted a vague and undefined interest in the local affairs of the -Isthmus. This was translated into a concrete interest when, in 1846, a -treaty was made, covering the construction of the railroad across the -Isthmus, the United States engaging always to keep the transit free -and open. Great Britain, by virtue of small territorial holdings in -Central America and of larger claims there, also had a concrete -interest, which was acknowledged by the United States, in the -Clayton-Bulwer treaty of 1850, under which a projected canal should be -neutral under the guarantee of the Governments of the United States -and Great Britain. - -For years the United States was inclined to favor a canal cut through -Nicaragua, rather than one at Panama, and, after 1898, when the -American nation had made up its mind to build a canal somewhere, the -partisans of the Panama and Nicaragua routes waged a bitter -controversy. - -Congress finally decided the issue by giving the President authority -to construct a canal at Panama, with the proviso that should he be -unable to negotiate a satisfactory treaty with Colombia, which then -owned the Isthmus, he should proceed to construct the canal through -Nicaragua. Under this threat of having the scepter of commercial power -depart forever from Panama, Colombia negotiated a treaty, known as the -Hay-Herran treaty, giving the United States the right to construct the -canal. This treaty, however, failed of ratification by the Colombian -Congress, with the connivance of the very Colombian President who had -negotiated it. - -But President Roosevelt was most unwilling to accept the alternative -given him by Congress--that of undertaking the canal at Nicaragua--and -this unwillingness, to say the least, encouraged a revolution in -Panama. This revolution separated the Isthmus from the Republic of -Colombia, and set up the new Republic of Panama. As a matter of fact, -Panama had had but the slenderest relations with the Bogota -Government, had been for years in the past an independent State, had -never ceased to assert its own sovereignty, and had been, indeed, the -theater of innumerable revolutions. - -The part the United States played in encouraging this revolution, the -fact that the United States authorities prevented the transit of -Colombian troops over the Panama Railway, and that American marines -were landed at the time, has led to no end of hostile criticism, not -to speak of the still pending and unsettled claims made by Colombia -against the United States. Mr. Roosevelt himself, years after the -event and in a moment of frankness, declared: "I took Panama, and left -Congress to debate it later." - -Whatever may be the final outcome of our controversy with Colombia, it -may be confidently predicted that history will justify the coup d'etat -on the theory that Panama was the best possible site for the -interoceanic canal, and that the rupture of relations between the -territory of the Isthmus and the Colombian Republic was the best -possible solution of a confused and tangled problem. - -These diplomatic entanglements, however, as the canal is completed, -leave two international disputes unsettled--the one with Colombia -about the genesis of the canal undertaking, and the other with Great -Britain about the terms of its operation. - -Congress, in its wisdom, saw fit to exempt American vessels engaged -exclusively in coastwise trade--that is to say, in trade solely -between ports of the United States--from payment of tolls in transit -through the canal. This exemption was protested by Great Britain on -the ground that the Hay-Pauncefote treaty, which took the place of the -Clayton-Bulwer treaty, provided that the canal should be open to all -nations on exact and equal terms. The future holds the termination of -both these disputes. - -Congress, that never begrudged an appropriation, indulged in many -disputes concerning the building and operation of the canal. First, -there was the controversy as to site, between Nicaragua and Panama. -Next, came the question as to whether the canal should be at sea level -or of a lock type. Then there was the question of tolls, and the -exemption of American coastwise traffic. But, perhaps the most -acrimonious debates were on the question as to whether or not the -canal should be fortified. Those who favored fortification won their -victory, and the canal was made, from a military standpoint, a very -Gibraltar for the American defense of, and control over, the -Caribbean. That this was inevitable was assured by two facts: One that -the trip of the _Oregon_ in 1898 crystallized public sentiment in -favor of constructing the canal; and the other that the canal itself -was wrought by Army engineers under the direction of Colonel Goethals. -Colonel Goethals never for a moment considered the possibility that -Congress would vote against fortifications, and the whole undertaking -was carried forward on that basis. - -If the military idea, the notion of its necessity as a feature of the -national defense, was the determining factor in initiating the canal -project, it remains a fact that its chief use will be commercial, and -that its money return, whether small or large, nearly all will be -derived from tolls assessed upon merchant vessels passing through it. - -[Illustration: THE THREE PRESIDENTS UNDER WHOSE DIRECTION THE CANAL -WAS BUILT] - -[Illustration: VENDERS IN THE STREETS OF PANAMA] - -[Illustration: A NATIVE BOY MARKETING] - -The question of the probable traffic the canal will be called upon to -handle was studied as perhaps no other world-wide problem of -transportation ever was. Prof. Emory R. Johnson was the student of -this phase of the question from the beginning to the end. He -estimates that the canal in the first few years of its operation will -have a traffic of 10,000,000 tons of shipping each year, and that by -1975 this will have increased to 80,000,000 tons, the full capacity of -the canal in its present form. Provision has been made against this -contingency by the engineers who have so constructed the canal that a -third set of locks at each end may be constructed at a cost of about -$25,000,000, and these will be sufficient almost to double the present -ultimate capacity, and to take care of a larger volume of traffic than -now can be foreseen. - -Americans are interested, first of all, in what the canal will do for -their own domestic trade. It brings Seattle 7,800 miles nearer to New -York; San Francisco, 8,800 miles nearer to New Orleans; Honolulu 6,600 -miles nearer to New York than by the Strait of Magellan. Such saving -in distance for water-borne freight works a great economy, and -inevitably must have a tremendous effect upon transcontinental -American commerce. - -In foreign commerce, also, some of the distances saved are tremendous. -For instance, Guayaquil, in Ecuador, is 7,400 miles nearer to New York -by the canal than by the Strait of Magellan; Yokohama is nearly 4,000 -miles nearer to New York by Panama than by Suez; and Melbourne is -1,300 miles closer to Liverpool by Panama than by either Suez or the -Cape of Good Hope. Curiously enough, the distance from Manila to New -York, by way of Suez and Panama, is almost the same, the difference in -favor of Panama being only 41 miles out of a total of 11,548 miles. -The difference in distance from Hongkong to New York by the two -canals is even less, being only 18 miles, this slight advantage -favoring Suez. - -But it is not by measure of distances that the effect of the canal on -international commerce may be measured. It spells the development of -the all but untouched western coast of South America and Mexico. It -means a tremendous up-building of foreign commerce in our own -Mississippi Valley and Gulf States. It means an unprecedented -commercial and industrial awakening in the States of our Pacific coast -and the Provinces of Western Canada. - -While it was not projected as a money-making proposition, it will pay -for its maintenance and a slight return upon the money invested -from the beginning, and in a score of years will be not only -self-supporting, but will yield a sufficient income to provide for the -amortization of its capital in a hundred years. - -The story of how this titanic work was undertaken, of how it -progressed, and of how it was crowned with success, is a story without -a parallel in the annals of man. The canal itself, as Ambassador Bryce -has said, is the greatest liberty man has ever taken with nature. - -Its digging was a steady and progressive victory over sullen and -resistant nature. The ditch through Culebra Mountain was eaten out by -huge steam shovels of such mechanical perfection that they seemed -almost to be alive, almost to know what they were doing. The rocks and -earth they bit out of the mountain side were carried away by trains -operating in a system of such skill that it is the admiration of all -the transportation world, for the problem of disposing of the -excavated material was even greater than that of taking it out. - -The control of the torrential Chagres River by the Gatun Dam, changing -the river from the chief menace of the canal to its essential and -salient feature, was no less an undertaking. And, long after Gatun Dam -and Culebra Cut cease to be marvels, long after the Panama Canal -becomes as much a matter of course as the Suez Canal, men still will -be thrilled and impressed by the wonderful machinery of the -locks--those great water stairways, operated by machinery as ingenious -as gigantic, and holding in check with their mighty gates such floods -as never elsewhere have been impounded. - -It is a wonderful story that this book is undertaking to tell. There -will be much in it of engineering feats and accomplishments, because -its subject is the greatest of all engineering accomplishments. There -will be much in it of the things that were done at Panama during the -period of construction, for never were such things done before. There -will be much in it of the history of how and why the American -Government came to undertake the work, for nothing is of greater -importance. There will be something in it of the future, looking with -conservatism and care as far ahead as may be, to outline what the -completion of this canal will mean not only for the people of the -United States, but for the people of all the world. - -Much that might be written of the romantic history of the Isthmian -territory--tales of discoverers and conquistadores, wild tales of -pirates and buccaneers, serio-comic narratives of intrigue and -revolution--is left out of this book, because, while it is -interesting, it now belongs to that antiquity which boasts of many, -many books; and this volume is to tell not of Panama, but of the -Panama Canal--on the threshold of its story, fitted by a noble birth -for a noble destiny. - - - - -CHAPTER II - -GREATEST ENGINEERING PROJECT - - -The Panama Canal is the greatest engineering project of all history. -There is more than the patriotic prejudice of a people proud of their -own achievements behind this assertion. Men of all nations concede it -without question, and felicitate the United States upon the remarkable -success with which it has been carried out. So distinguished an -authority as the Rt. Hon. James Bryce, late British ambassador to -Washington, and a man not less famous in the world of letters than -successful in the field of diplomacy, declared before the National -Geographic Society that not only is the Panama Canal the greatest -undertaking of the past or the present but that even the future seems -destined never to offer any land-dividing, world-uniting project -comparable to it in magnitude or consequence. - -We are told that the excavations total 232,000,000 cubic yards; that -the Gatun Dam contains 21,000,000 cubic yards of material; and that -the locks and spillways required the laying of some 4,500,000 cubic -yards of concrete. But if one is to realize the meaning of this he -must get out of the realm of cubic yards and into the region of -concrete comparisons. Every one is familiar with the size and shape of -the Washington Monument. With its base of 55 feet square and its -height of 555 feet, it is one of the most imposing of all the hand -reared structures of the earth. Yet the material excavated from the -big waterway at Panama represents 5,840 such solid-built shafts. -Placed in a row with base touching base they would traverse the entire -Isthmus and reach 10 miles beyond deep water in the two oceans at -Panama. Placed in a square with base touching base they would cover an -area of 475 acres. If all the material were placed in one solid shaft -with a base as large as the average city block, it would tower nearly -100,000 feet in the air. - -Another illustration of the magnitude of the quantity of material -excavated at Panama may be had from a comparison with the pyramid of -Cheops, of which noble pile some one has said that "All things fear -Time, but Time fears only Cheops." We are told that it required a -hundred thousand men 10 years to make ready for the building of that -great structure, and 20 years more to build it. There were times at -Panama when, in 26 working days, more material was removed from the -canal than was required to build Cheops, and from first to last the -Americans removed material enough to build sixty-odd pyramids such as -Cheops. Were it all placed in one such structure, with a base as large -as that of Cheops, the apex would tower higher into the sky than the -loftiest mountain on the face of the earth. - -Still another way of arriving at a true conception of the work of -digging the big waterway is to consider that enough material had to be -removed by the Americans to make a tunnel through the earth at the -equator more than 12 feet square. - -[Illustration: A GRAPHIC REPRESENTATION OF THE MATERIAL HANDLED AT -PANAMA] - -But perhaps the comparison that will best illustrate the immensity of -the task of digging the ditch is that of the big Lidgerwood dirt car, -on which so much of the spoil has been hauled away. Each car holds -about 20 cubic yards of dirt, and 21 cars make a train. The material -removed from the canal would fill a string of these cars reaching -about three and a half times around the earth, and it would take a -string of Panama Railroad engines reaching almost from New York to -Honolulu to move them. - -Yet all these comparisons have taken account of the excavations only. -The construction of the Panama Canal represents much besides digging a -ditch, for there were some immense structures to erect. Principal -among these, so far as magnitude is concerned, was the Gatun Dam, that -big ridge of earth a mile and a half long, half a mile thick at the -base, and 105 feet high. It contains some 21,000,000 cubic yards of -material, enough to build more than 500 solid shafts like the -Washington Monument. Then there was the dam at Pedro Miguel--"Peter -Magill," as the irreverent boys of Panama christened it--and another -at Miraflores, each of them small in comparison with the great -embankment at Gatun, but together containing as much material as 70 -solid shafts like our Washington Monument. - -Besides these structures there still remain the locks and spillways, -with their four and a half million cubic yards of concrete and their -hundreds and thousands of tons of steel. - -With all these astonishing comparisons in mind, is it strange that the -digging of the Panama Canal is the world's greatest engineering -project? Are they not enough to stamp it as the greatest single -achievement in human history? Yet even they, pregnant of meaning as -they are, fail to reveal the full and true proportions of the work of -our illustrious army of canal diggers. They tell nothing of the -difficulties which were overcome--difficulties before which the -bravest spirit might have quailed. - -When the engineers laid out the present project, they calculated that -103,000,000 cubic yards of material would have to be excavated, and -predicted that the canal diggers would remove that much in nine years. -Since that time the amount of material to be taken out has increased -from one cause or another until it now stands at more than double the -original estimate. At one time there was an increase for widening the -Culebra Cut by 50 per cent. At another time there was an increase to -take care of the 225 acres of slides that were pouring into the big -ditch like glaciers. At still another time there was an increase for -the creation of a small lake between the locks at Pedro Miguel and -Miraflores. At yet another time it was found that the Chagres River -and the currents of the Atlantic and the Pacific Oceans were -depositing large quantities of silt and mud in the canal, and this -again raised the total amount of material to be excavated. But none of -these unforeseen obstacles and additional burdens dismayed the -engineers. They simply attacked their problem with renewed zeal and -quickened energy, with the result that they excavated in seven years -of actual operations more than twice as much material as they were -expected to excavate in nine years. In other words, the material to be -removed was increased 125 per cent and yet the canal was opened at -least 12 months ahead of the time predicted. - -How this unprecedented efficiency was developed forms in itself a -remarkable story of achievement. The engineers met with insistent -demands that they "make the dirt fly." The people had seen many months -of preparation, but they had no patience with that; they wanted to see -the ditch begin to deepen. It was a critical stage in the history of -the project. If the dirt should fail to fly public sentiment would -turn away from the canal. - -So John F. Stevens addressed himself to making it fly. Before he left -he had brought the monthly output almost up to the million yard mark. -When that mark was passed the President of the United States, on -behalf of himself and the nation, sent a congratulatory message to the -canal army. Many people asserted that it was nothing but a burst of -speed; but the canal diggers squared themselves for a still higher -record. They forced up the mark to two million a month, and -straightway used that as a rallying point from which to charge the -heights three million. Once again the standard was raised; "four -million" became the slogan. Wherever that slogan was flashed upon a -Y.M.C.A. stereoptican screen there was cheering--cheering that -expressed a determined purpose. Finally, when March, 1909, came around -all hands went to work with set jaws, and for the only time in the -history of the world, there was excavated on a single project, -4,000,000 cubic yards of material in one month. - -With the dirt moving, came the question of the cost of making it fly. -By eliminating a bit of lost motion here and taking up a bit of waste -there, even with the price of skilled labor fully 50 per cent higher -on the Isthmus than in the States, unit costs were sent down to -surprisingly low levels. For instance, in 1908 it was costing 11-1/2 -cents a cubic yard to operate a steam shovel; in 1911 this had been -forced down to 8-7/8 cents a yard. In 1908 more than 18-1/2 cents were -expended to haul a cubic yard of spoil 8 miles; in 1911 a cubic yard -was hauled 12 miles for a little more than 15-1/5 cents. - -Some of the efficiency results were astonishing. To illustrate: One -would think that the working power of a ton of dynamite would be as -great at one time as another; and yet the average ton of dynamite in -1911 did just twice as much work as in 1908. No less than $50,000 a -month was saved by shaking out cement bags. - -It was this wonderful efficiency that enabled the United States to -build the canal for $375,000,000 when without it the cost might have -reached $600,000,000. In 1908, after the army had been going at -regulation double-quick for a year, a board was appointed to estimate -just how much material would have to be taken out, and how much it -would cost. That board estimated that the project as then planned -would require the excavation of 135,000,000 cubic yards of material, -and that the total cost of the canal as then contemplated would be -$375,000,000. Also it was estimated that the canal would be completed -by January 1, 1915. After that time the amount of material to be -excavated was increased by 97,000,000 cubic yards, and yet so great -was the efficiency developed that the savings effected permitted that -great excess of material to be removed without the additional expense -of a single penny above the estimates of 1908, and in less time than -was forecast. - -Although the difficulties that beset the canal diggers were such as -engineers never before encountered, they were met and brushed aside, -and all the world's engineering records were smashed into smithereens. -It required 20 years to build the Suez Canal, through a comparatively -dry and sandy region. When the work at Panama was at its height the -United States was excavating the equivalent of a Suez Canal every 15 -months. Likewise it required many years to complete the Manchester -Ship Canal between Liverpool and Manchester, a distance of 35 miles. -This canal cost so much more than was estimated that money was raised -for its completion only with the greatest difficulty. Yet at Panama -the Americans dug four duplicates of the Manchester Ship Canal in five -years. All of this was done in spite of the fact that they had to work -in a moist, hot, enervating climate where for nine months in a year -the air seems filled with moisture to the point of saturation, and -where, for more than half the length of the great ditch, the annual -rainfall often amounts to as much as 10 feet--all of this falling in -the nine months of the wet season. - -A few comparisons outside of the construction itself will serve to -illustrate the tremendous proportions of the work. Paper money was not -handled at all in paying off the canal army. It took three days to pay -off the force with American gold and Panaman silver. When pay day was -over there had been given into the hands of the Americans, and thrown -into the hats of the Spaniards and West Indian negroes, 1,600 pounds -of gold and 24 tons of silver. When it is remembered that this -performance was repeated every month for seven years, one may imagine -the enormous outlay of money for labor. - -The commissary also illustrates the magnitude of the work. Five -million loaves of bread, a hundred thousand pounds of cheese, more -than 9,000,000 pounds of meat, half a million pounds of poultry, more -than a thousand carloads of ice, more than a million pounds of onions, -half a million pounds of butter--these are some of the items handled -in a single year. - -Wherever one turns he finds things which furnish collateral evidence -of the magnitude of the work. The Sanitary Department used each year -150,000 gallons of mosquito oil, distributed thousands of pounds of -quinine, cut and burned millions of square yards of brush, and spent -half a million dollars for hospital maintenance. - -No other great engineering project has allowed such a remarkable -"margin of safety"--the engineering term for doing things better than -they need to be done. The engineers who dug the canal took nothing for -granted. No rule of physics was so plain or so obvious as to escape -actual physical proof before its acceptance, when such proof was -possible. No one who knows how the engineers approached the subject, -how they resolved every doubt on the side of safety, and how they kept -so far away from the danger line as actually to make their precaution -seem excessive can doubt that the Panama Canal will go down in history -as the most thorough as well as the most extensive piece of -engineering in the world. - - - - -CHAPTER III - -GATUN DAM - - -The key to the whole Panama Canal is Gatun Dam, that great mass of -earth that impounds the waters of the Chagres River, makes of the -central portion of the canal a great navigable lake with its surface -85 feet above the level of the sea, and, in short, renders practicable -the operation of a lock type of canal across the Isthmus. - -Around no other structure in the history of engineering did the fires -of controversy rage so furiously and so persistently as they raged for -several years around Gatun Dam. It was attacked on this side and that; -its foundations were pronounced bad and its superstructure not -watertight. Doubt as to the stability of such a structure led some of -the members of the Board of Consulting Engineers to recommend a -sea-level canal. Further examination of the site and experimentation -with the materials of which it was proposed to construct it, showed -the engineers that it was safe as to site and satisfactory as to -superstructure. The country had about accepted their conclusions, -when, in the fall of 1908, there was a very heavy rain on the Isthmus, -and some stone which had been deposited on the soil on the upstream -toe of the dam, sank out of sight--just as the engineers expected it -to do. A story thereupon was sent to the States announcing that the -Gatun Dam had given way and that the Chagres River was rushing -unrestrained through it to the sea. The public never stopped to recall -that the dam was not yet there to give way, or to inquire exactly what -had happened, and a wave of public distrust swept over the country. - -To make absolutely certain that everything was all right, and to -restore the confidence of the people in the big project, President -Roosevelt selected the best board of engineers he could find and sent -them to the Isthmus in company with President-elect Taft to see -exactly what was the situation at Gatun. - -They examined the site, they examined the material, they examined the -evidence in Colonel Goethal's hands. When they got through they -announced that they had only one serious criticism to make of the dam -as proposed. "It is not necessary to tie a horse with a log chain to -make sure he can not break away," observed one of them, "a smaller -chain would serve just as well." And so they recommended that the -crest of the dam be lowered from 135 feet to 115 feet. Still later -this was cut to 105 feet. They found that the underground river whose -existence was urged by all who opposed a lock canal, flowed nowhere -save in the fertile valleys of imagination. The engineers had known -this a long time, but out of deference to the doubters they had -decided to drive a lot of interlocking sheet piling across the Chagres -Valley. "What's the use trying to stop a river that does not exist?" -queried the engineers, and so the sheet piling was omitted. - -As a matter of fact, Gatun Dam proved the happiest surprise of the -whole waterway. In every particular it more than fulfilled the most -optimistic prophecies of the engineers. They said that what little -seepage there would be would not hurt anything; the dam answered by -showing no seepage at all. They said that the hydraulic core would be -practically impervious; it proved absolutely so. Where it was once -believed that Gatun Dam would be the hardest task on the Isthmus it -proved to be the easiest. Culebra Cut exchanged places with it in that -regard. - -Gatun Dam contains nearly 22,000,000 cubic yards of material. Assuming -that it takes two horses to pull a cubic yard of material it would -require twice as many horses as there are in the United States to move -the dam were it put on wheels. Loaded into ordinary two-horse dirt -wagons it would make a procession of them some 80,000 miles long. The -dam is a mile and a half long, a half mile thick at the base, 300 feet -thick at the water line, and 100 feet thick at the crest. Its height -is 105 feet. - -Yet in spite of its vast dimensions it is the most inconspicuous -object in the landscape. Grown over with dense tropical vegetation it -looks little more conspicuous than a gradual rise in the surface of -the earth. Passengers passing Gatun on the Panama Railroad scarcely -recognize the dam as such when they see it, so gradual are its slopes. -An excellent idea of the gentle incline of the dam may be had by -referring to the accompanying figure, which shows the outlines of a -cross section of the dam. - -The materials of which it is constructed are also shown there. -Starting on the upstream side there is a section made of solid -material from Culebra Cut. Beyond this is the upstream toe of the dam, -which is made of the best rock in the Culebra Cut. After this comes -the hydraulic fill. This material is a mixture of sand and clay which, -when it dries out thoroughly, is compact and absolutely impervious to -water. It was secured from the river channel and pumped with great -20-inch centrifugal pumps into the central portion of the dam, where a -veritable pond was formed; the heavier materials settled to the -bottom, forming layer after layer of the core, while the lighter -particles, together with the water, passed off through drain pipes. In -this way the water was not only the hod carrier of the dam -construction, but the stone mason as well. Where there was the tiniest -open space, even between two grains of sand, the water found it and -slipped in as many small particles as were necessary to stop it up. - -[Illustration: A CROSS-SECTION OF THE GATUN DAM] - -Above the hydraulic fill on the upstream side is a layer of solid -material, while that part of the face of the dam exposed to wave -action is covered with heavy rock. The same is true of the crest. On -the downstream half of the dam there is approximately 400 feet of -hydraulic fill, then 400 feet of solid fill, then a 30-foot toe, and -then ordinary excavated material. - -The Chagres Valley is a wide one until it reaches Gatun. Here it -narrows down to a mile and a half. It is across this valley that the -Gatun Dam is thrown in opposition to the seaward journey of the -Chagres waters. At the halfway point across the valley there was a -little hill almost entirely of solid rock. It happened to be planted -exactly at the place the engineers needed it. Here they could erect -their spillway for the control of the water in the lake above. - -[Illustration: GATUN LAKE PLAN OF THE GATUN DAM AND LOCKS] - -The regulation of the water level in Gatun Lake is no small task, for -the Chagres is one of the world's moodiest streams. At times it is a -peaceful, leisurely stream of some 2 feet in depth, while at other -times it becomes a wild, roaring, torrential river of magnificent -proportions. Sometimes it reaches such high stages that it sends a -million gallons of water to the sea between the ticks of a clock. - -In controlling the Chagres, the engineers again took what on any -private work would have been regarded as absurd precaution. In the -first place, Gatun Lake will be so big that the Chagres can break -every record it heretofore has set, both for momentary high water and -for sustained high water, and still, with no water being let out of -the lake, it can continue to flow that way for a day and a half -without disturbing things at all. It could flow for two days before -any serious damage could be done. Thus the canal force might be off -duty for some 45 hours, with the outlet closed, before any really -serious damage could be done by the rampage of the river. - -But of course no one supposes that it would be humanly possible that -two such contingencies as the highest water ever known, and everybody -asleep at their posts for two days, could happen together. When the -water in the lake reached its normal level of 87 feet the spillway -gates would be opened, and, if necessary, it would begin to discharge -145,000 feet of water a second. This is 17,000 feet more than the -record for sustained flow heretofore set by the Chagres. But if it -were found that even this was inadequate the culverts in the locks -could be brought into play, and with them the full discharge would be -brought up to 194,000 feet a second, or 57,000 more than the Chagres -has ever brought down. But suppose even this would not suffice to take -care of the floods of the Chagres? The spillway is so arranged that as -the level of the water in the lake rises the discharging capacity -increases. With the spillway open, even if the Chagres were to double -its record for continued high water, it would take many days to bring -the lake level up to the danger point--92 feet. When it reached that -height the spillway would have a capacity of 222,000 feet, which, with -the aid of the big lock culverts, would bring the total discharge up -to 262,000 feet a second--only 12,000 cubic feet less than double the -highest known flow of the Chagres. - -But this is only characteristic of what one sees everywhere. Whether -it be in making a spillway that would accommodate two rivers like the -Chagres instead of one, or in building dams with 63 pounds of weight -for every pound of pressure against it, or yet in building lock gates -which will bear several times the maximum weight that can ever be -brought against them, the work at Panama was done with the intent to -provide against every possible contingency. - -The spillway through which the surplus waters of Gatun Lake will be -let down to the sea level, is a large semicircular concrete dam -structure with the outside curve upstream and the inside curve -downstream. Projecting above the dam are 13 piers and 2 abutments, -which divide it into 14 openings, each of them 45 feet wide. These -openings are closed by huge steel gates, 45 feet wide, 20 feet high, -and weighing 42 tons each. They are mounted on roller bearings, -suspended from above, and are operated by electricity. They work in -huge frames just as a window slides up and down in its frame. Each -gate is independent of the others, and the amount of water permitted -to go over the spillway dam thus can be regulated at will. - -When a huge volume of water like a million gallons a second is to be -let down a distance of about 60 feet, it may be imagined that unless -some means are found to hold it back and let it descend easily, by the -time it would reach the bottom it would be transformed into a thousand -furies of energy. Therefore, the spillway dam has been made -semicircular, with the outside lines pointing up into the lake and the -inside lines downstream, so that as the water runs through the -openings it will converge all the currents and cause them to collide -on the apron below. This largely overcomes the madness of the water. -But still further to neutralize its force and to make it harmless as -it flows on its downward course, there are two rows of baffle piers on -the apron of the spillway. They are about 10 feet high and are built -of reinforced concrete, with huge cast-iron blocks upon their upstream -faces. When the water gets through them it has been tamed and robbed -of all its dangerous force. The spillway is so constructed that when -the water flowing over it becomes more than 6 feet deep it adheres to -the downstream face of the dam as it glides down, instead of rushing -out and falling perpendicularly. - -The locks are situated against the high hills at the east side of the -valley, after which comes the east wing of the dam, then the spillway, -then the west wing of the dam, which terminates on the side of the low -mountain that skirts the western side of the valley. With the hills -bordering the valley and the dam across it, the engineers have been -able to inclose a gigantic reservoir which has a superficial surface -of 164 square miles. It is irregular in shape and might remind one of -a pressed chrysanthemum, the flower representing the lake and the -stem Culebra Cut. The surface of the water in this lake is normally 85 -feet higher than the surface of the water seaward from Gatun and -Miraflores. The lake is entirely fresh water supplied by the Chagres -River. The accompanying figure shows the profile of the canal. - -[Illustration: A PROFILE SECTION OF THE CANAL] - -The Chagres River approaches the canal at approximately right angles -at Gamboa, some 21 miles above Gatun. The lake will be so large that -the river currents will all be absorbed, the water backing far up into -the Chagres, the river depositing its silt before it reaches the canal -proper. - -With the currents thus checked, the Chagres will lose all power to -interfere with the navigation of the canal, although upon the bosom of -its water will travel for a distance of 35 miles all the ships that -pass through the big waterway from Gatun to Miraflores. This fresh -water will serve a useful purpose besides carrying ships over the -backbone of the continent. Barnacles lose their clinging power in -fresh water, and when a ship passes up through the locks from sea -level to lake level and from salt water to fresh, the barnacles that -have clung to the sides and bottom of the vessel through many a -thousand mile of "sky-hooting through the brine" will have their grip -broken and they will drop off helplessly and fall to the bed of the -lake, which, in the course of years, will become barnacle-paved. How -many times in dry-dock this will save can only be surmised, but the -ship that goes through the canal regularly will not have much bother -with barnacles. - -The engineer who worked out the details of the engineering examination -of the dam in 1908 was Caleb M. Saville, who had had experience on -some of the greatest dams in the world. In the first place, the whole -foundation was honeycombed with test borings, and several shafts were -sunk so that the engineers could go down and see for themselves -exactly what was the nature of the material below. There are some -problems in engineering where a decision is so close between safety -and danger that none but an engineer can decide them. But Gatun Dam -could speak for itself and in the layman's tongue. - -After investigating the site and getting such conclusive evidence that -the proverbial wayfaring man might understand it the engineers next -conducted a series of experiments to determine whether or not the -material of which they proposed to build the dam would be watertight. -They wanted to make sure whether enough water would seep through to -carry any of the dam material along with it. The maximum normal depth -of the water is 85 feet. The material it would have to seep through is -nearly a half mile thick. In order to determine how the water would -behave they took some 3 feet of the material and put it in a strong -iron cylinder with water above it and subjected it to a pressure -equivalent to a head of 185 feet of water. Only an occasional drop -came through. If only an occasional drop of clear water gets through 3 -feet of material under a pressure of 185 feet of water, it does not -require a great engineer to determine that there will not be any -seepage through more than a thousand feet of the same material under a -head of only 85 feet. - -And that is only a sample of their seeking after the truth. When they -had gone thus far it was then decided to build a little dam a few -yards long identical in cross section with Gatun Dam. It was built on -the scale of an inch to the foot, by the identical processes with -which it was intended to build the big dam. The result only added -confirmation to the other experiments. With a proportionate head of -water against it, it behaved exactly as they had concluded the big dam -would when completed. Every engineer who has read Saville's report -pronounces it a masterpiece of engineering investigation. It proved -conclusively that the site of the dam is stable, and the dam itself -impervious to seepage. The engineers who visited the Isthmus at the -time with President-elect Taft unanimously agreed that those -investigations removed every trace of doubt. - -[Illustration: LIEUT. COL. W. L. SIBERT THE UPPER LOCKS AT GATUN] - -[Illustration: TORO POINT BREAKWATER] - -The Gatun Dam covers about 288 acres. The material in it weighs nearly -30,000,000 tons. The pressure of the highest part of the dam on the -foundations beneath amounts to many tons per square foot. The old -bugaboo about earthquakes throwing it down is a danger that exists -only in the minds of those who see ghosts. Some of the biggest -earth dams in the world are located in California. The Contra Costa -Water Company's dam at San Leandro is 120 feet high and not nearly so -immense in its proportions as Gatun Dam, yet it weathered the San -Francisco earthquake without difficulty. In Panama City there is an -old flat arch that once was a part of a church. It looks as though one -might throw it down with a golf stick, and yet it has stood there for -several centuries. As a matter of fact, Panama is out of the line of -earthquakes and volcanoes, but even if shocks much worse than those at -San Francisco were to come, there is no reason to fear for the safety -of the big structure. - -The lack of knowledge of some of those who in years past criticized -the Gatun Dam was illustrated by an amusing incident that occurred at -a senatorial hearing on the Isthmus. Philander C. Knox, afterwards -Secretary of State, was then a Senator and a member of the committee -which went to the Isthmus. Another Senator in the party had grave -doubts about the stability of Gatun Dam, and asked Colonel Goethals to -explain how a dam could hold in check such an immense body of water. -Colonel Goethals, in his usual lucid way, explained that it was -because of that well-known principle of physics that the outward -pressure of water is determined by its depth and not by its -volume--that a column of water 10 feet high and a foot thick would -have just as much outward pressure as a lake 200 square miles in -extent and 10 feet deep. Still unconvinced, the Senator pressed his -examination further. At this juncture Senator Knox, who is a past -master at the art of answering a question with a question, interposed, -and asked his colleague: "Senator, if your theory holds good, how is -it that the dikes of Holland hold in check the Atlantic Ocean?" - - - - -CHAPTER IV - -THE LOCKS - - -Ships that pass Panama way will climb up and down a titanic marine -stairway, three steps up into Gatun Lake and three steps down again. -These steps are the 12 huge locks in which will center the operating -features of the Isthmian waterway. The building of these locks -represents the greatest use of concrete ever undertaken. The amount -used would be sufficient to build of concrete a row of six-room -houses, reaching from New York to Norfolk, via Philadelphia, -Baltimore, Washington and Richmond--houses enough to provide homes for -a population as large as that of Indianapolis. - -The total length of the locks and their accessories, including the -guide walls, approximates 2 miles. The length of the six locks through -which a ship passes on its voyage from one ocean to the other is a -little less than 7,000 feet. - -If one who has never seen a lock canal is to get a proper idea of what -part the locks play in the Panama Canal, he must follow attentively -while we make an imaginary journey through the canal on a ship that -has just come down from New York. Approaching the Atlantic entrance -from the north, we pass the end of the great man-made peninsula, -jutting out 11,000 feet into the bay known as Toro Point Breakwater. -It was built to protect the entrance of the canal, the harbor, and -anchorages from the violent storms that sweep down from the north over -that region. Omitting our stops for the payment of tolls, the securing -of supplies, etc., we steam directly in through a great ditch 500 feet -wide and 41 feet deep, which simply permits the ocean to come inland 7 -miles to Gatun. When we arrive there we find that our chance to go -farther is at an end unless we have some means of getting up into the -beautiful lake whose surface is 85 feet above us. Here is where the -locks come to our rescue. They will not only give us one lift, but -three. - -When we approach the locks we find a great central pier jutting out -into the sea-level channel. If our navigating officers know their duty -they will run up alongside of this guide wall and tie up to it. If -they do not they will run the ship's nose into a giant chain, with -links made of 3-inch iron, that is guaranteed to bring a 1,000-ton -ship, going at the rate of 5 knots per hour, to a dead standstill in -70 feet. When we are once safely alongside the guide wall, four quiet, -but powerful locomotives, run by electricity, come out and take charge -of our ship. Two of them get before it to pull us forward, and two -behind it to hold us back. Then the great chain, which effectively -would have barred us from going into the locks under our own steam, or -from colliding with the lock gates, is let down and we begin to move -into the first lock. - -Starting at the sea-level channel, the first, second, and third gates -are opened and our ship towed into the first lock. Then the second -and third gates are closed again, and the lock filled with water, by -gravity, raising the ship at the rate of about 2 feet a minute, -although, if there is a great rush of business, it may be filled at -the rate of 3 feet a minute. When the water in this lock reaches the -level of the water in the lock above, gates four and five are opened, -and we are towed in. Then gate four is closed again, and water is let -into this lock until it reaches the level of the third one. Gates six, -seven, and eight are next opened, and we are towed into the upper -lock. Gates six and seven are now closed, and the water allowed to -fill the third lock until we are up to the level of Gatun Lake. Then -gates nine and ten are opened, the emergency dam is swung from athwart -the channel, if it happens to be in that position, the fender chain -like the one encountered when we entered the first lock, and like the -ones which protect gates seven and eight, is let down, the towing -engines turn us loose, and we resume our journey, with 32 miles of -clear sailing, until we reach Pedro Miguel. Here, by a reverse -process, we are dropped down 30-1/3 feet. Then we go on to Miraflores, -a mile and a half away, where we are lifted down 54-2/3 feet in two -more lifts. This brings us back to sea level again, where we meet the -waters of the Pacific, and steam out upon it through a channel 500 -feet wide and 8 miles long. - -Having learned something of the part the locks play in getting us -across the Isthmus, by helping us up out of one ocean into Gatun Lake -and then dropping down into the other ocean, it will be interesting to -note something of the mechanism. A very good idea of how a lock looks -may be gathered from the accompanying bird's-eye view of the model of -Pedro Miguel Lock. - -[Illustration: FROM A MODEL OF PEDRO MIGUEL LOCK] - -It will be seen that there are two of them side by side--twin locks, -they are called, making them like a double-track railway. The lock on -the right is nearly filled for an upward passage. The ship will be -seen in it, held in position by the four towing engines, which appear -only as tiny specks hitched to hawsers from the stem and stern. Behind -the ship are the downstream gates. They were first opened to admit the -ship, and then closed to impound the water that flows up through the -bottom of the lock. Ahead are the upstream gates, closed also until -the water in the lock is brought up to the level of the water in the -lake. Then the gates will be opened, the big chain fender will be -dropped down, and the ship will be towed out into the lake and turned -loose. On the side wall of the right lock there is a big bridge set on -a pivot so that it can be swung around across the lock and girders let -down from it to serve as a foundation upon which to lay a steel dam if -anything happens to the locks or gates. On the other lock the bridge -has been swung into position, and the steel girders let down. Great -steel sheets will be let down on live roller bearings on these -girders, and when all are in place they will form a watertight dam of -steel. Between this bridge and the reader is a huge floating tank of -steel, which may be used to dam all the water out of the locks when -that is desired. - -Referring to the next figure we see a cross section of the twin locks. -The side walls are from 45 to 50 feet thick at the floor. At a point -24-1/3 feet above the floor they begin to narrow by a series of 6-foot -steps until they are 8 feet wide at the top. The middle wall is 60 -feet wide all the way up, although at a point 42-1/2 feet above the -lock floor room is made for a filling of earth and for a three-story -tunnel, the top story being used as a passageway for the operators, -the second story as a conduit for electric wires, and the lower story -as a drainage system. - -[Illustration: A CROSS-SECTION OF LOCKS, GIVING AN IDEA OF THEIR -SIZE] - -In this figure D and G are the big 18-foot culverts through which -water is admitted from the lake to the locks. Each of these three big -culverts, which are nearly 7,000 feet long, is large enough to -accommodate a modern express train, and is about the size of the -Pennsylvania tubes under the Hudson and East Rivers. H represents the -culverts extending across the lock from the big ones. Each of them is -big enough to accommodate a two-horse wagon, and there are 14 in each -lock. Every alternate one leads from the side wall culvert and the -others from the center wall culvert. F represents the wells that lead -up through the floor into the lock, each larger in diameter than a -sugar barrel in girth. There are five wells on each cross culvert, or -70 in the floor of each lock. - -[Illustration: CONCRETE MIXERS, GATUN] - -[Illustration: A CENTER WALL CULVERT, GATUN LOCKS] - -[Illustration: THE MACHINERY FOR MOVING A LOCK GATE] - -The flow of the water into the locks and out again is controlled by -great valves. The ones which control the great wall tunnels or -culverts are called Stoney Gate valves, and operate something like -giant windows in frames. They are mounted on roller bearings to make -them work without friction. The others are ordinary cylindrical -valves, but, having to close a culvert large enough to permit a -two-horse team to be driven through it, they must be of great size. -When a ship is passing from Gatun Lake down to the Atlantic Ocean, the -water in the upper lock is brought up to the level of that in the -lake, being admitted through the big wall culverts, whence it passes -out through the 14 cross culverts and up into the locks through the 70 -wells in the floor. Then the ship is towed in, the gates are shut -behind it, the valves are closed against the water in the lake, the -ones permitting the escape of this water into the lock below are -opened, and it continues to flow out of the upper lock into the lower -one until the water in the two has the same level. Then the gates -between the two locks are opened, the ship is towed into the second -one and the operation is repeated for the last lock in the same way. - -The gates of the locks are an interesting feature. Their total weight -is about 58,000 tons. There are 46 of them, each having two leaves. -Their weight varies from 300 to 600 tons per leaf, dependent upon the -varying height of the different gates. The lowest ones are 47 feet -high and the highest ones 82 feet, their height depending upon the -place where they are used. Some of these are known as intermediate -gates, and are used for short ships, when it is desired to economize -on both water and time. They divide each lock chamber into two smaller -chambers of 350 and 550 feet, respectively. Perhaps 90 per cent of all -the ships that pass Panama will not need to use the full length -lock--1,000 feet. Duplicate gates will always be kept on the ground as -a precaution against accident. Each leaf is 65 feet wide and 7 feet -thick. The heaviest single piece of steel in each one of them is the -lower sill, weighing 18 tons. It requires 6,000,000 rivets to put them -together. In the lower part of each gate is a huge tank. When it is -desired that the gate shall have buoyancy, as when operating it, this -tank will be filled with air. When closed it is filled with water. The -gates are opened and closed by a huge arm, or strut, one end of which -is connected to the gate and the other to a huge wheel in the manner -of the connecting rod to the driver of a locomotive. Leakage through -the space between the gate and the miter sill on the floor of the lock -is prevented by a seal which consists of heavy timbers with flaps of -rubber 4 inches wide and half an inch thick. A special sealing device -brings the edges of the two leaves of a gate together and holds them -firmly while the gates are closed. - -Remembering that these gates are nothing more than Brobdingnagian -double doors which close in the shape of a flattened V, it follows -that they must have hinges. And these hinges are worth going miles to -see. That part which fastens to the wall of the lock weighs 36,752 -pounds in the case of the operating gates, and 38,476 pounds in the -protection gates. These latter are placed in pairs with the operating -gates at all danger points--so that if one set of gates are rammed -down, another pair will still be in position. The part of the hinge -attached to the gate was made according to specifications which -required that it should stand a strain of 40,000 pounds before -stretching at all, and 70,000 pounds before breaking. Put into a huge -testing machine, it actually stood a strain of 3,300,000 pounds before -breaking--seven times as great as any stress it will ever be called -upon to bear. The gates are all painted a lead gray, to match the -ships of the American Navy. Those which come into contact with sea -water will be treated with a barnacle-proof preparation. - -Now that we have described the locks, we may go back and see them in -course of construction. The first task was getting the lock building -plant designed and built. At Gatun the plant consisted of a series of -immense cableways, an electric railroad, and enormous concrete mixers. -Great towers were erected on either side of the area excavated for the -locks, with giant cables connecting them. These towers were 85 feet -high, and were mounted on tracks like steam shovels, so that they -could be moved forward as the work progressed. The cables connecting -them were of 2-1/2-inch lock steel wire covered with interlocking -strands. They were guaranteed to carry 6 tons at a trip, 20 trips an -hour, and to carry 60,000 loads before giving way. They actually did -better than the specifications called for as far as endurance was -concerned. - -The sand for making the concrete for Gatun came from Nombre de Dios -(Spanish for Name of God), and the gravel from Porto Bello. The sand -and gravel were towed in great barges, first through the old French -Canal, and later through the Atlantic entrance of the present canal. -Great clamshell buckets on the Lidgerwood cableways would swoop down -upon the barges, get 2 cubic yards of material at a mouthful, lift it -up to the cable, carry it across to the storage piles and there dump -it. In this way more than 2,000,000 wagon loads of sand and gravel -were handled. - -A special equipment was required to haul the sand, gravel, and cement -from the storage piles to the concrete mixers. There were two circular -railroads of 24-inch gauge, carrying little electric cars that ran -without motormen. Each car was stopped, started, or reversed by a -switch attached to the car. Their speed never varied more than 10 per -cent whether they were going empty or loaded, up hill or down. When a -car was going down hill its motor was reversed into a generator so -that it helped make electricity to pull some other car up the hill. -The cars ran into a little tunnel, where each was given its proper -load of one part cement, three parts sand, and six parts gravel--2 -cubic yards, in all--and was then hurried on to the big concrete -mixers. These were so arranged in a series that it was not necessary -to stop them to receive the sand, gravel, and cement, or to dump out -the concrete. - -On the emptying sides of the concrete mixers there were other little -electric railway tracks. Here there were little trains of a motor and -two cars each, with a motorman. The train, with two big 2-cubic-yard -buckets, drew up alongside two concrete mixers. Without stopping their -endless revolutions the mixers tilted and poured out their contents -into the two buckets, 2 yards in each. Then the little train hurried -away, stopping under a great cable. Across from above the lock walls -came two empty buckets, carried on pulleys on the cableway. When they -reached a point over the train they descended and were set on the -cars, behind the full buckets. The full buckets were then attached to -the lifting hooks, and were carried up to the cable and then across to -the lock walls, where they were dumped and the concrete spread out by -a force of men. Meanwhile the train hustled off with its two empty -buckets, ready to be loaded again. - -On the Pacific side the concrete handling plant was somewhat -different. Instead of cableways there were great cantilever cranes -built of structural steel. Some of these were in the shape of a giant -T, while others looked like two T's fastened together. Here the -clamshell dippers were run out on the arms of the cranes to the -storage piles, where they picked up their loads of material. This was -put in hoppers large enough to store material for 10 cubic yards. The -sand and stone then passed through measuring hoppers and to the mixers -with cement and water added. After it was mixed it was dumped into big -buckets on little cars drawn by baby steam locomotives, which looked -like overgrown toy engines. These little fellows reminded one of a lot -of busy bees as they dashed about here and there with their loads of -concrete, choo-chooing as majestically as the great dirt train engines -which passed back and forth hard by. The cranes would take their -filled buckets and leave empty ones in exchange, and this was kept up -day in and day out until the locks were completed. When the plant was -removed from Pedro Miguel to Miraflores, a large part of the concrete -was handled directly from the mixers to the walls by the cranes -without the intermediary locomotive service. - -The cost of the construction of the locks was estimated in 1908 at -upward of $57,000,000. But economy in the handling of the material and -efficiency on the part of the lock builders cut the actual cost far -below that figure. On the Atlantic side about a dollar was saved on -every yard of concrete laid--about $2,000,000. On the Pacific side -more than twice as much was saved. - -Before the locks could be built it became necessary to excavate down -to bed rock. This required the removal of nearly 5,000,000 cubic yards -of material at Gatun. Then extensive tests were made to make certain -that the floor of the locks could be anchored safely to the rock. -These tests demonstrated that by using the old steel rails that were -left on the Isthmus by the French, the concrete and rock could be tied -together so firmly as to defy the ravages of water and time. A huge -apron of concrete was built out into Gatun Lake from the upper locks -at that place, effectively preventing any water from getting between -the rocks and the concrete lying upon them. - - - - -CHAPTER V - -THE LOCK MACHINERY - - -One of the problems that had to be solved before the Panama Canal -could be presented to the American people as a finished waterway, was -that of equipping it with adequate and dependable machinery for its -operation. Panama canals are not built every year, so it was not a -matter of ordering equipment from stock; everything had to be invented -and designed for the particular requirement it was necessary to meet. -And the first and foremost requirement was safety. When we look over -the canal machinery we see that word "safety" written in every bolt, -in every wheel, in every casting, in every machine. We see it in the -devices designed for protection and in those designed for operation as -well. We see it in the giant chain that will stop a vessel before it -can ram a gate; we see it in the great cantilever pivot bridges that -support the emergency dams; we see it in the double lock gates at all -exposed points; we see it in the electric towing apparatus, in the -limit switches that will automatically stop a machine when the -operator is not attending to his business, in the friction clutches -that will slip before the breaking point is reached. Safety, safety, -safety, the word is written everywhere. - -The first thing a ship encounters when it approaches the locks is the -giant chain stretched across its path. That chain is made of links of -3 inches in diameter. When in normal position it is stretched across -the locks, and the vessel which does not stop as soon as it should -will ram its nose into the chain. There is a hydraulic paying-out -arrangement at both ends of the chain, and when the pressure against -it reaches a hundred gross tons the chain will begin to pay out and -gradually bring the offending vessel to a stop. After a ship strikes -the chain its momentum will be gradually reduced, its energy being -absorbed by the chain mechanism. While the pressure at which the chain -will begin to yield is fixed at 100 gross tons, the pressure required -to break it is 262 tons. Thus the actual stress it can bear is two and -a half times what it will be called upon to meet. The mechanism by -which the paying-out of the chain is accomplished is exceedingly -ingenious. The principle is practically the reverse of that of a -hydraulic jack. The two ends of the 428-foot chain are attached to big -plungers in the two walls of the locks. These plungers fit in large -cylinders, which contain broad surfaces of water. They are connected -with very small openings, which are kept closed until a pressure of -750 pounds to the square inch is exerted against them. By means of a -resistance valve these openings are then made available, the water -shooting out as through a nozzle under high pressure. This permits the -chain plunger to rise gradually, while keeping the tension at 750 -pounds to the inch, and the paying-out of the chain proceeds -accordingly. Of course not all ships will strike the chain at the -same speed, and in some cases the paying-out process will have to be -more rapid than in others. This is provided for by the automatic -enlargement of the hole through which the water is discharged, the -size of the hole again becoming smaller as the tension of the chain -decreases. This chain fender will stop the _Olympic_ with full load, -when going a mile and a half an hour, bringing it to a dead standstill -within 70 feet, or it will stop an ordinary 10,000-ton ship in the -same distance even if it have a speed of 5 miles. The function of the -resistance valve is to prevent the chain from beginning to pay out -until the stress against it goes up to 100 tons, and to regulate the -paying-out so as to keep it constant at that point, so long as there -is necessity for paying-out. Any pressure of less than a hundred tons -will not put the paying-out mechanism into operation. - -When a ship is to be put through the locks the chain will be let down -into great grooves in the floor of the lock. There is a fixed plunger -operating within a cylinder, which, in turn, operates within another -cylinder, the resulting movement, by a system of pulleys, being made -to pay out or pull in 4 feet of chain for every foot the plunger -travels. The chain must be raised or lowered in one minute, and always -will have to be lowered to permit the passage of a ship. The fender -machines are situated in pits in the lock walls. These pits are likely -to get filled with water from drippings, leakages, wave action, and -drainage, so they are protected with automatic pumps. Float valves are -lifted when the water rises in the pits. This automatically moves the -switch controlling an electric motor, which starts a pump to working -whenever the water gets within 1 inch of the top of the sump beneath -the floor of the pit. Twenty-four of these chain fenders are required -for the protection of the locks, and each requires two such tension -machines. - -No ship will be allowed to go through the canal except under the -control of a canal pilot. He will certainly bring it to a stop at the -approach wall. But if he does not, there is the chain fender. There is -not a chance in a thousand for a collision with it, and not a chance -in a hundred thousand that the ship will not be stopped when there is -such a collision. - -But if the pilot should fail to stop the ship, and it should collide -with the fender chain, and then if the fender chain should fail to -stop it, there would be the double gates at the head of the lock. -There is not one chance in a hundred that a ship, checked as it -inevitably would be by the fender chain, could ram down the first, or -safety gate. But if it did, there would still be another set of gates -some 70 feet away. The chances here might be one in a hundred of the -second set being rammed down. From all this it will be seen that the -chances of the second pair of gates being rammed is so remote as to be -almost without the realm of possibility. But suppose all these -precautions should fail, and suddenly the way should be opened for the -water of Gatun Lake to rush through the locks at the destructive speed -of 20 miles an hour? Even that day has been provided against by the -construction of the big emergency dams. The emergency dams, like the -fender chains, are designed only for protection, and have no other use -in the operation of the locks. There will be six of these dams, one -across each of the head locks at Gatun, Pedro Miguel, and Miraflores. - -These emergency dams will be mounted on pivots on the side walls of -the locks about 200 feet above the upper gates. When not in use they -will rest on the side wall and parallel with it. When in use they will -be swung across the locks, by electric machinery or by hand, and there -rigidly wedged in. It will require two minutes to get them in position -by electricity and 30 minutes by hand. There is a motor for driving -the wedges which will hold the dam securely in position, and limit -switches to prevent the dams being moved too far. - -When a bridge is put into position across the lock, a series of wicket -girders which are attached to the upstream side of the floor of the -bridge are let down into the water, the connection between the bridge -and one end of each girder being made by an elbow joint. The other end -goes down into the water, its motion being controlled by a cable -attached some distance from the free end of the girder and paid out or -drawn in over an electrically operated drum. This free end passes down -until it engages a big iron casting embedded in the concrete of the -lock floor. This makes a sort of inclined railway at an angle of about -30 degrees from the perpendicular, over which huge steel plates are -let down into the water. There are six of these girders, and they are -all made of the finest nickel steel. When they are all in position, a -row of six plates are let down, and they make the stream going -through the locks several feet shallower. Then another row of plates -is let down on these, and the stream becomes that much shallower. -Another row of plates is added, and then another, until there is a -solid sheet of steel plates resting on the six girders, and they make -a complete steel dam which effectively arrests the mad impulse of the -water in Gatun Lake to rush down into the sea. The plates are moved up -and down by electrical machinery, and are mounted on roller-bearing -wheels, so that the tremendous friction caused by their being pressed -against the girders by the great force of the water may be overcome. -That the emergency dams will be effective is shown by the experience -at the "Soo" locks, on the canal connecting Lakes Superior and Huron. -There, a vessel operating under its own power, rammed a lock gate. -Although the emergency dam had grown so rusty by disuse that it could -be operated only by hand, it was swung across the lock and effectively -fulfilled its mission of checking the maddened flow of the water. - -Another protective device for the locks is the big caisson gates that -will be floated across the head and tail bays when it is desired to -remove all the water from the locks for the purpose of permitting the -lower guard gates to be examined, cleaned, painted, or repaired, and -for allowing the sills of the emergency dams to be examined in the -dry. The caisson gates are 112-1/2 feet long, 36 feet beam, and have a -light draft of 32 feet and a heavy draft of 61 feet. When one is -floated into position to close the lock, water will be admitted to -make it sink to the proper depth. Then its large centrifugal pumps, -driven by electric motors, will pump the water out of the lock. When -the work on the lock is completed these pumps will pump the water out -of the caisson itself until it becomes buoyant enough to resume its -light draft, after which it will be floated away. - -The machinery for opening and closing the lock gates called for -unusual care in its designing. The existing types of gate-operating -machinery were all studied, and it was found that none of them could -be depended on to prove satisfactory, so special machines had to be -designed. - -A great wheel, resembling a drive wheel of a locomotive, except that a -little over half of the rim is cog-geared, is mounted in a horizontal -position on a big plate, planted firmly in the concrete of the wall -and bolted there with huge bolts 11 feet long and 2-1/4 inches in -diameter. This plate weighs over 13,000 pounds, and the wheel, cast in -two pieces, weighs 34,000 pounds. As the weight of the rim of the -wheel on the eight spokes probably would tax their strength too much -when the wheel is under stress, this is obviated by four bearing -wheels, perpendicular to the big wheel, which support the rim. Between -the crank pin and the point of attachment on the gate leaf there is a -long arm, or strut, designed to bear an operating strain of nearly a -hundred tons. The wheel will be revolved by a motor geared to the -cogged part of the rim. - -An ingenious arrangement of electric switches is that used to protect -the gate-moving machines from harm. The big connecting rod between the -master wheel and the gate leaf is attached to the gate leaf by a nest -of springs capable of sustaining a pressure of 184,000 pounds, in -addition to the fixed pressure of 60,000 pounds. Should any -obstruction interfere with the closing of the gate and threaten a -dangerous pressure on the connecting rod, the springs, as soon as they -reach their full compression, establish an electrical contact and thus -stop the motor. Likewise, should any obstruction come against the gate -as the connecting rod is pulling it open, the springs again permit the -establishment of an electrical contact and stop the motor. All of -these precautions are entirely independent of and supplemental to the -limit switches, which cut off the power from the gate-moving machine -should the strain reach the danger line. These big machines move the -huge gate leaves without the slightest noise or vibration. Such a -machine is required for each of the 92 leaves used in the 46 gates -with which the locks are equipped. The operator can open or close one -of these big gates in two minutes. - -[Illustration: ONE OF THE 92 GATE-LEAF MASTER WHEELS] - -The control of the water in the culverts of the locks is taken care of -by an ingeniously designed series of valves. The big wall culverts, 18 -feet in diameter, are divided into two sections at the points where -the valves are installed, by the construction of a perpendicular pier. -This makes two openings 8 by 18 feet. The big gates of steel are -placed in frames to close these openings just as a window sash is -placed in its frame. They are mounted on roller bearings, so as to -overcome the friction caused by the pressure of water against the -valve gates. They must be mounted so that there is not more than a -fourth of an inch play in any direction. The big wall culvert gates -will weigh about 10 tons each, and must be capable of operating under -a head of more than 60 feet of water. They will be raised and lowered -by electricity. - -The electric locomotives which will be used to tow ships through the -locks are one of the interesting features of the equipment. There will -be 40 of them on the 3 sets of locks. The average ship will require -four of them, two at the bow and two at the stern, to draw it through -the locks. They will run on tracks on the lock walls, and will have -two sets of wheels. One set will be cogged, and will be used when the -locomotives are engaged in towing. The other set will be pressed into -service when they are running light. When a vessel is in one lock -waiting for the water to be equalized with that in the next one and -the gates opened to permit passage, the forward locomotives will run -free up the incline to the lock wall above, paying out hawser as they -go. When they get to the next higher level they are ready to exert -their maximum pull. Each locomotive consists of three parts: two -motors hitched together, and the tandem may be operated from either -end. The third part is a big winding drum around which the great -hawsers are wound. This towing windlass permits the line to be paid -out or pulled in and the distance between the ship and the locomotives -varied at will. The locomotive may thus exert its pull or relax it -while standing still on the track, a provision especially valuable in -bringing ships to rest. In the main, however, the pull of the -locomotive is exercised by its running on the semi-suppressed rack -track anchored in the coping of the lock walls. Each flight of locks -will be provided with two towing tracks, one on the side and one on -the center wall. Each wall will be equipped with a return track of -ordinary rails, so that when a set of locomotives has finished towing -a ship through the locks they can be switched over from these tracks -and hustled back for another job. When they reach the inclines from -one lock to the next above the rack track will be pressed into service -again until they reach the next level stretch. - -Here again one meets the familiar safeguard against accident. Some -engineer of one of these towing locomotives might sometime overload -it, so the power of doing so has been taken out of his hands. On the -windlass or drum that holds the towing hawser there is a friction -coupling. If the engineer should attempt to overload his engine, or if -for any other reason there should suddenly come upon the locomotive a -greater strain than it could bear, or upon the track, or upon the -hawser, the friction clutch would let loose at its appointed tension -of 25,000 pounds, and all danger would be averted. - -When the locomotives are towing a ship from the walls it is natural -that there should be a side pull on the hawser. This is overcome by -wheels that run against the side of the track and are mounted -horizontally. All of the towing tracks extend out on the approach -walls of the locks so that the locomotives can get out far enough to -take charge of a ship before it gets close enough to do the locks any -damage. - -[Illustration: A _Mauretania_ IN THE LOCKS] - -From the foregoing it will be seen that a great deal of electric -current will be required in the operation of the locks. This will be -generated at a big station at Gatun, with a smaller one at Miraflores, -and they will be connected. The overflow water will be used for -generating the required current, and in addition to the operation of -the lock machinery it will operate the spillway gates, furnish the -necessary lighting current, and eventually it may furnish the power -for an electrified Panama Railroad. - -In passing a ship through the canal it will be necessary to open and -close 23 lock gates, of an aggregate weight of more than 25,000 tons, -to lower and raise 12 fender chains, each weighing 24,000 pounds, and -to shut and open dozens of great valves, each of which weighs tons. -All these operations at each set of locks will be controlled by one -man, at a central switchboard. In addition to these operations there -is the towing apparatus. The arrangement at Gatun is typical; there 4 -fender chains must be operated, 6 pairs of miter gates, and 46 valves. -In all not less than 98 motors will be set in motion twice, and -sometimes this number may be increased to 143. Some of them are more -than half a mile away from the operator, and half of them are nearly a -quarter of a mile away. - -The operator in his control house will be high enough to have an -uninterrupted view of the whole flight of locks over which he has -command. His control board will consist of a representation of the -locks his switches control. On his model he will see the rise and fall -of the fender chains as he operates them, the movement of the big lock -gates as they swing open or shut, the opening and closing of the -valves which regulate the water in the culverts, and the rise and fall -of the water in the locks. - -A system of interlocked levers will prevent him from doing the wrong -thing in handling his switches. Before he can open the valves at one -end of a lock he must close those at the other end. Before he can -open the lock gates, the valves in the culverts must be set so that no -harm can result. Before he can start to open a lock gate, he must -first have released the miter-forcing machine that latches the gates. -Before he can close the gates protected by a fender chain, he must -first have thrown the switch to bring the fender chain back to its -protecting position, and he can not throw the switch to lower the -chain until he first has provided for the opening of the gate it -protects. All of this interlocking system makes it next to impossible -to err, and taking into consideration the additional safeguard of -limit switches, which automatically cut off the power when anything -goes wrong, it will be seen that the personal equation is all but -removed from the situation. - - - - -CHAPTER VI - -CULEBRA CUT - - -Culebra Cut! Here the barrier of the continental divide resisted to -the utmost the attacks of the canal army; here disturbed and outraged -Nature conspired with gross mountain mass to make the defense stronger -and stronger; here was the mountain that must be moved. Here came the -French, jauntily confident, to dig a narrow channel that would let -their ships go through. The mountain was the victor. And then here -came the Americans, confident but not jaunty. They weighed that mass, -laid out the lines of a wider ditch, arranged complicated -transportation systems to take away the half hundred million cubic -yards of earth and rocks that they had measured. Nature came to the -aid of the beleaguered mountain. The volcanic rocks were piled -helter-skelter and when the ditch deepened the softer strata -underneath refused to bear the burden and the slides, slowly and like -glaciers, crept out into the ditch, burying shovels and sweeping aside -the railway tracks. Even the bottom of the canal bulged up under the -added stress of the heavier strata above. - -Grim, now, but still confident, the attackers fought on. The mountain -was defeated. - -Now stretches a man-made canyon across the backbone of the continent; -now lies a channel for ships through the barrier; now is found what -Columbus sought in vain--the gate through the west to the east. Men -call it Culebra Cut. - -Nine miles long, its average depth is 120 feet. At places its sides -tower nearly 500 feet above its channel bottom, which is nowhere -narrower than 300 feet. - -It is the greatest single trophy of the triumph of man over the -terrestrial arrangement of his world. Compared to it, the scooping out -of the sand levels of Suez seems but child's play--the tunnels of -Hoosac and Simplon but the sport of boys. It is majestic. It is awful. -It is the Canal. - -When estimates for digging the canal were made, it was calculated that -53,000,000 cubic yards of material would have to be removed from the -cut, and that under the most favorable conditions it would require -eight and a half years to complete the work. But at that time no one -had the remotest idea of the actual difficulties that would beset the -canal builders; no one dreamed of the avalanches of material that -would slide into the cut. - -One can in no way get a better idea of the meaning of the slides and -breaks in Culebra Cut than to refer to the accompanying figure. There -it will be seen that whereas it was originally planned that the top -width of the cut at one point should be 670 feet, it has grown wider, -because of slides and breaks, to as much as 1,800 feet at one place. -In all, some 25,000,000 cubic yards of material which should have -remained outside the canal prism slipped into it and had to be -removed by the steam shovels. - -[Illustration: THE EFFECT OF SLIDES] - -No less than 26 slides and breaks were encountered in the construction -of Culebra Cut, their total area being 225 acres. The largest covered -75, and another 47 acres. When the slides, which were more like -earthen glaciers than avalanches, began to flow into the big ditch, -sometimes steam shovels were buried, sometimes railroad tracks were -caught beneath the debris, and sometimes even the bottom of the cut -itself began to bulge and disarrange the entire transportation system, -at the same time interfering with the compressed air and water -supplies. But with all these trials and tribulations, the army that -was trying to conquer the eternal hills that had refused passage to -the ships of the world for so many centuries, kept up its courage and -renewed its attack. The result is that ships sail through Culebra and -that engineers everywhere have new records of efficiency to inspire -them. - -These efficiency records are told in the cost-keeping reports based -upon one of the most careful and thorough cost-accounting systems ever -devised. This system was instituted for the purpose of keeping a check -upon all expenditures by reducing everything to a unit basis and then -comparing the cost of doing the same thing at different places. For -instance, if it were found that it cost more to excavate a cubic yard -of material at one place than at another, under identical conditions, -this fact was brought to the attention of the men responsible and an -intimation given that there seemed to be room for taking up a little -lost motion. The lost motion usually was recovered or else someone had -to be satisfied that conditions were not identical after all. - -In no other part of the canal work do these cost-keeping reports tell -such a graphic story as in Culebra Cut. In spite of the fact that as -the cut became deeper it became narrower, and the slides and breaks -became more troublesome, to say nothing of the extra effort required -to get the excavated material out of the cut, every unit cost was -forced down notch by notch and year by year until the bottom in costs -was reached only a little before the actual bottom of the cut was -exposed to view. - -For instance, in 1908 it cost 11-1/2 cents a yard to load material -with steam shovels, while in 1912 it cost less than 7 cents. In 1908 -it cost more than 14 cents a yard for drilling and blasting; in 1912 -it cost less than 12 cents. In 1908 it cost $18.54 to haul away a -hundred yards of spoil; in 1912 it required only $13.31 to perform the -same operation, although the average distance it had to be hauled had -increased 50 per cent. In 1908 it cost more than 13 cents a yard to -dump the material as compared with less than 5 cents in 1912. The -whole operation of excavating and removing the material, including -overhead charges and depreciation, fell from $1.03 a cubic yard in -1908 to less than 55 cents a yard in 1912. And that is why 232,000,000 -cubic yards of material were removed for less than it was estimated -135,000,000 cubic yards would cost. - -To remove the 105,000,000 cubic yards of earth from the backbone of -the Americas required about 6,000,000 pounds of high-grade dynamite -each year to break up the material, so that it might be successfully -attacked by the steam shovels. To prepare the holes for placing the -explosives required the services of 150 well drills, 230 tripod rock -drills, and a large corps of hand drillers. Altogether they drilled -nearly a thousand miles of holes annually. During every working day in -the year about 600 holes were fired. They had an average depth of -about 19 feet. In addition to this a hundred toe holes were fired each -day, and as many more "dobe" blasts placed on top of large boulders to -break them up into loadable sizes. So carefully was the dynamite -handled that during a period of three years, in which time some -19,000,000 pounds were exploded in Culebra Cut, only eight men were -killed. - -[Illustration: STEAM SHOVELS MEETING AT BOTTOM OF CULEBRA CUT - -L. K. ROURKE] - -[Illustration: THE MAN-MADE CANYON AT CULEBRA] - -The transportation of the spoil from Culebra Cut was a tremendous job. -A large percentage of it was hauled out in Lidgerwood flat cars. -Twenty-one cars made up the average Lidgerwood train. It required -about 140 locomotives to take care of the spoil, and the average day -saw nearly 3,700 cars loaded and hauled out of the cut. In a single -year 1,116,286 carloads of material were hauled out. There were 75 -trains in constant operation, for each 2-1/2 miles of track in the -Central Division, which was approximately 32 miles long. A huge steam -shovel, taking up 5 yards of material at a mouthful, would load one of -these trains in less than an hour with some 400 yards of material. -Then the powerful locomotive attached to it, assisted by a helper -engine, would pull the train out of the cut, and then, unassisted, -would haul it to the dumping ground some 12 miles or more away. - -[Illustration: AVERAGE SHAPE AND DIMENSIONS OF CULEBRA CUT] - -Arriving near the scene of the dump, another engine, having in front -of it a huge horizontal steam windlass mounted on a flat car, was -hooked on the rear end of the train. Then the locomotive which had -brought the train to the dump was uncoupled and moved away, and in its -stead there was attached an empty flat car, on which there was a huge -plow. A long wire cable was stretched from the big windlass at the -other end of the train and attached to this plow. As the drum of the -windlass began to turn it gradually drew the plow forward over the 21 -cars, plowing the material off as it went forward. The cars were -equipped with a high sideboard on one side and had none at all on the -other. A flat surface over which the plow could pass from car to car -was made by hinging a heavy piece of sheet steel to the front end of -each car and allowing it to cover the break between that car and the -next, thus affording a practically continuous car floor over 800 feet -long. The operation of unloading 400 yards of material with this plow -seldom required more than 10 minutes. - -After the plow had finished its work it left a long string of spoil on -one side of the track which must be cleared away. So another plow, -pushed by an engine, attacked the spoil and forced it down the -embankment. This process of unloading and spreading the material was -kept up until the embankment became wide enough to permit the track to -be shifted over. Here another especially designed machine, the track -shifter, was brought into play. It was a sort of derrick mounted on a -flat car, and with it the track shifters were able to pick up a piece -of track and lift it over to the desired position. With this machine a -score of men could do the work that without it would have required a -gang of 600 men. - -In addition to the Lidgerwood dirt trains there were a large number of -trains made up of steel dump cars which were dumped by compressed air, -and still other trains made up of small hand-dumped cars, and each -class found its own peculiar uses. - -As has been said, the problem of digging the big ditch has been one of -the transportation of the spoil, and this has involved numerous -difficulties. In Culebra Cut no little difficulty was experienced in -keeping open enough tracks to afford the necessary room for dirt -trains. Slides came down and forced track after track out of -alignment, burying some of them beyond the hope of usable recovery; -often the very bottom of the cut itself heaved up under the stress of -the heavy weight of faulty strata on the sides of the mountain; and -sometimes the slides and breaks threatened entirely to shut up one end -of the cut. - -In hauling away the spoil one improvement after another was made in -the interest of efficiency. It was found at first that the capacity of -a big Lidgerwood flat car was only about 16 cubic yards, and that with -a sideboard on only one side of the car, the load did not center well -on the car, thus placing an undue strain on the wheels on one side. -The transportation department, therefore, extended the bed of the car -further out over the wheels on the open side, and this served a triple -purpose--it permitted the steam shovels to load the cars so that the -load rested in the center, increased the capacity of each car by about -3 yards, and permitted the unloader plow to throw the spoil further -from the track, thus adding to the efficiency of the dumping -apparatus. - -Frequent breaks in the trains were caused by worn couplers. These -accidents were almost entirely overcome by equipping each train with a -sort of "bridle" which prevented the separation of the cars in the -event of the parting of a defective coupler. In the operation of the -unloader plows it was found that the big cables frequently broke when -a plow would strike an obstruction on the car, and this caused no end -of annoyance and frequent delays. Then someone thought of putting -between the cable and the plow a link whose breaking point was lower -than that of the cable. After that when a plow struck an obstruction -the cable did not part--the link simply gave way, and another was -always at hand. On the big spreaders no less than 51 improvements were -made, each the answer of the engineers to some challenge from the -stubborn material with which they had to contend. - -The major portion of the material excavated from the canal had to be -hauled out and dumped where it was of no further use. From the Central -Division alone, which includes Culebra Cut, upward of a hundred -million cubic yards of material was hauled away and dumped as useless. -At Tabernilla one dump contained nearly 17,000,000 cubic yards. A -great deal of spoil, however, was used to excellent advantage. -Wherever there was swampy ground contiguous to the permanent -settlements it was covered over with material from the cut and brought -up above the water level. Many hundreds of acres were thus converted -from malaria-breeding grounds into high and dry lands. - -During the last stages of the work in Culebra Cut it was found that -some of the slides were so bad that they were breaking back of the -crest of the hills that border the cut. Therefore it was found to be -feasible to attack the problem by sluicing the material down the side -of the hills into the valley beyond. To this end a big hydraulic plant -which had been used on the Pacific end of the canal was brought up and -installed beyond the east bank of the cut. A reservoir of water was -impounded and tremendous pumps installed. They pumped a stream of -water 40 inches in diameter. This was gradually tapered down to a -number of 4-inch nozzles, and out of these spouted streams of water -with a pressure of 80 pounds to the square inch. These streams ate -away the dirt at a rapid rate. - -The slides did not hold up the completion of the canal a minute, at -least to the point of usability. The day that the lock gates were -ready there was water enough in the canal to carry the entire American -navy from ocean to ocean. That day the big dredges from the Atlantic -and the Pacific were brought into the cut, and with them putting the -finishing touches on the slides at the bottom, and the hydraulic -excavators attacking them at the top, the problem of the slides was -solved. - -Viewing Culebra Cut in retrospect, it proved an immensely less -difficult task than some prophesied, and a much more serious one than -others predicted. There were those who opposed the building of the -Panama Canal because of the belief that Culebra Cut could not be dug, -that Culebra Mountain was an effective barrier to human ambition. -Also, there were those who asserted that Gold Hill and Contractor's -Hill were in danger of sliding into the big ditch and that they were -mountains which neither the faith nor the pocketbooks of the Americans -could remove. Others saw the handwriting of Failure on the wall in -the heaving up of the bottom of the cut, interpreting this as a -movement from the very depths of the earth. Still others saw it in the -smoke that issued from fissures in the cut, which spoke to them of -volcanoes being unearthed and told them that the Babel of American -ambitions must totter to the ground. They did not know that these were -only little splotches of decomposing metals suddenly exposed to the -air, any more than their fellow pessimists knew that the heaving up of -the bottom of the cut was due to the pressure of the earth on the -adjacent banks. - -To-day Culebra Mountain bows its lofty head to the genius of the -American engineer and to the courage of the canal army. Through its -vitals there runs a great artificial canyon nearly 9 miles long, 300 -feet wide at its bottom, in places as much as a half mile wide at its -top and nearly 500 feet deep at the deepest point. Out of it there was -taken 105,000,000 cubic yards of material, and at places it cost as -much as $15,000,000 a mile to make the excavations. Through it now -extends a great ribbon of water broad enough to permit the largest -vessels afloat to pass one another under their own power, and deep -enough to carry a ship with a draft beyond anything in the minds of -naval constructors to-day. With towering hills lining it on either -side, with banks that are precipitous here and farflung there, with -great and deep recesses at one place and another telling of the -gigantic breaks and slides with which the men who built it had to -contend, going through Culebra Cut gives to the human heart a thrill -such as the sight of no other work of the human hand can give. Its -magnitude, its awe-inspiring aspect as one navigates the channel -between the two great hills which stand like sentinels above it, and -the memory of the thousands of tons of dynamite, the hundreds of -millions of money and the vast investment of brain and brawn required -in its digging, all conspire to make the wonder greater. It is the -mightiest deed the hand of man has done. - - - - -CHAPTER VII - -ENDS OF THE CANAL - - -While the completed Panama Canal does not wed the two oceans, or -permit their waters to mingle in Gatun Lake, it does bring them a -little closer together. On the Atlantic side a sea-level channel has -been dug from deep water due south to Gatun, a distance of 7 miles. On -the Pacific side a similar channel has been dug from deep water in a -northwesterly direction to Miraflores, a distance of 8 miles. It -follows that 15 of the 50 miles of the canal will be filled with salt -water. The remaining 35 miles will be filled with fresh water supplied -by the Chagres and the lesser rivers of Panama. The task of digging -these sea-level sections was a considerable one and almost every -method of ditch digging that human ingenuity has been able to devise -was employed. Steam shovels, dipper dredges, ladder dredges, -stationary suction dredges, and sea-going suction dredges, all -contributed their share toward bringing the waters of the Atlantic to -Gatun and those of the Pacific to Miraflores. In addition to these -methods, on the Pacific side use was made of the hydraulic process of -excavating soft material, washing it loose with powerful streams of -water and pumping it out with giant pumps. - -[Illustration: THE DISASTROUS EFFECTS OF SLIDES IN CULEBRA CUT] - -[Illustration: W. G. COMBER - -U. S. LADDER DREDGE "COROZAL" AND ONE OF HER MUD BUCKETS] - -As one travels along the Pacific end of the canal he is reminded of -the words of Isaiah: - - "Every valley shall be exalted, and every mountain and hill shall - be made low; and the uneven shall be made level, and the rough - places a plain." - -Hundreds of acres of low, marshy land have been filled up, either with -mud from the suction dredges and the hydraulic excavators, or with -spoil from Culebra Cut. Much of this made land will be valuable for -tropical agriculture, while other parts will never serve any purpose -other than to keep down the marshes. But they afforded a dumping -ground for material taken out of the canal prism, and added something -to the improvement of health and living conditions on the Isthmus. - -Probably the most interesting process of excavation in the sea-level -channels was that of the sea-going suction dredges. These dredges took -out material more cheaply than any other kind of excavating machinery -used on the Isthmus. Two of them were put to work in 1908, about the -time the operations reached full-blast and have been kept in -commission ever since. While it cost as much as $70,000 a year to keep -each one in commission, they were able to maintain an annual average -of about 5,000,000 cubic yards of material excavated at a cost per -yard of 5 cents and even less. With steam shovels it ranged from 10 to -20 times as much per yard. These big dredges were built with great -bins in their holds and equipped with powerful 20-inch centrifugal -pumps. When at work they steamed up and down the channel, sucking up -the mud, and carrying it out to sea. - -Another interesting dredge used was the big ladder dredge Corozal. It -is a great floating dock, as it were, with a huge endless chain -carrying 52 immense, 35-cubic-foot buckets. On the center line -amidships there is a large opening down to the water. The big elevator -framework carrying the endless chain goes down through this and into -the water at a considerable angle. The buckets pass around this, and -as they round the end of it their great steel lips dig down into the -material until filled, then they come up at the rate of three every -five seconds and deposit their burden in a huge hopper which conveys -it to the barge at the side of the dredge. The dredge is anchored fast -at a given place, and keeps on attacking the material beneath it until -the desired level is reached. This dredge, with the sea-going suction -dredges, will be retained as the permanent dredging fleet. The -stationary suction dredges at the two ends of the canal were used to -pump up the soft material and to force it out through long pipe lines -into the swamps or into the hydraulic cores of the earth dams. - -[Illustration: THE _Corozal_ AND ITS METHOD OF ATTACK] - -Several old French ladder dredges were rescued from the jungle and put -into commission at the beginning of the work, and they held out -faithfully to the end, dividing honors with the newer equipment in -hastening the day when the oceans might go inland to Gatun and -Miraflores. While they looked like toys beside such giant excavators -as the Corozal, they probably showed more efficiency than any other -class of excavators of their period of construction. They were -attended by large self-propelling scows built by the French. When -these were filled they steamed out to sea and dumped their burden and -then steamed back again for another load. Some of the dredges were -attended by ordinary barges which were towed out to sea by tugs and -dumped. - -Another interesting machine used on the Pacific end of the canal was -the Lobnitz rock breaker. This consists of a sort of pile driver -mounted on a large barge. Instead of a pile driving weight there is a -big battering ram made of round steel, pointed at one end. It is -lifted up perhaps 10 feet and allowed to drop suddenly. As some of -these rams weigh as much as 25 tons their striking force may be -imagined. When the ram struck the rock the top would shake back and -forth like a bamboo pole, in spite of the fact that it was made of the -best steel and more than 15 inches in diameter. Sooner or later the -rams would break off at the water line, this being due to the fact -that the constant flexion at that point set the molecules in the steel -and took away all its elasticity. - -It was found desirable to excavate a part of the sea-level channel -before the water was let into it. To accomplish this a big dam, or -dike, was built across the channel several miles inland, and steam -shovels were used behind this dike. As the work neared completion, -however, it was found advisable to let the water come further inland, -so that the dredges could extend the field of their activities. To do -this another dike was thrown across the channel about a mile north of -the first one, and water was admitted to the section of the big ditch -between these two dikes. The engineers were afraid to cut a small -ditch in the top of the first dike, and allow the water to eat the dam -away as it flowed in, for fear that it would rush in so rapidly it -would destroy the second dike. Therefore they filled the basin between -the two dikes by siphon and by pumping, a process which required the -drawing in of billions of gallons of water. This was accomplished in -due time, however, and then 16 tons of dynamite was placed in the no -longer useful dike. An electric spark did the rest. - -The distinguishing features of the ends of the canal are the big -breakwaters at Toro Point, at the Atlantic end, and Naos Island, at -the Pacific end. The former extends from the shore out into the sea -for a distance of 2 miles and has a large lighthouse at the seaward -end. It was built by dumping stone from the shore out into the sea, -this process being followed by driving piles into the dumped stone and -building a railroad on the crest, over which the stone was hauled for -its further extension. The top of the breakwater is covered with huge -stones weighing from 8 to 20 tons each, these to make sure that it -will stand against the pounding of the waves. Two minor breakwaters -were also built at the Atlantic end to protect the terminal basin. - -The big dike at Naos Island in the Pacific is more than 17,000 feet -long and transforms the island into the cape of a small peninsula. -There was a threefold purpose in its construction--to cut out the -cross currents that brought thousands of yards of sand and silt into -the canal channel, to afford a dumping place for a large quantity of -the spoil from Culebra Cut, and to make a connection with the mainland -for the fortifications on Naos, Flamenco, and Perico Islands. In -building it the engineers were under the necessity of first building a -trestle on which the spoil trains could be backed and dumped. The -piles had to be driven in soft, blue mud, and as the rock was dumped, -it sank down and down until, at places, ten times as much stone was -required as would have been necessary if the ocean bottom had been -firm. In addition to this thousands of trainloads of material were -dumped in the landward end of the dike, some 20,000,000 cubic yards of -material being thus disposed of. - -The last part of the canal work to be completed will be the terminal -facilities at the ends of the big waterway. At the time this book went -to press they were something more than a year from completion, but the -indications were that they would be finished within the time limit -originally set for the completion of the canal itself. These terminal -facilities consist of dry docks, wharfage space, storehouses, and -everything else necessary to perform any service that might ordinarily -be required for passing ships, whether they be those of commerce or of -war. The main coaling station is to be established at the Atlantic -end. The storehouses, the laundry, the bakery, and the other equipment -of the Isthmian Canal Commission and the Panama Railroad also will be -made a part of the permanent terminal plant on that side of the -Isthmus. - -A large dry dock is being built at the Pacific end having the same -usable dimensions as the canal locks, capable of accommodating any -vessel that can pass through the canal. The principal machine shops -will also be erected there, and a coaling plant of half the capacity -of the one at the Atlantic end will be provided. A little to the east -of the Pacific terminal works will be stationed the capital of the -Canal Zone, where the administrative offices, the governor's -residence, and two new towns will be built. The administration -building, which is to be a three-story structure of concrete, hollow -tile, and structural steel, is to occupy an eminence on the side of -Ancon Hill, which will afford a splendid view of the Pacific -fortifications, the entrance to the canal channel, a part of the port -works, and of the canal itself from the great continental divide to -the Pacific. - -There one may sit and see ships coming into the canal, tying up at the -docks, sailing up the big ditch, and passing through the locks at -Miraflores and Pedro Miguel. Near by will be the permanent home of the -marines who will be stationed on the Isthmus, their barracks and -grounds occupying the broad plateau on the side of Ancon Hill made by -taking out the millions of cubic yards of stone required for the -concrete works on the Pacific side of the Isthmus. Two permanent towns -will be built at Balboa, one for the Americans and the other for the -common laborers. The American town will be built under the capitol -hill on a broad plain that was made by pumping hydraulic material into -a swamp and by dumping spoil from Culebra Cut. - -When the terminal plant at Balboa is completed it will represent -probably the most extensive and adequate port works in the New World. -In addition to the main dry dock it will have a second one which will -be smaller, but which will be large enough to accommodate a majority -of the ships that will pass through the canal. The existing dry dock -at the Atlantic end will be continued in service. - -It is certain that none of these port works will ever fail by reason -of insecure foundations. Wherever unusual loads were to be carried -great piers of reinforced concrete were sent down to solid rock, often -a distance of 60 feet below the surface. They consisted of a hollow -shell of reinforced concrete which was allowed to sink to hardpan of -its own accord or under heavy weight. These shells were built in -sections 6 feet high. The bottom section was 10 feet in diameter, and -the lower end was equipped with a sharp steel shoe. As the section cut -down into the earth of its own weight and that above it, laborers on -the inside removed the material under the shoe and as they did so it -sank further down. The sections above were only 8 feet in diameter, -and did not quite fill up the hole made by the bottom of the section, -thus overcoming all skin friction, and permitting the full weight of -the series of sections to fall on the lower one. A jet of water was -forced around the sinking pier all the time it was going down, and -this made its progress the more easy. At times the weight of the -superimposed sections was sufficient to force the pier down through -the soft mud, while at other times the material became so heavy that -even a 25-ton weight on top of the pier scarcely moved it. At one -place a stratum of material was struck about 25 feet below the surface -which yielded sulphuretted hydrogen gas. This affected the laborers' -eyes, and some of them had to go to the hospital for treatment. The -work of digging out the material was continued until the lower section -reached bed rock, where it was anchored. The sections themselves were -tied together with heavy iron rods. After they were firmly in place -the interior was filled up with concrete, itself reinforced, so that -the foundations became, in reality, a series of huge concrete piles, 8 -feet in diameter, anchored to bed rock. - -The coaling plants at the two terminals will be the crowning features -of the terminal facilities. With an immense storage capacity, and with -every possible facility for the rapid handling of coal, both in -shipping and unshipping it, no other canal in the world will be so -well equipped. The coal storage basin at the Atlantic end will hold -nearly 300,000 tons. This basin will be built of reinforced concrete, -and will permit the flooding of the coal pile so that one-half of it -will be stored under water for war purposes. It is said that -deterioration in coal is not as great in subaqueous storage, and at -the same time the pile is less subject to fire. The plant will be able -to discharge a thousand tons of coal an hour and to load 2,000 tons an -hour. Ships will not go alongside the wharves to be coaled, but will -lie out in the ship basin and be coaled from barges with reloader -outfits. Special efforts have been made to provide for the quick -loading of colliers in case of war. The coal handling plant at the -Pacific entrance will have a normal capacity of 135,000 tons and will -be able to handle half as much coal in a given time as the one at the -Atlantic end. - -There will be big supply depots where ships can get any kind of stores -they need from a few buckets of white lead to an anchor or a hawser; a -laundry in which a ship's wash can be accepted at the hour it begins -its transit of the canal, for delivery by railroad at the other end -before it is ready to resume its ocean journey; an ice plant which -will replenish the cold storage compartments of ships lacking such -facilities. In short, it is proposed to attempt to do everything that -may be done to make more attractive the bid of the canal for its share -of business. - - - - -CHAPTER VIII - -THE PANAMA RAILROAD - - -When the United States acquired the properties of the new French Canal -Company it found itself in the possession of a railroad for which it -had allowed the canal company $7,000,000. This road, in the high tide -of its history, had proved a bonanza for its stockholders, and during -the 43 years between 1855 and 1898 it showed net profits five times as -great as the original cost of its construction. - -When the United States took over the road someone described it as -being merely "two streaks of rust and a right of way." While the -Panama road as acquired by the United States in its purchase of the -assets of the new French Canal Company might have been all that this -phrase implies, it was none the less as great a bargain as was ever -bought by any Government, and probably the greatest bargain ever sold -in the shape of a railroad. It was not the rolling stock that was -valuable, nor yet the road itself; the real value was to be found in -the possibilities of the concession. Not only was this road destined -to render to the United States a service in the building of the Panama -Canal, worth to Uncle Sam a great many times more than its cost, but -it was also destined to yield a net profit from its commercial -operations which in 10 years would amount to double the price paid for -it. Since the Americans took it over it has been yielding net returns -ranging from a million and a quarter to a million and three-quarters -dollars a year. In these 10 years it has brought an aggregate profit -of some $15,000,000 into the coffers of the United States. - -While $7,000,000 may have been a high price, judged from the -standpoint of the physical value of the road, it was a very reasonable -one, indeed, as compared with the price paid for it by the new French -Canal Company. This company, which sold it to the United States for -$7,000,000, paid the Panama Railroad Company $18,000,000 for it 23 -years before. When the French Canal Company decided to undertake the -building of the canal, it found that the Panama Railroad Company held -concessions that were absolutely necessary to the construction of the -canal. The Colombian Government had granted the company the concession -to complete the road in 1849, and had agreed that no other -interoceanic communication should be opened without the consent of the -railroad. This gave to the railroad company the whip hand in trading -with the canal company and it was able to name its own price. - -When the United States wanted to buy the rights and properties of the -new French Canal Company the shoe was on the other foot. There was -only one buyer--the United States; and it could choose between the -Panama and Nicaragua routes. If the United States did not buy the -property its principal value would have been what it was worth as an -uncertain prospect that at some future time a second Isthmian canal -might be built. That is why the United States was able to buy from the -French for $7,000,000 property that they had bought for $18,000,000. - -After the United States acquired possession of the railroad, one -change after another took place--now in the location, now in the -rolling stock, now in directorate, and again in location--until almost -all that remained of the original road was its name. It is now built -almost every foot of the distance on a new location and the permanent -Panama Railroad is a thoroughly modern, well-ballasted, heavy-railed, -block-signal operated line of railway, built along the east bank of -the Panama Canal from the Atlantic to the Pacific. Nearly half of the -old right of way lies on the bottom of Lake Gatun, while the new line -skirts that artificial body of water along its eastern shore, at -places crossing its outlying arms over big bridges and heavy trestles. -The construction of this new line was attended with much difficulty -and probably no other road in the world has such a great percentage of -fills and embankments in proportion to its length. One embankment, a -mile and a quarter long and 82 feet high, required upward of 2,500,000 -yards of material for its construction. The road is built about 10 -feet above the water's edge, and more than 12,000,000 cubic yards of -material was required to make the fills necessary to carry the road -bed at this elevation. - -When the United States took over the French property it was decided -that the canal work and the railroad operations should be maintained -as distinct activities. It was agreed that the Canal Commission -should have the right to haul its dirt trains over the Panama -Railroad, and in compensation therefor the commission undertook to -build a new road to take the place of the old line, which was in the -way of the completion of the canal. - -The work of relocating the road was undertaken early in the -construction of the canal in order that it might be completed by the -time the old road had to be abandoned. It was built at a cost of -approximately $9,000,000, or close to $170,000 a mile. It is -interesting to note that the cost of this thoroughly modern railroad -was only about a million dollars more than the cost of the first -Panama road which has been built with rather less than usual attention -to grades, and with small rails and light bridges. The relocated -Panama Railroad was turned over to the railroad company in 1912. - -How good a bargain the United States secured when it acquired the -Panama Railroad is shown by the fact that during the 10 years of canal -work the net earnings of the railroad company have reimbursed the -United States for the cost of the old road and the construction of the -new one, to say nothing of the invaluable aid rendered in the building -of the canal. - -The relations existing between the Isthmian Canal Commission and the -Panama Railroad Company during the years of the construction of the -canal were somewhat peculiar. The Panama Railroad Company is as much -the property of the United States as the canal itself, yet the books -of the two organizations were kept as carefully separate and distinct -as though they were under entirely different ownership. The Panama -Railroad Company, being a chartered corporation, under the terms of -its ownership could engage in commercial business with all of the -facility of a private corporation. Money received by the Isthmian -Canal Commission from outside sources had to be covered into the -treasury and reappropriated for distinct and special purposes. On the -other hand, the railroad company could use its money over and over -again without turning it back into the treasury. This advantage of -operation was a useful one in conducting the road itself, and also in -the construction of the canal. - -There was another reason which led the canal authorities to advocate -the maintenance of the two organizations as separate entities. This -had to do with the concession rights. Under the terms of the -concession of the railroad company the property was to revert to the -Republic of Colombia in 1967, or at any earlier date should the -company cease to exist as such. While most authorities agree that with -the secession of Panama and the setting up of the new Government all -of Colombia's rights in the railroad company passed with the -territory, and while the treaty between the United States and the -Republic of Panama expressly provides that the United States shall -have "absolute title--free from every present or reversionary interest -or claim" in the railroad, the Republic of Colombia contends that it -possesses some rights with reference to the railroad and, not desiring -to complicate matters, the canal authorities thought it best to live -up to the letter of the treaty, in spite of Panama's express grant of -title free from reversionary interest or claim. - -While it was deemed desirable to have the Panama Railroad operated as -a separate organization, it was equally important that it should be -operated in a way that its interests always would be subordinate to -those of the canal. It was decided that the best way to accomplish -this was to make the chairman and chief engineer of the Canal -Commission the president of the railroad company, and the members of -the commission its directors. The stock of the company is held in the -name of the Secretary of War, with the exception of a few shares held -by the directors to entitle them to membership on the board. There are -also a few directors chosen from other parts of the Government -service, but their activities are purely perfunctory. - -In addition to the railroad, the Panama Railroad Company also operates -a steamship line between New York and Colon. This line was acquired -with other properties of the new French Canal Company as a part of the -Panama Railroad's holdings. There were only a few years during the -construction period when this steamship line did not show a loss. But -the advantages of having a steamship line for carrying the supplies of -the canal were so great, because of the special facilities that could -be provided, that the loss was more than compensated by them. During -the year 1912 the cost of operating this steamship line was $305,000 -greater than the revenues derived from its operation. But, at the same -time there was a return of net earnings by the Panama Railroad of -over $2,000,000, at least a part of which was made possible by the -operation of the steamship line. Even after deducting the losses -sustained in the operation of the steamship company there was a net -profit of more than $1,700,000, which for a railroad of less than 50 -miles in length is no small item. - -As a matter of fact, Government ownership of railways as applied at -Panama is remarkably successful from the standpoint of the Government, -and partially so to the patrons of the railroad. Probably no railroad -in the United States could show net earnings per mile of line anywhere -comparable with those of the Panama Railroad. - -The rates for passengers and baggage across the Isthmus were rather -high for first-class passengers, the fare for the 48-mile trip being -$2.40, or 5 cents a mile. The second-class rate was only half as much. -On the handling of freight the railroad had to divide the through rate -with the steamship companies of the Atlantic and the Pacific, but, -while the rates were high, judged by American standards, and the -percentages of profits very large, the service maintained was so -superior to that encountered on the privately owned railroads of the -Tropics that no one ever seriously complained of the charges. - -One of the most important services rendered by the Panama Railroad -Company in the construction of the canal was in connection with the -commissary. It had more to do with the maintenance of a reasonable -standard of living cost on the Isthmus than anything else. - -When the canal was nearing completion it became advisable to -determine what role the Panama Railroad should play after the -permanent organization went into effect. Should it be continued as a -separate entity distinct from the canal but controlled by the canal -authorities? Or should it be merged into the Canal Government and -operated purely as an auxiliary of the canal with no separate -existence? This matter was carefully weighed by the canal authorities -and the Government at Washington, and it was finally decided that the -best plan would be to operate them as separate entities, but to have -all the work done by single organization. Another question that arose -was whether the Panama Railroad Steamship Line should be operated as a -Government line after the completion of the canal. Recalling the fact -that the line never had been a profitable one, and that there was no -further reason why it should be continued in operation with an annual -deficit, the recommendation was made by the chairman and the chief -engineer that the ships should be disposed of and the line -discontinued. - -As the tide of tourist travel set toward Panama, the serious problem -of taking care of thousands of visitors confronted the canal -authorities. There were times when every available facility for taking -care of lodgers was called into requisition, and still hundreds of -American tourists had to find quarters in cheap, vermin-infested -native hotels at Colon. Believing that the situation demanded a modern -hotel at the Atlantic side of the Isthmus, and having in mind the -success of the Government in the construction and maintenance of the -Tivoli Hotel at the Pacific side, it was decided by the Secretary of -War that the Panama Railroad Company should build a new hotel at -Colon, to be operated by that company for the Government. The result -was the beautiful Washington Hotel, in whose architecture one finds -the world's best example of northern standards of hotel construction -adapted to tropical needs. - -Built of concrete and cement block, it is constructed in a modified -Spanish Mission style that makes it cool and comfortable at all times. -Its public rooms, from the main lobby to the dining-rooms, from the -ladies' parlor to the telephone and cable rooms, from the barber shop -to the billiard room, are large, airy, and most attractively -furnished. Its ball room, opening on three sides to the breezes borne -in from the Caribbean is a delight to the disciples of Terpsichore, -while its open-air swimming pool, said to be the largest hotel -swimming pool in the world, affords ideal facilities for those who -otherwise would sigh for the surf. Persons who have visited every -leading hotel in the New World, from the Rio Grande southward to the -Strait of Magellan, say that it is without a superior in all that -region and, perhaps, without an equal except for one in Buenos Aires. - -Here one may find accommodations to suit his taste and largely to meet -the necessities of his pocketbook. The best rooms with bath cost $5 a -day for one, or $6 for two. Table d'hote meals are served at $1 each, -while those who prefer it may secure club breakfasts and a la carte -service. Anyone who has visited the Hotel Washington, situated as it -is on Colon Beach, where the breakers sweep in from the Caribbean Sea, -feels that Uncle Sam is no less successful as a hotel keeper than as -a builder of canals. - -The Panama Railroad, under the American regime, has always looked well -after the comfort of its patrons. The coaches are of the standard -American type, and enough of them are run on every train to make it -certain that no patron need stand for lack of a seat. The most popular -trains carry from 8 to 12 cars. These trains are run on convenient -schedules, permitting a person to go and come from any point on the -road in any forenoon or afternoon. All coaches are supplied with -hygienic drinking cups, and in every way the Panama Railroad shows -that Uncle Sam is solicitous for the welfare of his patrons. - -All the rolling stock on the Isthmus is built on a 5-foot gauge, this -having been the gauge of the original Panama Railroad. As the rolling -stock of the Canal Commission had to run over the lines of the Panama -Railroad, it also was built on the gauge. When this rolling stock is -disposed of it will be necessary to readjust the gauge to meet the -ordinary American standard which is 2-1/2 inches narrower. It has been -estimated that the engine axles can be shortened for $750 per -locomotive and those of cars at prices ranging from $27 to $31 per -car. - -The first attempt to build the Panama Railroad was made in 1847, when -a French company secured a charter from the Government of Colombia for -a building of a road across the Isthmus. This company was unable to -finance the project and the concession lapsed. - -In 1849 William H. Aspinwall, John L. Stevens, and Henry Chauncey, -New York capitalists, undertook the construction of the road. The -terms of the concession provided that the road would be purchased by -the Government at the expiration of 20 years after its completion for -$5,000,000. The loss of life in the construction of this road, serious -as it was, has been monumentally exaggerated. It is an oft-repeated -statement that a man died for every tie laid on the road. This would -mean that there were 150,000 deaths in its construction. As a matter -of fact, the total number of persons employed during the six years the -line was being built did not exceed 6,000. But among these the death -rate was very high. Several thousand Chinese were brought over and -they died almost like flies. Malaria and yellow fever were the great -scourges they had to encounter, although smallpox and other diseases -carried away hundreds. - -The road was completed in January, 1855. Before the last rail was laid -more than $2,000,000 had been taken in for hauling passengers as far -as the road extended. The way in which the original 50-cent per mile -rate across the Isthmus was established is interesting. The chief -engineer encountered much trouble from people who wanted to use the -road as far inland as it went from Colon, so he suggested that a -50-cent rate be established, thinking to make it prohibitory. But the -people who wanted to cross the Isthmus were willing to pay even 50 -cents a mile. Hence for years after the completion of the road the -passenger rate continued at $25 for the one-way trip across the -Isthmus. - -The railroad proved to be such an unexpectedly good investment that -the Republic of Colombia began to establish its claim to acquire -ownership of the road at the expiration of the 2-year term, which -would take place in 1875. It was necessary therefore, that the -railroad company should take steps to save the railroad from a forced -sale with $5,000,000 as the consideration. Representatives were -dispatched to Bogota with instructions to get an extension of the -concession under the most favorable terms possible. As it was realized -that the Republic of Colombia held the whip hand in the negotiations, -the railroad company understood that if it wished to escape selling -its great revenue producing road for $5,000,000 it would have to meet -any terms Colombia might dictate. The result of this mission was an -agreement by the railroad that in consideration of an extension of the -concession for a term of 99 years it would pay to the Colombian -Government $1,000,000 spot cash and $250,000 a year during the life of -the concession. That annual payment was continued as long as the -Isthmus remained a part of the Republic of Colombia. Under the terms -of the treaty between the United States and the Republic of Panama it -was resumed again in 1913, to be paid by the United States to the -Republic of Panama throughout all the years that the United States -maintains and operates the Panama Canal. - - - - -CHAPTER IX - -SANITATION - - -Primarily, the conquest of the Isthmian barrier was the conquest of -the mosquito. Not mountains to be leveled, nor wild rivers to be -tamed, nor yet titanic machinery to be installed, presented the -gravest obstacles to the canal builders. Their most feared enemies -were none of these, but the swarms of mosquitoes that bred in myriads -in every lake, in every tiny pool, in every clump of weeds on the -rain-soaked, steaming, tropical land. For these mosquitoes were the -bearers of the dread germs of yellow fever and of malaria; and the -conditions that encouraged their multiplication bred also typhoid and -all manner of filthy disease. Each mosquito was a potential messenger -of death. The buzzing, biting pests had defeated the French in Panama -without the French ever having recognized the source of the attack. It -was because the Americans, thanks to Great Britain and to Cuba, knew -the deadly qualities of the mosquitoes that they were able to plan, -under the leadership of Col. W. C. Gorgas, a sanitary campaign of -unprecedented success. It achieved two victories. One was that it made -of the Canal Zone the most healthful strip of land under tropic skies. -The other is the Panama Canal. - -When one looks about in an effort to place the credit for these great -sanitary achievements he must go back to Cuba, where the yellow fever -commission, consisting of Reed, Carroll, Lazear, and Agrimonte, made -the remarkable investigations proving that yellow fever is -transmissible only through the bite of a mosquito. He must go still -further back to Maj. Roland Ross of the British Army, and his -epoch-making discovery that malaria is conveyed only by the bite of -another kind of mosquito. And, if he is just to all who have -contributed to the establishment of the insect-bearing theory of -disease, he must not forget Sir Patrick Manson who first proved that -any disease could be transmitted by insect bites. It was he who -discovered that filariasis is transmissible by this method alone. It -was from him that Ross gathered the inspiration that is releasing -humanity from one of the most insidious of all the diseases to which -mortal flesh is heir. And it was from Ross's malaria discoveries, in -turn, that Reed carried forward to successful proof the theory which -had persisted in some quarters for generations that yellow fever was -transmissible through mosquitoes; a theory already partially proved by -Dr. Carlos Finley, of Havana, 20 years earlier. - -[Illustration: COL. WILLIAM C. GORGAS - -THE HOSPITAL GROUNDS, ANCON] - -[Illustration: LIEUT. FREDERIC MEARS - -THE OLD PANAMA RAILROAD] - -But all of the surmises and theories came short of the truth until -Reed, Carroll, Lazear, and Agrimonte (Lazear at the cost of his life -and Carroll at the cost of a nearly fatal attack of yellow fever) took -up the work of proving that there was only one way in which yellow -fever could be transmitted; namely, by the bite of the mosquito. -Sleeping with patients who had yellow fever, wearing the clothes of -those who had died from it, eating from utensils from which yellow -fever victims had eaten--in short, putting to the most rigid test -every other possible method of infection, they proved by every -negative test that yellow fever could not be produced in any way other -than by the bite of a mosquito. - -The next step was to give affirmative proof that yellow fever was -caused by the bite of the female "stegomyia"--she of the striped -stockings and the shrill song. This meant that someone had to have -enough love for humanity to risk his life by inviting one of the worst -forms of death to which human flesh is heir. Those doctors knew that -they could not as brave men ask others to undergo the risks that they -themselves might not accept, so in a little council chamber in Havana -the three Americans--Reed, Carroll, and Lazear--entered into a compact -that they themselves would permit infected mosquitoes to bite them. -Reed was called home, but Carroll and Lazear stood with the keen and -cold eyes of scientists and saw the mosquitoes inject the fateful -poison into their blood. Later, after Lazear had died and Carroll had -stood in the jaws of death, soldiers of the American army in Cuba -volunteered in the interest of humanity to undergo these same risks. -And it was thus, at this price, that the world came to know how yellow -fever is caused, and that the United States was to be able to build -the Panama Canal. - -After the guilt of the female "stegomyia" mosquito was firmly -established the next problem was to find a method of combating her -work. Dr. Reed and his associates thought that it might be done -through a process of immunization, using the mosquito to bite patients -with very mild cases, and after the necessary period of incubation, to -transmit the disease to those who were to be rendered immune. It was -soon found, however, that there was no method of transmitting a mild -infection, and the next problem was to combat the work of the mosquito -by isolation of yellow fever patients, and by the extermination of the -mosquitoes themselves. - -In Havana at this time there was another army surgeon who was destined -to write his name high upon the pages of medical achievement. He was -Dr. William C. Gorgas. Under the patronage of Gen. Leonard Wood, -himself a physician and alive to the lessons of the yellow fever -commission's investigations, Major Gorgas undertook to apply the -doctrine of yellow fever prevention promulgated by the commission, and -his efforts were attended with brilliant success. The result was that -Havana, in particular, and Cuba, in general, were freed from this -great terror of the Tropics. When President Roosevelt came to provide -for the building of the Panama Canal one of his earlier acts was to -appoint Dr. Gorgas the chief sanitary officer of the Canal Zone. - -At first there was difficulty in establishing practical sanitation in -Panama. The chief sanitary officer was then a subordinate of the -commission, and, along with all of the other men who were trying to do -things on the Isthmus, he found himself hindered by unsatisfactory -conditions both as to supplies and as to force; consequently, his work -was no more satisfactory to himself than it was to the commission or -to the American people. Under these conditions an epidemic of yellow -fever broke out in Panama in 1905, and it was not long before the -yellow fever mosquito had seemingly established an alibi and had -secured a reopening of her case before the jury of public sentiment. -People, to emphasize their disbelief in the mosquito theory of the -transmission of the disease, tore the screens from their doors and -windows, and otherwise proclaimed their contempt for the doctors and -their doctrines. This matter went so far that the Isthmian Canal -Commission proposed not only a change in method but a change in -personnel as well. - -At this juncture Charles E. Magoon became governor of the Canal Zone, -and he declared that Dr. Gorgas should have adequate financial and -moral support. He was determined that the panic which the yellow fever -outbreak had engendered should be halted--and a panic it was, for men -rushed madly to Colon and defied the efforts of the commission, and of -the captains and crews of the Panama Railroad steamships, to prevent -them from returning to the States without other transportation -arrangements than a determination to get aboard and stay there until -the Statue of Liberty had been passed in New York Harbor. So great was -this panic that Chief Engineer Stevens declared that there were three -diseases at Panama: Yellow fever, malaria, and cold feet: and that the -greatest of these was cold feet. The newspapers of the United States -at that time quoted the poetry of such writers as Gilbert, who said: - - "Beyond the Chagres River - 'Tis said (the story's old) - Are paths that lead to mountains - Of purest virgin gold; - But 'tis my firm conviction - What e'er the tales they tell, - That beyond the Chagres River - All paths lead straight to hell." - -It did not matter that in four months there were only 47 deaths on the -Isthmus from yellow fever as compared with 108 from malaria in the -same period--men do not stop to study mortality tables and to compare -the relative fatalities of diseases when yellow fever stares them in -the face. - -But after all, the yellow fever panic of 1905 served a good purpose, -for if the mosquito thereby secured a reopening of its case, it -stirred the United States Government to give to the sanitary officers -of the Canal Zone the powers they needed, and the means required to -prove finally and forever in the court of last resort, the guilt of -the mosquito, and to establish for once and all the method of -combating its stealthy work. - -The whole world recognizes the remarkable results in sanitary work -that have been achieved at Panama. While it must be remembered that -the population of the Canal Zone is made up largely of able-bodied -men, and that, therefore, the death rate naturally would be lower than -under like conditions with a normal population of infancy and old -age, the fact remains that sanitary science has converted the Zone -from a mosquito paradise of swamp and jungle into a region where -mosquitoes have all but disappeared, and where men are as free from -danger of epidemic diseases as in the United States itself. - -The sanitary statistics of the Canal Zone, and of the cities of Panama -and Colon, were based for several years upon an erroneous assumption -of population. The Department of Sanitation estimated the population -of the Canal Zone by deducting the recorded emigrants from the -recorded immigrants and assumed that the difference represented a -permanent addition to the Zone's population. Under this method of -estimating population a serious error crept in, since hundreds of -people came into Panama from the Panaman outports and were recorded as -arrivals, but who, departing in small sailing vessels and launches at -night after the port officers had gone home, were not recorded as -having departed. In this way the sanitary department estimates of -population in the Canal Zone reached a total of 93,000 in 1912. The -census taken that year showed only 62,000 population in the Zone. This -served to make the death rate given out by the Department of -Sanitation 50 per cent lower than was justified by actual population -conditions. - -But one does not need to consider figures to realize what has been -accomplished at Panama. Anyone who goes there and sees the remarkable -evidence of the success of the efforts to conquer the disease of the -tropical jungles, finds a lesson taught that is too impressive to -need the confirmation of medical statistics. - -The United States, after the yellow fever outbreak of 1905, never -counted the cost when the health of the canal army was at stake. Not -only was Uncle Sam successful in his efforts to make the Canal Zone -and the terminal cities of Panama and Colon healthful places of abode, -but no worker on the canal was denied the privilege of the best -medical care. An average of $2,000,000 a year was expended in the -prevention of sickness and the care of those who were sick. At Ancon -and at Colon large hospitals were maintained where the white American -and the West Indian negro had their respective wards. At Taboga a -large sanitarium was maintained to assist the recuperation of those -who had recovered sufficiently to leave the hospital. Besides this -there were rest camps along the line for those not ill enough to be -removed to the hospitals, and dispensaries where those who felt they -were not in need of other medical attention could consult with the -physicians and get the necessary medicines. All medical services to -the employees of the Canal Commission and the Panama Railroad were -free, and only nominal charges were made for members of their -families. No passenger train crossed the Isthmus of Panama without -carrying a hospital car for taking patients to or from the hospitals. -No way station was without its waiting shed bearing the inscription: -"For Hospital Patients Only." Each community had its dispensary, its -doctor, and its sanitary inspector. - -During the year 1912 there were 48,000 cases of sickness in the Canal -Zone, of which 26,000 were white and 22,000 colored. During the same -year 633,000 trips to the dispensaries were made by employees and -nonemployees, divided almost evenly between white and colored. The -average number of employees constantly sick in Ancon Hospital was 712; -in Colon Hospital 209; and in Taboga Sanitarium 54. An average of 119 -were in the sick camps all the time and 50 in the quarters. The -average number of days' treatment per employee in the hospitals was a -little over 14; in the sick camps a little under 3; and in quarters -2-1/3. It cost $160,000 a year to feed the patients in the hospitals -and $739,000 a year to operate the hospitals. - -The work of sanitation proper cost some $400,000 a year. This includes -many items. During one year about 16,000,000 square yards of brush -were cut and burned; a million square yards of swamp were drained; -30,000,000 square yards of grass were cut; 250,000 feet of ditches -were dug; and some 2,000,000 linear feet of old ditches were cleaned. -During the same year nearly a million garbage cans and over 300,000 -refuse cans were emptied. In addition to looking after the health of -the Canal Zone itself, it was necessary to care for that of the cities -of Panama and Colon. In the city of Panama 11,000 loads of sweepings -and 25,000 loads of garbage were removed in one year; 3,000,000 -gallons of water were sprinkled on the streets and as much more -distributed to the poor of the city. - -During one year the quarantine service, which keeps a strict lookout -for yellow fever, bubonic plague, and other epidemic diseases, -inspected over 100,000 passengers coming into the Zone. It required -about 150,000 gallons of mosquito oil a year to keep down the -mosquitoes. There are 50 known breeds of these insects on the Isthmus -and perhaps some 20 species more which have not been identified. Of -the 50 or more species of mosquitoes 11 belonged to the -malaria-producing family--anopheles. Their cousins of the -yellow-fever-producing family--the stegomyias--boast of only two -species. What the other 40 or more kinds are doing besides annoying -suffering humanity has not been determined. The mosquito is -comparatively easy to exterminate. Its life habits are such that a -terrific mortality may be produced among them during infancy. The -average young mosquito, during its "wriggler" state of development, -lives under the water and has to make about 8,000 trips to the surface -for air before it can spread its wings and fly. If oil is poured upon -the water it can get no air and death by asphyxiation follows. Two -classes of larvaecide are used on the waters to exterminate the baby -mosquitoes: One is an oil used to make a scum over the surface; the -other a carbolic solution which poisons the water. At the head of -every little rivulet and tiny, trickling stream one sees a barrel out -of which comes an endless drip! drip! drip! These drops of oil or -poison are carried down the stream and make inhospitable all of the -mosquito nurseries of the marshes through which the waters flow. In -addition to these barrels, men go about with tanks on their backs, -spraying the marshy ground and the small, isolated pools of water with -larvaecides. - -[Illustration: SANITARY DRINKING CUP] - -[Illustration: MOSQUITO OIL DRIP BARREL] - -[Illustration: SPRAYING MOSQUITO OIL] - -[Illustration: TYPICAL QUARTERS OF THE MARRIED LABORER] - -[Illustration: A NATIVE HUT] - -This method of treatment has not exterminated all mosquitoes on the -Isthmus, but it has so materially reduced their number that one may -stay in the Zone for weeks without seeing a single one. This is a -freedom, however, that must be paid for by vigilance of the most -painstaking and unremitting sort. The moment the work is relaxed the -mosquitoes again spread over the territory. - -The United States Government will have to continue with the utmost -care its work of sanitation and quarantine at Panama. If, after the -canal is completed, an epidemic of bubonic plague or yellow fever -should break out, it might very seriously interfere with the operation -of the canal in several ways. To begin with, it would demoralize the -operating force. Further than this, India and China are afraid of -yellow fever because in both of these countries the stegomyia mosquito -abounds. If the disease should obtain a foothold there it would be -difficult to exterminate. Europe, also, might be expected to -quarantine against Panama under such conditions. A 10,000-ton -freighter carrying cargo through the canal would lose at least a -thousand dollars for every day it was detained in quarantine by reason -of having visited the canal. - -A shrewd observer has said that the successful sanitation of the -Isthmus of Panama is a triumph at once of medical science and of -despotic government. Probably this does not overstate the case. The -methods employed at Panama were arbitrary, and had to be. They -probably could not be enforced at all in a democratic community in -ordinary times. The people would rebel against the severity of the -regulations and against the incidental invasion of their privacy. But -strike any community, however free, with the fear of a swift and -deadly disease and it will submit--as witness the shot-gun quarantines -that used to demark the northern limits of the yellow fever zone in -our own Southern States, or the despotism that governed New Orleans in -the terror of 1905. At Panama this fear is ever present, so there is -little danger that a responsible majority there ever would resist the -sanitary work on the grounds of outraged democracy. It may be that a -popular government would become careless, or inefficient, but it would -not renounce the pretension. This has been proved in Cuba. - -The sanitarians at Panama gave to the workers there a sense of -security that contributed no little to the spirit of determination so -universally remarked and commended by visitors to the Zone during the -era of construction. While there was no immunity from sickness and -death, yet there was no panic, no constant dread, such as destroyed -the morale of the French force. The Isthmus of Panama still remained -hot, its inhabitants still were forced to take the precautions that -aliens must take in the Tropics; but they were inspired with a -confidence that if these precautions were taken they would not be in -any greater danger than if they had remained in their northern homes. - -Pestilence, the scourge of the on-sweeping epidemic, the plague of -swift death that is only a little worse than the panic of fear it -inspires--this was the thing that was stamped out. - -Not since the Science of Healing opened its doors to the Science of -Prevention have physicians scored a greater victory in their fight -against disease and death than on the Isthmus of Panama. Not only did -they help to build the canal; they demonstrated that tropical diseases -are capable of human control and thereby opened up a vista of hope -undreamed of to all that sweltering and suffering mass of humanity -that inhabits the Torrid Zone. - - - - -CHAPTER X - -THE MAN AT THE HELM - - -In 1905, William H. Taft, then Secretary of War, made a trip to the -Isthmus of Panama to look over the preparations for the construction -of the Panama Canal, and at the same time to consider the question of -the fortification of the big waterway. On that trip a member of the -General Staff of the Army, who at that time was but little known -outside of Army circles, went with him. He was a tall, broad-shouldered, -bronze-faced, gray-haired man, 47 years old. He came and went -unheralded. Few people knew of the engineering record he had made, and -no one on the Isthmus dreamed that he was destined to become the -commander in chief of the army that would conquer the Isthmian -barrier. - -He returned to the United States and wrote his report--a report which, -from the deep mastery of the subject it revealed, attracted the -favorable attention of the Secretary of War. Later when the board of -consulting engineers came to make its report upon the type of canal -which should be built--whether it should be a sea level or a lock -canal--the Secretary of War asked this officer to prepare a draft of -his report to the President recommending the lock canal. - -Soon after New Year's Day, 1907, the chief engineer of the canal, -John F. Stevens, dissatisfied with the relations that existed between -the Government and himself, came to the conclusion that he could not -build the canal hampered as he was by red tape at Washington. It then -became a question of whether or not the canal should be built by -contract or by the Army. President Roosevelt asked for a preliminary -report upon this proposition and the unheralded Army engineer who had -visited the Canal Zone in 1905, made it. A few days later there was a -conference between President Roosevelt, Gen. Alexander MacKenzie, -Chief of Engineers of the United States Army, and the Secretary of -War. After this conference Maj. George Washington Goethals was -summoned to the White House and informed by the President that it had -been determined to build the Panama Canal under the auspices of the -Army, and that he was appointed chairman and chief engineer of the -Isthmian Canal Commission. He was requested to keep the fact of his -appointment a secret and to prepare immediately to go to Panama. A -ship sailed for the Isthmus three days thereafter, and he was ready to -sail when the President advised him that he might wait over and -arrange affairs in Washington, leaving in time to get to the Isthmus -to take charge on the first of April. - -When the announcement was made to the country that the work of -building the canal was to be put in the hands of the Army, the whole -country began to inquire: Who is Major Goethals? that inquiry revealed -the fact that he was a man who had accomplished much in his 49 years. -Born in 1858, of Dutch parents, whose ancestors had settled in New -York when it was still New Amsterdam, he was appointed to the United -States Military Academy at West Point where he was graduated in the -class of 1880 with such honors that he was entitled to enter the -Engineer Corps of the Regular Army. - -In 1891 he rose to the rank of captain, and in 1898 became lieutenant -colonel and chief engineer of the First Volunteer Army Corps in Cuba. -On the last day of that year he was honorably discharged from the -volunteer service, and, in 1900, became a major in the Engineer Corps -of the Regular Army. For a number of years prior to 1898 he had been -instructor in civil and military engineering at West Point. He had -been in charge of the Mussel Shoals canal construction on the -Tennessee River, a work which won praise from engineers both in civil -and in military life. It was in a measure his record made on the -Tennessee River work that led to his appointment as chairman and chief -engineer of the Isthmian Canal. - -When he took charge of the work at Panama he was promoted to -lieutenant colonel. Arriving there he immediately informed all hands -that while the work of building the canal had been placed under Army -engineers, no man who was then on the job and faithfully executing his -work need fear anything from that administration. From that time down -to the last stages of the work that statement held good. Trained at -West Point, brought up in the atmosphere of the Army, a lover of its -traditions and in full sympathy with its spirit, he laid aside -everything that might handicap the success of the undertaking and -sought at once to get the full benefit of all that was best in the -Army and in civil life as well. He put his uniform in moth balls when -he started to the Isthmus, and from that day to this no man has ever -seen him on the Canal Zone wearing an Army uniform. - -When he took charge of the big job, the foundations upon which he was -to build the superstructure of his success had been laid by his -predecessors, but there were many weak points in these foundations as -well as many strong ones. With a spirit of utilizing to the fullest -extent every advantage that the administrations of the former chief -engineers had left on the Isthmus, he undertook to make only such -changes as time demonstrated were necessary to the success of the -project. At that time 6,000,000 cubic yards of material had been -removed from the big waterway. Confronting him was the task of -removing some 215,000,000 yards the while building a great dam -containing 21,000,000 cubic yards, constructing a series of gigantic -locks containing four and a half million cubic yards of concrete, and -providing for the happiness and welfare of the sixty-odd thousand -people who constituted the canal army and its camp followers. - -In the years that followed his appointment he proved himself in every -way worthy of his assignment as the managing director of the most -stupendous piece of work ever undertaken by man. Furthermore, he -established a claim to the title of the "Great Digger." No other man -in the history of the world has ever superintended the excavation of -an amount of earth half as great as that which has been taken out of -the Panama Canal during his administration. Since he went to the canal -to "make the dirt fly" the material excavated under his command, -together with that placed in the locks and dams, equals the amount -necessary to take out to cut a tunnel 13 feet square through the earth -at the Equator. - -No man ever carried to a great position less fuss and feathers than -Colonel Goethals took to his work as chairman and chief engineer of -the Panama Canal. When, during the construction period, one visited -his office at Culebra, on almost any afternoon, he would find there an -unpretentious little room in the corner of the administration -building, about 18 feet square, containing four windows, overlooking -the cut from two sides, its painted walls hung with maps, its floors -uncarpeted, and in the center a large double-sided, flat-top desk -covered with papers. A swivel chair at the desk and two or three other -chairs constituted the furnishings of this room. The visitor walked -directly into the office of his private secretary and the chief clerk, -and if he had anything worth while about which to see the chairman and -chief engineer he was detained only long enough for the man ahead of -him to get out. With "no time like the present" as his motto in -handling the business of his office, he, the busiest man on the -Isthmus, and one of the busiest in the world for that matter, always -seemed to have more time than many men of lesser responsibilities and -far fewer burdens. He once declared that he had a contempt for the man -who always tried to make it appear that he was too busy to see his -callers, because his callers were frequently as busy as he himself. - -The fact is that he is a man with a very unusual gift in the dispatch -of work. System has been the key-note of his success. With thousands -of details every day to look after, he has always kept his work so -well in hand that to the casual observer he seemed to be the most -leisurely man on the Isthmus. He maintained a well-established routine -all through his career on the canal. His mornings usually were spent -going over the work. When the morning trains passed Culebra at 7 -o'clock they found him up, breakfasted, and at the station. - -Although these trains carried parlor cars, one would seldom see the -chairman and chief engineer riding in them. Rather, he consistently -chose to ride in the ordinary day coaches with his sub-engineers, with -the steam-shovel men, and with the rank and file of the Americans who -made possible the success of the work at Panama. There were few of -these Americans whom he did not know by name, and with whom he did not -pass a pleasant word whenever he chanced to meet them. - -A morning trip over the work with this presiding genius of the big -ditch reveals perhaps better than anything else the makeup of the man -and the secret of his success. - -"Meet me on the early train to-morrow morning at Miraflores," said he -to one of his visitors in the early summer of 1913, "and we will go -over the Pacific end of the work." - -This meant that both the chief engineer and the visitor had to leave -comfortable beds at 5 o'clock in the morning to keep the appointment. -At 7 o'clock they met at Miraflores. "We will walk through the tunnel -if you don't mind," said he, "as I don't want to hold up a dirt train -if it can be avoided." - -At the other end of the railroad tunnel, the only one on the Isthmus, -a railway motor car stood on the siding ready to pick up the -distinguished engineer and carry him to the Miraflores Locks. This -motor car is something like a limousine on railroad trucks, and was -affectionately known by the people on the Isthmus, as "the yellow -peril" and "the brain wagon." The first stop was at the concrete work -on the spillway dam at Miraflores. - -"How soon do you expect to have this dam up to its full height?" he -asked of the division engineer who joined him there. "Can't you find -room to operate another temporary concrete mixer down there?" he -queried further. "Is there anything else you need to keep the work -moving forward so as to be certain to complete the dam by the time you -promised?" - -Going a little farther he came to a place where one division was doing -some work for another division. "Don't you think it would be more -satisfactory to keep both parts of that work under one division? Why -don't you allow it all to be done by the other people?" - -Walking across the locks on the temporary bridge the chief engineer -and his assistant came to a point where the concrete lamp posts for -lighting the locks were being set up. "Don't you think that it would -better avoid any settling if you were to place beams of railroad iron -across those spaces and rest the posts on them?" he queried. - -A little farther on he met the engineer in charge of the work of the -company erecting the gates. "When do you think you will have the gates -in the west chambers completed so that we can put the dredge through?" -he inquired of Mr. Wright. - -"Well, sir," replied Mr. Wright, "if we have good luck I hope to have -them done by the first of September; if we have fair luck we ought to -have them completed by the middle of September; but at the lowest -calculation I can promise them to you by the first of October." - -"But have you taken into consideration all of the time you are likely -to lose as the result of heavy rains?" queried the chief engineer. - -"I have made full allowance therefor, I think," responded Mr. Wright. - -Walking on, the watchful eye of the chief engineer fell upon a new -baby railway track which was being laid through the eastern lock -chambers. "What are you planning to do there?" he asked of the -division engineer. - -"We wanted to get some additional material through the locks and Mr. -Wright informed us that if we would furnish the timbers, he would make -it so that we could run these little engines through there," responded -the engineer. - -"But did you have a definite understanding with him that this should -afford no excuse for any further delay in completing the gates?" -queried Colonel Goethals. - -"We did, sir," responded the division engineer. - -"All right then, go ahead." - -At this point the party boarded the motor car again and was taken to -the big dike which was to hold the Pacific Ocean from flooding the -locks after a dike a mile farther down had been blown out. "How much -water do you have in the stretch between the two dikes?" he asked of -the division engineer. He next wanted to know how many million cubic -feet they were able to pump and siphon in, and how much the Rio Grande -was bringing in per day. Then he wanted to know if every possible -precaution had been taken to insure the watertightness of the new -dike; how many thousand pounds of dynamite had been placed under the -one to be blown up; how many holes this dynamite was placed in; and a -large number of other bits of information which would tell him whether -every safeguard had been thrown around the plan to insure its success. - -Going up on the other side of the canal the party came to the earth -dam joining the west lock walls with the hills, so as to impound 58 -feet of water in Miraflores Lake. "How soon do you expect to get that -connection made between the lock walls and the dam proper?" he queried -of the engineer in immediate charge. - -"In four weeks, sir." - -"All right," answered Colonel Goethals, "you can't get that done any -too soon to suit me." - -And so he went over the work around Miraflores from beginning to end, -talking now with an Irishman in charge of dumping the material on the -inside of the dam, now with a man in charge of some concrete work, -and now with the division engineer himself. By 11 o'clock he had -inspected every part of this division and was ready to take his car -back to Culebra. In four hours he had seen every man responsible for -any important work around Miraflores; had offered a suggestion there, -a word of encouragement here, and had obtained a bit of information at -another place. - -Each day's morning program was like this one except as to the place he -visited and the people with whom he talked. One morning he might be -tramping over Cucaracha Slide, studying the prospects of its future. -Another morning he might be down at Gatun watching an official test of -an emergency dam. On these trips he usually wore either a most -unmilitary-looking blue serge or gray cheviot, with a somewhat -weather-beaten sailor straw hat, and carried a cheap dollar umbrella. - -When Colonel Goethals went to the Isthmus he promised that every man -with a grievance should have a hearing. Each Sunday morning he had at -his office at Culebra what he termed his Sunday "at homes," the best -attended functions on the Isthmus, where the blackest Jamaica negro on -the job found as much of a welcome as the highest official. These -functions were for the purpose of hearing the canal employees who had -grievances. Once a visitor was congratulating him upon the smooth -manner in which the canal-building machine seemed to be working. "You -ought to attend one of my Sunday 'at homes,'" he replied. "You would -think that there was no smoothness at all to its running." - -Here is the wife of one of the engineers: She wants to find out why it -is that she cannot get bread from the Ancon Hospital bakery. She -informs Colonel Goethals that Joseph B. Bishop, secretary of the -commission, gets bread from the hospital bakery and wants to know why -she cannot. "I will look into the matter for you," says the chief -engineer, and a note of this complaint is made. Later the telephone -bell rings and Mr. Bishop is asked if he gets bread at the hospital -bakery. He replies in the affirmative, explaining that about three -years ago he had breakfasted with Colonel Gorgas who arranged for him -to buy his bread there instead of at the commissary, this bread being -more to his liking. "Can't any other employee of the Canal Commission -get bread there under the same terms?" queries the chief engineer. "I -will see, sir," responds the secretary of the commission. "If they can -not," answers the chief engineer, "you must have your bread stopped at -once." And it was stopped. - -The next person received is the representative of the Kangaroos, a -fraternal order. "The Spanish American War veterans get free -transportation on a special train on Memorial Day," he is informed, -"and the fraternal orders on the Zone are crowded out." "Let a -committee of all the fraternal orders appear next Sunday and talk it -over with me and we will see what we can do," responds the chief -engineer. - -Here comes a negro who says that his boss is a tyrant and abuses his -men: "I will look into that," responds the presiding genius of the -canal, and the Jamaican goes away with an expansive smile on his -face. - -And so it went. Small affairs, big affairs, and indifferent ones were -brought to his attention. In perhaps 80 per cent of them he could not -do what was requested, but when able he did it so promptly, and in -such a positive, straightforward manner, that his "at homes" have been -compared, by the French ambassador to the United States, to the court -of justice held by Saint Louis beneath the oak at Vincennes. - -A railroad engineer on one of the dirt trains got drunk and ran over a -negro. He was sent to the penitentiary. The railroad men issued an -ultimatum saying that if he were not released by a certain hour on a -certain day, every dirt train on the canal would stop. A committee -conveyed this ultimatum to Colonel Goethals and asked his decision. -"You will get it at the penitentiary," he replied. "This man will -remain in prison and every man who quits work on that account will be -dropped from the rolls." There was no strike of engineers. - -At another time the waiters at the Tivoli Hotel went on strike. The -whole force was promptly discharged, and the official paper of the -Canal Commission carried their names with the announcement that -thereafter they would not be eligible to employment in any capacity on -the Canal Zone. - -If the chairman and chief engineer of the canal is just and firm in -his relations with his men, he is no less generous in giving credit -where credit belongs. Upon one occasion he was talking about the -success of the canal project with a friend, and declared that the -world would never give to John F. Stevens the credit that was due him -in the construction of the canal. "You know," said he, "the real -problem of building this canal has been that of removing the spoil; -that problem was preeminently the problem of a railroad man and to -solve it demanded the services of one of the best men in the railroad -business. We have extended the facilities laid out by Mr. Stevens, and -have modified them as experience and conditions have demanded, but -they have been operated from that day to this under the general plan -of transportation laid out by Mr. Stevens. I do not think that any -Army engineer in the United States could have laid out such excellent -transportation facilities." - -At another time, in discussing this same matter, he declared that it -was his firm opinion that the canal could have been built by either of -the former chief engineers, John F. Wallace or John F. Stevens, if -they had been allowed a free hand. "You see," said he, "they were men -who were accustomed to handling big construction jobs. They would -outline their project and the cost of executing it to a board of -directors who would pass upon it and then leave them absolutely -unhampered in the matter of personnel and method, with results as the -only criterion of their success. When they came to the Isthmus they -found their hands tied by red tape. They had never dealt with a -President, a Secretary of War, a Congress, and the public at large. -Naturally, they grew restive under the conditions which confronted -them and resigned. - -"The whole difference is largely that of training. The Army officer -knows from the time he leaves West Point that he has to work in -harmony with his superiors, with the President, the Secretary of War, -and Congress. That is why we have been able to stay where men from -civil life have thrown up the job." - -Another remarkable characteristic of the Great Digger is his desire to -do his work economically as well as to do it promptly. When he went to -the Isthmus there was an insistent demand that the dirt be made to -fly. Along with the administration in Washington he realized that the -only way to gain the faith and confidence of the people in the work, a -faith and confidence essential to its full success, was to measure up -to their desire that the dirt begin to fly. It was not a time to -consider economies then. But, as soon as those demands had been met -and the people had been shown that the Army could make good, a -cost-keeping system was introduced. Men doing identical work were -pitted against one another; Army engineers were placed in command of -one task here and civilian engineers in command of another task there; -and thus a healthy rivalry was established. - -As Colonel Gaillard, member of the commission, and engineer of the -Central Division, testified before a congressional committee, his -early work in Culebra Cut was to get out as much dirt as possible, -while his later work was given over largely to a study and comparison -of cost sheets with a view to cutting down the expense of removing a -yard of material, with the result that he was able to show a saving of -$17,000,000 in a 9-mile section of the Panama Canal as compared with -the estimates of 1908. - -In other words, Colonel Goethals took that golden rule of all great -soldiers, "get there first with the most men," and adapted it to read -"dig the most dirt with the least money." He had ever in mind three -things: Safe construction, rapid progress, and low costs. On these -three foundation stones in his mind was reared the structure that -stands as the highest example of engineering science, and as the -proudest constructive accomplishment of the American Republic. - -At the northern entrance to the Suez Canal stands a statue of de -Lesseps, a beckoning hand inviting the shipping of the world to go -through. Perhaps no such statue of Goethals ever will stand at Panama, -but there is no need. The canal itself is his monument and its story -will ever endure. - - - - -CHAPTER XI - -THE ORGANIZATION - - -When the United States finally decided to build the Panama Canal, the -next question of gravity which pressed for consideration was the -creation of the organization by which it was to be built. Many -problems were encountered, and after repeated changes in personnel and -rearrangements of duties, the situation finally resolved into an -organization headed by one man, clothed with the necessary powers, and -held responsible for the consequent results. - -The completion of the preliminaries for the acquisition of title to -the Canal Zone and to the property and rights of the New Panama Canal -Company took place when Congress, on April 28, 1904, made an -appropriation of $10,000,000, which was to be paid to the Republic of -Panama. Six days later the United States formally took possession of -the Canal Zone and of the property of the Panama Canal Company, when -at 7:30 o'clock in the morning, Lieut. Mark Brooke, of the United -States Army, took over the keys and raised the American flag. The -following day President Roosevelt announced the appointment of John -Findley Wallace, of Massachusetts, as chief engineer of the canal at a -salary of $25,000 a year, the appointment to be effective on the 1st -day of June. - -The first ship to arrive at Panama carried Maj. Gen. George W. Davis, -who was to govern the Canal Zone; Col. William C. Gorgas, who was to -make it sanitary; and George R. Shanton, who was to drive out the -criminal element. Governor Davis was a member of the Isthmian Canal -Commission, Colonel Gorgas had proved his worth in the sanitation of -Cuba, and Shanton had been a "rough rider" with Colonel Roosevelt in -the Cuban campaign. - -When Chief Engineer Wallace arrived on the scene he found there an all -but abandoned project. There were hundreds of French houses, but -nearly all of them were in the jungle and practically unfit for human -habitation. He found millions of dollars' worth of French machinery, -but almost none of it in condition to be put into service immediately. -He knew in a general way the line of the canal, but surveys were -lacking to determine its exact location at every point. With this -situation in front of him, he found it necessary to concentrate his -efforts upon the problem of getting ready for the work. While he was -doing this the people at home began to demand that the dirt fly. -Colonel Gorgas also found conditions which challenged his best -efforts. Colon was a paradise of disease, Panama was no better. It was -only by making both of these cities over again, from a sanitary -standpoint, that any hope could be held out for reasonably healthy -conditions. - -During his stay on the Isthmus Mr. Wallace found himself handicapped -at every turn by red tape, a new thing in his experience as a -construction engineer. He could buy nothing without asking for bids; -every idea he sought to put into execution had to be submitted to -Washington, and he found himself so harassed and handicapped that he -wanted a new plan of organization. - -Acting in accordance with his recommendations, President Roosevelt -decided to accept the resignation of the existing Canal Commission, -and to appoint a new one, in which, instead of having independent -departments, with the governor independent of the chief engineer, and -the chief sanitary officer independent of both the governor and the -chief engineer, there should be a more united relation, in which all -questions were to be decided by the commission as a whole, the final -authority being vested in an executive committee composed of the -chairman, the governor of the Canal Zone, and the chief engineer. - -Under this plan, the second Isthmian Canal Commission was organized. -It consisted of Theodore P. Shonts, chairman; Charles E. Magoon, -Governor of the Canal Zone; John F. Wallace, chief engineer; Mordecai -T. Endicott; Peter C. Hains; Oswald H. Ernst; and Benjamin A. Harrod. -Following the suggestion of Chief Engineer Wallace, the control of the -Panama Railroad was also vested in the new commission. - -While these changes were being made Chief Engineer Wallace was in -Washington. There was dissatisfaction on the Isthmus with an -accompanying spirit of unrest, and, to make matters worse, a -yellow-fever epidemic broke out. Only a few days after Mr. Wallace -reached the Isthmus, he cabled the Secretary of War that he wished to -return to Washington, hinting that he might resign. Secretary Taft -cabled to Governor Magoon for an opinion as to the motives which were -behind this step on the part of Mr. Wallace, and was advised that it -was brought about by the offer of a better salary and the fear of the -yellow-fever epidemic. When Mr. Wallace reached New York he had a -stormy interview with Secretary Taft, who roundly denounced him for -quitting at such a critical time. Mr. Wallace declared his lack of -confidence in the ability of Colonel Gorgas to control the -yellow-fever epidemic, and asserted that the continual interference of -red tape was so distracting to him as to make new employment -attractive. President Roosevelt upheld his Secretary of War in his -denunciation of Mr. Wallace, and promptly appointed John F. Stevens -chief engineer at a salary of $30,000. - -John F. Stevens arrived on the Isthmus on July 27, 1905. He found the -Panama Railroad almost in a state of collapse. He declared that the -only claim heard for it was that there had been no collisions for some -time. "A collision has its good points as well as its bad ones," he -observed, "for it indicates that there is something moving on the -railroad." - -Mr. Stevens immediately set to work to build up the road, and to -provide the means for housing and feeding the canal army. But like his -predecessor he found Government red tape hampering, and in his first -annual report begged for "a thorough business administration -unhampered by any tendency to technicalities, into which our public -work sometimes drifts." He protested against civil-service -requirements on the Isthmus, and against the eight-hour working day; -and President Roosevelt met his protests by exempting all employees -except clerks from the operations of civil-service rules, and by -abrogating the eight-hour day. - -It was under the regime of Mr. Stevens that the question arose as to -whether the canal should be built as a sea-level channel through the -Isthmus, or as a lock canal with the water in the middle section 85 -feet above the level of the sea. President Roosevelt thereupon -appointed a board of consulting engineers, made up of 14 members, to -visit the Isthmus and determine what type of canal should be built. -Five members of this board of consulting engineers were foreigners -appointed by their respective Governments at the request of President -Roosevelt. They included the inspector general of Public Works of -France, the consulting engineer of the Suez Canal, the chief engineer -of the Manchester Canal, the chief engineer of the Kiel Canal, and the -chief engineer of the Dutch dike system. Three of the American -engineers and all five of the foreign engineers voted in favor of a -sea-level canal. Chief Engineer Stevens and all but one member of the -Isthmian Canal Commission concurred in the vote of the minority, made -up wholly of American engineers in favor of the lock canal. President -Roosevelt sustained the minority report, and Congress sustained him in -the law of June 29, 1906. - -In the fall of 1906 Chairman Shonts came out in advocacy of a plan to -build the canal by contract. Here arose a difference between Mr. -Shonts and Mr. Stevens, and Chairman Shonts shortly thereafter -resigned. A few months later Chief Engineer Stevens also resigned. It -is said that his resignation was mainly due to his objection to the -appointment of Army engineers as members of the Canal Commission, and -to a letter he wrote the President in which he scored the limitations -of red tape and Government methods generally. When Mr. Stevens quitted -the Isthmus he left behind him the nucleus of the general organization -for building of the canal. He saw housing conditions brought up to the -required standard, established the necessary commissary where canal -employees could supply their needs at reasonable prices, and aided -Colonel Gorgas in his fight to make the Isthmus healthful. - -At this juncture the organization destined to build the canal was put -into effect, with Colonel George W. Goethals at its head. Colonel -Gorgas, the chief sanitary officer, was the only important official of -the old regime held over. The other members of the commission were -Maj. D. D. Gaillard and Maj. William L. Sibert, of the United States -Engineer Corps; Civil Engineer H. H. Rousseau, of the United States -Navy; and Messrs. J. C. S. Blackburn and Jackson Smith. - -[Illustration: MAJ. GEN. GEORGE W. DAVIS REAR ADMIRAL J. G. WALKER - -THEODORE P. SHONTS JOHN F. WALLACE - -JOHN F. STEVENS CHARLES E. MAGOON] - -[Illustration: RICHARD LEE METCALFE EMORY R. JOHNSON - -MAURICE H. THATCHER JOSEPH BUCKLIN BISHOP - -H. A. GUDGER JOSEPH C. S. BLACKBURN] - -Under former commissions the Governor of the Canal Zone had ranked -above the chief engineer, and the chairman, the chief engineer, and -the governor had had rival powers, which resulted in a great deal of -friction. Under the new order the offices of chairman and chief -engineer were consolidated, and the governor was reduced to the title -of "head of the Department of Civil Administration," reporting to the -chairman, as did the chief sanitary officer and all of the division -engineers. - -This commission, in personnel, remained intact during the long period -of construction, except for the resignation in 1908 of Jackson Smith, -who was succeeded by Lieut. Col. Harry F. Hodges; and for the -resignation in 1910 of Mr. Blackburn, who was succeeded by Morris H. -Thatcher. Mr. Thatcher, in turn, was succeeded in 1913 by Richard L. -Metcalfe as head of the Department of Civil Administration. - -During the construction period there were several rearrangements of -the duties of the Army engineers associated with Colonel Goethals. -From June, 1908, Major Gaillard, afterwards promoted to a -lieutenant-colonelcy, was in charge of the ditch-digging work between -Gatun and Pedro Miguel, which included the entire Gatun Lake and -Culebra Cut sections. It is everywhere admitted that so far as -difficulties were concerned, he had the hardest job on the Isthmus, -next to the chief engineer. Colonel Gaillard entered the United States -Military Academy in 1884 and was graduated with honors entitling him -to appointment in the Corps of Engineers. Before being selected as a -member of the Canal Commission, he had had much experience in -important work. For two years he was in charge of all river and harbor -improvement in the Lake Superior region. When he first went to the -Isthmus he was assigned as the supervising engineer in charge of -harbors, the building of breakwaters, etc. - -Lieut. Col. William L. Sibert, another of the Army engineers who was -made a member of the Canal Commission, was graduated from West Point -in 1884 and was made a lieutenant of engineers. From 1892 to 1894 he -was assistant engineer in charge of the construction of the ship -channel connecting the Great Lakes. The four years following he was in -charge of the river and harbor work in Arkansas, and following that, -spent one year teaching civil engineering in the Engineering School of -Application. He then went to the Philippines as chief engineer of the -Eighth Army Corps and became chief engineer and general manager of the -Manila & Dagupan Railroad. From 1900 to 1907 he was in charge of the -Ohio River improvements between Pittsburgh and Louisville. As division -engineer of the Atlantic division of the Panama Canal he was in charge -of the construction of the Gatun locks, Gatun Dam, and the breakwaters -at the Atlantic entrance to the canal. - -Civil Engineer Harry H. Rousseau, of the United States Navy, was -appointed a member of the Isthmian Canal Commission at the same time -that Chief Engineer Goethals was selected to head the organization. He -had had much experience in engineering work prior to the appointment -and was a personal appointee of President Roosevelt, with whom he had -come in contact when he was serving in the Bureau of Yards and Docks -of the Navy Department when Mr. Roosevelt was assistant secretary of -that Department. He entered the employ of the United States through -the civil service, having been appointed a civil engineer in the Navy -with the rank of lieutenant, after a competitive examination in 1898. -For four years he was an engineer of the bureau of which he -afterwards became chief, and for four years following, from 1903 to -1907, he was engineer of the improvements of Mare Island Navy Yard, -California. The duties of Commissioner Rousseau were changed from time -to time, and he was finally given charge of the work of constructing -the terminals at the ends of the canal. At the same time he was made -assistant to the chief engineer, having charge of all mechanical -questions arising on the canal. - -When Jackson Smith, one of the two civilian members of the Canal -Commission, resigned, he was succeeded by an Army officer, Col. Harry -F. Hodges, who would have been a member of the commission from the -first, upon the request of Colonel Goethals, had not the United States -Engineer Corps required his services. Colonel Hodges was graduated -from the United States Military Academy in 1881, and immediately -entered upon seven years of duty on river and harbor improvements in -the United States. This was followed by four years' service as -assistant professor of engineering at West Point, and that duty, in -turn, by six years of work on rivers and harbors and fortifications. -During the Spanish American War he served in Porto Rico, and then -returned to river and harbor duty for two years. In 1901-02 he was -chief engineer of the Department of Cuba, from which duty he was -transferred to the War Department, where he became assistant to the -chief of engineers. His experience in river and harbor work, coupled -with his success as the designer of the locks of the American Sault -Ste. Marie Canal, fitted him for the work at Panama. He became -assistant chief engineer and purchasing agent of the canal in 1907, -and the following year was chosen a member of the commission to -succeed Mr. Smith. The work of designing the locks and the lock -machinery fell upon his shoulders. - -When President Roosevelt wanted a man to handle the delicate problems -arising out of the peculiar relations with the Republic of Panama and -the United States, he selected Joseph C. S. Blackburn, of Kentucky, -who had just finished a long term of service in the United States -Senate. Senator Blackburn was well equipped for such a position, -combining that suavity indicated by the velvet glove with that -determination of purpose which lies in the iron hand. - -The service of Col. William C. Gorgas, the chief sanitary officer on -the Isthmus, began earlier than that of any of the higher officials. -He went to the Isthmus immediately after it was taken over by the -United States. He has been described as a man "with a gentle manner, -but with a hard policy toward the mosquito." He was born in Mobile, -Ala., in 1854, the son of Gen. Josiah Gorgas, of the Confederate Army. -He became a member of the Medical Corps of the United States Army in -1880, and since his work at the head of the Cuban health campaign his -name has been a household word in the United States. - -In establishing the Isthmian Canal Commission, which was destined to -make the Panama Canal a reality, President Roosevelt selected Joseph -Bucklin Bishop as its secretary. Mr. Bishop was made the editor of the -Canal Record, a weekly paper which was the official organ of the -Canal Commission. He is a born investigator and when any matter arose -concerning the work on the canal, about which the chief engineer -desired an impartial report, he usually referred it to Mr. Bishop. - -When the matter of organizing the work arose it was decided to arouse -a spirit of emulation and rivalry, and S. B. Williamson, a civilian -engineer, was put in charge of the Pacific end of the canal, with -duties similar to those of the Army engineer on the Atlantic side. Mr. -Williamson proved to be a master of the art of accomplishing a great -deal with a given amount of money, and the cost sheets of the Pacific -end will ever stand as a monument to his efficiency. - -The list of engineers and other officials who contributed to the -success of the work at Panama is a long one, but among them may be -mentioned: Col. Chester Harding, who was the resident engineer at -Gatun; W. G. Comber, who headed the dredging work on the Pacific end -of the canal during the early days of the American undertaking, of the -entire canal during the final stages; W. G. Rourke, who was resident -engineer in Culebra Cut for a number of years; Caleb M. Saville, who -worked out the data for the construction of the Gatun Dam; H. O. Cole, -who succeeded S. B. Williamson on the Pacific end work; Lieut. -Frederick Mears, who relocated the Panama Railroad; John Burke, who -had charge of the commissary; Maj. Eugene T. Wilson, the chief -subsistence officer; Brig. Gen. C. A. Devol, who was in charge of the -quartermaster's department; E. J. Williams, Jr., the disbursing -officer; and Col. Tom F. Cook, the picturesque chief of the Division -of Posts and Customs. - -To all these, and to scores of others who are not mentioned here -merely because of the limitations of space, the American people owe -the great success at Panama. The organization was imbued with a spirit -of loyalty to the great task, and having its accomplishment singly in -mind there was little room for jealous bickerings and none at all for -scandal and corruption. - -Every man who had a part in it always will be proud of his share, and -that pride will be supported and justified by all Americans. - - - - -CHAPTER XII - -THE AMERICAN WORKERS - - -The directory, supervisory, and mechanical work in constructing the -canal was done by Americans. The engineers, the foremen, the steam -shovelers, the operators of spoil trains, the concrete mixers, and, in -short, the skilled workers were American citizens; the common and -unskilled laborers were West Indians and Europeans. It is to the -American workers therefore that the credit is due, for without their -direction and aid in every operation the work could not have been -done. - -Never was there a more loyal, a more earnest, a more enthusiastic band -of workmen than these same Americans. The steam shoveler felt as much -pride, as much responsibility, in the task as did the chief engineer. - -The difficulties under which they labored, the enervating climate, the -absence from home, the lack of diversion and recreation, but served to -temper the steel in their make-up. The American spirit was there, -dominating every detail of the whole big job. Every man was determined -to "make good," not for himself alone, but for the organization of -which he was a part, and for his country. - -In the beginning conditions were bad. There were few conveniences to -make life comfortable, and innumerable inconveniences harassing those -who went there. The food was bad and the water was not as good as the -food. The quarters were old French houses rescued from the jungle and -filled with scorpions. - -The result was that few of those who first went to the Isthmus -remained, and those who returned to the United States spread far and -wide reports of bad conditions on the Isthmus. - -With this situation in mind the Canal Commission decided that two -things had to be done. Wholesome living conditions had to be created -for the people who came to the Isthmus, and a standard of wages had to -be set that would prove attractive to good men at home. It was thus -that the pay for the Americans on the canal came to be placed at 50 -per cent higher than pay for the same character of work in the States. -This soon proved a strong incentive to men to leave the States and go -to Panama, and as living conditions were improved the number of men -willing to accept work on the Isthmus increased. - -Two classes of Americans turned their faces toward the Tropics as a -result of the inducements held out by the Canal Commission. One was -made up of those who were willing to go and stay a year or two, -accumulating in that time experience and, perhaps, saving some little -money; the other was made up of men whose desire was to go to the -Isthmus and stay with the job, utilizing the opportunities it afforded -for building up a comfortable bank account. - -[Illustration: BRIG. GEN. CARROLL A. DEVOL - -AMERICAN LIVING QUARTERS AT CRISTOBAL] - -[Illustration: HARRY H. ROUSSEAU - -LOWERING A CAISSON SECTION] - -As the work moved forward those of weak purpose and indifference to -opportunity gradually dropped out. Their places were taken by others, -until through a process of years of elimination there were -approximately 5,000 Americans at Panama when the canal was finished; -an army was made up almost wholly of men with a purpose in life and -consequently of men who could be relied upon to do their work to the -best of their ability. The result was that the last years of the task -of construction saw every man loyal to his work and anxious to see the -job move forward. - -American visitors to the Isthmus had occasion to be proud of their -countrymen there. Every tourist from a foreign country has commented -upon the distinguished courtesy received at the hands of these men. -One of them, perhaps England's most noted travel lecturer, said: - -"The thing which impressed me more than anything else, outside of the -gigantic work and the masterful way in which it is being done, was the -exquisite courtesy of every American I met during my stay. I found -every one of them not only ready to give such information as he might -have but glad to do so. Each man was as proud of the work as if it -were his own, and as ready to show his part of it to a stranger as if -that stranger were his best friend. It was a delight to me from -beginning to end to see the magnificent type of American manhood at -work, and the pride taken by every worker in the project." - -Every other tourist brought away the same impression. A man who went -there without any other credentials than a desire to see the work was -shown the same courtesy and consideration as one with a pocketful of -letters of introduction. - -The Americans on the Isthmus did not count any hardship too great if -it were demanded for the successful prosecution of the work. A case in -point is that of J. A. Loulan, the engineer in charge of the -rock-crushing plant at Ancon. One morning he was introduced to a -visitor from the States who remarked that everything seemed to be -running so smoothly that he supposed the work of a supervising -engineer was no longer a difficult task. "Well," replied the engineer, -"at least it does not pay to worry. Last night at 2 o'clock I was -called out of bed by telephone and informed that a Jamaican negro -hostler had accidentally knocked the chock from under the wheels of an -engine he was firing up, and that it had run down the grade and off -the end of the track into about two feet of soft earth. We worked from -that time on until breakfast to get the engine back, and were -satisfied to know that the accident did not delay the operations at -the crusher. Not a man of the force was late getting back to work -after four hours of strenuous extra night duty." - -Speaking of the patience of the men Commissioner H. H. Rousseau said, -"The reason for all this is not far to seek; the man who has 'nerves' -would never stick it out on a job like this. The climate, the exile -from home, and the character of the work all conspire against the man -who can not be patient. He soon finds that the Isthmus is no place for -him. The result is that a process of elimination has gone on until the -men who have 'nerves' have all left and their places filled with -those who are stoical enough to take things as they come." - -The Americans on the Isthmus were early risers. The first train from -Colon for Panama leaves about 5 o'clock and the first train from -Panama for Colon at 6:50. Almost any morning during the construction -period one might walk into the dining room at the Tivoli Hotel and see -a number of canal engineers breakfasting there who had left Colon on -the early train. When one of them was asked if he did not find it -something of a hardship to rise so early, he replied: - -"Well, you see, from the standpoint of a man just from the States it -would seem rather an unheard-of hour for a man to get out and go to -work; but we have to meet conditions as we find them down here, and we -soon get reconciled to it. There is scarcely a night that I am not -called by telephone two or three times, and I have to get up in time -to catch the early train several mornings in the week, so I get up at -the same hour the other mornings as well. We are well paid, and we owe -it to our country to make whatever sacrifices the work demands. And -after a month or two we get out of the habit of feeling that it is a -sacrifice." - -It is this spirit of devotion to the work that enabled the canal -authorities to press it to a successful completion with such -unprecedented rapidity. These men knew full well that their sacrifices -in the interest of progress were appreciated. The most rigid spirit of -friendly competition was maintained from the beginning. - -The spirit of rivalry nowhere counted for more than among the -steam-shovel men. In 1907 it was decided to publish in the Canal -Record the best steam-shovel performances from week to week. This -immediately put every steam-shovel gang on its mettle, and soon there -was a great race with nearly a hundred entries, a race that continued -from that day until the completion of the excavation. The result was -that records of steam-shovel performances were made eclipsing -everything that had gone before. The average daily excavation per -shovel rose from year to year until it was double in the end what it -was in the beginning. - -As heretofore pointed out, the process of elimination that went on -continuously during the construction work sent large numbers of -American workers back to the States from the Isthmus. During a single -year about three-fifths of the Americans threw up their jobs and -returned home. The average stay of Americans during the construction -period was about a year. Bachelors were much more given to returning -to the States than married men. The endless round of working, eating, -sleeping, with its small chance of diversion, made the average -bachelor glad to get back to the States within two years. On the other -hand, the married men found home life just about as pleasant as in the -States. They had with them about 2,000 women, and as many children. -Many of the latter were born under the American Eagle at Panama. - -The boys who were born there may, if they choose, become native -Panamans. The son of a former President of Panama, in talking with -Commissioner Rousseau, advised him to make a Panaman citizen of -little Harry Harwood Rousseau, Jr. "You see," said he, and he spoke in -all earnestness and seriousness, "he will stand so much better chance -of becoming President of the Republic of Panama than of becoming -President of the United States." - -The American children on the Zone, brimming over with life and health, -proved conclusively that the Tropics worked no hardship upon them. - -The Canal Commission, from the beginning to the end, made the welfare -of the army of workers one of its first cares. As the days of a -completed canal approached, every effort was made to enable the -employees who had to be laid off to find employment in the States. -Provision was made that they could accumulate their leave of absence -in such a way as to entitle them to 84 days of full pay after leaving. -This was arranged so as to give them sufficient time to establish -connections in the States again, without being forced to do it without -pay. - -Close records also were kept of each employee, and the official -immediately over each man was ordered to give him a rating card -showing his record on the Canal Zone. No higher credentials could be -carried by anyone seeking employment than to have a card from the -Canal Commission showing a rating of "Excellent." - -Owing to the firmness with which the commission ruled, there was -little trouble in the way of strikes. In 1910 a lot of boiler makers -who were getting 65 cents an hour on the per diem basis, struck for 75 -cents an hour. Their demands were not met and some of them threw up -their jobs. The commission immediately arranged with its Washington -office to fill their places, and they had no chance whatever to get -further employment on the Isthmus. - -The commission was given the power, by President Roosevelt, to order -anyone to leave the Isthmus whose presence there was regarded as a -detriment to the work. The result was that as soon as any man was -found to be fomenting trouble, he was advised that a ship was -returning to the United States on a certain date and that it would be -expedient for him to take passage thereon. This power of deportation -was more autocratic than any like power in the United States, but it -proved of immense value in keeping things going satisfactorily at -Panama. It was a power whose exercise was called for but few times, -since the very fact that the commission had the power was usually a -sufficient deterrent. - -There are two societies on the Isthmus which tell of the effects of -homesickness of the Americans in the employ of the Canal -Commission--the Incas, and the Society of the Chagres. The Incas are a -group of men who meet annually on May 4th for a dinner. The one -requirement for membership in this dining club is service on the canal -from the beginning of the American occupation. In 1913 about 60 men -were left on the Isthmus of all those Americans who were there at the -time of the transfer of the canal property to the United States in -1904. - -The Society of the Chagres was organized in the fall of 1911. It is -made up of American white employees who have worked six years -continuously on the canal. When President Roosevelt visited the -Isthmus in the late fall of 1906 he declared that he intended to -provide some memorial or badge which would always distinguish the man -who for a certain space of time had done his work well on the Isthmus, -just as the button of the Grand Army distinguishes the man who did his -work well in the Civil War. Two years later a ton of copper, bronze, -and tin was taken from old French locomotives and excavators and -shipped to Philadelphia, where it was made into medals by the United -States Mint. These medals are about the size of a dollar and each -person who has served two years is entitled to one. It is estimated -that by the time the last work is done on the canal, about 6,000 of -these medals will have been distributed. For each additional two years -a man worked, the Canal Commission gave a bar of the same material. - -The Society of the Chagres, therefore, is made up of men who have -served at least six years, and who have won their medals and two -service bars. The emblem of the society is a circular button showing -on a small, black background six horizontal bars in gold which are -surrounded by a narrow gold border. In 1913 only about 400 out of the -many thousands of Americans at one time or another employed in the -construction of the Panama Canal were entitled to wear the insignia of -this society. - - - - -CHAPTER XIII - -THE NEGRO WORKERS - - -The West Indian negro contributed about 60 per cent of the brawn -required to build the Panama Canal. When the United States undertook -the work the West Indian negro had a bad reputation as a workman. It -was said that he lacked physical strength; that he had little or no -pluck; that he was absolutely unreliable; that he was unusually -susceptible to disease; and that in view of these things the canal -never could be finished if he were to supply the greater part of the -labor. But he lived down this bad reputation in large part, and, -although it must be admitted that he is shiftless always, inconstant -frequently, and exasperating as a rule, he developed into a good -workman. - -The Government paid the West Indian laborer 90 cents a day, furnished -him with free lodgings in quarters, and sold him three square meals a -day for 9 cents each, a total of 27 cents a day for board and lodging. -On the balance of 63 cents, the West Indian negro who saved was able -to go back home and become a sort of Rockefeller among his -compatriots. His possible savings, as a matter of fact, were about two -and a half times the total wages he received in his native country. - -But the sanitary quarters, and the necessarily strict discipline -maintained therein, did not please him. He yearned for his thatched -hut in the "bush," for his family, and the freedom of the tropical -world. Thus the homesickness of the well-quartered, well-fed negro -became a greater hindrance to the work than the ill-fed condition of -the "bush dweller." The result was that the commission reached the -conclusion that it could better maintain a suitable force by allowing -the negroes to live as they chose. Therefore, permission was given -them to live in the "bush," and about nine-tenths of them promptly -exchanged the sanitary restrictions of the commission quarters, and -the wholesome food of the commission mess kitchen, for the _dolce far -niente_ of the "bush." The result of this experiment in larger liberty -was in part a success and in part a failure. The list of names on the -roll of workers was largely lengthened, but there was no great -addition to the force of the men at work on any given day. It was a -common saying in the Zone that if the negro were paid twice as much he -would work only half as long. Most of them worked about four days a -week and enjoyed themselves the other three. It may be that the "bush -dweller" was not fed as scientifically as the man in the quarters, but -he had his chickens, his yam and bean patch, his family and his -fiddle, and he made up in enjoyment what he lost in scientific care. - -Marriage bonds are loose in the West Indies, and common-law marriages -are the rule rather than the exception. But, as one traveled across -the Isthmus and saw the hundreds of little thatched huts lining the -edge of the jungle, he could see that the families who lived there -seemed to be as happy, and the children as numerous, as though both -civil and religious marriage ceremonies had bound man and wife -together. - -When the Americans first began work it was an accepted dictum that one -Spaniard or one Italian could do as much work as three negroes. The -negroes seemed to be weak. It took six of them to carry a railroad tie -where two Spaniards might carry it as well. This belief that the -Spaniard was more efficient than the negro stirred the West Indians to -get down to work, and in a year or two they were almost as efficient -while they were working as were the Spaniards, but the Spaniards -worked six days a week while the negroes worked only four. - -Of course there were those who spent practically everything as they -made it, and they constituted no small percentage of the total negro -force. But, on the other hand, some of the negroes were industrious, -constant, and thrifty. They saved all they could, working steadily for -a year or two, and then went back to Jamaica or Barbados to invest -their money in a bit of land and become freeholders and consequently -better citizens. - -The negro laborers at first were obtained by recruiting agents at work -in the various West Indian Islands, principally Jamaica and Barbados. -The recruiting service carried about 30,000 to the Isthmus, of whom -20,000 were from Barbados and 6,000 from Jamaica. It was not more than -a year or two, however, after the work got under way, until there was -little occasion for recruiting. Every ship that went back to Barbados -or to Jamaica carried with it some who had made what they considered -a sufficient fortune. Every community possessed those who had gone to -Panama with only the clothes on their backs, a small tin trunk, a -dollar canvas steamer chair and, mayhap, a few chickens; and who had -come back with savings enough to set them up for life. This fired -dozens from each of those same communities with the desire to go and -do likewise. The result was that the canal employment lists were kept -full by those who came on their own initiative. - -The terms of entrance to the Canal Zone were easy, the steerage fares -were low, and as a result the excess of arrivals over departures -sometimes amounted to 20,000 in a single year. The steamship companies -had to keep careful and persistent watch to prevent stowaways. Even at -that there were hundreds who sought to reach the Isthmus in this way -in spite of the fact that they were usually carried back without being -permitted to land at Colon. - -There was little or no friction between the whites and the blacks on -the Canal Zone. This immunity from racial clashes resulted from two -causes--one was the incomparable courtesy of the West Indian negro and -the other his knowledge that he could expect good treatment only so -long as he kept out of trouble. Few of them, indeed, were ever -inclined to be offensive. They are usually educated in the three -"R's," and are also very polite. Ask one a question and the answer -will be: "Oh, yes, Sir," or "Oh, no, Sir," or if he has not -understood, "Beg pardon, Sir." He would no more omit the honorific -than a Japanese maiden addressing her father would forget to call him -"Honorable." - -The different types of West Indian negroes found on the Canal Zone -constituted an endless study in human characteristics. They were all -great lovers of travel, and no regular train ever made a trip without -from two to half a dozen coaches filled with them. After pay day -practically every negro on the Zone was wont to get out and get a -glimpse of the country. - -Without exception they are adepts in carrying things on their heads; -consequently, they usually possess an erect carriage and splendid -bearing. It is said that the first ambition of a West Indian negro -child is to learn to carry things on its head in imitation of its -parents. Frequently a negro will be seen with nothing in either hand, -but carrying a closed umbrella balanced horizontally on his head. Once -in a while one may be seen to get a letter from the post office, place -it on top of his head, weight it down with a stone, and march off -without any apparent knowledge that he has executed a circus stunt. - -Some of the negroes who came to work on the canal never saw a -wheelbarrow before arriving there. Upon one occasion some French -negroes from Martinique were placed on a job of pick and shovel work. -Three of them loaded a wheelbarrow with earth, then one of them -stooped down, the other two put the wheelbarrow on his head and he -walked away with it. But, with all of his inexperience, the Martinique -negro proved to be the best West Indian worker on the canal. - -The Martinique negroes were the most picturesque of all the West -Indians on the job. The women wore striking though simple costumes, -bandana handkerchiefs around their heads, and bright-colored calico -dresses usually caught up on one side or at the back, thus -anticipating the Parisian fashion of the slit skirt by many years. - -A large number of the negroes lived in small tenement houses built by -private capital, and oftener than not one room served the entire -family. Nearly every one of the American settlements had its West -Indian quarter where these buildings and the Chinese stores flourished -to the exclusion of everything else. At the Pacific end of the Panama -Railroad there was a suburb known as Caledonia, which was given over -almost entirely to West Indian families. One could drive through there -any day and see half-grown children dressed only in Eden's garb. In -other parts of the canal territory one saw very few naked children -except in the back streets of Colon. - -The Government took the best of care of the negroes on the work during -the entire construction period. There were hospital facilities at both -ends of the canal and sick camps along the line. The commissary -protected them against extortion by the native merchants and gave them -the same favorable rates enjoyed by the Americans. The color line was -kindly but firmly drawn throughout the work, the negroes being -designated as silver employees and the Americans as gold employees. -The post offices had signs indicating which entrances were for silver -employees and which for gold employees. The commissaries had the same -provisions, and the railroad company made the general distinction as -much as it could by first and second class passenger rates. Very few -of the negroes ever made any protest against this. Once in awhile an -American negro would go to the post office and be told that he must -call at the "silver" window. He would protest for awhile, but finding -it useless, would acquiesce. - -The idea of speaking of "silver and gold employees," rather than black -and white employees, was originated by E. J. Williams, Jr., the -disbursing officer of the Canal Commission. He first put this -designation on the entrances to the pay car and it was immediately -adopted as the solution of the troubles growing out of the -intermingling of the races. - -One of the most interesting experiences that could come to any visitor -to the Isthmus was a trip across the Zone on the pay car; to see 24 -tons of silver and 1,600 pounds of gold paid out for a single month's -work; and to watch the 30,000 negroes, the 5,000 Americans, and the -3,000 or 4,000 Europeans on the job file through the pay car and get -their money. The negroes were usually a good-natured, grinning lot of -men and boys, but they were wont to get impatient, not with the amount -of money they drew but with its weight. Under an agreement with the -Panama Government the Canal Commission endeavored to keep the Panaman -silver money at par. Two dollars Panaman money was worth one dollar -American, and the employees were paid in Panaman coin. Thus a negro -who earned $22 during the month would get 44 of the "spiggoty" -dollars. These "spiggoty" dollars are the same size as our own silver -dollars and to carry them around was something of a task. - -When the negroes were asked what they proposed to do with their money -the almost invariable reply was: "Put it to a good use, sir." American -money was always at a premium with them and the money-changers in the -various towns usually did a land-office business on pay day. - -Paper money was not used on the pay car at all. In the first place, -there was always danger of its blowing away, and in the second place -paper money in the hands of negro workmen soon assumed a most -unsanitary condition. The negroes were always desirous of getting -American paper money because they could send it home more cheaply than -gold. - -Large numbers of West Indian women, the majority of them with their -relatives, lived on the Zone during the construction period. They were -for the most part industrious and made very good household servants. -They were nearly always polite and deferential, some of them even -saying, "Please, Ma'am," when saying "Good morning." - -It was a rare experience to travel on a ship carrying workers to the -Canal Zone from the Islands of the West Indies. Ships calling at -Kingston, Jamaica, would usually take on a hundred or more passengers. -They would be quartered either forward or aft on the main deck. They -would carry aboard with them all kinds of small packages. Some would -have small boxes of chickens or pigeons, and some little old -sawbuck-fashioned folding beds covered with canvas. As soon as -inspected by the doctor for trachoma each negro would select the most -favorable spot, gather his furniture around him, and settle down in -one place, there to remain almost without moving during the whole of -the 40-hour trip across the Caribbean. When the water was fine and the -sailing smooth the first cabin passengers might conclude that they -were carrying a negro camp meeting. On the other hand, if the weather -were bad and the sea rough, a sicker lot of people nowhere might be -found. One of the favorite negro preventives of seasickness is St. -Thomas bay rum applied liberally to the face, although to the -on-looker it never seems to prevent or cure a single case. - -Before landing at Colon every one of these negroes had to be -vaccinated. Almost without exception they tried to prevent the virus -"taking" by rubbing the scarified spot with lime juice or with some -other preparation. Meals on board generally consisted of rice and -potatoes, and, perhaps, coffee and bread. One might see a dozen young -girls in a group eating with one hand and with the other polishing -their complexions with the half of a lime. - -With all his faults--and they were not few--the West Indian negro -laborer probably was the best workman that could have been employed -for the job at Panama. He was usually as irresponsible, as carefree, -and yet as reliable a workman as our own American cottonfield hand. He -made a law-abiding citizen on the Zone, was tractable as a workman, -and pretty certain always to make a fair return to the United States -on the money it paid him in wages. - -Under the firm but gentle guidance of the master American hand, he -did his work so well that he has forever erased from the record of his -kind certain charges of inefficiency and laziness that had long stood -as a black mark against him. - -The Canal Commission so appreciated his good work that it made -arrangements to return him to his native country when his services no -longer were required, there to take up the life he led before he heard -the call of the "spiggoty" dollars that took him across the Caribbean. - -He will miss the life on the Isthmus. He was worked harder, he was -treated better, and he was paid higher wages there than he ever will -be again in his life. Perhaps he has saved; if so, he retires to be a -nabob. Perhaps he has wasted; if so, he must go back to the -hand-to-mouth existence that he knew in the days before. - -But after all, the experience of the thousands of West Indian negroes -employed on the canal will have a stimulating effect on their home -countries, and their general level of industrial and social conditions -will be raised. - -At any rate, the American Republic always must stand indebted to these -easy-going, care-free black men who supplied the brawn to break the -giant back of Culebra. - - - - -CHAPTER XIV - -THE COMMISSARY - - -To build the canal required the labor of some fifty thousand men. To -induce these men to go to Panama, to stay there, to work there, and to -work there efficiently, was no light undertaking. Health was promised -them by the most efficient sanitary organization that ever battled -with disease. Wealth was promised them, relatively speaking, in the -form of wages and salaries much higher than they could obtain at home -for the same work. But health and wealth, much desired and much prized -as they are, can not of themselves compensate for transplanting a man -to an alien shore and an alien atmosphere, especially if that shore be -tropic and that atmosphere hot. There must also be comfort. - -And comfort was promised to the canal diggers by the commissary -department. Good food at prices cheaper than one pays in the United -States, and quarters of the best--these things the commissary held out -as a part of the rewards at Panama. - -Of course this was not the chief object of the commissary -department--it was the incidental factor that in the end almost -obscured the main issue. The main business was so well done that -everybody took it for granted, just as no one will remark about the -sun shining although that is the most important fact we know. The main -business of the commissary was to keep the canal diggers fed and -housed so that they would have the strength for their tasks. How this -was done, how fresh beef and ice cream were made daily staples in -tropic Panama, how the canal army was fed, is a big story in itself. - -The history of the French regime was such as to prejudice the whole -world against the canal region and to deter any but the most -adventurous spirit from entering there into a gamble with death. The -Americans soon found that without extraordinary inducements it would -be next to impossible to recruit a force able to build the canal. -Therefore it was determined to make the rewards so great that extra -dollars to be gained by going to Panama would outweigh the fears of -those who had any desire to go. It was decided to pay the employees of -the Canal Commission and the Panama Railroad Company wages and -salaries approximately one-half higher than those obtaining at home -for the same work. Furthermore, it was decided that the Government -should furnish free quarters, free medical service, free light, and -other items which enter into the expense budget of the average family. -It was found advisable to establish Government hotels, messes, and -kitchens, where the needs of every employee from the highest officer -to the most lowly negro laborer could be met, and to operate them at -cost. - -Still another problem had to be faced; that of providing places where -the people employed in building the canal could escape from the high -prices fixed by the merchants of Panama and Colon. With this end in -view, a great department store, carrying upward of 5,000 different -articles, was built at Cristobal. This store established branches in -every settlement of canal workers where patrons could go to ship and -receive the benefit of prices much lower than those prevailing with -regular Panaman merchants. - -Anyone who will study carefully the annual reports of the operation of -the commissary of the Panama Railroad Company, will realize what great -profits are made by the various middlemen in the United States who -handle food products between the producer and the consumer. In 1912 -the commissary had gross sales amounting to $6,702,000, with purchases -amounting to $5,325,000. This represents a gross profit of 26 per -cent. The cost of transportation from New York and distribution on the -Isthmus, amounted to about 24 per cent, leaving a net profit of -approximately 2 per cent on the sales of goods. When it is remembered -that transportation of commissary products from New York amounted -approximately to a quarter of a million dollars a year, and that wagon -deliveries on the Isthmus added $50,000 a year to this, it will be -seen that the expenses of distribution at Panama were approximately on -the same footing with those in the United States. - -In the case of dressed beef, one finds a most illuminating example of -how it is possible to sell the ordinary items of a family budget to -the consumer at rates much lower than those obtaining in the United -States. According to the most authentic information dressed beef laid -down at Panama costs more, quality for quality, than it costs the -ordinary retail butcher in the States. At one time in 1912 the -commissary was paying $11.94-1/4 a hundred pounds for whole dressed -beeves laid down in New York. This was for the best corn-fed western -steers, a grade of beef that is found only in the best retail butcher -shops of any American city. Yet, with the expense of ocean-refrigerator -carriage added, and with other operating costs equal to those of the -retail butcher in the States, the commissary found it possible to sell -to the consumer, delivered at his kitchen door, porterhouse steaks -from this beef at 20 cents, sirloin steaks and roasts at 19 cents, and -round steaks at 13 cents a pound. At this same time the average -American housewife was paying from 26 to 30 cents for porterhouse -steaks, from 22 to 26 cents for sirloin steaks and roasts, and from 17 -to 22 cents for round steaks; and in the butcher shops in the United -States where grades of meat comparable to those at Panama were handled -the figures were usually around the top quotations. - -One cannot escape asking the question how it is that if the Panama -Railroad commissary could pay approximately 12 cents a pound for -dressed beef at New York, deliver it in refrigeration at Cristobal, -thence to the housewife by train and wagon, and make a gross profit of -some 26 per cent by the operation, that the American retail butcher -can reasonably claim that at the price he sells his meat he is making -little or no net profit. - -One finds the same scale of prices on other commodities at Panama as -meats. Only the very best goods are handled in the commissary. Any -reasonable need of any employee could be supplied by the commissary at -prices probably lower than a retail merchant in the United States -could buy the same commodities. - -A few instances of how the commissary fared when its supply ran short -will serve to illustrate the grasping disposition of the average -Panaman merchant. - -In one case high waters in the Chagres interrupted traffic on the -Panama Railroad, and the price of ice in Panama City promptly jumped -from 50 cents to $1 a hundred pounds. At another time a ship bringing -coffee to the Isthmus ran aground and the commissary had to buy coffee -in the Panama market. It had to pay 6 cents a pound more at wholesale -for the coffee than it was selling for at retail in Panama the day -before the ship went aground. On another occasion a vessel carrying a -supply of milk went ashore and the wholesale price of that commodity -jumped a hundred per cent overnight. The Panaman merchants made a long -and persistent fight to get the privilege of doing the business which -is done by the commissary, but the canal officials were too wise to -allow the working force to be dependent upon native business men for -family budget needs. - -Although the commissary did an annual business of nearly $7,000,000 a -year during the height of the construction period, it received -comparatively little actual money for the commodities it sold. A great -deal of this business was with the subsistence department of the Canal -Commission, furnishing supplies for the hotels, European laborers' -messes, and common laborers' kitchens. Practically all of the -remainder was with the employees of the commission, and was done -through coupon books. When an individual wanted to buy from the -commissary he asked that a coupon book be issued him. If it were found -that he had sufficient money coming to him for services rendered to -cover the cost of the book, it was issued to him and the clerk in the -commissary detached coupons to cover the purchases. When the monthly -pay roll was made up, the cost of the coupon books was deducted from -the amount due the employee for services. Many employees and their -families lived too far away from the commissaries to make daily -visits, so they simply deposited their coupon books with the main -commissary at Cristobal and sent their orders in by mail from day to -day. The commissary clerks would fill these written orders, sending -the goods out on the first train. - -In addition to buying and selling products for the benefit of the -canal workers, the commissary operated a number of manufacturing -establishments. It had a bakery using some 20,000 barrels of flour, -baking 6,000,000 loaves of bread and other things in proportion -annually; an ice-cream plant freezing 138,000 gallons of ice-cream -annually; a laundry washing 4,250,000 pieces a year; a coffee-roasting -plant; and a large cold-storage warehouse. About 70,000 people were -constantly supplied with commodities from the commissary. - -In its efforts to meet the needs of the several classes of employees -on the Canal Zone the commission established four different kinds of -eating places,--a large general hotel, a score of line hotels, -Spanish messes, and West Indian laborers' kitchens. At Ancon it built -the large Tivoli Hotel costing half a million dollars, for the -accommodation of visitors; and of those high-class employees who -desired modern hotel facilities. This hotel is the social center of -the Canal Zone. Here practically all of the tourists come and stay -while on the Isthmus. - -During the year 1912 this hotel cleared $53,000 in its operations. The -cost of the supplies for the meals served, of which there were -161,000, was approximately 51 cents per meal. The cost of services was -approximately 19 cents, making a total of 70 cents per meal. The rates -were $3 up to $5.50 a day, employees being given special concessions. - -[Illustration: JOHN BURKE - -MEAL TIME AT AN I. C. C. KITCHEN] - -[Illustration: WASHINGTON HOTEL, COLON - -MAJOR EUGENE T. WILSON - -THE TIVOLI HOTEL, ANCON] - -The line hotels were, more properly speaking, merely dining-rooms -where the American employees were furnished substantial meals for 30 -cents each. Outsiders paid 50 cents each for these meals. They were up -to a very high standard. Once the late Senator Thomas H. Carter, of -Montana, was a member of a Senate committee visiting the Isthmus and -he invited the subsistence officer, Maj. Wilson, to come to Washington -and show the manager of the Senate restaurant how to prepare a good -meal. A year later, after Senator Albert B. Cummins, of Iowa, had -eaten one of the lunches at Gatun, he renewed the invitation of -Senator Carter, telling Maj. Wilson he was sure that if he were to -come Senators would get better meals for their money. At one of the -Congressional hearings on the Isthmus Representative T. W. Sims, of -Tennessee, asked that the menu of a meal he had eaten at one of these -hotels be inserted in the record. Major Wilson inserted the menu for -several days instead. The following is the menu at the Cristobal Hotel -for January 20, 1912: - -Breakfast.--Oranges, sliced bananas, oatmeal, eggs to order, German -potatoes, ham or bacon, hot cakes, maple sirup, tea, coffee, cocoa. - -Lunch.--Vegetable soup, fried pork chops, apple sauce, boiled -potatoes, pork and beans, sliced buttered beets, stewed cranberries, -creamed parsnips, lemon meringue pie, tea, coffee, cocoa. - -Dinner.--Consomme vermicelli, beefsteak, natural gravy, lyonnaise -potatoes, stewed beans, sliced beets, stewed apples, carrots a la -Julienne, hot biscuits, ice-cream, chocolate cake, tea, coffee, cocoa. - -The line hotels in 1912, which were operated at a loss of $12,000, -served over 2,000,000 meals. The cost of the supplies per meal -amounted to $0.2504 and the service to $0.0165, making the average -meal cost $0.3065, while the employees were charged 30 cents. -Approximately 2,000 Americans were continuous patrons of the line -hotels. - -The messes for European laborers were operated in 1912 at a total cost -of $405,000. The returns from their operations amounted to $443,000, -showing a net profit of $38,000 on 1,108,000 rations. The net profit -per day's ration approximated 3-1/2 cents. The supplies entering into -the ration cost $0.3106 and the service of preparing it $0.0547. - -The national diet for Europeans would appear very monotonous to -Americans. For the Spaniards who constituted the major portion of the -European employees, it was a "rancho," which is a mixture of stewed -meat, potatoes, cabbage, tomatoes and garbanzos heavily flavored with -Spanish sweet pepper. Their soups were made very stiff, really a meal -in themselves, since they were about the consistency of Irish stew -mashed up. A day's ration for Spanish laborers ran about as follows: - -Breakfast.--Roast beef, pork sausage, corned-beef, sardines or bacon, -one-half loaf of bread, chocolate and milk. - -Dinner.--Garbanzos or macaroni, roast beef or hamburger steak, fried -potatoes, oranges or bananas, one-half loaf of bread, coffee. - -Supper.--Rice soup, peas or beans, rancho, one-quarter loaf of bread, -tea. - -The Government charged the European laborers 40 cents a day for their -meals. Their mess halls were large, airy, comfortable and -conspicuously clean. The European laborers nearly all patronized these -mess halls; about 3,200 of them constantly were fed at these places. - -Wherever there was a West Indian negro settlement along the line of -the canal the commission operated a mess kitchen. These kitchens were -kept scrupulously clean and the laborers were furnished meals at 9 -cents each. Each laborer who patronized the kitchen had his little kit -into which the attendants put his meal, and he could carry it anywhere -he desired to eat it. In spite of the fact that these meals -corresponded almost exactly to the American Regular Army field -rations, they were never popular with the West Indian negroes. -Although there were some 25,000 of these laborers on the canal in -1912, only a little more than a half million rations were issued to -them during the year. Less than 15 per cent of the negro force -patronized the commission kitchen. - -The following is a specimen day's ration in a West Indian kitchen: - -Breakfast.--Cocoa and milk, porridge, bread, jam. - -Dinner.--Pea soup, beef, doughboys, rice, bread, bananas. - -Supper.--Stewed beef, boiled potatoes, stewed navy beans, bread, tea. - -During the construction period of the canal the average American -received approximately $150 a month for his labor. Those who were -married and remained in the service a reasonable time were provided, -rent free, with family quarters. Their light bills were never -rendered, the coal for their kitchen stoves cost them nothing, and the -iceman never came around to collect. The bachelors were provided with -bachelor quarters with the necessary furniture for making them -comfortable. The average married quarters cost from $1,200 to $1,800 -each, and the average quarters for a bachelor about $500 to construct. -The higher officials had separate houses; lesser officials were -furnished with semi-detached houses. The majority of the rank and file -of American married employees were housed in roomy, four-flat houses. -The verandas were broad and screened in with the best copper netting, -and all quarters were provided with necessary furniture at Government -expense. - -The assignment of quarters and furniture called for a great deal of -diplomacy on the part of the quartermaster's department, since, if -Mrs. Jones happened to visit Mrs. Smith, and found that she had a -swell-front dresser in her bedroom, while her own was a straight-front -dresser, an irate lady was very shortly calling on the district -quartermaster and demanding to know why such discrimination should be -practiced. Perhaps she had been on the Canal Zone longer than Mrs. -Smith, and felt that if anyone were entitled to the swell-front -dresser she was the one. The district quartermaster had to explain -with all the patience at his command that it was not a case of -discrimination but merely that the commission had bought swell-front -dressers at a later date for the same price that it formerly had paid -for the straight-front ones, and that consequently the people who -furnished houses later got them. - -On another occasion Mrs. Brown, calling on Mrs. White, found that Mrs. -White had an electric light on her side porch. She immediately fared -forth to pull the hair of the quartermaster for this discrimination, -but was somewhat taken back when that official calmly informed her -that the light had been put there for a few days in anticipation of a -children's party that was to be given by Mrs. White one night that -week. - -The marvelous success of the commissary, not only in affording its -patrons better service at lower prices, but also in making a -substantial profit on the undertaking, had been referred to as the -most valuable lesson taught by the whole canal digging operation. It -has proved the efficiency of government agencies in fields far removed -from the ordinary operations of government, and it may be that its -experience will be used to advantage in combating the high cost of -living in the United States itself. - - - - -CHAPTER XV - -LIFE ON THE ZONE - - -Transplant a man or a woman from a home in a temperate climate to an -abode in the Tropics, and there is bound to be trouble. Disturbances -in the body are expected and, proper precautions being taken, most -often are warded off. Disturbances in the mind are not anticipated, -preventive measures are seldom taken, and there comes the trouble. -That is why the Young Men's Christian Association and the American -Federation of Women's Clubs had their part to do in digging the Panama -Canal, a part second in importance only to the sanitary work under -Colonel Gorgas. - -It's an odd thing--this transplanting a man from the temperate to the -torrid zone. It affects men of different nations in different ways. It -is disastrous in inverse ratio to the adaptability of the man -transplanted. A German or a Dutchman goes to the Tropics and almost -without a struggle yields to the demands of the new climate all his -orderly daily habits. Your Dutchman in Java will, except on state -occasions, wear the native dress (or undress); eat the native food; -live in the native house; and, like as not, take a native woman to -wife. One thing only--he will retain his schnapps. The German is only -a little less adaptable, clings only a little longer to the routine -of the Fatherland, but he, too, keeps his beer. - -Your Englishman, on the contrary, defies the tropical sun and scorns -to make any changes in his daily habit that he had not fixed upon as -necessary and proper before he left his right little, tight little, -island. He does, it is true, wear a pith helmet. That is due partly, -perhaps, to his fear of the sun, but it is much more due to the fact -that he associates it with lands where faces are not white; therefore -he wears it in Egypt in the winter when it is shivery cold with the -same religious devotion that he wears it in India when the mercury is -running out of the top of the thermometer. Your Englishman, it is -true, wears white duck clothes in the Tropics, but not the fiercest -heat that old Sol ever produced could induce him for one moment to -exchange his flannel underwear for cotton or to leave off his woolen -hose. It is a pretty theory and not without much support, that it is -this British defiance of tropical customs that has given him the -mastery over Tropic peoples. And wherever goes the Briton there goes -also Scotch-and-soda. - -The Americans steer a middle course. They dress for the heat and make -themselves comfortable as possible. They consume even greater -quantities of ice than they do at home, and the average American eats -every day in summer enough ice to kill a score of Englishmen. At -least, that's what the Englishmen would think. - -But the American in the Tropics tenaciously clings to many of his home -habits, despite the changed conditions of his place of sojourn. He -must have his bath, even though he talks less about it than the -Englishman. He must have his three square meals a day, and breakfast -must be a real breakfast. He demands screens to protect him from -pestiferous insects, no less for comfort's sake than health's. And -then he demands two other things--a soda fountain and a base-ball -team. - -It is true that he often will indulge in a British peg of -Scotch-and-soda, or in a German stein of beer, but the native drink -that he takes with him to the Tropics, and one that he alone consumes, -and the one that he, in season and out of season, demands, is the -sweet, innocent, and non-alcoholic product of the soda fountain. How -incomprehensible is this to the sons of other nations no American may -ever understand. - -It may seem to be going far field to discuss even in the general way -the differing tempers of men of different nations transplanted from a -temperate to a torrid clime. But, as a matter of fact, it has a direct -bearing on the accomplishment at Panama, of which Americans are so -proud. - -[Illustration: FLOYD C. FREEMAN - -I. C. C. CLUB HOUSE AT CULEBRA] - -[Illustration: A. BRUCE MINEAR - -READING ROOM IN THE I. C. C. CLUB HOUSE, CULEBRA] - -When the Americans first undertook the task, the denizens of the -Isthmus prepared for them only such entertainment as had been -acceptable in other days. The only places open to the tired worker in -the evening were the saloons, selling bad whiskey and worse beer; or -darker hells of sure and quick damnation. There were no theaters that -would appeal to the American taste, no sports that the clean American -would tolerate. In short, when the American in the early days of the -construction was wearied with that weariness that would not respond -to resting, there was but one thing left. He got home--sick and drunk. - -In those early days there were few women. Most of the men who came -then were moved rather by a spirit of adventure than by a -determination to share in a tremendous job of work, and such men were -not married. It was not long until the men at the head discovered that -the married men were more content, that they lost less time from the -work, and produced more results when on the job than did the -bachelors. (This, of course, must not be taken as an indictment -against every individual bachelor who worked at Panama, but rather as -a characterization based on the average of that class.) Thus in the -very order of things it became the policy of the commission to -encourage unmarried men at work to marry, and to bring married men -from the States rather than bachelors. Inducements were held out, -putting a premium on matrimony. The bachelor worker had good quarters, -but he perhaps shared but a room in a bungalow, whereas the married -man had a four-room house of his own, with a big porch, and free -furniture, free light, and the problem of the cost of living solved by -the paternal commissary. - -So matrimony flourished. But when the women came in increasing -numbers, and with them many children, another problem arose. Women -born in temperate climes suffer more in the Tropics than do men. The -dry, dry heat of the dry season is succeeded by the wet, wet heat of -the rainy months. There is never any escape from that horrible, -hateful, hellish heat. Is it to be baked or steamed? The changing -seasons offer no other alternative. And the Fear! Not for a moment may -one forget that sickness and death stalk in the jungle; that a glass -of water or an unscreened door may be the end of it all. There is no -normality, no relaxation, no care free rest for the woman in the -Tropics. - -At Panama her housekeeping duties were lightened by the excellence of -the commissary system, so that they were not enough to keep her mind -occupied. She became homesick and hysterical. - -So, then, it being desirable to have married men on the job, it became -necessary to do something to keep the women at the minimum stage of -unhappiness. The Y. M. C. A. clubhouse, with their gymnasiums, their -libraries, their games, their sports, and their clubiness, had been -the substitute for home offered to the lonely American man at Panama. -The Civic Federation was invited to do what it could for the women. It -sent an agent of the American Federation of Women's Clubs to Panama, -who organized women's clubs, and these, by putting the women to work, -made them, in a measure, forget the Heat and the Fear. - -Miss Helen Varick Boswell visited the Isthmus in the fall of 1907 and -assisted the women in forming their clubs. She found them literally -hungry for such activities and they responded with a will to her -suggestion. The result was frequent meetings in every town in the -Canal Zone and innumerable activities on the part of the women -interested in club work. - -The transformation was most remarkable. Where almost every woman on -the Isthmus seemed to be unhappy, now everyone who needed an outlet -for her mental and social instincts found it in club work. Where once -they quarreled and disputed about their house furnishings, life on the -Isthmus, and the general status of things on the Canal Zone, now the -women seemed to take a happy and contented view of things, and became -as much interested in the work of building the canal as were their -husbands, their fathers, and their brothers. Looking back over the -task, and realizing how much longer the married men stayed on the job, -and how much more essential they were to the completion of the canal -than the bachelors, the cares of the canal authorities to keep the -women satisfied was a master stroke. - -When the club movement was launched one of the first steps was to -organize classes in Spanish. Women from every part of the Zone -attended these Spanish classes and took up the work of learning the -language with zeal. Comparatively few of them had any opportunity to -learn Spanish, even in its most rudimentary form, from household -servants, since the same lethargy that characterized the native men of -Panama, and made them totally indifferent to the opportunities for -work on the Canal Zone, also characterized the Panaman women, with the -results that most of the American households at Panama had -English-speaking Jamaican servants instead of Spanish-speaking -Panamans. - -The servant problem was not as serious as it is in the average -American city. There was always a full supply of Jamaican negro women -ready for engagement as household servants. They were polite and -efficient. Almost without exception they had a deeply religious turn -of mind, although they might transgress the Mosaic law far enough to -substitute plain water for violet water on the boudoir table of their -mistresses. Usually they were very neat of person and very careful in -the manner of doing their work. The wages they commanded were -approximately equal to those asked in the ordinary American city. - -The greatest social diversion of the Isthmus, of course, was dancing. -Every two weeks the Tivoli Club gave a dance at the Tivoli Hotel. -Trains to carry visitors were run all the way across the Isthmus and -no American ever needed to miss a dance at the Tivoli Hotel because of -unsuitable railroad accommodations. - -Each small town had its own dancing clubs and in those towns where -there were Y. M. C. A. buildings, the dances were held in them. The -new Hotel Washington proved a very popular rendezvous for the dancers, -and in the future the big functions of this kind probably will -alternate between the Tivoli at one end of the canal and the -Washington at the other. - -The university men maintained the University Club in the city of -Panama, directly on the water front. This club frequently opened its -doors to women and its functions were always regarded as events in -Isthmian social history. In Colon there was organized several years -ago a club known as the Stranger's Club. This club, as did the -University Club at Panama, welcomed the American stranger. - -The Isthmian Canal Commission always looked carefully after the -religious activities of the people of the Canal Zone. Its provision of -places of worship and facilities for getting to them was strictly -nonsectarian, and directed solely to giving every sect and every faith -opportunity to worship in its own way. Several chaplains were -maintained at Government expense, and railroad and wagonette service -for carrying people to their places of worship was maintained -throughout the years of the American occupation. - -The West Indian negroes were provided with churches and with homes for -the leaders of their spiritual flocks. Church buildings were erected -at every settlement, and in many cases were so constructed that the -lower story could be used for a church and the second story for lodge -purposes. These buildings were 70 by 36 feet, with lodge rooms 60 by -36 feet. - -The women on the Canal Zone were interested in religious work from the -beginning of their residence there. An Isthmian Sunday School -Association maintained church extension work. When the Women's -Federation of Clubs finally disbanded, in April, 1913, it presented -its library to this association and its pictures to the Ancon Study -Club. There was an art society at Ancon, which did much to foster art -work on the Zone during the days of the canal construction. The -organization of Camp Fire Girls extended its activities to Panama, and -many leading women there contributed both means and time to help the -girls on the Isthmus. - -The women of the Zone did not fail to enlist themselves in any -movement for good in their communities. A few years since there was a -little blind boy on the Isthmus and the Federation of Women's Clubs -decided that he ought to have better educational advantages than could -be provided at Panama. Therefore, they agreed to finance his going to -Boston to enter an institution for the education of the blind. When -the Federation disbanded, owing to the gradual departure of members -for the States, it did not do so until it had created a committee -which was to continue indefinitely in charge of the education of this -blind boy. - -Many secret societies existed on the Isthmus, the oldest one made up -of Americans being the Sojourners Lodge of Free and Accepted Masons, -organized in Colon in 1898. There were Odd Fellows' lodges and lodges -of Redmen, Modern Woodmen, Knights of Pythias, Elks, Junior Order of -American Mechanics, and representative bodies of many other American -secret orders. An Isthmian order is that of the Kangaroos, whose motto -is: "He is best who does best." This order was organized in 1907 under -the laws of Tennessee, and the mother council was organized at Empire -the same year. The object of the Kangaroos is to hold mock sessions of -court and to extract from them all of the fun and, at the same time, -all of the good that they will yield. - -The men on the Isthmus, almost completely isolated as they were from -American political concerns, never allowed their interest in political -affairs at home to become completely atrophied. There was a common -saying that the Panamans were the only people on the Isthmus that -could vote, but at times the Americans would at least simulate -politics at home with the resulting campaigns and elections. During -the presidential campaign of 1912 it was decided to hold a mock -election in several of the American settlements. The elections were -for national offices and for municipal offices as well. There were a -number of parties, and in the national elections there were the usual -group of insurgents, progressives, reactionaries, and the like. - -There were nominations for dog catchers and town grouches, while the -party platforms abounded in all the political claptrap of the ordinary -American document of like nature. Cartoons were circulated showing the -Panama Railroad to be a monopolistic corporation; flaring handbills -proving that the latest town grouch had not acquitted himself properly -in office; statistical tables showing that the dog catcher had allowed -more dogs to get away from him than he had caught; and all sorts of -other campaign tricks and dodges were brought into play, just as -though there were real issues at stake and real men to be elected. At -Colon the presidential returns showed 33 votes for Taft, 200 for -Wilson and 224 for Roosevelt. There were 204 votes in favor of Woman -Suffrage, both state and national, and 75 votes against it. - -As has been said, when the American first went to Panama the only -diversion a man could find was to go to a cheap saloon and meet his -friends. It was a condition that was as unsatisfactory to the men -themselves as it was to the moral sentiment of those behind the work, -and almost as dangerous to the success of the undertaking as would -have been an outbreak of some epidemic disease. This led the -commission to urge the erection of clubhouses in several of the more -populous settlements, to be conducted under the auspices of the Young -Men's Christian Association, but to be operated on a basis that would -bring to the people those rational amusements of which they stood so -much in need. - -From time to time clubhouses of this type were established in seven of -the American settlements and the work they did in promoting the -contentment and happiness of the people can be appreciated only by -those who have witnessed the conditions of living in Canal Zone towns -where there were no such clubhouses. - -Almost the first effect of the construction of a clubhouse was a heavy -falling off in barroom attendance, and simultaneously a decline in the -receipts from the sales of liquor. It is estimated that these receipts -fell off 75 per cent within a short time after the clubhouses were -opened. The men who had been buying beer at 25 cents a bottle, or -whiskey at 15 cents a thimbleful, were now frequenting the clubhouses, -playing billiards, rolling tenpins, writing letters, reading their -home papers, or engaging in other diversions which served to banish -homesickness. - -When the Y. M. C. A. clubhouses were opened a practical man was put at -the head of each. While no one would think of card-playing or dancing -at a Y. M. C. A. in the States, both were to be found in the -association clubhouses of the Isthmus. Bowling alleys, billiard -rooms, gymnasiums, and many other features for entertainment were -established in the clubhouses. Bowling teams were organized; billiard -and pool contests were started; gymnastic instruction was given; -pleasant reading rooms with easy chairs, cool breezes, and good lights -were provided; circulating libraries were established; good soda -fountains were put in operation where one could get a glass of soda -long enough to quench the deepest thirst; and in general the -clubhouses were made the most attractive places in town--places where -any man, married or single, might spend his leisure moments with -profit and with pleasure. - -Every effort was put forth to capitalize the spirit of rivalry in the -interest of the men. The result was that in each clubhouse there were -continuous contests of one kind or another, which afforded -entertainment for those engaged and held the interest of those who -were looking on. Then the champions of each clubhouse, whether -individuals or teams, were pitted against the stars of other places, -and in this way there was always "something doing" around each -clubhouse. - -In addition to maintaining a supervision over the sports of the -Isthmus, the clubhouses provided night schools for those who desired -to improve such educational opportunities. These night schools were -rather well patronized by the new arrivals on the Isthmus, but there -is something in that climate which, after a man has been there for a -year, makes him want to rest whenever he is off duty. Going to night -school became an intolerable bore by that time, so very few men kept -up their attendance after the first year. The study of Spanish was -found to be one exception to this rule, for, besides the satisfaction -of being able to talk with native Panamans and the Spaniards, there -was the hope of financial reward. Any employee who could pass an -examination in Spanish stood a better show of getting promotion in the -service. Besides, the man who had grit enough to carry through a -course of study on the Isthmus, with its enervating climate, was -almost certain to climb the ladder of success wherever he went. - -A review of the work of the seven Y. M. C. A. clubhouses for 1912 -gives a good idea of what they did during the entire construction -period. It required a force of 42 Americans and 64 West Indians to -operate these seven clubhouses. Twelve of the Americans were paid out -of the funds of the Canal Commission and 30 out of the funds of the Y. -M. C. A. Of the negro employees 43 were paid by the Canal Commission -and 21 by the Y. M. C. A. The American force for all seven clubhouses -consisted of one superintendent, four secretaries, four assistant -secretaries, one clerk, ten night clerks, six bowling alley night -attendants, six pool room night attendants, and seven barbers. At the -end of that year there were 2,100 members of the Y. M. C. A., no less -than 58 per cent of all the American employees living in towns having -clubhouses being members of the association. - -During the year seven companies of players and musicians were engaged -to provide amusement a the clubhouses. They gave 85 entertainments -which had a total attendance of 21,000. Local talent and moving -pictures provided 406 entertainments with a total attendance of -96,000. Amateur oratorio societies, operatic troupes, minstrel -troupes, glee clubs, mixed choruses, vaudeville and black-face -sketches were organized during the year through the efforts of the -members cooperating with the secretaries. These organizations made the -whole circuit of the Isthmus. Weekly moving-picture exhibitions were -given and a man was employed who gave his entire attention to them. -Carefully chosen films were ordered from the United States, special -attention being given to educational features. - -Special tournaments in bowling, billiards, and pool were organized and -gold, silver, and bronze medals were awarded the winners. Over a -hundred thousand bowling games and nearly 300,000 games of pool and -billiards were played during the year. Trained physical directors were -employed to direct the gymnastic exercises at the clubhouses and there -was an attendance of 15,000 at these classes during the year. A -pentathlon meet was held at Empire for the purpose of developing -all-around athletes. Religious meetings and song services were held at -such times as not to interfere with the organized religious work on -the Zone, the average attendance at 214 meetings being 50 and the -average attendance at Bible and discussion clubs 52. The average -enrollment was 65 in the Spanish class. Forty-two thousand books were -withdrawn for home reading during the year. - -Soft drinks, ice-cream, light lunches, and the like were served on -the cool verandas of the clubhouses, the receipts from these sales -amounting to approximately $50,000. Nearly 4,000 calls on hospital -patients were made by committees for the visitation of the sick. Boys -from 10 to 16 years of age were allowed special privileges in the -clubhouses, and the secretaries arranged several outings during the -year. The total boys' membership was 146. The disbursements from the -funds of the Isthmian Canal Commission amounted to $50,000 and those -from clubhouse funds amounted to $114,000. The total receipts for the -year amounted to $118,000. The affairs of the clubhouses were in the -hands of the advisory committee appointed by the chairman and chief -engineer of the Isthmian Canal Commission. - -In providing amusements the Canal Commission overlooked no opportunity -in the way of furnishing special trains and affording other facilities -for encouraging play by the canal workers. Each town had its ball team -and its ball park, and there was just as much enthusiasm in watching -the standing of the several clubs in the isthmian League as in the -States in watching the performances of the several clubs in the -American and National leagues. When there was a championship series to -be played there was just as much excitement over it as if it were a -post-season contest between the Athletics and the Giants. - -It is probable that better amusements will be provided under the -permanent regime than were during the construction period. With ships -constantly passing through the canal, many opera companies, especially -those from Spain and Italy, will have opportunity to stop for a night -or two at Panama, while their ships are coaling or shipping cargo. In -Panama City there is a splendid theater built by the Panaman -Government largely out of funds derived from payments made by the -United States on account of the canal rights. - -As the major portion of the permanent force will be quartered at Ancon -and Balboa, they will be able to drive to the theater or take the -street car. A new street-car system has just been established, and -those who can not afford the luxury of carriages will find in it -opportunities for taking airings as well as going to the theater. This -system runs from the permanent settlement at Balboa through the city -of Panama and down over the savannahs towards old Panama. It is the -first street-car system ever operated on the Isthmus, and will -probably prove much more satisfactory than the little, old, dirty -coaches which have afforded the only means of transportation on the -Zone. - -The building of a number of roads along the canal to facilitate the -movement of military forces has made it possible to get a satisfactory -use of automobiles. Agencies already have been opened for a number of -the lower-priced cars in anticipation that a large number of the canal -employees will buy automobiles in order to get the benefit of these -good roads. There are few places where automobiling affords more -pleasant diversion than at Panama. After the sun goes down the -evenings are just cool enough and the breezes just strong enough to -make an automobile ride a delightful experience. - -There are good opportunities for lovers of hunting and fishing on the -Isthmus. There is wild game in plenty--deer abounding in the entire -region contiguous to the canal and alligators being found in all of -the principal streams. There are both sea and river fishing, and some -tapirs and other wild animals still are left to attract the efforts of -the modern huntsman. - -The entertainment headquarters on the Canal Zone under the permanent -occupation will be the big clubhouse at Balboa, which is being built -at a cost of about $50,000. This clubhouse will not only have all of -the features of the clubhouses of the construction period, but will be -equipped with a large auditorium, with a complete library and with -every facility for amusement and entertainment that experience on the -Isthmus has called for. - -It can not be said that social life on the Isthmus during the period -of canal construction was ideal. Its inspiration was to be found in -the desire to make the best of a bad situation. Men and women all knew -that their stay in Panama was but temporary, none of them looked upon -the Canal Zone as home, and all of them counted time in two -eras--Before we came to Panama, and When we leave Panama. - -Of course there was dining and dancing, and the bridge tables were -never idle. But every dinner hostess knew that every guest knew -exactly what every dish on the table cost, and she knew that guest -knew she knew. The family income was fixed and public. All one had to -do was to read the official bulletins. - -The same paternalistic commissary that reduced the cost of living and -made housekeeping so easy, also tended with socialistic frankness to -bring everybody to a dead level. It was useless to attempt any of the -little deceits that make life so interesting at home. - -Although the American is a home-loving animal, he managed to get on -fairly well in the alien atmosphere of the Tropic jungle. He brought -with him his home life, his base ball and his soda fountain. And, -considering how such things go in the Tropics, he managed to live a -clean life while he was doing a clean piece of work. - - - - -CHAPTER XVI - -PAST ISTHMIAN PROJECTS - - -The digging of an Isthmian Canal was a dream in the minds of many men -in Europe and America from the day that Columbus found two continents -stretched across his pathway in his endeavor to discover a western -route to India. On his last voyage, as he beat down the coast of -Central America, here naming one cape "Gracias a Dios" and there -another "Nombre de Dios," testifying his thanks to God and his -reverence for His name, he touched the Isthmus near the present -Atlantic terminus of the Panama Canal. He little dreamed that some day -ships 500 times as large as his own would pass through the barrier of -mountains which Nature interposed between his ambitions and India. - -The idea of a canal through the American Isthmus was in the mind of -Charles V of Spain as early as 1520. In that year he ordered surveys -to ascertain the practicability of a canal connecting the Atlantic and -the Pacific. His son, Philip II did not agree with him about the -desirability of a trans-Isthmian waterway, holding that a shipway -through the Isthmus would give to other nations easy access to his new -possessions, and in time of war might be of greater advantage to his -enemies than to himself. He invoked the Bible to put an end to these -propositions to dig a canal across the American Isthmus, calling to -mind that the Good Book declared that "what God hath joined together -let no man put asunder." - -The policy of Philip was continued for about two centuries, although -in the reign of his father many efforts had been made in the direction -of a ship waterway across the Isthmus. In fact, ships crossed the -Isthmus nearly four centuries before the completion of the canal. -About 1521 Gil Gonzales was sent to the New World to seek out a strait -through the Isthmus. He sailed up and down the Central American coast, -entering this river and that, but failing of course to find a natural -waterway. Not to be outdone, he decided to take his two caravels to -pieces and to transport them across the Isthmus. He carried them on -the backs of Indians and mules from the head of navigation on the -Chagres River to the ancient city of Panama. There he rebuilt them and -set out to sea, but they were lost in a storm. Still determined to -make the most of his opportunities, Gonzales built others to take -their places and with these made his way up the Pacific coast through -the Gulf of Fonseca to Nicaragua, where he discovered Lake Nicaragua. -A few years later another explorer made a trip across Lake Nicaragua -and down the San Juan River to the Atlantic. - -Cortez, the conquistador of Mexico, at one time was ordered to use -every resource at his command in a search for the longed-for strait. -He did not find it, but he did open up a line of communication across -the Isthmus of Tehauntepec, following practically the same line as -was afterwards followed by Eads with his proposed ship railway. - -From those days to the time when the United States decided that the -canal should be built at Panama and that it should be made a national -undertaking, one route after another was proposed. In 1886, -immediately after the French failure, the Senate requested the -Secretary of the Navy to furnish all available information pertaining -to the subject of a canal across the Isthmus, and Admiral Charles H. -Davis reported that 19 canal and 7 railway projects had been proposed, -the most northerly across the Isthmus of Tehauntepec and the most -southerly across the Isthmus of Panama at the Gulf of Darien, 1,400 -miles apart. Eight of these projects were located in Nicaragua. - -In 1838 the Republic of New Granada, which then had territorial -possession of the Isthmus of Panama, granted a concession to a French -company to build a canal across the Isthmus. This company claimed to -have found a pass through the mountains only 37 feet above sea level. -In 1843 the French minister of foreign affairs instructed Napoleon -Carella to investigate these claims. That engineer found no such pass -and reported the claims to be worthless. He, in turn, advocated a -canal along the route followed by the present Panama Canal, with a -3-mile tunnel through Culebra Mountain and with 18 locks on the -Atlantic slope and 16 locks on the Pacific slope. He estimated the -cost of such a canal at $25,000,000. The first formal surveys of the -Panama route were made in 1827 by J. A. Lloyd. He recommended a -combination rail and water route, with a canal on the Atlantic side -and a railroad on the Pacific side. - -The first serious proposition to build a Nicaragua Canal was made in -1779 when the King of England ordered an investigation into the -feasibility of connecting the Nicaraguan lakes with the sea. A year -later Capt. Horatio Nelson, destined to become the hero of Trafalgar, -headed an expedition from Jamaica to possess the Nicaraguan lakes, -which he considered to be the inland Gibraltar of Spanish America, -commanding the only water pass between the oceans. His expedition was -successful as far as overcoming Spanish opposition was concerned, but -a deadlier enemy than the Don decimated his ranks. Of the 200 who set -out with Nelson only 10 survived, and Nelson himself narrowly escaped -with his life after a long illness. - -In 1825 what now constitute the several countries of Central America -were embraced in one federation--the Central American Republic. It -asked the cooperation of the American people in the construction of a -canal through Nicaragua. Henry Clay, then Secretary of State, favored -the proposition, and, in 1826, the Federation entered into a contract -with Aaron H. Palmer, of New York, for the construction of a canal -through Nicaragua capable of accommodating the largest vessels afloat. -Palmer was unable to command the necessary capital and the concession -lapsed. A few years later an English corporation sent John Bailey to -Nicaragua for the purpose of securing a canal concession. He failed to -get the concession but was later employed by the Nicaraguan -Government, which again had become independent, to determine the most -feasible location for a canal across Nicaragua. - -The United States Government became deeply interested in Isthmian -Canal projects during the Forties of the last century. The extension -of the national domain to the Pacific coast made the building of an -Isthmian Canal a consideration of prime importance to the United -States, and made it a dangerous policy to allow any other country to -acquire a dominating hand over an Isthmian waterway. The result was -that the American Government advised the British Government that it -would not tolerate the control of any Isthmian Canal by any foreign -power. This later brought about the Clayton-Bulwer treaty, which made -neutral the proposed Nicaraguan Canal. - -In 1849 Elijah Hise, representing the United States, negotiated a -treaty with Nicaragua, by the terms of which that country gave to the -United States, or its citizens, exclusive right to construct and -operate roads, railways, canals, or any other medium of transportation -across its territory between the two oceans. The consideration exacted -by Nicaragua was that the United States should guarantee the -independence of that country--a consideration that was then paramount -because of the effort being made by Great Britain to gobble up the -"Mosquito Coast" as far east as the San Juan River. The United States -was not ready to give such a guarantee--although a half century later -it did give it to the Republic of Panama--and the Hise treaty failed -of ratification in the Senate. - -A little later Cornelius Vanderbilt became interested in a canal and -road across Nicaragua under an exclusive concession running for 85 -years. Modifications of this concession permitted the Vanderbilt -Company to exercise exclusive navigation rights on the lakes of -Nicaragua. As a result the Accessory Transit Company established a -transportation line from the Atlantic through the San Juan River and -across Lake Nicaragua, thence by stage coach over a 13-mile stretch of -road to San Juan del Sur on the Pacific. - -In 1852 Col. Orville Childs made a report to President Fillmore upon -the results of his surveys for a Nicaraguan Canal; and, if the United -States, in 1902, had elected to build the Nicaraguan Canal, the route -laid out by Childs would have been followed for all but a few miles of -the entire distance. In 1858 a French citizen obtained from Nicaragua -and Costa Rica a joint concession for a canal, which contained a -provision that the French Government should have the right to keep two -warships on Lake Nicaragua as long as the canal was in operation. The -United States politely informed Nicaragua and Costa Rica that it would -not permit any such agreement--that it would be a menace to the United -States as long as the agreement was in force. Upon these -representations the concession was canceled. - -In 1876 the first Nicaraguan Canal Commission created by the American -Congress made a unanimous report in favor of a canal across Nicaragua, -after it had investigated all the proposed routes from eastern Mexico -to western South America. It asserted that this route possessed, both -for the construction and maintenance of the canal, greater advantages -and fewer difficulties from engineering, commercial, and economic -points of view than any one of the other routes shown to be -practicable by surveys sufficient in detail to enable a judgment to be -formed of their respective merits. - -When the first French Panama Canal Company began its work all other -projects fell by the wayside for the time being, just as all other -plans for interoceanic canals were abandoned when the United States -undertook the construction of the present canal. After that company -failed, however, the Maritime Canal Company of Nicaragua was organized -in 1889 by A. G. Menocal, under concessions from the Government of -that country and Costa Rica. The Atlantic end of this canal, as -proposed by the Maritime Canal Company, was located on the lagoon west -of Greytown. The Pacific end was located at Brito, a few miles from -San Juan del Sur. This canal company built three-fourths of a mile of -canal, constructed a temporary railway and a short telegraph line, but -soon thereafter became involved in financial difficulties which led to -a suspension of operations. Even to this day the visitor to Nicaragua -may see many evidences of the wrecked hopes of that period for -whatever town he visits he finds there Americans and Europeans who -went to Nicaragua at the time of the opening of the work of building a -canal by the Maritime Canal Company. They expected to find a land of -opportunity. But, with failure of the canal project, they found -themselves in the possession of properties whose value lay only in -staying there and operating them. - -When the first Isthmian Canal Commission, in 1899, undertook to -investigate all of the proposed routes across the connecting link -between North and South America, it placed on the Nicaraguan route -alone 20 working parties, made up of 159 civil engineers, their -assistants, and 455 laborers. The entire work of exploring the -Nicaraguan route was done with the greatest care. The depth of the -canal, as adopted by the commission, was 35 feet and the minimum width -150 feet. The locks were to be 840 feet long and 84 feet wide, and of -these there were to be eight on the Pacific and six on the Atlantic -side. This canal was to be 184 miles long. At the Atlantic end there -was to be a 46-mile sea-level section and at the Pacific end a 12-mile -sea-level section, while the water in the middle 126-mile section was -to be 145 feet above the water in the two oceans. It was estimated -that it would cost $189,000,000 to build the Nicaraguan Canal. - -Although the distance between the Atlantic and Pacific ports of the -United States would have been more than 400 miles shorter by the -Nicaragua Canal than by the Panama Canal, it would have taken about 24 -hours longer to pass through the former than through the latter, so -that, as far as length of time from Atlantic to Pacific ports was -concerned, the two routes would have been practically on a par. The -total amount of material it would have been necessary to excavate at -Nicaragua approximates, according to the estimates, 228,000,000 cubic -yards. This would have been increased, perhaps, by half, to make a -canal large enough to accommodate ships such as will be accommodated -by the present Panama Canal. - -The three great trans-Isthmian projects may be said to have been: The -Panama Canal, the Nicaraguan Canal, and the James B. Eads ship railway -across the Isthmus of Tehauntepec. The latter proposition seems to be -the most remarkable, in some ways, of them all. In 1881, James B. -Eads, the great engineer who built the Mississippi River bridge at St. -Louis, and whose work in jetty construction at the mouths of the -Mississippi proved him to be one of the foremost engineers of his day, -secured a charter from the Mexican Government conveying to him -authority to utilize the Isthmus of Tehauntepec for the construction -of a ship railway from the Atlantic to the Pacific. His plan called -for a railway 134 miles long, with the highest point over 700 feet -above the sea, and designed to carry vessels up to 7,000 tons. He -calculated that the entire cost of the railway would not be more than -$50,000,000. His plan was to build a railroad with a large number of -tracks on which a huge cradle would run. This cradle would be placed -under a ship, and the ship braced in the manner of one in dry dock. -Heavy coiled springs were to equalize all stresses and to prevent -shocks to the vessel. A number of powerful locomotives would be -hitched to the cradle and would pull it across the Isthmus. Although -the proposition was indorsed by many authorities, it seems to anyone -who has crossed the Isthmus of Tehauntepec that it was a most -visionary scheme. - -[Illustration: COL. CHESTER L. HARDING - -THE GATUN UPPER LOCKS] - -[Illustration: LIEUT. COL. DAVID D. GAILLARD - -CULEBRA CUT, SHOWING CUCARACHA SLIDE IN LEFT CENTER] - -If one can imagine a ship railway across the Allegheny Mountains -between Lewiston Junction and Pittsburgh on the Pennsylvania Railroad, -or between Washington and Goshen, Va., on the Chesapeake & Ohio -Railroad, he will have a very good idea of the difficulties which -would be encountered in building such a railway. The present -Tehauntepec railroad is 188 miles long. When crossing the Cordilleras -there are numerous places on this road where the rear car of the train -and the engine are traveling in diametrically opposite directions. The -road is well-built, and, as one crosses the backbone of the continent, -and beholds the engineering difficulties that were encountered in -building an ordinary American railroad, he can not help but marvel at -the confidence of a man who would endeavor to build across those -mountains a shipway large enough and straight enough to carry a -7,000-ton ship. Yet Captain Eads estimated that his shipway could be -constructed in four years at one-half the cost of the Nicaraguan -Canal; that vessels could be transported by rail much more quickly -than by canal; that in case of accident the railway could be repaired -more speedily; and that it could be enlarged to carry heavier ships as -business demanded. - -He declared that he did not think it would be as difficult to build a -ship railway across the Isthmus of Tehauntepec as to build a harbor at -the Atlantic entrance of the Nicaraguan Canal. His confidence in his -project was such that he proposed to build a short section of the road -to prove its practicability before asking the United States to commit -itself to the project. Commodore T. D. Wilson, at that time Chief -Constructor of the United States Navy, declared in a letter to Captain -Eads that he did not believe the strains upon a ship hauled across the -Isthmus, as Eads proposed, would be greater than those to which ocean -steamers are constantly exposed. Gen. P. T. G. Beauregard, of -Confederate Army fame, declared that a loaded ship would incur less -danger in being transported on a smooth and well-built railway than it -would encounter in bad weather on the ocean. - -A prominent English firm offered to undertake the building and -completion of the necessary works for placing ships with their cargo -on the railway tracks of the trans-Isthmian line, declaring that they -had no hesitation in guaranteeing the lifting of a fully loaded ship -of 8,000 or 10,000 tons on a railway car to the level of the railroad -in 30 minutes, if the distance to be lifted was not over 50 feet. The -death of Captain Eads ended this picturesque project. - -A proposition once was made to build a canal across the Isthmus of -Tehauntepec. This would have required 30 locks on each side of the -Isthmus of 25 feet each, and these locks alone would have cost, on the -basis of the locks at Panama, perhaps as much as the whole Panama -Canal. - -One of the narrowest parts of the Isthmus is that lying between the -present Panama Canal route and the South American border. Three routes -were proposed in this section, known as the Atrato River route, the -Caledonia route, and the San Blas route. It was found that a canal -built along any one of these routes would require a tunnel. The -estimated cost of building a tunnel 35 feet deep, 100 feet wide at the -bottom, and 117 feet on the waterline, with a height of 115 feet from -the water surface, the entire tunnel being lined with concrete 5 feet -thick, would approximate $22,500,000 a mile. The cost of building a -canal along one of these routes would have been greater than that of -building either the Nicaragua Canal or the Panama Canal. - -The question of an Isthmian Canal will probably be forever set at rest -at no distant date. In an effort to forestall for all time any -competition in the canal business across the American Isthmus, -negotiations are now under way whereby the United States seeks to -acquire the exclusive rights for a canal through Nicaragua, just as it -now possesses exclusive rights for a canal through the Republic of -Panama. The conclusion of the work at Panama will end the efforts of -four centuries to open up a shipway from the Atlantic to the Pacific -across the American Isthmus. - - - - -CHAPTER XVII - -THE FRENCH FAILURE - - -One writes of "the French failure" at Panama with a consciousness that -no other word but failure will describe the financial and -administrative catastrophe that humbled France on the Isthmus, but at -the same time with the knowledge that failure is no fit word to apply -to the engineering accomplishments of the French era. - -The French fiasco ruined thousands of thrifty French families who -invested their all in the shares of the canal company because they had -faith in de Lesseps, faith in France, and faith in the ability of the -canal to pay handsome returns whatever might be its cost. The failure -itself was due primarily to the fact that de Lesseps was not an -engineer, but a promoter. The stock sales, the bond lottery, the pomp -and circumstance of high finance, were more to him than exact surveys -or frank discussion of actual engineering problems. - -From the first, de Lesseps ignored the engineers. The Panama -proposition was undertaken in spite of their advice, and at every turn -he hampered them by impossible demands, and by making grave decisions -with a debonair turn of the hand. - -The next factor in the failure was corruption. Extravagance such as -never was known wasted the sous and francs that came from the thrifty -homes of that beautiful France. Corruption, graft, waste--there was -never such a carnival of bad business. - -And then the French had to fight the diseases of the tropic jungles -without being armed with that knowledge that gave the Americans the -victory over yellow fever and malaria. It was hardly to be expected -that the French ever would discover the necessity of substituting the -Y. M. C. A. and the soda fountain for the dance hall and the vintner's -shop, if the canal were to be completed. - -But the engineers did their work well, as far as they were permitted -to go. It may have cost too much--but it was well done. The failure of -the French Panama Canal project was due, therefore, to moral as much -as to material reasons. - -Long years after the French had retired defeated from the field, one -could behold a thousand mute but eloquent reminders of their failure -to duplicate their triumph at Suez. From one side of the Isthmus to -the other stretched an almost unbroken train of gloomy specters of the -disappointed hopes of the French people. - -Here a half-mile string of engines and cars; there a long row of steam -cranes; at this place a mass of nondescript machinery; and at that -place a big dredge left high and dry on the banks of the mighty -Chagres at its flood stage, all spoke to the visitor of the French -defeat. Exposed to the ravages of 20 tropical summers, decay ran riot, -and but for the scenes of life and industry being enacted by the -Americans, one might have felt himself stalking amid the tombs of -thousands of dead hopes. - -Almost as much money was raised by the French for their failure as was -appropriated by the Americans for their success. From the gilded -palace and from the peasant's humble cottage came the stream of gold -with which it was hoped to lay low the barrier that divided the -Atlantic and the Pacific. At first the French estimated that in seven -or eight years they could dig a 29-foot sea-level canal for -$114,000,000. After eight years they calculated that it would cost -$351,000,000 to make it a 15-foot lock canal and require 20 years to -build it. - -Never was money spent so recklessly. For a time it flowed in faster -than it could be paid out--even by the Panama Canal Company. When the -company started it asked for $60,000,000. Double that amount was -offered. The seeming inexhaustibility of the funds led to unparalleled -extravagance; of the some $260,000,000 raised only a little more than -a third was spent in actual engineering work. Someone has said that a -third of the money was spent on the canal, a third was wasted, and a -third was stolen. - -The director general at the expense of the stockholders built himself -a house costing $100,000. His summer home at La Boca cost $150,000. It -came to be known as "Dingler's Folly," for Dingler lost his wife and -children of yellow fever and never was able to live in his sumptuous -summer home. He drew $50,000 a year salary, and $50 a day for each day -he traveled a mile over the line in his splendid $42,000 Pullman. The -hospitals at Ancon and Colon cost $7,000,000, and the office -buildings over $5,000,000. Where a $50,000 building was needed, a -$100,000 building was erected, and the canal stockholders were charged -$200,000 for it. - -Supplies were bought almost wholly without reference to actual needs. -Ten thousand snow shovels were brought to the Isthmus where no snow -ever has fallen. Some 15,000 torchlights were carried there to be used -in the great celebration upon the completion of the canal. -Steam-boats, dredges, launches, and whatnot were brought to the -Isthmus, knocked down, and taken into the interior to await the -opening of the waterway. The stationery bill of the canal company with -one firm alone amounted to $180,000 a year. When the Americans took -possession they found among other things a ton of rusty and useless -pen points, not one of which had ever been used. - -Two years' service entitled employees to five months' leave of absence -and traveling expenses both ways. There was no adequate system of -accounting and any employee could have his requisition for household -articles honored almost as often as he liked. In a multitude of cases -this laxity was taken advantage of and quite a business was carried on -secretly in buying and selling furniture belonging to the company. One -official built a bath house costing $40,000. A son of de Lesseps -became a silent partner of nearly every large contractor on the -Isthmus, getting a large "rake-off" from every contract let. - -Near the summit of the Great Divide the Americans who took possession -in 1904 found a small iron steamer. It is said to have been the -purpose of the canal promoters to put this little steamer on a small -pond in Culebra Cut, and by the aid of a skillful photographer to get -a picture showing navigation across the Isthmus. This steamer was -hauled by the Americans to Panama, where during the years of the -American construction work it did service in carrying the sick to the -sanitarium at Taboga. - -The different uses to which this steamer was put during the French and -American regimes illustrates the different aims of the Americans and -the French in connection with the Panama Canal. There was little -concern about the health of the canal workers under the French, in -spite of great liberality in the construction of hospitals. The -construction work was let out to contractors, who were charged a -dollar a day by the French Company for maintaining the sick members of -their force in the hospital. Of course, the contractors were not over -anxious to put their employees into the hospitals. The result was that -the death rate at Panama reached almost unprecedented proportions. - -[Illustration: THE MAN OF BRAWN] - -[Illustration: FERDINAND DE LESSEPS - -PHILIPPE BUNAU-VARILLA - -AN OLD FRENCH EXCAVATOR NEAR TABERNILLA] - -This was aided to a very large degree by the manner of living -obtaining there at that time. In 1887 Lieutenant Rogers, of the United -States Navy, inspected the canal work and reported that the laborers -were paid every Saturday, that they spent Sunday in drinking and -Monday in recuperating, returning to work on Tuesday. A prominent -English writer declared after a visit to Panama that in all the world -there was not, perhaps, concentrated in any single spot so much -swindling and villainy, so much vile disease, and such a hideous mass -of moral and physical abominations. - -Add to these things the fact that no one then knew of the -responsibility of the stegomyia mosquito for the existence of yellow -fever, nor that the anopheles mosquito was the disseminator of -malaria, and it is little wonder that the French failed. The -hospitals, instead of aiding in the elimination of yellow fever, -became its greatest allies. The bedposts were set in cups of water, -and here the yellow-fever mosquitoes could breed uninterruptedly and -carry infection to every patient. Wards were shut up tight at night to -keep out the "terrible miasma," and the nurses went to their own -quarters. When morning came there were among those thus left alone -always some ready for the tomb. - -The history of the French attempt to construct the Panama Canal -begins, in reality, with the Suez Canal. In 1854 Ferdinand de Lesseps, -a Frenchman connected with the diplomatic service, saw an opportunity -to revive the plans for a Suez Canal that had been urged by Napoleon -in 1798. His friend, Said Pasha, had just succeeded to the khediviate -of Egypt, and his proposals were warmly received. The building of the -canal, which presented no serious engineering problems, was begun in -1859 and completed 10 years later. There was a sordid side to its -story, too; but as the losses were borne chiefly by the Egyptians, -Europe ignored them and looked only to the great success of the canal -itself. - -As a result, de Lesseps became a national hero in France, and when it -became known that he contemplated piercing another isthmus, the whole -country rose to his support. In 1875, six years after the Suez Canal -had been opened, and as soon as France had recovered her breath from -the shock of the war with Prussia, a company was organized by de -Lesseps to procure a concession for the building of a Panama Canal. - -Already the world, as well as France, had come to regard de Lesseps as -an engineer, rather than as a promoter of stock companies, and in this -lay the germ of the disaster that was to overtake the whole scheme. - -In 1876, Lucien Napoleon Bonaparte Wyse, a lieutenant of engineers in -the French Army, was sent to Panama to determine the most feasible -route and to conclude negotiations for the construction of a canal -there. He made a perfunctory survey, commencing at Panama and -extending only two-thirds of the way to the Atlantic coast; -nevertheless, he calculated the cost in detail and claimed that his -estimates might be depended upon to come within 10 per cent of the -actual figures. However weak in engineering he may have been, he was -strong in international negotiations, returning to France with a -concession which gave him the right to form a company to build the -canal, and which gave to that company all the rights it needed, -subject only to the prior rights of the Panama Railroad Company under -its concession. The concession was to run for 99 years, beginning from -the date when the collection of tolls on transit and navigation should -begin. The promoters were allowed 2 years to form the company and 12 -years to build the canal. The Government of Colombia was entitled to a -share in the gross income of the canal after the seventy-fifth year -from its opening. Four-fifths of this was to be paid to the National -Government and one-fifth to the State of Panama. The canal company was -to guarantee that these annual payments should on no account be less -than $250,000. - -When Wyse returned to Paris he got de Lesseps to head the project. The -hero of Suez summoned an international commission of individuals and -engineers, known as the International Scientific Congress, which met -in Paris, May 15, 1879. There were 135 delegates in attendance, most -of whom were Frenchmen, although nearly every European nation was -represented. The United States had 11 representatives at this -congress. After two weeks' conference the decision was reached that a -sea-level canal should be constructed from Colon to Panama. Only 42 of -the 135 men who met were engineers, and it has been stated that those -who knew most about the subject found their opinions least in demand. -M. de Lesseps dominated the conference. Several members who were -radically opposed to its conclusions, rather than declare their -difference from the opinions of a man of such great distinction and -high reputation as de Lesseps enjoyed at that time, absented -themselves when the final vote was taken. - -After it was determined to build a sea-level canal, the canal -concession owned by Wyse and his associates was transferred to the -Compagnie Universelle du Canal Interoceanique (The Universal -Interoceanic Canal Company) of which de Lesseps was given control. The -canal company was capitalized at $60,000,000. The preliminary budget -of expenses amounted to $9,000,000, of which $2,000,000 went to Wyse -and his associates for the concession. The organizers were entitled to -certain cash payments and 15 per cent of the net profits. - -The canal company soon found it necessary to acquire a controlling -interest in the Panama Railroad. That corporation insisted on charging -regular rates on all canal business. In addition, it possessed such -prior rights as made the Wyse concession worthless except there be -agreement on all matters between the railroad company and the canal -company. The result was that the canal company bought the railroad, -and its rights, for the sum of about $18,000,000. - -The first visit of de Lesseps to the Isthmus was made in the early -weeks of 1880. He arrived on the 30th day of December, 1879, and was -met by a delegation appointed by the Government, and one nominated by -the State Assembly. There was the usual reception, with its attendant -champagne and conviviality, and a fine display of fire-works at night. -The next day, with a chart before him, de Lesseps promptly decided -where the breakwater to protect the mouth of the canal from the -"northers" sweeping into Limon Bay should be located. He declared that -in the construction of the canal there were only two great -difficulties--the Chagres River and Culebra Cut. The first he proposed -to overcome by sending its waters to the Pacific Ocean by another -route--a project which it has since been estimated would have cost -almost as much as building the canal. The second difficulty he thought -would disappear with the use of explosives of sufficient force to -remove vast quantities of material with each discharge. There was a -great hurrah, and an international celebration during de Lesseps' -stay. The flags of all nations were prominently displayed, with the -single exception of that of the United States. - -Count de Lesseps was over 70 years old when he first visited the -Isthmus, though he was still active and vigorous. Mr. Tracy Robinson -described him as "a small man, French in detail, with winning manners -and a magnetic presence. He would conclude almost every statement -with, 'The Canal will be made,' just as a famous Roman always -exclaimed, 'Delende est Carthago.' He was accompanied to the Isthmus -by his wife and three of his seven children. Being a fine horseman, he -delighted in mounting the wildest steeds that Panama could furnish. -Riding over the rough country in which the canal was being located all -day long, he would dance all night like a boy and be ready for the -next day's work 'as fresh as a daisy.'" - -On New Year's Day, 1880, de Lesseps formally inaugurated the work of -building the canal. A large party of ladies and gentlemen visited the -mouth of the Rio Grande where the first shovelful of sod was to be -turned. An address was made by Count de Lesseps, and a benediction -upon the enterprise was bestowed by the Bishop of Panama. Champagne -flowed like water, and it is said that the speechmaking continued so -long that the party did not have time to go ashore to turn the sod, so -it was brought on board and Miss Fernanda de Lesseps there made the -initial stroke in the digging of the big waterway. - -Some days later the work at Culebra Cut was inaugurated. Tracy -Robinson thus described the scene: "The blessing had been pronounced -by the Bishop of Panama and the champagne, duly iced, was waiting to -quell the swelter of the tropical sun as soon as the explosion went -off. There the crowd stood breathless, ears stopped, eyes blinking, -half in terror lest this artificial earthquake might involve general -destruction. But there was no explosion! It would not go! Then a -humorous sense of relief stole upon the crowd. With one accord -everybody exclaimed, 'Good Gracious!' and hurried away for fear that -after all the dynamite should see fit to explode. That was Fiasco No. -1." - -After de Lesseps left the Isthmus he toured the United States where he -was everywhere welcomed although he did not find a market in this -country for his stock. - -The scientific congress estimated the cost of building the canal, -whose construction de Lesseps had inaugurated, at $214,000,000. M. de -Lesseps himself later arbitrarily cut this estimate to $131,000,000, -and announced that he believed that vessels would be able to go from -ocean to ocean after the expenditure of $120,000,000. He declared that -if the committee had decided to build a lock canal, he would have put -on his hat and gone home, since he believed it would be much more -expensive to build a lock canal with twin chambers than to build a -sea-level waterway. There were those who declared that six years was -the utmost limit that would be required for building the big ditch. -Others asserted with confidence that it could be done in four years. - -During the first three years the company devoted its time to getting -ready for the real work. By 1885 the profligate use of the money -subscribed by the French people brought the funds of the canal company -to a very low ebb. M. de Lesseps asked for permission to establish a -lottery, by which he hoped to provide additional funds for carrying on -the work. The French Government held up the matter and finally sent an -eminent engineer to investigate. This engineer, Armand Rosseau, -reported that the completion of a sea-level canal was not possible -with the means in sight, and recommended a lock canal, plans for which -he submitted. The summit level of this canal was to be 160 feet, -reached by a series of seven or eight locks. After this plan was -adopted, to which de Lesseps reluctantly consented, lottery bonds of a -face value of $160,000,000 were issued which were to bear 4 per cent -interest. But the people failed to subscribe. - -At the outset of the work de Lesseps established a bulletin for the -dissemination of information concerning the canal; during the entire -period of his connection with the project this bulletin was filled -with the most exaggerated reports, and the most reckless -mis-statements in favor of a successful prosecution of the work. By -1888 the confidence of the French people in de Lesseps waned. Unable -to raise more money, and now popularly dubbed the "Great Undertaker," -he found himself in such straits that he saw the French Government -take over the wrecked organization by appointing a receiver with the -power to dispose of its assets. This proved a terrible blow to the -people on the Isthmus. Untold hardships befell the small army of -laborers and clerks. The Government of Jamaica repatriated over 6,000 -negroes. The Chilean Government granted 40,000 free passages to Chile, -open to all classes except negroes and Chinese, and for several months -every mail steamer south took away from 600 to 800 stranded people -from the canal region. Where good times and the utmost plenty had -prevailed for years, the Isthmus was now face to face with a period of -want and privation, its glory departed and its hope almost gone. - -The receiver of the Panama Canal Company assisted in the organization -of another company known as the New Panama Canal Company. With a -working capital of $13,000,000, it excavated more than 12,000,000 -cubic yards of material. In 1890 it found itself in danger of losing -everything by reason of the expiration of its concession. The services -of Lieutenant Wyse were again brought into play, and he secured a -10-year extension of the concession. In 1893 another concession was -granted, with the provision that work should be begun on a permanent -basis by October 31, 1894, and that the canal should be completed by -October 31, 1904. Toward the end of the nineties, it was manifest that -the concession would expire before the work could be finished, so, in -April, 1900, another extension was arranged, which stipulated that the -canal should be completed by October 31, 1910. The New Panama Canal -Company, as a matter of fact, had no other aim in view than to keep -the concession alive in the hope that it could be sold to the United -States. - -With all of their profligacy, however, the French left to their -American successors a valuable heritage. What they did was done with -the utmost thoroughness. The machinery which they bequeathed to the -Americans was of immense value. There was enough of this to cover a -500-acre farm 3 feet deep, with enough more to build a 6-foot fence -around it all. The French equipment was of the best. Dredges and -locomotives that stood in the jungle for 20 years were rebuilt by the -Americans at less than 10 per cent of their first cost, and did -service during the entire period of construction. - -Although the New Panama Canal Company at one time asked $150,000,000 -for its assets, it finally accepted $40,000,000. An appraisement made -by American engineers a few years ago showed that the actual worth of -the property acquired, aside from the franchise itself, amounted to -about $42,000,000. - -Count de Lesseps lived to a great age. His last years were saddened -and embittered by the volumes of denunciation that were written and -spoken against him. Certain it is that no man ever went further than -he to maintain confidence in a project that was destined to fail, and -yet his partisans declared that his sin was the sin of overenthusiasm -and not of dishonest purpose. Under the torrents of abuse that fell -upon his head his mind weakened, and, fortunately, in his last days he -realized little of the immeasurable injustice his misplaced zeal and -overenthusiasm had wrought against the people of France. - - - - -CHAPTER XVIII - -CHOOSING THE PANAMA ROUTE - - -Proud as Americans now are of the success of their venture at Panama, -in the beginning there was by no means a general agreement that the -United States would succeed where France had failed. Indeed, the -French disaster had much influence in strengthening the position of -those who favored building the American canal through Nicaragua. - -Prior to the year 1900 little thought was given by the American people -to any project for building an Isthmian Canal anywhere else than -through Nicaragua. It is true that in 1897 the New Panama Canal -Company became active in its efforts to induce the United States to -adopt the Panama route, but these activities made little impression -upon public sentiment before the outbreak of the Spanish American War. -During that war interest in the question of an Isthmian Canal waned in -America, and immediately after it the sympathy which France had given -to Spain made it advisable for the Canal Company to postpone its -propaganda. - -In his annual message to Congress in December, 1898, President -McKinley recommended the building of the Nicaragua Canal. Two days -later Senator John T. Morgan, of Alabama, made a vigorous speech in -the Senate, in which he charged that the transcontinental railroads of -the United States were making efforts to defeat the canal project. -This charge was made repeatedly thereafter, and it was asserted that -the railroads espoused the cause of the Panama Canal upon the ground -of choosing the lesser of two evils, judged from their standpoint. -Prior to 1900 both Republican and Democratic parties had repeatedly -favored the construction of the Nicaragua Canal in their national -platforms, and both branches of Congress had voted for the canal at -different times. - -In the early part of 1899 the Senate passed a bill authorizing the -construction of a Nicaraguan Canal. The House refused to act on the -bill, and, at the instance of Senator Morgan, the Senate attached a -rider to the rivers and harbors bill, appropriating $10,000,000 to -begin the building of the canal. This passed the Senate by a vote of -54 to 3. The amendment was defeated in the House and the matter went -to conference. If the House conferees stood pat in their opposition to -the Senate amendment, the whole rivers and harbors bill would be -defeated unless the Senate conferees yielded. The House conferees -remained unshaken in their opposition to the Nicaragua Canal -provision, and were willing to wreck the whole rivers and harbors bill -rather than to authorize the beginning of operations in the -construction of the Nicaragua Canal under the plan framed by the -Senate. - -According to Philippe Bunau-Varilla, the real secret of the defeat of -the Nicaragua Canal project at this juncture lay in a dispute between -the House and Senate as to the manner of building the canal. The -Senate wanted to do it by the reorganization of the Maritime Canal -Company, with the majority of its board of directors appointed by the -President, using that corporation as the agent of the Government for -constructing and operating the canal. Representative William P. -Hepburn, of Iowa, at that time Chairman of the Committee on Interstate -and Foreign Commerce, contended that such a plan proposed that the -United States should masquerade as a corporation, instead of doing the -work in its own proper person, as it was in every sense capable of -doing. He asked for what purpose the Government should thus convert -itself into a corporation, making of itself an artificial person and -taking a position of equality with a citizen? He further pointed out -that as a corporation the Government might be sued in its own courts, -and fined for contempt by its own judicial servants. - -A compromise was adopted in the form of an appropriation of $1,000,000 -to defray the expenses of an investigation into all of the various -routes for an Isthmian Canal. This investigation was to have reference -particularly to the relative merits of the Nicaragua and Panama -routes, together with an estimate of the cost of constructing each. -The investigators were to ascertain what rights, privileges, and -franchises were held, and what work had been done in the construction -of the proposed canals. They were also to ascertain the cost of -acquiring the interests of any organizations holding franchises on -these routes. The President was directed to employ engineers of the -United States Army and engineers from civil life, together with such -other persons as were necessary to carry out the purposes of the -investigation. A few months later he appointed the first Isthmian -Canal Commission, consisting of Rear Admiral John G. Walker, Senator -Samuel Pasco, Alfred Noble, George S. Morison, Peter C. Hains, William -H. Burr, O. H. Ernst, Louis M. Haupt, and Emory R. Johnson. - -Thus it came about that the House and Senate, divided only upon the -issue of the proper method of building the Nicaragua Canal, reopened -the whole question, and gave to the Panama Canal advocates a chance to -make a fight in favor of that route. The advocates of the Nicaragua -Canal were not satisfied, however, to await the discoveries of the -commission Congress had created. On May 2, 1900, before the commission -made its report, the House voted 234 to 36 in favor of the Nicaragua -route. The bill went to the Senate, where it was favorably reported by -the Committee on Interoceanic Canals. Senator Morgan made a formal -motion for the immediate consideration of the measure, but it was lost -by a vote of 28 to 21. He then had the 2nd day of December following -fixed as the date for again taking up the matter. His committee made a -report roundly scoring the representatives of the New Panama Canal -Company for their activities in favor of the Panama route. - -In December, 1900, Secretary Hay signed protocols with the ministers -of Nicaragua and Costa Rica, by which those Governments undertook to -negotiate treaties as soon as the President of the United States -should be authorized by Congress to acquire the Nicaragua route. In -the following February, Senator Morgan offered an amendment to the -sundry civil appropriation bill authorizing the President to go ahead -with the construction of the canal. When Theodore Roosevelt became -President in September, 1901, he recommended the building of the -Nicaragua Canal in his official statement of policy. - -In the meantime the Isthmian Canal Commission had been repeatedly -attempting to get the New Panama Canal Company to state for what sum -it would sell its holdings to the United States. The figures finally -presented placed a value of $109,000,000 upon the property. After -this, the Isthmian Canal Commission unanimously recommended the -adoption of the Nicaragua route. Congress again took up the matter, -upon a bill introduced by Representative Hepburn, making an -appropriation of $180,000,000 for the construction of the canal. This -measure was favorably reported by the House Committee on Interstate -and Foreign Commerce, and also secured the approval of the Senate -Committee on Interoceanic Canals. - -A few days later a formal convention was signed in Nicaragua by the -minister of foreign affairs and the American minister, looking to the -construction of the canal through Nicaraguan territory. A week later -the Senate ratified the Hay-Pauncefote treaty with Great Britain. On -January 7 the House of Representatives again took up the matter and, -in spite of the fact that the New Panama Canal Company had decided to -accept $40,000,000 for its property, this offer was rejected by the -House of Representatives, which passed the bill authorizing the -construction of the Nicaragua Canal by the overwhelming vote of 309 to -2. - -After the rejection of the offer of the New Panama Canal Company by -the House, President Roosevelt again called the members of the -Isthmian Canal Commission together, and asked them to make a -supplementary report in view of the offer in question. On a motion of -Commissioner Morison the commission decided that, in consideration of -the change of conditions brought about by the offer of the company to -sell its property for $40,000,000, the Panama route was preferable. It -has been stated that Professor Haupt, Senator Pasco, and two other -members of the commission were reluctant to abandon the Nicaragua -project; that President Roosevelt had made it quite clear to Admiral -Walker that he expected the commission to accept the Panama Canal -Company's offer; that Commissioners Noble and Pasco had given in, but -that Professor Haupt stood out; and that he was induced to sign the -report only after Admiral Walker had called him out of the committee -room and pleaded with him to do so, stating that the President -demanded a unanimous report. Professor Haupt afterwards publicly -admitted the truth of this story in a signed article in a magazine. - -About this time the Senate Committee on Interoceanic Canals appointed -a subcommittee of six members to study and report on the legal -questions involved in the transfer of the New Panama Canal Company's -title, and a majority reported that the company's title was defective -and that it had no power to transfer. It was finally decided that the -Senate Committee on Interoceanic Canals should make no report until -all of the members of the Isthmian Canal Commission had appeared -before it and testified. This delay permitted negotiations between the -United States, the New Panama Canal Company, and the Republic of -Colombia looking to a settlement of the question of title. - -The New Panama Canal Company was now thoroughly in earnest in its -desire to dispose of its holdings to the United States, but the -Republic of Colombia, desiring to drive a good bargain, held aloof. -The hope of the situation as far as the Panama route was concerned, -lay in Senator Marcus A. Hanna, of Ohio, who had come to espouse the -Panama route. He declared he would not recommend the acceptance of the -proposals of the New Panama Canal Company unless a satisfactory treaty -could be obtained, and unless the shareholders of the company would -ratify the action of the board of directors in making the offer. A -meeting of the shareholders was called in February, 1902, at which the -Republic of Colombia, holding a million dollars' worth of stock in the -company, was represented by a Government delegate. He served formal -notice on the company that it was forbidden, on pain of forfeiture of -its concession, to sell its rights to the United States before that -action was approved by the Colombian Government, there being a clause -in the concession providing that in the event of such a sale to any -foreign Government all rights, titles, and property should revert to -Colombia. - -When the Colombian Government took up the matter it showed a -disposition to grasp the lion's share. Its minister was instructed to -exact no less than $20,000,000 from the New Panama Canal Company for -Colombia's permission to transfer its concessions. This demand was -based on the following reasons: First, because Colombia's consent was -essential; second, because Colombia would lose its expectation of -acquiring the Panama Railroad at the expiration of its concession--a -road that was then valued at $18,000,000; third, because under the -proposed contract with the United States, Colombia was to renounce its -share in the prospective earnings of the canal, which might amount to -a million dollars a year. - -Another proposition was drawn by the Colombian minister, proposing to -lease a zone across the Isthmus of the United States for a period of -200 years at an annual rental of $600,000. At another time the -Colombian minister declared that, inasmuch as the New Panama Canal -Company had taken advantage of the straitened circumstances of the -Colombian Government to obtain a six-year extension of its concession, -which was really what the canal company was about to sell for -$40,000,000, he thought Colombia ought to require the New Panama Canal -Company to pay $3,000,000 of the $40,000,000, for what the company -gained by the extension of its concession. - -On January 30, 1902, Senator John C. Spooner, of Wisconsin, introduced -a bill in the Senate, authorizing the President of the United States -to build an Isthmian Canal at Panama, if the necessary rights could be -obtained. If those rights could not be obtained the President was -required to build the canal on the Nicaraguan route. The Spooner bill -provided the machinery for the construction of the canal, created the -Isthmian Canal Commission, and authorized the expenditures necessary -for undertaking the project. Some six weeks later the Senate Committee -on Interoceanic Canals rejected the Spooner bill and presented a -favorable report on the Hepburn bill, which authorized the Nicaragua -Canal. - -The final struggle in the Senate lasted from June 4 to June 19, 1902. -Senators Morgan and Harris led the fight for the Hepburn bill, while -Senators Hanna and Spooner championed the Spooner measure. The fight -resulted in the passage of the Spooner bill by a vote of 32 to 24. The -disagreeing votes of the two Houses were then sent to conference, and -the House finally receded from its position in favor of the Nicaragua -route, and the Spooner bill became a law. The situation as it now -stood was that the Panama route was chosen on the conditions that the -title of the company be proved and that a satisfactory treaty with -Colombia be negotiated; with the alternative of the adoption of the -Nicaragua route in default of one or the other of these conditions. - -Whatever may have been his motives--in the light of events which have -followed it would seem unjust to question them--Senator Hanna was -undoubtedly responsible for the revolution in Congress and in public -sentiment which resulted in the selection of the Panama route. M. -Bunau-Varilla declares that he met Myron T. Herrick in Paris, -converted him, and through him met Senator Hanna, whom he also -convinced. In Crowley's "Life and Work of Marcus Alonzo Hanna," it is -declared that a series of interviews between M. Bunau-Varilla and -Senator Hanna had much to do with Mr. Hanna's decision to make a fight -in behalf of Panama. It was claimed by William Nelson Cromwell, in his -suit for fees against the New Panama Canal Company, that he was -responsible for converting Senator Hanna to the Panama project, and it -was asserted, also, that he furnished the data from which Senator -Hanna made his speech which converted the Senate, and the House, and -the country, and led to the adoption of the Panama route. - -At this juncture Providence seemed to lend support to the Panama -route, for one of the many volcanoes in Nicaragua became active and -did considerable damage. Occurrences since then have borne out the -wisdom of avoiding the Nicaragua route. A few years ago the city of -Cartago, only about a hundred miles distant from the site of the works -that would have been installed to control the waters of Lake -Nicaragua, was entirely destroyed by an earthquake. - -With the Spooner bill enacted into law, the next proposition which -confronted the United States Government was that of reaching an -understanding with Colombia, which would permit the building of the -canal at Panama. That country was reminded on every hand and in divers -ways that unless an acceptable treaty were forthcoming the President -of the United States would be forced to adopt the Nicaragua route. -But, notwithstanding these reminders, Colombia still moved slowly in -the matter. After being repeatedly urged to come to terms, and after -one Colombian minister to the United States had been recalled and -another resigned, the Hay-Herran treaty finally was negotiated. - -Before Colombia reached the stage, however, where it would agree to -enter into negotiations with the United States, it had been reminded -by its minister in Washington that it was dangerous not to enter into -an agreement. He had declared that if Colombia should refuse to hear -the American proposal that a new treaty be entered into, the United -States would, in retaliation, denounce the treaty of 1846, and -thereafter view with complacency any events which might take place in -Panama inimical to Colombia's interests. He had reported further that -the United States would, at the first interruption of the railroad -service, occupy at once Colombia's territory on the Isthmus and -embrace whatever tendency there might be toward separation, in the -hope of bringing about the independence of Panama. This, he had -concluded, would be a catastrophe of far greater consequence to -Colombia than any damage the Republic might suffer by the ratification -of a treaty with the United States permitting the building of the -canal. - -His views in the matter were strengthened by a suggestion of Senator -Shelby M. Cullom, of Illinois, that if Colombia should continue to -refuse to allow the United States to build the canal, which the United -States claimed was its right to do under the treaty of 1846, the -American Government might invoke a sort of universal right of eminent -domain, take the Isthmian territory, and pay Colombia its value in -accordance with an appraisement by experts. - -About this time President Roosevelt wrote a letter to his friend, Dr. -Albert D. Shaw, of the Review of Reviews, in which he said that he had -been appealed to for aid and encouragement to a revolution at Panama, -but that as much as he would like to see such a revolution, he could -not lend any encouragement to it. The Republic of Colombia was -repeatedly reminded by Secretary Hay that if it did not act promptly -the President would take up negotiations with Nicaragua and proceed to -construct the canal there. Under these conditions Colombia finally -agreed to negotiate the Hay-Herran treaty, which was afterwards -rejected by the Colombian Congress. - -It has been asserted that President Roosevelt took the view all along -that under the treaty of 1846, Colombia had no right to prevent the -United States from building the canal, and that, in spite of the -provision of the Spooner Act requiring him to proceed with the -construction of the Nicaragua Canal in the event of the failure of -negotiations at Panama, he was determined to exhaust every possible -effort before giving up the Panama route. - - - - -CHAPTER XIX - -CONTROVERSY WITH COLOMBIA - - -Seldom in the history of international relations has a controversy -afforded more grounds for honest difference of opinion than the issue -between the United States and Colombia, growing out of the revolution -and formation of the new Republic of Panama. The most careful and -unprejudiced study still may leave room for doubt as to the real -merits of the case. - -In 1903, after the United States had decided to build an Isthmian -Canal, preferably at Panama, but if that route were not available at -Nicaragua, a treaty was entered into at Washington between the -Governments of the United States and Colombia. This Hay-Herran treaty, -as it was known, in simple terms provided that the United States would -pay Colombia $10,000,000 in cash, and $250,000 a year after the -completion of the canal, if the Republic of Colombia would agree to -permit the New Panama Canal Company to sell its concession and -property to the United States. This treaty, according to President -Roosevelt, was entered into under negotiations initiated by the -Republic of Colombia. The treaty was ratified by the United States -Senate, and was then sent to Colombia for its ratification. - -At the time the treaty was pending in the Colombian Congress, the -President of the Republic was a man who had been elected Vice -President, but who had kidnapped the President with a troop of cavalry -and shut him up in an insanitary dungeon where he soon died. The Vice -President thus became the head of the Government. Anyone who knows -conditions in such countries as Colombia, understands that a President -has no use for a Congress except to have it register his own will. The -President of Colombia at first advocated the negotiation of the -treaty, but he repudiated it after it had been signed, and then -declared that if the Colombian minister to Washington were to return -to Colombia he would be hanged for signing it. The result of this -change of front was that the treaty was rejected by the Colombian -Congress. All sorts of stories were put abroad in Colombia to arouse -opposition to it. One was that the United States would make -$180,000,000 out of the canal deal the minute the treaty was ratified -by Colombia. It was claimed by the Colombian Government that the -constitutional prohibition of the cession of territory to a foreign -state would have to be changed by amending the Constitution before the -Congress could legally ratify the treaty. - -[Illustration: S. B. WILLIAMSON - -THE LOWER GATES, MIRAFLORES LOCKS] - -[Illustration: H. O. COLE - -MIDDLE GATES, MIRAFLORES LOCKS] - -How little the President of Colombia respected the laws of his country -is shown by a dispatch received by the Government at Washington after -the secession of Panama, in which it was promised that if the United -States would assist Colombia in putting down the Panama revolution, -the next Colombian Congress would ratify the rejected treaty. Or, -failing that, the President would declare martial law, by virtue of -vested constitutional authority when public order is disturbed, and -ratify the canal treaty by presidential decree. If the Washington -Government did not like such a proposal, the President of Colombia -would call an extra session of Congress and immediately ratify the -treaty. - -The real cause of the failure of the Hay-Herran treaty is not -difficult to discover. The concession of the New Panama Canal Company -under one of its renewals expired October 31, 1893. It was then -extended for a year, and, in 1894, was extended again for a period of -10 years. Still another extension was granted, which carried the date -of expiration to October 31, 1910. This last extension was granted by -the President without the consent of the Colombian Congress. In 1903, -when the Hay-Herran treaty was pending, the validity of this last -extension was denied, and the assertion made that on October 31, 1901, -all of the rights and property of the New Panama Canal Company would -revert to the Colombian Government. - -The United States had agreed to pay to the New Panama Canal Company -$40,000,000 for its concession and property. According to -Representative Henry T. Rainey, of Illinois, who for years led the -attack in the United States Congress on the acts of President -Roosevelt in connection with the Panaman revolution, the purpose of -Colombia in defeating the treaty was to wait until the expiration of -the concession, when all of the property of the canal company would -revert to Colombia, and it could then sell it to the United States -and get the $40,000,000, or any other amount it could persuade the -United States to pay. - -Of course, the New Panama Canal Company did not look upon such an -arrangement with any degree of complacency. It felt that it was a -deliberate scheme upon the part of the Colombian Government to mulct -it out of its property and its rights. As a result it was naturally -ready to lend aid and encouragement to any movement which would -circumvent this purpose of Colombia. It found conditions in Panama -just what it might have wished. - -The people of Panama felt that they had the same sort of grievance -against Colombia that the people of the American colonies felt they -had against England in 1776. The governors of the province were, with -few exceptions, sent there from Bogota, and were entirely out of -sympathy with the people of Panama. The taxes collected at Panama were -carried to Bogota, as a rule, and the voice that the people of the -Isthmus had in the Government of Colombia was negligible. Furthermore, -they felt that they were entitled to their sovereignty. - -After the countries of tropical America had thrown off the yoke of -Spain, Panama found itself too small to stand alone, and accepted an -invitation from Bogota to put itself under the Government there with -the understanding that it was to retain its sovereignty. It soon found -that this agreement was not respected at Bogota. Almost immediately -there were attempted revolts and, in 1840, the Isthmus again won -complete independence. The Confederation of New Granada promised that -the people of the Isthmus should have better treatment, and it was set -forth in the constitution of New Granada that Panama was a sovereign -state, and that it had full right to withdraw and set up an -independent government at any time. In 1885 a new constitution was -proclaimed by Colombia, which had succeeded New Granada, and this -constitution deprived Panama of all its rights as a sovereign state, -and made it a province under the control of the Federal Government at -Bogota. Upon these grounds Panama claimed that she was a sovereign -state temporarily under the duress of a superior government. After the -defeat of the Hay-Herran treaty the inhabitants of Panama knew that if -the treaty failed and no other steps were taken, the Nicaraguan route -would be followed and Panama would become almost a forgotten region -instead of a land of great opportunity. - -The consequence was that the Panamans lent willing ears to the -suggestion of the representatives of the New Panama Canal Company that -they should undertake a revolution to be financed by the canal -company. Two representatives of the New Panama Canal Company working -along independent lines were trying to bring about the revolution. One -of these was Philippe Bunau-Varilla, formerly chief engineer of the -Old Panama Canal Company, but who had become estranged from the New -Panama Canal Company. The other was William Nelson Cromwell, for years -general counsel of the Panama Railroad Company, and who, in his suit -against the New Panama Canal Company for an $800,000 fee, claimed to -have engineered and directed the revolution. M. Bunau-Varilla had some -stock in the canal company and a great deal of pride in seeing -realized the undertaking to which he had committed the best years of -his life. - -Coming to New York on another mission, he met Dr. Amador, who was one -of the Panamans desiring the independence of his country. According to -the testimony of M. Bunau-Varilla, which is borne out by documentary -evidence, he and Dr. Amador worked out the plan for the revolution. He -declares that the documents were drawn in the Waldorf-Astoria Hotel -and as far as they were written in Spanish, they were copied letter by -letter by an English stenographer who knew no Spanish, in order that -there might be no possibility of the secret leaking out. He declares -that the whole project of the revolution as it was carried out was -conceived by him in cooperation with Dr. Amador, and that William -Nelson Cromwell, the other factor in the situation, knew nothing about -what was going on. He also asserts that William Nelson Cromwell had -promised to introduce Dr. Amador to Secretary of State John Hay, but -that later Dr. Herran, the representative of Colombia, found out what -was going on and wrote a letter of warning to Mr. Cromwell as to the -consequences which would come to the Panama Railroad, of which Mr. -Cromwell was the representative, if that organization should give aid -or comfort to the projected Panama revolution. Thereupon, according to -M. Bunau-Varilla, Mr. Cromwell turned his back upon Dr. Amador, -although it has been claimed by some that this was only a ruse on the -part of Mr. Cromwell to shield himself and his company from -responsibility. About this time M. Bunau-Varilla borrowed $100,000 in -France to finance the revolution, pending the recognition of the new -Republic by the United States. Other money was forthcoming later. - -The revolution itself, which took place in November, 1903, was -bloodless. The world knows that President Roosevelt forbade the -Colombian troops to move across the Isthmus, while at the same time he -would not allow the revolutionists to make any move. A similar -situation had arisen in a former revolution in 1902. At that time the -Colombian troops were disarmed, and three days later insurgent troops -were prevented by United States marines from using the railroad and -were actually compelled to leave a train which they had seized and -entered. The principle was enunciated and maintained that no troops -under arms should be transported on the railroad, no matter to which -party they belonged. That was because to permit such transportation -would be to make the railroad an adjunct to the side using it, and to -subject it to attack by the other party. In this way, if the Colombian -troops used it, the insurgents would have attacked, and the United -States would either have been forced to permit such an attack, which -might suspend traffic on the transit, or to prevent it with force, -which would make this country an ally of Colombia against the -insurgents. On the other hand, if the insurgents were permitted to -use the railroad, Colombia would attack it, and in that case the -United States would have to help repel the attack and thus would -become the ally of the insurgents. It was, therefore, held that the -only way to make the road absolutely neutral was to allow neither -party to use it. - -This was the doctrine under which President Roosevelt proceeded in -1903. Of course, the world knows that this was tantamount to -preventing Colombia from reconquering the Isthmus, if that were -possible. It is claimed by some that if President Roosevelt had -allowed the insurgents to use the railroad in 1902, Colombia would -have been defeated in that revolution. - -At the time of the revolution it is said that the Colombian garrison -which espoused the cause of the Panamans was bribed to do so; that -their commander two days afterwards was paid $12,500 for his services, -and that he is to this day drawing a pension of $2,400 a year. It is -also charged that some of the troops who could not be bribed were sent -into the interior to repel an imaginary invasion from Nicaragua. It is -asserted that when the governor of the State of Panama telegraphed the -Colombian Government that Nicaragua was invading Panama, the Bogota -authorities sent additional troops to the Isthmus to help fight -Nicaragua, and that this accounted for the arrival of the gunboats -from Cartagena on the eve of the revolution. - -At the time of the _coup d'etat_, the United States was living under a -treaty made with Colombia in 1846, guaranteeing the sovereignty of -that country over the Isthmus in return for the recognition of the -rights of the United States, under the Monroe doctrine, in connection -with the building of a canal. Under this treaty it was mutually agreed -that the United States should keep the Isthmian transit free and open -at all times. It was contended by President Roosevelt that he was only -carrying out this provision when he refused to allow the -revolutionists and the Federal troops to fight along the line of the -Panama Railroad, although this was almost the only ground on the -Isthmus on which military operations could be prosecuted. He admitted -the justice of the contention of the Colombian Government that the -United States undertook to guarantee the sovereignty of Colombia over -the Isthmus so far as any alien power was concerned, but denied that -it was ever intended that the United States should be called upon to -guarantee it against the people of the Isthmus themselves. - -Once the revolution was started three courses were left open to the -United States: One was to force the Panamans back under Colombian -rule; the second was to let the two sides fight to a finish; the third -was to recognize the independence of the Republic of Panama and forbid -Colombia to land troops on the Isthmus. President Roosevelt took the -last course. A breezy Western congressman remarked in defense of that -course: "When that jack rabbit jumped I am glad we didn't have a -bowlegged man for President!" The result of the revolution, and the -recognition of the independence of the Republic of Panama, was that -Colombia, which had tried to grasp everything and to get possession -of the assets of the New Panama Canal Company, now found itself -without anything. - -Colombia ever since has contended that the United States was under a -solemn obligation to protect the Colombian sovereignty over the -Isthmus--an obligation that has been assumed in return for valuable -considerations--and that it had been despoiled of the Isthmus of -Panama under the very treaty that had guaranteed its permanent control -of that Isthmus. It further asserted that President Roosevelt had been -a party to the revolution for the purpose of circumventing the stand -of the Republic of Colombia. It made a long plea against the action of -the United States and urged that in the event the two countries could -not come to any agreement, the pending questions should be submitted -to The Hague for adjudication. Secretary Hay at one time proposed that -a popular election should be held on the Isthmus to determine whether -the people there preferred allegiance to the Republic of Panama or to -the Republic of Colombia, but Colombia would not agree to that. -Secretary Hay rejected the plea of Colombia for arbitration, upon the -ground that the questions that Colombia proposed to submit affected -the honor of the United States and that these matters were not -arbitrable. - -[Illustration: EDWARD J. WILLIAMS - -THE PAY CAR AT CULEBRA] - -[Illustration: UNCLE SAM'S LAUNDRY AT CRISTOBAL] - -After Elihu Root became Secretary of State, he declared that the real -gravamen of the Colombian complaint was the espousal of the cause of -Panama by the people of the United States. He said that no arbitration -could deal with the real rights and wrongs of the parties concerned, -unless it were to pass upon the question of whether the cause thus -espoused was just--whether the people of Panama were exercising their -just rights in maintaining their right of independence of Colombian -rule. "We assert and maintain the affirmative upon that question," he -declared. "We assert that the ancient State of Panama was independent -in its origin, and by nature and history a separate political -community; that it was federated with the other States of Colombia -upon terms that preserved and continued its sovereignty, and that it -never surrendered that sovereignty and was subjugated by force in -1885." Mr. Root further asserted that the United States was not -"willing to permit any arbitrator to determine the political policy of -the United States in following its sense of right and justice by -espousing the cause of the Government of Panama against the Government -of Colombia." - -When Mr. Taft became President it was his desire to adjust our -controversy with Colombia. His Secretary of State, Philander C. Knox, -just before leaving office, declared that he had spared no efforts in -seeking to restore American-Colombian relations to a footing of -complete friendly feeling, but that these efforts had been rebuffed by -the Colombian Government. He declared that it was undeniable that -Colombia had suffered by its failure to reap a share of the benefits -of the canal, and that the Government of the United States was -entirely willing to take this consideration into account, and endeavor -to accommodate the conflicting interests of the three parties by -making a just compensation in money. In pursuance of this idea three -treaties were negotiated: One between the United States and the -Republic of Columbia, one between the United States and the Republic -of Panama, and one between the governments of Columbia and Panama, all -three being interdependent, to stand or to fall together. These -treaties were negotiated at the instance of Columbia and were framed -with every desire to accommodate their terms to the just expectations -of that country. They were accepted by the Columbian Cabinet but were -not acted upon by the Columbian Congress. - -In the Knox treaty negotiated with Columbia in 1910 that country -proposed to agree to a popular election upon the separation of Panama -and to abide by the result. The United States offered to sign an -additional agreement to pay to Columbia $10,000,000 for a permanent -option for the construction of an interoceanic canal through Columbian -territory, and for the perpetual lease of the Islands of St. Andrews -and Old Providence, if Columbia would ratify the treaties with the -United States and Panama. This proposition was refused. It was then -proposed that in addition to the $10,000,000 the Unites States would -be willing to conclude with Columbia a convention submitting to -arbitration the question of the ownership of the reversionary rights -in the Panama Railroad--rights which the Columbian Government asserts -that it possesses. In addition to this the United States offered its -good offices to secure the settlement of the Panama-Columbian boundary -dispute. - -All of these propositions being rejected, the Republic of Colombia was -asked if it would be willing to accept $10,000,000 outright, in -satisfaction of its claims against the United States. This was also -refused. - -Acting upon his own authority, the American minister then inquired if -Colombia would accept $25,000,000, the good offices of the United -States in its boundary controversy with Panama, the arbitration of the -question of the reversionary rights in the Panama Railroad, and the -gift of preferential rights in the use of the canal--all these in -satisfaction of its claims. The Colombian Government replied that it -would not do this and that it did not care to negotiate any further -with the Taft administration, preferring to deal with the incoming -Wilson administration. - - - - -CHAPTER XX - -RELATIONS WITH PANAMA - - -When the people of the Isthmus of Panama revolted against the -Government of Colombia, they fully realized that almost their only -hope of maintaining an independent government was to secure the -building of the Panama Canal by the United States. Therefore, they -were in a mood to ratify a treaty which would meet every condition -demanded by the Government of the United States. - -The treaty, negotiated and ratified in 1904, gave to the United States -every right it could have desired or which it could have possessed had -it taken over the whole Isthmus itself. It was negotiated by John Hay, -Secretary of State, representing the United States, and Philippe -Bunau-Varilla, representing the Government of Panama. As the latter -was a stockholder in the New French Canal Company, whose assets could -be realized upon only through the success of the treaty negotiations, -it naturally followed that he would put nothing in the way of the -desires of the United States. - -The treaty gave to the United States most unusual rights. For -instance, in no other country on earth does one nation possess -ultimate jurisdiction over the capital of another nation; yet this is -what the United States possesses at Panama. The first consideration of -the treaty was the establishment of the Canal Zone. This gave to the -United States a territory 5 miles beyond the center line of the canal -on either side, and 3 miles beyond its deep water ends, with the -exception of the cities of Colon and Panama, to hold in perpetuity -with all rights, powers, and authority that the United States would -possess if it were sovereign, and to the entire exclusion of the -exercise of any sovereign rights, powers, or authority by the Republic -of Panama. - -Further than this, it gave to the United States the same rights with -respect to any land, or land under water, outside of the Canal Zone -necessary and convenient for the canal itself, or any auxiliary canals -or other works required in its operations. - -Further yet, the Republic granted in perpetuity a canal monopoly -throughout its entire territory, and also monopolies of railroad and -other means of communication between the two oceans. - -Under the terms of the treaty the cities of Panama and Colon are -required to comply in perpetuity with all sanitary ordinances, whether -curative or preventive, which the United States may promulgate. The -Republic of Panama also agrees that if it can not enforce these -ordinances, the United States become vested with the power to enforce -them. The same is true with reference to the maintenance of order. The -Republic of Panama agrees to maintain order, but gives to the United -States not only the right to step in with American forces and restore -it, but also to determine when such action is necessary. - -The treaty between the two countries further provides that the United -States has the right to acquire by condemnation any property it may -need for canal purposes in the cities of Panama and Colon. The -Republic of Panama also grants to the United States all rights it has -or may acquire to the property of the New Panama Canal Company and of -the Panama Railroad, except such lands as lie outside of the Canal -Zone and the cities of Panama and Colon, not needed for the purposes -of building the canal. The Republic guarantees to the United States -every title as absolute and free from any present or reversionary -interest or claim. It will be seen from all this that the United -States did not overlook any opportunity to make sure that it had all -of the powers necessary to build a canal. - -It is also agreed by the Panama Government that no dues of any kind -ever shall be collected by it from vessels passing through or using -the canal, or from vessels belonging to the United States Government. -All employees of the canal are exempted from taxation, whether living -inside or outside the Zone. The Republic grants to the United States -the use of all its rivers, streams, lakes, and other bodies of water -for purposes of navigation, water supply, and other needs of the -canal. It also agrees to sell or lease to the United States any of its -lands on either coast for use for naval bases or coaling stations. - -The Republic of Panama further agrees that the United States shall -have the right to import commodities for the use of the Canal -Commission and its employees, free of charge, and that it shall have -the right to bring laborers of any nationality into the Canal Zone. - -In return for all of these concessions the United States gives to the -Republic of Panama many valuable considerations. Most vital of all, it -guarantees the independence of the Republic. This means that the -Republic of Panama is today practically the possessor of an army and a -navy as large as the United States can put into the field and upon the -seas. The only aggressor that Panama need fear is her benefactor. - -The second consideration involved the payment of $10,000,000 cash to -the Republic, and a perpetual annual payment of a quarter of a million -dollars beginning with the year 1913. The ten-million-dollar cash -payment gave the impoverished new-born government a chance to get on -its feet, and from this time forward the Panaman Government can look -to the United States for the major portion of its necessary revenues. - -Under the terms of the treaty the United States undertakes to give -free passage to any warships belonging to the Republic of Panama when -going through the canal, and also agrees that the canal shall be -neutral. It also agrees to provide free transportation over the Panama -Railroad for persons in the service of the Government of Panama, and -for the munitions of war of the Republic. It also allows the Republic -of Panama to transmit over its telegraph and telephone lines its -message at rates not higher than those charged United States officials -for their private messages. - -Another stipulation of the treaty provides that it shall not -invalidate the titles and rights of private landholders and owners of -private property, nor of the right of way over public roads of the -Zone unless they conflict with the rights of the United States, when -the latter shall be regarded as superior. No part of the work of -building or operating the canal, however, at any time may be impeded -by any claims, whether public or private. A commission is provided, -whose duty it shall be to pass upon the claims of those whose land or -properties are taken from them for the purpose of the construction or -operation of the canal. - -In carrying out the terms of the treaty the first step taken by the -Americans was to "clean up" the cities of Panama and Colon. Remarkable -changes were wrought by the establishment of water and sewerage -systems, and by street improvements. For several years preceding the -acquisition of the Canal Zone, and the sanitization of the cities of -Panama and Colon, the late W. L. Buchanan was the United States -minister to Colombia. He was transferred to another South American -capital and afterwards came back to the United States by way of -Panama. Former Senator J. C. S. Blackburn was then governor of the -Canal Zone or, more strictly speaking, the head of the Department of -Civil Administration. As he and Minister Buchanan drove through the -streets of Panama and surveyed the changes that had taken place, Mr. -Buchanan declared to Governor Blackburn that if an angel from heaven -had appeared to him and said that such a transformation in the city of -Panama could be made in so few years he scarcely could have believed -it. - -When he was there the main streets of the city were nothing but -unbroken chains of mud puddles in which, during the wet season, -carriages sank almost to the axles. When he returned he found those -same streets well paved with vitrified brick, measuring up to the best -standards of American street work. Where formerly peddlers hawked -water from disease-scattering springs, there were hydrants throughout -the town and wholesome water on tap in almost every house. Where there -had been absolutely no attempt to solve the problems of sewage -disposal, where the masses of people lived amid indescribable filth, -absolutely oblivious to its stenches and its dangers, now there was a -sewerage system fully up to the best standard of American municipal -engineering. - -When one considers that the Republic of Panama is made up largely of -the cities of Panama and Colon, with a large area of almost wholly -undeveloped territory, it will be seen that this service was rendered -to practically all the people of the Republic. - -The relations which have existed between the Republic of Panama and -the United States have not always proved wholly satisfactory to the -Panamans. Like all other tropical Americans, the Panamans profess -great admiration for a republican form of government, but the party in -power seldom has relished the idea of a full and free accounting of -its stewardship at the polls. When the time came for the first -national election, the party in power sought to insure its return by -the use of tropical-American methods; that is, by a wholesale -intimidation of the opposition supporters. When the registration books -were opened the administration was unwilling to register the -supporters of the opposition. The government forces always were relied -upon to back up the registrars. This situation was resented by the -opposition and the indications were that the usual civil war, the -tropical American substitute for an election, was about to follow. - -At this juncture Governor Blackburn called the Panaman authorities -together and notified them that the United States did not care a -continental which side won the election, but that it was very deeply -interested in maintaining conditions of peace and amity on the -Isthmus--conditions which could not prevail except there be a fair -election. He reminded them of the right of the United States to -maintain order in their two principal cities, and of the blood and -treasure the United States had invested in Panama, all of which would -be placed in jeopardy by any civil conflict. He therefore declared it -the intention of the United States to see that there was a fair -election. - -Election commissioners were consequently appointed, and they saw to it -that the voters were fairly registered, allowed to vote, and to have -their votes counted. The result was that for the first time in Central -American history there was a fair election and for the first time a -real change of administration without a resort to arms. So successful -was this plan that in the election of 1912 both sides agreed again to -call in the United States to umpire their battle of the ballots, and -once again the "outs" won over the "ins." - -The French Canal Company has some very unpleasant experiences with -the Republic of Colombia when it, as a private corporation, undertook -to build the canal. It was at the mercy of the Government and the -Government seldom showed mercy. For instance, a Colombian owned 30 -acres of swamp land which was needed for the construction of the -canal. It was worth $10 an acre; he demanded $10,000. The canal -company took the matter to the courts of the Republic and instituted -condemnation proceedings. Here the owner admitted that the land was -not intrinsically worth more than $10 an acre, but claimed that he had -as much right to demand $300,000 for the tract as if it were located -in the very heart of Paris; that in every case it was what the land -could be used for that determined its value. The court shared his view -and nothing was left for the canal company to do but to pay the -$300,000. - -Shortly after the Americans took charge, the Central and South -American Telegraph Company wanted to land the new "all American" cable -on the Canal Zone. They applied to the United States for permission -which was granted. The Panamans fought against it under every possible -pretext, their desire being to have their consent regarded as -essential, so that they could get a good fee for the concession, but -the United States notified the Republic of Panama that it had no -interest whatever in requiring compensation, and so the cable was -laid. - -While there has been substantial agreement between the two countries, -it has been difficult to prevent some conditions which are contrary to -American ideas of morality. For instance, while the Canal Commission -was strongly opposed to having a lottery on the Canal Zone, one is -maintained just across the line in the city of Panama. The Panama -lottery and the Bishop of Panama share the same house. One has to pass -the lottery to see the bishop and, mayhap, a half dozen old women -ticket sellers will try to intercept him before he reaches the church -dignitary. - -This lottery is a veritable gold mine to those who own it. Each -ordinary drawing brings in $10,000--$1 for each ticket issued. The -grand prize takes $3,000 of this, the next 9 prizes calling for a -total of $900, the next 90 for a total of $450 and the remaining -prizes for $2,070. Thus, $6,420 in prizes is paid out of the total of -$10,000 received. Out of the remainder, 5 per cent goes to the ticket -sellers and 5 per cent to the Panaman Government. Once a month the -drawing is made for a grand prize of $7,500. Most of the money which -the lottery people make is contributed by workers on the canal. Only -64 per cent of the money received from the sale of tickets is won back -by the ticket buyer at each drawing. The net profits approximate a -hundred thousand dollars a year. - -On the whole, however, the relations entered into between the two -Republics in 1904 have been such as to leave no serious ground for -complaint. They have permitted the satisfactory construction of the -canal, and they will permit its satisfactory operation. With the -United States as the ultimate judge of every question vital to -American interests, little is left to be desired. The fact is that the -canal has been built with less friction and fewer difficulties with -the Republic of Panama than could reasonably have been hoped for at -the outset. This has been due principally to the fact that the -Americans responsible for the success of the work have approached the -Panaman situation with tact where tact was needed and with firmness -where firmness was essential. - - - - -CHAPTER XXI - -THE CANAL ZONE GOVERNMENT - - -The Canal Zone is a strip of territory ten miles wide, its irregular -lines following the course of the canal, which is its axis. Over this -zone the United States, under its treaty with Panama, exercises -jurisdiction "as if it were sovereign." The American Government was -unwilling to undertake the great and expensive work of constructing -the canal without having this guaranty to protect it from possible -harassment at the hands of the Panaman authorities. - -One of the first tasks that confronted the United States authorities -when they entered upon the work of building the canal was that of -providing a civil government for this territory named by law the Canal -Zone. Postal facilities had to be provided; a police system had to be -established; customs offices were required; fire protection was -necessary; a court system was needed; a school system was demanded; -and, in short, a sort of territorial government had to be put in -operation before the work of building the canal could go forward -satisfactorily. - -This government was established in 1904 under the direction of Major -General George W. Davis, the first governor of the Canal Zone. From -time to time it was extended and improved. More than half of this was -appropriated out of the Treasury of the United States, and the -remainder collected in the operations of the government. In addition -to directing the government of the Zone, the head of the department of -civil administration was the titular representative of the Canal -Commission in all matters in which the commission and the Republic of -Panama had a mutual interest. However, in practice, the Panaman -Government looked directly to the chairman and chief engineer on all -important matters. - -One of the earliest and most important subjects requiring their -cooperation was that of sanitation in the cities of Panama and Colon. -The United States agreed to advance money for building sewer and water -systems, and for street improvements, in the two principal cities of -the Republic, on condition that the Republic of Panama and the two -cities would reimburse the United States Treasury through the water -rents. The street improvements were to be paid for in 10 years, and -the sewer and water systems in 50 years; in the meantime the United -States was to be allowed 2 per cent interest on the money advanced. -This amortization of the Republic's debt for these improvements has -been going steadily forward. - -In laying out the government of the Canal Zone it was thought wise to -adhere as closely to Spanish laws and customs as was expedient under -the new conditions. In view of this consideration the methods of -taxation on the Canal Zone were allowed to remain largely the same as -under the old Spanish laws of Colombia. Likewise the Spanish system -of judicial procedure was adhered to during the early years of the -construction period. It was not, indeed, until 1908 that the right of -trial by jury was established in the Canal Zone. At that time former -Senator J. C. S. Blackburn, of Kentucky, was at the head of the -department of civil administration, and he regarded it as repugnant to -American ideas of justice to deny to Americans on the Isthmus the -right to be tried for felonious offenses by juries of their peers. -Upon his representations President Roosevelt issued an executive order -extending the right of trial by jury to the Canal Zone, and that order -was effective after 1908. - -With the early opening of the canal it became advisable for Congress -to determine the future policy of the United States toward the Canal -Zone, and to lay out a system of government there which would meet the -needs of the future. It was determined that the Canal Zone should be -used for the operation of the canal, rather than for a habitation for -such settlers as might choose to go there. Hence the provision was -made that the President of the United States should have the right to -determine how many settlements there should be on the Canal Zone and -how many people should be permitted to live there. - -It will be the policy of the United States to discourage general -settlement and to maintain only such towns as are necessary for the -operation of the big waterway, granting only revocable leases to any -outsiders when it is deemed advisable to allow them to occupy land -within the Zone. There will be only five settlements in the Zone, if -present plans are carried out: One at Cristobal, one at Gatun, one at -Pedro Miguel, one at Corozal, and the settlement at Ancon and Balboa -at the Pacific terminus of the canal. The total number of people who -will reside in these settlements will probably not exceed 10,000, a -material reduction from the 62,000 living on the Zone in 1912. Those -who are still there, but who will not be needed in the permanent -organization, will be repatriated at the expense of the United States -Government. In 1912 there were approximately 31,000 British subjects -on the Zone, practically all of them negroes from the British West -Indian islands and British Guiana. The great majority of these will be -carried back to their homes, as will all of the 4,300 Spaniards who -desire to return. There were nearly 12,000 Americans on the Zone at -that time, and perhaps two-thirds of them will leave before 1915. -There were nearly 8,000 Panamans on the Zone and most of them will go -to the cities of Panama and Colon, or upon the Government lands owned -by the Panama Republic outside of the Zone. - -The work of clearing the Zone of its population was begun early in -1913. A joint land commission was appointed to adjudicate the claims -of those Panamans who were living within the Zone on lands that were -needed for the operation of the canal. This commission consisted, -under the treaty existing between the two countries, of two Americans -and two Panamans. In their work they first took up the claims of the -poorer classes who had nothing but a thatched hut and a small patch of -ground. The commission visited the various parts of the Zone and -fixed the value of such holdings. The people were given free -transportation over the Panama Railroad, and usually were allowed from -$50 to $100 for their homes. They preferred to move in colonies, so -the Republic of Panama laid out small towns away from the Canal Zone -for them. These natives, usually almost full-blooded Indians, were -treated as kindly and as considerately as conditions would allow. They -were willing to "fold their tents" like the Arabs, and leave their -homes behind as they went out to conquer new ones in the jungles where -the needs of a gigantic waterway could not encroach upon them. - -The claims for lands which have to be taken from individuals by the -United States will aggregate a half million dollars. As the Panaman -Government allows homesteading on Government lands at a cost of about -a dollar an acre, and as there are tens of thousands of acres of -better land outside of the Canal Zone than inside, the policy of the -United States in freeing this strip from native population will not -work any great injury to the people. - -During the construction period the laws under which the people of the -Zone lived were made in three different ways. Of course, Congress as -the legislative assembly was always supreme. But under the laws passed -by it, the President of the United States was empowered to issue -executive orders covering points not touched by congressional -legislation, and under his instructions the Secretary of War could -promulgate certain orders. In addition to this, the Canal Commission -had a right to serve as a sort of local legislature. During the year -1912 sixteen executive orders pertaining to the Canal Zone were signed -by the President and the Secretary of War, while five ordinances were -promulgated by the Isthmian Canal Commission during the same period. - -The court system under the construction-period government consisted of -district courts, circuit courts, and a supreme court. There were five -district judges and three circuit judges; and the circuit judges -sitting together constituted the supreme court, from whose decisions -there was no appeal. Under the permanent law there will be a -magistrate's court in each town, which will have exclusive, original -jurisdiction in all civil cases involving not more than $300, and of -all criminal cases where the punishment does not exceed a fine of a -hundred dollars or 30 days in jail, or both. Its jurisdiction will -include all violations of police regulations and ordinances, and all -actions involving possession or title to personal property or the -forcible entry and detainer of real estate. These magistrates and the -constables under them will serve for terms of four years. There will -be a district court which will sit at the two terminal towns with the -usual court officers. The circuit court of appeals of the fifth -circuit of the United States will be the court to which appeals from -the district court will be carried. - -The postal service of the Canal Zone is practically identical with -that of the United States. The revenues collected from the sale of -stamps and postal cards amounted to $87,550 in 1912. Nearly a quarter -of a million money orders were issued during that year, representing -a total of approximately $5,000,000. A postal savings bank system is -also maintained, a counterpart of the one in the United States. - -All mail matter sent from the Canal Zone bears Panaman stamps -countermarked by the Canal Zone government. When the United States -established the postal system at Panama, American postage was used. -The Panamans were very much dissatisfied with such a procedure, -however, since it deprived them of a large share of their postal -revenue. Their postal rates to the United States were those of the -universal postal union--5 cents per ounce or fraction thereof on all -first-class mail matter. The rate from the Canal Zone Was only 2 -cents. The result was that the citizens of Panama and Colon would not -patronize their own post offices, but carried their mail across the -line to the post offices at Ancon and Cristobal where they could mail -their letters at the 2-cent rate. The Panaman Government protested -against this, and it was agreed by the Americans that in the future -all mail matter should carry Panaman postage stamps. These are -furnished to the Canal Zone government at 40 per cent of their face -value. In this way the share of the Republic of Panama in the postal -receipts of 1912 amounted to nearly $33,000. - -President Roosevelt selected one of his "rough riders," George R. -Shanton, to establish the police force on the Zone. This police force -was selected generally from men who had seen service in the United -States Army and had made good records there. In 1912 the force -consisted of 117 first-class white policemen, 116 colored policemen, -20 corporals, 8 sergeants, 7 lieutenants, and 2 inspectors, besides a -chief of police and an assistant chief of police. During that year -7,055 arrests were made, 70 per cent of which resulted in convictions. -Police stations were maintained at all settlements along the line. A -penitentiary was located at Culebra where approximately 140 convicts -were confined. The penitentiary had to be removed owing to slides at -Culebra Cut, and the men were put to work on the roads of the Canal -Zone. They were kept in well-guarded stockades at night. - -When Judge Henry A. Gudger was made a member of the judicial system of -the Canal Zone he believed that it would be the scene of unusual -lawlessness; he thought it would be a dumping ground for lawless -people from all parts of the world. He therefore believed in strong -repressive measures, and his earlier sentences were made heavy with -that end in view. He found later, however, that the opposite was true. -Under the system of quartering the canal help there was comparatively -little mixing of the races. The negroes lived to themselves, the -Spaniards to themselves, and the Americans to themselves; therefore, -racial friction was largely overcome. The lawless found the Canal Zone -a desirable place to shun. Judge Gudger soon discovered that severe -measures were unnecessary, and in recommending pardons frequently -stated that he had imposed sentences heavier than necessary to carry -out the repressive policies he had in mind. - -A well-organized, paid fire department was maintained from the -beginning and it was supplemented by volunteer companies in many -places. In a number of towns fire engines of the latest automobile -type were installed. Out of 300 fire alarms in 1912, nearly 200 were -for fires in Government property valued at one and three-quarters -million dollars, while the total loss was only $5,000. - -The school system of the Canal Zone was laid out along the same lines -that characterized all other activities for the welfare of the people -who were engaged in building the canal. It was founded by Charles E. -Magoon when he was governor of the Zone, and in 1912 had 75 teachers -and officials, with an enrollment of 2,105, of whom nearly 1,200 were -white. The standard required of the teachers was maintained at a high -point. Of the 48 white teachers employed in 1912, 13 held degrees from -colleges and universities, 19 held diplomas from standard normal -schools, and 12 others had enjoyed at least two years of normal -teaching. The white children on the Zone were given free -transportation to and from the schools. Those who had to go on the -railroad to reach their schools were given free passes. Those who -attended the schools in their own neighborhood were gathered up in -wagons and transported to school. - -The system of roads for the parts of the Canal Zone adjacent to the -canal itself was built mainly by convict labor at comparatively little -cost. They have been useful to the natives in getting their few -products to market, and during the years to come will be available as -military roads for use in the defense of the Zone. These roads are -built according to the best American standards and are almost the only -real roads in the entire Republic. The Panaman Government has extended -one road from the Zone line to old Panama, and for a few miles into -the interior, but aside from this national road activities have been -few indeed. - -The American road from Panama to the Zone boundary, leading toward old -Panama, over the savannahs, is the pleasure highway of the Republic. -It is practically the only road in the Republic where one drives for -pleasure, and here every automobile in Panama City is pressed into -service during the late afternoon and the evening. The elite of the -capital city own summer homes along this road. These homes are by no -means as elaborate as the summer homes along the Hudson, but the fact -that they were seated amidst veritable gardens of flowers gives them -an air of beauty and restfulness attractive even to the most blase -traveler. - -The water-supply system of the Canal Zone consists of a number of -reservoirs on the watersheds of the Isthmus where no human habitations -are allowed, and where trespassing is forbidden. The waters are -examined for bacteria and other properties once each month, and a -report thereon is made to the proper officials. Twice each month a -physical examination of each reservoir, and the land from which it -receives its water, is made by inspectors who report all conditions to -the sanitary and other authorities. If there is any sign of -contamination, steps to overcome the trouble are taken immediately. - -Where the reservoirs fill up to the spillway the waste water is not -allowed to go over the top, but is drawn out from the bottom in order -that the under layers of water may be the ones wasted. Water drawn out -for domestic purposes is taken from the top wherever possible. The -water has a somewhat unpleasant taste to people newly arrived upon the -Isthmus, and in some cases serves to disturb the digestive tract, but -to the people who become accustomed to it the unpleasant flavor, due -to the presence of decayed vegetation, is forgotten, and the workers -on the Canal Zone frequently declare they miss the Panama water when -they go back to the States. - -The permanent Government of the Canal Zone will be, in the main, -merely a miniature of the government during the construction period. -The law providing for the operation of the canal makes this Government -entirely subsidiary to the main purpose for which the canal was built. -It provides that when war is in prospect the President may appoint a -military officer to take charge of the Canal Zone, and to conduct its -affairs as they might be conducted were the Zone nothing more than a -military reservation. The Government will have its headquarters at the -Pacific end of the canal where Balboa, the principal permanent town on -the Isthmus, will be located. This little American city will be -Government-built and Government-owned, and it will be the smallest of -all the world's capitals. - -[Illustration: SMOKE FROM HEATED ROCKS IN CULEBRA CUT] - -[Illustration: TOM M. COOKE - -THE POST OFFICE, ANCON] - -Under the new Government all old laws, not specifically repealed, -or contrary to the new ones, will be continued in force. All executive -orders issued by the President, and all orders and ordinances -promulgated by the Canal Commission, during the construction period, -not inconsistent with the act creating a permanent form of government, -are made laws of the Canal Zone to continue as such until specifically -repealed by act of Congress. - - - - -CHAPTER XXII - -CONGRESS AND THE CANAL - - -While the Congress of the United States ever has been charged with a -lack of appreciation of the needs of the executive branch of the -Government, spending money foolishly here and being niggardly with its -appropriations there, the history of the legislation under which the -Panama Canal was undertaken and completed shows that American -lawmakers backed up the canal diggers in every necessary way. - -One may read in all the hearings that were conducted, both on the -Isthmus and in Washington, a desire on the part of the congressional -committees having to do with the canal matters, to promote the work, -and to enable those directly concerned in its execution to carry out -their plans without hindrance. - -It is probable that no project ever carried to completion under the -aegis of the United States Government was studied more carefully by -the legislators than the Panama Canal. There was a standing invitation -from the Isthmian Canal Commission to members of the Senate and House -of Representatives to visit the Isthmus, collectively or individually, -for the purpose of acquainting themselves with the character of the -work and its needs. This invitation was accepted by a large -percentage of the members of the House and Senate who served during -the construction period. When a member of either branch of Congress -visited the Isthmus and saw there the character of the work being -done, and the spirit of the men behind it, he never failed to return -an enthusiastic supporter of the work, ready by vote and voice to -contribute his share to the legislation needed. - -When the final Isthmian Canal Commission came into power a policy of -absolute candor with Congress was adopted. When the annual estimates -for appropriations were submitted, they came to Congress with the -understanding that they represented exactly what was needed, no more -and no less. Instead of recommending from 10 to 25 per cent more than -they hoped to get, upon the assumption that Congress would scale down -the appropriations--a policy long followed in many of the bureaus of -the Government--the canal officials asked Congress to understand from -the beginning that the figures they submitted had been pared down to -the bone. The result was a happy one. Congress learned to depend upon -the figures and to make its appropriations accordingly; consequently, -the work was never handicapped by appropriations deficient in one -branch and overabundant in another. - -Congress for several years made its appropriations for building the -canal under the assumption that it was to cost about $145,000,000, -exclusive of government, sanitation, purchase price, and payments to -the Republic of Panama. It was not until 1908 that a straightforward, -definite effort was made to fix the ultimate cost. Experience showed -clearly that all hands had hopelessly underestimated both the total -amount of work to be done and the unit cost of doing it. - -After a year's experience of carrying forward the work at full swing, -the commission decided to face the situation frankly and attempt to -ascertain exactly what might be expected. This investigation disclosed -the fact that the estimates of the amount of work to be done were a -little over 50 per cent short. Under the experience of one year's work -it was calculated that the total cost of the canal would be -$375,000,000, including sanitation, government, and payments to the -New Panama Canal Company and the Republic of Panama, instead of -$210,000,000, as these items would have aggregated under the estimates -made in 1906. This was about one and a half times as much as the -estimated cost of a sea-level canal. But, although Congress had fixed -the limit upon the basis of an aggregate cost of $210,000,000, it -cheerfully faced the restatement of the anticipated cost, and finally -set the limit at $375,000,000. - -From that day forward the great effort at Panama was to live within -this limit, in spite of the extra work required. While Congress might -have been willing to increase this limit, in view of the fact that an -additional 97,000,000 cubic yards of material had to be removed, it -was not asked to do so. The engineers desired above everything else to -stay within their own estimates, and they did the extra work with -money saved by increasing the efficiency of the force. - -The first law providing for the government of the Canal Zone was -enacted in 1904. It gave to the President and those appointed by him -the right to govern the Zone and imposed the duty "of maintaining and -protecting its inhabitants in the free enjoyment of their liberty, -property, and religion." - -In 1907 an effort was made to reduce wages on the canal. The sundry -civil bill of that year carried a provision that wages on the Isthmus -for skilled and unskilled labor should not exceed more than 25 per -cent the average wage paid in the United States for similar labor. -This proposition was urged by Representative James A. Tawney, of -Minnesota, then chairman of the Appropriations Committee of the House. -When it came to a vote the wages fixed under Chief Engineers Wallace -and Stevens were upheld by a vote of 101 to 10. Congress took the -ground that the canal could be built only by the most liberal -treatment of the people who were building it. - -At another time a provision was inserted in the appropriation law -establishing the 8-hour day law for American workers on the canal. A -fight was made by the American Federation of Labor and other -organizations to make it apply to the common laborer as well as to the -Americans, but this was unsuccessful. The 8-hour provision did not -work well, since the foremen and superintendents were permitted to -stop work after 8 hours, while the laborers under them had to work an -hour longer. This was later rectified by providing that the 8-hour law -should not affect foremen and superintendents in charge of alien -labor; and thus was overcome the difficulty of having an army of -common laborers at work an hour or so each day without superintendence -or direction. - -In 1906 it was provided by a joint resolution of the Senate and House -that the purchase of material and equipment for use in the -construction of the canal should be restricted to articles of American -production and manufacture, except in cases where the President should -deem prices extortionate or unreasonable. This provision undoubtedly -increased by many millions of dollars the cost of the machinery with -which the canal work was executed. While some dredges and other -equipment were purchased in Europe, foreign purchases were the -exception rather than the rule. When bids were submitted there were -times when European prices of dredges were placed at less than -$700,000, while American prices for the same dredges would amount to -more than $1,000,000. When there were such marked difference in bids -the awards were made to the European manufacturers. - -Although the construction of the canal was authorized by the Spooner -Act in 1902, it was not until 1906 that Congress expressed its views -in legislation on the question of the type of canal that should be -built. It was then that it declared the canal should be of the general -lock type proposed by the minority of the board of consulting -engineers, which was a complete approval of the plans urged by -President Roosevelt. In order to make certain this decision as to the -type of canal, a provision was incorporated in the appropriation bill -of that year, setting forth that no part of the sums therein -appropriated should be used for the construction of a sea-level -canal. - -Congress was always willing to aid the engineers in meeting unforeseen -contingencies by giving them unusual liberties in the application of -moneys appropriated. It was provided that as much as 10 per cent of -any appropriation might be used for any of the other purposes for -which money was appropriated, thus allowing the necessary leeway to -insure a systematic progress of the work throughout all its features. -This provision many times came to the rescue of the chief engineer, -when he found that more money was needed at one point and less at -another than had been estimated 16 or 18 months before. - -While President Roosevelt was in the White House Congress gave him -abundant authority over all phases of the task at Panama. He was -empowered to do almost anything he thought expedient for hastening the -work. For instance, in 1907 when he considered building the canal by -contract, Congress provided that nothing in the Spooner Act should -prevent him from entering into such contract or contracts as he might -deem expedient for the construction of the canal. This practically -gave him full authority over the limit of cost and the methods of -building. He was thus the sole judge of the character of the contracts -that he might make. No President in the history of the country ever -was vested with fuller jurisdiction and control over a great matter -than was President Roosevelt in this case. That he did not enter into -such contract was due mainly to the reports made to him by Col. George -W. Goethals, who had just been appointed chief engineer. - -In 1908 the Secretary of War was authorized to purchase for the -Panama Railroad Company two steamships of American registry of not -less than 9,000 gross tons each, the cost of which should not exceed -$1,550,000, for the transportation of supplies, equipment, and -material, and of officers and employees of the Canal Commission. These -ships, when no longer required for that service were to be transferred -to the Secretary of the Navy for use as colliers or other auxiliary -naval vessels. These ships carried the bulk of the cement used in -building of the great locks, and more than paid for themselves in the -saving of transportation charges which would have been levied by -private carriers. In the appropriation act of 1909 Congress decided -that the carrying of marine or fire insurance was bad policy for the -Government, and provided that no such insurance should be carried by -the Panama Railroad Company, but that it should be reimbursed for any -loss it might sustain from the appropriations made by Congress for the -building of the canal. - -[Illustration: A NEGRO GIRL A MARTINIQUE WOMAN SAN BLAS CHIEF AN -INDIAN GIRL] - -AN ITALIAN A TIMEKEEPER A SPANIARD A NEGRO BOY - -A FEW OF THE MANY TYPES ON THE ISTHMUS] - -[Illustration: COL. HARRY F. HODGES - -TESTING THE EMERGENCY DAM, GATUN LOCKS] - -There were a number of committees in Congress which dealt with canal -legislation. Principal among these were the Committees on -Appropriations of the two Houses, the Committee on Interoceanic Canals -of the Senate, and the Committee on Interstate and Foreign Commerce of -the House. The Appropriations Committees dealt with the question of -appropriations. The House Appropriations Committee usually made a trip -to the Isthmus before each session of Congress. There it would hold -hearings, questioning closely every person connected with the work who -had made estimates for its benefit, its members seeing with their -own eyes the projects for which each individual appropriation was -asked. The practice was, during these visits, to go over a part of the -work and then to hold sessions of the committee for the purpose of -asking questions about that phase of the undertaking. The testimony -was taken down by an official stenographer and printed for the use of -every Member of Congress. A few months later the chairman and chief -engineer would make a trip to Washington and furnish the committee -with such supplementary information as the intervening time might have -disclosed. - -The Senate Committee did not visit the Isthmus as frequently, as it -usually found that the hearings held by the House Committee afforded -it sufficient information on which to predicate its action. All -matters having to do with organization traffic, or general laws for -the Canal Zone, were handled by the Committee on Interoceanic Canals -of the Senate and the Committee on Interstate and Foreign Commerce of -the House. It was the latter committee, under the chairmanship of -Representative William C. Adamson, of Georgia, which framed the -permanent Canal Law, under which the Isthmian waterway will be -governed and operated. The big fight in Congress over the type of -canal was waged before the Senate Committee on Interoceanic Canals. -The records of this committee, together with the additional records in -the hands of Congress, constitute one of the most extensive accounts -of a great work anywhere to be found. The official literature of the -Panama Canal is almost as voluminous as the canal is big. - -Although Congress usually left the details of canal construction to be -worked out by the Canal Commission and the President, from start to -finish it showed a determination so to deal with the big project that -it could look back over the work with the feeling that it had -contributed its share to the triumph of the undertaking. - - - - -CHAPTER XXIII - -SEA-LEVEL CANAL IMPOSSIBLE - - -No one can dispute the wisdom of the United States in deciding to -build a lock canal. To have undertaken a sea-level canal would have -involved this Government in difficulties so great that even with all -the wealth and determination of America, failure would have ensued. It -is, perhaps, putting it too strongly to say that a sea-level canal is -a physical impossibility, but it is not too much to say that such a -canal would take so much money and so much time to build that the -resources and patience of the American people would be exhausted long -before it could be made navigable. - -The advocates of a sea-level canal declared that a channel could be -dug through Culebra Mountain with the excavation of 110,000,000 cubic -yards. As a matter of fact, Culebra Cut, with its bottom 85 feet above -sea level, required the excavation of almost that same amount. - -Engineers who advocated a sea-level canal declared that the material -in Culebra Mountain was stable, and that only moderate slopes would be -necessary. As a matter of fact, the material in the mountain proved -highly unstable, and, except for a few short sections, slides and -breaks were encountered all during the construction period. The -result was that practically two Culebra Cuts were dug. The engineers, -in beginning the present canal, calculated that 53,000,000 cubic yards -would be excavated in Culebra; the amount actually removed was -105,000,000 cubic yards. Upon this basis a sea-level Culebra Cut might -have required the excavation of 230,000,000 cubic yards. - -Calculating an average monthly excavation of a million cubic yards, -the task would have required 17 years to complete. In other words, if -a sea-level canal had been undertaken and had been physically -possible, the celebration of the opening of the waterway would have -been set for 1925 instead of 1915. - -Among all of the members of the majority of the board of consulting -engineers who favored a sea-level canal, only one, E. Quellenec, -Consulting Engineer of the Suez Canal, showed any appreciation of the -difficulties which were to be expected in Culebra Cut. He announced, -in voting in favor of a sea-level canal, that he could not do so -without first reminding the United States Government of the great -difficulties that would lie before it in Culebra Cut. Henry Hunter, -Engineer of the Manchester Ship Canal, declared that Culebra Cut -presented no serious problems at all; that a sea-level cut could be -dug more quickly than the locks of the other type of canal could be -built. He further declared that it was as clearly demonstrable as any -engineering problem could be, that it would be possible to use 100 -steam shovels in Culebra Cut. No one has accused the engineers on the -canal of lack of ability in maneuvering shovels, yet at no time were -they able to use more than 46. - -If President Roosevelt had followed the recommendation of the majority -of the board of consulting engineers in favor of a sea-level canal, it -seems probable that the United States would have followed the French -in retiring defeated from the Isthmus, or else would have reconsidered -its purpose to build a sea-level canal and have undertaken a lock -canal, as the French had done. - -But, even if it had been possible to build a sea-level canal at -Panama, it appears that such a canal would not have been as -satisfactory as the present one. While the canal the United States -possesses at Panama to-day is a great waterway 300 feet wide at its -narrowest part, in which ships can pass at any point, the sea-level -canal projected would have been a narrow channel winding in and out -among the hills, too narrow for half its length for the largest ships -to pass. Currents, caused by the Chagres River, and by the flow of -other streams into the canal, would have made navigation somewhat -dangerous. - -The principal ground upon which the majority members of the board of -consulting engineers voted in favor of a sea-level canal was that it -was less vulnerable. This contention, in the light of what has -happened at Panama, seems to carry no great weight. Such a canal would -have required a masonry dam 180 feet high across the Chagres at -Gamboa, to regulate the flow of that river into the canal. This dam, -very narrow and very high, would have been a much fairer mark than the -great Gatun Dam for the wielder of high explosives. Furthermore, while -earth dams, like that at Gatun, have weathered earthquake shocks of -great severity, masonry dams, like that proposed for Gamboa, have -been tumbled to the earth by shocks of much less power. The regulating -works at Gatun will take care of a volume of water approximately twice -as great as the Chagres has ever brought down. On the other hand, the -proposed dam at Gamboa would have cared for only one-third as great a -discharge as the highest known flow of the Chagres. - -It was calculated that the lake made by the dam at Gamboa would always -be held at low stage between floods, but if two floods came in quick -succession this might have been impossible. Such a situation would -have made the Chagres River always a menace to the canal, instead of -its most essential and beneficent feature. - -Those who objected to the lock type, on the ground that the locks -could be destroyed, seemed to forget that even the sea-level project -demanded a set of locks to regulate the tides of the Pacific. While, -contrary to the usual idea, there is no difference in the mean level -of the Atlantic and the Pacific Oceans, the difference in the tides at -Panama is about 18 feet. This is due to the shape of the Bay of -Panama. As the tide sweeps over the Pacific and into that bay, it -meets a funnel-shaped shore line, which gradually contracts as the -tide travels landward. The result is that the tide rises higher and -higher until it reaches a maximum of 10 feet above average sea level. -When it flows out it reaches a point 10 feet below average sea level, -thus giving a tidal fluctuation of 20 feet. On the Atlantic side the -tidal fluctuation is only 2 feet. - -Under these conditions the canal could not be operated during many -hours of the 24 without the tidal locks, if at all, and it would be -almost as great a hindrance to have the tidal locks destroyed as to -have the present locks injured. Another perpetual menace in a canal -with a bottom width of only 150 feet for half of its distance, would -be the danger of a ship sinking and blocking the channel. When the -_Cheatham_ sank in the Suez Canal it wholly blocked the waterway for -nine days, and partially blocked it for a month. - -According to the Isthmian Canal Commission, the present canal affords -greater safety for ships and less danger of interruption to traffic by -reason of its wider and deeper channels; it provides for quicker -passage across the Isthmus for large ships and for heavy traffic; it -is in much less danger of being damaged, and of delays to ships -because of the flood waters of the Chagres; it can be enlarged more -easily and much more cheaply than could a sea-level canal. The lock -canal has a minimum depth of 41 feet, and less than 5 miles of it has -a width as narrow as 300 feet. It can take care of 80,000,000 tons of -shipping a year, and, by the expenditure of less than $25,000,000 -additional, can increase this capacity by at least a third. It can -pass at least 48 ships a day, doing all that a sea-level canal could -do, and many things that a sea-level canal could not do. - -No one denies that if it were possible to have a great Isthmian -waterway at sea level as wide as the present lock canal, it would be -the ideal interoceanic waterway. But, as such a proposition is out of -the question, the American people have at least one thing for which to -thank Theodore Roosevelt--that at a critical time in the history of -the canal project he allowed himself to be converted from the advocacy -of a sea-level canal to the championship of a lock-level canal, in the -face of a majority report of one of the strongest boards of engineers -ever assembled, and prevented a situation at Panama that would have -been humiliating to America, and which probably would have ended for -all time the efforts of centuries to let ships through the American -Isthmus. - - - - -CHAPTER XXIV - -FORTIFICATIONS - - -When Congress decided that the Panama Canal should be regarded as a -part of the military defenses of the Nation, it became necessary to -fortify it in such a way as to make it practically impregnable to -naval attack. It was, therefore, decided that there should be ample -coast defenses at the two ends of the canal and that these defenses -should be protected from land attack by the quartering of a sufficient -number of mobile troops to hold in check any landing parties that -might attack the works by an overland route. - -In carrying out this plan Congress met every demand of the military -experts. When the plans for the fortifications were pending before the -Appropriations Committee of the House every military authority, from -Gen. Leonard Wood and Col. George W. Goethals down, who appeared -before the committee was asked if he considered the defenses -recommended as sufficient for the purposes intended, and each replied -in the affirmative. - -These defenses consist of large forts at each end of the canal, with -field works for some 6,000 mobile troops. The defenses on the Pacific -side will be somewhat stronger than those on the Atlantic side, -probably for the reason that better naval protection ordinarily could -be afforded to the Atlantic than to the Pacific entrance, on account -of the proximity of the Atlantic Waters of the canal to American -shores. - -At the forts on the Atlantic side four 12-inch guns, sixteen 12-inch -mortars, six 6-inch guns and four 4-7/10-inch howitzers will be -mounted. The guns at this end of the canal will be distributed between -Toro Point on the west side of the entrance channel and Margarita -Island on the east side. There will be two big 14-inch disappearing -guns at each of these points. They will be so placed as to sweep the -horizon in the seaward direction, and at the same time will be able to -concentrate their fire on the enemy as he steams in toward the channel -entrance between the great breakwaters which cut off Limon Bay from -the ocean. - -At the Pacific end all of the defenses will be on the east side of the -channel. They will consist of one 16-inch gun, six 14-inch guns, six -6-inch guns and eight 4-7/10-inch howitzers. There are three small -islands on the east side of the Pacific entrance channel known as -Naos, Perico, and Flamenco. They rise precipitously out of the water -and offer ideal sites for heavy defense. A huge dump or breakwater has -been built from the mainland at Balboa out to Naos Island and this, in -turn, has been connected with Perico and Flamenco by large stone -causeways. The great dump has made several hundred acres of available -land for quartering the eight companies of coast-defense troops which -will be stationed at the Pacific end of the canal. These islands are -3 miles from the mainland and their guns will completely bar the way -to any hostile ships which might seek to enter the canal. - -On the other side of the channel, at a distance of about 12 miles, -lies the island of Taboga where the Canal Commission maintains the -sanitarium for its employees. It had been suggested by some that -fortifications should be planted there, but it was declared by the -military authorities that the guns of Naos, Perico, and Flamenco would -completely command this island and prevent a hostile nation from using -it as a base of operations. - -The range of the guns extends more than a mile beyond Taboga Island. -The big 16-inch gun which will be mounted on Perico Island is the -largest ever built. It was made at the Watervliet Arsenal. It carries -a projectile weighing more than a ton for a distance of 21 miles. At -17 miles it can toss its death-dealing 2,400-pound shell at an enemy -as accurately as a base-ball player throws a ball to a team-mate 17 -yards away. Its projectiles are filled with powerful explosives, a -single one of which in the vitals of any battleship would be enough to -place it out of commission. The big guns and the mortars are intended -primarily for defending the canal from attack by water. The smaller -guns and howitzers would come into play when an enemy approached -within a mile and would be used to repel his efforts to effect a -landing. Nearly all of these howitzers may be moved from place to -place to meet the needs of the field troops in case of land attack. -Eight of them will be permanently stationed at Gatun Locks. There -will be other field works at Gatun, Miraflores, and Pedro Miguel ready -for occupancy at a moment's notice by the field troops stationed on -the Isthmus. These howitzers are so located that 12 of them may be -concentrated at any given point in case of danger. - -The big guns of the permanent forts are all mounted on disappearing -carriages so that they are exposed to fire only at the moment of -discharge. The 12-inch mortars will not only play their part in -defending the canal from water attack, but will be able to sweep the -country on the Atlantic side as far inland as the Gatun Locks and on -the Pacific side as far inland as the locks at Miraflores. They have a -range of nearly 4 miles, and when loaded with shrapnel will prove a -most effective weapon against field troops operating anywhere within -the vicinity of the locks. - -The land lying contiguous to the sea-level ends of the canal will be -platted off into squares exactly as a city is laid out. Should hostile -troops come upon this territory the men in the fire-control station -would simply ascertain the number of the block or blocks on which they -were operating, and the mortars would be so oriented as to throw their -big projectiles thousands of yards into the air to fall directly on -those blocks. They would, therefore, be practically as useful in land -operations as in the water defense. - -Every feature of the armament defending the entrance of the canal will -embody the latest improvements known to military science. The -carriages for the big guns have been specially designed, and were put -through the most thorough and exacting tests before their adoption. -The fire-control stations are said to be the last word in insuring the -effective use of the guns. Determining how a big gun shall be aimed so -that its projectile will hit a target 10 miles away is not an easy -task. Of course, the gun can not be pointed directly at the target, -since this would cause the projectile to fall far short of the enemy, -and also the effect of the wind and the motion of the enemy would -carry it wide of its mark. To guess the range and to secure it by -experimentation would be to prevent any effective fire whatever. -Therefore, it is necessary first to determine the approximate range, -the motion of the enemy and the velocity of the wind. - -There is an ingenious instrument known as the range finder, by which -the approximate distance of the target is determined. This instrument -looks something like a cross between an opera glass and a small -telescope. The operator puts his eyes to the opera glass part of the -range finder and locates the enemy just as one would with an ordinary -pair of glasses. When he locates the hostile ship he sees two images -of it. There is an adjusting screw which he turns until the two images -blend together and become one. The turning of this screw automatically -adjusts a scale on the instrument, and when the two images exactly -coalesce the distance of the ship is registered on the scale. The -operators in the fire-control station make the necessary calculations -as to the effect of the wind, the motion of the enemy and other -elements entering into marksmanship, and telephone the results below -to the men who aim the gun. - -It takes two men to aim each gun; one takes care of its up-and-down -movement, and the other of its right-and-left movement. When the man -in the fire-control station telephones that the enemy is so many miles -away, the man who has charge of the up-and-down movement of the gun so -adjusts his telescopic sight on a registering scale that when it is -pointed directly on the enemy the muzzle of the gun will be elevated -high enough to carry the projectile that distance. The man who has -charge of the right-to-left movement adjusts his sight so that when it -is pointed directly at the enemy the muzzle of the gun will be pointed -far enough to the right or to the left to land its projectile amidship -on the enemy. Each man stands on a platform and operates a little -wheel on an endless screw. He turns this wheel backward or forward -just enough to keep his sight exactly on the enemy. - -After the gunners have received their instructions the first shot is -fired. This is called a "ranging" shot, and as the best range finder -can not register the distance to the exact yard it is necessary for -the fire-control station to gauge exactly how far short of, or how far -over, the target the projectile has carried. The up-and-down sight is -adjusted in accordance therewith and usually the second, or at most -the third, shot gets the exact range. This method of locating the -enemy will be used on all the fortifications of the canal. - -It is unanimously agreed by military authorities that no naval force -will risk an open attack upon such fortifications, since almost -inevitably it would result in the disabling, if not the sinking, of a -number of battleships and a great crippling of the enemy's force that -he could not afford to risk unless he had first swept the seas of our -own naval strength. - -In order to make certain that no surprise attack could be successful, -one of the most complete searchlight equipments to be found in any -fortress in the world has been authorized for the canal -fortifications. There will be 14 searchlights, with 60-inch -reflectors, made so that they will send the brightest of white lights -out to sea and over the land as far as the range of the guns may -reach. These searchlights cost more than $20,000 each, and it requires -a year to construct the big mirror which is placed in each of them. -Electric plants at each fortress will generate electricity for the -operation of the guns and of the searchlights. - -In anticipation of sudden need nearly $2,000,000 worth of reserve -ammunition will be kept on the Isthmus. There will be 70 rounds for -the big 16-inch gun--enough to operate it constantly for two hours, -providing for a shot about every two minutes. The big 14-inch guns -will carry a shell weighing 1,400 pounds, propelled by a 365-pound -charge of smokeless powder which will drive it through the air at an -initial speed of nearly half a mile a second--enough momentum to carry -it through at least 5 feet of wrought iron. The charge of powder by -which these guns will hurl their projectiles on their death-dealing -mission, generates a force which would lift the great Masonic Temple -of Chicago 2 feet in a single second. - -Three regiments of infantry, 1 squadron of cavalry, 1 battalion of -field artillery, and 12 companies of coast-defense troops will be -permanently stationed on the Isthmus. The field troops, consisting of -the infantry, cavalry, and field artillery, will be stationed at -Miraflores, where permanent quarters will be provided together with -the necessary drill grounds. These quarters will cost in the -neighborhood of $3,000,000. At this point they can be maneuvered to -advantage and moved to any part of the Canal Zone needing defense. It -was originally intended to place these troops at Culebra on the east -side of the channel, but this would necessitate their going a distance -of about 5 miles to get to a point where they could conveniently cross -with the artillery to the other side of the canal. - -Quarters for eight companies of coast-defense troops are being -established on the Naos Island dumps. Quarters for two companies of -these troops are being provided at Toro Point, and for two other -companies at Margarita Island. These will afford sufficient strength -at the Atlantic side to man the guns temporarily, in case of -hostilities, until any additional troops needed can be brought up. All -of the troops, both field and coast defense, will be adequately housed -and the permanent structures erected for them will be as substantially -built as those of any modern army post in continental United States. -There will be drill grounds large enough to maneuver the troops -stationed on the Isthmus. Roads affording access to all parts of the -Canal Zone have been built. - -In addition to the provisions for the permanent forces on the Isthmus, -additional field works will be provided to accommodate the 20,000 -troops which might be brought to the Isthmus in case of war. These -field works will take the form of barricaded positions, entrenchments, -and other protective breastworks which will enable the troops to -undergo a state of siege. It has been estimated by the engineers that -behind such works as have been planned one defender can stand off six -assailants, so that a body of 20,000 mobile troops under these -conditions could hold the Isthmus against a siege of 100,000 for a -reasonable time. These field works will be constructed principally -around Gatun and Pedro Miguel. The buildings for the permanent force -stationed on the Isthmus will be constructed on the unit system so -that any necessary expansion can be made. - -The question of fortifying the canal was one which engaged the serious -attention of Congress for a long time. There were two main viewpoints -as to what policy should be pursued. One contention was that the canal -should be made neutral, open to the ships of all nations, including -the United States, on equal terms even in case of war between the -United States and any other country. It was contended by those who -took this view that to declare it neutral would render it immune from -any attack and guarantee its perpetuity as a great commercial -undertaking under the control of the United States. - -They contended, furthermore, that the United States was bound, under -the terms of its treaty with Great Britain, to make the canal neutral -and that to fortify it would be to violate the Hay-Pauncefote treaty. -They asserted that the United States was under solemn obligations to -recognize the principle of neutrality as applied at Suez and offered -the express terms of the Hay-Pauncefote treaty in proof of their -contention. This treaty provided that "the United States adopts, as -the basis of the neutralization of such a ship canal, the following -rules substantially embodied in the Convention of Constantinople, -signed the twenty-eighth of October, 1888, for the free navigation of -the Suez Canal; that is to say: - -"First, the canal shall be free and open to the vessels of commerce -and of war, all nations observing these rules on terms of entire -equality so that there shall be no discrimination against any such -nation, or its citizens or subjects, in respect of the conditions or -charges of traffic, or otherwise. Such conditions and charges of -traffic shall be just and equitable. - -"Second, the canal shall never be blockaded, nor shall any right of -war be exercised, nor any act of hostility be committed within it. The -United States, however, shall be at liberty to maintain such military -police along the canal as may be necessary to protect it against -lawlessness and disorder. - -"Third, vessels of war of a belligerent shall not revictual nor take -any stores in the canal except so far as may be strictly necessary; -and the transit of such vessels through the canal shall be effected -with the least possible delay in accordance with the regulations in -force, and with only such intermissions as may result from the -necessities of the service." - -It will be seen from this that the language of the treaty seems -plainly to imply that the United States had no right to fortify the -canal. It is interesting to note, however, that when the controversy -over the tolls between the United States and England arose, the -English Government expressly conceded the right of the United States -to fortify the canal and to exercise absolute rights of sovereignty so -far as military considerations were concerned. It would constitute an -interesting chapter in diplomatic history if someone would tell the -real reason why the English Government waived its rights of demanding -a neutral canal under the Hay-Pauncefote treaty. - -Those who advocated the fortification of the canal contended that the -United States had acquired practical sovereignty over the Canal Zone, -and that thereunder it had a perfect right to provide for the defense -of the territory. They asserted that the canal was undertaken because -of the military necessities of the United States, as demonstrated by -the trip of the _Oregon_ from the Pacific to the Atlantic, during the -Spanish-American War and that to fail to fortify the canal would be to -lose the military advantages which its construction had given to the -United States. - -It was further contended that to allow the canal to be neutral would, -in the case of war between the United States and some foreign power, -compel the United States to keep its own warships out of the canal its -own blood and money had built, or else compel its permanent operating -force at Panama to commit a sort of legal treason by putting the -enemy's ships through the big waterway on the same terms with American -ships. - -This contention was answered by those who took the opposite view with -the statement that all treaties would be suspended in case of war and -that neutralization would cease between the United States and its -enemies at such a time. - -The other side replied that if this were true, it would then be too -late properly to fortify the Isthmus, and that if the United States -expected ever to deny to any country the neutrality provisions of the -Hay-Pauncefote treaty, the fortifications should by all means be built -in advance. - -The long and earnest debate brought forth from some the prediction -that England would not acquiesce in such a construction of the treaty, -and from others the statement that under the terms of that instrument -other nations had a right to protest against the fortification of the -canal. In the face of these arguments, however, Congress determined by -a substantial majority to fortify the canal, and the whole world has -acquiesced. England not only did not protest, but in its toll -controversy notes expressly declared that the United States had the -right to fortify the canal. - - - - -CHAPTER XXV - -FIXING THE TOLLS - - -Long before the Panama Canal was finished shipping interests in every -part of the world began inquiring minutely as to probable rates of -toll, stating that it would be necessary for them to have this -information before making plans to meet the changed conditions. Some -wanted to plan construction of new ships, while others desired -principally to readjust their transportation lines in accordance with -the new conditions. - -With this in mind, President Taft in 1912 recommended to Congress the -passage of a law fixing the tolls and providing for the permanent -operation of the canal. Congress, acting upon this recommendation, -passed what is known as the Permanent Canal Law. In this law are -stated the terms under which the canal may be used by the shipping -world. It authorizes the President to prescribe, and from time to time -to change, the tolls that shall be levied by the Government of the -United States for the use of the canal. No tolls may be levied on -vessels passing through the canal from one United States port to -another. Provision was also made that tolls might be based upon gross -or net registered tonnage, displacement tonnage, or otherwise, and -that they might be lower on vessels in ballast than upon vessels -carrying cargo. When based upon net registered tonnage, for ships of -commerce, the tolls can not exceed $1.25 per ton, nor be less, other -than for vessels of the United States and its citizens, than the -estimated proportional cost of the actual maintenance and operation of -the canal. The toll for each passenger was fixed at not more than -$1.50. - -Acting under the law authorizing him to fix the rates within the -limitations stated by the law itself, President Taft issued a -proclamation fixing the toll at $1.20 per net registered ton on all -ships of commerce, other than those carrying cargo from one United -States port to another. The net registered ton is the unit of -measuring a ship's cargo-carrying capacity, used throughout the world -in general, and by British shipping in particular. It consists of 100 -cubic feet of space, so that when a ship is measured its net -registered tonnage is determined by the number of these units of space -it contains. A ton of cargo seldom fills a hundred cubic feet of -space; frequently it will not fill more than 40 cubic feet. The charge -per ton of actual freight under this toll of $1.20 per net registered -ton ranges from 44 to 80 cents a long ton upon the freight carried, -depending upon the class of cargo. Such a toll adds from 2 to 4 cents -per hundredweight to the freight rate between two points through the -canal. It might cost 5 cents to take a barrel of flour from Colon to -Panama, or vice versa. - -While ships will be charged tolls on the basis of net registered -tonnage, not all ships carry freight upon that basis. In the majority -of cases cargo is taken on at "ship's option"--either by weight or -space. Forty cubic feet is estimated as the space occupied by an -ordinary ton of freight, and ships usually carry cargo at rates based -on that amount of space for each ton. The 40 cubic feet method of -determining the amount of cargo carried is adopted by maritime -interests because a long ton of wheat occupies about that amount of -space. From this it will be seen that for the purpose of collecting -tolls the United States allows 100 cubic feet of space for a ton, -while the ordinary shipping firm allows only 40 feet per ton. Thus it -happens that a shipowner charges the shipper for carrying 2-1/2 tons -where the United States charges the shipowner for carrying 1 ton. - -Notwithstanding the fact that the shipowner collects for the carrying -of 2-1/2 tons where he pays toll on 1 ton, he still has to pay what -seems, in the aggregate, a large sum of money each time his ship -passes through the canal. An ordinary 5,000-ton ship will be charged -$6,000 for passing from one ocean to the other. A ship like the -_Cleveland_, the first around the world tourist steamer advertised to -pass through the canal, will have to pay $14,000 for the 12-hour trip -from Colon to Panama. A steamship like the _Lusitania_ will have to -put up some $30,000 for a single passage. The average ship will pay -from $5,000 to $10,000 for its passage. This seems like a high rate, -even though it does amount to only 2 or 4 cents per hundredweight of -cargo, but when one takes into consideration the time saved in passing -through the canal, and the cost of maintaining a ship on the high -seas, the rate becomes a reasonable one. - -The average ship costs about 10 cents per net registered ton per day -for keeping it in operation. Thus a 10,000-ton ship will save about a -thousand dollars for each day its voyage is shortened. If this voyage -be shortened by 20 days, the shipowner makes a net saving of $8,000 -when he selects the Panama route over some other route. In fact, he -may save even more than this, for the other route might involve the -giving of additional space for bunker coal, which otherwise would be -used for cargo. Convenient coaling stations mean a minimum of space -required for the operation of the ship and a maximum of cargo-carrying -capacity. In this way a merchant ship might save several thousand -dollars additional by choosing the Panama route over the Strait of -Magellan. - -It is estimated that the tolls it will be necessary to collect to make -the canal self-supporting will be $15,500,000 a year, since that -amount will be required to meet the expense of operation and return 3 -per cent interest on the investment. The $15,500,000 is made up of -$3,500,000 for operations, $250,000 for sanitation and government and -$11,250,000 for interest on the $375,000,000 the canal cost. This -takes no account of approximately $10,000,000 which will be required -for the support of the troops on the Isthmus. Should this be -considered, the total annual charges to be made would approximate -$25,000,000, but this, in the view of those who have considered the -matter, is not a proper charge against the cost of operation. - -[Illustration: THE ANCON BASEBALL PARK] - -[Illustration: CALEB M. SAVILLE - -GATUN SPILLWAY FROM ABOVE AND BELOW] - -It has been stated that a proper system of finances would provide -for the repayment of the cost of constructing the canal in a hundred -years. This would mean an annual charge of $3,750,000, and would bring -the total annual outlay, exclusive of the cost of protection, up to -$19,250,000. From this viewpoint the canal will not be self-sustaining -until the total traffic approximates 17,000,000 tons a year, which it -will reach about 1925. - -It has been estimated by Prof. Emory R. Johnson, the Government expert -on canal traffic, that the total tonnage which will pass through the -canal during the first year of its operation will approximate -10,500,000 net registered tons. Since the shipping of the United -States is permitted to pass through without paying tolls, the tonnage -upon which toll will be collected will yield a gross revenue of -approximately $10,000,000. This will afford the United States an -income of a little less than 2 per cent on the money invested, after -paying the actual cost of operation. On this basis it probably will be -four or five years from the opening of the canal before the returns -will yield 3 per cent on the investment. - -The ships of the world use approximately 75,000,000 tons of coal -annually. The opening of the Panama Canal will save several million -tons a year and the money thus saved will, in part, fall into the -coffers of Uncle Sam. A vessel en route from Chile to Europe can save -nearly enough in the cost of coal alone to pay the tolls that will be -exacted at Panama. - -When the United States came to frame its system of toll charges and -collections, it was found that there was a wide difference of opinion -as to the right of the United States Government to exempt coastwise -shipping from the payment of tolls. Under the Hay-Pauncefote treaty -with Great Britain there was also a wide variance of opinion as to the -question of whether the United States, as a matter of national policy, -ought to exempt from the payment of tolls, ships trading between its -own ports on the two coasts. These questions were argued pro and con, -and Congress finally decided by a very close vote that the United -States ought to allow ships trading between its own ports to use the -canal free of charge. No foreign ships are permitted under any -circumstances to engage in such traffic. - -Those who advocated the exemption of ships trading exclusively between -United States ports from the payment of tolls, did so on the ground -that it would build up a wealthy American merchant marine which would -be invaluable to the United States in time of war, and also that it -would tend to reduce freight rates between Atlantic and Pacific -points. They argued that every cent added to the cost of -transportation through the canal would be reflected in freight rates -between the East and the West. - -Those who opposed the exemption of American coastwise shipping from -the payment of tolls, asserted that the coastwise shipowners already -had a monopoly on the handling of cargo between American ports, and -that no further encouragement was needed. They argued that it would -make little or no difference in rates whether tolls were charged or -not, and that the only people who would benefit would be the -shipowners. They contended that the United States ought to charge -everybody alike and use the tolls collected for the purpose of -repaying the money it spent in building the canal. Some of them also -contended that the Hay-Pauncefote treaty bound the United States to -treat all shippers alike, and that the United States could not -discriminate in favor of the American coastwise traffic without -contravening the treaty with Great Britain. This view, however, did -not prevail, and the law, as enacted, exempted coastwise shipping. - -England immediately protested against this exemption on the ground -that it was in contravention of the treaty between the two countries. -The story of how the United States came to be bound by a treaty with -Great Britain in the building of an Isthmian canal goes back for more -than half a century. The year 1850 found the North American continent, -north of the Rio Grande, in the possession of the United States, -England, and Russia. The United States had only recently finished its -continental expansion, and each of the two countries needed a canal to -connect their east and west coasts. England had long possessed a west -coast in Canada, but the United States had only recently come into -possession of a Pacific seaboard. When it came to consider the -question of connecting its two coasts the United States found that -Great Britain was holding the position of advantage in the Isthmian -region. It held the Bahamas, Bermuda, Jamaica, the Barbados, Trinidad, -the Windward and Leeward Islands, British Guiana and British -Honduras; and held a protectorate over the "Mosquito Coast," now the -east coast of Nicaragua. That protectorate covered the eastern -terminus of the only ship canal then deemed possible. - -Under these conditions the United States concluded that it was -necessary for the support of the Monroe doctrine that some sort of an -understanding should be reached between the two countries. England -assented to such an understanding only after Nicaragua and Costa Rica -had given to the United States its consent to the building of a canal -across its territory. These treaties with Nicaragua and Costa Rica -were negotiated but never ratified, and were used as a club to force -Great Britain to make a treaty. The result was the Clayton-Bulwer -treaty, which provided that neither Government should ever obtain or -maintain for itself any exclusive control over an Isthmian canal, and -that neither Government should ever secure for itself any rights or -advantages not enjoyed by the other in such a canal. The proposed -canal was to be entirely neutral, and the treaty set forth that the -two countries agreed jointly to protect the entire Isthmian region -from Tehauntepec to South America, and that the canal always should be -open to both countries on equal terms. The canal under this treaty was -intended to be entirely neutral with reference to defense, with -reference to tolls, and with reference to such other nations as might -join in maintaining neutrality. - -When the United States decided to build the Panama Canal, it found the -Clayton-Bulwer treaty wholly unsuited to its aims and desires. It -therefore asked England to enter into a new convention; the -Hay-Pauncefote treaty was the result. This document declared that its -purpose was to remove any objections that might arise under the -Clayton-Bulwer treaty to the construction of an Isthmian canal under -the auspices of the Government of the United States without impairing -the general principle of neutralization. - -Under this treaty the Government of Great Britain made a protest -against the decision of the United States to exempt its coastwise -traffic from the payment of tolls, claiming such exemption to be a -violation of the neutrality agreement. This protest came in the form -of two notes to the American Government. The first was written as a -warning to Congress that the British Government would regard the -exemption of American coastwise traffic from the payment of tolls as a -discrimination against British shipping, and a violation of the -neutrality agreement between the two countries. It admitted that if -the United States were to refund or to remit the tolls charged, it -would not be a violation of the letter of the treaty, and acknowledged -that if the exemption of coastwise American shipping from toll charges -were so regulated as to make it certain that only bona fide coastwise -traffic, which is reserved for American vessels, would be benefited by -this agreement, then Great Britain could have no objection. But it -declared that England did not believe that such regulation was -possible. - -After Congress, with this note in mind, had passed the canal toll law -with an exemption to ships carrying goods between the two coasts of -the United States, President Taft, in approving the measure, declared -that the canal was built wholly at the cost of the United States on -territory ceded to it by a nation that had the indisputable right to -make the cession, and that, therefore, it was nobody else's business -how we managed it. He contended that for many years American law had -given to American ships the exclusive right to handle cargo between -American ports, and that, therefore, England was not hurt at all when -that shipping was exempted from toll charges. - -England responded, in a second note, that the clear obligation of the -United States under the treaty was to keep the canal open to the -citizens and subjects of the United States and Great Britain on equal -terms, and to allow the ships of all nations to use it on terms of -entire equality. It also contended that the United States is embraced -in this term of "all nations"; that the British Government would -scarcely have entered into the Hay-Pauncefote treaty if it had -understood that England was to be denied the equal use of the Panama -Canal with America. The three direct objections urged by the British -against the American canal law were: That it gives the President the -right to discriminate against foreign shipping; that it exempts -coastwise traffic from paying tolls; and that it gives the -Government-owned vessels of the Republic of Panama the right to use -the canal free. The answer of the United States to the first of these -objections was that the right of the President to fix tolls in a way -that would be discriminatory against British shipping was a question -that could be considered only when the President should exercise such -action. - -The British Government expressed the fear that the United States, in -remitting tolls on coastwise business, would assess the entire charges -of maintenance of the canal upon the vessels of foreign trade and thus -cause them to bear an unequal burden. This, the second objection was -answered with the statement that, whereas the treaty gives the United -States the right to levy charges sufficient to meet the interest of -the capital expended and the cost of maintaining and operating the -canal, the early years of its operation will be at a loss and, -therefore, at a lower rate than Great Britain could ask under the -treaty. The third objection was considered insignificant. - -The British Government, after laying down its objections to the -American canal toll law, requested that the matter be submitted to The -Hague tribunal for adjudication. The American Government declared that -this course would not be just to the United States, since the majority -of the court would be composed of men, the interests of whose -countries would be identical with those of England in such a -controversy. Before leaving office President Taft proposed that the -matter should be submitted to the Supreme Court of the United States. -The whole question was left in that situation when the change from the -Taft to the Wilson administration took place. - -As to the merits of the controversy, there is no unanimity of opinion -on either side of the Atlantic. Some British authorities entirely -justify the American position, while some American authorities take -the British position. It is probable that the controversy will require -years for settlement. - -Before the canal was open for traffic there was much speculation as to -what rate policies the railroads would adopt to meet the situation -caused by the competition of the Panama Canal. If the same classes of -goods are handled through the canal as across the United States, there -will be more than 3,000 different articles on the tariff books of -steamship lines using the canal. In his report on the effects of canal -tolls on railroad rates, Prof. Emory R. Johnson expressed the opinion -that the payment of tolls by ships engaged in coast trade would affect -neither the rates of the regular steamship lines nor the charges of -the transcontinental railroads. - -[Illustration: AN ELECTRIC TOWING LOCOMOTIVE IN ACTION] - -[Illustration: BLOWING UP THE SECOND DIKE SOUTH OF MIRAFLORES LOCKS] - -A provision of the canal toll law forbids any railroad to be directly -or indirectly interested in any ship passing through the canal, -carrying freight in competition with that railroad. This provision was -inserted to prevent the railroads from controlling the steamship lines -using the canal, and through that control fixing rates between the two -coasts on such a basis as to prevent effective competition with the -railroads themselves. The result was that a number of railroads had to -dispose of their steamships engaged in coastwise trade. This provision -affects several Canadian railroads, and after it was made the British -Government served notice on the United States that it intended to take -up this question and consider whether or not the law in this -particular does not infringe upon British rights. - -Nothing seems more certain than that, in the course of years, canal -tolls will be materially lowered from the $1.20 fixed by the -President. It seems inevitable that the Panama Canal and the Suez -Canal will enter into a lively battle for the great volume of trade -between eastern Asiatic and Australasian points and western European -ports. On this dividing line between the two great interoceanic -highways there originates many millions of tons of traffic, and this -will be largely clear gain to the canal which gets it. The -considerations which will draw this trade one way or the other are the -rates of toll, the convenience of coaling stations, the price of coal, -and the certainty of the ability to secure proper ship stores. This -spirit of competition will probably serve to lower rates more rapidly -than they otherwise might be reduced. With some 10,000,000 tons of -traffic on the great divide between the two canals, ready to be sent -forward by the route which offers the best inducements, it is certain -that good business policy will call for some hustling on the part of -both canals. As the business of the Panama Canal expands, it can -afford to reduce rates. With an ultimate capacity of 80,000,000 tons a -year, as the canal stands to-day, the rate of toll could be cut down -to 25 cents a ton when that capacity is reached, and still afford the -United States an income large enough to take care of the operation and -maintenance of the canal, and sanitation and government of the Canal -Zone, to meet the interest on the cost of building it, and to -amortize the entire debt in a hundred years. - -It is certain that the United States made a good investment at Panama. -Assuming that the coastwise traffic is worth to the Government the -amount of the tolls it is exempted from paying, the canal becomes a -self-supporting institution from the day of its opening, leaving all -the military and trade advantages it affords the United States as -clear profit. - - - - -CHAPTER XXVI - -THE OPERATING FORCE - - -It will require a force of about 2,700 persons to operate the Panama -Canal. The major portion of this force will be engaged on the port -works at the two ends of the waterway. With a large mechanical plant -at Balboa, with large docks for the transhipment of cargo, and with -other facilities required for making the canal the best equipped -waterway in the world for handling marine business, more men will be -needed for the conduct of the auxiliary works than for actually -putting ships through the locks. - -The force required at the locks will be comparatively small. It will -consist of men in general charge of the lock operations, men in charge -of the towing operations, men who handle the various mechanism and -operate the several types of valves for the regulation of the water in -the locks; and the general labor force consisting of a few hundred -operatives at each end of the canal. A force will be required to -operate the big hydro-electric station at Gatun Spillway, where the -electricity for the operation of the locks and for the lighting of the -canal will be generated. Another force will be required at the -auxiliary power plant at Miraflores which will be operated by steam. -Fewer than a thousand men will be required in putting ships through -the canal. - -When the question of placing the canal on a permanent operating basis -arose one of the first considerations was the scale of salaries to be -fixed. Having in mind the fact that salaries paid during the -construction period (which were 50 per cent above the standard in the -United States) were based upon conditions existing in the early days -of the American occupation, it was decided that this was an unfair -basis for the permanent organization. The salaries for the -construction period were made high because they had to be. It was more -a question of reducing men to risk their lives than of fixing fair -rates of compensation. The conclusion reached was that there was no -longer any reason why the Government should pay salaries so much -higher than obtained in the States, especially in view of the fact -that all positions under the permanent organization would carry with -them free quarters, free medical attendance, free fuel, free light, -free hospital service and the like. It was finally determined that it -would be fair to both the employee and the employer to establish as a -basis of compensation for services in the permanent organization a -scale of salaries not to exceed 25 per cent higher than obtained for -similar positions in the United States. This decision was made on the -basis that it would be fair to the employee and at the same time would -allow the canal to be operated at a cost which would impose no undue -burden on shipping. - -When Congress took up the matter in the enactment of the permanent -canal law, it reflected the recommendations of the chairman and chief -engineer of the Canal Commission in almost every particular. With -reference to the canal employees, that body provided that they should -be appointed by the President or by his authorities, and that they -should be removable at his pleasure; also, that their compensation -should be fixed by him until such time as Congress should regulate it -by law. - -The head of the permanent force on the Canal Zone will be known as the -Governor of the Panama Canal. He is to be appointed by the President -with the advice and consent of the Senate, for a four-year term, or -until his successor shall be appointed and qualified. He will receive -a salary of $10,000 a year, and will be the personal representative of -the President on the Isthmus. Indeed, the permanent organic act -provides that the President himself is authorized, after the -disbanding of the Isthmian Canal Commission--which is to take place -whenever the President thinks the work has approached a sufficient -degree of completion to warrant it--to complete, govern, and operate -the Panama Canal, and to govern the Canal Zone, if he desires to do it -himself; or "cause it to be completed, governed, and operated through -a governor of the canal." Of course, the President will prefer to -"cause it to be completed, governed, and operated" through such a -governor. As a matter of fact, when the question of selecting a -governor comes before the President it may be expected that he will -choose a man in whom he has every confidence to carry out the organic -law on the Canal Zone, and to place the canal in operation. This man -will be as much of an autocrat on the Zone under the permanent -organization as the chairman and chief engineer was during the -construction. - -When President Roosevelt undertook to carry out the provisions of the -Spooner Act, and to have the canal dug by a board of seven -commissioners, each independent of the other, he soon found that it -would not work. After repeated trials he came to the conclusion that -the control of affairs on the Isthmus should be concentrated largely -under the chairman and chief engineer. He therefore issued an -executive order requiring that all officials on the Isthmus should -report to the chairman and chief engineer, giving him practically all -control over the entire project. This brought both the Canal Zone -Government and the sanitary department under the supervision of the -chairman and chief engineer. The result was a coordination of the work -and a satisfactory organization for its prosecution. - -When Congress came to make the permanent canal law it profited by the -unsatisfactory results that would have grown out of a rigid adherence -to the principles of the Spooner Act, and concentrated all authority -under the governor of the Canal Zone. There were those who thought the -sanitary department should not be under the control of the governor, -and still others who felt that the operation of the canal probably -should be under one man and the civil government under another. But -these suggestions were not followed, and the act as finally adopted -makes the President practically a czar of the Isthmus, and under him -the governor need give account to no one but the President. - -It has been the ambition of the present chief engineer of the canal to -see the operating force fully installed and things moving along on a -satisfactory working basis before leaving the Isthmus. He thinks -arrangements should be made whereby acute changes of policy should be -prevented. This he would do by having a principal assistant who would -succeed the governor at the end of his four-year term. This would -permit a continuous policy and an unbroken line of action which, -according to his view, would make for the efficiency of the operating -force. In speaking of this phase of the matter, he stated that were a -new man chosen at the end of the four-year term of his predecessor--a -man who had had no previous experience on the Isthmus--there would -always be a tendency to make radical changes. - -He would have on the governor's staff a doctor from the Army to have -charge of the work of sanitation on the Canal Zone, who would report -directly to the governor. The quarantine officer, in his opinion, -should be under the Public Health Service of the United States. Under -the plan as adopted in the permanent canal law, any officer of the -Army or of the Navy chosen to fill a position in the canal operating -force will be paid the same salary as a civilian, with the exception -that he would get only the difference between his regular Army or Navy -pay and the salary his position carried. - -It is estimated that the expense of operating the canal will amount to -about $3,500,000 a year. This includes the cost of operating a number -of dredges which will have to be maintained in connection with the -canal work. The estimate was made upon the amount of business handled -at the Sault Ste. Marie Canal which has the largest traffic of any -canal in the world. - -There will be five departments for the operation of the canal outside -of the work of maintaining the civil government and sanitation. The -operating department will have charge of the operation of docks and -wharves at the terminals, pilotage, lockage, and the lighting of the -canal. It is estimated that it will cost $400,000 a year to maintain -the terminals, $150,000 a year to light the canal, and that it will -require 60 pilots, at $1,800 each a year, to take ships through. -During the first years of operation it is believed that a single shift -can handle all the business that comes, but, as the years go by, it -may require two shifts and eventually three to keep the work going. - -The engineering department will require about 500 men and will have -charge of all the construction and repair work pertaining to the canal -property, and of all excavation and dredging in the canal. It will -cost approximately a million dollars a year to maintain this -department, of which three-fourths will be required for the operation -of the dredges and other equipment for keeping the canal open. - -The quartermaster's department will have charge of the construction, -repair, and maintenance of all buildings, roads, and municipal -improvements in the Zone settlements and of the receipt, care, and -issue of all property and material. This department will require -nearly a thousand men and the total expense will be in the -neighborhood of $600,000. - -The electrical and mechanical department will have charge of the -mechanical and electrical apparatus belonging to the canal, and of the -permanent works at its two ends. - -The accounting department will require some 60 men with annual -salaries amounting to approximately a hundred thousand dollars. It is -estimated that the cost of materials for the operation of the canal -will range around three-fourths of a million dollars a year. - -The force which will be maintained on the Isthmus, with their -families, will make a Canal Zone population of approximately 5,000. -These, in addition to the eight or nine thousand troops and marines -which will be quartered there, will bring the total population up to -about thirteen or fourteen thousand. Of these perhaps three-fourths -will be along the southern 10-mile section of the canal. But, in spite -of the greater population at the Pacific side, the Atlantic end will -probably not lack for attraction. It is likely that Gatun Lake will be -stocked with a supply of fresh-water fish, and that shooting preserves -will be established adjacent to Gatun, to be conducted in connection -with the Washington Hotel at Colon. There is also some talk of -constructing golf links adjacent to Gatun, which will be open alike to -the employees of the canal and to the guests of the two big Government -hotels--the Washington and the Tivoli. - -While a freight-carrying steamer will make its stay as short as -possible, the probabilities are that the passenger-carrying steamer -will require at least 48 hours to make its calls at the two terminal -cities and pass through the canal. They will probably handle the major -portion of the package cargo, leaving the bulk cargo business entirely -for freighters. When going through the canal from the Atlantic to the -Pacific they probably will have cargo bound for a large number of -Pacific ports on diverse routes. This would be discharged at Balboa -and there be put into other ships to be carried to its destination. -During the time the shipping and unshipping of cargo, replenishing -stores, taking on coal and like operations are being performed, the -traveler will be afforded opportunity to get acquainted with dry land -again, and to enjoy for a day or two a respite from his long sea -journey. - -The plan advocated on the Isthmus for perfecting the permanent -organization was as follows: The chairman and chief engineer would -call upon each of the departments to furnish a list with the ratings -of the best men. The man having the best record would be offered a -position under the permanent organization similar to the one held by -him under the construction organization. If he chose to accept this -position under the wage standard laid out he could do so; if he did -not, the next man would be given the opportunity, and so on down. In -this way it was expected that the entire force would be chosen because -of records made in the service. - - - - -CHAPTER XXVII - -HANDLING THE TRAFFIC - - -Four or five years before the earliest probable opening date, shipping -interests began to arrange their future schedules with respect to the -Panama Canal. - -One can scarcely realize how rapidly the facilities of the canal will -be utilized. At the rate of expansion witnessed in the world's marine -traffic during the past two or three decades, 17,000,000 tons of -shipping will be handled through the canal in 1925, 27,000,000 tons in -1935, and 44,000,000 tons in 1945. - -The maximum capacity of 80,000,000 tons assumes a passage of 48 -vessels a day through the canal, or one for every half hour of the -twenty-four. Two vessels a day of 4,000 tons each, at the present -charge, will render the canal self-supporting. - -While the great Isthmian highway will be completed far enough ahead to -be ready to handle all traffic that offers long before the official -opening date, it will, on the other hand, never reach that stage where -dredges will not be needed. There are 22 rivers which wend their way -from the watersheds of the canal, and pour their loads of sand and -silt into it. Of course, these rivers are small--so small, indeed, -that few of them would be dignified by being called rivers in the -United States. But when the heavens open and the floods descend, as -they do so frequently during the rainy season at Panama, these usually -quiet, lazy, little streams become almost as angry as the mighty -Chagres itself, and they rush down to the canal heavily freighted with -sand and silt. If the water in the great interoceanic channel is to be -kept at its appointed depth of 41 feet, dredging perforce must be -continued from year to year, summer and winter, spring and fall. And -so it is that the dredges will be met by every ship that steers its -course from Cristobal to Balboa, or from the Atlantic to the Pacific. - -Few ships large enough to tax the dimensional capacity of the locks -ever will go through the canal. Full 90 per cent of all the ships that -sail the seas could go through locks one-half the size of those at -Panama. So far as commercial shipping is concerned, a 15,000-ton -vessel plying tropical waters is considered large, and a 20,000-ton -ship is an exception. According to the best shipping authorities, the -day when vessels of more than 25,000 tons will find it profitable to -ply on the routes which lead through the Panama Canal is so far in the -future that they are not able to discern it. With reference to the -Navy, naval experts generally agree that the United States will -celebrate many a decade of passing years before a battleship too large -to use the present lock chambers is a possibility. - -When a ship makes its maiden voyage through the canal, the -measurements to determine its net register will be taken by the -shipping experts in the employ of the United States. When this work -is completed the master of the ship will be required to pay the toll -before he can take his vessel through the canal. If he should fail to -pay the toll the vessel itself would be put on the block and sold at -auction, if necessary, to reimburse the United States for its passage. -However, it is not to be expected that such contingencies as these -will arise. When once a ship has been measured, the formality will not -have to be gone through with on future visits. It is not expected that -each ship will be actually measured for every dimension as it comes to -the canal on its first trip, since its net register tonnage probably -will have been determined long before, and the canal officials will -only check up the work already done elsewhere to assure its accuracy. - -Many ships will go to Panama which will not use the canal. For -instance, there will be those which will leave European ports, loaded -in part with cargo bound to Pacific points and in part with cargo for -Atlantic points on the South and Central American coast. Such ships -will simply call at Colon, discharge their cargo bound to Pacific -points, and take on what additional cargo they can get bound for -points for which they are sailing on the Atlantic side. In stopping at -Colon they will probably replenish their supplies from the commissary -department of the canal. - -What the freight department is to a railroad the cargo ship will be to -the Panama Canal--its greatest revenue producer. Such ships will do -comparatively little loading and unloading of cargo at either end of -the canal. The tramp steamer will figure largely in the traffic that -passes from ocean to ocean at Panama. With no schedule of sailing -dates and with no definite routes, the tramps constitute the flying -squadron of the shipping world, moving hither and thither seeking -cargoes wherever they can find them. A tramp steamer may load at -Liverpool for San Francisco, reach that point through the Panama -Canal, and, after discharging its cargo, go on up to Seattle and load -for China. There it may discharge its cargo again and go thence to -India to pick up a load of grain for Liverpool, passing through the -Suez Canal. Its master always will turn its prow to the point where -profitable cargo awaits it, and this may carry it by Panama once or a -dozen times a year. The line steamers will have their regular sailing -dates and will pass through the canal at stated intervals. - -The problem of providing coal for passing ships is one of the most -important with which the canal authorities will have to deal. The -cheaper that commodity can be sold to the ships, the more attractive -the route will be. For instance, a 10,000-ton ship which saves a -dollar a ton on a thousand tons of coal, saves the equivalent of the -cost of operating the vessel for a period of from 24 to 36 hours, and -this, with the rates at Suez and Panama on an equal basis, gives at -least one day's advantage to the Panama route in figuring on a voyage. -Pocahontas steaming coal costs $2.70 per ton laid down at Newport -News. Under the carrying agreements with shipping interests that -obtained during the construction period, this coal was carried to -Panama for $1.395 a ton. It is estimated that the canal colliers, -which have been authorized by Congress, with a capacity of 12,000 tons -of coal and with a speed of 14 knots, can deliver to the Isthmus a -half million tons of coal a year. The saving which will be effected by -having the coal carried by Government colliers is a large one. A -merchantman would get $368,000 for delivering 264,000 tons of coal, -while the cost of delivery by collier for the same amount would -approximate $184,000. The average life of a collier is 20 years. The -saving effected in these 20 years by the Government carrying its own -coal would be large enough to pay back the million dollars which the -collier cost, and to yield an additional profit of $2,630,000 during -the life of the vessel. - -The sale of coal at Suez, where an annual shipping traffic of some -21,000,000 tons is handled, amounts approximately to 1,000,000 tons. -Thus, it will require two colliers to handle the coal when the canal -opens, and two more 13 years later. - -Not all the ships which use the canal will coal there. For instance, -the Royal Mail Steam Packet Company, which was so forehanded in its -effort to get a good share of the trans-Isthmian traffic that it -acquired the Pacific Steam Navigation Company long before the canal -opened, is building a coaling station at Kingston, Jamaica, where its -ships will replenish their bunkers. This coaling station will, of -course, always be at the disposition of the British Government in case -of war, and of such British merchantmen that choose to pass that way. - -Some ships will not negotiate the canal under their own power. Many -small vessels steer so badly that their masters would be afraid to -risk them going through without aid. For instance, the skipper of the -Cristobal, one of the 6,000-ton cement-carrying ships bought by the -United States a few years ago, declared, in discussing this phase of -the matter, that he would be afraid to trust his vessel going through -the canal under its own power. To ships not sufficiently responsive to -their helms, Government tugs will be furnished. - -Some skippers prefer to have their vessels towed by one powerful tug, -while others prefer several smaller ones. Several tugs are now -building for towing purposes, and they will also be used to tow -vessels through the locks in the early days of operation, pending the -completion of all of the electric towing locomotives. - -Two floating cranes will be provided in the permanent equipment at a -cost of a quarter of a million dollars each. These cranes, with a -lifting power of 250 tons, will be suitable for any wrecking -operations in the canal and, also, for lifting the gates in case of -repairs being required. - -The canal will probably be the death blow to the sailing ship of -international commerce. Not being able to negotiate the canal under -their own power, and because of the dead calms which prevail in the -Gulf of Panama, sailing ships will be stopped from using the Isthmian -waterway. When they attempt to journey around Cape Horn and the Cape -of Good Hope in competition with steam vessels which pass through the -Panama Canal, the operation will afford such little profit that in -the course of a few years they will have to surrender what little -share of international commerce they have succeeded in keeping. - -The Panamans are inclined to think the United States drove a hard -bargain when the provision was inserted in the treaty that all -supplies for the building and operation of the canal, and for the -demands of shipping using it, when imported by the United States, -should be free of duty. This practically gives the United States a -monopoly of the business of catering to the needs of ships passing -Panama. The present duty on imports is 15 per cent, and the local -merchant who would sell supplies to the passing ships would be under -the necessity of adding 15 per cent to his buying price before he -could compete with the United States Government on equal terms. This -advantage is made all the more marked by the reasons of the fact that -the United States often can make much money out of the operation by -selling at actual cost, the profit arising from the extra shipping -which is thereby attracted to the canal. - -The United States will reimburse the owners of any vessels passing -through the locks of the canal, under the control of its operatives, -for any injury which may result to vessel, cargo, or passengers. -Provision is made under the permanent canal law that regulations shall -be promulgated by the President which will provide for the prompt -adjustment, by agreement, and immediate payment of claims. In case of -disagreement, suit may be brought in the district court of the Canal -Zone against the governor of the Panama Canal. The law says: "The -hearing and disposition of such cases shall be expedited and the -judgment shall be immediately paid out of any moneys appropriated or -allotted for canal operation." - -The character of misrepresentations made concerning the canal was -illustrated in a story published in the midsummer of 1913. This story -originated in London and declared that all of the big shipping -interests were afraid of the Panama Canal, and that Lloyds would -insure vessels and cargo only at much advanced rates. The article went -on to state that the representative of one of the biggest European -lines had visited the Isthmus and had returned with the announcement -that his company could not afford to trust its vessels in the canal. - -As a matter of fact, with the United States Government standing -responsible for any damage sustained in the canal, no shipping -interest could sensibly regard it as extra hazardous to pass through -it; rather, it would be less hazardous than to negotiate the tortuous -Strait of Magellan, where thousands of wrecks tell of unseen dangers, -or to round Cape Horn with its fierce storms and its grave perils. - -Much has been said about the probability of injury to the canal by -persons of evil intent, and the Panama Canal law imposes heavy -penalties on anyone attempting to inflict such an injury. The law -provides that the governor of the Canal Zone shall make rules and -regulations, subject to the approval of the President, touching the -right of any person to remain upon or pass over any part of the Canal -Zone. "Any person violating these rules or regulations shall be guilty -of a misdemeanor and, upon conviction in the district court of the -Canal Zone, shall be fined not exceeding $500 or imprisoned not -exceeding a year, or both penalties in the discretion of the court. -Any person who, by any means or any way, injures or obstructs or -attempts to injure or obstruct any part of the Panama Canal, or the -locks thereof, or the approaches thereof, shall be deemed guilty of a -felony and on conviction shall be punished by a fine not to exceed -$10,000 or by imprisonment not to exceed 20 years, or by the -infliction of both of these penalties. If the act shall cause the -death of any person within a year and a day thereafter, the person so -convicted shall be guilty of murder and shall be punished -accordingly." As a further precaution, individuals will not be allowed -to approach the locks with any sort of packages unless they are -properly vouched for. - -The possibility of serious injury to the locks will be carefully -guarded against. They will be lighted at night by electric lamps of -large candlepower and the whole lock structure will be kept as light -as day throughout the night. Men will be always on sentry duty, and an -adequate system of intercommunication will enable the sentries to call -out a guard large enough to repulse any attack of any small surprising -party. - - - - -CHAPTER XXVIII - -THE REPUBLIC OF PANAMA - - -The Republic of Panama is one of the smallest countries in the world, -its territory being about equal to that of the State of Indiana. It -has no national debt, and has $7,000,000 invested in mortgages, on -real estate in New York City. - -When it received $10,000,000 from the United States, in payment for -the rights under which the Panama Canal was built, it immediately -invested about 75 per cent of it, using the remainder for paying the -expenses of the revolution, and for setting the new government on its -feet. It now receives $250,000 a year from the United States as rental -for the Canal Zone, and this, with the $350,000 received as interest -from its real estate mortgages in New York, gives it an annual income -of $600,000 outside of money raised by the usual processes of -taxation. - -Under the treaty with the United States, Panama has its independence -guaranteed, and recognizes the right of the United States to maintain -order within its boundaries. This entirely does away with the -necessity of maintaining an army and navy. The result is that with no -appropriations required for military purposes, and with a $600,000 -income from the Canal Zone, it enjoys one of the lowest tax rates in -the world. - -Although the Republic of Panama has its Declaration of Independence -and its Glorious Fourth, the former was written by a foreigner, and -the latter occurs in November. There is some dispute as to who wrote -the declaration of independence, but the best information points -either to Philippe Bunau-Varilla, a Frenchman, or to William Nelson -Cromwell, an American. These two gentlemen differ upon this subject, -each claiming that he was the Thomas Jefferson of Panama. - -When the $10,000,000 was paid to Panama by the United States, one of -the first things done was to build a university, locally known as the -National Institute. Some $800,000 was spent in the construction of the -buildings, which are located near the line of the Canal Zone. But it -so happens that Panama has few teachers qualified to hold university -chairs, and fewer students qualified to pursue university courses; and -the result is that the university is more a place of buildings than a -seat of learning. - -No other country in the world calls in another nation to superintend -its elections. When the first presidential election was held the -United States took the initiative and demanded the right to supervise -the balloting. Before the second election was held the President -became ambitious to succeed himself, although the constitution -provided that he could not do so. He thereupon decided to resign for a -period of six months, in favor of one of his partisans, thinking that -this would allow him to live up to the letter of the constitution -even though he were violating its spirit in becoming a candidate for -reelection. This situation was brought to the attention of the United -States, and the President was politely but firmly informed that the -subterfuge would not be permitted. When the election approached each -side thought that the other was trying to win by fraud, and the United -States was asked to referee the political battle. - -The City of Panama is famous for its wickedness. Men who have seen the -seamy side of life in all of the big cities of the world declare that -Panama is as bad as the worst of them. Until a few years ago -bull-fighting was permitted, but the bulls were so poor and the -fighters were such butchers that the Government finally outlawed this -form of entertainment. Cock-fighting persists, and numerous cock pits -are popular resorts every Sunday. Nowhere else can one witness a -greater frenzy in betting than at one of these cocking mains. The -backers of the rival birds nod their heads and place their bets so -rapidly that it is more bewildering to the onlooker than the bidding -at an auctioneer's junk sale. - -The prize ring has succeeded the bull ring in gratifying the -Spaniard's thirst for gore, and scarcely a Sunday passes that there is -not a prize fight in Panama. Few Americans who attend them come away -without a feeling of disgust over the poor fighting, the brutality, -and the trickery resorted to. - -While the Americans have done so much for public cleanliness in Panama -and Colon, the masses seem to know little more about sanitary living -today than before the Americans came. The stenches which greet the -visitor in the native quarters are no less odorous than those -encountered in other cities of tropical America. The bathtub is an -unknown quantity among the masses. Most of the natives who live in the -cities are engaged in some line of small trade. It may be that a shop -has only a platter of sweetmeats and a few bottles of soda on ice, and -that another has only a bushel of different kinds of tropical fruits, -but out of the small sales large families manage in some way to exist. -The markets open early in the morning. There is no spirit of rivalry -among the market men, and they act usually as if they were conferring -a favor upon the buyer. At the markets many Indians are encountered -who bring their wares from the interior and offer them for sale. These -usually consist of pottery, net bags, charcoal and the like. - -Life among the Panamans in the jungle is simple indeed. With his -machete the householder may provide a thatched roof for his -mud-floored hut, and he can raise enough beans, plantains and yams, -and burn enough charcoal, and catch enough fish to meet all of his -needs. In the kitchen the principal utensils are gourds and cocoanut -shells. The most tempting morsel that the Panaman can get is the -iguana, a lizard as big as a cat, whose meat is said to taste like -spring chicken. It is about the ugliest creature in the animal world, -and yet it means more to the native Panaman than does possum meat to -the cotton-field darky of the South. - -The unconscious cruelty of the average native is remarked by almost -every visitor. He is usually too lazy to be conscious of cruelty, for -that would require exertion. When he catches the iguana, for -instance, he takes it alive so that it may be fattened before being -killed. Its short legs are twisted and crossed above its back, and the -sharp claw of one foot is thrust through the fleshy part of the other, -so as to hold them together without other fastening. The tail, being -useless for food, is chopped off with the machete, and thus mutilated -and unable to move, the lizard is kept captive until fat enough to -eat. - -The fruits of Panama are neither so numerous nor so plentiful as those -of Nicaragua or Jamaica. The mamei is a curious pulpy fruit the size -of a peach, with a skin like chamois and with a smooth pit the size of -a peach-stone. The sapodilla is a plum-colored fruit with seeds in a -gelatinous mass. One is usually introduced to the sapodilla with the -remark that, although the seeds are eaten, they have never been known -to cause appendicitis. - -Cedar is preferred to mahogany in Panama. The Indians make their -cayucas out of mahogany logs, and it is not uncommon to see bridges 40 -feet long and 5 feet thick, made of mahogany logs which would be worth -several thousands of dollars in an American furniture factory. - -Panama is famous for its tropical flowers. Many of them are beautiful, -but few are sweet smelling. Orchids abound, especially on the Atlantic -side, and while the waters of the Chagres were being impounded in -Gatun Lake, native boatmen would go out in their cayucas and gather -orchids from the trees. One of the most beautiful of the orchids of -Panama is the Holy Ghost orchid. It blooms biennially, and when its -petals fold back they reveal a likeness to a dove. - -Some of the American Women on the Canal Zone became enthusiastic -collectors of tropical flowers. Among these were Mrs. David Du Bose -Gaillard and Mrs. Harry Harwood Rousseau. Both of these ladies spent -much time hunting orchids and other flowers for the verandas of their -houses and for their gardens. Mrs. Rousseau made trips into several of -the other countries of Central America in her quest for new orchids. -The collections made by these two ladies represent the finest on the -whole Isthmus of Panama. - -The animal life of the Isthmus is not abundant, although some deer and -a few tapirs are to be found. Alligators abound in the Chagres River -and other streams of the Zone. Perhaps the most interesting form of -animal life to be found on the Isthmus is the leaf-cutting ant. This -ant seems to be nature's original fungus grower. As one walks around -the American settlements, he frequently comes upon a long path filled -with ants, passing back and forth. They resemble a sort of miniature -yacht under full sail, except that the sails are green instead of -white. Upon closer examination it is found that what seemed to be a -sail is a triangular piece of leaf carried on the back of the ant, -with its edges to the wind so as to overcome air resistance. The ants -do not gather these leaves for food, but they store them in such a way -that a fungus grows upon them. They eat the fungus, and when the -leaves are no longer useful they are thrown out and new supplies -brought in. - -The native remedies used by the Panamans are many and interesting. For -stomach troubles, which are very rare, they eat papaya. The papaya is -a sort of fruit which might be a cross between a cantaloupe, a -watermelon and a pumpkin, except that it grows on trees. It has the -rind of a green pumpkin, the meat of a cantaloupe, and the seeds of a -watermelon. It is probably richer in vegetable pepsin than any other -plant in existence--a pepsin which neutralizes either alkaline or acid -conditions in the stomach. It is said that a tough steak, wrapped in -the leaf of the papaya tree overnight, becomes tender as the result of -the digestive action of the pepsin in it. - -The Indians and Panamans who live in the jungle use the wood of the -cacique, or "monkey cocoanut," to stop any flow of blood. In their -materia medica they have a large number of tropical plants which they -use for their ailments. - -The way in which sanitary instruction may be made efficient is -illustrated among some of the people of Panama. Upon one occasion the -Canal Record carried a small diagram of how to make a sanitary -drinking cup out of a sheet of paper. After that there were many -Panamans who, although in a hundred ways indifferent to contagion, -would no longer drink from common drinking cups, but would make their -own sanitary cups. Even the Jamaican negroes employed around the -offices of the commission in many instances would not think of using -the common drinking glass at the office water-cooler. - -Two tribes of Indians on the Isthmus have not mixed with the -Caucasians or the negroes. They are the Chucunoques and the San Blas -Indians. The latter tribe has never been known to allow a white man to -remain in its territory after sundown. Even the higher officials of -the Panaman Government are forced to respect this tradition when they -treat with the San Blas chiefs. - -Government land in Panama can be bought at the rate of $49.60 for 247 -acres, with reductions for larger areas. The Government invites -foreign capital, declaring that the United States stands as a -perpetual guarantee against revolutions within and aggressions -without. - -The story of the early days in Panaman history is a strange admixture -of romance and cruelty. The Isthmus was discovered in 1500, and first -settled by an adventurer who had been the Royal Carver in the king's -household at Madrid. Balboa, carrying with him a small force of men -and a lot of bloodhounds, one of them a dog of mighty prowess, known -as Lioncico, or "Little Lion," which drew a captain's pay because of -its fighting qualities, crossed the Isthmus in 1513 and discovered the -Pacific Ocean. After him came a new governor of the Isthmus, who put -Balboa to death. - -The Spaniards were unspeakably cruel to the Indians. Even those who -received them kindly were tortured and roasted to death, because they -did not produce enough gold. One governor rode a mule, which was noted -for the frequency of its braying. The Indians were taught that the -mule was asking for gold, and in meeting these demands they not only -had to give what they possessed, but were forced to rob the graves of -their ancestors as well. Upon one occasion the Indians, having -captured a number of Spaniards, melted a lot of the yellow metal and -poured it down their throats, telling them to drink until their -thirst for gold was quenched. - -After the Spaniards had established themselves upon the Isthmus, the -English buccaneers, Drake and Morgan, fell upon their cities and -despoiled them. The ruins at Old Panama, which once was a city of -30,000 inhabitants, to-day tell the story of the effective work of -Henry Morgan when he raided it and captured its treasure. - -While the Spanish conquerors, the French filibusters, and the English -buccaneers, who took their turns in pillaging Panama, were cruel -beyond imagination, they were always famous for their outward -evidences of religion and piety. The Spanish were always chanting -hymns and honoring the saints; the French would shoot down their own -soldiers for irreverent behavior during mass; the English pirate -captains never failed to hold divine services on Sunday, and often -prohibited profanity and gambling. - -Where once Spaniards tortured Indians and British buccaneers raided -Spaniards, where once revolution after revolution left a poor and -desolate country, to-day the gates of Panama are open to the world, -and its trade is invited again to pass that way. The people of the -Isthmus believe that the glory which departed when Morgan sacked Old -Panama, forcing the Pacific trade to seek the Strait of Magellan, will -return with the opening of the Panama Canal, and that their capital, -whose walls cost so much that the Spanish king thought he could see -them from his chamber window in Madrid, will retrieve its ancient -glory. - - - - -CHAPTER XXIX - -OTHER GREAT CANALS - - -While the Panama Canal seems destined to endure for all time as the -greatest artificial shipway in the world, there are other waterways, -while small in comparison, that are in themselves wonderful works of -engineering. In point of traffic the greatest canal in the world is -the Sault Ste. Marie Canal, popularly called the "Soo." In point of -economy of distance and world-affecting consequence the Suez Canal -ranks with, or next to, Panama. - -The Suez Canal was built while the Civil War was raging in the United -States, and was opened for the passage of vessels on November 17, -1869. It is about twice as long as the Panama Canal, the distance from -Port Said, at the Mediterranean terminus, to Suez at the Red Sea end, -being approximately 100 miles. When constructed its depth was 26 feet, -3 inches, and its bottom width 72 feet. The maximum vessel draft -permitted was 24 feet 7 inches. The canal was in operation for 11 -years before vessels of this draft presented themselves for passage. - -During the first dozen years of its operation various curves were -straightened, the turning-out places where vessels passed one another -were enlarged, and their number increased to 13. This work of -straightening curves and widening the canal has continued from that -time until the present, and to-day vessels may pass one another -through a large part of its length. The policy increasing the general -dimensions of the canal was begun in 1887. By 1890 its depth had been -increased to 29-1/2 feet, so that it could accommodate ships having a -draft of 26 feet 3 inches. The work of deepening continued, and when -the United States began to build the Panama Canal this work was -speeded up, so that by 1908 a depth of 32-3/4 feet was attained and -vessels of 28 feet draft could be accommodated. In 1909 it was decided -that it would be necessary to make the canal still deeper, and a -project, which will not be completed until 1915, was then undertaken, -calling for a depth of 36 feet 1 inch. By 1898 the width of the canal -had been increased from 72 feet to 98-1/2 feet. This is now being -still further increased to 134-1/2 feet. Even when this project is -completed in 1915, the Panama Canal still can accommodate ships of 5 -feet greater draft than the Suez Canal. - -The maximum draft of ships permitted to use the Suez Canal is demanded -in comparatively few instances. A recent report showed that 94 per -cent of the ships using the canal had a draft of less than 26-1/4 -feet, and that only 1 per cent had a draft of 28 feet. The increase in -the depth of the canal, therefore, was made largely in anticipation of -future shipping requirements. - -When the canal was completed it required 49 hours for a ship to pass -through it. The growth in its dimensions, together with the increase -in the number and size of passing stations, the straightening of -curves, and the improvement of facilities, have brought down to 17 -hours the average length of time required for the transit. Ships not -equipped with electric searchlights are not permitted to pass through -at night. The improvements being made on the canal are being paid for -mainly from the revenues derived from tolls. - -The Suez Canal was constructed, and has been enlarged and managed, by -a private corporation which has invested from the beginning of the -construction up to the present time about $127,000,000 of which -approximately two-thirds has been secured from the sale of securities, -and one-third from the earnings. The original capital of the Suez -Canal Company, issued in 1859, was 400,000 shares of $100 each. These -shares partake of the nature of both bonds and stock, for they are -entitled to interest of 5 per cent as well as to participation in the -company's profits. Provision is made for their redemption, but when -redeemed they continue to share in the profits and merely lose the -interest-bearing feature. On December 31, 1911, 378,231 of these -shares were in circulation. - -In 1875 the British Government, through Lord Beaconsfield, purchased -the 176,602 shares held by the Khedive of Egypt, paying some -$20,000,000 for them. The British Government does not own a majority -of the shares, and the Suez Canal is controlled and operated by a -French company. The annual dividends have increased from 4.7 per cent -to 33 per cent. The shares are closely held and trading in them is -light. The stock sells at a premium of over 1,000 per cent. When the -work of building the canal was undertaken, 100,000 shares were given -to the founders. These shares are not stock, but are, rather, -certificates of obligation, requiring the company to pay 10 per cent -of its profits to the promoters and founders of the original company -and their heirs and assigns. The net profits of the canal amount to -about $17,000,000 a year. Of this the stockholders get $12,000,000, -the Egyptian Government $2,500,000, the founders of the company -$1,500,000 and the administrative officers and the employees divide -$100,000 among them. - -The traffic of the Suez Canal during the first two years was -relatively small, for the reason that the canal is not a practicable -one for sailing vessels, and steam vessels had to be built. These, -being much less efficient than freight steamers are to-day, were slow -in securing the trade that had been enjoyed by the sailing vessels. -The rate of tolls charged by the Suez Canal Company has declined -steadily since the canal went into operation. On January 1, 1912, they -approximated $1.30 a ton, with a reduction of nearly a third for -vessels in ballast. On January 1, 1913, the rate was made -approximately $1.20 a ton, the fraction of a cent higher than the rate -at Panama. The passenger tolls are $2 for passengers above 12 years -and $1 for children from 3 to 12 years of age; children below 3 years -are carried free. The highest toll charged on the Suez Canal was in -1874 when it was $2.51 a ton. - -The Suez Canal has proved highly profitable to its owners. No one -believes that the Panama Canal will yield as great a return on the -capital invested. The cost of the Panama Canal will be four times the -cost of Suez, and it is doubted by traffic authorities whether the -Panama Canal will ever handle as much business. - -The Manchester Ship Canal, which connects Manchester with Liverpool, -was constructed only after years of preliminary agitation. There was -opposition by the railways, and from the industrial and commercial -centers with which Manchester competes. Over 300 petitions were -presented to Parliament before its consent was obtained for the -construction of the canal. Work was begun in November, 1887, at which -time it was estimated that the canal would cost $42,000,000. It was -opened for traffic January 1, 1894, after $75,000,000 had been spent -in building it. Of this about $60,000,000 went into actual -construction work. The Manchester Canal is 35-1/2 miles long. It -extends from Eastham, about 6 miles from Liverpool, to Manchester. Its -original depth was 26 feet, but this has been increased to 28 feet. -Ships with a length of 550 feet, a beam of 61 feet, a height of 70 -feet, and a draft of 27 feet can use the canal. There is a difference -of 58 feet 6 inches in level between Eastham and Manchester, and this -is overcome by five sets of locks. The highest lift is 16 feet. - -The Manchester Canal Company owns the Bridgewater Canal and makes -connections with 13 other barge canals. It handles about 6,000,000 -tons of freight a year, of which the bulk is sea-borne. Although it -connects with 13 barge canals, the amount of barge traffic handled is -less to-day than it was a decade ago. From the beginning the -Manchester Canal has had to compete with the railroads, and they cut -their rates to such a basis that they get the business and force the -canal company to operate as a losing venture to its stockholders. - -In spite of the competition of the railroads, the canal has managed to -increase its business at about the same rate that traffic through the -Suez Canal has increased, and a little more rapidly than it has been -estimated that traffic through the Panama Canal will grow. The -shareholders have not yet received any dividends, but it seems -probable that in the course of a few years all of the securities will -earn an annual income. Many shareholders have been more than -compensated for their subscriptions by the collateral benefits they -have received from the canal. - -The Government of Germany constructed a canal connecting its Baltic -and North Sea ports, and named it the Kaiser-Wilhelm Canal. The -natural route from the Baltic to the North Sea around Denmark is -circuitous, dangerous because of storms, and is guarded by foreign -powers. The canal was begun in 1887 and completed in 1895, and was -constructed primarily for military and naval purposes, although it has -proved to be of great value to the commerce of Germany. It connects -Brunsbuttel Harbor on the Elbe with Holtenau on Kiel Bay. It passes -through low lands and lakes and along river valleys. It is 61 miles -long and, as it was first constructed, had a width of 72 feet and a -depth of 29-1/2 feet. The total cost of the canal was approximately -$37,000,000. It was in operation only 12 years until it was found -necessary to enlarge it. The reconstruction of the canal was -authorized by the German Government in 1907, and the work, which is -expected to be completed in 1914, was started in 1909. When this work -is completed the canal will be 144 feet wide and 36 feet deep. At 10 -places it will be widened so as to permit ships to pass. New twin -locks, built for the regulation of the tides--for the canal itself is -at sea level--will be 82 feet longer and 37 feet wider than the Panama -locks. The maximum depth of these locks will be 45 feet, although at -low tide they will be a little less than 40 feet. - -During a recent year commercial vessels with an aggregate net register -of over 7,000,000 tons used the Kiel Canal. The increase of business -during the first decade of the present century amounted to 70 per -cent, or a little more than the estimated increase for each decade at -Panama. The net receipts from the operation of the canal are not -sufficient to pay interest on the investment. No effort is made to -levy tolls that will provide for interest charges, or for the -amortization of the principal. The canal does not connect regions of -enormous traffic, nor does it greatly shorten ocean routes. The -longest route is cut down only 429 miles. The German Empire was so -well pleased with the success of the Kaiser-Wilhelm Canal that the -enlargement it is now making represents an expenditure one and a half -times the original cost. - -The Amsterdam Canal was built to connect Amsterdam with the sea. -Formerly, ocean-going vessels were small and the Zuider Zee River was -then a stream of considerable depth. Gradually, however, the Zuider -Zee became shallower and the size of ocean vessels larger, so that -the commercial supremacy of Amsterdam was threatened by the -competition of Rotterdam and Antwerp and north German ports. In 1818 a -corporation constructed what was known as the "North Holland Canal," -which was large enough to accommodate ships employed in the East India -trade. It had a minimum depth of 20 feet and a minimum width of 100 -feet. This canal, however, had numerous curves and it was constructed -by a roundabout route of 52 miles from Amsterdam northward to the -North Sea, while Amsterdam is less than 17 miles from the sea by -direct route. - -In 1863 a concession for the construction of the North Sea Canal was -granted and two years later active work began. It was finished in -1876. There were no serious engineering difficulties to be met, there -being no rivers to be crossed, no towns to block the way, and only -three bridges to be built. The work consisted mainly of building -embankments, draining and reclaiming land, and dredging the channel. -The canal was not completed according to the original plan. Extensive -enlargements and improvements were decided on, and a larger additional -lock was undertaken in 1889 and completed in 1896. At that time it was -the largest canal lock in the world. Plans are now being considered -for building another new lock, which will be larger than those at -Panama. The bottom width of the canal is now 164 feet. It can -accommodate vessels 721 feet long, with a 79-foot beam and of 30 feet -draft. The construction of the canal cost $16,000,000. Improvements -have brought the total amount up to about $24,000,000. Since 1893 all -toll charges have been eliminated, and the canal has been operated at -the expense of the State. The annual average cost of operation and -maintenance is about $200,000. This canal bears about the same -relation to the city of Amsterdam that the Delaware River Channel -bears to the city of Philadelphia, or the improvements on the lower -Mississippi to the city of New Orleans. - -The Cronstadt and St. Petersburg Canal is 16 miles long and gives St. -Petersburg an outlet to the Gulf of Finland. It was built at a total -cost of about $10,000,000. It has a minimum width of 220 feet and a -navigable depth of about 20-1/2 feet. It was built primarily as a -military undertaking, but has proved of great service to Russian -commerce. - -Another important European canal is that extending from the Gulf of -Corinth to the Gulf of Aegina in southern Greece. Its length is about -4 miles, a part of which was cut through soft granite rock and the -remainder through soil. It has no locks. The bottom width is 72 feet -and the depth 26-1/4 feet. The average tolls are 18 cents per ton and -20 cents for passengers. - -No other canal in the world can rival the one at Sault Ste. Marie, -Mich., which connects Lake Superior with Lake Huron, in the enormous -volume of its shipping. There are really two canals--one owned by the -Canadian Government, and one by the United States Government. The -canal belonging to the United States was begun in 1853 by the State of -Michigan, and opened in 1855. It had a length of about a mile and was -provided with twin locks 350 feet long, allowing the passage of -vessels drawing 12 feet of water. The United States Government, by -consent of the State of Michigan, began in 1870 to enlarge the canal, -and, by 1881, had increased its length to 1.6 miles, its width to an -average of 160 feet and its depth to 16 feet. A lock 515 feet long, 80 -feet wide, and 17 feet deep was located south of the locks which were -built by the State. - -In 1882 the United States Government took over the entire control of -the canal. Five years later the locks that had been built by the State -were torn down, and a new one 800 feet long, 100 feet wide, and 22 -feet deep was put into commission in 1896. The Canadian Canal, 1-1/8 -miles long, 150 feet wide, and 22 feet deep, was built on the north -side of the river during the years 1888 to 1895. Its locks are 900 -feet long, 60 feet wide, and 22 feet deep. - -The traffic through the Sault Ste. Marie Canals averages around -60,000,000 tons a year. This is as much as the Panama Canal can expect -to get 40 years after its opening. The tonnage of the American Soo -Canal passed the million mark in 1873, reached the 20,000,000 mark in -1899, and amounted to 46,000,000 net tons in 1909. It now ranges -around 50,000,000 tons. It will be seen from this that the American -Canal, built on the south side of St. Mary's River, gets about ten -times as much traffic as the Canadian Canal, built on the north side -of the river. This gives the American Soo Canal more than twice as -much traffic as the Suez Canal, and about four times as much as the -Panama Canal expects to begin with. - -A canal which was built primarily for drainage purposes, but which -seems destined to fill an important place as a traffic-carrying -waterway, is the Chicago Drainage Canal connecting Lake Michigan at -Chicago with the Illinois River at Lockport--a distance of 34 miles. -It was built for the purpose of reversing the movement of water in the -Chicago River and preventing the pollution of Lake Michigan. The -sewage of the city now goes to the faraway Mississippi instead of the -Lakes. The minimum depth of the canal is 22 feet, and its bottom width -160 feet. To complete the project the excavation of nearly 44,000,000 -yards of material was required--enough, if deposited in Lake Michigan -in 40 feet of water, to form an island a mile square with a surface 12 -feet above the water. The city of Chicago and the State of Illinois -have agreed to turn this canal over to the United States Government, -if it will deepen the Illinois and Mississippi Rivers to 14 feet -between Lockport and St. Louis. This would give a complete water -connection from upper Mississippi River points to Lake Michigan, and -open up a highway to the Gulf of Mexico. The estimated cost of this -project is $25,000,000. - -The completion of the Panama Canal will probably result in an -unprecedented activity in the development of inland waterways in the -United States. The new markets which it will open up to American -products and the old markets it will stimulate and extend, will demand -large additional facilities for getting the products of the American -farm and factory to the seaboard. Already preparations for -capitalizing the commercial opportunities which the opening of the -canal will afford, are being made in various parts of the country. - -The Erie Canal, connecting Buffalo and Albany and giving the Great -Lakes a water outlet at New York, is being widened and deepened at an -expense of $101,000,000. The propaganda of the American Rivers and -Harbors Congress, looking to the appropriation of $500,000,000 to be -spent in a systematic program of inland waterway development, is -meeting with encouragement in every part of the country, and it is the -expectation of those who believe that the Government should commit -itself to such a program, that within 25 years the stimulus to -waterway development given by the opening of the Panama Canal, will -give to the United States one of the finest systems of inland -waterways in the world. - - - - -CHAPTER XXX - -A NEW COMMERCIAL MAP - - -The most rapid change in the commercial map of the world wrought in -centuries will be witnessed during the years following the completion -of the Panama Canal. Cities that heretofore have been mere way -stations on the international routes of trade will grow into rich -centers where the new roads of the commercial world will cross. On the -other hand, cities which in the past have gloried in a trade supremacy -of international recognition will see themselves displaced and their -prestige lost. The readjustment will not be the matter of a day or a -year; even a generation may pass before it is completed; but the -ultimate changes will certainly be greater and more world-encompassing -than anyone now can forecast. - -The capture of Constantinople by the Turks was directly responsible -for the discovery of the New World. It cut off the cities of the -Mediterranean from communication with India, and sent Columbus -westward in quest of another passage, which could not be obstructed by -the Mussulman tyrants of the East. At last the Panama Canal is to -afford that passage, and to bring the whole earth into smaller -compass. - -Of course, the United States will be the first to realize the great -benefits of the canal. It will double the efficiency of the American -Navy by permitting it to concentrate its forces on either ocean in -shorter time, by weeks, than can be done by any other nation; -consequently, it will add to American military prestige throughout the -world. The benefits immediately accruing to the people of the United -States will be as great in a commercial way as in military advantage. -As the capture of Constantinople caused the up-building of many -notable regions through the transformation of international trade -routes, so will the completion of the Panama Canal open up new markets -and new opportunities to the Mississippi Valley, the world's greatest -granary. Its grain and meat products, loading by way of Gulf ports, -can go to the ends of the earth with but little outlay for expensive -rail transportation. It is even probable that the great awakening -incident to the opening of the canal, may hasten the day when the -Lakes-to-the-Gulf waterway will be an accomplished fact and when ships -may load in Chicago, Detroit, Cleveland, St. Paul, and Minneapolis and -sail directly to the ports of the world, thus beginning an era of -commercial development surpassing even the wonderful growth of the -half century just closed. - -Pittsburgh may then be able to send its tremendous output of -manufactures to all parts of the world without transhipment; Kansas -City will feel the stimulus of the new waterway; and the Pacific -coast, long cut off from the eastern section of the United States by -high mountain barriers that have been only partially overcome by -railroads, will find its great resources within marketable distance of -the Eastern States. - -Canada, too, will feel the stimulus of the canal. No longer will its -great crops have to find their slow outlet over railroads that must -cross the backbone of a continent, but, pursuing the avenues of least -resistance, they may move to all parts of the world by way of the -Great Lakes and the Mississippi River. - -South America will greatly benefit by the completion of the canal. -Already its west coast countries and cities are getting ready for the -boom of business that is to follow. Brought thousands of miles nearer -to all western trade centers--so close that their raw products and -American manufactured products can be exchanged to advantage--there -will be a growth of trade whose prospect already has awakened the -lethargic South American to the possibilities ahead. - -These possibilities well may be considered by the business men of the -United States. To-day North America buys a large percentage of the -products of South America; but, when the South Americans have money to -spare, they spend only $1 out of $8 in North America--the other $7 -goes to Europe. The American exporter will find himself quickened by -the history-making change the canal will produce and, if he goes at it -in earnest, he will be in a position to reverse the present situation -and get $7 of South American trade where Europe gets only $1. - -Australia and New Zealand will experience, perhaps, a greater change -in the trade routes than any other countries outside of the Americas. -The Australian commerce now is largely carried by way of Suez. The -opening of the Panama Canal will place New Zealand 1,200 miles nearer -to London than it is by way of Suez, and the eastern ports of -Australia will be as near to England by way of Panama as by Suez. All -Australasian ports will be brought several thousand miles closer to -the Atlantic ports of the United States than they are to-day. No one -who has heard an Australasian complain of the long delays and the -excessive freight rates that intervene between him and his American -shoes, can doubt that the closer proximity of American markets will be -welcomed in that faraway land under the southern cross. Sydney will be -4,000 miles nearer to New York through the Panama Canal, and 5,500 -miles nearer to New Orleans and Galveston. - -The transcontinental tonnage now handled by the railroads, which -ultimately will go by the canal, aggregates 3,000,000 tons a year. The -seaboard sections of the United States, of course, will benefit more -largely than interior points, for the reason that interior points will -have to take a combined rail-and-water route. This will involve -railroad transportation and transhipment of cargo, also rehandling -charges. After the canal is opened it is probable that the railroads -will prefer to supply the intermountain States directly from eastern -sources, instead of maintaining the existing policy of giving low -rates to Pacific coast cities, so as to give them dominance over the -shipping business of the intermountain region. The total -coast-to-coast traffic of the railroads is said to approximate -one-fifth of the entire traffic carried across the Rocky Mountains. -Only one-third of the through traffic of the transcontinental lines -from the East to the West originates east of a line drawn through -Buffalo and Pittsburgh. It is this third of the westward business that -will be affected mainly by the operation of the canal. - -[Illustration: INTERNATIONAL SHIPPING ROUTES] - -The principal effect the Panama Canal will have in the readjustment of -the trade map of the world is not, perhaps, as much in changing -existing routes as in creating new avenues of business. In every -region where there is promise of unusual benefit by reason of the -opening of the Panama Canal, an effort is being made to capitalize the -advantages to be derived therefrom. The west coast of South America -feels the stimulus of suddenly being brought thousands of miles closer -to the best markets of the world, and anyone who travels down the -coast from Panama may see at every port signs of a determination to -reap full advantage of the new opportunities. - -Even Guayaquil, a city that for years has been a hissing and a byword -to the masters of all ships plying up and down the west coast because -of its absolute indifference to all requirements of sanitation, has -prepared for a campaign of cleaning-up, in order that it may become a -port of call for all the ships passing that way. Heretofore, masters -of ships, in order to comply with quarantine regulations elsewhere, -have given it a wide berth whenever possible. - -Chile, Peru, and Ecuador--all three have caught the spirit of the new -era which a completed canal proclaims, and are striving to set their -houses in order for the quickened times they see ahead. With the -Central American Republics it is the same. Handicapped as they are by -revolutions that sap their life-blood, or dominated by rulers who have -no other object in governing the people than to exploit them, these -countries still hope for much from the canal, and new activities are -beginning to spring up in every one of them. - -It is not improbable that the canal will play an important part in -transforming the economic situation of the world during the -generations immediately ahead of us. One needs only to study the -distribution of humanity over the countries of the earth to find how -unevenly the population is scattered, and to learn what great tides of -immigration will have to flow westward to establish the equilibrium of -population, which some day is bound to come. When Asia has a -population of 50 per square mile and Europe a population of 100 a -square mile, while North America has 15 and South America has 7, it is -apparent that the future holds great changes in store. The potential -development of the two Americas challenges the imagination. South -America, with its virgin soil all but untouched, can support a -population half as dense as that of Europe. This means that it can -make room for 300,000,000 immigrants. Likewise, it is fair to assume -that North America, with its up-to-date methods of agriculture, -industry, and commerce, can support a population as dense as that of -Asia with its primitive methods of manufacture and agriculture. This -means that North America has room to accommodate 300,000,000 souls. In -other words, room still remains for 600,000,000 persons on the -continents which the Panama Canal divides. When the day comes, as it -seems certain that it will, that the Americas reach their full growth, -even the Panama Canal, larger by far than any other artificial -waterway in the world, will be much too small to accommodate the -traffic which naturally would pass its way. - -The foreign trade of the United States with its 90,000,000 of -population, aggregates 60,000,000 tons a year. Assuming that foreign -trade would grow in the same proportion as population, it will be seen -that the foreign trade of the two Americas at a time when the -population of South America becomes half as dense as that of Europe, -and that of North America half as dense as that of Asia, will -approximate 500,000,000 tons. Assuming further that only one-fifth of -this would pass through the canal, the American commerce alone would -exceed its capacity, leaving all the trade between the Orient and -eastern Europe to be taken care of by future enlargements. - -More immediate, however, will be the realization of the prophecy of -William H. Seward, Lincoln's Secretary of State, that the Pacific is -destined to become the chief theater of the world's events. As the -population of the earth stands to-day, more than half of all the -people who inhabit the globe dwell on lands which drain into this -greatest of oceans. Yet, in spite of that fact, the trade that sweeps -over the Pacific is but small in comparison with that which traverses -the Atlantic. Where a thousand funnels darken the trade routes of the -Atlantic, a few hundred are seen on the Pacific. - -But in Japan one may find an example of the possibilities of the -Pacific in the years to come. When China, with its 400,000,000 people, -awakens as Japan has awakened, and builds up an international trade in -proportion to that of Japan, it will send a commerce across the seas -unprecedented in volume. When it buys and sells as Japan buys and -sells, the waters of the Orient will vie with those of the Occident in -the size of their fleets of commerce. - -The opening of the Panama Canal promises to be one of the factors in -hastening the day when the Orient will become as progressive as the -Occident, and when sleeping nations will arise from their lethargy and -contribute uncounted millions of tons of traffic to the Pacific Ocean, -making it a chief theater of commerce as well as of world events. - -In our own country the course of empire has been sweeping toward the -Pacific. Where once the center of most things lay east of the -Mississippi River, now we find its agriculture, its mining industries, -and its commercial activities gradually moving westward. The center of -cotton production, once in those States celebrated in the melodies of -the Southern plantation, has moved westward and to-day in Texas, -Oklahoma, and even Southern California, cotton is grown in a way which -shows that King Cotton has caught the spirit of the age and is -extending his territories westward toward the Pacific. And all of this -means a growing business and an expanding traffic through the Panama -Canal. - -On the Atlantic side there are signs without number that many nations -will be up and doing in the reformation of the commercial map of the -world. The islands of the Caribbean form a screen around the Atlantic -end of the canal, and the majority of them are British possessions. -Many of their cities will be situated upon the new international trade -routes that will be called into being by the opening of the Panama -Canal. At Kingston, Jamaica, great improvements are projected, coaling -stations are planned, and other steps are being taken which will -enable the British Government to reap what advantage it can from the -construction of the canal. With its splendid diversity of climate, -brought about by the wide range of elevated land, the fruits of the -temperate zones may be grown, as well as those of the Tropics, and, as -John Foster Fraser expresses it, Jamaica may become the orchard of -Great Britain. - -Denmark is planning extensive shipping facilities in its beautiful -harbor of Charlotte Amalia on the Island of St. Thomas. This island, -which commands one of the principal passages from the Atlantic to the -Caribbean Sea, might to-day be a possession of the United States had -this Government been willing to buy it when Denmark was anxious to -sell. It was here that the bold pirates of the _Spanish Main_ hid -their crews in the all but landlocked harbor, and waited for the -shipping which passed through Mona passage. Here Bluebeard's castle -still stands a mute reminder of the romantic days when buccaneers -dominated the _Spanish Main_. - -The north coast of South America also expects to figure largely in the -new commercial map. The northern cities of Venezuela are on the route -from eastern South America through the canal, and on one of the -natural routes from Pacific ports to Europe. Nowhere else in the world -will one find a more delightful climate or a more picturesque city or -scenery than in northern Venezuela. Caracas, the capital, is but two -hours' ride from the port of La Guaira, and less than a day's journey -from Puerto Cabello, and, while the commerce which may be developed in -Venezuela will, for the most part, find its outlet to the sea through -the Orinoco River, La Guaira and Puerto Cabello will always prove -attractive ports of call for passenger-carrying ships. - -The changes in the commercial situation of Asia and the Americas, -brought about by the opening of the canal, will be many. There will be -a sudden readjustment of existing trade routes and this will be -followed by a long era of development of new conditions, which will be -so gradual as to be almost imperceptible, and yet so immense as to -excite the wonder of humanity when it stops to reckon its full effect -and meaning. - - - - -CHAPTER XXXI - -AMERICAN TRADE OPPORTUNITIES - - -The great development of the southern part of the New World, extending -from the Rio Grande to the Strait of Magellan, certain to take place -as a result of the opening of the Panama Canal, spells opportunity for -American commercial expansion. This vast territory, covering an area -nearly three times as great as that of the United States, has a -population of only 50,000,000. Its resources have been merely -scratched on the surface. Its potentialities, acre for acre, are as -great as those of the United States. - -Porto Rico will serve for a criterion by which to measure the future -possibilities of this Empire of the South. In Porto Rico one may see -the benefits of the institution of a really good government, and the -success which attends a proper effort to develop natural resources in -tropical America. If American opportunities in all Latin America may -be measured by American successes in that island, then, indeed, the -future is rich with promise. During a single decade the external -commerce of this little gem of the West Indies was more than -quadrupled. It now amounts to some $80,000,000 a year, and only about -12 other countries in the world buy more goods from the American -manufacturer. - -The expansion of internal business has kept pace with the growth of -external commerce. In seven years taxable values increased from less -than $90,000,000 to more than $160,000,000. In a single year the -amount of life insurance written in the island nearly doubled, and -fire insurance increased nearly half. The exportation of sugar -increased fivefold in 10 years, and the exportation of cigars 14 -times. The population of the island has increased by half under the -beneficient policies of the United States, going up from 800,000 in -1898 to 1,200,000 in 1912. During a single year Porto Rico buys about -$35,000,000 worth of goods from the United States, and ships -practically the same amount to this country. - -Should all Latin America prove as good a customer in proportion to -area as Porto Rico, our trade with Latin America alone would be many -fold greater than the entire foreign trade of the United States -to-day. Should all Latin America, even with its present population, -buy as liberally from the United States as Porto Rico does, we would -sell annually to it nearly $2,000,000,000 worth of products. - -The most necessary step in developing the potentialities of Latin -America is to provide good and stable government. Commercial -statistics show how prosperity flourishes where good government -reigns, and of how poverty dwells where misgovernment exists. One may -go to Porto Rico, to Jamaica, to Curacao, or to St. Thomas, and in -each of these countries may behold the wholesome rule of northern -Europeans and their descendants. The people have at least those -substantial rights which are necessary to the peace, happiness, and -well-being of humanity; and equally without exception trade statistics -show a greater foreign trade, in proportion to area and population, -than is enjoyed in any country where misrule prevails. Porto Rico -could be buried in a single lake of Nicaragua; it is only -one-fifty-seventh as large as Central America; and yet Porto Rico has -a foreign trade greater than all the territory from the Isthmus of -Tehuantepec to the Isthmus of Panama. - -How to improve governmental conditions in those countries where -misrule prevails is a most serious problem. Had it not been for the -Monroe doctrine it is safe to say that not one of the Republics of -tropical America would be in existence today. Instead, their territory -would be colonial possessions of the several powerful nations, and -their people would be living under the comparatively wholesome rule of -those nations. As it is, in a majority of the Republics south of the -Rio Grande there is a state of affairs which makes against the -development of resources and the best interests of the people. The -whole theory under which these countries are governed is that -primitive one: "Let him take who has the power, and let him keep who -can." The result is that they are Republics only in name, and that the -only way to change administrations is to have a revolution. -Revolutions mean poverty; poverty means undeveloped resources, and so -in some of these countries conditions were as bad in 1913, after -nearly a century of so-called republican rule, as they were when the -yoke of Spain was thrown off in 1821. How to bring about those -conditions of peace and amity essential to national growth and -development in these countries is the problem that has vexed more than -one administration in Washington. - -Some have answered that the best way to do it is to abrogate the -Monroe doctrine and to let every Latin American tub stand on its own -bottom, a proposal that might benefit these countries vastly, but -which contains many possibilities of evil to the United States. Others -have suggested that our experiment in Porto Rico offers the solution -of the problem, at least so far as tropical North America is -concerned. They assert that the end would justify the means, and that -the planning of the same character of government in this territory -that exists in Porto Rico today, would be the greatest godsend that -the masses of the people of these countries could have. Still others -have advocated a "hands-off" policy so far as the rule of these -countries is concerned, allowing them to fight whenever, and in -whatever way, they wish, but at the same time adhering rigidly to the -Monroe doctrine against European interference. - -Whatever the ultimate conclusion, it seems useless to hope for -prosperity and expansion in countries whose industries constantly -suffer from the galling blight of ever-recurring revolution. The great -problem that lies before the American people, if the Latin America of -the future is to become like the Anglo-Saxon America of today, is that -of devising a policy which will insure conditions of peace and good -will in the several sword-ruled countries south of the Rio Grande. - -As matters stand today in the majority of the countries of Latin -America, although their Governments owe their very existence to the -United States, there is a feeling of antipathy against Americans, -which places the American exporter on an unequal footing with his -European rival. There is a prejudice against Americans, partly the -result of a widespread feeling that the United States is the great -land-grabber of the Western world, but mostly the result of the -attitude of a large number of Americans who go into these regions. For -instance, for years one could not go about the streets of Mexico City -without hearing some American berating the "blankety blank greasers," -and asserting that the United States could take 5,000 men and capture -Mexico City in a two-month campaign. It happens that the Mexican is a -proud individual and naturally he bitterly resents such asseverations. - -The same is true elsewhere, and by personal contact prejudice rather -than a feeling of friendship has been aroused. The European usually -goes into these countries because there are few opportunities at home. -He is usually representative of the best citizenship of his homeland, -and quite as much the gentleman in Latin America as at home. While -there are a great many splendid types of American citizenship -scattered throughout Latin America, a greater number of people have -gone there because they could not get along in the United States, and -their hostile attitude toward the natives excites by far more -prejudice than the better class of Americans can counteract by -sympathy and good feeling. Americans who visit these countries -expressing contempt for everything they see, and everything the people -do, are the greatest hindrances to the realization of the commercial -opportunities which the United States possesses in Latin America. - -If the manufacturers of the United States are to realize to the full -the benefits which may be derived from the opening of the Panama Canal -they will have to reform their methods of dealing with the Latin -Americans. It is just as effective to send to buyers at home catalogs -written in Greek or Sanscrit as to send to the majority of Latin -Americans catalogs printed in English. In traveling through these -countries, endeavoring to ascertain wherein Americans have failed in -their efforts to get a proper share of their foreign trade, one hears -on every hand the complaint that the American manufacturer seldom -meets the conditions upon which their trade may be based. No -satisfactory credits are given, and no effort is made to manufacture -machinery fitted to their peculiar needs. Agricultural machinery, for -instance, which may serve admirably in the United States, is wholly -out of place in many of these countries; and yet the Latin American -customer must either buy the surplus of these machines or go elsewhere -for machinery built to answer his requirements. - -The European traveling salesman in these countries carries a line of -goods immediately answerable to local requirements. Furthermore, the -European exporter understands that the system of credits in Latin -America is not the same as prevails in Europe and the United States, -and he complies with their requirements. Of course, his prices are -placed high enough so that he is nothing out of pocket for the seeming -concessions he had made. The result is that in traveling in these -countries, one meets three or four foreign "drummers" where he meets -one American traveling man, in spite of their nearness to the United -States. It will take years, even with the Panama Canal in operation, -to overcome the disadvantage which bad business policy has placed upon -the American manufacturers. - -If the opening of the Panama Canal spells new American commercial -opportunities, it also develops a new field of international politics -in which the United States must make itself the dominant factor, and -in which it will have a transcendental interest. It will -unquestionably give to the Monroe doctrine a new importance and render -its maintenance a more urgent necessity than ever. Prior to this time -the breaking down of the Monroe doctrine would have been greatly -detrimental to the interests of the United States, but from this time -forth the domination of the Caribbean by some other strong nation -would likely prove most disastrous to American welfare. It might even -lead to the loss of the canal itself, and we then would witness that -great waterway transformed from a military asset of immeasureable -benefit into a base of operations against us. - -Probably the chief danger to which the Monroe doctrine is exposed is -from those countries whose rulers profit most by its enforcement. -While the United States can control its own affairs in such a way as -not to bring into question this doctrine, it is not so certain that -the rulers of some of the Latin American nations will always do as -well. In fact, some of the countries have conducted their affairs in -such a way as might have involved the United States in a war with a -foreign power. The knowledge that a small tropical American republic -might act so as to force the United States into a critical situation -has resulted in a desire on the part of the responsible authorities at -Washington to exercise over the Republics of the Caribbean such a -guiding control as would serve to prevent them, through any -ill-considered or irresponsible act, from exposing the United States -to dangerous controversies with foreign nations. - -For instance, here is a country which owes a large debt to British -bondholders. It defaults on the interest for a period of years. -Efforts to collect are futile. Finally it is decided by the President -that he needs additional funds. He reaches an agreement with the -representatives of the bondholders, by which they agree to refund the -debt and to lend him an additional half a million dollars, upon the -condition that he hypothecate the Government's export tax upon coffee -to secure the amortization of the refunded debt. He does so. Matters -move along quietly for a little while, but soon he needs additional -funds. He negotiates with New York bankers, getting from them the -funds he needs, and hypothecates with them the same coffee tax that he -had hitherto hypothecated with the British bondholders. Of course, the -British bondholders protest at this impairment of their securities. -He laughs at their protest. England sends a warship to his ports. He -appeals loudly to the United States for the maintenance of the Monroe -doctrine; but the United States does not hear him, so he decides to -treat the British bondholders fairly. If he had not done so, and -England had been seeking to break down the Monroe doctrine, an ideal -opportunity would have been afforded. - -It is to prevent such situations as these that many Americans hope -that the Government may devise some plan that will at once protect the -United States from such menaces, and at the same time allow the people -of these countries to work out their own destiny in their own way. - -The situation in tropical America today, with a few exceptions, seems -to be that the republics have the form of liberty without its -substance, and the shadow of civilization without its realities. Some -of them have had over fifty revolutions in as many years. Some of them -have been in the grip of tyrants who were as heartless in exploiting -their people as was Nero in ruling Rome. The masses have received -nothing from the Government except oppression, and they live in that -hopeless, heartless ignorance so well described by a Spanish writer, -picturing conditions in Porto Rico before the American occupation. We -know that this picture was a true one. It was drawn in 1897 and won -the prize awarded by the Spanish Government at the centennial -celebration of the retirement of the English from this island. After -dilating upon the splendors and magnificence of Porto Rico, this -artist of the pen said of the masses: - -"Only the laborer, the son of our fields, one of the most unfortunate -beings in the world, with the pallid face, the bare foot, the -fleshless body, the ragged clothing, and the feverish glance, strolls -indifferently with the darkness of ignorance in his eyes. In the -market he finds for food only the rotten salt fish or meat, cod fish -covered with gangrenish splotches, and Indian rice; he that harvests -the best coffee in the world, who aids in gathering into the granary -the sweetest grain in nature, and drives to pasture the beautiful -young meat animals, can not carry to his lips a single slice of meat -because the municipal exactions place it beyond his means, almost -doubling the price of infected cod fish; coffee becomes to him an -article of luxury because of its high price, and he can use only sugar -laden with molasses and impurities." - -That picture applies to more than 90 per cent of the people in -tropical America to-day. It explains why these countries, which might -be made to flow with the milk and honey of a wondrous plenty, are -poverty-stricken and unable to work out a satisfactory destiny for -themselves. It shows why Cuba, Porto Rico, and Jamaica to-day are rich -in internal trade, and prosperous in foreign commerce, while other -countries are eking out a bare and scanty existence. - -American commercial opportunities around the Mediterranean of the -West, in particular, and in Latin America, in general, will reach -their full when government there becomes government for the welfare of -the people rather than for the aggrandizement of the ruling class. - - - - -CHAPTER XXXII - -THE PANAMA-PACIFIC EXPOSITION - - -When, on February 20, 1915, the Panama-Pacific International -Exposition opens its gates to the world, in celebration of the -completion of the Panama Canal, it expects to offer to the nations of -the earth a spectacle the like of which has never been equaled in the -history of expositions. It is estimated that $50,000,000 will be spent -in thus celebrating the great triumph of American genius at Panama. -And those who know the spirit of the people of California, who are -immediately responsible to the United States and to the world for the -success of the undertaking, understand that nothing will be overlooked -that might please the eye, stir the fancy, or arouse the patriotism of -those who journey to the Golden Gate to behold the wonders of this -great show. - -The spirit that was San Francisco's following the terrible calamity of -April 18, 1906, when the city was shaken to its foundations by a great -earthquake, and when uncontrollable fire completed the ruin and -devastation which the earthquake had begun, has been the spirit that -has planned and is carrying to a successful culmination the -Panama-Pacific Exposition. The San Francisco earthquake came as the -most terrific blow that ever descended upon an American city. It left -the metropolis of the Pacific a mass of ruins and ashes. In five years -a newer and a prouder San Francisco arose from the ashes of the old, -and greeted the world as the highest example of municipal greatness to -which a community can rise at times when nothing is left to man but -hope, and that hope is half despair. - -The fire destroyed 8,000 houses, leaving such a hopeless mass of -debris that $20,000,000 had to be raised to reclaim the bare earth -itself. In five years 31,000 finer and better houses had taken their -places. Assessed values before the fire were $30,000,000 less than -five years after. Bank clearings increased by a third and savings-bank -deposits were greater after only five years than they were before the -terrible catastrophe. - -It may be imagined what wonders this spirit of the Golden West will -accomplish when applied to the creation of an exposition. It is easy -to forecast that, beautiful as have been the expositions of the past, -and magnificent as has been the scale upon which they were planned, -fresh palms will be awarded to San Francisco and the great fair it -will offer to the World in 1915. - -The city of the Golden Gate was planning a great celebration nearly -two years before the calamity which overtook it in 1906. The first -suggestion for holding a world's fair at San Francisco was made on -June 12, 1904, when Mr. R. B. Hale wrote a letter to the San Francisco -Merchants' Association advising its members that it would be wise to -take steps toward securing for that city a great celebration of the -400th anniversary of the discovery of the Pacific Ocean, in 1913. The -matter was agitated for a year and a half and, a little more than -three months prior to the earthquake, Representative Julius Kahn -introduced in the National House of Representatives a bill providing -for the celebration of the discovery of the Pacific, in 1913. Then -followed the great catastrophe, and for the eight months next ensuing -the problems of planning a new and greater San Francisco demanded all -the attention of the people of that city. In December, 1906, however, -the Pacific Ocean Exposition Company was incorporated with a capital -stock of $5,000,000. - -By 1910 New Orleans had loomed up as an aspirant for the honor of -holding the great international celebration of the completion of the -Panama Canal, and San Francisco understood that time for action was at -hand, and, moreover, that money raised at home for the exposition -would be the most eloquent advocate before Congress. Realizing this, a -great mass meeting was called and in two hours subscriptions amounting -to $4,089,000 were raised, headed by 40 subscriptions of $25,000 each. - -In the fall of that year San Francisco was afforded an opportunity of -attesting the universality of its interest in the success of the -exposition. A proposition to vote $5,000,000 worth of bonds for the -exposition was referred to the people. It carried by a vote of 42,040 -to 2,122. The State of California also gave its citizens an -opportunity to show their feeling, and by a vote of 174,000 to 50,000 -made available bonds for $5,000,000 for the purposes of the -exposition. The result has been that from first to last, within the -confines of California's borders, a sum approximating $20,000,000 has -been raised for exposition purposes. To this, $30,000,000 will be -added by outside governments and by exhibitors and concessionaires. - -The fight which led to the choosing of San Francisco as the city for -holding the Panama celebration is, for the most part, familiar -history. The law under which this choice was made was signed by -President Taft on February 15, 1911. The presidential signature was -the signal for the beginning of operations looking to the completion -of all of the exposition buildings a full six months ahead of the -opening date. The details of the site were worked out promptly. The -site selected includes the western half of Golden Gate Park; Lincoln -Park, which is situated on a high bluff overlooking the approach from -the Pacific Ocean and the Golden Gate; and Harbor View, which is an -extensive tract of level land, stretching along the shore of San -Francisco Bay and back to the hills and the principal residential -portion of the city. - -Each element in this extensive site possesses its own peculiar charm; -Golden Gate Park with its great variety of flowers and semitropical -plants and trees; Lincoln Park with its outlook on the broad Pacific -and along the rugged coastline to the north; and Harbor View with the -Golden Gate to the left, a chain of climbing hills across the harbor -in front, and the long sweep of bay and islands to the right. What -nature has not done for the site of the exposition will be done by -the art of the landscape gardener. - -An ocean boulevard, to be made one of the most beautiful drives in the -world, will become one of the permanent memorials of the exposition. A -great esplanade, planted with cypress and eucalypti and liberally -provided with seats, will extend along the water's edge for about half -the entire length of the exposition grounds, affording ample -opportunity for the thousands of visitors to watch the great water -events which will constitute one of the features of the exposition. On -the south side of this esplanade the principal exposition buildings, -consisting of eight great palaces, will be located. A great wall, 60 -feet high, will be built along the northern and western waterfronts -for the purpose of breaking the winds which sweep down the harbor, and -will be continued around the other two sides of the exposition grounds -proper so as to constitute a walled inclosure which, in appearance, -will remind one of the old walled towns of southern France and Spain. - -The two principal gateways to the exposition grounds will open into -great interior courts, around which the buildings will be ranged. It -will be possible for the visitor to go from one building to another -and complete the entire circuit of eight main exhibition palaces -without once stepping from under cover. The three largest courts are -named: The Court of the Sun and Stars, the Court of Abundance, and the -Court of the Four Seasons. The Court of Abundance represents the -Orient, and the Court of the Four Seasons, the Occident; the Court of -the Sun and Stars, uniting the other two, will typify the linking of -the Orient and the Occident through the completion of the Panama -Canal. There will also be two lesser courts, known as the Court of -Flowers and the Court of Palms. Outside of the walled city there will -be five other important exhibition palaces. - -The Panama-Pacific Exposition will be different from any that has gone -before. Where others have been built on broad, level plains, this one -will be located in one of nature's most beautiful natural -amphitheaters, with the residential portions of San Francisco and the -towns of the surrounding country looking down upon it. The -architecture will be of such a nature that will make the "Fair City" -indeed a fair city to behold. - -If Chicago had its "White City," the San Francisco fair will be all -aglow with rich color. It will be made to harmonize with the "vibrant -tints of the native wild flowers, the soft browns of the surrounding -hills, the gold of the orangeries, the blue of the sea." The artist in -charge of this phase of the work declares that, "as the musician -builds his symphony around a motif or chord," so it became his duty to -"strike a chord of color and build his symphony upon it." The one -thing upon which he insisted was that there should be no white, and -the pillars, statues, fountains, masts, walls, and flagpoles that are -to contrast with the tinted decorations are to be of ivory yellow. -Even the dyeing of the bunting for flags and draperies is under the -personal supervision of the artist in charge of the color scheme of -the exposition. The roofs of the buildings will be harmoniously -colored and the city will be a great party-colored area of red tiles, -golden domes, and copper-green minarets. "Imagine," said Jules Guerin, -the artist, "a gigantic Persian rug of soft melting tones with -brilliant splotches here and there, spread down for a mile or more, -and you may get some idea of what the Panama-Pacific Exposition will -look like when viewed from a distance." - -The lighting of the exposition will be by indirect illumination, -affording practically the same intensity of light by night as by day. -Lights will be hidden behind the colonnades, above the cornices, and -behind masts on the roofs. Sculpture will stand out without shadow at -night as by day. Great searchlights, many of them concentrated upon -jets of steam, and playing in varying color, will add to the beauty of -the scene. Even the fogs of the harbor will be made to contribute to -the night effect of the exposition, and auroras will spread like -draped lilies in the sky over the exhibition. - -The sculpture will be unique in the history of exposition-giving. That -phase of the work is under the control of Karl Bitter. In front of the -main entrance, at the tower gate, there will be an allegory of the -Panama Canal called "Energy; the lord of the Isthmian way." It will be -represented by an enormous horse standing on a heavy pedestal, the -horse carrying a man with extended arms pushing the waters apart. In -the Court of the Sun and Stars two great sculptural fountains, -typical of the rising and setting of the sun, will carry out the idea -of "the world united and the land divided." In every part of the -exposition scheme the sculpture will tell the story of the unification -of the nations of the East and the West through the construction of -the Panama Canal. - -Nothing seems to have been overlooked in the plans that have been made -to celebrate the opening of the Panama Canal at San Francisco. There -will be a working model of the Panama Canal, with a capacity of -handling 2,000 people every 20 minutes. A reproduction of the Grand -Canyon of Arizona will be another feature. The liberality of the -prizes offered is indicated by the fact that premiums in the -live-stock exhibits alone aggregate $175,000. - -One of the greatest events of the exposition will be the rendezvous of -representative ships from the fleets of all the nations of the earth -in Hampton Roads in January and February, 1915. Their commanders will -visit Washington and be received by the President. He will return with -them to Hampton Roads and there review what promises to be the -greatest international naval display in history. After this a long -procession of fighting craft, perhaps accompanied by an equally long -procession of tourist steamers, private yachts, and ships of commerce, -will steam out of the Virginia Capes and turn their prows down the -Spanish Main to Colon. Here the canal authorities will formally -welcome the shipping world and pass its representatives through to the -Pacific, whence they will sail to San Francisco, there to participate -in the great celebration during the months which will follow. It may -be that this great procession will be headed by the U. S. S. _Oregon_, -whose trip around South America in 1898 proclaimed in tones that were -heard in every hamlet in the United States the necessity of building -the great waterway. - -In addition to the great exposition at San Francisco, another will -throw open its gates during 1915--the Panama-California Exposition at -San Diego. This exposition will be held at a total outlay of, perhaps, -$20,000,000. Nearly $6,000,000 is being spent on a magnificent sea -wall. The San Diego and Arizona Railway is being built on a new and -lower grade for nearly 220 miles. About $5,000,000 will be spent in -making the exposition proper in Balboa Park. Over 11 miles of docks -and a thousand acres of reclaimed land for warehouses and factory -sites will be ready when the exposition opens on January 1, 1915. The -fair will have 30 acres of Spanish gardens. A great Indian congress -and exhibit will be held, representing every tribe of North and South -America. This exposition will in nowise interfere with the big show at -San Francisco, but will be supplemental to it. - -When the Suez Canal was finished, its opening was celebrated by the -most magnificent fete of modern times, the profligate Khedive Ismail -Pasha apparently endeavoring to outdo the traditions of his Mussulman -predecessors, Haroun al Raschid and Akbar. The fete lasted for four -weeks, Cairo was decorated and illuminated as no city, of either -Occident or Orient, ever had been before. The expense of the month's -carnival was more than $21,000,000. - -An opera house was built especially for the occasion, and Verdi, the -famous Italian composer, was employed to write a special opera for the -occasion. That the opera was "Aida," and that it marked the high tide -of Verdi's genius, was perhaps more than might have been expected of a -work of art produced at the command of an extravagant prince's gold. - -The canal itself was opened on November 16, 1869, a procession of -forty-eight ships, men of war, royal yachts and merchantmen, making -the transit of the Isthmus in three days' time. In the first ship was -Eugenie, Empress of the French. In another was the Emperor of Austria, -and in still another the Prince of Wales, afterwards Edward VII. A -more imposing gathering of imperial and royal personages never before -had been witnessed, and all of them were the Christian guests of the -Moslem Ismail. - -When the procession of royal vessels had passed through, the captains -and the kings went to Cairo for the fete. The canal was open for -traffic. It was significant that the first vessel to pass through in -the course of ordinary business, paying its tolls, flew the British -ensign. The building of the canal had wrecked Egypt, financially and -politically; was destined to end forever the hope of Asiatic empire -for France; and was to make certain England's dominion over India, a -thing de Lesseps and Napoleon III had intended it to destroy. - -The celebration of the completion of the Suez Canal was the wildest -orgy of modern times, the last attempt to Orientalize a commercial -undertaking of the Age of Steam and Steel. - -The celebration at San Francisco will be more magnificent in its way, -and will cost more money. But the millions will not be thrown away for -the mere delectation of the senses of two score princes--they will be -expended for the entertainment and the education of millions of -people, the humblest of whom will have his full share in the -celebration. - -From the spruce woods of Maine, from the orange groves of Florida, -from the wide fields of the Mississippi Valley, from the broad plains -of the Colorado, from the blue ridges of the Alleghenies and the snow -peaks of the Rockies, Americans will go to the Golden Gate to -commemorate in their American way the closer union of their States, -the consummation of the journeys of Columbus: The Land Divided--the -World United. - - - - -THE END - - -[Illustration: A MAP SHOWING THE ISTHMUS WITH THE COMPLETED CANAL] - - - - -INDEX - - - Accessory Transit Company, 199 - - Accidents, 72 - - Amador, Dr., 238, 239 - - Accounting department, 315 - - American Federation of Labor, 271 - - American clings to home habits, 177 - - American Federation of Women's Clubs, 176, 180 - - American mind wanted canal, 11 - - American Rivers and Harbors Congress, 346 - - Amsterdam Canal, 341-342 - - Amundsen, 4 - - Amusements, 178, 188, 189, 190, 191, 192 - - Ancon Hill, 89 - - Ancon Study Club, 183 - - Animal life, 331 - - Ants, 331 - - Appropriations for canal, 269 - - Aspinwall, William H., 102 - - - Babel of American ambitions, 80 - - Bailey, John, 197 - - Balboa, 6, 7, 89, 90, 333 - - Barnacles, 40 - - Beef, Price of, 166, 167 - - Beauregard, P. T. G., 204 - - Bitter, Karl, 374 - - Blackburn, Joseph C. S., 138, 142, 250, 252, 258 - - Board of consulting engineers, 32 - - Boswell, Helen Varick, 180 - - Bridles, 77 - - British bondholders, 365 - - Brooke, Mark, 133 - - Bryce, James, 20, 23 - - Buccaneers, English, 334 - - Bull-fighting, 328 - - Bunau-Varilla, Philippe, 222, 230, 237, 238, 246, 327 - - Burke, John, 143 - - "Bush dwellers," 155 - - - Cables, 78 - - Caisson gates, 62, 63 - - Caledonia, 159 - - Camp Fire Girls, 183 - - Cantilever pivot bridges, 57 - - Canada, Western, 20 - - Canal not constructed to make money, 10 - - Canal Zone, 6, 7, 247, 326 - - Canal Zone government, 256-267, 271, 312 - - Canals, 335-346 - - Canals, Isthmian, 194-205 - - Cargo ship, 319 - - Central and South American Telegraph Company, 253 - - Chagres River, 2, 5, 27, 32, 33, 36, 37, 40, 82, 110, 214, 280, 330 - - Chagres Valley, 33, 36 - - Chain for stopping vessels, 58, 59, 60 - - Channel, Sea-level, 46 - - Charles V, 194 - - Chauncey, Henry, 103 - - Cheops, Pyramid of, 24 - - Chicago Drainage Canal, 345 - - Childs, Orville, 199 - - Choice of route, 221-232 - - Chucunoques, 332 - - Civil administration, 138 - - Civil-service requirements, 136 - - Claims, Adjustment of, 323 - - Claims for lands, 260 - - Clay, Henry, 197 - - Clayton-Bulwer treaty, 15, 17, 198, 302, 303 - - Cleveland (Ship), 297 - - Clutches, Friction, 57 - - Clubhouses, 186 - - Coaling, 320 - - Coaling plants, 91, 92 - - Cock-fighting, 328 - - Cole, H. O., 143 - - Collisions, 60 - - Colombia, 227, 228, 231, 233-245 - - Colon Beach, 101 - - Columbus, Christopher, 3, 194, 347 - - Comber, W. G., 143 - - Commercial map, 347-357 - - Commissary, 164-175 - - Commissary department, 30 - - Compagnie Universelle du Canal Interoceanique, 213, 214 - - Concession, Extension of, 104 - - Concession to the French, 196 - - Concrete mixers, 54 - - Congress and the canal, 268-276 - - Conquerers, Spanish, 334 - - Constantinople, Capture of, 347, 348 - - Constantinople, Convention of, 292 - - Contra Costa Water Company, 43 - - Contract system, 13 - - Contractor's Hill, 79 - - Controversy with Colombia, 233-245 - - Cook, Thomas F., 144 - - Corozal (Dredge), 84 - - Corruption, 14 - - Corruption in building French canal, 9, 207 - - Cortez, Hernando, 195 - - Cost of canal, 5 - - Cost of French canal, 208 - - Cotton production, Center of, 355 - - Coupon books, 169 - - Court system, 261 - - Courtesy of West Indian Negro, 157 - - Courtesy of workmen, 147 - - Cranes, Floating, 322 - - Cristobal, 6, 7 - - Cromwell, William Nelson, 280, 287, 327 - - Cronstadt and St. Petersburg Canal, 343 - - Cruelty of natives, 329 - - Cruelty of Spaniards, 333 - - Culebra Cut, 5, 13, 21, 26, 34, 35, 40, 70-81, 214, 216, 277, 278 - - Culebra Mountain, 4, 20, 79, 80, 196, 277 - - Cullom, Shelby M., 282 - - Culverts, 50 - - - Dams, Emergency, 60, 61 - - Davis, Charles H., 196 - - Davis, George W., 134, 256 - - Death rate, 303 - - Debts of American Republics, 365 - - Department store, 166 - - Deportation of laborers, 152 - - Devol, C. A., 143 - - Dikes, 126 - - Dikes of Holland, 44 - - "Dingler's folly," 208 - - Diplomatic entanglements, 17 - - Dredges, Ladder, 84 - - Dredges, Suction, 83 - - Duty on imports, 325 - - Dynamite, 28, 74 - - - Eads, James B., 202, 203 - - Eastern Roman Empire, 3 - - Eating places, 170 - - Economy in handling material, 55 - - Efficiency records, 72, 73 - - Eight-hour working day, 137, 271 - - Elections in Panama, 251, 327 - - Electric current, 67 - - Electrical department, 315 - - Endicott, Mordecai T., 135 - - "Energy; the lord of the Isthmian way," 394 - - Engineering department, 314 - - Engineering difficulties, 29 - - Engineering project of all history, 23 - - Englishman defies Tropics, 177 - - Equipment for hauling material, 53 - - Erie Canal, 346 - - Expense of operating canal, 313 - - Extravagance in building French canal, 207 - - Ernst, Oswald H., 135 - - - Filibusters, French, 334 - - Finley, Carlos, 11, 106 - - Fire department, 264 - - Fishing, 192 - - Flamenco Island, 88 - - Flowers, 330 - - Foreign trade of U. S., 353 - - Fortifications, 18, 283-294 - - Foundations, 90 - - Fraser, John Foster, 355 - - French began work in 1880, 5 - - French canal, 53 - - French failure, 206-220 - - French Panama Canal Company, 200 - - French spent $300,000,000, 8 - - French Canal Company, 9, 93, 252 - - Fruits, 330 - - - Gaillard, D. D., 138, 139 - - Gamboa, 40 - - Gatun Dam, 13, 21, 23, 25, 26, 32-34, 36, 41-43, 56, 279 - - Gatun Lake, 36, 37, 38, 45, 47, 50, 56, 60, 62, 82, 95, 315, 330 - - Goethal, George Washington, 13, 18, 33, 43, 119-132, 273 - - Gold Hill, 79 - - Golf links, 315 - - Good Hope, Cape of, 19 - - Gorgas, William C., 105, 108, 134, 138, 142 - - Government ownership of railways, 99 - - Graft, 14 - - "Great undertaker," 218 - - Guayaquil, 19 - - Gudger, H. A., 263 - - Guerin, Jules, 374 - - Gulf States, 20 - - - Hains, Peter C., 135 - - Handling the traffic, 317-325 - - Hanna, Marcus A., 227, 230 - - Harding, Chester, 143 - - Harrod, Benjamin A., 135 - - Hay, John, 246 - - Hay-Herran treaty, 16, 231, 232, 233, 235 - - Hay-Pauncefote treaty, 17, 225, 300, 301, 303, 304 - - Health of canal workers, 210 - - Heat of the Tropics, 179 - - Hepburn, William P., 223 - - High cost of living, 175 - - Hise, Elijah, 198 - - Hodges, Harry F., 139, 141 - - Honolulu, 19 - - Hoosac Tunnel, 71 - - Hospitals, 112, 208, 209 - - Hotels, 100, 101, 171 - - Hunter, Henry, 278 - - Hunting, 191, 192 - - Hydraulic excavation, 79 - - Hydraulic Fill, 35 - - - Ice plant, 92 - - Ice, Price of, 168 - - Iguana, 329 - - Immigration, 157 - - Incas Society, 152 - - Injury to the canal, 324 - - International commerce, 3 - - Isthmian Canal Commission, 12, 88, 96, 97, 109, 119, 201, 224, - 225, 229, 268, 269, 311 - - - Johnson, Emory H., 18, 299, 306 - - - Kahn, Julius, 370 - - Kaiser-Wilhelm Canal, 340-341 - - Kid Canal, 340-341 - - Knox, Philander C., 43, 243 - - - Labor in passing ships through, 68, 69 - - Laborers, 307 - - Land, Prices of, 333 - - Laws of Canal Zone, 268, 267 - - Lesseps, Ferdinand de, 8, 132, 211-219 - - Lidgerwood cableways, 53 - - Lidgerwood dirt car, 25 - - Lidgerwood dirt trains, 76 - - Lidgerwood flat cars, 74, 77 - - Life on the zone, 176-193 - - Lighting of locks, 325 - - Liquor question, 186 - - Lloyd, J. A., 196 - - Lloyds, 324 - - Lock canal, 13, 18, 137, 216, 217, 281 - - Lock machinery, 57-67 - - Locks, 19, 26, 46, 48-55, 58, 62, 318 - - Locomotives, Electric, 65-67 - - Lottery, 217, 254 - - Loulan, J. A., 148 - - Lusitania, 297 - - - Machinery, Dependable, 57 - - Machinery, Abandoned, 207 - - Machinery, Value of, 219 - - MacKenzie, Alexander, 119 - - Magellan, 4 - - Magellan, Straits of, 19 - - Magoon, Charles E., 109, 135, 136, 264 - - "Making the dirt fly," 27 - - Malaria, 9, 11, 106, 207, 211 - - Man-made peninsula, 45 - - Manchester ship canal, 20, 30, 339 - - Manila, 19 - - Manson, Sir Patrick, 11, 106 - - Manufacturers of U. S., 363 - - Margarita Island, 284 - - Maritime Canal Company, 200, 223 - - Markets, 329 - - Marriage, 155 - - Married men more content, 179 - - Materia medica of Panamans, 381 - - Matrimony, Premium on, 179 - - Mears, Frederick, 143 - - Melbourne, 19 - - Menocal, A. G., 200 - - Metcalf, Richard L., 189 - - Miraflores, 26, 27, 40, 47, 55, 61, 67, 82, 89, 126 - - Mississippi Valley, 20 - - Mistakes in building, 12 - - Mahogany, 330 - - Money for building always ready, 11 - - Monroe doctrine, 7, 15, 360, 361 - - Morgan, Henry, 334 - - Morgan, John T., 221 - - Mosquito Coast, 198 - - Mosquitoes, 9, 11, 12, 105-107, 114, 115 - - - Naos Island, 87, 284 - - National geographic society, 23 - - National Institute, 327 - - Naval display, 375 - - Navy, Efficiency of, 348 - - Negroes, 154-163 - - Nelson, Horatio, 197 - - New Caledonia, 7 - - New Granada, 237 - - New Panama Canal Company, 133, 219, 221, 224-228, 233, - 235-237, 242, 270 - - Nicaraguan Canal, 15, 16, 198, 199, 201, 222, 230, 231 - - Nicaraguan Canal Commission, 199 - - Nombre de Dios, 7, 53 - - North Sea Canal, 342-343 - - - Olympic, 59 - - Operating force, 309-312 - - Orchids, 330 - - Oregon (U. S. Ship), 10 - - Organization, 133-144 - - Organization of government on Canal Zone, 313 - - - Pacific Ocean Exposition Company, 370 - - Pacific Steamer Navigation Company, 321 - - Palmer, Aaron H., 197 - - Pan American Conference, 7 - - Panama, 230, 237, 238, 240, 241, 243, 246-255 - - Panama, Bay of, 280 - - Panama-California Exposition, 376 - - Panama Canal Company, 133, 218 - - Panama City, 12, 43 - - Panama-Pacific Exposition, 368-378 - - Panama (Republic), 6, 15, 326-334 - - Panama Railroad, 7, 34, 68, 88, 93, 104, 136, 214, 228, 245 - - Panama Railroad Steamship Line, 100 - - Pay-day, 160, 161 - - Pay of Americans, 178 - - Paying off canal army, 30 - - Pedro Miguel, 25, 27, 47, 48, 55, 61, 89 - - Pennsylvania tubes, 50 - - Perico Island, 88, 285 - - Pilots, Canal, 60 - - Police force, 262, 263 - - Population of the zone, 315 - - Porto Rico, 358-360 - - Position of canal, 5 - - Postal service, 261 - - Prize fighting, 328 - - Purchase of material, 272 - - - Quartermaster's department, 174, 314 - - Quellenec, F., 278 - - - Railroads opposed to canal, 222 - - Rates, Passenger, 103 - - Rates, Railroad, 99 - - Rating of employees, 151 - - Reed, Walter, 106 - - Reimbursement to owners of vessels for accidents, 323 - - Rental for Canal Zone, 326 - - Religious activities, 183 - - Roads, 191, 264, 265 - - Robinson, Tracy, 215, 216 - - Root, Elihu, 242 - - Ross, Roland, 11, 106 - - Rosseau, Armand, 217 - - Rourke, W. G., 143 - - Rousseau, Harry H., 138, 139, 148 - - Royal Mail Steam Packet Company, 321 - - - Safety appliances, 57 - - Safety for ships, 281 - - Sailing ships, Death blow to, 322 - - Salaries, 310 - - San Blas Indians, 332 - - San Diego and Arizona Railway, 376 - - San Francisco earthquake, 368-369 - - Sanitary department, 30 - - Sanitation, 105-117, 328, 332, 352 - - Sault Ste. Marie canal, 314, 335, 343-344 - - Saville, Caleb M., 41, 143 - - School system, 264 - - Schools, Night, 187 - - Sea-level canal, 13, 18, 137, 272, 279-282 - - Secret societies, 184 - - Servants, 181, 182 - - Shanton, George R., 262 - - Shaw, Albert D., 232 - - Ship railway, 202, 203, 204 - - Shipping routes, International, 351 - - Shonts, Theodore P., 135, 137 - - Shovels, Steam, 83, 150 - - Sibert, William L., 138, 139 - - Simplon Tunnel, 71 - - Site of exposition, 371 - - Slides, 77, 78 - - Smith, Jackson, 138, 139 - - Social diversion, 182 - - Society of the Chagres, 152, 153 - - Soda fountain, 178 - - "Soo" locks, 62 - - Spanish American war veterans, 128 - - Spanish language, Study of, 181, 188 - - Spanish Main, 356 - - Spillway, 26, 37, 38, 39 - - Spooner, John C., 229 - - Steamship lines, 98 - - Stegomyia, 11, 107, 115, 211 - - Stevens, John F., 27, 102, 119, 129, 130, 136, 138 - - Stoney Gate valves, 50 - - Strangers' Club, 182 - - Street-car system, 191 - - Strikes, 129 - - Suez Canal, 21, 29, 335-339, 376, 377 - - Suez Canal rules, 292 - - Supplies for building canal free of duty, 323 - - Switches, Limit, 57 - - - Tabernilla, 78 - - Taboga Island, 285 - - Taboga Sanitarium, 113 - - Taft, Wm. Howard, 33, 118 - - Tehuantepec, Isthmus of, 202, 204 - - Tehuantepec railroad, 203 - - Tierra del Fuego, 4 - - Thatcher, Maurice H., 139 - - Tivoli Hotel, 100, 170 - - Titanic marine stairway, 45 - - Tolls, 18, 295-308, 319 - - Toro Point, 46, 87, 284 - - Towing, 322 - - Track shifter, 76 - - Trade opportunities, 358-367 - - Traffic, 18, 19 - - Tramp steamer, 320 - - Transcontinental tonnage, 350 - - Transportation of material excavated, 75 - - Traveling salesmen, 363-364 - - Treaties with Colombia and Panama, 244 - - Tropics, Diseases of, 9 - - Type of canal, 275 - - - University Club, 182 - - - Vaccination of negroes, 162 - - Vanderbilt, Cornelius, 199 - - Voting, 184, 185 - - - Wages, 146, 165 - - Wallace, John Findley, 130, 133, 135 - - Washington Hotel, 101 - - Washington monument, 23, 25, 26 - - Water, Control of, 65 - - Water supply, 265, 266 - - Watertight material, 41 - - Wickedness of the City of Panama, 328 - - Williams, E. J., 143, 160 - - Williamson, S. B., 143 - - Wilson, Eugene T., 143 - - Wilson, T. D., 204 - - Wire screens, 12 - - Women's clubs, 180, 181 - - Women's Federation of Clubs, 183 - - Wood, Leonard, 108 - - Workmen, 145-153 - - Wyse, Lucien Napoleon Bonaparte, 212, 218 - - - Yellow fever, 9, 11, 12, 105, 109, 110, 112, 211 - - Yellow fever commission, 106 - - Young Men's Christian Association, 178, 180, 207 - - - - -The American Government - -The Book That Shows Uncle Sam at Work - -By Frederic J. 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